HEAT AND MOESTURE TRANSFER N THE AVIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHlGAN STATE UNWERSETY WILLIAM EDWARD ROPER 1969 ““1 ‘5 fin-u «mm: we q a. LIBRARY 3 Michxoan State 5. § . . Unlvchlt)’ This is to certify that the thesis entitled HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER IN THE AVIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM presented by William E. Roper has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M degree in E” ' Major professor Date /’/ lei/6? 0-169 ABSTRACT HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER IN THE AVIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM by William E. Roper Knowledge of the moisture and heat production capabilities of the domestic fowl at various environmental conditions is of primary importance in the design of poultry housing and equipment. Respiratory latent heat production is the major mode of moisture addition to the environment by the bird. However, very little research related to the mechanisms and location of moisture transfer within the bird has been done. This study was undertaken to gain a better understand- ing of the heat and moisture transfer in the avian respira- tory system. The chicken was choosen as the experimental species because of its commercial value, and the large amount of related information available in the literature. A simulation model was developed to determine: 1) the portion of the respiratory system where heat and moisture is transfered, and 2) the rate at which this transfer takes place. Two heat and mass balance equations coupled with a respiratory wall temperature equation were used in the model. The model was adapted to thermoneutral conditions. William E. Roper The results indicate that the majority of the heat and moisture transfer to the respiratory air occurs during ins- piration from the respiratory surfaces between the anterior nasal opening and the base of the trachea. The simulation model predicted that air at the base of the trachea was very near lung temperature and saturated. Experimental measure- ments confirmed the simulation model prediction. Therefore only a small amount of heat and moisture is transfered on the surfaces of the lungs and air sacs under thermoneutral conditions. The rate of sensible and latent heat production pre- dicted by the simulation model was compared with the heat produced by hens in a specially designed two-compartment respiration calorimeter. The selected hens were adult White Leghorns in active egg production. Sensible and latent heat production from the head chamber and body chamber of the calorimeter were determined as a function of environmental temperature and humidity. Non-linear least squares analysis was used to develop the regression equations from the calorimeter data. Equations representing heat transfer from a flat plate exposed to laminar air flow was used to estimate convective heat trans- fer from the comb and wattles. The difference between the heat transferred from the comb and wattle, and the total sensible heat produced in the head chamber was an estimate William E. Roper of respiratory sensible heat production. The production of sensible and latent heat predicted by the simulation model was within the 95 percent confidence limits of the respira— tory sensible and latent heat production values estimated by the non—linear least squares regression equations. These regression equations were developed using the appropriate heat production values from the calorimeter study. Calorimeter temperatures ranged from 76°F to 96°F. At these temperatures relative humidities of 60%, 70%, and 80% had a very small effect on sensible and latent heat production. The head region of the hen was found to produce approximately A0-A6Z of the bird's total sensible heat loss at these chamber temperatures. Latent heat transfer from body surfaces other than the head region were negligible. Approved 3; th/é if ' Major Professor Approved 00 ’1 6 [fl fifll/ DepartmentIChhirman HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER IN THE AVIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM By William Edward Roper A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural Engineering 1969 To Kathy ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation and thanks to Dr. M.L. Esmay, committee chairman, Dr. R.K. Ringer, Dr. J.V. Beck, Dr. D.R. Heldman, the Poultry Science Department, and the Agricultural Engineering Department for their help and support that aided the completion of this study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . '. . iii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . xi LIST OF SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . l 2. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . A 2.1 General Heat Balance A 2.1a Metabolism and heat storage 5 2.1b Modes of heat transfer 6 2.2 Heat Production Studies with Avian Species . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2a Total body calorimetry . . . . . l2 2.2b Respiratory heat loss . . . . . 17 2.3 Avian Respiratory System . . . . . . 19 2.3a Mechanics of respiration . . . . 20 2.3b Air flow in the respiratory system . 20 2.“ Respiratory Evaporation . . . . . . 21 3. ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . 27 3.1 Heat Production in the Calorimeter . . . 27 3.2 Estimation of Tidal Volume . . . . . 32 iv Chapter 3-3 Heat and Moisture Transfer Model of the Respiratory System 3.3a Analysis of the transient term. 3.3b Structure of the respiratory system 4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENT “.1 “.2 Calorimeter Chamber H.1a Temperature measurement U.lb Humidity measurement A.lc Air flow measurement A.ld Experimental procedure Respiratory Tract Wall Temperature A.3 Trachea Humidity Investigation 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 5.1 5.2 5-3 Heat and Moisture Production; the Calorimeter Studies 5.1a Latent heat production 5.1b Sensible heat production in the head chamber . . . . . 5.1c Sensible heat production in the body chamber . . . . . . 5.1d Total sensible heat production Estimation of Tidal and Minute Volume Wall Temperatures in the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . Humidity at the Base of the Trachea Respiratory Simulation Model Results Unequal Duration of Inspiration and Expiration Page 33 38 A3 A6 A6 A9 52 53 55 61 63 67 67 68 71 7M 76 78 8O 83 85 91 Chapter Page 6. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK . . . . . . 99 LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 vi U1 LA) 3>3>3>3> LA.) LIST OF TABLES Forced convection heat transfer equations for average heat transfer coefficients Thermocouple locations Temperature and humidity combinations studied in the calorimeter (6 birds were used) Respiratory tract wall temperatures Surface temperatures in the head region Humidity at base of the trachea when subjected to different respiration rates and tidal volumes. Latent heat production from the head chamber Sensible heat production from the head chamber Sensible heat production from the body chamber Total sensible heat production from body and head chambers . . . . . . . . Sensible heat production from the respiratory system vii Page 10 50 60 82 83 8A 118 121 12“ 127 .1: 12' 12’ 12' t t o o o o HOCDNQU‘I .12 LIST OF FIGURES Metabolism in homeotherms Total heat produced by caged layer per hour per pound of body weight at different temperatures . . . . . Evaporative heat loss of White Leghorn hens in a standing position after eleven weeks of acclimation to a 75°F or a 95°F environment Calorimeter chamber Inner chamber Calorimeter recording instruments Fifty-inch inclined manometer Air flow through the calorimeter Chicken position in the calorimeter Chicken position in the head chamber Calorimeter training box Humidity sensor and housing Trachea humidity test Respiratory tract temperature test Schematic diagram of the operation for de- termination of the humidity at the base of the trachea . . . . . . . Total latent heat production Total sensible heat production in the head chamber . . . . . . . . viii Page 1“ l6 LI? 147 “7 147 A8 58 58 58 62 62 62 6A 70 72 UWU'IU'IUTU'IUT l—‘KOCDNQU'I U'IU'IU‘IU'lU'IU'IU'IUlkflUl .12 .13 .1u .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 Respiratory sensible heat production Sensible heat production in the body chamber. Total sensible heat production . . . Estimated tidal volume Estimated minute volume Temperature Humidity of Temperature air . Humidity of Temperature Humidity of Temperature Humidity of Temperature Humidity of Temperature Humidity of Comparison production Comparison production of inspired nasal air inspired nasal air . . . . . of inspired nasal to tracheal inspired nasal to tracheal air of inspired tracheal air . . . inspired tracheal air of expired tracheal air expired tracheal air . . . . of expired tracheal to nasal air expired tracheal to nasal air of expired nasal air expired nasal air of respiratory sensible heat of respiratory latent heat Respiratory duration cycle of 50% inspiration an 50% expiration . . Respiratory duration cycle of “2% inspiration and 58% expiration . ix Page 73 75 77 79 81 87 87 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 89 92 93 95 95 Figure Page A.A.l Individual total latent heat production . . . . 113 A.A.2 Individual total sensible heat production in the head chamber . . . . . . . . . . 11A A.A.3 Individual respiratory sensible heat production in the head chamber . . . . . . . 115 A.A.A Individual sensible heat production in the body chamber . . . . . . . . . . 116 A.U.5 Individual total sensible heat production . . . 117 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A.1 Derivation of the Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . A.2 Derivation of the Energy Balance Equation with Condensation A.3 Derivation of the Mass Balance Equation A.“ Heat Production Graphs with Individual Bird Regression Lines . . . . A.5 Calorimeter Data Tables A.6 Calorimeter Sensible and Latent Heat Production Program . A.7 Calorimeter Conduction Heat Transfer Program . . . . . . A.8 Non-Linear Least—Squares Program A.9 Respiration Simulation Model; Air temperature and Humidity as a Function of Location . . A.10 Respiration Simulation Model; Esti- mated Heat Production, BTU/hr xi Page 107 109 111 113 118 133 l“0 1“2 1““ 153 LIST OF SYMBOLS Density of air, lb/ft3 Velocity of air, ft/hr Cnfis-sectional area, ft2 Air temperature, °F Specific heat of air, BTU/lb °F Increment length, ft Convective heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr ft2°F Perimeter, ft Wall temperature, °F Time, hr Mass transfer coefficient, lb /hr ftZAH water Specific humidity of air, lbwater/lbair Specific humidity in the boundary layer, Air mass flow rate, lbair/hr Increment length, ft Air temperature at outlet of increment i,°F Air temperature at inlet of increment i,°F Distance to outlet of increment 1, ft Distance to inlet of increment 1, ft Specific humidity in the boundary layer, lbwater/lbair xii ai . . . Specific air humidity at inlet to increment is lbwater/lbair Specific air humidity at outlet from H a 1+1 increment 1, 1bwater/lbair xiii 1. INTRODUCTION Controlled environment housing has become the major type of poultry housing in the last ten to fifteen years. Its major advantage has been the provision of a controlled livestock environment which lends itself to good manage- ment practices. Environmental management practices, however, should be linked with a knowledge of which variables to control and in what range to control them in order to produce maximum economic return. A good deal of work has been done relating environ- mental temperature to various production variables. Ota and McNally (1961) reported on total body sensible and latent heat production from caged White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red hens in full production. Longhouse (1967), working with Ota, developed regression equations for total body latent, sensible, and total heat production as a function of average live weight for several ambient temperatures. More recently researchers have attempted to gain a better understanding of physiological behavior of poultry and to relate physiological response to environmental conditions. A close correlation of the hypothalamic temperature and the heart rate with respect to both diurnal rhythms and rapid changes corresponding to the level of excitement has been found by Scott, Johnson, and Van Tienhoven (1967). Similar work, involving the cat's hypothalamic temperature, has been done in establishing a basis for control theory analogies of the respective thermal regulatory systems (Adams, 196“). Interest has also expanded into direct calorimeter studies of single birds. W.L. Roller and A.C. Dale (1962) developed regression equations for total body heat production for Leghorn hens as a function of dry-bulb temperature, weight, feed consumption, and dew-point temperature. The equations were based on tests with confined single hens in a thermoelectric, partitioning (convective, radiative, evaporative heat transfer) calor— imeter. Other researchers have used the thermoelectric partitioning calorimeter to study the effect of acclimation upon partitioned heat loss for single constrained laying hens (DeShazer, 1968). The turkey has also been studied recently in this type of calorimeter (Malholtra, 1967). These studies have assumed all moisture loss to be emmitted from the respiratory system. There has been no attempt to separate the respiratory moisture and heat loss from other body surface moisture and heat losses. This research was undertaken to partition the heat and moisture transfer of the respiratory system from the external body surfaces of adult Leghorn hens in active egg production as a function of environmental temperature and humidity. A specially designed two-compartment calorimeter was used for separating the amounts of heat and moisture transfer from the head and body sections of the bird. A simulation model was developed to determine: 1) the portion of the respiratory system where heat and moisture is transfered, and 2) the rate at which this transfer takes place. A breath by breath simulation was used. Theoretical results were compared with laboratory results. