THE R‘ELATEON OF SOCIAL REFERENCES TO IMAGERY OF OCCUPATIONAL LIFE STYLES Thesis {or ”19 Degree of pl). D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Howard A. Rosencranz 1960 This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Relation of Social References to Imagery of Occupational Life Styles presented by Howard A. Rosencranz has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Sociology 8 Anthr0pology Major professor Datefifl?! //7: /€é& 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan Stun University stunt! till llul THE RELATION OF SOCIAL REFERENCES TO IMAGERY _ OF OCCUPATIONAL LIFE STYLES By ml HOWARD A‘.‘ ROSENCRANZ A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology and Anthropology 1960 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. William H. Form for his counsel and guidance throughout this investigation; to Dr. John Useem, Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover, and Dr. Charles Hoffer for their direction and assistance as members of his Guidance Committee. Acknowledgments should also be given to Dr. Gerard P. Weeg and Miss Opal Albaugh for their advice in preparing materials for use in the MISTIC computer; and to Dean Edward A. Carlin, Dr. Sigmund Nosow, and Dr. Harold Dahnke for their aid in the earlier phases of the study. The writer also wishes to express his appreciation to the 150 respondents for their cooperation in pre-testing the questionnaires and to the 1, 045 students and their instructors for their cooperation during the final administration of the questionnaires. THE RELATION OF SOCIAL REFERENCES TO IMAGERY OF OCCUPATIONAL LIFE STYLES BY Howard A. Roeencranz AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology and AnthrOpology Approved 1960 AN ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of peOple relating to four aspects of behavior associated with seven specific occu» pationss Assembly worker, Carpenter, Bookkeeper, Salesman, Sales Manager, Teacher, and Doctor. For each occupation inquiry was directed toward imagery concerning work related characteristics, family and home patterns, consumption patterns, and social and activity patterns. Together these reflect what might be termed an occupational life style. A secondary objective was to ascertain whether these images were affected by selected background characteristics of the informants: age, sex, size of community, father's occupation, newspaper readership, aca— demic standing, and college major. The chi-square test of significance was used as a measure for evaluating differences in perception. Compari- son of perceptual data with actual occupational information was made, when possible, as a measure of image realism. 'Assembly worker data showed that the type of image most often signi- ficantly different was related to family and home patterns; the most dis- criminating variable was sex of informant. The Assembly Worker was given a low statue position and was thought to be unhappy with his work. Per- ceptions most nearly coincident with verifiable characteristics were in- come estimates, family size, monetary worries, chain-store buying, politi— cal preference, and limited mobility. Images most often significantly different for Carpenter fell in the category of social and activity patterns; size of community was the most differentiating variable. He was thought to be happy with his work, not likely to prefer other work, and particularly concerned with "good work— manship". Respondents overestimated his income, education, consumer goods, but were more nearly accurate about his organizational activities and size Howard A. Rosencranz of family. The Carpenter ranked high in esteem. . Family and home patterns were most often significantly different for Bookkeeper, while sex of informant was the most distinguishing variable. Although the Bookkeeper was thought to have had more education and moder- ately high occupational class origins, he rated low in general prestige, income, and material goods. He was often pictured lower than the Sales— man and on a par with Assembly Worker. Work related characteristics were most often signiiicantly differ~ ent for §El£22§£3 size of community was the most discriminating control. The Salesman was assigned a middle—range income, an average amount of consumer goods, and a high school education. He was thought to be a Protestant and was ascribed a wider circle of friends than the blue collar occupations or the Bookkeeper. Most often significantly different for Sales Manager was the category of social and activity patterns; academic standing was the most differen- tiating variable. He was thought to have a high income, to be happy in his work, to be a Republican, and most geographically mobile. He was given socio-econcmic ascriptions second only to Doctor. Perceptions for the Sales Manager showed great variation, yielding an element of ambiguity. Social and activity patterns were most often significantly different for Teacher; size of community was the most discriminating variable. Al- though low economic expectations were accorded the Teacher, he was be- lieved to have access to cultural amenities beyond his income. He was considered geographically mobile, a Protestant, dedicated to his job, but quite likely to change his occupation. The type of image most often significantly different for 29312:.was social and activity patterns; sex of informant was the most distinguishing variable. He was given the most favorable image in terms of monetary Howard A. Rosencranz rewards, material possessions, devotion to and happiness with work. He was thought to have professional family origins and to be most deeply rooted in his community. All eXpected his children to go to college; nearly all expected his sons to pursue professional careers. Three of four major hypotheses were substantiated: 1. Occupational images differed significantly at the .05 level or less in regard to sex, size of community, and age of informant. Sex was a discriminating variable for all occupations; size of community for all except Sales Manager. Age discriminated only for Sales Manager. 2. Occupational images differed significantly in respect to college major for four occupations. For example, education majors perceived the Teacher differently. 5. Informants who were upwardly mobile differed significantly from those who had fathers in the white collar group. This was found in rela- tion to perceptions for Carpenter, Bookkeeper, and Salesman. 4. The Principle of "status congruity" did not hold up in analysis. More realistic images were not perceived for the white collar occupations by students whose fathers had white collar occupations using at least two evaluative criteria. When all seven occupational images were compared, the postulated levels of prestige ranking appeared in about one-fourth of the comparisons; notable distortions occurred in almost one-third of the comparisons. It can be concluded that peOple are able to project highly detailed, realistic ideas about occupations; this ability was further attested by small categories of no response. Perceptions were distinct in differen- tiating one occupation from another. Data also suggest that aspirations are more nearly related to occupational imagery than is occupational back- ground of informants. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TAB LES ....................................... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ................................ Introductory Remarks Review of Literature Statement of the Problem and Hypotheses II. PROCEDURE ................................... Development of the Instrument Used The Sample Measurement of Variables Statistical Techniques Contribution to Methodology INTRODUCTION TO IMAGES OF SEVEN OCCUPATIONS 111. ASSEMBLY WORKER ............................ Image of the Assembly Worker Significant differences for Assembly Worker IV. CARPENTER ................................... Image of the Carpenter Significant Differences for Carpenter V. BOOKKEEPER .................................. Image of the Bookkeeper Significant Differences for Bookkeeper VI. SALES MAN .................................. Image of the Salesman Significant Differences for Salesman iii 21 21 21 24 29 3O 33 36 36 47 61 61 70 86 86 96 117 117 126 Chapter VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. SALES MANAGER ............................... Image of the Sales Manager Significant Differences for Sales Manager TEACHER ...................................... Image of the Teacher Significant Differences for Teacher DOCTOR ...................................... Image of the Doctor Significant Differences for Doctor COMPARISON OF ALL OCCUPATIONS ............ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................... LITERATURE CITED ................................... APPENDIC ES Appendix A. Medians and Percentages of Projections for All Occupations Appendix B. Contingency Coefficients for Independent Variables Appendix C. Percentage Distribution of Occupation of Informante’ Father 8 Appendix D. Summary of Significant Associations for All Occupations Appendix E. Questionnaires 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 iv Page 144 144 153 172 172 181 198 198 208 223 255 262 269 Table 10 11 LIST OF TABLES Page SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR ASSEMBLY WORKER Summary of significant associations for Assembly Worker , , 51 Length of vacation by sex of informant ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 52 Residence of parents by sex of informant ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 52 Amount of money earned last year by size of community , , , 52 Length of vacation by size of home community ,,,,,,,,,,,, 53 Length of vacation by academic standing ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 53 Amount of money earned last year by age of informant , , , , . 53 Income received the year before retirement by newspaper readership . ........................................... 53 Hours worked daily by occupation of informant‘s father, , , , , 54 Likelihood of wifeis employment outside the home by sex of informant .. ................... . .......... . .......... 54 Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant. , 54 Monetary worries at home by sex of informant ,,,,,,,,,,,, 55 Concerns about children among worries at home by sex of informant .. .. .. ......................................... 55 Monetary worries at home by college major .............. 55 Likelihood of male children going to college by newspaper readership.._.................................. ........... 56 Type of employment for working wifes by occupation of informantfifather ...................... 56 Concerns about children among worries at home by size of home community .................................... 56 1.23 Make of automobile owned by sex of informant ............ Insurance savings by sex of informant ................... Utilization of bank checking account by newspaper reader ship ............................................ Number of Suits owned by newspaper readership .......... Number of magazines in home by occupation of informant's father . . ., ............................................ Church group-versus other organizational membership by sex of informant ...................................... Parents Teachers Association membership by sex of informant ............................................ Type of vacation by sex of informant ..................... Place of residence of family friends by sex of informant , , , Type of vacation by college major ....................... Hours of television observed daily by college major ....... Political allegiance by size of home community ........... SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR CARPENTER Summary of significant associations for Carpenter ........ Concern for good workmanship on the job by size of home community .......................... . ................. Place of residence of parents by size of home community . . Monetary worries on the job by size of home community . . . Concern for good workmanship on the job by academic standing ............................................. Length of vacation by college major ..................... Preference for other work by occupation of informant's father . ............................................... vi 57 57 57 58 58 59 59 59 6O 6O 6O 75 76 76 76 77 2.18 2.. 19 vii Income the year before retirement by sex of informant . , . . 78 Cost of home by size of home community ................. 78 Monetary worries at home by size of home community ,,,,, 78 Cost of home by academic standing ,,,,,,, , , . , . , , ,,,,,,,, 79 Cost of home by college major . . . . . . .................... 79 Occupation male children will follow by sex of informant , , , 79 Ownership of home freezer by size of home community . , , , 80 Food preservation habits by size of home community ,,,,,, 80 Number of magazines in home by size of home community, , 80 Make of automobile owned by occupation of informant's father ............................................... 81 Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by occupation of informant's father ........................ , 81 Make of automobile owned by college major , , , , , , , , ,,,,,, 81 Ownership of formal wear by college major ,,,,, , ,,,,,,,, 82 Amount of insurance carried by age of informant ,,,,, , , , , 82 ‘Make of automobile owned by newspaper readership ,,,,,,, 82 Number of magazines in home by sex of informant , ....... 83 Church membership by sex of informant ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 83 Church group versus other organizational memberships byseXOflnfOI‘mant s'sossesese eeeeeee eeseee eeeee e ssssss 83 Type of vacation by sex of informant . , ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 84 Number of hours of television observed daily by sex of informant . . .............. . ......... . .......... . ...... 84 Type of vacation by age of informant . , , , . . , , . , . . , ,,,,,,, 84 Concerts or plays attended last year by age of informant . . , 84 2. 29 2. 30 2. 31 2. 32 Fishing as a leisure activity by occupation of informant‘s father ........ 00...... ......... .0. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Concerts or plays attended last year by occupation of informant'Sfather OOICOOIOOOO ..... COO... ..... 00...... Church membership by academic standing ..... . ..... . . . . Church membership by size of home community. . . . . . . . . . SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR BOOKKEEPER Summary of significant associations for Bookkeeper . ..... Amount of money earned last year by college major , , . , . , Income received the year before retirement by college major ...... ............ ..... Age stopped working by sex of informant ...... . . . . . . . . . . Place of residence of parents by sex of informant . . . ..... Place of birth by size of home community ,,,,, , , , . , , , . . . Place of residence of parents by size of hOme community , Monetary worries on the job by age of informant . . . . . . . . . Income received the year before retirement by news- paper readerShj-p eseeeeeeesassesseseeesessseeeeeseesee Place of residence of parents by occupatiOn of informant's father .00.00.00.00.000IOCOOOOOIOOIOOOOO0.0.0.00.0... Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by sex Ofinformant seesssoo-sees-sessseeeelaeeesesese’eeeeso. Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant Family size by sex of informant. . . ....... . ............. Familysizebycollegemajor.. ........ ................ viii 85 85 85 85 103 104 104 104. 105 105 105 106 106 106 107 107 107 108 108 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3. 22 3. 23 3. 24 3. 25 3. 2.6 3. 2'7 3. 28 3, 29 3, 3o 3, 31 3. 32 3, 33 3-34 ix Cost of home by college major .................. . ...... 108 Parental disciplinary attitude toward children by college major 00.00.... ...... OOOOIOOIOOOOOOOOOOOO. ...... O... 109 Type of employment for working wives by academic standing. ....... . ........... . .............. . ......... . 109 Number of bedrooms in home by occupation of informant‘s father ............. . ....................... . ........ 109 Disciplinary attitude toward children by size of home community . . . . . ...................................... 110 Amount of life insurance by sex of informant ..... . ..... 110 Ownership of formal wear by sex of informant .......... 110 Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by sex of informant ........................................... 111 Cultivation of vegetable garden by sex of informant ....... 111 Number of magazines in home by sex of informant ...... , 111 Number of overalls owned by academic standing ......... 112 Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by age ofinformant.... ....... . ....... ..... ..... 112 Number of overalls owned by college major ..... . . ,,,,, . 112 Ownership of home freezer by size of home community . , . 113 Church membership by academic standing ..... . , , , , . , . , 113 Church group versus other organizational membership by academic standing . ...... .. ..... ..... 113 Number of hours of television observed daily by academic Standing ............... .. ......... ............ 114 Political allegiance by sex of informant , , , ,,,,,,, , . , , , , , 114 Church membership by sex of informant ,,,,,, , ,,,,,,,,, 114 Gardening versus other leisure activity by sex of informant 115 3. 35 3. 36 3. 37 3. 38 3. 39 4.14 Type of vacation by college major . . , ...... , . . , ........ 115 Number of movies attended monthly by college major ..... 115 Golf playing as a leisure activity by occupation of informant's father ........ ............ 116 Radio or television as a leisure activity by occupation of informant's father ................................. 116 Civic versus other organizational membership by newsPaperreadership.................... ............. 116 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR SALESMAN Summary of significant associations for salesman , , , , , , , 132 Length of vacation by academic standing . , . . . , . , , , , , , , , , 133 Preference for other work by academic standing , , , ,,,,,, 133 Income received the year before retirement by college major "' °°°°°° 0 00000 0.000.000.0000. sssss sees-ease 133 Monetary worries on the job by college major ,,,,,, , , , , , 134 Amount of money earned last year by sex of informant , . , 134 Number of hours worked daily by sex of informant ....... 134 Age started working by occupation of informant's father, , . 135 Number of hours worked daily by occupation of informant's father 00000000000 ..... 0000000000000 000000000 00000000 135 Age started working by size of home community , . . , , , , , , 135 Attitude toward work by size of home community , , . , . , . , 136 Amount of education received by newspaper readership . . . 136 Monetary worries at home by newspaper readership ..... 136 Number of bedrooms in home by newspaper readership . . . 137 Family size by occupation of informant's father ......... 137 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 4. 23 A 25 .45 26 27 :A A -28 {A 4 2.9 4- 31 4- 32 Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by occupation ofinformant's father........................ Family size by age of informant ....................... Occupation male children will follow by college major . . . . Amount of insurance carried by academic standing ...... . Practice of buying clothing in economy chains by academic standing . . . . ..... . ......................... Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by sex of informant 000000000000 0000000000 000000 000000000000000 Number of magazines in home by sex of informant ....... . Ownership of formal wear by size of home community . . . . Cultivation of vegetable garden by size of home community ........ . .......... . ....... . ............. Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by college major 0 0 0 000000000 0 0 000000000 0 0000000000000 0 00000000 Number of suits owned by age of informant . . . . . . ....... . Church membership by size of home community ......... Type of vacation by size of home community . , . . . , . . . . . . Place of residence of family friends by size of home community 0.000000000000000 000000 00.000000000000000 Golf as a leisure activity by academic standing , . . . . . . . . . Place of residence of family friends by age of informant . . Number of plays or concerts attended last year by college major 0000000 000000 000000 000 0000000 000000000000 00000 Number of plays or concerts attended last year by news- paperreadership .. ........... .............. Spending time with family as a leisure activity by Sex of informant.. ............ ................. xi 137 138 138 138 139 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 141 142 142 142 143 143 143 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR SALES MANAGER Summary of significant associations for Sales Manager . . . Amount of money earned last year by academic standing . , Hours worked daily by academic standing ............... Income received the year before retirement by academic standing . . . . . . Occupation of father by academic standing ........ . . ..... Amount of money earned last year by sex of informant . . . . Occupation of father by sex of informant ................ Attitude toward work by sex of informant Age started working by age of informant Occupation of father by occupation of informant's father . Income received the year before retirement by size of home community ............................. . . . Likelihood of male children going to college by academic standing Number of bedrooms in home by academic standing . . . . . . Monetary worries at home by academic standing ..... . . Likelihood of wife‘s employment outside the home by college major Amount of time parents spend with children by college major Occupation male children will follow by age of informant . . Family size by newspaper readership . . . . ............ Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by sex of informant xii 159 160 160 160 161 161 161 161 162 162 162 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 5. 23 5. 25 xiii Utilization of bank checking account by academic standing. 165 Ownership of home freezer by academic standing ........ 166 Utilization of bank checking account by age of informant. . . 166. Number of books owned by sex of informant . . . . . ........ 166 Political allegiance by academic standing . . . . ......... . 167 Church membership by academic ”standing ......... . ..... 167 Reading versus other leisure activities by academic standing ................... . ........................ 167 Church group versus other organizational memberships by academic standing. . .. ............. ...... 168 Type of vacation by academic standing ........ . . . . . . . . . . 168 Type of vacation by academic standing ............. . . . . . 168 Church membership by sex of informant ....... . . . . . . . . . 