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 General Heat Balance Homeothermic animals are capable of maintaining a re- latively constant body temperature despite wide changes in ambient conditions. This is accomplished by physiological control of the balance between heat production and heat loss. Sturkie (1965) expresses this relationship as M i S = E i R t C i C (2.1) l 2 where: M = rate of heat production (metabolism) U) ll heat storage within the body E = rate of evaporation of moisture R = heat exchange due to radiation C = rate of heat loss by convection C2= rate of heat loss by conduction Rearranging equation 2.1 to express the transient con- dition, Adams (1968) developed the following expression 3¥=M:S:R:clic,—E (2.2) U 3H —— = the net heat flux; if 3‘ is equal to zero, a at thermal steady state is tachieved. In some instances a further development of the modes of heat transfer were necessary. Beckett and Vidrine (1969) considered both free and forced convection heat transfer from swine. Birkebak (1966) divided radiation into solar and infrared components in his development of the heat ba— lance equation. However, equations 2.1 and 2.2 contain the general modes of heat transfer and heat production most authors consider important. 2.1a Metabolism and heat storage The first research efforts in this area were concerned with the study of metabolic heat production of various ani- mals in resting states. Research then progressed to include the effects of nutritional levels, age, sex, environmental air temperature, seasonal changes, and other parameters. The various parameters affecting metabolism are given by Brody (19“5), Klieber (1961), King and Farner (1961), as well as others. From these works a general scheme of meta- bolic rates can be discussed. The standard metabolism is found, in most cases, to be independent of environmental air temperatures over a limited range, as shown in Figure 2.1. This region is referred to as the thermoneutral zone and is bracketed between the lower critical temperature, T and the upper critical temperature, T . Within this CL’ CU region physiological mechanisms control the various modes of energy exchange and metabolism. When the environmental temperature drops below T the majority of the physiolo— CL’ gical mechanisms which are used to conserve heat are at their maximum effectiveness and the subsequent added heat loss must be made up by increasing the metabolic rate. In accordance with the physical laws of heat transfer, the heat loss is proportional to the insulation afforded by the ani- mal's body covering and the temperature difference between the body surface and the environmental temperature. WW Metabolic Heat Production Thermoneutrality \ZO:// TCL TCU Figure 2.1-- Metabolism in homeotherms When the environmental temperature rises above the up- per critical temperature, T the animal is only able to CU’ transfer the excess energy by evaporative cooling. Heat may also be stored, but in doing so, body temperature rises and the metabolic rate increases. This process continues until the upper lethal temperature is reached. 2.1b Modes of heat transfer Many of the fundamental concepts of heat transfer have been applied to heat exchange studies between animals and their environment. Particular interest here is with avian species. Radiation The rate of radiation heat transfer from a chicken was determined by Clayton and Boyd (1963) as 't I. As 0(TS - Te ) qr = 1 (2.3) A 1 g + _s (g - 1) 8 A8 e where: qr = net radiant heat transfer, BTU/hr o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant A = area of surface, ft2 A = area of surroundings, ft2 E = effective emissivity of the surface E = effective emissivity of the surroundings T = effective surface temperature of bird surface, °R T = effective surface temperature of surroundings, °R With the emissivity of chicken feathers and skin being very close to that of a black body (Jordan and Dale, 1961), equation 2.3 reduces to qr = ASESO(TS“- Te“) (2.“) If the temperature difference between the bird and its environment is small, the radiative heat loss is roughly proportional to the temperature difference (Sturkie, 1965). Conduction The fundamental equation for calculating heat transfer by conduction is Fourier's heat conduction equation (Holman, 1963). Q = - KA 12 ' (2.5) EX where: Q = rate of heat flow, BTU/hr K = thermal conductivity, BTU/ft2hr A = area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow 9% = temperature gradient Because of the low thermal conductivity of air, even of moist air, loss of heat by conduction from the body surface to air is negligible (Sturkie, 1965). There is, however, some heat transfer by conduction from the deep body tissues of a bird to the skin surface. This can be determined by approximating the body form by geometric figures, such as spheres or cylinders, and applying Fourier's equation (Clayton and Boyd, 1963; Birkebak, 1966). Blood flow is another mode of transfering heat to the body surface. Convection Heat loss by convection from an animal's skin surface to the surrounding air may be expressed as (Rohsenow and Choi, 1961) QC = hA (TS - T (2.6) air) where: QC = rate of convective heat loss, BTU/hr h = average heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ftzhr A = convective surface area, ft2 TS = average skin temperature, OF Tai? average air temperature, OF There are two fundamental types of convection heat transfer: free convection and forced convection. Free convection occurs where fluid motion is caused by fluid variation due to temperature differences. In this case, the dimensionless heat transfer coefficient is a function of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers. Nu = f(Gr,Pr) (2.7) The relationship between dimensionless variables for objects of various sizes, forms, and orientations has been determined. The forms or shapes that are of most interest in approximating biological systems are cylindrical surfaces, spherical shapes, and horizontal and vertical flat plates. Simplified equations for calculating the heat transfer coefficient for these shapes at ordinary air temperatures and atmospheric pressures are given by Birkebak (1966). Heat transfer by convection is increased when fluid motion past the surface is caused by means other than density difference. This is termed forced convection and may be caused by animal movement or by forced movement of air over the animal's surface. In this case, the dimensionless 10 equation for the average heat transfer coefficient is Nu = f(Re,Pr) (2.8) Expressing equation 2.8 as a power function, this becomes Nu = C x Ren Prm The constant C and exponents m and n are contained in Table 2.1 for a variety of shapes and flow conditions as summarized by Birkebak (1966). Table 2.1 Forced convection heat transfer equations for average heat transfer coefficients Plane Surface Nu = C x Ren Prm c n m Laminar range 0.6““ .5 .33 Turbulent range 0.037 .8 .33 Cylinder Nu = Bl + B2Ren (air flow normal to body) Re n B1 B2 0.1 - 1,00 0.52 0.32 0.“3 1,000 - 50,000 0.60 0.00 0.2“ Spheres Nu = 0.37 ReO°6 for Re = 17 - 70,000 11 Evaporation Birds do not have sweat glands, but are able to lose some heat by vaporization of moisture from their skin (Sturkie, 1965). Most of the evaporative loss, however, occurs from the moist lining membranes of the respiratory tract. It has long been recongnized that respiratory evaporation plays an important part in the heat regulation of birds. When air temperatures reach or exceed body temperature, it is the only avenue of heat dissipation remaining. Evaporative heat loss is dependent upon the difference between aqueous vapor pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the air, as well as upon the rate of air movement over the moist surface. This evaporative heat loss may be represented by an equation suggested by Burton and Edholm (1955). H = V(QsathQa) x 0.6 (2.10) where: H = rate of evaporative heat loss V = pulmonary ventilation rate Qsath = quantity of moisture in air saturated at deep body temperature Qa = quantity of moisture in ambient air 0.6 = latent heat of vaporization of water, Koal/g In this equation, as well as others (King and Farner, 1961; Bouchillon, Reece, and Deaton, 1969) used to estimate evaporative heat loss, the exhaled air humidity is assumed to be that of saturated air at deep body or lung temperature. 12 It seems reasonable that the humidity of exhaled air would be more dependent upon the temperature of the evapo- rating surfaces (assuming the evaporating surfaces are wett— ed at all times) throughout the respiratory tract. In this literature survey, however, no studies of air temperature and humidity as a function of location in the respiratory tract were found. 2.2 Heat Production Studies with Avian Species 2.2a Total body calorimetry Calorimetric methods may be broadly classed as direct calorimetry and indirect calorimetry. Through direct calorimetry sensible and latent heat transferred to the environment is measured directly. Sensible heat can be measured by an increase in the ventilating air temperature (respiration calorimetry) or by a temperature difference in the walls (gradient layer calorimetry) as described by Benzinger (1958). The radiant component of sensible heat may be measured by directional radiometric measurement which is integrated over the subject surface, or by a “n radio- meter measuring the radiation to the calorimeter walls. Latent heat is measured with air-moisture sensing elements or by measurement of the heat of condensing water vapor. Indirect calormetry, which is based on heat liberation in chemical reactions by concentrations of reactants, requires measurement of oxygen and carbon dioxide 13 concentrations and often methane or fecal nitrogenous compounds. A method often used with poultry which requires the measurement of oxygen and carbon dioxide was developed by Romijn and Lokhorst (1961). They calculated heat production by the equation T = 3.871 02 + 1.19“ C02 (2.11) where: T = heat production in Kcal 02 = oxygen consumption in liters C02 = carbon dioxide production in liters The indirect calorimetry method is used for the measurement of heat production in small birds (Dawson and Evans, 1957) and more recently has been used for broiler chicks by Beattie and Freeman (1962) Indirect calorimetry will not distinguish between the various modes of heat transfer. Thus, only total heat production is determined. Ota and McNally (1961), in some of the earlier direct respiration calorimeter research, studied total body sen- sible and latent heat production from caged White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red hens in full production. Some of their results are illustrated in Figure 2.2. 1“ of live weight >-——-—___c,._____'~ o\ 8 k\ \\ \e \, ~\\‘\A— White Leghorn W 2 A Rhgdp gland ‘pds BTU per 1b. 30 “0 50 60 70 80 90 100 Temperature °F Figure 2.2—— Total heat produced by caged layers per hour per pound of body weight at different temperatures More recently Longhouse, Ota, Emerson, and Heishman (1967), using a similar calorimeter, developed regression equations for total body latent, sensible, and total heat production of broilers as a function of average live weight for several ambient temperatures. As an example, heat pro- duction equations for an ambient temperature of 77° i 2°F are HT = 22.68 - 5.2“ x (2.12) HL = “.89 — 1.07 X (2.13) H = 17.95 — “.30 x (2.1“) 15 H = total heat production, BTU/hr/lb live weight H = total latent heat production, BTU/hr/lb live weight H = total sensible heat production, BTU/hr/lb live weight x = average live weight, lb/bird Sensible heat loss partitioning from Leghorn layers was further studied by Roller and Dale (1962) in a gradient layer calorimeter constructed at Purdue University. Based upon calorimeter tests of twenty-seven birds (one bird for each test), they developed the following equations by linear multiple regression analysis ..< l 1 ‘ 19.0—.37“X1+0.0106X2+3.06X3+0.298X~ (2.15) Y1 = total heat production, BTU/hr X = dry—bulb temperature, °F X2 = bird weight, gms X = feed consumption, gm/hr X“ = dew-point temperature, °F Y2 = —o.780+.0158x,+ 0.000117x2-o.00792x. (2.16) Y3 = +1.780-.0158x1-o.000117x2+0.00792X. (2.17) Y, = +0.793-.oo653x,-0.0000592x,+o.oo239x, (2.18) Y5 = +0.989-.00929X1-0.0000575X2+0.0055“Xh (2.19) where: 16 fraction of Yldissipated as 3 fraction of Yldissipated as F< *< *< II II r-< m II X's are the same as above fraction of Yldissipated fraction of Yldissipated as as latent heat sensible heat radiant heat convection heat Other researchers using a gradient layer calorimeter at North Carolina State University studied the effect of acclimation upon the partitioning of heat loss by the laying hen (DeShazer, Jordan, and Suggs, 1968). Their results indicate hens lower their evaporative heat loss after eleven weeks of acclimation at 95°F (see Figure 2.3). 60 ““““““ I -—- 75°F acclimation -—-- 95°F acclimation “5 ‘f 4/ E ‘ I .C \t a S 30 U) U) .3 A “a? ,/ $15 ,7" a—"' ‘7‘”, I 0 77 87 95 Environmental Temperature. Figure 2.3-- Evaporative heat loss of White Leghorn hens in a standing position after eleven weeks of acclimation to a 75°F or a 95°F environment 17 Later work by DeShazer, Mather and Jordan (1969), using the same gradient layer calorimeter, showed a standing White Leghorn hen lost heat “0% faster than while sitting. Stan— ding with wings in a 'fully drooped' position caused an increase in convective heat loss of 18%, while radiative heat loss remained fairly constant. Placing the head and neck against the breast caused a 6% decrease in radiative heat loss. However, ruffling the feathers resulted in a small increase in radiative heat loss. At the University of Missouri, Malhotra (1967), using another gradient layer calorimeter, developed regression equations for the partitioned heat loss from broad breasted Bronze turkeys similar to the equations by Roller and Dale (1962). However, there has been no attempt to separate res- piratory moisture and heat loss from external body moisture and heat loss in calorimetry studies to date. Rather, total body heat and moisture losses have been determined and the total moisture loss is assumed to originate from the res- piratory tract. According to Sturkie (1965) and a recent study of insensible heat loss from sheep (Brown and Shanklin, 1969), this may not be a true assumption. 2.2b Respiratory heat loss The only two-compartment calorimeter study of respira- tory moisture (latent heat) loss found in the literature for an avian specie was by Kendeigh (193“). He enclosed the 18 head of an English sparrow in a ventilated chamber and mea- sured the amount of moisture added to the air at various air temperatures. He was then able to separate the moisture loss from the respiratory tract (and to a small extent from the skin of the head) from that given off from the remainder of the body. The amounts of moisture lost from the head in two-hour periods, at different air temperatures were Air Temperature Weight Loss (°C) (2) 0.6 0.15“ 5.6 0.1“1 20.0 0.156 27.2 0.181 31.7 0.581 36.1 0.823 Kendeigh, unfortunately, did not publish the evaporative loss from the remaining parts of the body. Enclosing the head in a ventilated chamber is one me- thod of separating respiratory heat loss, another would be a type of face mask. Though none has been used for the chicken, Tucker (1969) has developed a plastic head mask for gulls and parakeets in his studies of flight metabolism. The mask is held on by a rubber band. Air is allowed to enter between the tabs used to anchor the rubber band. A vacuum pump draws gases from the mask through a small tube while a smaller pump samples the flow continuously for the oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers. Another type of face mask was developed by Cohn and Shannon (1968) for unanesthe— tized geese in their study of pulmonary gas exchange. With 19 a number of adaptive changes a mask system might be used for respiratory heat transfer research with chickens and other fowl. Respiratory masks have met with varying success in other animal studies. Morrison, Bond, and Heitman (1966), studying lung moisture loss from swine, found their mask caused unnatural breathing. Respiration was lower and per breath volume higher with the mask. Brown and Shanklin (1969), studying the respiratory fraction of total insen- sible heat loss from shorn and unshorn sheep, reported no adverse effects from the respiration mask that they used. 2.3 Avian Respiratory System The avian respiratory system is composed of the nasal cavities, pharynx, trachea, syrinx, primary bronchi, lungs, nine air sacs, and a number of pneumatic bones. The lungs, which are small, are attached to the ribs of the thorax. They are flow-through lungs with air passages leading to and from them. The avian lungs are incapable of the elas- tic recoil characteristics of mammalian lungs (Sturkie, 1965). Exposed to a thermal neutral environment, a chicken's respiration rate will be about thirty-seven breaths per minute with a tidal volume of 15.“ ml and a minute volume of 55“ m1 (Weiss, Frankel, and Hollands, 1962). 20 2.3a Mechanics of respiration Inspiration in the standing domestic fowl is a passive action with the weight of the viscera moving the sternum and sternal ribs downward and slightly forward. The lungs are thus expanded on inspiration by the pull of the ribs and sternum, while the vertical diameter of the thorax in- creases greatly and the transverse diameter only slightly (Soum, 1896). Expiration is the active part of the respiratory cycle in the domestic fowl. The first phase of expiration is due primarily to the elastic recoil of the thoracic cage, aided by the passive tension of the abdominal wall. In the second phase, as confirmed electromyographically, the abdominal muscles, which begin to contract during the first phase, contract actively returning the thorax to its original posi- tion (Fedde, Burger, and Kitchell, 1963). Because of the mechanics of respiration in avian spe- cies, Salt and Zeuthen (1960) and King and Payne (1962) emphasize the importance of the upright position of the bird for studying normal respiratory behavior. 2.3b Air flow in the respiratory system The path air takes after entering the nose or mouth down through the trachea and two primary bronchi in res- piration is well understood. However, its path through the lungs and air sacs during inspiration and expiration is open to much conjecture (Salt and Zeuthen, 1960; V03, 193“; 21 Hazelhoff, 1951; and Shepard, 1959). There seems to be the most support for Salt and Zeuthen's (1960) theory of reci— procal flow, with the air sacs acting as bellows. Salt and Zeuthen (1960) speculate that the majority (80%) of the inspired air goes to the abdominal sac and does so via its indirect connections to the primary bronchus. This route offers much less flow resistance than down the smaller primary bronchus. The air sacs are expanded and compressed by the movement of the sternum like bellows and serve to force air in and out through the lung passages. Of the inspired air, 29-“8% traverses the parabronchi (gas exchange surfaces) of the lung. During expiration, the direction of flow is reversed with 38—67% of the air from the air sacs traversing the parabronchi. Aerodynamic forces and parabronchial muscle control of the passage dia— meters are assumed to determine the amount of parabronchial air flow. 2.“ Respiratory Evaporation In most animals the respiratory surface must be moist for gas exchange to take place. Consequently, water eva- poration and related heat loss are going on continuously as a by—product of respiration. In many birds, this process of evaporative loss is controlled, within limits, for the purpose of heat regulation (Salt and Zeuthen, 1960). 22 As air temperatures increase, the absolute amount of water evaporated per unit time from a bird's respiratory tract increases more or less exponentially (Dawson, 195“). The curve appears to be smooth, but Dawson (1958) showed an abrupt increase in the rate of evaporation at the upper critical temperature in the cardinal. DeShazer, Jordan and Suggs (1968) demonstrated a similar increase in evaporative loss at the onset of panting in the White Leghorn fowl. As air temperatures increase, the relative importance of eva- porative heat loss increases. At air temperatures near or above the avian body temperature, evaporation is the only _mode of heat loss. Even then it accountsfku'approximately half the heat produced, so the body temperature rises (King and Farner, 1961). While this rise may be inadvertent, it has the beneficial effect of increasing the rate of heat loss and tends to temporarily restore the heat balance. It also represents heat storage in the body. The water that would be required to dissipate this stored heat through vaporization is a savings to the bird (Hutchinson, 195“). The rate of respiratory evaporation is influenced by internal and external factors. In addition, there are dif— ferences between species. Internally, evaporation varies directly with the volume of air ventilated. When air tem- peratures rise above the upper limit of the thermoneutral zone in domestic fowl, respiration rate increases and tidal volume decreases slightly. The result is an increase in minute volume. The reduction in tidal volume is thought to 23 restrict hyperventilation to the surfaces of the respira- tory tract, which do not participate in the exchange of blood gases. Thus, it reduces the possibility for the re- moval of excessive amounts of carbon dioxide from the blood (Sturkie, 1965). At higher air temperatures, heat loss efficiency may be further increased by panting or gular (throat) flutterings. Panting is the more important route in the domestic fowl. Panting rates for White Leghorn hens have been reported as high as 2“7 breaths per minute at a body temperature of “5.5°C (Lee, Robinson, Yeates, and Scott, l9“5). The importance of the air sacs in evaporative loss within the respiratory system is not well understood. Soum (1896) found fifteen to thirty percent less exhaled water vapor after the air sacs had been destroyed. However, most of this decrease was due to the decreased intake of air (tidal volume) following the Operation. After inactivating several of the air sacs of two pigeons and stressing the birds, Victorow (1909) observed an approximately 2°C greater rise in body temperature than the control birds. With the small number of birds, however, these results are not very conclusive. In more recent work by Sturkie (1965) using chickens with destroyed air sacs, there was no change in body temperature that could be attributed to the removed air sacs. The air sac walls have a small capillary supply, but 2“ are so thin that peritoneal fluid can diffuse through them. The wall consists of a layer of endodermal epithelium, a thin layer of connective tissue, and a layer of serosal epi- thelium (Biester and Schwarte, 1965). If moisture moves through the air sac wall by diffusion, the humidity of the air in the air sac will be a limiting factor. A determi- nation either theoretically or experimentally, of the hu- midity in the air sacs was not found in the literature. Under normal breathing, it is usually assumed to be at sa- turation for deep body temperature. By comparison, the upper part of the respiratory tract (mainly the nasal passages, mouth, and trachea) has a rich capillary supply and is coated with epithelium cells and mucous secreting goblet glands (Bang and Bang, 1959; and Marshall, 1960). There is an additional moisture supply in the mouth from the tubular salivary glands. Some work has been reported that develops a theoreti- cal basis for calculations on evaporative cooling in birds. Hutchinson (1955) developed the following equation based on Dalton's Law. E = c f(V) (ps-pa) (2.20) where: E = rate of evaporation C = constant f(V) a function of respiratory ventilation 25 ps = vapor pressure of saturated air at the tem- perature of the evaporative surface pa = vapor pressure of ambient air Hutchinson, in his experiments, made several assump- tions: 1) that in slow breathing the expired air is probably nearly saturated at the temperature of the res- piratory passages; 2) that during panting the expired air is probably not saturated; 3) that the rate of evaporation is a function of the ventilation rate; and “) that the salt content of the fluid covering the respiratory surfaces is so low that its vapor pressure is essentially the same as that of pure water. He demonstrated that in Brown Leghorn hens, when rec— tal temperature and respiration rate are constant, the rate of respiratory evaporation is proportional to the vapor pressure gradient between the evaporating surface and the inspired air. He also found a close correlation between rate of evaporation and rectal temperature, and thus esti- mated that the actual temperature of the evaporating sur— face in the respiratory system was two to four degrees Fahrenheit lower than rectal temperature. In a more recent study Bouchillon, Reece, and Deaton (1969) expressed the evaporative water loss from the chicken as m = pAVT NR (Vz-V1) (2.21) 26 where: m = mass rate of flow of water, lbm/hr p = density of air, lbm/ft3 v: = tidal volume, ft3 NR = respiration rate, cycles/min V = specific humidity of air at chicken body conditions, lbm/lbm V = specific humidity of ambient air, lbm/lbm This equation is based on the assumption of a pseudo- steady state condition where the air entering the lungs is at existing ambient conditions and the air leaving is at chicken body temperature and saturated moisture conditions. An absence of research related to the location of the heat and moisture transfer in the chicken's respiratory system has been found. There has also been no research attempts (with the chicken) to separate respiratory heat and moisture loss from external body surface heat and mois- ture loss in direct calorimeter chambers. 3. ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 3.1 Heat Production in the Calorimeter Sensible and latent heat production in the calorimeter head chamber and body chamber are based on the following variables 1. the difference between the average inlet and outlet air temperature the difference between the average inlet and outlet humidity the average volume flow rate of air Heat production was calculated by the following equations 08 QL where: (E2 - E1) x 60. x cfm/VS (3.1) (W2 - W1) x 10“0.1 x 60. x cfm/VS (3.2) sensible heat production, BTU/hr latent heat production, BTU/hr enthalpy at outlet conditions, BTU/1b air enthalpy at inlet conditions, BTU/lb air humidity ratio at outlet conditions, lb HZO/lb air humidity ratio at inlet conditions, lb H20/1b air average volume flow rate of air, ft3/min specific volume of air, ft3/lb 27 28 The development of the heat production equations will begin with the two known quantities of dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity. Assuming atmospheric pressure, the saturation pressure at a known dry-bulb temperature is given in the steam tables. Between 70 and 110°F, this relation- ship can be approximated by the following polynomial PS = a + de + cTé + dTé (3.3) where: P8 = saturation pressure at Td’ lb/in2 Td = dry-bulb temperature, °F = —.“30686 b = .209578 x 10'1 c = -.291182 x 10‘3 d = .219653 x 10'5 Knowing the relative humidity, vapor pressure may be solved directly by P = RH x P (3.u) v S where: Pv = vapor pressure, lb/in2 RH = relative humidity PS = saturation pressure, lb/in2 The humidity ratio is then determined (Brooker, 1966) by w = a E V —— l (3.5) 29 where: W = humidity ratio, lb water/lb air R8 = gas constant for air, (53.35) va= gas constant for water vapor, (87.78) Pv = vapor pressure, lb/in2 Pat; atmospheric pressure, lb/in2 Enthalpy of the air may then be determined according to Jennings and Lewis (19““, p. “7) as E = Cp X Td + W X (1059.2 + .“5 x Td) (3.6) where: E = enthalpy of air, BTU/lb air Cp= specific heat of air, BTU/lb °F Td= dry-bulb temperature, °F W = humidity ratio The solution for latent and sensible heat production is then found by substituting the results of equation 3.6 and 3.5 into equation 3.1 and 3.2. A fortran IV program using this method to calculate latent and sensible heat production from the calorimeter data is shown in Appendix A.6. The conduction heat transfer through the walls of the head chamber and body chamber is calculated by the following equation (A fortran IV program is at Appendix A.7) ch = AS x H/DX x (Tl - T2) (3.7) where: ch= conduction heat transfer, BTU/hr 30 surface area of the chamber, in2 thermal conductivity of plexaglass, BTU/hr in °F thickness of the plexaglass, in inside wall temperature, °F outside wall temperature, °F The conductive surface areas of the head chamber and body chamber are 20 and 300 square inches, respectively. Convection heat transfer from the comb and wattle is computed by the following equation Q CV where: .0 CV *3 > U‘l T a R A (Tw - Ta) (3.8) convective heat transfer, BTU/hr average heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ft2°F hr convective surface area of the comb or wattles, ft2 average surface temperature of the comb or wattle, °F average air temperature in the head chamber, °F The average heat transfer coefficient (5) for the comb and wattle is estimated by a flat plate flow analogy. Since the air flow is laminar the estimation equation according to Kreith (1965; p. 296) is E = where: K B K/B x 0.66“ Rel/2 Pr1/3 (3.9) air conductivity, BTU/hr ft °F characteristic length in the direction of air flow, ft 31 Re Reynolds number Pr Prandtl number The Reynolds number is calculated using measured air velocities in the head chamber about 3/8 inch from the surface of the comb and wattle. The surface dimensions of the comb and wattle are also used in the calculations as Re = VB/Y where: V = average velocity outside the boundary layer, ft/sec B = characteristic length in the direction of air flow, ft y = kinematic viscosity of air, ftz/sec Because the other areas in the head and neck region are generally covered with feathers and are well insulated, sensible heat loss is primarily from the comb, wattles, and respiratory tract. There is also a small amount of sensible heat produced from the parts of the face not covered by feathers. The facial heat production, however, was negligable in comparison to that produced by the comb and wattle. With this understanding, sensible heat loss from the respiratory tract is calculated by adding sensible heat loss from the head chamber (equation 3.1) to the conduction loss through the head chamber walls (equation 3.7) and subtracting the convective heat loss from the comb and wattles (equation 3.8). 32 The latent heat from the head chamber is assumed to originate entirely from the respiratory tract. Due to the very small amount of moisture transfer from the eye area (the only other important wet surface in the head chamber), this seems to be a reliable assumption. 3.2 Estimation of Tidal Volume The air expired from the chicken's nose in normal breathing is approximately at 10“°F and saturated. Latent heat production in the head chamber is known by earlier calculation and is assumed to be entirely from the respira- tory system. If the respiration rate is known, then tidal volume may be estimated by the following equation . v TV = 9L x S (3.10) RR x 60. x 10“0.l x (Wz-Wl) where: TV = tidal volume, ft3 = latent heat production, BTU/hr v = specific volume of air, ft3/lb RR = respiration rate, breaths/min W2 = humidity ratio at exhaled conditions, lb water/1b air W1 = humidity ratio at inhaled conditions, lb water/lb air This is an indirect method for determining tidal volume, but from an instrument and procedure stand—point it was the. most direct in this study. 33 3.3 Heat and Mass Transfer Model of the Respiratory System The simulation model is composed of three parts: 1) the nasal model, 2) the nasal to tracheal model, and 3) the tracheal model. All three are similar in structure and have the same energy and mass balance equations. In order to obtain theoretical equations describing respiratory air temperature and humidity as a function of position in the system, heat and moisture balances are written for a small elemental air volume. In writing the equations, the following assumptions are made. 1) 2) 3) “) 5) 6) Thermal prOperties of the air are constant within the temperature range studied. Moisture transfer from the wetted surfaces of the respiratory tract occurs at a constant rate. Respiratory wall temperature is a linear function of position. The inlet air temperature and specific humidity are constant. Air velocity may be described as a constant mean air velocity based on cross-sectional area and known tidal volume. The storage of energy and moisture within the air volume with respect to time is negligible. 3“ The results from the simulation model indicate that these are reliable assumptions for the temperature and humid- ity conditions of this study. Assumptions 5 and 6 are probably the most questionable of the group. For this reason an order of magnitude analysis of the transient term was investigated as shown in section 3.3a. The results indicating that both assumption 5 and 6 are acceptable. The finifiadifference equations describing the cooling of the respiratory tract are obtained by writing mass and energy balances on an elemental air volume of length Ax. A set of three equations is the result. For the energy in the air (see Appendix A.1 for details) m ca §§i.- Ph (Tw - T ) (3.11) a by separating variables and integrating _hPAx T1+1.= Tw + (T1 - Tw) e fiCa' (3.12) m a mass flow of air, lb/hr Ca = specific heat of air, BTU/lb °F h = convective heat transfer coef., BTU/hr ft2°F P = perimeter, ft T1 = inlet temperature of elemental volume, °F Ti+I outlet temperature of elemental volume, °F Tw = wall temperature, °F Ax = length of elemental volume, ft 35 For the mass of the air (see Appendix A.3) m QEa = P0 (Hl - Ha) (3-13) byseparating variables and integrating 1 1 _ oPAx = + _ Hai+l H (Hai H ) e m (3.1“) where: o = mass transfer coefficient, lb water/hr ft H a specific humidity of air at inlet to elemental 1 volume, lb water/lb air Ha1IISp901fic humidity of air at outlet from elemental volume, lb water/1b air In equation 3.1“, H1 and Tw can be obtained from the thermodynamic tables. Between 70 and 110 °F, this relation- ship can be approximated by the following polynomial H' = -u.807u1 x 10" + “.21112 x 10‘“ TW -7.u2738 x 10" T; + 8.01u29 x 10" T; (3.15) For the wall temperature Wall temperatures were determined experimentally at four locations in the respiratory tract. These locations are l) inlet to nose on the beak (TC!) 2) outlet of nasal passage into the mouth (T02) 3) top of the trachea (Tea) “) bottom of the trachea (Tea) 36 Between these points the temperature is assumed to vary linearly with distance. In the nasal passage-ways for example Tw = TC1 + CIX (3.16) where: I C1 = TC: - TC? L L = 1 inch for the nose Similar equations are developed for the wall temperature between the other experimentally measured temperatures. During expiration equation 3.11 is altered to account for moisture condensation from the expired air to the respiratory tract walls. The derivation of this equation is in Appendix A.2. It is written as m ca 31a = Ph (Tw — Ta) — 1060 (Ha - H1) (3.17) 3X by separating variables and integrating ( _ PhAx+ oplO60(H&;H1)Ax) T1+1 = TW 'l’ (T1 - TW) e mCa IllCa (Tw-Tl) (3.18) The heat transfer coefficient used in the simulation was based on the equation for the Nusselt number given by Rohsenow and Choi (1961, p. l“l) hD K (3.19) Nu I where: Nu = Nusselt number 37 5: ll thermal conductivity of air, BTU/hr ft °F C II diameter, ft Since thermoneutral air flow in the respiratory system is always laminar and the wall temperature is close to uniform, the Nusselt number for tube flow is a constant and equal to 3.66. Knowing the Nusselt number, the heat transfer coefficient can be determined from equation 3.19. The mass transfer coefficient was determined from the equation for the Sherwood number given by Treybol (1968). Sh = FD (3.20) CDAB where: Sh = Sherwood number F = mass transfer coefficient, lb moles/hr ft2 D = diameter, ft C = molar density, lb moles/ft3 DAB= molecular diffusivity, ftz/hr During normal respiration the air flow in the respirae tory system is laminar and the Reynolds number is less than 1000. At these air flow conditions the Sherwood number is approximately constant and equal to 3.“l. Equation 3.20 may then be solved for the mass transfer coefficient. Equations 3.11, 3.1“, and 3.16 are the working equations for calculating air temperatures and air specific humidities throughout the respiratory model during inspiration. 38 Equation 3.18 replaces 3.12 for expiration calculations. A fortran IV program using these equations was developed to calculate air temperatures and air specific humidities in the respiratory system during one breathing cycle. It is shown in Appendix A.9. This program has graphical as well as numerical output of air temperature and specific humidity as a function of location. 3.3a Analysis of the transient term The importance of the transient term was investigated by an order of magnitude analysis. The general energy balance equation from Appendix A.1 is 8T3 at — g; (paVaATaCa)dx + h(de)(Tw-Ta) = paCa(Adx) (3.21) where: = density of air, 1b/ft3 < o m m a velocity of air, ft/hr a cross—sectional area, ft2 a air temperature, °F £1) specific heat of air, BTU/ftzhr °F $1) = convective heat transfer coef., BTU/ftzhr °F perimeter, ft *8 'U D‘ O *3 > I 2 8 wall temperature, °F length, ft >4 ll ('1' ll time, hr 39 The following substitutions are made into equation 3.21 to establish dimensionless coefficients. x+ = _l_ L hPL + ___ t t —t_ where: = total length of passage, ft L tc= period of one breath, hr Substituting these values into equation 3.21 Ta + aTa (T —T ) - v+f(t)§——. - T ——— (3.22) w a 3x+ at+ To determine V+ and T+ representative values from the nasal model are used since the largest temperature gradients occur in this region of the respiratory tract. .2 2 1 1 _ .07 (112) (6o) (2" A -TFH ) (-2“) = 52 V - 2 x 1. 1 ° “( )1— .2 2 1 i—El —F“ ) T+ . .013(.2“) (2r 1 = .013 “ (2 x 1.75) 2 12 3600 “0 For the remaining quantities in equation 3.22, the following orders of magnitude could be expected _ o Tw Ta . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 to 25 F 3T 3xa . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 to 60 °F 3Ta 3t+ . . . . . . . . o . . . 3 to 25 OF Since V+ is approximately fifty times as large as T+ and the other terms in equation 3.21 are of approximately equal magnitudes, the transient term does not seem important during normal respiration. If respiration rate increased and velocity remained constant, then the transient term would be of greater importance. A similar analysis can be done with the mass balance equation. From Appendix A.3, the general air mass balance equation is 3H 3H - - ._i = a OF (H Ha) VapaA 3x p A ___ (3.23) where: o = mass transfer coefficient, lb water/hr ftzAH P perimeter, ft H1 = specific humidity in the boundary layer, 1b water/lb air H = specific humidity of the air, lb water/lb air V = velocity of the air, ft/hr '0 ll density of the air, lb/ft3 “l A = cross-sectional area of passage, ft2 x = distance, ft t = time let: + = X X L W+ = Va(max) 0a A 0 P L + t t =— t0 2* = pa A 0P t c where: L = total length of passage, ft t = period of one breath, hr Making these substitutions into equation 3.23 to establish dimensionless coefficients SEE 2+ SEQ 0 (3.2“) + (HI-H ) - w f(t) — a ax+ at+ Again representative values for the nasal passages are used to calculate w+ and 2+. (.2)2 1 ) + _ .07 (112) (60) £2" "F‘ THE W ' 2 x 1.75 l = 1-““5 6 ( 12 ) ( 12‘ > ( .2)2 ‘11 ) Z+ = .07 2w 1 = .036 2 X 1.75 2 6 ( 12 ) 3600 “2 For the remaining quantities in equation 3.2“, the following orders of magnitude could be expected H1 - Ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .001 to .03 aHa 8x: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .001 to .03 3Ha . . . . .002 to .03 3t+ The results show W+ is approximately fifty times greater than Z+. Since the other terms in equation 3.2“ are of about the same order of magnitude, this would indicate that the transient term in equation 3.2“ can be neglected during normal respiration. In equation 3.22 and 3.2“, f(t) represents the sinusoidal function of velocity. It varies between zero and one for either inspiration or expiration. The average velocity is .707 times the maximum velocity. This last time dependent term in the general equation is eliminated by letting the average velocity represent the time dependent velocity function during each phase of the respiration cycle. This seems like a reliable assumption, since the larg- est air temperature and humidity variations are between inspiration and this variation was found to be insignificant above. Therefore, the temperature and humidity variations during one half cycle due to velocity changes would tend to be less significant. “3 The transient effects were further studied by measuring air temperature continuously at two points in the respiratory system with a “O-gauge thermocouple sensor (time constant of 1.1“ seconds, with h = 10 BTU/hr ft2°F). The bird's respiration rate averaged 29 breaths per minute. The maximum recorded change in temperature with time in the anterior nasal passage was 12 °F. In the mouth cavity the maximum temperature change was only 3°F. This again indicates the anterior portion of the nasal passages experience the greatest temperature variation. The temperature variation with time, however, is much smaller throughout the rest of the respiratory system, as indicated by the maximum temperature change in the mouth. 3.3b Structure of the respiratory_system From the diagrams of a chicken's nasal cavities by Bang and Bang (1959), the cross—sectional area is approximat- ed to be .031“ square inches for each of the two passage- ways. The perimeter is about 1.75 inches. The effective diameter for calculating the heat transfer coefficient is .1 inch, and the nasal passageways are about one inch long, based on measurements with White Leghorn hens. With the beak closed, the mouth cavity between the posterior nasal opening and the anterior trachea opening is similar to a slightly flattened cylinder in shape. The average cross-sectional area and perimeter being .0707 ““ square inches and .9“2 inches. The length of the mouth cavity is also about one inch. The trachea is essentially a tube approximately six inches long and .15 inches in inside diameter (Bradley and Grahame, 1960). It is circular in cross-section and uniform in diameter. This is primarily due to the many cartilaginous rings which give rigid support to walls of the trachea and prevent collapse. The trachea branches into two mesobronchi just prior to entering the lungs. However, the similation model only includes the trachea. The sufaces of the nasal passages and trachea are coated with columnar epithelium of the mucoid and ciliated type. The mouth is lined with stratified squamous epithe— lium and tubular salivary glands (Sturkie, 1965). Because of these structures, the respiratory tract is capable of maintaining a layer of moisture on the wall surfaces, and is the basis for the assumption of a constant rate of moisture transfer in the simulation model. Rich capillary beds throughout the walls of the res- piratory tract act as a heat source as well as a source of nutrients. Homoethermic controls and the heat capacity of the tissue masses near the respiratory tract tend to main- tain wall temperatures at a constant level. Areas nearer the mass center of the bird are maintained at a higher temperature. The simulation model uses a linear approximation “5 of this phenomena, but assumes the temperature at any one point on the respiratory tract wall to be constant. “. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENT “.1 Calorimeter Chamber The calorimeter chamber was constructed with an inner plexaglass chamber (in which the bird was positioned) and an outer insulated box with observation windows. Air, at con- trolled temperature and humidity conditions, was supplied to the calorimeter by an Aminco-Aire unit. An overall view of the calorimeter and the Aminco-Aire unit is shown in Figure “.1. The inner chamber was constructed of 3/16 inch plexa- glass with separate areas for the head and body of the chic- ken. These will be referred to as the head chamber and the body chamber (Figures “.6 and “.7). Air flow through the head chamber, body chamber, and air space outside the inner chamber is shown in Figure “.5. All air flows were controll- ed with sliding plexglass valves. Their location is shownr in Figure “.5 also. The outer insulated box was constructed of one-half inch plywood and two-inch Dow Styrofoam (Figure “.2). All obser- vation windows were double pane 3/16 inch plexaglass. The four-inch diameter flexible tubing and two-inch diameter plexaglass tubing used in connecting the Aminco—Aire unit to “6 “7 Figure “.1-- Calorimeter chamber 1 Fr“ Figure “.“-- Fifty-inch inclined manometer “8 Inlet Air '33 % Outer Insulated Chamber Wall 1 % Laminar Flow Elements Head Chamber Body Chamber Outlet Air I ‘8 Q Diffusion L- Grid 11 17 Outlet Cu” Air <9 EN Air Flow Valves Figure “.5-- Air Flow Through the Calorimeter “9 the calorimeter were covered with one-half inch armaflex insulation. “.la Temperature measurement Mean air temperatures and surface temperatures in the calorimeter were measured with fourteen 2“-grauge copper- constantan thermocouples. A 2“-gauge copper-constantan thermocouple was also used for the silastic coated rectal temperature probe. Thirty-gauge copper-constantan wire was used for the comb and wattle thermocouples. Thermocouple locations are listed in Table “.1. Two temperature profiles, perpendicular to the flow of air and perpendicular to each other, were measured at each air inlet and outlet. ‘The inlet profiles were parabolic in form, and the outlet profiles were flat in form. In both cases, the thermocouples were located approximately half-way between the wall and the center line of flow. Heat conduction through the walls of the inner plexa— glass chamber was determined by four thermocouples which represented the average temperature change through the walls of the chamber. The head chamber and the body chamber were studied separately. Each of the two chambers was divided into sections, and sample temperature changes through the walls were recorded. The heat conduction from all sections were averaged and the section closest to the mean (1.05 BTU/hr) became the thermocouple location. Heat conduction 50 through the walls of the body chamber were negligible in all sections. The body chamber conduction thermocouples were placed ten inches up and centered on the right wall. Table “.1 Thermocouple locations 12. 13. l“. 15. 16. 17. Outlet air temperature from the head chamber Outside right wall of the head chamber Comb Inlet air temperature to the head chamber Inside right wall of the head chamber Inlet air temperature to the head chamber Inlet air temperature to the body chamber Inlet air temperature to the body chamber Inlet air temperature to the body chamber Wattle Outlet air temperature from the body chamber Outlet air temperature from the body chamber Outside right wall of the body chamber Inside right wall of the body chamber Outlet air temperature from the body chamber Outlet air temperature from the head chamber Rectal temperature probe 51 The head chamber conduction thermocouples were centered on the right wall. The average temperature change through the walls of the head chamber was .2°F. Thermocouples were also used to determine if warm or cold sports were present in the head chamber and the body chamber. This test was done without a bird in the chamber; and the temperature distribution was quite even in both chambers. Thermocouples were attached to the comb and right wattle after a coating of Dow Corning Medical Adhesive B had been applied to the placement area. Adhesive tape was placed over the thermocouple for additional holding strength. Medical Adhesive B has the advantage of being highly inert, nonirritating, and nonsensitizing to living tissue. Thermocouples #1—#l6 were recorded on a Honeywell Type 153 Electronik sixteen-point recording potentiometer with a print speed of fifteen seconds, a temperature range of —20°F to 120°F, and an accuracy of 1.1% of full scale reading. Rectal temperature (thermocouple #17) was recorded on a Texas Instruments, Incorporated: Multi/riter, Model FMW06B, recording potentiometer with a print speed of five seconds, a temperature range of -10°F to l“0°F and an accuracy of 1.25% of full scale reading All thermocouples were calibrated against a certified mercury in glass thermometer. 52 “.1b Humidity measurement Air humidities at the inlet and outlet of the body chamber were measured using two Hygrodynamics, Incorporated, wide-range hygrosensors and Model 15-3001 hygrometer indi- cators. These instruments have an accuracy of 13% relative humidity, and a range of 5 to 100% relative humidity. The two hygrometer indicators used with the body chamber humi- dity sensors are shown in Figure “.3. Relative humidity at the outlet of the head chamber was monitored continuously with a Hygrodynamics Incorporated, narrow-range, type H-3, class A hygrosensor and a model 15-3001 hygrometer indicator (Figure “.l). This instrument has a response time (to 65% of total humidity) of three seconds with an accuracy of 11.5%, and a sensitivity of .15% relative humidity. The three sensors used had ranges of 51-7“%, 68—88%, and 81-99% relative humidity at 80°F. A11 humidity sensing elements had individual calibration curves determined by the manufacturer. The output from the hygrometer indicator was continu- ously recorded on a Esterline Angus EllOlE single-point continuous recorder (Figure “.3) with a range of zero to ten millivolts, a response time of one-half second, and an accuracy of 0.1% of full scale reading. The recorder was calibrated to the hygrometer indicator scale reading. Cali- bration was checked at the beginning and end of each test run . 53 A steady-state relative humidity reading from the head chamber outlet was recorded before and after each test run. These recordings were used as a base line for determining the change in relative humidity produced by respiration. The steady-state readings were taken before the chamber was opened to position the chicken for the test run and one— half hour after the chicken had been removed and the chamber closed. The chickens would occasionally struggle or sleep during the test runs. This activity caused respiration moisture loss to rise or fall respectively, and was noted manually on the recorder output. These periods of struggle and sleep ('abnormal behavior') were not used in deter- mining the average change in relative humidity. Average relative humidity during 'normal behavior' (not struggling or sleeping) in the chamber was determined by a straight line approximation of the mean. A time weighted average of the straight line approximated means was used to calculate the overall mean when 'abnormal behavior' broke up the con- tinuity of the output. “.10 Air flow measurement Air flow was measured indirectly as related to pressure drop through laminar flow meters. Air flow into the body chamber was measured with a model 50MC20“S Meriam laminar flow meter (200 cfm capacity at four inches of water) 5“ connected to a fifty-five inch Meriam inclined manometer (four inches of water full scale) with an accuracy of 3.002 inches of water. Air flow measurement into the head chamber was measured with a model 50MH10—2 Meriam laminar flow meter (20 cfm capacity at four inches of water) con- nected to the same monometer (Figure “.