168 Parent Teacher Association membership by sex of informant .... ............. . ............... . . .. ...... 169 Reading as a leisure activity by sex of informant ...... . 169 Bowling or pool as a leisure activity by sex of informant . . 169 Number of hours of television observed daily by sex of informant...... ....... . ..... .................... 170 Civic versus other organizational membership by age of informant................ ......... ......... 170 Golf as a leisure activity by age of informant ........... 170 Church membership by newspaper readership ........... 171 Radio or television as a leisure activity by occupation ofinformant‘sfather ........ 171 Place of residence of family friends by size of home community 000.0 00000000 00000000000000.00000000 00000 0171 .10 11 .12 .13 .14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR TEACHER Summary of significant associations for Teacher . . . . . . . . . Occupation of father by academic standing . . ........ . . . Place of residence of parents by academic standing ...... Age started working by college major Length of vacation by college major . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... Length of vacation by newspaper readership Place of birth by size of home community ....... . ....... Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant Cost of home by sex of informant ................ . ...... Family size by size of home community ...... . . . . . . Occupation male children will follow by size of home community ..... . . . . . Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by age of informant . . . . . . . . . Family size by college major ..... . ........ Food preservation habits by academic standing ». . . ....... Utilization of bank checking account by academic standing . Numberof magazines in home by college major ......... Utilization of bank checking account by college major . . . . Amount of insurance carried by size of home community . . Ownership of home freezer by size of home community . . . Church membership by sex of informant Parent Teachers Association membership by sex of informant ..... xiv 186 187 187 187 188 188 188 189 189 189 190 190 190 191 191 191 192 192 192 193 6.21 6. 22 6. 23 6. 24 6. 25 6. 26 6. 27 6. 28 6. 29 6. 30 6. 31 6. 32 7.0 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Church group versus other organizational memberships by sex ofinformant...... ....... Movie attendance as a leisure time activity by sex of informant 000000000 0000 00000 00000000000000000000000 Number of plays or concerts attended last year by sex of informant 000000000.000000000000000.0000.0000000000.. Political allegiance by size of home community . . . . . . , . . Church membership by size of home community . . . . . . . . . Civic versus other organizational memberships by size thomecommunity00000-00000000000000000000 Golf as a leisure activity by size of home community . . . . . Church membership by academic standing . . ............ Fishing as a leisure activity by academic standing . ..... Number of hours of television observed daily by academicstanding 00000000000000000000000000 00000 0000 Church group versus other organizational memberships bYC011-egemajor 000000 0000000000000000000000000000... Type of vacation by college major . . . . . . . . . . . . SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR DOCTOR Summary of significant associations for Doctor . . . . ..... Amount of money earned last year by age of informant Age stopped working by age of informant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retirement age by college major Place of residence of parents by college major . . . . . . . . . Place of birth by size of home community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Place of residence of parents by size of home community . XV 193 194 194 194 195 195 195 196 196 196 197 197 213 214 214 214 215 215 215 7.9 7.25 Concern for workmanship on the job by newspaper readership ..... Number of hours worked daily by sex of informant ....... Time parents spend with children by college major ...... Number of bedrooms in home by college major ......... . Number of bathrooms in home by age of informant ....... Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant ................... . ..... . . . . ....... . ...... Occupation male children will follow by size of home community .................. . ......... . . . ............ Ownership of insurance-savings by sex of informant ..... Practice of buying clothing at out—of—town stores by sex of informant ......................................... Ownership of air conditioner in home by sex of informant . Cultivation of vegetable garden by sex of informant ...... Number of suits owned by occupation of informant's father Number of magazines found in home by occupation of informant's father ........... . . ......... . . . . . . . ...... Cultivation of vegetable garden by college major ......... Church membership by size of home community .. . . . . . . . Civic versus other organizational membership by size of homecommunity ..... ........... Reading versus other leisuregactivities by size of home Community ' 00000000 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 I 0 O O 0 0 O 00000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 Church group versus other organizational membership by college major .............. . .............. . ....... Civic versus other organizational membership by college major .................................. . . . . . ........ xvi 216 216 217 217 219 219 219 219 220 220 220 221 Church group versus other organizational membership by sexofinformant ........ ...... . Type of vacation by sex of informant . . . ............... Political allegiance by academic standing ............... COMPARISONS OF ALL SEVEN OCCUPATIONS Percentage distribution of projected amount of money earned last year for all seven occupations , , ,,,,,,, , , , , Percentage distribution of projected amount of education received for all seven occupations Percentage distribution‘of projected number of hours worked each day for all seven occupations ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Percentage distribution of projected age started working for all seven occupations . . . . . ........................ Percentage distribution of projected retirement age for all seven occupations ................ . ................ Percentage distribution of projected income received the year before retirement for all seven occupations . . . . . . . Percentage distribution of projected length of vacation for all seven occupations Percentage distribution of projected occupation of father forallsevenoccupations 0000.000000.00.000'.00.000000 Percentage distribution of projected attitude toward job forallsevenoccupa’tions 000000 00.00.000.0000000000000 Percentage distribution of projected preference for other work by those engaged in all seven occupations ........ Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of change in occupation for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage distribution of projected place of birth for all sevenoccupations............ ...... Percentage distribution of projected place of residence of parents for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii 222 222 222 234 235 235 236 236 236 237 237 237 238 .14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 .25 .26 .27 .28 xviii Percentage distribution of projected concern for good .‘ workmanship on the job for all seven occupations ........ 238 Percentage distribution of projected monetary worries on the job for all seven occupations . . ...... . .............. 238 Percentage distribution of projected family size for all seven occupations .......... . ...... . . . . . ..... . . . ..... . . 239 Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of wife's employment outside the home for all seven occupations . . . 239 Percentage distribution of projected type of employment for working wives of all seven occupations ...... . . . ..... 239 Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of wife having help with housework for all seven occupations ..... 240 Percentage distribution of projected parental disciplinary attitude toward children for all seven occupations ........ 240 Percentage distribution of projected amount of time parents spend with children for all seven occupations ..... 240 Percentage distribution of projected cost of home for all seven occupations ..... . .............................. 241 Percentage distribution of projected ownership of home which includes separate dining room, recreation room, den or study, two baths, garage, and fireplace for all seven occupations .................................... 241 Percentage distribution of projected number of bathrooms in home for all seven occupations . ................ . . . . . 241 Percentage distribution of projected number of bedrooms in home for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 242 Percentage distribution of projected ownership of home with den or study for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Percentage distribution of projected monetary worries at home for all seven occupations 242 Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of male children going to college for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . 243 .29 .30 .31 .32 .33 .34 .35 .36 .37 .38 .39 .40 .41 .42 .43 .44 Percentage distribution of projected occupation male children will follow for all seven occupations ........... Percentage distribution of projected amount of insurance owned for all seven occupations ........................ Percentage distribution of projected ownership of stocks and bonds for all seven occupations ............. . . , , . . . Percentage distribution of projected utilization of bank checking account by all seven occupations Percentage distribution of projected make of automobile owned by all seven occupations ........................ Percentage distribution of projected age of car owned by all seven occupations ................................. Percentage distribution of projected number of suits owned by all seven occupations ............................... Percentage distribution of projected number of overalls owned by all seven occupations ................. . ...... Percentage distribution of projected ownership of formal wear for all seven occupations ................ . ........ Percentage distribution of projected practice of buying clothing in economy chains for all seven occupations . , . , , Percentage distribution of projected buying of groceries by telephone for all seven occupations . .......... . ...... Percentage distribution of projected food preservation habits for all seven occupations ........................ Percentage distribution of projected cultivation of vegetable garden for all seven occupations . . , . . . Percentage distribution of projected ownership of home freezer for all seven occupations ........ . . . . .......... Percentage distribution of projected ownership of auto- matic clothes dryer for all seven occupations ........... Percentage distribution of projected ownership of auto- matic dishwasher for all seven occupations ............. xix 243 244 244 244 245 245 245 246 246 246 247 247 247 248 248 XX Percentage distribution of projected number of magazines found in home for all seven occupations ........ . . . . . . . . 249 Percentage distribution of projected number of books found in home for all seven occupations ......... . ....... . . . . 249 Percentage distribution or projected political allegiance for all seven occupations . . . . . ............... . ........ .249 Percentage distribution of projected church membership for all seven occupations .................. . . . ........ 250 Percentage distribution of projected civic club compared to other organizational affiliation for all seven occupations . . 250 Percentage distribution of projected reading compared to other leisure activities for all seven occupations ........ 250 Percentage distribution of golf-playing as a projected leisure activity for all seven occupations . ........ . ..... 251 Percentage distribution of fishing as a projected leisure activity for all seven occupations ...................... 251 Percentage distribution of projected television or radio habits compared to other leisure activities for all seven occupations ................................... . . . . . 251 Percentage distribution of touring as a projected type of vacation for all seven occupations . . ....... . . . . . . ...... 252 Percentage distribution of staying at home as a type of vacation for all seven occupations ....... . ..... . ........ 252 Percentage distribution of projected vacationing at a resort compared to other types of vacations for all seven occupations ...................... . ................... 252 Percentage distribution of projected number of movies per month for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 253 Percentage distribution of projected number of hours of television observed daily for all seven occupations . . . . . . . 253 Percentage distribution of projected number of plays or concerts attended last year for all seven occupations . . . . 253 8. 60 8.61 xxi Percentage distribution of projected number of family friends for all seven occupations 254 Percentage distribution of projected places of residence of family friends for all seven occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Behavioral scientists have long considered the manner in which people perceive one another as an important field of study. 1 This interest has relevance to the sociologist who feels that differences in social perceptions result in differences in role performance. Yet only within the last few years have sociologists made modest attempts to assess the influences of social backgrounds and experiences on per- ceptions of different societal positions. This study seeks to examine the capaciousness of people's perceptions of occupations and how these perceptions are affected by their social backgrounds. The need for research in the area of perceptual factors in everyday role performance has been pointed out by Bruner and Tagiuri as follows: There are at least two rather obvious gaps present in the impression-formation literature. The first concerns the manner‘in which naive subjects conceptualize and categorize other people. . . . There are no, systematic studies devoted to an analysis of the categories used by ordinary people in everyday life for describing other people. . . . The second consideration has to do with the special status of human beings as objects of knowledge. . . . Many of the cues used Lindesmith and Strauss emphasize that far from being a mere mechanical process, responding to stimuli from the sense organs, Perception is influenced by needs, interests, past experience, and capacity of the individual perceiver. Further, perception is "selective, " and is related to the ”perceiver's occupation, class, age . . . in short, to his social background. " A. Lindesmith and A. Strauss, Social Psy- _C_h°_10__g_y (New York: The Dryden Press, 1949), p. 65. in judging other persons are cues that we as perceivers‘ are instrumental in producing. . . . Little research has gone into the investigation of how this feature of the interpersonal situation affects impression formation. 1 Charles Horton Cooley speaking in another sociological era stressed the reality of the ”images" persons have of one another. I conclude, therefore, that the imagination which people have of one another are the "solid facts” of society, and that to observe and interpret these must be the chief aim of sociology. The intimate grasp of any social fact will be found to require that we divine what men think of one another. 2 In respect to the type of research most needed in this area, Hastorf, Richardson and Dornbush want to place emphasis on the qualities, the determinants, and the consequences of a specific perception. Much of this research has had an ”isolationist" aura in that the concern with perceptual variables has led to a lack of concern with other aspects of interpersonal behavior. This somewhat depressing description of affairs may be rather unfair in that we are dealing with a relatively young area of research. . . . In thelong pull, 7 the helpful empirical studies are those that specifically tie a perceptual act to other aspects of behavior. 3 Obviously, perception of an individual can best be related to 3’ Bpecific situation or group. Hasdorf, 3331; suggest that "a person has a' Core of generally consistent categories used in describing all people \ lJerome S. Bruner and Renato Tagiuri, ”The Perception of People, " Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2 (Cambridge: Addison- esley Publishing Company, Inc. ,. 1954), pp. 634-654. 2Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order, Revised edition (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), pp. 121-22. 3Albert H. Hasdorf, Stephen A. Richardson, and Sanford M. Dornbusch, "The Problems of Relevance in the Study of Person Per- ception, " Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior (Stanford: Stan- ford University Press, 1958), pp. 54-62. and a set of more particular categories which depend more on situational factors. "1 Occupational images for the student of perception might be regarded as "consistent categories" used for describing all persons falling within a given occupation. Everett C. Hughes suggests that perhaps no other society reflects a greater variety of statuses and status determining character- istics than does our own. Often these statuses are contradictory and occur in peculiar combinations. While people. may not consciously systematize their expectations of persons in given positions, they do, especially in respect to occupational statuses, ”carry in their minds 3. set of expectations concerning the auxiliary traits properly associated with many of the. specific positions available in our society. " In order to make the research manageable, the writer has chosen to investigate personal perception manifested in occupational images. There are four primary purposes of this study: (1) to establish the ability of people to make occupational projections, (2) to establish the ability of persons to make perceptual distinctions between occupations and their related "styles of life, " (3) to discover whether background factors of the observers are associated with distinctions they make among occupational images, and (4) to explore better'methodological approaches to examine the process of making occupational projections. 1Ibid., p. 61. 2 Everett C. Hughes, "Dilemmas and Contradictions of Status}. " The American Journal o_f Sociology, Vol. L, No. 5 (March, 1945, p. 35 . While it was possible to study the images of any number of social statuses, the writer has selected occupations for a number of reasons. First, occupation is of primary interest to the sociologist in that it fixes a person's general position in society . . . his rewards both monetary and honorific, his style of life, and the power he exerts over others. As Caplow has observed, ”The modern reliance upon occupation as the measure of a man takes for granted the existence of high correlations between occupational position and all other attri- butes. That these correlations are probably exaggerated is beside the point; the general belief in their existence is a pervasive element in social interaction. "1 Second, methodologically speaking occupation is generally regarded as the best single index of status by the leading thinkers in the field. 2 As a result, occupation as a status criterion is widely used in current empirical sociological studies embracing a variety of areas of investigation. Third, the area of occupational image is very"'problematic" in a heterogeneous and changing society such as ours with its complex occupational structure. It is postulated on the one hand that because of the complexity of the modern work world, no one person can become 1 Theodore Caplow, The Sociology (if Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954), p. 31. 2'See the writings of William H. Form, Paul K. Hatt, C. W. M1118. C. C. North, and others. . For a recent analysis of the "hori- zontal" dimension termed "situs" see Richard T. Morris and Raymond J. Murphy, "The Situs Dimension in Occupational Structure, " American Sociological Review, Vol. '24, No. 2(Apri1, 1959). PP. 231-39. very familiar with the variety of jobs that exist. This is emphasized as being of special consequence to the worker-to-be and is central to the problem of choosing an occupation. In this vein Hughes speaks of the accident of occupational entry, "The’sum total of conclusions from mostof contemporary discussion is that one can predict neither the occupational fate of the individual nor the origin of the person who will next fill a given job. "1 On the other hand a reverse position is also postulated, that even in complex urban society people can place each other socially on the basis of symbols relating to occupation, style of life, education and other factors. In fact much of our knowledge of social strati- fication is based on empirical studies utilizing this seemingly universal ability. Form and Stone have critically examined status assignment procedures when dealing with anonymous others questioning the validity or relevancy of some of the indexes commonly used, as education and occupation, when applied to particular segments or strata of the community. 2 These authors feel there is definite need for research relating to mechanisms of status bestowal in anonymous situations. Based on a survey of postwar sociological research which examined and classified dissertation titles, current studies, as well 1 Everett C. Hughes, Men and Their Work (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1958), p. 29. 2William H. Form and Gregory P. Stone, "Urbanism, Anonymity, and Status Symbolism, ". The AmericanJournalgf Sociology, V01. LXII. No. 5 (Mar'ch, 1957), pp. 504-14. as book reviews appearing in pertinent journals, Erwin O. Smigel reported in 1954 that the area of occupational image was one in which little investigation has been done. He indicated the research-needed areas as . . . "occupation and crime, interoccupational relations, occupational associations, professionalization, images of occupations, social distance between occupations, the military as an occupation, occupational ethics, and historical and cross-cultural comparisons. " Similarly, Merton and Goode suggest that occupational image as a 2 factor affecting selection of an occupation is worthy of investigation. Referring to the dearth of sociological research dealing with the interrelationship between occupational and nonoccupational behavior, C. L. Lastrucci in 1946 termed the implicationsiof this state of affairs a significant "cultural lag. " Specifically, Lastrucci feels the need for studies of the "interrelationships between occupational specialization and social differentiation. " Reviewing the interest in occupations as a field of study, he suggests that all of the various types of occupational studies reported might be characterized as reflecting a ”unidirectional” approach. Needed is an examination of the ”various and interrelated ways in which one's characteristic way of life is lErwin O. Smigel, ”Trends in Occupational Sociology in the United States: A Survey of Postwar Research, " American Socio- logical Eiew, Vol. 19, No. 4 (August, 1954), p. 398. 2'Robert K. Merton and William J. Goode, Provisional Outline fiResearch Problems, October, l950-January, 1951. University Seminar No. 417-18, "The Professions in Modern Society,” Columbia University (Mimeographed), 1951, pp. 16-18b. I reflected in his occupational activities" as well as examination of the ways in which an occupation influences one's behavior. The significance of occupation in moulding mental and emotional characteristics is also given due cognizance by the philosopher. In the words of John Dewey, Occupations determine the chief modes of satisfaction, the standards of success and failure. Hence they furnish the working classifications and definitions of value . . . they de- cide the sets of objects that are important and thereby provide the content or material of attention. So fundamental is the group of occupational activities that it affords the pattern of the organization of mental traits. Occupations integrate special elements into a functioning whole. And finally, as summarized so adequately by Everett C. Hughes who repeatedly has emphasized the need for occupational research of all kinds. In our particular society, work organization looms so large as a separate and specialized system of things and work experience is so fateful a part of every man's life, that we cannot make much headway as students of society and of social psychology without using work as one of our main laboratories. 1Carlo L. Lastrucci, "The Status and Significance of Occupational Research, " American Sociological Review, Vol. 2, No. 1 (February, 1946), pp. 78-84. 2John Dewey, ”Interpretation of the Savage Mind, " Psycho- logical Review, Vol. IX, 1902, pp. 219-220. As reported in Kimball Young, Source Book fo_r Social Psychology (New York: F. S. Crofts & Co., 1933), p. 385. I 3Everett C. Hughes, "The Sociological Study of Work: An Editorial Foreword, " The American Journal (if Sociology, Vol. LVII, No. 5 (March, 1952), p. 426. Literature on Occupational Perception Ideally, the relevancy of existing studies relating to this investigation are pertinent to the extent to which they represent empirical studies of occupational perception possessing the following qualifications: (1) the perceivers are nonprofessional observers, (2) the perceivers are judging anonymous workers in occupations other than their own, (3) the substantive judgments about specific occupations are not exclusively concerned with on-the-job activities but also extend to social phenomena surrounding these occupations, and (4) the social characteristics of the perceivers are related to the projections they make, or at least are examined in terms of their projections. Very little of the available occupational literature meets these rather stringent requirements. For example, there is an increasing number of sociological descriptions of specific occupations pertaining to the Waitress, the Dance Band Musician, the Railroader, and the 1ike--all yielding quite complete pictures of the roles and way of life of persons holding such jobs. However, these represent objective descriptive studies undertaken 'by professionals and are therefore quite different from the subjective ”views" of occupations held by the public-at-large. Theoretically speaking while there are abundant allusions to the terms "occupational image'1 and "occupational stereotype" in sociological literature, as well as in the public press, for the most 9 part these references consist of mere labels applied to a wide variety of levels of conceptions relating to work; all assuming a seldom defined conceptual reality.1 Since Lippmann long ago characterized ”stereotypes" as pictures people carry in their heads, Gustav Ichheiser3 has made the most notable effort, theoretically, to syste- matize some of these aspects of social perception by qualifying constructs and elaborating upon mechanisms and conditions involved in stereotypic imagery, prejudice, and social perception in general, whether pertaining to occupational, political, racial, ethnic judgments or whatever. Theodore Caplow4 has provided more specific generali- zations pertaining to occupational stereotypes. Empirically, however, the largest category of studies of occupational perception is that represented by the occupational ranking type of investigation. Originally started by Counts in the 1920's 1See the writings of C. Wright Mills, particularly White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951). lviiller and Form in Industrial Sociology use the term "career stereotype" with conno- tations more closely paralleling American success ideology. Delbert C. Miller and William H. Form, Industrial Sociology (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951), p. 664. 2See Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc. , 1922) and Leonard W. Doob, Propaganda, Its Psychology and Technique (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1935) p. 36. 3Gustav Ichheiser, "Misunderstandings in Human Relations: A Study in False Social Perception, " American Journal o_f Sociology, Part 2, Vol. LV, No. 2 (September, 1949). 4 Theodore Caplow, The Sociology o_f Work (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1954), pp. 134-137. 10 occupational prestige studies have been replicated many times by many investigators With amazmgly Similar results. More recently dimensions other than generalized status have been ranked, such as , 2 3 . . income and power, and populations used have included respondents 4 . . . . . from other cultures. Except for minor variations, regularities in all these investigations lead one to the conclusion that people can respond meaningfully to an abstract system of differentially evaluated positions. For purposes‘of stratification of the larger society, however, as well as for better examining the processes of occupational per- ception, this approach has rather obvious shortcomings. 5 . . Becker and Carper when discussmg the processes by which occupational identifications are internalized, mention that the "public stereotype" concerning the job of physiologist is vague compared to the vocation of M. D. or engineer. Consequently those who finally select and workin the field of physiology have, as students, been 1A partial list would include G. S. Counts in 1925, Deeg and Paterson in 1947, Mapheus Smith in 1943, North and Hatt (NORC) in 1949. " 2Charles E. Ramsey and Robert J. Smith, "Japanese and American Perceptions of Occupations, " American Journal ofSociology, Vol. LXV, No. 5 (March, 1960), pp. 475-82. ’. 3Howard A. Rosencranz, "An Exploratory Study of Status and Power Rankings of Selected Professional and White Collar Occupa- tions, " Unpublished paper, Michigan State University, 1954. .4Ramsey and Smith, o_p_. cit. , p. 477. Also Edward A. Tiryakian, "The Prestige Evaluation—o_f—Occupations in an Under- developed Country: The Philippines, " American Journal o_f Sociology, Vol. LXIII, No.4(January, 1958), pp. 390-99. 5Howard A. Becker and James W. Carper, ”The Development of Identification with an Occupation, " American Journalgf Sociology, Vol. LXI, No. 4 (January, 1956), pp. 289-98. 11 more dependent upon teachers and professors who sponsored and directed them into the vocation. Rosenberg1 suggests that the range of occupational alter- natives is narrowed in the process of choosing an occupation by what might be called the ”social publicity" of an occupation. This refers to the mixture of fact and fancy existing in the minds of the general public relevant to all occupations in our socio-economic system. He further cites an N. O. R. C. study which showed that ninety-seven per- cent of the population could not explain with exactness of what the job of nuclear physicist consisted. The general belief that if a man can do nothing else successfully, ”he can always become a janitor, " is quoted by Ray Gold as a stereotype surrounding this work role. Gold further reports that this occupational stereotype is based on a number of beliefs, such as: (1) Many janitors are foreign-born and therefore strange and suspicious; (Z) Janitors disregard cleanliness because they are often seen wearing dirty clothes; (3) Janitors live in the basement apart- ments, symbolizing lower status; (4) Janitors remove the garbage of tenants, 8. subservient task. 1Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957), p. 5. 2N. O. R. C. , "Jobs and Occupations: A Popular Evaluation, " in R. Bendix and S. M. Lipset, Class, Status a_._n_d Power (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1953), p. 417. 3Ray Gold, ”Janitors versus Tenants: A Status- Income Dilemma, " American Journal of _Sociology, Vol. LVII, No. 5 (March, 1952). p. 487. 12 That all retired boxers are "punchy'f is an opinion so widespread that it affects later occupational success, according to Weinberg and Arond, 1 to the extent that the Veterans' Boxing Asso- ciation, an organization made up of retired boxers, has felt it necessary to protest against radio and other entertainment programs that per- petuate this false stereotype. Oscar E. Litterer2 reported a study dealing with occupa- tional and social stereotypes in 1935 which pursued a pattern estab- lished by Rice seven years earlier. Explained in Quantitative Methods in Politics, 3 a series of photographs representing social types and occupational functions were judged by college students and members of a Vermont Grange. The number of correct identifications exceeding chance value and an index of departure from expectation were considered as the criteria of stereotypic behavior found to be statistically dis- tinguishable for both groups. Litterer using different photographs replicated this experi- ment on samples of university men, university women, and business 1S. Kirson Weinberg and Henry Arond, "The Occupational Culture of the Boxer, " American Journal if. Sociology, Vol. LVII, No. 5 (March, 1952), p. 469. ZOscar E. Litterer, "Stereotypes, " Journal_o_f Social Psychology, Vol. 4, 1933, pp. 56-69. 3Stuart A. Rice, Quantitative Methods_i_r_i Politics (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928), pp. 51-70. This experiment was pre— viously reported in the Journal o_f_Personal Research, Vol. V, i No. 7, 1926 by the title, “Stereotypes: A Source of Error in Judging Human Character. " 13 men. He also attempted to answer the question as to whether or not stereotypes issue out of a general experiential background or out of specific training. Litterer found that the numberliof correct identifi- cations exceeded chance value to an extent which suggests the operation of stereotypic behavior plus indications that stereotypes, as so measured, emerge from a “general experiential background. " A similar physiognomic experiment pertaining particularly to teacher stereotypes was conducted by McGill. 2 Using five male and five female pictures, two of three photographs of actual female teachers were identified by a student sample above chance expectations. . A provocative study attempting to examine source of information upon which judgments were based about selected occupations was done by Lillian Wald Kay in 1944. A "prestige” scale was com- piled as a result of the ranking of twelve occupations on five variables (conscientiousness, idealism, intelligence, social usefulness, stability of character) by 101 psychology students at City College of New York. A number of interesting findings resulted from interviews with the respondents relative to their familiarity with the occupations they had previously ranked, their interest in following that particular occupation, 1 . Litterer, loc . Cit. 2Kenneth McGill, ”The School Teacher Stereotype, " Journal _o__f_Educational Sociology, Vol. 9, 1931, pp. 642-51. 3Lillian Wald Kay, "Social Norms as Determinants in the Interpretation of Personal Experiences, " Journal <_3_f_Socia1 Psychology, Vol. 19, 1944, pp. 359-67. . . l4 and how they arrived at the attitudes they held toward the twelve occupations. Significantly, Kay found that occupational stereotypes, as different from ethnic and racial stereotypes, are not less definite when dealing with unfamiliar occupations. Also, that favorableness of attitude is not related to occupations known to subjects. (Murphy, I Murphy, and Newcomb1 had earlier concluded that racial and ethnic stereotypes are less definite for distant and unfamiliar peoples. ) Kay also concluded from her study that the importance of the function of the occupation to society seems to be the determining factor for prestige rankings, She noticed that medical, legal, and teaching professions are usually ranked high. This latter conclusion, however, represents a slightly different emphasis than sometimes given. Canter, for one, suggests that intelligence may be the dominant factor governing prestige of occupations. Secord, Bevan, and Dukes reported an experiment in 1953 dealing with occupational stereotypes. 3 They tested the hypothesis that occupational labels influence the perception of facial characteristics of photographs by having respondents rate personality traits for each labeled photograph. Six photographs with six occupational labels in 1Murphy, Murphy, and Newcomb, Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), p. 1042. 2Ralph R. Canter, ”Intelligence and the Social Status of Occupations, " Personnel grid Guidance Journal, Vol. 34 (January, 1956), pp. 258-2600 3Paul F. Secord, William Bevan, Jr., and W. F. Dukes, ”Occupational and Physiognomic Stereotypes in the Perception of Photo- graphs, ” The Journa1_o_f Social Psychology, Vol. 37 (May, 1953), pp. 261-70. 15 different combinations for various groups of subjects were used. While photographs reflected a priority over occupational titles as determinants of perception, substantial evidence of the existence of occupational stereotypes was obtained when occupations were presented without photographs to one control group. Willa Freeman Grunes conducted a study in 1954 utilizing several procedures to reveal what the high school student ”sees” when he looks at the world of occupations.1 A ”Grouping Test” was used which involved placement by students of fifty-one varied occupations into categories possessing ”like” characteristics, such as educational requirements, physical demands, monetary rewards, and social skills. As a further analysis respondents were stratified into three social classes. Conclusions indicated that little difference was perceived by students between skilled and unskilled manual work contrasted to great differences ”seen” between white collar and manual work. Definite class differences in perception were apparent. Respon- dents falling into the lowest-third social class saw little distinction between business and professional work, while the highest social group made the least distinction between various mechanical and manual jobs. The term ”engineer” was usually interpreted as a professional by the higher status group, but was regarded as a "skilled mechanic" by the lower status respondents. The average incomes for various occupations were poorly judged by all students. 1Willa Freeman Grunes, "On Perception of Occupations,” Personnel a_n_d Guidance Journal, Vol. 34 (January, 1956), pp. 276-79). 16 The relevancy of most of the literature cited above to the present investigation resides in the common assumption of the existence of images or stereotypes surrounding occupations. None of these studies have set themselves the task of examining in any great detail any one occupational image or group of occupational images. It is particularly evident that none of them focussed attention on the related life styles of given occupations as perceived by others, which is the primary emphasis of this investigation. There is need, then, for comprehensive studies which would provide more detailed images of common occupations. Metho- dologically, ways of acquiring these l'public views" of jobs need to be developed. And certainly the relevance of social and economic characteristics of the "perceivers" to the occupational images they hold need to be examined in the search for meaningful relationships. Hypothe s e s The first purpose of this study is to determine: (1) what the public images of selected occupations and related life styles are, (2) if the occupational projections can be explicitly stated, (3) if they are realistic, and (4) if a questionnaire is a feasible method for acquiring detailed occupational imagery. A second purpose is the testing of several hypotheses concerning occupational imagery held by students with different social backgrounds. 17 The data of this investigation should have especial relevance for the purpose of examining theory dealing with the influence of reference group membership functioning to affect the perception of occupations. Because various aspects of the respondents‘ backgrounds as age, sex, size of community might be regarded as reference - group categories or frames of reference serving as perceptual con- texts, the following hypotheses are presented: A. Occupational images will differ in regard to selected status indicators as sex, age, and size of community of those viewing specific occupations. Many studies have shown that males view various features of our culture differently from females. It has been pointed out that girls have different views of the "brilliant" student than do boys; that girls have different values when measured by the Allport-Vernon Scale of Values;3 that women view membership in organizations differently from males. 4 It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that females will view occupational life styles differently from males. 1Current theory recognizes that membership may be "actual" or "aspired, " composed of groups based on interaction, or merely membership consisting of the same "statuses" or "social categories. " See Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, Revised edition (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957), Chapters 8 and 9. 2James S. Coleman, "The Adolescent Subculture and Academic Achievement, " American Journalg Sociology, Vol. LXV, .No. 4(January, 1960), pp. 337-47. 3George W. Hartman, ”Sex Differences in Valuational Attitudes, " Journal giSocial Psychology, Vol. 5, 1934, pp. 106-12. 4John S. Scott, "Membership and Participation in Voluntary Associations, "AmericanSociological Review, Vol. 22, No. 3 (June, 1957). 18 Age has also proved to be a discriminatory factor. Talcott Parson states that although "age lines are not rigidly specific, but approximate; this does not, however, necessarily lessen their structural significance. " In respect to size of community studies have shown that those from an urban environment often hold views different from those of a more rural environment. Conceptions of social class were found to vary with size of home community. 3 Slocum also emphasized the effects of different homes, particular school systems, and community size in influencing occupational decision making. B. The principle of status congruity will be found operating between respondents and perceived images. In other words more realistic images are expected to be held by students whosefather's occupations more closely approximate the occupation in question or the occupational class into which it falls. In that higher status groups could better distinguish be- tween business and professional work and lower status groups could 1See C. Robert Pace, Thej Went t2 College (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1941), p. 141 and Samuel A. Stouffer et a1. , Measurement and Prediction (Princeton: Princeton Universit—y_P—ress, 1950), pp. 617-18. 2Talcott Parsons, Essays _12 Sociological Theory Pure and Applied (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1949), p. 218. 3Thomas Lasswell, "Social Class and Size of Community, " American Journal o_fSociology, Vol. LXIV, No. 5 (March, 1959), pp. 505-08. W. L. Slocum, "Occupational and Educational Plans of High School Seniors from Farm and Nonfarm Homes, " Pullman, Washington, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 564, February, 1956, p. 56. 19 better distinguish between various manual occupations, it is reasonable to hypothesize that those students whose fathers are white collar workers are expected to be more accurate in their image of Bookkeeper than in their image of Carpenter or Assembly Worker. Accuracy of income, number of years of schooling, etc. , will be checked against census data. C. Occupational images will differ in regard to occupational aspirations of the student. Several studies have shown differences in personality characteristics and attitudes of students with different . . . . Z . spec1alization interests. Thus, it can be expected that students majoring in business will see life styles of the Salesman and Sales Manager differently from majors in education or engineering. D. Images of the prestige or status of a particular occupation will vary in relation to the mobility of the student perceiver. As pointed out above, Grunes3 found that students whose fathers were from different occupations perceived such occupations as business- men, engineers, and skilled manual workers in very different lights. Students from the manual working group were found to have different values and attitudes toward fraternity pledging than did students 1 Grunes, 2.13: c_i_t., p. 278. 2See Donald E. Super, The Psychology of Caree’rs (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), pp. 231-41 and—C. Robert Pace, They Went t_o College (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1941), pp. 8-13. Grunes, loc . cit. 20 . . 1 . whose fathers were in the white collar group. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that they view specific occupations differently. For example, college students whose fathers are skilled or semi-skilled will be considered upwardly mobile; they are expected to have different images of the Sales Manager or Doctor than are students whose fathers belong to the white collar groups. 1G. N. Levine and L. A. Sussmann, "Social Class and Sociability in Fraternity Pledging, " American Journal of _Sociology, Vol. LXV, No. 4 (January, 1960), pp. 391- 99. 