“) through a valving system with an accuracy of 1.002 inches of water. Calibrat- ion curves relating pressure drop to air flow in cfm were supplied by the manufacturer (calibration date 2/28/69). The accuracy of air flow measurement through the head and body chamber from the standpoint of cubic feet per minute was :.01 cfm and 1.10 cfm respectively. Corrections for temperature and air pressure were based on tables provided in the flow meter manuals. Air flow readings were taken every ten minutes during the test runs. Local air velocities in the head chamber near the comb and wattles were measured with an Alnor thermo-anemometer in order to determine the Reynolds number over these surfaces. The thermo—anemometer, type 8500K, has an air velocity range of 10 to 300 feet/minute with an accuracy of 13% full scale. With the small fan operating at the top of the head chamber and the Aminco-Aire fan also working, the air velocities measured in the comb and wattle areas were 60 to 65 feet per minute. 55 “.1d Experimental procedure Infrared radiant transmission properties through the plexaglass used in the calorimeter were investigated with a Beckman DK-2“ ratio photospectrometer. The plexaglass used in the windows and inner chamber was found to transmit radi- ant energy only in the 3“0 to 2200 millimicron wavelength range. At all other wavelengths, the plexaglass exhibited zero transmitance‘ behavior. Therefore, all long wave radiation emitted inside the head chamber, for example, would be reflected or absorbed by the plexaglass walls of the head chamber. The majority of the radiant heat product— ion would thus be a portion of the calculated sensible heat. Equilibrium times for the calorimeter were determined by opening the chamber for fifteen minutes (the time requir— ed to position and prepare a bird for a test run), closing the chamber, and determining the time required for the chamber temperature and humidity to reach the equilibrium condition. Humidity in the head chamber was consistently the last variable to reach equilibrium. Equilibrium time tests were done at all temperature and humidity combinations used. The maximum time for all variables to return to equilibrium was thirty minutes. A twenty—four hour record of ambient temperature and humidity was kept while the calorimeter tests were conduct— ed with a calibrated Bendix Corporation, Model 59“ hygro— thermograph. 56 Conduction loss from the feet to the floor of the inner chamber was also studied on several birds. A thermocouple was taped to the bottom of one toe and another to a near—by spot on the floor. The change in temperature was recorded. The heat loss was found to be negligible. Rectal temperature was used to estimate deep body temperature. The rectal probe used was constructed of 2“ gauge copper-constantan thermocouple wire inside Dow Corning Silastic Medical—Grade tubing (ID=.078; OD=.l25). The ends were sealed with Silastic 382 Medical-Grade Elastomer. Attempts were made to measure the deep body temperature with a silastic covered “0 gauge copper-constantan thermocouple inserted into the jugular vein near the base of the neck and fed down near the heart. The thermocouple wire exited from the hen's body on her back between the wings. When not recording, the wire was coiled and fastened under a cloth jacket around the hen's mid—section. All four attempts failed because the hens were able to reach the coiled wire and pull at it or catch it on their cage. Respiration rate was recorded manually with a stop watch every ten minutes. Readings were taken more frequently when respiration rate was not steady. All unusual activity was recorded in the data book. An attempt was made to record respiration rate continuously with a chest operated air bel— lows, air pressure transducer, amplifier, and recorder system. The chest operated air bellows, however, did not function 57 properly with the calorimeter holding system used on the bird. All chickens used is the calorimeter spent a minimum of five hours in the training box (Figure “.8). This acqua- inted them with the holding system and the type of confinement they experienced in the chamber. The training box was also used as a proto-type for design dimensions in building the inner plexaglass chamber. The chickens accepted the hammock- type holding system with minimum amount of resistance. The six chickens used in this research were fifteen- month old White Leghorn hens in active egg production. Except while in the calorimeter, they were housed in the Poultry Science Department cage room. The environmental room has a constant temperature of 78°F with the room lights on from 7:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. Feed (MSU Z-“ Laying Mash) and water were available to the hens at all times in the cage room. While in the calori— meter, they received neither. All six hens used in the tests had been housed in the cage room for at least three months prior to the calorimeter tests and had become accustomed to human handling. The hens were removed from the cage room and weighted just prior to placement in the calorimeter. They were returned to the cage room following each calori— meter test. The first hen tested in the calorimeter chamber each day was taken from the cage room not less than one-half hour after the lights went on in the room. This assured a Figure 4.6-- Chicken position in the calorimeter Figure “.7-- Chicken position in the head chamber Figure “.8—- Calorimeter training box 59 full crOp condition in the first hen. The hens were always tested in the same order each day. This minimized diurnal variation between days. Preparation of the hen for a calorimeter test run in- cluded the following: 1) The hen was placed in the holding hammock and secured by tie strings over her back; 2) Two layers of “ mil surgical rubber about one-half inch apart with holes in the middle were slid over the head and posi- tioned on the neck. The feathers were moved to permit good rubber contack with the skin. Hole size was selected to produce a good air seal at the neck with a minimum amount of pressure. These two separated layers of surgical rubber formed the air seal between the head chamber and the body chamber; 3) The chamber was then Opened and the hen was placed in the inner chamber; “) The rectal probe was inser— ted and secured with masking tape; 5) The dropping collector was positioned (collected under oil); 6) Comb and wattle thermocouples were secured (as described earlier); and 7)‘ The calorimeter was then closed. The hens were in the calorimeter one hour and thirty minutes for each test run. Environmental equilibrium was reached during the first thirty minutes. Data values were recorded during the last hour. The only exception to this was at higher temperatures where data values were recorded for only thirty minutes for most of the hens due to the high heat stress. The calorimeter remained closed for 60 thirty minutes between tests to re-establish equilibrium conditions. The temperature and humidity conditions used for the test runs are shown in Table “.2. These conditions are re- presentative of summer environment in commercial laying houses during the day. They also represent upper thermo- neutral and lower thermal stress conditions for the chicken. Table “.2 Temperature and humidity combinations studied in the calorimeter (6 birds were used) Number of Tests Temperature Relative humidity 6 79-5 59-5 10 79.5 69.7 6 79-5 78.9 6 85.8 59-5 6 85.8 69.7 6 85.8 78.9 6 90.“ 59-5 6 90.“ 69.7 6 90.“ 78.9 6 99.9 59.5 6 98.9 69-7 6 9“.9 78.9 61 “.2 Respiratory Tract Wall Temperature An investigation of the respiratory wall tissue tempera— tures at various points in the respiratory system with a 30 gauge copper-constantan thermocouple was done. The thermo— couple was held against the tissue for a minimum of thirty seconds at each location. Temperatures were recorded on a Electronik l7 two-pen strip chart recording potentiometer with a temperature range of 0°F to 250°F and an accuracy of i.25% of full scale reading. The bird was positioned in a holding rack and tied into the same hammock used in the calorimeter (Figure “.11) Ten White Leghorn hens of similar age and condition were used. Six of the ten hens had been used in the calorimeter tests. Their weights were recorded just prior to positioning in the holding rack. The locations of wall tissue temperature measurements were: 1) just inside the nasal opening on the beak, 2) the roof of the mouth where nasal air enters the mouth cavity, 3) at the top of the trachea, and “) one inch down the tra- chea. The rectal temperature of each hen was also measured. Selected surface temperatures were then measured with a Barnes Engineering Company infrared thermometer. This instru- ment has a range of 10°F to 110°F with an accuracy of il.5°F, and a response time of 50 milliseconds. The areas where temperatures were measured included: 1) the eye area, 2) the base of the comb, 3) the left wattle, “) the right wattle, 62 Figure 4.9-- Humidity sensor and housing Figure 4.10-- Trachea humidity test Figure “.11-- Respiratory tract temperature test 63 5) the mouth cavity from between the open beaks, and 6) the nasal opening on the beak. The Model 59“ hygro—thermograph was used to record ambient temperature and humidity continu— ously during the tests. “.3 Trachea Humidity Investigation A technique was developed to measure temperature and humidity at the base of the trachea in a living bird under general anesthetic. An air-tight housing (except for the inlet and outlet tube) was developed for the narrow range, type H—3, class A hygroseneor used in the calorimeter head chamber outlet. The inlet tube to the housing was construc- ted from a 3/16 inch diameter thin wall (.01 inch) rigid plastic tube. This tube was heated and tapered to an out- side diameter of .10 inch. A section 1 l/“ inches long was attached to the housing and coated with a thin layer of sila- stic 382 Elastomer. This tube was placed into the base of the trachea through an incision as shown in Figure “.9. A 30-gauge copper-constantan thermocouple was also placed in- side the housing near the inlet tube to sense air temperature. Air was then moved through the trachea with a Harvard Appara- tus Company model 671 small animal respirator pump with a range of 0 to 200 cycles per minute and stroke volume of 20 to 100 cc. Complete blockage of the trachea in this way would cause death under normal conditions. The chickens unique air sac 6“ The Incision Location for Inserting the Humidity Sensor Interclavicular Air Sac Humerus rachea Tygon Tubing Slid Over the Broken Humerus Warm, Saturated Compressed Air ,i,u»’*”’ Posterior Air Sac Silastic Coated Glass Exhaust Tube Surgically Placed in the Posterior Air Sac Figure “.12-- Schematic diagram of the operation for determination of the humidity at the base of the trachea 65 and pneumatic bone system, however, made it possible to respirate the lungs through surgery. Nearly saturated air at 107°F was forced at a regulated rate into the broken humerus bone. This pneumatic bone is connected to the interclavicular air sac. The air then tra— velled through the lungs into the posterior air sac. It was allowed to exit through a surgically placed glass tube coated with silastic 382 Elastomer. A schematic diagram of the operation is shown in Figure “.12. It took four preliminary operations and many design changes to develop the technique for this operation. The recording instruments used in this operation have all been described in earlier sections. They include: 1) the hygrosensor and indicator for measuring trachea air relative humidity, 2) the Electronik l7 two-pen recorder for measuring trachea air temperature, and 3) the infrared therm— ometer for measuring selected surface temperatures. An electric oven was also used to heat the hygrosensor and hous- ing to 107°F before insertion into the trachea. An overall view of the operation and the instruments used is shown in Figure “.10. Humidity and temperature tests were conducted for a time span of ten minutes each with a ten minute rest period between tests. The trachea was ventilated at respiration rates of 20, 30, and “0 cycles per minute with tidal volumes of 20 and 25 cc as set on the Harvard respirator. the 66 position of the respirator tube was also changed from one to two inches down the trachea from the glottis. Comb, wattle, and eye area surface temperatures were also recorded. Am— bient temperature and humidity was recorded continuously with the model 59“ hygro-thermograph. 