21 CHAPTER II PROCEDURE . This research was undertaken to investigate occupational images of seven occupations chosen to provide a range from pro- fessional to unskilled worker, and to represent relatively familiar jobs in the occupational structure. The occupations selected were: Assembly Worker, Bookkeeper, Carpenter, Doctor, Salesman, Sales Manager, and Teacher. It was decided that a group administered questionnaire would be the best means of obtaining data incorporating the various facets of an occupational image- The development of the questionnaire, the sample selected, the measurement of four aspects of the occupa- tional image, the statistical techniques used, and the methodological contributions of the study are described below. Instrument Development and Sample Characteristics In the winter of 1955 this writer designed a pre-test questionnaire to explore some of the ramifications of occupational image. The areas of inquiry included: income, style of life, reading and leisure habits, buying and saving habits, organizational member- ship, political allegiance, 1ife chances and mobility patterns, and children's occupational aspirations. Condensed into four factors 1 these became the dependent variables of the study. Instructions on 1See page 24. 22 each questionnaire included the job title of the occupation dealt with plus a brief description delimiting each job-role. In order to eliminate obtaining responses that might pertain to other than the "stable work 1 period, " cues were included in the description, such as age or length of time on job, to place each worker. For example, the introduction to the questionnaire concerned with Assembly Worker was as follows: People often select an occupation not only on the basis of what they will do on a particular job, but also on the basis of what kind of life-~home, family, community life, this occupation offers them. We would like to know what kinds of ideas people have of the way of life of different workers. YOU are asked to give your impressions of the way of life of an Assembly Worker. This worker is a machine operator at Oldsmobile automobile manufacturing plant in Lansing--a city of about 100, 000 population, His job is classified as a semi-skilled job. He has been working for 20 years, and has been at Olds for two years. We are not interested in any one specific Assembly Worker, but Assembly Workers in general who fit this description. Try to answer all of the questions! The pre-test questionnaire was administered to approximately 150 college freshmen and sophomores enrolled in social science courses at Michigan State University. After an analysis of the pre-test, the 1Opposed to the "entry" occupational period. Miller and Form classify the various phases of the typical job career into Initial, Trial, Stable, and Retired Work Periods. See Delbert C. Miller and William H. Form, Industrial Sociology (New York: Harper 8: Brothers, 1951). . . 23 following revisions were made: (1) ten items that were not meaningful were eliminated; (2) some questions were reworded for clarity; (3) five check-lists were simplified; (4) using pre-test responses, eight open-end questions were made into check-lists; (5) six new questions were added; (6) the order of questions was changed to present a more logical grouping into like areas of thought; (7) several introductory statements were improved. In general, the revised questionnaire was both shorter and easier to answer. (See Appendix D. ) After a second pre-test, the final instrument was adminis- tered to 1, 045 freshmen and sophomores at lviichigan State University enrolled in Basic Social Science during the 1955 spring term. The social characteristics of the respondents for this investigation were originally secured in the fall of 1954 as a part of the Basic College Social Science Evaluation Study designed and conducted by Dean E. Carlin and members of the Office of Evaluation Services. Unpublished reports of this latter study have been made by professors Sigmund Nosow and Albert E. Levak of the Department of Social Science, Michigan State University. 1 Each of the 1, 045 respondents filled in one of seven randomly distributed questionnaires representing occupational projections of the Assembly Worker, Bookkeeper, Carpenter, Doctor, Salesman, 1 . See mimeographed publication by Albert E. Levak, "Basic College Social Science: The Final Report of a Department Study, " Michigan State University, August, 1957. ' 24 Sales Manager, or Teacher. The questionnaires were administered during regular classroom periods and in all cases were completed and collected within the hour. Pre-test experience had demonstrated that these college students were well able to react to a more sophis- ticated question-schedule and with minimal directions than would normally be expected of other types of respondents. The occupational images of college students are con- sidered as valid data for a study of this type because college students come from differing backgrounds and experience and possess a wide variety of social characteristics. This is even more true of students attending alstate university than those attending other institutions of higher learning. (See Appendix C for a comparison of occupations of respondents' fathers with national occupational structure.) Secondly, as indicated by increasing enrollments, college students will con- stitute an increasing proportion of the labor market. Measurement of Variables The Dependent Variable: Occupational Image Occupational image as used in this study encompasses many aspects of the behavioral patterns of persons in each of seven selected occupations. This author is concerned with other than on-the- job functions or specific job activities of the worker, for it is generally recognized that these are far less significant in distinguishing one job from another in societ‘y-at-large than are a complex of other job- 25 related patterns considered here. The eyes of the neighborhood or community are not present when the worker performs his skills on the assembly line, but they are more apt to be aware of the kind of car he drives and where he buys his groceries. The images of these seven occupations were derived from students' knowledge about and attitudes toward the following important dimensions: 1. Work Related Patterns Father's occupation Education Age started work Present and possible maximum income Hours of working day Length of vacation Age of retirement Worries on the job Degree of happiness in work Likelihood of changing work 11. Family and Home Patterns Marital status Number of children Whether or not wife works Type of work wife does if employed Children's probable education Children's occupational aspirations Attitudes concerning child-rearing Kind and cost of home Worries at home III. ansumption Patterns Likelihood of savings and life insurance Home furnishings and appliances Number of books and number of magazines Kind of magazines in home Type and amount of clothing owned Place where food and clothes are purchased 26 IV. Social and Activity Patterns Political party membership Church membership Number and spatial distance of friends Organizational membership Number of movies, concerts, and plays attended Amount of television observed Leisure and vacation activities 1 Independent Variables The following variables were expected to account for major variations in the images held by the respondents: I. The Occupation of Respondent's Father. The occupation of the father was one of the most important variables treated in this study because (1) it is of prime importance in moulding occupational notions affecting the child's perceptions, and (2) it is aiuseful index of socio- economic status. II. Occupational Aspirations. Information concerning occupational aspirations of respondents was available from data concerning the students' major and/ or minor. It was assumed that these college students had goals directed toward professional, business, technical, managerial, or other high status occupations. These categories per- mitted comparisons to be made between such orientations as business versus liberal arts, engineering versus education, and so forth. III. Sex. While occupational roles are more often filled by males in See Appendix B for relationship between independent variables. ‘ 27 our society, females are aware of the "style of life" an occupation affords, either directly, through their own occupational experiences, or indirectly, through the choice of a marriage partner. Male and female roles in our society reflect many institutionalized variations. Not the least of these might be different views of occupations. On the other hand, many traditional role dimensions are in the process of change. What has happened to people's perceptions of occupational roles and their social concomitants '2 IV. Agg. Though age variations among college students are narrow in range, one still might expect the younger student to reflect different ideas and attitudes toward occupations than the older student. What influence has previous work experience of the older student on occu- pational images ? It is highly likely that the older college student possesses more work experience than does the younger student who. pursues his college career without interruption immediately after high school. V. Size of Community. A familiarity factor or access-to-knowledge factor may emerge as a dimension relating community-size to occupational image since all occupations arenot represented in the economic structure of the smaller community. Because college students, especially in a state university come from communities of all sizes, this becomes a meaningful variable. It might be expected that industrial and highly urban occupations will be perceived differently. VI. Use of Mass Media. One measure of the impact of mass media 28 on the individual might be his newspaper reading habits. This, further, might be regarded as a general source of social images and stereotypes. Distinctions were sought between those students who read a news- paper every day and those who read one less often. VII. Scholastic Aptitude. Of the many available single indices of learning ability, past academic achievement is one of the more reliable. Relative class standing in high school, although gross in character, is a meaningful variable. It was expected that perception of all aspects of one's total environment is positively related to the degree of learning astuteness present on the part of the individual. Relative class standing in high school, then, was thought to be expressive of a potential for viewing occupations realistically. As a means of efficiently handling the data, a code was developed for both the dependent and independent variables and repro- duced on IBM punch cards. Responses to write-in questions such as worries on the job, leisure activities, types of organizational member- ship, kinds of magazines projected were all carefully catagorized and coded. The minimal frequency of no response items, plus the abundance of responses supplied for write-in questions, attests to the apparent ease with which this sample made projections, and may be regarded further as a relative index of the validity of the instrument. . These two features may be examined in Appendix A. 29 Statistical Techniques Among the purposes of this study is the acceptance or rejection of certain hypothesized relationships between the independent variables and occupational image. In order to determine whether or not an observed relationship could have occurred through chance factors alone, the chi-square test of significance was employed. Because many of the variables are noncontinuous or contain units of unequal size, the chi-square test is considered an appropriate technique. In this study a probability of . 05 or less will be considered a significant relationship or will be regarded as one that is not likely to have occurred by chance. A probability of . 1,0 to .° 05 will be con- sidered indicative of a relationship that tends toward significance. A probability of . 90 or above will be accepted as a relationship involving remarkably similariimages. Because the expected cell frequencies were less than 200, they were corrected for continuity by applying a correction recommended by George W. Snedecor. 2 This correction consists of a reduction by one-half unit every deviation of an observed from an expected cell frequency. in any chi-square test where there is only one degree of freedom. 1Margaret J. Hagood and Daniel 0. Price, Statistics for Sociologi_sts (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952), pp. 362- 70. 2George W. Snedecor, Statistical Methods: Applied t2 Experiments i_n_ Agriculture_ and Biology (Ames: Iowa State College Press, 1946), p.p 22 and 193_. . 1 30 In that some four hundred chi-square tests were to be performed for each of the seven independent variables, necessitating nearly 3, 000 computations, data were punched both on IBM cards and eventually on tape for processing through Michigan State University's electronic computer, MISTIC. Although MISTIC performed the actual computations in approximately two hours, several months were necessary for data and tape preparation. The computer laboratory library tape designated as K6-M was used for all tables except those with one degree of freedom. For these latter tables, the writer was instrumental in programming a modified chi-square tape routine with the recommended correction figure included. Methodological Contribution of Study This approach toward establishing the images of seven selected occupations might be viewed as a phenomenological approach which will yield a descriptive analysis of how "others" view persons fulfilling recognized occupational roles in our society. The implicit assumption underlying this approach is that all persons possess or support ideas, fragmentary or extensive, correct or inaccurate, based on personal or vicarious experiences, about workers in all 1MacLeod defines the phenomenological method as ". . . the attempt to view phenomena in their entirety, to distinguish the essential from the non-essential, to let the phenomena themselves dictate the conceptual framework and the further course of inquiry. " Robert B. MacLeod, ,"The Phenomenological Approach to Social Psychology," Psychological Review, Vol. 54, 1947, pp. 207- 08. 31 kinds of jobs. To obtain and classify some of these views and to relate them to those significant social factors which characterize the sample are the main objectives of this investigation. Of the several possible methods of acquiring data in the area of occupational perceptions, the questionnaire method was selected on an exploratory basis. Since the pre-test established that respondents, specifically the college student sample, seemed to possess highly detailed notions about specific occupations, and in addition were able to project them in the form of replies, this method was pursued as a basis for this study. Methodologically, this investigation, then, should represent a contribution in terms of demonstrating the nature of data that can be secured in this particular area for special con- sideration and evaluation in future research. In the past decade or two considerable attention has been devoted by social scientists toward the examination of attitudes, prejudices, and stereotypes concerning racial, ethnic, religious, and political perceptions of people. In fact, recognizing that these social perceptions form the basis of resulting and sometimes discriminatory behavior, investigative inquiries dealt not only with methods of establishing what these social attitudes are, but how and with what methods they might be changed. Similarly, in recent years members of some occupational or professional associations (insurance salesmen, morticians, policemen, em.) have begun to be concerned about modifying attitudes 32 of people toward themselves and their work and have utilized public- relations media in an effort to effect changes. This is evidence that these groups feel that they are being "viewed" in uncomplimentary or discriminatory ways, or at least indicates that they feel these public images are important. Here, seemingly, is support for the "reality" of occupational perceptions, yet is interesting that with the exception of several occupational "self-image” studies, plus the traditional "ranking" studies, the images of people toward other peoples' work still remain to be explored on an empirical basis. This exploratory study, then, has attempted to place subjective ideas concerning the life styles of certain occupations in an empirical framework for types of analyses that have not as yet been performed in the area of occupational sociology. These data have permitted occupational life style profiles to be drawn in a way that should have meaning as significant phenomena pertaining to the social behavior of human beings in a society highly structured by the specializations of work and its accompanying institutions. 33 INTRODUCTION TO IMAGES OF SEVEN OCCUPATIONS Material presented in Chapters 111 through IX pertain to the perceptions students held for each of seven occupations. These are presented as two categories of data. I. Descriptions of the general images for each occupation. II. Summaries of significantly different relationships between background characteristics of the informants and the images they held. The general image descriptions revolve around four cate- gories of responses about occupations. These are their: A. Job Related Characteristics; B. Family and Home Patterns; C. Con- sumption Patterns; and D. Social and Activity Patterns. With respect to general images for each occupation several attributes were so nearly unaminously ascribed that they were some- times omitted from the description. These items included owner- ship of television sets and garages. Home ownership was also a high expectancy for all occupations. Similarly, practically no job occupant was thought to be unmarried.1 Supplementary material on the (seven occupational groups is compiled in the Appendix. 1In 1955 approximately thirty percent of the population of marriageable age were not married. Donald J. Bogue, The Population pithg United States,‘ "Marriage and Marital Status, " Chapter 10, p. 221. (This reinforces one typical American stereotype.) 2 See Appendix A, "Medians and Percentage Distributions of Projections for All Occupations. " 34 With respect to significant relationships found for the seven independent variables (age, sex, academic standing, college major, occupation of father, size of community, and newspaper readership), tables presenting percentage differences and chi-square probabilities for those relationships, significant at the . 05 level and less, accompany the summarizing statements. In addition signifi- cant associations are summarized in a single table for each occupation. The occupations are presented in the following chapter order: Assembly Worker, Carpenter, Bookkeeper, Salesman, Sales Manager, Teacher, and Doctor. This order places the blue collar occupations contiguously, and similarly, the arrangement of the lower white collar and professional occupations provides for easy comparison. Two problems involved in presenting the data of this study deserve mention. The first has to do with the immensity of the material that was collected and analyzed. In order to limit the report to a reasonable length, most of the data dealing with children of workers was omitted. This was roughly the equivalent of the last two pages of the questionnaire. The second problem relates to validating specific perceptions of the respondents to pertinent studies in sociological literature. As an example of the latter, ideally, the expected voting behaviorfor each of the ‘seven occupational groups .might be examined in detail and compared with findings among the vast amount of litera- ture available on the subject. However, since impressions pertaining 35 to occupational life styles embrace so many aspects of behavior, exhaustive surveys of published literature would be beyond the scope of this investigation. Coupled to this, recognition must be given to the fact that comparable occupational imagery data are not available at all, and often, only tangentially relevant references to other studies can be made. 1Thorndike and Hagen's study falls into this category. This extraordinary follow-up study of 17, 000 Aviation Cadet examinees not only provides a variety of test score data but also biographical material on 10, 000 persons presently engaged in over 100 occupations. While aviation cadet aspirants constitute a selective sample, the occupationally classified findings are particularly pertinent. See Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1959), 346 pp. 36 CHAPTER III I. IMAGE OF THE ASSEMBLY WORKER Four-fifths of the workers employed in the manufacturing of automobiles in the United States are concentrated in the Great Lakes region; one-half of the industry's employment rolls can be accounted for in the State of Michigan.1 In many respects the auto- mobile industry can be characterized as representing the epitome of mass productive techniques. Mass production of standardized parts, minute division of labor, and highly synchronized assembly line manufacturing methods enable completed automobiles to be turned out at the rate of one per minute during periods of full production. While the industry provides employment for workers at all levels ranging from professional to unskilled laborers, the largest number of employees are found in factory occupations. Among factory workers, those who fill "assembling" jobs make up the largest occupational group, constituting about fifteen percent of all automobile workers. Whether employed on sub-assemblies or larger assembly lines, these workers perform tasks which require little skill but rather 1Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Hand- book, 1957 Edition, Bulletin No. 1215 (Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office), pp. 420-431. ‘ 2 . Ibid., p. 426. 37 highly timed, repetitive movements. In the whole work organization of the Western world, these indeed are the workers who come closest to the literary portrayal of the "robots" ritualistically tightening nuts and bolts beside the endless conveyor belt. Perhaps the vividness of this stereotyped work role has created a rather anonymous halo effect regarding other aspects of this worker's behavior as might be judged from one writer's observations. In essence, this study was initiated to delineate a more precise image of the Assembly Worker. The following impressions of the way of life of a semi-skilled operative, hypothetically employed at Oldsmobile automobile manufacturing plant in Lansing, Michigan were obtained from 146 college students. A. Job Related Characteristics The median annual wage assigned the Assembly Worker was $4, 572. 00. This compensation was the result of working slightly over eight hours per day; 8. 6 hours. Only one-third of the respondents thought the Assembly Worker would earn more than $5, 000. 00 a year. The quartile range for income ascriptions was $1, 583. 60. For comparative purposes it may be noted that the United States census for 1950 reported an. annual median wage of $3, 063. 00 1Theodore Caplow speaking of the absence of any coherent image of the American working man says further, "It is rather curious, given the tendency in the United States to exaggerate spurious ethnic and class characteristics, that the industrial worker is less clearly stereotyped than almost any other occupational group. " Theodore Caplow, The Sociology o_f Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954), p. 136. ' 38 for semi-skilled automotive workers. 1 This figure, however, included approximately fifty-three percent who did not work a full fifty weeks during the year. Miller, adjusting for this factor, provides a median income figure of $3, 272. 00 for motor vehicle operatives. 2 Respondents' estimate becomes increasingly less discrepant if regional wage variations are taken into account and 1955 income data are utilized. Assuming full employment for the peak automotive production year 1955, State of Michigan income data would yield a figure of $4, 600.00 for automotive production workers, which in turn reflects another accurate projection for this group of respondents. The Assembly Worker was viewed by students as a person who begins this type of job when he is about age twenty and continues in it until he is slightly over sixty-five years of age. Moreover, his annual income is expected to increase, for the median income assigned the year before retirement was $5, 132. 00. Almost three-quarters of the respondents felt this worker would have two weeks vacation each year. 1Donald J. Bogue, The Population of the United States, "Income Distribution of the Experienced Labor Force, by Occupation and Sex, for the United States, 1950, " Table 17- A- 3 (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), p. 546. zHerman P. Miller, Income _o_f_ th_e American People (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1955), Appendix C, Table C-2, p. 178. 3Nationally, hours and gross earnings of nonsupervisory automotive production workers for April, 1955 is reported as 43. 5 hours weekly and $97. 88 weekly. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, December, 1955, Vol. 78, No. 12, p. 1531. State of Mich- igan figures for April, 1955 show an hourly wage of $2.30, 44.1 hours weekly, and a weekly wage of $101.52. Michigan Employment Security Commission, Michigan's Labor Market, July, 1955, Vol.10, No. 7. 1 39 The Assembly Worker was seen as a person whose father was also a manual worker, since three-quarters said that his father's occupation would be semi-skilled. Only two percent thought fathers would be white collar workers holding clerical, managerial, or pro- fessional jobs. The median years of schooling completed by the Assembly Worker was judged to be approximately eleven grades (11. 4). Census reports for 1950 indicate that this is an overestimate by about two years, for median education, nationally, for automotive operatives was 9. 4 years. 1 Only three percent of the respondents said he com- pleted more than high school. Assembly Workers were viewed as highly stationary both in terms of geographic and occupational mobility. Two-thirds of the respondents felt that he is likely to have been born in the com- munity in which he now works and one-quarter thought he was born in Michigan. Only one-tenth envisioned him as migrating from another state or region. 2 Further, almost nine-tenths felt he would spend the remainder of his working days in the community in which he now works. Despite the fact that he was considered to be only "fairly happy" with his work by three-fourths of the informants, the same proportion felt it "not likely” that he would go into another type of 1Bogue, gp. gi_t., Table 17-A-4, p. 561. This would be an underestimate for Detroit workers and probably low for Lansing also. 40 work. More than three-fourths thought he would prefer other work to his own. In response to the question "What are the things the Assembly Worker worries most about on the job ?", 144 respondents supplied a total of 246 worries. Almost half mentioned worries con- cerning job security, lay-offs, and strikes. One-third mentioned monetary worries concerning living expenses and finances. Other worries mentioned related to children, wife, and health.) Fewer then one percent suggested worries pertaining to craftsmanship on the job. B. Family and Home Patterns According to all respondents the typical Assembly Worker is a married man who has four children. Half of the respondents felt. that his wife is "quite likely" to be working outside the home for pay and that she occupies a lower white collar job. The other half thought she would be a factory worker, domestic worker, or a waitress. I Only about one percent of the respondents felt that the Assembly Worker's wife would have outside "help" with her housework apart from baby sitting. Regarding child rearing, about one-half felt that the parents would be "strict" and one-half felt they would be on the Among others Guest has found that automobile workers tend to be dissatisfied with their work. Robert H. Guest, "Work Careers and Aspirations of Automobile Workers, " American Socio- l_ogical Review, Vol. 19, No. 2 (April, 1954), pp. 155-63. 41 "lenient" side. Four-fifths of the students felt that the Assembly Worker is a home owner; the remainder felt he "rented" his home. Home ownership, in this instance, is probably an overestimate based on the National Housing Survey of the United States Bureau of Census which reported that forty percent of all householders were renters in 1956. The home of the Assembly Worker is most apt to have two or three bedrooms. Nine-tenths thought he would have a garage and a dining room. More elaborate features, such as fireplaces, were projected by one-fifth of the respondents, and a recreation room or two bathrooms by one-tenth. The median value ascribed to the Assembly Worker's home was $11, 416. 00. Concerning matters "worried about at home, " two-thirds of the respondents mentioned bills, taxes, and expenses. A definite economic theme dominated worries suggested for this worker. About one-third felt he would worry about the happiness and welfare of his wife and children. Although slightly more than half of the respondents felt certain that the male children of the Assembly Worker would attend college, fewer than one-fifth indicated the likelihood that they would pursue professional, managerial, or business jobs. . Approximately one-fifth indicated lower white collar, clerical, and sales jobs for male children of the Assembly Worker, while skilled or unskilled 1Bogue, 22. c_i_t. , "Housing and Population, " Chapter 24, p. 717. . 42 manual occupations were indicated by eighty-five percent of the respondents. For this multiple possibility check-list of occupations, one-fifth marked the alternative "any of the above occupations, " a greater proportion than for any other job studied. C. Consumption Patterns Concerning food, two items were indicative of a kind of projected economic practice for the Assembly Worker when nearly two-thirds of the respondents believed that this family maintained a summer vegetable garden,1 and when an even greater percentage felt this family preserved food for later use. This is probably an overestimate. - About ninety percent believed that the Assembly Worker purchased groceries at supermarkets. None believed he ordered groceries by phone. With respect to where family clothing is purchased, one- third mentioned economy chains such as Penney's and Sears. Next in frequency were main department stores in-town, and third mentioned were mail-order catalogs. Fewer than five percent indicated specialty shops and out-of-town department stores. The Assembly Worker was Somewhat suitable for comparison with Assembly Worker images are data from a North Lansing Fringe study, inasmuch as 72% of the sample was made up of skilled or semi-skilled workers. Space for "gardening" was considered to be the chief advantage for living in fringe by one-fourth of the respondents. Fewer than one-fifth did most Of their shopping in the neighborhood; these purchases were most often for groceries. J.- Allen Beegle and Widick Schroeder, "Social Organi- zation in the North Lansing Fringe, " Technical Bulletin No. 251, Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, September, 1955, 27 pp. 43 assigned a median of 2. 6 dress suits and five pairs of overalls; these may well be overestimates. Practically none of the respondents felt that this worker would own a tuxedo, whereas two-fifths believed his wife owned a formal evening dress. Four-fifths of the informants thought this worker's family would own a phonograph; over one-half an automatic washing machine; and one-third projected a home freezer. Very few informants assigned an air conditioner, a Hi Fi Set, or a dishwasher. The median number of magazines expected to be found in the home of the Assembly Worker amounted to 3. 8. Approximately two-thirds named pictorial-type magazines as Life, Look, See; one- half named popular general weeklies of the combined fiction-feature type as Collier's and SaturdayEvening Post; one-fourth listed pulp- type publications as radio and movie magazines,’ "true" story, and detective magazines; and one-fourth mentioned popular women's monthlies as McCall's and Ladies' Home Journal. One-third of the respondents named hobby magazines as Popular Mechanics, sports magazines, and hunting and fishing magazines. This again is probably . . . 1 . an overestimate of magaZines taken and readings. Median number of books ascribed to this worker's home numbered 17. 8. 1For a rank order comparison of magazine types for both urban and rural groups see C. P. Loomis and J. A. Beegle, Rural S_ocia1 Systems (New York: PrentiCe-Hall, Inc. , 1950), Table 42, p. 538. Digest magazines ranked higher for the groups reported in these studies. 44 The Assembly Worker's family was thought to own one automobile. Seven-tenths of the respondents named a "make" classi- fied in the low-priced three. About one-half visualized this worker's car to be three years old or older, and two-fifths projected a one or two year old model. Does the Assembly Worker save any money from his income? Nine-tenths believe he does. The largest proportion felt this saving is in the form of savings accounts. One-fourth believed he had insurance savings, and one-tenth indicated stocks or bonds, inclusive of government bonds. » Almost all informants said the As- sembly Worker carried some life insurance; the median figure amounted to $8, 260. 50. D. Social and Activity Patterns Over three-fourths of the informants thought the Assembly 1 Worker was a Democrat. Fifteen percent felt that he did not usually 2 vote, the highest percentage for any occupation studied. Over four- This is consistent with findings in other studies. Seventy- seven percent of the operatives, service workers, and laborers in the Detroit Area Study expressed Democratic political preference. Blue collar factory workers born in the northern U. S. and Catholic, as well as blue collar factory workers born in the southern U. S. and Protestant, represent two population types overwhelmingly Democratic. University of Michigan, "A Social Profile of Detroit, 1956, " Report of the Detroit Area Study, November, 1957, p. 66. See also Oscar Glantz, "Class Consciousness and Political Solidarity, " American Sociological Review, Vol. 23, No. 4 (August, 1958), pp. 375-83. ZDeutsch points out that census tract areas of low economic status in Lansing, Michigan were areas of "low" percentage voting. S. E. Deutsch, "A Community Study of Status Consistency and Voting Be- havior,"(unpublished M. A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1959), p. 54. 45 fifths felt he was a church member. One-half felt he would be a Protestant, about one-third a Catholic, and the remainder gave no definite assignments. When asked to name organizational memberships of the Assembly Worker an average of about two organizations were named. Over two-thirds mentioned a labor union, one-third mentioned church groups, a fifth listed special interest groups as gun club or hot-rod groups, one-tenth mentioned veterans' organizations and the Parent Teachers Association. In response to the question, "What are his favorite forms of relaxation ?", almost half mentioned fishing, watching television, or listening to_the radio. Another one-fourth specified hunting, golf, card playing, and movies. The median number of movies the Assembly Worker attended per month according to these respondents was 2. 7; median television hours per day equalled 3. 5. On the other hand, fifty-four percent of the respondents felt that this worker and his wife attended no plays or concerts during the past year. Responses to a check-list dealing with how the Assembly Worker spends his vacation revealed that over one-half felt he stayed 1Data from a North Lansing Fringe study indicate that one-third belonged to no voluntary organization; nearly one-half belonged to only one organization, the labor union most often. Hunting and fishing were most often indicated as leisure activities. Beegle and Schroeder, pp. 313., pp. 26-27. 46 at home and about one-half indicated that he vacationed at a cottage. One-third checked camping and a fifth indicated touring or sightseeing. Finally, approximately two-thirds of the responding group indicated that these parents would be close friends of one to four other families living predominantly in their same neighborhood. Summary Ranking low in status position, in aspirations, life chances, and social achievement, the Assembly Worker is perceived as an "under dog" in the occupational hierarchy, even though he does not fare badly in terms of the material ascriptions made him. The facets of the student image that particularly appear to coincide with the actual characteristics of this manual worker are income estimates, large family size, monetary worries, attitude toward job, chain store buying, leisure interests, Democratic political preference, and limited mo- bility. Evidence somewhat indicates that these informants tend to - overestimate his education, home ownership, magazine readership, and likelihood of sending sons to college. Though an atypical group of Production Assemblers, Thorndike and Hagen's follow-up study makes this summarizing statement about their biographical background, "The general im- pression conveyed. . . was one of meagerness--meagerness of educational background, meagerness of cultural resources, meager- ness of participation in cultural activities, and meagerness in variety and range of hobby or work experiences. " Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc., 1959), p. 305. 47 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR ASSEMBLY WORKER When variations in responses were analyzed by background characteristics of students, sex of informant was the most discrimina- ting variable for Assembly Worker data; one-fifth of the tests per- formed in relation to sex of informant were significant at the . 05 level. Size of community and newspaper readership were next in importance; age and academic standing were the least discriminating. (See Table 1. 0.) It is also apparent that there were more significant relationships for family patterns than any of the other three categories. A. Job Related Characteristics Of the one hundred and five tests performed for Job Related Characteristics of the Assembly Worker, eight were significant at the . 05 level and less. Females projected more generous vacation periods and greater likelihood of residence in the same community for the Assembly’Worker's parents.1 Tables 1. 3 and 1. 4 show that respondents from smaller communities ascribed higher incomes and shorter vacations to the Assembly Worker than respondents from larger communities. 2 Other significant relationships for the category Job Related Characteristics were that those with high academic standing assigned less vacation time than those with low academic 1See Tables 1.1 and 1. 2. This is in keeping with the expectation of more realistic patterns to be projected by urban informants, Hypothesis A. 48 standing (Table 1. 5); younger respondents expected the Assembly Worker to earn more money than older respondents (Table 1. 6); those who read newspapers more frequently expected him to earn more money before retirement than did less frequent readers (Table l. 7); and white collar informants were more inclined to limit the working day to eight hours than were blue collar informants. B. Family and Home Patterns There were more significant differences in relation to Family and Home patterns of the Assembly Worker than for any of the other three categories considered. Sex differences are shown in Tables 1. 9, 1.10, and 1.12. Although females visualized the wife of the Assembly Worker working outside the home less often than males, they projected office work for this working wife more often than did males. Females also projected that money and children would constitute home worries for the Assembly Worker with greater frequency. Other significant differences relating to Family and Home patterns were that business and education majors were least likely to project money worries at home for the Assembly Worker; that a greater proportion of daily newspaper readers believed that his male The 1955 automotive production record of over 7. 2. million cars is still unsurpassed. Fred Olmsted, Automotive Editor, The Detroit Free Press, January 15, 1960. Blue collar respondents in this instance seem to be more aware of heavy overtime schedules during the year this study was conducted. This is probably related to Hypo- thesis B, the principle of status congruity. ' 49 children would attend college; that informants with white collar fathers were more likely to assign white collar jobs to the wife of the Assembly Worker; and that respondents from urban communities were more likely to ascribe worries about children to the Assembly 1 Worker than those from smaller communities. C. Consumption Patterns Five significant differences were found with respect to Consumption Patterns. A greater number of females named Fords, Chevrolets, or Plymouths as the car owned by the Assembly Worker (Tables 1.17 and 1.18). Regular newspaper readers visualized a bank checking account and ownership of a greater number of suits than did less frequent readers. 2 On the other hand, blue collar informants projected more magazines for the Assembly Worker than informants from white collar families3 (Table 1.21). D. Social and Activity Patterns Seven significant differences appeared in relation to Social and Activity Patterns for the Assembly Worker. Four of these differences were related to sex of the informant; females were more likely to assign church groups and P. T. A. memberships than males, believed that the Assembly Worker would be more likely to spend 1See Tables 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, and 1.16. 2 See Tables 1.19 and 1. 20. 3This is compatible with Hypothesis D. 50 his vacation at home, and would have family friends living closer to home than that projected by males. Business majors were least likely to assign a vacation at home for the Assembly Worker, but thought he would view television more often than any other major. 2 Although the majority of informants believed the Assembly Worker to be a Democrat, those from urban communities were most likely to make this classification (Table 1. 28). To summarize, seven percent of all tests performed on the Assembly Worker were significant at the five percent level and less; twelve percent were significant at the . 10 level and less. There were more significant relationships for Family and Home Patterns for the Assembly Worker. Sex of informant was the most discriminating variable, size of community and newspaper readership were also above chance relationships (Table 1. O). Hypotheses A, C, and D were supported by analyses of Assembly Worker data. 1 See Tables 1.22, 1.24, and 1.25. 2 See Tables 1. 26, and 1. 27. 51 TABLE 1. 0--Summary of significant associations for Assembly Worker Percent of associations at the . 05 level or less Independent Totals variables Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N215) (N212) (N215) (N215) (N257) Age 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 Sex 13.3 33.3 13.3 26.7 21.1 Major 0. O 8. 3 0. 0 l3. 3 5. 3 Academic standing 6. 7 O. O O. O 0. 0 1. 8 Occupation of father 6. 7 8. 3 6. 7 0. 0 5. 3 Size of community 13. 3 8. 3 0. 0 6. 7 7. 0 Newspaper readership 6. 7 8. 3 l3. 3 O. 0 7. 0 Total 7. 6 9. 5 4. 8 6. 7 7.1 (N 2 399) 52 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR ASSEMBLY WORKER A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 1. l--Length of vacation by sex of informant Sex of informant 0 to 1 week 2 or more Totals weeks (70 N Female 36.0% 64. 0% 100 51 Male 15. 6 84. 4 100 95 2 (146) X 26.75 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 1. 2--Residence of parents by sex of informant Sex of informant Same town Elsewhere a/Total; 0 Female 72. 0% 28. 0% 100 50 Male 44. 8 55. 2 100 93 2 (143)l x 28.55 ld.f. p<.01 TABLE 1. 3--Amount of money earned last year by size of home community . . Totals Size of community 0 to $4, 999 $5, 000 or more ,7 N 0 Open country to 9, 999 33. 3% 66. 7% 100 54 10, 000 to 99, 999 64. 6 35. 4 100 48 100, 000 and over 69. 8 30. Z 100 43 2 (145)* x =15.76 2d.f. p<.001 >i‘One student not classifiable 1For this and following Assembly Worker tables discrepancies between total number of responses and 146 equal no response items. 53 TABLE 1. 4--Length of vacation by size of home community Size of community 0 to 1 week More than Totals 1 week % N Open country to 9, 999 31. 5% 68. 5% 100 54 10, 000 to 99, 999 25.0 75. 0 100 48 100, 000 and over 7. O 93.0 100 43 (145)»: 2 X =8.7l 2d.f. P<.02 *One student not classifiable. TABLE 1. 5--Length of vacation by academic standing L More than , Totals Academic standing 0 to 1 week 1 week - % N Upper one-third 28.2% 71. 8% 100 85 Lower two-thirds ll. 5 88. 5 100 61 2 (146) X 25.00 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 1. 6--Amount of money earned last year by age of informant Totals Age of informant 0 to $4, 999 $5, 000 or more % N 18 years and under 78. 9% 21.1% 100 58 19 years and older 100. 0 O. O 100 87 2 (145) X 217.71 ld.f. P<.001 TABLE 1. 7--Income received the year before retirement by newspaper readership . Totals Newspaper readership 0 to $5, 999 $6, 000 or more ,7 N 0 Read paper daily 70.7% 29. 3% 100 73 Read paper less often 85. 9 14. l 100 70 (143) X :4.10 ld.f. P<.05 54 TABLE 1. 8--Hours worked daily by occupation of informant's father , More than Totals Occupational class 1 to 8 hours 8 hours % N White collar 71. 8% 28.2% 100 85 Blue collar 15. 6 84.4 100 45 2 (mm X 235.04 ld.f. P<.001 *16 farm and nonclassifiable fathers. B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 1. 9--Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by sex ' of informant Sex of informant Not likely Quite likely Totals _ or never or steady % N Female 6 68.6% 31.4% 100 51 Male 40. 0 60. 0 100 94 Z (145) x =a94 ldf p<.m TABLE 1.lO--Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant Employed . Other Totals Sex of informant as clerk or E 1 t 7 N office worker mp oymen ' 0 Female 48. 0% 52. 0% 100 49 Male 20. 8 79. 2 100 93 (142) 2 X =10.38 ld.f. P<.01 55 TABLE 1. 11--Monetary worries at home by sex of informant Worry Do not worry Totals Sex of informant about money about money a] N at home at home 0 Female 65. 