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 5.1 Heat and Moisture Production; the Calorimeter Studies Sensible and latent heat production from the head chamb- er and body chamber are presented graphically and discussed in this section. The data are also presented in tabular form in Appendix A.5. Heat production prediction equations were derived thro- ugh non-linear least squares analysis of the calorimeter data. The analysis was done on the CDC 3600 with an adapted computer library program (MSU Computer Laboratory No. 000087, GAUSHAUS). The main program and user-supplied subroutine is in Appendix A.8. GAUSHAUS was stored on magnetic tape and called from the main program. The objective of the regression analysis was to deter- mine the simplest form of regression equation that would ad— equately represent the data. This was done by comparing the change in the sum of squares after regression as the fitted equation was changed. The residuals were also examined for trends that might indicate improvements in the form of the fitted equation. Finally, the 95% confidence limits for the constant parameters of the,fitted equation were examined. If they were not significantly different from zero, that term of the fitted equation was dropped. Therefore, 67 68 all the parameters included in the regression equations in this section are significantly different from zero. Relative humidities relation to heat production for the temperature and humidity conditions of the research was not significant. For this reason there are no humidity terms in the regression equations. The regression equations are presented in each case with the sum of squares after regression and the variance of residuals. The range of these equations is restricted to 76°F to 96°F dry-bulb temperature. All the heat production curves are the result of non- linear least squares analysis to fit the given form of the regression equation. There are 76 data points on each graph. The wide variation in the data from this research is partly due to differences between birds. To illustrate this difference, individual heat production regression curves for each hen were developed and are shown in Appendix A.“. The form of the fitted equation is the same as for the res- pective pooled heat production data. 5.1a Latent heat production Latent heat production was found only in the head chamber and this was assumed to be entirely from the res- piratory system. These findings support the assumption of Roller and Dale (1962) and DeShazer (1968) that all latent 69 heat production is from the respiratory system. The diff- usion loss of moisture from the skin as discussed by Sturkie (1965) was too small for detection in the body chamber. Latent heat loss increased with rising temperatures as shown in Figure 5.1. The increase begins between 82°F and 8“°F, and continues to increase at a faster rate at the higher temperatures. The slight decrease in latent heat production between 76°F and 82°F is similar to that found by DeShazer (1968). This drop may be caused by a slight decrease in tidal volume as the bird begins to adjust for thermal stress. The lack of data points in the 76°F to 78°F region of the curves may also have contributed to the increase in that region.. The regression equation for latent heat production is QL = 3uo.u5 — 8.62T + .0912 (5.1) sum of squares after regression = 82“.6 variance of residuals = 11.3 degrees of freedom = 73 where: QL = latent heat production, BTU/hr T = temperature, °F The data subjected to the above regression analysis along with the predicted values and 95% confidence limits for each data value are shown in Table A.1 of Appendix A.5. 70 2_.. ..._- __-1__._ 2- -._ 2“ 20 6 2 l 1 .L£\DBm COHuQSUOLm umom 76 °F Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber Figure 5.1-- Total latent heat production 71 The individual bird regression curves are shown in Figure A.“.1 of Appendix A.“. 5.1b Sensible heat production in the head chamber Total sensible heat production in the head chamber decreases with increasing temperature as shown in Figure 5.2. The respiratory sensible heat production also de- creases with increasing air temperature as shown in Figure 5.3. The percentage of total head chamber sensible heat production produced by the respiratory system decreases with increasing temperature. At 76°F, 86°F, and 96°F the per- centage of head chamber sensible heat produced from the respiratory system is approximately 67%, 70%, and 80% respectively. The difference between total sensible heat production in the head chamber and respiratory sensible heat produc— tion is an estimate of sensible heat loss from the comb and wattles. The regression equation for total head chamber sen- sible heat production is =.-. .2 QSH 35 88 30T (5 ) sum of squares after regression = “30.7 variance of residuals = 5.8 degrees of freedom = 7“ Heat Production BTU/hr. 72 1 1 76 80 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure 5.2-- Total sensible heat production in the head chamber 73 00,071 v‘o‘.‘-t.|‘u. (LIIIIII -l 1,; It}. . 4||lllllll .. _.. , -o— o i. _ _ a b u. .sc\pem cofioosoosd seem 96 92 88 8“ 80 76 °F Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber Figure 5.3—- Respiratory sensible heat production 7“ where: D II sensible heat production in the head chamber, SH BTU/hr *3 ll temperature, °F The regression equation for respiratory sensible heat production is Q = 2“.52 - .2“T (5.3) SR sum of squares after regression = “73.9 variance of residuals = 6.“ degrees of freedom = 7“ where: SR = respiratory sensible heat production, BTU/hr 1-3 ll temperature, °F The head chamber and respiratory sensible heat produc- tion data combined with the predicted values and 95% confi- dence limits for each data value are shown in Table A.2 and A.3 respectively in Appendix A.5. The individual heat pro— duction regression curves are shown in Figures A.“.2 and A.“.3 respectively in Appendix A.“. 5.10 Sensible heat production in the body chamber Sensible heat production in the body chamber decreases with increasing temperatures as shown in Figure 5.“. The rate of heat production decrease is approximately equal to the rate of total sensible heat loss decrease in the head chamber. The body chamber accounts for 5“% to 60% of the Heat Production BTU/hr. 75 2“ 7 f* a +.—.-—.——-—— L"-..— i I I l I l “‘.~_~ 1.. - _- ”.17- ..1__--1.-.__.4___-..- - .-. 20 . 7 . 0 l L i 76 80 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Body Chamber °F Figure 5.“-— Sensible heat production in the body chamber 76 total sensible heat produced by the hens in this test. The variation between birds was quite high in sensible heat production in the body chamber as shown in Figure A.“.“. This helps to explain part of the scatter in the pooled data. The regression equation for sensible heat production in the body chamber is QSB = “0.16 - .31T (5.“) sum of squares after regression = l2“7.6 variance of residuals = 16.8 degrees of freedom = 7“ The body chamber sensible heat production data combined with predicted values and 95% confidence limits for each data value are shown in Table A.3 of Appendix A.5. The individual bird heat production regression curves are shown in Figure A.“.“ of Appendix A.“. 5.1d Total sensible heat production Total sensible heat production represents the sum of the sensible heat produced in the head chamber and body chamber. It is shown graphically in Figure 5.5. The graph shows, as expected, a decrease in heat production as ambient temperature increases. These results compare very closely with Ota and McNally (1961). Heat Production BTU/hr. 314‘ l“ 10 77 _A_ L 76 80 8“ 88 92 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure 5.5-- Total sensible heat production 96 78 The regression equation for total sensible heat production is 08 = 76.0“ - .61T (5.5) sum of squares after regression = 1890.2 variance of residuals = 25.5 degrees of freedom = 7“ The total sensible heat production data combined with predicted values and 95% confidence limits for each data value are shown in Table A.“ of Appendix A.5. The individ— ual hen heat production regression curves are shown in Figure A.“.5 of Appendix A.“. 5.2 Estimation of Tidal and Minute Volume Data from the calorimeter experiments were substituted into equation 3.10 in order to estimate tidal volume as a function of temperature. The resulting curve is shown in Figure 5.6. The decrease in tidal volume between 80°F and 86°F agrees with Sturkie's (1965) discussion of tidal volume decrease as a hyperthermic reaction. The estimated tidal volume is somewhat higher, however, than the 6.3 x 10‘" cubic feet determined by Weiss (1962) for normal respiration. Bouchillon, et al. (1969) found tidal volume to be about 8.7 x 10'“ cubic feet for normal respiration. These results would indicate that the hens were breathing a little deeper 79 will): , _ a . M . 1 _ . i _ m M m H m i l _ c . 1 1 a i . 1 a m w 1 w M 1 _ TI . 1-7 llllillllT I III! .I l-l.l.rl llli lull ILT 1.. ill I l .11.»... . 1 _ . 1 1 1 u . _ m 1 _ “M A. 11+) i 1 H _ . w M m 1 W _ 1 $ _ u i . . . . I! 1,. I). -llllll...i II: :1.-. l 1!. 11-4- lll ll 2. 1 _ i . 1 _ _ _ n 1 _ _ i _ n .1 A r u _ a W _ H . _ i a _ U . 4 _ k .r) m _ h _ 6 he 2 0 8 6 1.. 1 l 1 10H xsoe ossHo> Heoae 96 92 88 8“ 80 76 °F Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber Figure 5.6-- Estimated tidal volume 80 while in the calorimeter than if they were unconfined under similar environmental conditions. The minute volume was determined by multiplying tidal volume times respiration rate. Figure 5.7 illustrates the estimated minute volume data from the calorimeter study and the regression line developed from the data. The regression equation is vM = 12555. - 299.11T + 1.86T2 (5.6) sum of squares after regression = 77U,152.3 variance of residuals = 10605.0 degrees of freedom = 73 where: V = Minute volume, ml T = Temperature, °F In determining the simplest form of the regression equation that would adequately fit the data, relative hu- midity in the 60% to 80% range was found to have an insig— nificant effect on minute volume. Equation 5.6 is in good agreement with the thermo- neutral and hyperthemic minute volumes determined by Weiss (1962) for White Leghorn hens. 5.3 Wall Temperatures in the Respiratory System The surface temperatures at various points in the res- piratory system were measured as discussed in section “.2. Minute Volume ml. 81 1200 1100 l l 1000 900-— 800 1 l ,,-- “-r- ”.1 _-..--l-- . -___ 1-- i I ! 1 l l | 1 700 600 pp... ..-._- I I J 500 76 80 8M 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure 5.7-- Estimated minute volume 82 Table 5.1 Respiratory tract wall temperatures Bird No. TC1 Tc2 Tc3 Tc“ Wt. (kg) 15 95 103 10” 106 2 01 28 95 103 105 106 2 32 35 101 103 104 107 1.97 8 100 103 10“ 107 2.03 l 98 102 103 107 1.92 2 96 103 105 107 1.75 101 103 10“ 108 1.82 u 99 102 10“ 107 2.05 5 100 103 103 108 2.12 6 1% 19; 1_01 m 312 Average 98.6 102.8 10u.0 107.1 2.00 where: TC1 wall temperature at nasal inlet TC2 wall temperature at nasal outlet to mouth TC3 wall temperature at the top of the trachea Wall temperature at the base of the trachea 83 The results are shown in Table 5.1. The average temperature values at the given locations were used in the simulation model. Rectal temperature was assumed to equal surface tem— perature at the base of the trachea. Average surface temperatures were also measured with the infrared thermometer at several locations on the head area. These data are shown in Table 5.2. The absence of insulative feathers in the areas where surface temperatures were measured accounts for the relatively high temperatures. The feathered surfaces in the head region were only 2 to 5°F above the 73°F ambient air temperature. Table 5.2 Surface temperatures in the head region Bird Locations No. eye comb l. wattle r. wattle mouth 15 96 100 98 98 9h 28 99 100 101 101 97 35 97 98 IOU 100 lob 8 97 100 99 100 102 1 99 101 97 98 98 2 99 100 98 99 100 3 98 100 99 100 98 u 97 101 100 99 100 5 99 99 100 98 100 6 98 199 .213. .92. 193 Av. 97.9 99.9 99-“ 9.2 99.5 5.H Humidity at the Base of the Trachea An experiment was developed to measure air humidity and temperature at the trachea base as described in section A.3. 84 The results are shown in Table 5.3. The distance from the humidity sensor to the outlet of the artificial respirator's trachea tube is shown in the first column of Table 5.3. Table 5.3 Humidity at base of the trachea when subjected to different respiration rates and tidal volumes __ 3.8. _1v_ __R_H__ _T__ 5 20 20 100 103.6 5 30 20 100 101.2 5 “0 20 100 100.1 5 20 25 100 102.3 5 30 25 100 100.6 5 MO 25 100 99.u Rectal temperature = 103.20F D = distance from sensor, in RR= respiration rate, cycles/min TV= tidal volume, cc RR= relative humidity, percent T = temperature, OF The recorded relative humidity remained at 100% for all respiration rates and volume settings used. The air temp— erature decreased with increasing minute volume, but was lower than expected in all except the first test. This 85 could have been the result of cooling at the sensor loca- tion due to the Opened neck and exposed trachea. Careful insulation around the sensor would be an improvement to the experimental procedure. The rectal temperature of this bird was about 3.5°F below average, indicating a cooling trend throughout the body. The anesthesia was probably partly responsible for the decrease in body temperature. The results of this experiment suggest that the humi- dity at the base of the trachea is very close to saturation at the respective air temperatures. The air temperature at the base of the trachea in an unanesthetized healthy bird under normal breathing conditions is estimated to be very close to rectal temperature. 