6% 34. 4% 100 50 Male 47. 7 52. 3 _ 100 94 (144) 2 x 24.86 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 1. 12--Concerns about children among worries at home by sex of informant S x f , f ant Worry about Do not worry Totals 8 O m ”m children ‘ about children % N Female 26. 4% 73. 6% 100 51 Male , 9.1 90. 9 100 95 (146) 2 x 26.84 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 1. l3--Monetary worries at (home by college major . Worry Do not worry Totals College major about money about money '70 N at home at home Engineering 47. 4% 52. 6% 100 16 Education 3. 8 96. 2 100 28 BuSiness 0. 0 100. 0 100 ' 27 Other 71. 9 28.1 100 73 i (144) 2 X =74.67 3d.f. P<.001 - ..~. -. I/ 56 TABLE 1. l4--Likelihood of male children going to college by newspaper readership News a er readershi Will not Will attend Totals p p p attend college college % N Read paper daily 28. 0% 72. 0% 100 74 Read paper less often 60.6 39. 4 100 71 (145) 2 x 214.41 ld.f. P<.001 TABLE 1. 15--Type of employment for working wives by occupation of informant's father Occu at'onal cla White collar Blue collar Totals p, 1 SS work work % N White collar 61. 7% 38. 3% 100 85 Blue collar 44. 4 55. 6 100 45 (130)* 2 . X 24.43 ld.f. P<.05 =.'=16 farm and nonclassifiable fathers. TABLE 1. 16--Concerns about children among worries at home by size of home community —¥ Size of communit Worry Do not worry Totals Y about children about children % N Open country to 9. 999 3. 7% 96.3% 100 54 10.000 to 99,999 25.0 75.0 100 48 100.000 and over 20. 9 79.1 ' 100 43 (145)* 2 X =9.81 2d.f. P<.01 :kOne student not classifiable. C. Consumption Patterns 57 TABLE 1. l7--Make of automobile owned by sex of informant Sex of informant Ford, Chevro— All other Totals let, Plymouth makes % N Female 84. 0% 16. 0% 100 50 Male 64. 6 35. 4 100 95 (145) 2 X 25.23 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 1. 18--Insurance savings assignments by sex of informant Have Do not have . . . Totals Sex of informant insurance insurance ,7 N savings savings 0 Female 10. 0% 90.0% 100 51 Male 31. 3 68.2 100 95 (146) 2 x 27.10 ld.f. P<.01 (TABLE 1. 19--Bank checking account assignments by newspaper X readership Have Do not have T t 1 Newspaper readership checking checking ,7 O a; - account account a Read paper daily 82. 7% 17. 3% 100 75 Read paper less often 60. 6 39. 4 , 100 71 (146) '2 7.76 ld.f. P<.01 58 TABLE 1. 20--Number of suits owned by newspaper readership Newspaper readership 0 to 2 suits 3 or more suits WTOtaI; 0 Read paper daily 62. 7% 37. 3% 100 75 Read paper less often 83.1 16.9 100 70 (145) 2 x =6.66 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 1. 21--Number of magazines in home by occupation of informant's father O . 0 to 4 5 or more Totals ccupational class , . . , magaZines magaZines % N White collar 84.7% 15. 3% 100 84 Blue collar 86. 7 ' 33. 3. ' 100 45 (12(9)’:< 3 . X 25.20 ld.f. P<.05 *16 farm and nonclassifiable fathers. D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 1. 22--Church group versus other organizational membership by sex of informant Special Other types Sex of informant church group 0f group WTOtaIISq membership membership 0 Female 1 50. 0% 50.0% 100 51 Male 27.1 72. 9 ‘ ‘ 100 95 (146) 2 X 26.72_ ld.f. P<.01 59 TABLE 1. 23--P. T. A. membership by sex of informant Sex of informant Belong to Do not belong ' Totals P.T.A. to P.T.A. % N Female 22. 0% 78. 0% 100 51 Male 6. 3 93. 7 100 95 (146) 2 X 26.51 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 1. 24--Type of vacation by sex of informant Sex of informant Stay at home Other a/Totalle 0 Female 72. 0% , 28. 0% 100 51 Male 42. 7 57. 3 I 100 95 (146) 2 X 210.36 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 1. 25--Place of residence of family friends by sex of informant Sex of informant Same town Elsewhere. a/Total; . . 0 Female 60. 8% 39.2% 100 . 50 Male 44.8 55.2 100 94 (144) 2 X 24.87 ld.f. P<.05 60 TABLE 1. 26--Type of vacation by college major College major Stay at home Other Totals '70 N Engineering 62. 5% 37. 5% 100 16 Education 63. 0 37. 0 100 28 Business 21. 4 78. 6 100 27 Other 58. 7 41. 3 100 75 2 (146) X 213.81 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 1. 27--Hours of television observed daily by college major . 3 or more Totals College major 0 to 2 hours hours % N Engineering 62. 5% 43. 8% 100 16 Education 33. 3 66.7 100 27 Business 17. 9 82.1 ‘ 100 27 Other 32.0 68. 0 100 73 (143) 2 X =9.25 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 1. 28--Politica1 allegiance by size of home community h . Democrat Totals 812 f 't R bl' e O communi y Cpll - man and other 070 N Open country to 9, 999 . 25. 9% 74.1% 100 50 10.000 to 99.999 12.5 87. 5 100 45 100,000 and over 7.0 93.0 100 40 (135W 2 X =7.04 2d.f. P<.05 *Of‘le student not classifiable. 61 CHAPTER IV I. IMAGE OF THE CARPENTER The heritage of this occupation extends back into Biblical times and before. Most often in legend and history it has been treated as a craft of honor and skill. Highly organized since medieval times, Carpenters have consciously perpetuated their area of workmanship and status by utilizing controls such as limited occupational entry, prolonged training periods, and mutual-aid plans. While the materials, methods, and tools ofthis manual trade have changed less than those for most occupations, there is evidence that during the last decade factors such as labor shortages1 resulting from residential building booms, increased industrial competition, professionalization and consequent increased stature for other kinds of work, are combining to affect some of the traditions surrounding the established work and social roles of the Carpenter in our society. Since the 1. 2 million Carpenters make up the largest single group of skilled workers in the country, accounting for about 2 two-fifths of all building trades craftsmen, the following perceptions lEmployed Carpenters increased from 550, 000 in 1940 '50 900, 000 in 1950, and to 1, 200, 000 in 1956. U. S. Department of LElbor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1957 edition, Bulletin No. 1215, Washington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, p. 234. 2 . Ibid., p. 235. 62 projected by 154 informants pertaining to the experienced I'finish" Carpenter should be of interest. A. Job Related Characteristics The median annual wage, based on a median of 8. 6 hours worked daily, assigned to the typical Carpenter by these respondents was $6, 309. 50; fewer than one-fifth believed his annual wage amounted to less than five thousand dollars. The quartile range for salary projections amounted to $2, 500. 00, reflecting a wider dispersion of wage ascriptions than for the Assembly Worker. 1950 census data for all workers fully employed fifty weeks or more as Carpenters show a median wage of $3, 563. 00. As of July, 1955 the national hourly union wage scale for this worker was $3. 01. 2 This latter figure is more in keeping with incomes pro- jected by respondents. The median pre-retirement income prescribed for this worker was $6, 696. 90; two-fifths of the respondents projected this future income to be seven thousand dollars or over. This worker was visualized as starting to work as a Carpenter at a median age of nineteen years; he is expected to retire at age sixty-five. He was assigned a median number of 2. 6 weeks vacation. K Herman P. Miller, Income 2f the American People (New YOI‘k: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1955), Appendix C, p. 178. 2Varying wage scales show $3. 10 for Detroit, Michigan; $2. 77 for Grand Rapids, Michigan. Bureau of Labor Statistics, ”Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Building Trades, " Bulletin NO- 1192, March, 1956, Chicago, Illinois. 63 With respect to the occupation of the Carpenter's father, over four-fifths of the informants indicated it would have been that of a skilled trade. Only one respondent projected a white collar occupation for this worker's father. A median figure of 12. 4 years of schooling was ascribed to this worker; approximately one-sixth of the informants felt he would receive more than a high school education. Census data per- taining to schooling received by all Carpenters yield a median figure of 8. 7 years;1 thus with the exception of Carpenters who entered the field through an apprenticeship training program, an overestimate of education seems somewhat apparent. Examination of responses to items pertaining to place of birth, where remainder of working days will be spent, and residence of parents suggest that this group of perceivers visualized a limited geographic mobility for this job occupant. Over three-fourths of the informants conceive him as having been born in the community in which he is now living; over one-half believe his parents reside in this same community; and ninety-three percent felt this worker is likely to spend the remainder of his working days here. Concerning job satisfaction and occupational mobility, a Similar picture is presented. Fewer than three percent of the respon- dents regarded it "very likely" or‘"likely" that this person would go \ 1 Donald J. Bogue, The Population o_f t_lrie United States (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), Table 17-A-4, p. 557. 64 into another type of work; fewer than one percent projected a strong preference for another type of work. Empathic projections concerning worries on the job for Carpenter find the element of "craftsmanship" as the most frequently mentioned concern. This is in great contrast to projections for this same item for Assembly Worker, the other manual worker considered. Following in percentage order on-the-job concerns for Carpenter were: job security, money, working conditions including weather, and family. Worries about "time" and work completion were suggested for this worker more frequently than for any of the other occupations studied. B. Family and Home Patterns The Carpenter is perceived as a father of four children. Four—fifths of the respondents do not consider his wife likely to be working outside the home for pay. Assuming she did, multiple responses when classified found white collar jobs named almost three times as often as blue collar jobs. Fewer than three percent of the respondents felt that she would have help with her housework. Most of the informants visualized these parents spending quite a bit of time with their children, and over half regarded them as being strict in regard to discipline of Children. Nearly all of the respondents view the Carpenter as owning his home; the median valuation amounting to $13, 525. 20. About two- fifths assigned home costs of fourteen thousand dollars or over. The 1aJority of the informants projected a three bedroom home for the u. -.. us... ‘- .q i. s... is \r- 65 Carpenter complete with dining room and garage. Slightly over one- fifth ascribed two bathrooms to this home, and slightly under one- fifth perceived it as containing a den or study. Concern with money was most frequently mentioned as a worry this worker is apt to have at home. Family problems including health and general welfare appeared next in frequency. Over four-fifths of all respondents regarded it likely that the male children of the Carpenter would attend college; however, in response to a check-list of occupations male children will follow, OVer fifty percent indicated "skilled trades. " Indicated next most Often were white collar jobs followed by "salaried" professional work. About one-tenth of the respondents marked "any one" of the hierarchially atrra—rlged categories. This might be regarded as an index of equalitarian 11 ° . . . . . . . . Otlons pertaining to inter-generational occupational mobility in our Society. C. gonsumption Patterns Over four-fifths of the informants expected the carpenter's & - r1111}; to maintain a vegetable garden and also preserve food for later 1else Almost nine-tenths believed that the Carpenter purchased gbg Q Q ries at supermarkets. Practically none expected them to order g1. Q Q Q :ries by phone. Clothing item responses for this worker yielded six 1‘ S as a median number of overalls, and three as a median number Qt § - . . . . . ults. Two-thirds believed his Wife owned an evening dress; less k 66 than five percent ascribed this worker a tuxedo. Clothing for this family was believed to be purchased most often at main department stores in town as indicated by two-thirds of the respondents. Economy chain stores as Penney's and Sears were also mentioned by over one- half of the respondents. Regarding home furnishings and appliances, all respondents as signed a television set to this family. Nearly all assigned a phono- graph or record player; nearly three-fourths visualized their owning an automatic washing machine. A home freezer was ascribed by one- half of the responding group. Median number of books perceived as being in this worker's home was 24. 6. Median number of magazines was 3. 3. Classified by tYPe, about two-thirds of the respondents named pictorial magazines as Es and Look. Popular weeklies like Collier's and Saturday Evening 1: 0 at were mentioned by one-half of the informants. One-third of the \ gr Oup named trade journals and one-third named hobby magazines as 13 W Mechanics. Popular women's magazines as McCall's and horn s s s s o e planning publications as American Home were next in order of far e quency. Over four-fifths of the informants perceived the Carpenter rivmg a Ford, Chevrolet, or Plymouth. Three-fifths thought he Q I'11C1 drive a car one or two years old. Other than ”low priced three" Q. % Q1‘1.ptions, one or two year old Oldsmobiles were next most frequently Q m QQified by one-tenth of the group. J 5,. , p ‘. ‘u .- '~-C 67 The Carpenter saves money from his yearly income according to over ninety percent of the respondents. Further, over three-fourths indicated this money was saved in bank savings accounts. Practically all believed he carried life insurance; the median amount equalling $10, 336. 30. Social and Activity Patterns D. This worker is viewed as a Democrat, politically speaking, by seven-tenths of the respondents. Thirteen informants failed to make any political projection for him. He is regarded as a church member by all but three percent of the respondents. Somewhat more than two-thirds mentioned Protestant affiliations. The labor union was mentioned most frequently among orga—I‘iizations to which this Carpenter was thought to belong; two- third 8 supplied this answer. One-third named church groups; Masonic bodi e s were named by about one-seventh of the respondents. Alto- ge . . . . . . the r 301 replies were obtained pertaining to organizational mem— be r 81"lip of this worker. About one-half of the informants suggested fishing as a 1.an 1‘Z‘Lte form of relaxation for the Carpenter; television or radio was 111C121 Q ated by well over a third. A similar question in the form of a Q h Q Ck -list sought to determine expected vacation activities. Multiple 1. e S IQ’Qnse possibilities revealed that over one-half expected this WC er to vacation at a cottage, while nearly forty percent, in each 5‘11 g 1: a~I‘ice, indicated camping, touring, or staying at home. Less than m p». the r. a. .-. . . ‘v I o. v a \'. Va. N. A a — an. ‘1 '. ‘1 v s '\ t \ 68 two percent visualized this worker visiting other countries. Median number of movies per month for the Carpenter was two; forty percent limited his monthly movie going to one per- formance; Number of hours of television viewed daily yielded a median response of 3. 2 hours. Only one-third of all respondents felt that this worker and his wife would attend two or'more concerts or plays per year. Over two-thirds of the informants indicated that family ViSiting would involve one to four other families who would most apt to be living in the same neighborhood or elsewhere in town. W The perceptions of the Carpenter add up to a very positive picture of a solid, thrifty, middle class American who with somewhat patriarchal concern reflects modest aspirations for self and family, attac hes pride to work, and loyally upholds the principles of his Dec-11pational associations, church, and country. Overestimates with respect to income, ownership of consumer goods, and restricted 0Q Qlipational and geographic mobility are indicated. However, realis- tiQ ally or otherwise, this manual occupation is rated above the lower White collar jobs of Bookkeeper and Salesman, particularly relating ‘T-Q . I‘ewards, but also in most other respects, above or equal to e acher in some instances, and almost on par with Doctor in terms Q f VVork satisfaction and conscientiousness toward work. Perhaps m what might be termed a "historic residue" of honor and status seem to persist in the perceptions of persons toward the occupation of Carpenter. 69 as. 5" 7|" 70 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR CARPENTER Eight percent of the 399 tests of significance performed for the Carpenter questionnaire were significant at the . 05 level and below; 14. 0 percent were significant at the . 10 level and below. If one regards chi-square tests at the . 90 level and above as a measure of converging images, 14. 5 percent of the total tests per- formed yielded such an image. There were more significant differences between Carpenter images and size of community than between any other control; 15.8 Percent of these tests were significant. Sex of informant produced a. Significantly different image 12. 3 percent of the time. These differences were at the . 05 level and below. See Table 2. 0. . When background characteristics were taken into account, the r e were more differences in relation to social and activity patterns for Carpenter than for any other category of response. A’ Job Related Characteristics Three significant relationships were found between job 6 1 . . . . 1 acted characteristics and Size of community. Respondents from th 6 larger communities were less apt to visualize the Carpenter as W i i Q 1‘ Tying about doing work well, projected less geographic mobility and were more apt to ascribe monetary worries on the job. 1 See Tables 2.1, 2. 2, and 2. 3. 71 One significant relationship appeared between job related characteristics and each of the following variables: academic standing, college major, occupation of father, and sex of informant. On a percentage basis, the academic superiors perceived the Carpenter as worrying about craftsmanship twice as frequently as their academic Business majors more frequently than other subject matter inferiors. As respondents assigned this worker more than two weeks vacation. a. demonstration of social reference perceptions, in Table 2. 6, respondents with white collar fathers more than twice as frequently as blue collar informants believed the Carpenter would prefer other Work. Table 2. 7 shows female respondents ascribed higher future earnings to Carpenter than did males. This supports Hypothesis A. B ~ Family and Home Patterns Tables 2. 8 and 2. 9 present data pertaining to two significant relationships for the variable size of community. These data Show 1: . . hat almost all urban informants ascribed homes for the Carpenter a‘11:.Led at $10, 000 or more, and, conSistent With on-the-job worries, a. 1 S O thought he would worry more about money at home. Only one relationship each at the . 05 level of significance W as found for college major, academic standing, and sex of informant. Sp Q Cifically, business majors assigned less expensive homes for e‘1‘penter more frequently than other respondents; academically superior \ 1 See Tables 2. 4, 2. 5, 2. 6, and 2. 7. m » . .t- .v 72 students more frequently assigned homes valued at less then $10, 000; and nearly twice as many females as males believed that male children of this worker would pursue white collar jobs. C. Consumption Patterns The size of community variable yielded three significant relationships for the category of items relating to consumption. Informants from small communities ascribed home freezers far more frequently than did the urban respondents. Similarly, the least urban respondents more extensively perceived food preservation practices for this worker. 2 Both of these items would seem to have implications for the factor of personal experience. In Table 2. 15 the most urban respondents are seen to minimize home magazine readership for Carpenter. Tables 2. 16 and 2.17 present significant differences based on occupation of informant's father. White collar informants assigned a greater percentage of low-price-three automobiles to the Carpenter than did blue collar respondents, and in fewer numbers ascribed auto- matic clothes dryers than did blue collar informants (Hypothesis D). Informant‘s college major also yielded two significant . 3 differences. More than four-fifths of education and "other" majors lSee Tables 2.10, 2.11, and 2.12. 2 See Tables 2.13, and 2.14. 3 See Tables 2.18, and 2.19. 0“ o... .‘l c.... .n . . ..-. ..,. u.... ’-¢. -._ - ‘ \ 73 assigned low-price-three automobiles to this worker compared to about two—thirds of the business majors and one-half of the engineering students. Engineering and education students reflected the most contradictory views concerning formal clothing owned by this worker and his wife. These support Hypothesis C. Age, newspaper readership, and sex revealed one signifi- cant difference each. Younger students assigned more insurance, less frequent newspaper readers assigned more inexpensive automobiles, and males ascribed fewer magazines to the Carpenter. D. Social and Activity Patterns Sex of informant when analyzed in relation to social and a~Cltivity pattern responses for the Carpenter resulted in four significant differences. 2 Thirty percent more females than males made Protestant Church membership ascriptions. Females also mentioned church g1- Oups twice as frequently as males as organizational memberships for Carpenter. Fewer females than males visualized Carpenters Vacationing at resorts and also assigned fewer hours of daily television. Two items yielded distinctive differences with respect to age.3 More of the older respondents believed the Carpenter would 3 . band vacations at home and also attend fewer plays or concerts than \ 1See Tables 2. 20, 2. 21, and 2. 22. 2See Tables 2. 23, 2. 24, 2. 25, and 2. 26. 3see Tables 2. 27 and 2.28. -‘ .. . » us. :— .p‘ ...._ 74 did the younger informants. These support Hypothesis A. Informants with blue collar fathers were more inclined to indicate fishing as a leisure activity, and to minimize play or concert attendance for Carpenter than were white collar respondents according to percentage differences in Tables 2. 29 and 2. 30. Single significant differences were found for the variables academic standing and size of community. Both pertained to church membership. Table 2. 31 reveals a higher percentage of Protestant ascriptions for this worker by the better academic performers, as Well as by the informants from smaller communities, shown in Table 2. 32. 75 TABLE 2. 0--Summary of significant associations for Carpenter Percent of associations at the - 1 Independent 05 level or 955 va ‘abl 8 Tomb r1 e Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N: 15) (N: 12) (N215) (N=15) (Nz57) Age 0.0 0.0 . 6.7 13.3 5.4 Sex 6. 7 8. 3 6. 7 26. 7 12. 3 Major 6. 7 8. 3 l3. 3 O. 0 ‘ 7. 0 Academic standing 6. 7 8. 3 O. O 6. 7 5. 4 Occupation Of father 6. 7 O. O 13. 3 13. 3 8. 8 size of C0mmunity 20. O 16.7 20. O 6. 7 15. 8 Newspaper readership 0. 0 0. 0 6. 7 O. O 1. 8 Totals 6. 7 6. O 9. 5 9. 5 8. 0 (N = 399) .- 71 :C .L \\ A. .5. 76 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR CARPENTER A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 2. l--Concern for good workmanship on the job by size of home community . . Worry about Do not worry Totals Size of community d01ng about domg . . (70 N a good job a good job Open country to 9, 999 55. 8% 46. 2% 100 52 10, 000 to 99, 999 38. 5 61. 5 100 52 Loo, 000 and over 22.9 77.1 100 48 1 2 (152)* X =10.05 2d.f. P<.01 ' *Two students not classifiable TABLE 2. 2--Place of residence of parents by size of community 81:29 of community Same town Elsewhere WTotal; \ . 0 Open country to 9, 999 50. 0% 50. 0% 100 52 1 0. 000 to 99, 999 50.0 , 50.0 100 52 1 00, 000 and over 72.9 27.1 t 100 47 \ 2 . (151)* X 27.04 2d.f. P<.05 ' >5: TWO students not classifiable TABLE 2. 3--Monetary worries on the job by size of home community \ 81 Z . Worry about Do not worry Totals e of community , money about money ,7 N \ . on the job " on the job ° Q . 1 Den country to 9,999 5.8% 94.2% 100 52 » 000 to 99, 999 15.4 84.6 . 100 52 \0, 000 and over 27.1 72. 9‘ 100 48 XE ' ~ ’ 152 * §8.53 2d.f. P<.02 » ‘ ( ) we} . \VVO students not classifiable h 1For this and following Carpenter tables discrepancies Q .. t‘vveen total number of responses and 154 equal no response items. m 77 TABLE 2. 4--Concern for good workmanship on the job by academic standing . . Worry about Do not worry Totals Academic standing d01ng about d01ng . . % N a good job a good job Upper one-third 48. 8% 51. 2% 100 82 Lower two-thirds 26.4 73. 6 100 72 F (154) 2 X =7.21 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 2. 5--Length of vacation by college major _ . More than Totals College major 0 to 2 weeks 2 weeks % N Engineering 77. 8% 22.2% 100 17 Education 75.8 24.2 100 33 Business 60. o 39.4 100 33 other 88.2 11.8 100 70 \ . (153) 2 X =1o.15 3d.f. P<.02. T ABLE 2. 6--Preference for other work by occupation of informant's father \\ . Prefer Do not Totals Q Qupational class other prefer 7 N ‘ work , other work 0 \ f 3 g“ hite collar 39.1% 60. 9% 100 87 1 . \ue collar 17. 8 82. 2 100 45 132 * X 2 . ( ) t5.26 ld.f. P<.05 “Ea 2'- farm and nonclassifiable fathers m >- s n‘b \\ 78 TABLE 2. 7--Income the year before retirement by sex of informant Sex of informant O to $5, 000 to $6, 000 Totals $4, 999 $5. 999 and over "/0 N Female 9. 7% 21.0% 69.4% 100 61 Male 34. 8 16. 3 48. 9 100 91 P (152) Z X =11.05 2d.f. P<.01 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 2. 8--Cost of home by size of home community Size of community 0 to $9, 999 $10, 000 or more O’Total; 0 Open country to 9,999 16.3% 83. 7% 100 52 10. 000 to 99,999 14.6 85.4 100 51 1 00. 000 and over 0. 0 100.0 100 47 \ (150)* Z . X 26.68 2d.f. P<.05 =9: , 2 VStudents not classifiable TABLE 2. 9--Monetary worries at home by size of home community \ ‘ Worry Do not worry . Totals 1 Z . e of community about money about money ‘ at home. at home % N \ Sp . 1 0 en country to 9: 999 28.8% 71.2% 100 52 l O . 000 to 99, 999 57. 7 42. 3 100 52 0, 000 and over 37.5 62.5 100 48 \ . (152)* Q X =9.36 2d.f. P<.01 §k2 students not clas sifiable m 79 TABLE 2. lO--Cost of home by academic standing College major O to $9, 999 $10, 000 or more (fowl; 0 Engineering 11. 8% 88. 2% 100 17 Education 19. 4 80. 6 100 33 Business 36. 4 63.6 100 33 Other 13. 7 86. 3 100 69 P (152) Z . X =8.19 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 2. ll--Cost of home by college major A . . Totals Cademic standing 0 to $9, 999 $10, 000 or more a] N , 0 \ Upper one-third 26.8% 73.2% 100 81 LOWer two-thirds 11.1 88.9 100 71 \ (152) 2 . X 25.07 ld.f. P<.05 T ABLE 2.12--—Occupation male children will follow by sex of informant k ‘ > S . e): of informant White collar Blue collar - O/TOtallsv ' 0 1.2\ Methane 40.3% 59.7% 100 92 ale ' 23.9 76.1 100 62 \ I (154) X2 24.08 ld.f. P<.05 . v.. : uuv C. Consumption Patterns 80 TABLE 2. 13--Ownership of home freezer by size of home community Have Size of communit Do not have Totals y freezer freezer % N Open country to 9, 999 65. 4% 34. 6% 100 52 10, 000 to 99. 999 55. 8 44. Z 100 52 100, 000.a.nd over 37. 5 62. 5 100 48 (152)* 2 _ X =7.99 2d.f. P<.02 *Two students not classifiable TABLE 2. 14——Food preservation habits by size of home community \ Siz , Do not Do preserve Totals . 43 Of community preserve food food % N \ m Open country to 9, 999 30. 4% 69. 6% 100 52 . 1 0. .000 to 99, 999 47.8 52.2 100 52 1 00, 000 and over 58.5 41.5 100 48 \ , (152)=:< 2 . X 211.36 2d.f. P<.01 3:: TWO students not classifiable 1" ABLE 2.15--Number of magazines in home by size of home community \ S - . 12e of community a? tao .4 S 5 :ramore (7Totalls\I m z1ne m 211165 0 \ , g . 8 3Even country to 9, 999 46. 3% 53. 7% 100 51 . 000 to 99,999 71.2 28.8 100 51 Q, 000 and over 83.3 16.7 100 47 a . (149)* :( =19.79 2d.f. P<.001 n§ .I‘ \vo students not classifiable m I than. - ‘33 ~- 81 TABLE 2.16-- Make of automobile owned by occupation of informant's father Occu ational class Ford, Chevro— All other Totals p let, Plymouth makes % N White collar 89. 7% 10. 3% 100 87 Blue collar 73. 3 26. 7 100 45 2 (132)* X 24.74 ld.f. P<.05 *22 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 2. 17--Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by occupation of father Owns Does not own . Totals Occupational class automatic automatic ‘ i ‘ dryer dryer % N White collar 19.5% 80. 5% ' 100 87 Blue collar '37. 8 62. 2 100 45 2 A ' (132)* X =4.24 ld.f. P<.05 *22 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 2. 18—-Make of automobile owned by college major *— m Colle e ma'or Ford, Chevro— All other Totals g J let, Plymouth makes , % N Engineering 47. 6% 52. 4% 100 17 Education 83. 9 16.1 100 33 Business 69. 6 30. 4 100 33 Other 87. 7 12. 3 I 100 71 x P (154) 2 . X =17.05 3d.f. P<.001 V6. 2 L» ~v‘. l.- 2 \u .n-‘v. v», 82 TABLE 2. 19 --Ownership of formal wear by college major . No tuxedo One of more Totals College major no evening items of ' dress formal wear % N Engineering 29. 4% ‘ 70. 6% 100 17 ‘Education 69. 7 30. 3 100 33 Business 45. 5 54. 5 100 33 Other 38.0 62. O 100 71 2 '(154) x =ll.l6 3d.f. P<.02 TABLE 2. 20--Amount of insurance carried by age of informant Age of informant 0 to $9, 999 $10,000 and over WEOtalliI 18 years and under 23.1% 76. 9% 100 60 19 years and older 42. 7 57. 3 100 84 (144) 2 x =5.56 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 2. 21--Make of automobile owned by newspaper readership m m News a er readershi Ford, Chevro— All other . , Totals ’ ' P p . . p let, Plymouth makes . % N Read paper daily 75. 9% 24. 1% , 100 79 Read paper less often 84. 0 16. 0 ' 100 75 P (154) 2 X =3.88 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 2. 22--Number 83 of magazines in home by sex of informant . 0 to.4 5 or more Totals Sex of informant . . magamnes magaz1nes % N Female 85. 2% 14. 8% 100 61 Male 71. 9 28.1 100 90 2 ~ (151) X 26.19 ld.f. P<.02 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 2. 23--Church membership by sex of informant Sex of informant Protestant aigtggile: WEOtaII: Female 82.3% 17.7% 100 54 Male 53. 3 46. 7 100 79 . (133) X2:12.59 ld.f. P<.001 TABLE 2. 24--Church group versus other organizational membership by sex of informant s ' i . pec1a1 Other types Totals Sex of informant church group of group . . % N membership membership Female 46. 8% 53. 2% 100 62 Male 23. 9 76.1 100 92’ “P (154) 2 X =7.85 ld.f. P<.01 84 TABLE 2. 25--Type of vacation by sex of informant Sex of informant Visit a resort Other o/Totallls a Female 1. 6% 98. 4% 100 62 Male 15. 2 84. 8 100 92 2 (154) x 26.46 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 2.26--Number of hours of television observed daily by sex of informant Totals Sex of informant 0 to 2 hours 3 or more hours <70 N Female 35. 5% 64. 5% 100 62 Male 19.6 _ 80.4 100 91 2 . (153) x :4.16 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 2. 27--Type of vacation by age of informant Age of informant Stay at home Other WTOtalil 0 18 years and under 29. 2 70. 8 100 65 19 years and older 46.1 53. 9 100 89 2 f (154) x =3.84 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 2. 28--Concerts or plays attended last year by age of informant _— . 0 to 1 2 or more Totals Age of informant ' ' performance performances % N 18 years or under 49. 2% 50. 8% 100 65 19 years and older 77. 5 22. 5 100 88 P (153) X =12.10 ld.f. P<.001 85 TABLE 2. 29--Fishing as a leisure activity by occupation of informants father Occupational class Does fish 3 Does not fish (ygoml; White collar 29. 9% 70.1% 100 87 Blue collar 53. 3 46.7 100 45 2 (132% X =5.96 ld.f. P<.02 *22 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 2. 30--Concerts or plays attended last year by occupation of informant's father . 0 to 1 2 or more Totals Occupational class performance performances % N White collar 49. 1% 50. 9% 100 86 Blue collar 68. 2 34. 1 100 45 (131)»: 2 X =3.97 ld.f. P<.05 *22 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 2. 31--Church membership by academic standing ‘— m L m - m _m - Catholic Totals A . . cademic standing Protestant and other % N Upper one-third 75. 6% 24. 4% 100 71 Lower two-thirds 52. 8 47. 2 100 62 : (133) X=7.80 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 2. 32--Church membership by size of home community m Size of community Protestant Other 7T°t31§ , 0 C)pen country to 9, 999 82. 7% 17. 3% 100 47 10,000 to 99. 999 55.8 44.2 100 45 LOO, 000 and over 58.3 41.7 100 39 (131))? 2 X = 10. 10 2 d. f. P < . 01 *Two students not classifiable 86 CHAPTER V I. IMAGE OF THE BOOKKEEPER The connotations of the term Bookkeeper are changing in the movement toward professionalization taking place among many jobs on the American work scene. Just as life insurance agents now prefer to be called "life underwriters, " undertakers prefer to be designated as "morticians" or "funeral directors, " so many occupants of this job aspire to be called "accountants. " While variations are apparent in actual usage, it is‘generally recognized that the word Bookkeeper designates a lower level of training and experiences than does that of an accountant; the latter term being used especially, but not exclusively for Certified Public Accountants and for persons approximating their exacting qualifications. A second force serving to alter the traditional meaning of the work role known as Bookkeeper involves the technological changes of "automation. " Since World War II, a number of semi- automatic machines have been introduced which tend to segmentalize 1The Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales characterize accountants and auditors as requiring level A academic and clerical abilities consistent with superior intelligence, college graduation, and professional performance. Bookkeeper is characterized by level B academic and clerical ability requiring high average abstract in- telligence and equivalent high school graduation and/ or business school training. Donald G. Paterson, Clayton Gerken, and Milton E. Hahn, The Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 71941), pp. 27—30. 87 the total records-keeping process into a series of machine-operator functions. In larger financial and commercial institutions with the adaptation of electronic data processing equipment, the traditional type of ledgers, forms, and accounting materials are being replaced by perforated and magnetic tapes, IBM cards, and microfilm. Smaller business concerns are increasingly subscribing to centralized firms who perform the records-keeping functions for them--leaving only a data collection function necessary at the primary place of business. This trend necessitates an increased number of semi- skilled and skilled machine operators, fewer persons performing general bookkeeping jobs, and at a higher level supervisors, system planners, and programmers. Related to the above trend is the shift in the ratio of women employed. In fact, the job of Bookkeeper, once essentially a male occupation, is now preponderantly filled by women. In 1956 over three-fourths of the 800, 000 workers employed as Bookkeepers were women. Over one-third of all Bookkeepers are employed by wholesale and retail trade establishments, about one-fifth by manu- facturing firms, and one-sixth by financial, insurance, and real estate firms. The informants who responded to the questionnaire per- taining to this white collar worker number 157. This Bookkeeper is 1Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Hand- book, 1957 Revised edition, Bulletin No. 1215 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office), p. 204. 88 one of several hypothetically employed by an industrial firm located in a city with about 100, 000 inhabitants. He has been employed for fifteen years, the last five years in his present position. . A. Job Related Characteristics The median annual wage as signed this Bookkeeper was $4, 861. 00 for working a median number of 8. 5 hours a day. Nearly fifty percent of the respondents projected a yearly income of more than $5, 000. 00 for this worker. - The sum of $916. 90 represents the quartile range for income for this worker. . Assuming full employment the median income for Bookkeeper based on 1950 Michigan census data was $4, 293. 00.1 Another way of characterizing this income is to examine the measure of relative dispersion which Miller using national data cites as forty to forty- nine percent. 2 This might be described as a "moderate" dispersion index reflecting a regularity and fairly narrow range of incomes among all recipients. A narrower dispersion of incomes would be expected of government workers, and a wider dispersion among varying pro- fessional and sales incomes. The median income and quartile range figures cited above suggest that while the total group of respondents tended to overestimate the income of the Bookkeeper, they did so in m 1U. S. Bureau of the Census, _IJ. _S_. Census o_f Population: 1950, Vol. II, Characteristics of the Population, Part 22, Table 78, p, 279. ‘ . Herman P. Miller, Income o_f Ere American People (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1955), p. 60. 89 a uniform manner. The median year respondents thought this worker started working as a Bookkeeper was 22. His retirement age was projected to be age sixty-five reflected by the median response of 65. 2 years. The median income he was assigned the year before retirement was $5, 861. 00 with a quartile range of $1, 353.00. It will be noticed that there is a greater variation in the retirement income expectation than the income thought to be currently received by the Bookkeeper. Nearly one-half said he would be earning more than $6, 000. 00 the year before he retires. Approximately two and one- half weeks were assigned to this worker as a vacation period. The Bookkeeper is thought to have come from a lower white collar family by two-thirds of these informants. Skilled fathers for this worker were projected by fifteen percent and semi- or unskilled fathers by fifteen percent, yielding a blue collar category suggested by about thirty percent of the respondents. The median years of schooling completed by the Bookkeeper according to all respondents was 14. 4 grades, or the equivalent of two years beyond high school. According to the census data for 1950, m 1The backgrounds of 143 accounting record workers in- Cluding bank tellers and bookkeepers were characterized by Thorndike and Hagen as being notably nonacademic, nonathletic, nonm‘echanical, and nonsocial. In addition they came from homes that tended not to have a good car. Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, T32 :housand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1959), pp. Z39-40. ’ ‘ ' 90 median years education for those engaged in this occupation was 12. 7 1 years. About two-thirds of the respondents felt that the Bookkeeper is likely to be presently working in the community in which he was born. Even more significant is the indication of all but six percent of the respondents who think he will spend the rest of his working days in the community where he is now working. Fifty percent of the respon— dents believed the parents of this worker also reside in the same com- munity in which he lives. Essentially, then, this worker is viewed as being of urban origin and urban destination with even less geo- graphic mobility than that proposed for the Assembly Worker. Projections of this Bookkeeper's happiness with his work Show that approximately one-fifth indicated that he is "very happy”; SiXtY~ six percent, "fairly happy"; fifteen percent, "somewhat dis- appoirated"; and none indicated his being ”very disappointed. " Strong preferences for another type of work by this job Occup ant were perceived by about four percent of the respondents, While six-tenths thought he "might be interested” in something else, occupationally, However, seventy—seven percent, thought change of Jobs "'not very likely. ” \ 1 Th Donald J. Bogue, Population of the United States (Glencoe: e ‘Free Press, 1959), Table 17-A-4, p. 556. 91 Classification of 243 on-the-job worries for Bookkeeper supplied by respondents yielded the following results: forty percent mentioned worries relating to job performance or doing a good job, twenty-three percent indicated monetary worries, twenty-one percent mentioned job security, fifteen percent mentioned worries relating to advancement or promotion in job. These reveal a substantial contrast to projections furnished for the Assembly Worker. B- Family and Home Patterns To all but one respondent this Bookkeeper is married and P05 ses ses a family of three children.(median, 3. 4). His wife was considered less likely to be working outside the home than was that Of the 'Assembly Worker. About one—tenth perceived the Bookkeeper‘s wife as '"never‘" working and about six-tenths as "'not very likely” to be Working. Approximately twenty-eight percent felt it "quite likely" that She might be working outside the home for pay. White collar “:as indicated by eighty-four percent as the kind of employment she would most apt to be performing, assuming she did work. As a hous e‘Wife she was not expected to have outside help with her house- Vwork according to nearly all of the informants. Respondents were quite evenly divided in regard to parental discipline of children for these parents--fifty-five percent visualizing them as being on the St - . . . . . rlct Side and forty-five percent on the lenient Side. Two-thirds 0f the respondents felt these parents would spend "quite a bit" of 135. me with their children. 92 The Bookkeeper is a home owner according to eighty- eight percent of the respondents, and owned or rented a house with three bedrooms as visualized by about two-thirds of the informants. Ninety-five percent of the informants expected his home to be complete with garage and dining room. A fireplace, however, is visualized by less than fifty percent, a den or study by thirty percent, a recreation room by twenty-two percent, and two baths by fifteen per- cent. The median cost of home amounted to $13, 384.00 or approxi- mate 1y $2, 000. 00 more than the median projected for the Assembly Worker. The quartile range of home valuations for Bookkeeper is 3130111: twice that of Assembly Worker (see Appendix A). Home worries for the Bookkeeper are perceived to in- VOIVe money, children, and general family welfare. Only about six percent of the respondents thought that the hdale children of this worker would not go to college. Male children w . . ere expected to pursue white collar work almost excluSively. . C. . _Consumption Patterns Two-thirds believed the Bookkeeper's family would culti- vate a. summer vegetable garden; fOOd Preservation by canning or (freezing was ascribed to this family by eighty percent of the informants The clothing assignments for Bookkeeper and his family SpeC—ified a median of 3. 7 suits and a median’number of 2. 4 pairs of Overalls for this male head. .Only five percent deemed it likely that he Would own a tuxedo or formal attire; on the other hand, two-thirds 93 declared that the Bookkeeper's wife would own an evening dress. Clothing purchases for the family were thought to be made most consistently at main department stores in—town according to seventy percent of the respondents. ,Economy stores as Penney's and Sears were mentioned by over forty percent, and men or women's specialty shops by twelve percent. Of the variety of furnishings and appliances to be found in the home, the Bookkeeper is said to have a television set and a record player by almost all informants; an automatic washing machine by about three-fourths and a home freezer by four tenths of the respondents. A median number of four magazines was assigned to this family. By type, the pictorial weekly magazines as Life and 3% were named by three-fourths of the informants, popular weeklies as W and Saturd_ay Evening Post were mentioned by about half Of the group, news weeklies as Time, Newsweek, and 1_J S. News w . . . ere listed by forty percent, and names of digest type magaz1nes as Rgeader's Digest and Coronet were supplied by one—fourth of the reSpondents. Median number of books owned by the Bookkeeper according to these respondents was. thirty-eight bOOkS- With respect to automobile ownership, all but seven perCent of the respondents perceived this family as possessing one Car rather than two. Over ninety percent contended this automobile W 0111d be a Ford, Plymouth, or Chevrolet. Less than five percent 94 of the replies denoted a "new" car for this worker; whereas, forty- three percent classed his car as being one or two years old and fifty- two percent appraised it as being three years old or more. Ninety—three percent of the respondents supported the notion that the Bookkeeper would save money from his yearly income. About eighty percent contended this would take the form of saving through a bank savings account. A mere two percent of the respon- dents did not expect the Bookkeeper to own any life insurance; median aJnount of insurance projected was $10,151. 