5.5 Respiratory Simulation Model Results The respiratory heat and mass transfer simulation model as discussed in section 3.3 was used to estimate air tem- perature and humidity as a function of location in the res- piratory system. The model is based on thermoneutral con- ditions with all the inspired and expired air passing through the nasal cavities. The wall temperatures are from the results given in section 5.3. The graphical re— sults of the simulation are shown in Figure 5.8 through 5.19. The solid line represents air temperature or humidity, and the dashed line represents wall temperature or saturated boundary layer humidity. 86 Temperature and humidity changes occur most rapidly in the nasal passages (Figures 5.8 and 5.9). The transient term in the mass and energy balance equations was studied at nasal conditions because these rapid changes only occur in that region. Air temperature is raised to within 1°F of wall temperature at the posterior end of the nasal pas— sage. Air humidity is within .003 lb water/lb air of the saturated boundary layer humidity. Air temperature and humidity remains slightly less than the respective wall condition in the mouth cavity and trachea during inhala— tion (Figures 5.10 through 5.13). At the base of the tra— chea the inspired air is very close to body temperature and saturation. The air entering the base of the trachea from the lungs and air sacs during expiration is at body temperature and saturated. The temperature and moisture gradients are therefore reversed with respect to the wall conditions during expiration (Figures 5.1” through 5.17). The largest amount of cooling and condensation takes place in the nasal passages with expired air being just a little warmer and more humid than the nasal wall conditions (Figures 5.18 and 5-19)- These results indicate that the majority of heat and moisture transfer to the respiratory air occurs during in— spiration from the respiratory tract surfaces between the anterior nasal opening and the base of the trachea during thermoneutral conditions. The heat and moisture transfer l3 ":T‘EPA'H '1' 349313513 WASAL MD ' m—F j r I :L 1. . I I ; la. I I : ! I 2;, ' 1 m.. T S I Z." h‘-’-“‘"-"J":;:L:_;,‘_.:.:_.L:—:At_.=pzu é I is I 5 i M A 0 % C 31'? .CV‘ 2343 Chi; C771 UN”?L N FH‘T Figure 5.8-- Temperature of inspired nasal air 9 TE}? 9" I‘S’I‘ED M TC IDAHO AIR 00 I | l V L ' B I I I I IU‘IIDI TY —<>- ¢. _____ 'I- I ABYQ'IY‘.’ Lu I I O . 813 030 . 395 . UMTT‘! IV FEET Figure 5.10-- Temperature of inspired nasal to tracheal air CH; 575 87 ., HUMIDITY CF I\:TI%£T NASA; AI .—-—-— r f 1 ,1) n. / 0’85 .0237. ABS 3.1.. 75 I‘LHIDI W 01'... f (1 " ’ H‘V' r‘ ' -. 0 . 1'. J a l- 4—: TL”) . [F4 N1" LFMYL. IN ‘1‘?" Figure 5.9-- Humidity of inapired nasal air 7““"HM 71‘ 15919911) NASH. 7?? WAG-EA A19. qp———— —————————— r- ————— Fab. _1_ 025 ll I q )BfilLJTE ItHIDITY ac; 0 . 315 .f‘JnC . 3.12; .Qbfj S“ )3 .090 LENIN IN FFI-T Figure 5.11-- Humidity of inspired nasal to tracheal air 88 8' WW]! or were: mo AIR g HUMIDITY 0F INSPIRED TRALHEA AIR 1.0 (L0 075 128 ‘- _'_ _- ---—- ”g?— .4 h—c‘—_4P—-'— ABSXIL'YE I-{HIDXTY '1- ABSILJTE I-U‘iIDIW 030 0.5 31’ 15 0 .123 2'1) .375 II) .b2'J .730 0 . L23 .220 . '5 .2 .303 be) . 7'30 LINN IN FUN LEMTTH IN FEET Figure 5.12-- Temperature of inspired tracheal air Figure 5.13-- Humidity of inspired tracheal air 8’ WAmur EXPIRD “3% AIR g HLMIDIT'Y 0F EXPIRED TRACH’EA AIR «:0 075 (1.0 Z: a. t E .3. 5 — —— §Ln __- ““““““““““““““ a g, s -. _. 5 .3 5 3 3g , In "’ 5. O C) 0 .125 .230 ,37-3 300 .525 .730 0 123 .250 32*: 300 has no LBCTH 04 FEB term IN m Figure 5.14“ Temperature of expired tracheal air Figure 5.15-- Humidity of expired tracheal air 8’ TDPCFFXPIKDMTOWOQAIR 0.0 la ---— _-_— ——i—_ __.__ —..__ —. m1 UTE it"! DI TY a 3 n O 0 :13 .000 ca: ObO 07: 050 LacnInqnix Figure 5.16-- Temperature of expired tracheal to nasal air y TEMD OF EXPIDED NASAL AIR 125 "I. m HHIDITY Ha 0 .313 .030 343 0:0 LDCTH IN FEET .375 Figure 5.18-- Temperature of expired nasal air 89 g an CF rxpmen WON. *0 man-u Am 0'75 . (LO b—g-—Ax m 0a m ca (Tw - Ti) T1+1 = Tw + (T1 ' T ) e (A 2 3) W Where i = 1,2,'°°,n in a finitedifference scheme, with n-l being the total number of increments in the given length. Equation A.2.3 is the finitedifference form of the equation used for determining air temperature in the resp- iratory tract during expiration. APPENDIX A . 3 APPENDIX A.3 Derivation of the Mass Balance Equation During both inspiration and expiration there is a tran- sfer of water between the respiratory tract walls and the respiratory air taking place. This moisture transfer is sim- ulated by applying a mass balance on the water transfer terms shown in Figure A.3.l. I—dx—I (paVaA) Ha _____E ____g + (paVaA) Ha 3 F? (paVaAHa) dx o(dx) P (H'-Ha) Figure A.3.l-- Mass balance on moisture transfer The following equation is the result 3Ha 3Ha O P (H' - H ) - D V A ——— = p A ——— (A.3.l) a a a 3x a at Since the time dependent term is negligible as discuss- ed in section 3.3a, equation A.3.l simplifies to _ 3Ha o P (H' — Ha) — paVaA SI’ (A.3.2) 111 112 separating variables and integrating H o P Xi+1 31+} - dx = ———T as paVaA Xi Ha - H Ha1 let m = paVaA l Ha1+1'H' _ OPAX n -——————- - - ——T— Hai—H m Ha -H' _ OPAX i+1 = m e Hal-H' _ oPAx m = l + _ ' . o Hai+l H (Ha1 H ) e (A 3 3) Where i = 1,2,"°,n in a finitedifference scheme with n - 1 being the total number of increments in the given length. Equation A.3.3 is the finitedifference from of the equation used for determining the absolute humidity of the respiratory tract air during expiration and inspiration. APPENDIX A . “ 113 214 ___.__.,._._,_r._.........-..._.. -.-_,..--. ._____,____-._.T-_ _____. 20 ~————--- Heat Production BTU/hr. * Bird Identification Numbers I I .I__ --___ __ .1... 1.11-1.1--- . - 76 80 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F figure A.“.l—- Individual total latent heat production Heat Production BTU/hr. ll“ 2“ _—- . . __— ._.-._.y_-..—~_ -- _~.-_~4.--—-._—-- - 1-1.11.4 L -4... .- * Bird 'Identification Numbers i _._ -.. -- > 76 80 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure A.“.2-- Individual total sensible heat production in the head chamber -03 Heat Production BTU/hr. 115 12 . «-~~+-me~~w»~«m-_~m»~“~M—wwm~~m««wm~ u i i I L i* Bird Identification I Number : 1 I 2 7 T f I I I I I O I I 76 80 8“ 88 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure A.“.3-- Individual respiratory sensible heat production 3 i- )- 3“ ‘1 'ud a“ a. “w; .EOETIQ n‘fi‘ii‘ufi L Heat Production BTU/hr. 116 * Bind Identiffication Numbers 2 E I I———————— —_—__ —- W“. V ~__ 1 : I 1 I I i I I I I i . I - I ' I I i l 1 I 76 80 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure A.“.“-- Individual sensible heat production in the body chamber Heat Production BTU/hr. 117 I 18 __- ‘ » I I 28 i ; * Bird Identification I\\\ , Numbers , lU'L——————*“é ‘"— of - — %-'*- “* I : I I 76 8O 8“ 88 92 96 Inlet Air Temperature to the Head Chamber °F Figure A.U.5-- Individual total sensible heat production APPENDIX A . 5 ufifir 118 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.: 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.: 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.: 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.: 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 prEHA COHu0360Lm pmmm moCmUHMCOD wwmm UmumEfiumm COHuOSUOLm pmwm NuHUHESE mLSUML®QEmB Lopemno 60m: one 5000 coHpozoopg poms ucopmq H.< mHnt 119 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 20.2 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 00.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 2.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 2.0 20.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 22.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 2.0 0.2 00.0 0000.0 00.20 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 2.2 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.: 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.: 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.2 00.0 0000.0 00.20 0.0 0.0 0.2 02.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.2 2.0 0.0 00.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.2 00.2 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.2 00.0 0000.0 02.00 000E00 COHQosnoLm pmom momefimcoo 000 0000E0pwm 2000030000 0000 Nufivfiezm mLSmemQEmB 00000000000 0.0 00000 [8| 1 120 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 000000304 COHQOSUOLA Q0002 woCmUHhCOO Rmm ©®QMEHpmm COHPOSUOLL pmwm NpfiUHESI mthmhmflEmB 00000000000 0.0 00000 121 0.0 m.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0a 0.0 00.0 0000.0. 30.00 3.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 30.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 m0.m0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 03.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0m.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.30 0000.0 00.00 0.00 a.ma 0.00 00.m0 0000.0 00.00 m.0H 0.HH 0.HH 00.0 0000.0 33.H0 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.m0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 33.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 m0.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.m0 0.00 00.m0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.mH 0.HH 00.00 0000.0 03.00 0.00 0.0a 0.mH 00.mH 0000.0 mm.00 3.00 0.00 0.m0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 mm.00 0.00 0.m0 0.00 03.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.m0 0.00 m0.m0 0000.0 m0.00 0.00 0.0a 0.HH 33.30 0000.0 00.00 000800 c000050000 0000 @020000200 000 000050000 2000050000 0000 N0000ezm @030mpmmEmB pmnEmgo 00m: 0:0 E000 2000050000 0mm: mHQHmcmm m.< @0000 l . 1.! r , 5 .o I I] 2". 122 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 H.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0H 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 H.0 H0.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 H:.HH 0000.0 00.00 0.0 H.0H 0.0 H0.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0H 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 H.0 0.00 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 :.0H 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.00 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 :.0H 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0H 0.0 00.0H 0000.0 00.00 prEHA COfipUSUOLm pmmm mocwwfimcoo Rmm UmmeHpmm COfiUOSUOLa 00me NUHUHESS wkduwpmflEmE 00020002000 0.< 00000 . , 1.1:... m. «filing; 1 SELLER HF 123 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.: 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.: 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 00.00 0000.0 00 00 mufiEfiA COHpoSUOLm pmmm moCmflfihCOO Rmm CmpMEwpmm COHQOSUOLQ ummm NuHUfiESm mhdqumQEmB 0003:002000 m.< QNQQB l2” 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 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0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00 00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.0 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 mpfiEHA 0.000903000an ummz mocwflfimcoo wmm U®QMEHpmm COHpozmuOLm uwmm NpfiUHESI mLSpmthEwB Avmscfiucoov m.< magma 126 .. .. .... #7 0.0 0.00 0.0 20.0 0000.0 02.00 0.0 0.00 m.0 mm.w 0000.0 00.20 0.0 0.00 m.00 00.0 0000.0 00.20 0.0 0.00 m.00 00.: 0000.0 00.m0 0.0 0.00 m.00 00.00 0000.0 00.20 0.0 0.00 :.00 H©.MH 0000.0 mm.m0 3.0 0.00 N.0 30.0 0000.0 0m.00 0.0 0.00 m.0 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0.00 0.00 0.00 20.00 0000.0 22.00 0.00 0.00 0.0m m0.mm 0000.0 00.00 0.0m 0.00 0.00 00.0w 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.0m 20.0w 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.0m 02.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.mm 0000.0 22.00 0.00 0.0m 2.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 m.0m 2.0m 0.0m 00.2m 0000.0 00.00 0.0m 0.0m 2.0m 0m.0m 0000.0 00.00 0.0m 0.0m 2.0m 20.0w 0000.0 02.00 0.0m m.0m m.0m 00.00 0000.0 mm.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 20.0w 0000.0 00.00 0.0m 0.0m 0.0m 0m.0m 0000.0 mm.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00.00 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.0m 0.0m m2.00 0000.0 00.00 0.0m 0.00 0.0m 00.mm 0000.0 00.00 000E00 9000050000 0000 0050000900 00m Umu0E0pmm 9000050000 0000 00000E5$ 0&30000QE08 0009E090 000: 0:0 0009 6000 9000050000 0009 00900900 00000 2.< 0090B 128 0.00 2.00 0.20 02.02 0000.0 00.00 0.00 2.00 0.20 00.00 0020.0 00.00 2.02 0.20 0.02 00.00 0000.0 00.20 0.02 2.00 0.02 00.20 0000.0 00.00 2.02 0.00 0.02 00.20 0000.0 00.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 00.20 0000.0 00.00 2.00 0.00 0.20 00.02 0000.0 00.00 0.00 0.00 2.20 00.02 0000.0 00.00 0.02 0.20 m.o0 00.22 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