70. D- Social and Activity Patterns Ninety-seven percent of the informants expressed the belief that this Bookkeeper usually votes in elections. He is perceived as a. supporter of the Republican party by fifty-five percent of the . resI>C>ndents and the Democratic party by about thirty—four percent; SeVen percent regard him as an Independent. Approximately ninety- eight percent of respondents visualize the Bookkeeper as a church rnerTiber; about three—fourths believe him to be a Protestant. Names of organizations supplied by respondents found over a third mentioning special church groups as choir and fellowship g1‘Q’llps, more than a fifth mentioned P. T. A. and Masonic orders. Favorite forms of relaxation for the Bookkeeper were ir1.dicated by a total of 441 responses. Fishing, golf and reading were ITlehtioned most frequently. Watching television or listening to 3Tadio and working in yard or garden were suggested by one-fourth 95 or more of the respondents. According to responses on a check-list dealing with how the Bookkeeper spends his vacation, about six-tenths felt he is most apt to stay at a cottage. Next most frequent response was for touring or sight-seeing. Staying at home was checked by thirty percent. No respondents expected this worker to travel to other countries. Number of movies attended per month for this worker yielded a median figure of 2. 3; median hours of television observed daily amounted to 2. 87 hours. Concerts and plays attended by this Worker and his wife were judged to be 2.2 performances on a median baSis . Approximately fifty-four percent ascribed three or more perfo rmances. The Bookkeeper is believed to visit frequently with one to four other families who reside for the most part in the same neighborhood or same town. W The Bookkeeper is quite realistically pictured as a con- ScieIitious, urban worker rather firmly entrenched in a lower white Collar status position that often does not measure up to the material and esteem rewards ascribed to skilled manual craftsmen. This 130$ition is undoubtedly more untenable because of his contact with 11d aspirations toward higher white collar orientations, both in terms o . . . . . f Consumer goods and somal actiVities. He is for the most part 1: hOught to be a Republican. 96 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR BOOKKEEPER Of the 399 tests of significance performed on responses to the questionnaire for Bookkeeper, 9. 8 percent were significantly different at the . 05 level and less; 13. 3 percent were significant at the . 10 level and less. If concurrency of images is assumed at the . 90 level and above, then 16. 8 percent of the chi-square tests showed this phenomenon. Bookkeeper had a higher percentage at this level than any other occupational group studied. The greatest number of significant differences for Book- k(‘l‘eper were found in the area of family and home patterns. At the . 05 level and less, 11. 9 percent of the tests were significant; at the .10 level and less, 17.1 percent of these patterns were Significant. Sex of informant was the most discriminating variable for Bookkeeper followed by informant‘s college major. 24. 6 percent of the tests performed in relation to sex were significant, and 14. 0 Per C ent of those related to college major were significantly different at the . 05 level and below. See Table 3. 0. A‘ Job Related Characteristics Nine significant differences in all were found among work e1ated characteristics. For the variable college major two Signifi- Qant differences appeared. Two also were found for sex and size of Corhmunity. Age, newspaper readership, and occupation of father in 97 yielded one each. Engineers and business majors appeared to hold similar views in that a majority of each indicated salaries of $5, 000. 00 or more for this worker in contrast to the other two majors. For future earnings, again the engineers reflected substantially higher income expectancies for Bookkeeper than did respondents engaged in other academic specialties. Tables 3. 3 and 3. 4 pertaining to sex differences show male respondents anticipated an older retirement age for Bookkeeper and also more frequently visualized other than present community of WOr’ker as the residence of his parents. The respondents from the Smaller sized communities perceived more mobility for this worker than did the more urban respondents. (This supports Hypothesis A.) Age differences in Table 3. 7 are seen to be related to Views concerning on-the-job worries for Bookkeeper; approximately t a che as many younger respondents than'older ones suggested monetary w . . . Orrl es for this lower white collar worker. Less frequent newspaper readers, on a percentage basis, a . S S‘1gried higher incomes to the Bookkeeper than did the more regular r eaders in Table 3. 8. Respondents with blue collar fathers visualized greater mobility for Bookkeeper in Table 3. 9 than did white collar respondents \ 1See Tables 3.1 and 3. 2 2See Tables 3. 5 and 3. 6. 98 B. Family and Home Patterns Responses in the area of family and home for Bookkeeper yielded a total of ten significant differences at the . 05 level and less. Four of these were related to the variable sex of informant. In addition three were found for informant's college major, and one each for academic standing, occupation of father, and size of community. Males considered it far more likely that the wife of Bookkeeper had outside employment; females, more so than males, Suggested office work for this working wife. Males in very small numbers named teaching as a likely employment for wife of Book- ke'EHDer, whereas, females named teaching about four times more Often on a percentage basis. A family size of four or more children for Bookkeeper Was Suggested most often by female respondents as seen in Table 3.13. Three tables show significant relationships between Coll-Q ge major and family patterns. Four or more children were SuggESted for Bookkeeper's family by education majors almost fifty perCent of the time. This probably gives a clue to the sex ratio C . . . . . Ontent of this education—major group when coupled With the preVious t a“ble. Engineers were most prone to limit the Bookkeeper's family 1See Tables 3.10, 3.11, and 3.12. ZSee Tables 3.14, 3.15, and 3.16. 99 to fewer children. Engineers are also seen to assign valuations of $10, 000. 00 or more to the Bookkeeper's home more frequently. With respect to parental discipline, the conceptions held by engineers are again most at variance with the views of the other majors. (These support Hypothesis C. ) Table 3. 17 shows white collar job ascriptions for the working wife of Bookkeeper were made more often by the academic superiors than by their academic counterparts. Inspection of Table 3. 18 reveals that respondents with blue collar fathers proportionately assigned larger homes to the Bookkeeper than did white collar respondents. I Respondents from the smaller sized communities and those from the largest are seen in Table 3. 17 to be quite evenly divided with respect to Bookkeeper's parental discipline compared to informants from middle sized communities. Two-thirds of the latter made more permissive projections. C. Consumption Patterns The most frequently appearing significant variable. relating to consumption was found to be sex, with five meaningful differences. Academic standing, college major, age, and size of informant's home community yielded one each. Twenty percent more males than females made as sign- ments in the $10, 000. 00 or more insurance category for Bookkeeper. More generous formal attire ascriptions for this white collar family 100 were made by males compared to females; twice as many males as females ascribed an automatic clothes dryer to Bookkeeper. Males more frequently believed this worker cultivated a vegetable garden, but females assigned more magazines to the Bookkeeper's home than did males. Three-fourths of the respondents ranking higher in their high school class limited the number of overalls Bookkeeper was thought to own to two pair or less in Table 3. 25. Younger students in larger proportions did not feel the Bookkeeper owned an automatic clothes dryer. See Table 3. 26. For this same item business students among college majors revealed the most markedly different views. See Table 3. 27. Table 3. 28 shows that the most urban students assigned a home freezer to the Bookkeeper least often. D. Social and Activity Patterns Three variables each were found to be significant for academic standing and sex, two each were found for college major and occupation of father, one was found to be significantly different for newspaper readership. Nearly four-fifths of the academically higher ranking respondents opposed to about two-thirds of the academic inferiors perceived the Bookkeeper as a Protestant. The academic superiors lSee Tables 3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, and 3.24. lOl mentioned church groups as a type of organizational membership for Bookkeeper more frequently also. The academic inferiors assigned this white collar worker more hours of daily television. Females appeared quite evenly divided in regarding the Bookkeeper as either a Democrat or Republican, but three-fourths of the males made the latter ascription. Females made more Pro- testant church membership assignments for this worker, and more frequently mentioned yard or garden work as a leisure activity than did males. In regard to college major, engineers were least inclined to believe that the Bookkeeper would spend his vacation at home while business majors represented the other extreme. Engineers also assigned the Bookkeeper two or more movies monthly substan- tially more often than any other major. Respondents with white collar fathers less frequently named golf as a leisure activity for Bookkeeper than did blue collar informants. See Table 3. 37. White collar informants named tele- vision or radio as a leisure activity for Bookkeeper more than twice as often as blue collar informants. See Table 3. 38. (These relate to Hypothesis D.) 1 See Tables 3.29, 3. 30, and 3.31. 2'See Tables 3. 32, 3. 33, and 3. 34. 3See Tables 3. 35 and 3. 36. 102 Examination of Table 3. 39 shows that Kiwanis, Rotary, or Lions clubs were named as an organizational affiliation for Bookkeeper by less frequent newspaper readers about twice as often, proportionally, than by regular readers. This represents the third instance in which regular newspaper readers reflected more realism in their perceptions concerning this occupation. 103 TABLE 3. 0--Summary of significant associations for Bookkeeper Percent of associations at the Independent . 05 level or less . Totals variables Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N215) (N: 12) (N=15) (N=15) (N: 57) Age 6.7 0.0 6.7 0.0 3.5 Sex 13. 3 33. 3 33. 3 20.0 . 24. 6 Major 13. 3 25.0 6.7 13. 3 14.0 Academic standing 0. 0 8. 3 6. 7 20. 0 8. 8 Occupation of father 6. 7 8. 3 0. 0 l3. 3 7. 0 Size of community 13. 3 8. 3 6. 7 0. 0 7. 0 Newspaper . readership 6. 7 0. 0 0. 0 6. 7 3. 5 Totals 8.6 11.9 8.6 10.5 9.8 (N 399) 104 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR BOOKKEEPER A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 3. l--Amount of money earned last year by college major l f i ‘ College major 0 to $4, 999 $5,000 or more (fetal; 0 Engineering 33. 3% 66. 7% 100 21 Education 64. 9 35. 1 100 31 Business 35. 5 64. 5 100 36 Other 61.8 38.2 100 67 2 (155? X =11.26 3d.f. P<.02 TABLE 3. 2--Income received the year before retirement by college major College major 0 to $5, 999 $6,000 or more (fetal; 0 Engineering 28. 6% 71. 4% 100 21 Education 62. 2 37. 8 100 31 Business 41. 9 58.1 100 37 Other 60. 3 39.7 100 67 (156) 2 X =9.24 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 3--Age stopped working by sex of informant Age -65 Totals S ' A ex of informant ge 45 to 64 and over % N Female 44. 3% 55. 7% 100 61 Male 27.1 72. 9 100 95 F (156) XZ:4.18 ld.f. P<.05 1For this and following Bookkeeper tables discrepancies between total number of responses and 157 equal no response items. 105 TABLE 3. 4--Place of residence of parents by sex of informant Sex of informant Same town Elsewhere a/TOtaII: 0 Female 59. 0% 41 . 0% 100 61 Male 39. 6 60. 4 100 96 2 (157) x =5.04 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 5--Place of birth by size of home community Born in Not born in . . Totals Size of community present present (7 N community community 0 Open country to 9, 999 48. 6% 51.4% 100 72 10, 000 to 99. 999 77.1 22. 9 100 48 100, 000 and over 71.4 28. 6 100 35 (155)* 2 x =11.48 2.d.f. P<.01 *Two‘ students not classifiable TABLE 3. 6--Place of residence of parents by size of home community Size of community Same town Elsewhere (fetal; _ 0 Open country to 9, 999 , 31. 9% 68.1% 100 72 10, 000 to 99, 999 60. 4 39. 6 100 48 100, 000 and over 60. 0 40. 0 100 35 (155)* 2 x =12.39 2d.f. P<.01 *Two students not classifiable 106 TABLE 3. 7--Monetary worries on the job by age of informant A f , £0 a t Worry Do not worry Totals ge 0 1n rm n about money about money % N 18 years and under 33. 3% 66.7% 100 63 19 years and over 16.0 84.0 100 94 (157) 2 , X =5.49 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 3. 8--Income received the year before retirement by newspaper readership . Totals Newspaper readership 0 to $5, 999 $6,000 or more (7 N 0 Read paper daily 58.6% 41.4% 100 86 Read paper less often 41.4 58. 6 100 70 (156) 2 X =3.92 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 9--Place of residence of parents by occupation of informant's father Occupational class Same town Elsewhere o/Total; 0 White collar 59. 3% 40. 7% 100 86 Blue collar 39.1 60. 9 100 46 (132)* 2 X :4.11 ld.f. P<.05 *25 farm and nonclassifiable fathers 107 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 3. 10—-Like1ihood of wife's employment outside the home by sex of informant . Not likely Quite likely Totals Sex of informant or never or steady % N Female 41. 0% 59. 0% 100 61 Male 19. 8 80. 2 100 95 (156) 2 _ x =7.38 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 3.11--Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant it , Employed Other Totals Sexof informant as clerk or em 10 ment 0] N ’ office worker p y 0 Female 54. 1% 45. 9% 100 59 Male , ' 34.4 65.6 100 90 (149? x2=5.29 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3.12-—T‘ype of employment for working wives by sex of informant . Employed Other Totals Sex of informant as teacher employment % - N Female 19. 7% 80. 3% 100 59 Male 5. 2 ‘ 94.8 100 90 ’ (149) X =6.81 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 3. 13--Family size by 108 sex of informant Sex of informant 0 to 2 3 4 or more Totals children children children % N Female 23. 0% 34. 0% 42. 6% 100 61 Male 35.4 45.8 18. 8 100 '96 2 (157) X =9.18 2d.f. P<.02 TABLE 3. l4--Fami1y size by college major Colle e ma'or 0 to 3 4 or more Totals 3 3 children children % N Engineering 85.7% 14. 3% 100 2.1 Education 51. 4 48. 6 100 31 Business 77. 4 22. 6 100 .37 Other 78.1 21. 9 100 68 2 (157) X =11.73 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 3. 15--Cost of home by college major . ‘ 1 ' Totals College major 0 to $9, 999 $10,000 or more a] N 0 Engineering 3. 5% 90. 5% 100 21 Education 32. 4 67. 6 100 31 Business 33.1 61. 9 100 36 Other 45. 7 54. 3 100 66 (154) 2 X =8.53 3d.f. P<.05 109 TABLE 3. l6--Parental disciplinary attitude toward children by college major Colle e ma’or Strict with Lenient with Totals g 3 children children % N Engineering 33. 3% 66. 7% 100 21 Education 62. 2 37. 8 100 37 Business 41. 9 58.1 100 37 Other 64. 7 35. 3 100 68 2 (157) x =9.48 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 3.17--Type of employment for working wives by academic standing Academic standing White collar Blue collar goal; 0 Upper one-third 88.8% 11.2% 100 91 Lower two-thirds 74. 7 25. 3 100 60 (151) X2 26.29 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 3. l8--Number of bedrooms in home by occupation of informant's father Occu ational class 1 or 2 3 or more Totals p ‘ bedrooms bedrooms % N White collar 40. 7% 59. 3% 100 86 Blue collar 19. 6 80. 4 100 46 P w ’ (132)* 2 X 25.10 ld.f. P<.05 *25 farm and nonclassifiable fathers 110 TABLE 3. 19--Disciplinary attitude toward children by size of home community 5' f 't Strict with Lenient with Totals 1“ ° commum Y children children % N Open country to 9, 999 59. 7% 40. 3% 100 72 10, 000 to 99, 999 34. 3 65. 7 100 48 100, 000 and over 54.3 45. 7 100 35 (155)* XZ=9.47 2d.f. P<.01 *Two students not classifiable C. Consumption Patterns TABLE 3. 20--Amount of life insurance by sex of informant . Totals Sex of informant 0 to $9, 999 $10,000 or more 7 N a Female 56. 6% 43. 4% 100 60 Male 36. 7 63. 3 100 90 (150) X2:4.7l ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 21--Ownership of formal wear by sex of informant , One or more . No items of . ' Totals Sex of informant items of formal wear % N formal wear Female 45. 9% 54.1% 100 61 Male 26. 0 74. 0 100 96 F (157) X =5.84 ld.f. P<.02 111 TABLE 3. 22--Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by sex of informant Own Do not own . . . Totals Sex of informant automatic automatic % N dryer dryer Female 15. 3% 84.7% 100 61 Male 35.1 64.9 100 96 2 (157) X =6.48 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 3. 23--Cultivation of vegetable garden by sex of informant Have Have no . Totals Sex of informant vegetable vegetable % N garden garden Female 24. 6% 75.4% 100 61 Male 36. 5 63.5 100 96 (157T 2 x.=3.89 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 24- -Number of magazines in home by sex of informant m . 0 to 4 5 or more Totals Sex of informant . . magazines imagazmes % N Female 67. 2% 32. 8% 100 61 Male 83. 3 l6. 7 .100 96 5*F I (157) 2 x=4c9 ldL P<.M 112 TABLE 3. 25--Number of overalls owned by academic standing . . 0 to 2 3 or more Totals Academic standing . . pair pair % N Upper one-third 76. 0% 24. 0% 100 94 Lower two-thirds 50. 0 50. 0 100 61 (155) X2=12.04 ld.f. P<.001 TABLE 3. 26--Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by age of informant . Owns Does not own Totals Age of informant . . automatic automatic dryer dryer % N 18 years and under 15. 9% 84.1% 100 63 19 years and older 37. 2 62. 8 100 94 (157.) XZ=7.40 ld.f. P<.01. TABLE 3. 27—-Number of overalls owned by college major I . 0 to 2 3 or more 1 Totals Informant's college major . . pair pair % N Engineering 61. 9% 33.1% 100 21 Education 83. 8 16. 2 100 37 Business 90. 3 9. 7 100 31 Other 69.1 30. 9 100 66 (155) X =8.7l 3d.f. P<.05 113 TABLE 3. 28--Ownership of home freezer by size of home community Size of communit Have Do not have Totals y freezer freezer % N Open country to 9, 999 56. 9% 43.1% 100 72 10, 000 to 99, 999 29. 2 70. 8 100 48 100, 000 and over 37.1 62. 9 100 35 z (155)* x =9.85 2d.f. P<.01 *Two students not classifiable D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 3. 29--Church membership by academic standing _i _i 1 _ . . Catholic Totals Academic standing Protestant and other % N Upper one-third 78. 1% 21.9% 100 86 Lower two-thirds 62. 3 37.7 100 56 2 (142) x =3.88 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 30--Church versus other organizational membership by academic standing Academic standing Church A Other Totals ”/0 N Upper one-third 44. 8% 55. 2% 100 96 Lower two-thirds 24.6 75. 4 100 61 (157) Z X 25.69 ld.f. P<.02 114 TABLE 3. 31--Number of hours of television observed daily by academic standing A d , ta d' O to 2 hours 3 or more Totals ca emic s n ing hours % N Upper one-third 64. 6% 35. 4% 100 96 Lower two-thirds 42. 6 57. 4 100 61 (157) X2=6.43 ld.f. p<.oz TABLE 3. 32--Politica1 allegiance by sex of informant Sex of informant Democrat Republican Totals and other % N Female 45.9% 54. 1% 100 59 Male 24. 0 76. 0 100 92 (151) X227.34 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 3. 33--Church membership by sex of informant Catholic Totals S ’ - ex of informant Protestant and other .% N Female 83. 6% 16. 4% 100 56 Male 64.6 _ 35.4 100 86 (142) 2 X :6.02 ld.f. P<.02 115 TABLE 3. 34--Gardening versus other leisure activity by sex of informant . Yard or Other Totals Sex of informant . . garden act1v1ty % N Female 34. 4% 65.6% 100 61 Male 18. 8 81. 2 100 96 (157) X2=4.14 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 3. 35--Type of vacation by college major College major Stay at home Other Totals . % N Engineering 19. 0% 81. 0% 100 21 Education ' 35.1 66. 7 100 37 Business 41. 9 58.1 ' 100 31 Other 25. 0 75.0 100 68 (157) 2 x =16.17 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 3. 36--Number of movies attended monthly by college major Colle e ma'or 0 to l 2 or more Totals g J movie movies % N Engineering 14. 3% 85. 7% 100 21 Education 32. 4 67.6 100 37 Business 41. 9 58.1 100 31 Other 47.1 52.9 100 68 (157) 2 . . x =8.05 3d.f. P<.05 116 TABLE 3. 37--Golf-playing as a leisure activity by occupation of infor- mant' s father fi 1 . Does not Totals Occupational class Plays golf play golf % N White collar 21. 9% 78.1% 100 86 Blue collar 45. 2 54. 8 100 46 (132)* X2=5.25 ld.f. P<.05 *25 farm and nonclassifiable fathers. TABLE 3. 38--Radio or television as a leisure activity by occupation of informant" s father T.V. or Totals ' O Occupational class radio ther % N White collar 38. 4% 61. 6% 100 86 Blue collar 17.4 82.6 100 46 (132)* X2=5.22 ld.f. P<.05 *25 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 3. 39'--Civic versus other organizational membership by news- paper readership Kiwanis Totals . . . l\ewspaper readership Lions, Rotary Other % N Read paper daily 16.1% 83. 9% 100 87 Read paper less often ‘ 31. 4 68. 6 100 i 70 (157) 2 X 24.33 ld.f. P<.05 117 .CHAPTER VI 1. IMAGE OF THE SALESMAN One measure of the complexity of a society might be conceived to be the proportion of Salesmen in its occupational structure. More accurately, the growth in numbers of this particular occupation is associated with long term trends of population growth, industriali- zation, and urbanization of Western world economies. In the United States in particular, while no extremely large gains were seen for this occupation between the years 1950 and 1957, a definite gradual and persistent growth of sales workers has been taking place during the past several decades. In the retail trades alone, nearly 2, 500,000 persons are employed in sales activities, about one-half of whom are 1 women. In 1955, 2, 700 department stores in the country employed more than 800, 000 people. About one-half of these were sales people. This includes stores ranging in size from those employing twenty- five to those employing several thousand persons. Most major depart- ment stores, those with 500 or more employees, understandably, are located in the big cities. Department stores are seldom found in towns of less than 10, 000 population. Increasingly department stores 1 Donald J. Bogue, The Population 2: the United States (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), Table 17-A—l, p. 526. 118 are members of chain organizations, and increasingly in the metro- politan areas, downtown department stores are establishing branch stores in the suburban areas. The kind of Salesman for whom occupational life style impressions were sought in this study is described as a middle-aged male selling large appliances in a department store located in a community of approximately 100, 000 inhabitants. The following occupational imagery represents the responses of 153 informants. A. Job Related Characteristics The annual median wage projected for the Salesman was $5, 144. 00 with a narrow quartile range of $933. 00. On a national basis, 1950 census data reflect a median wage of $3, 237. 00 for Salesmen employed fifty weeks or more. 2 With adjustments for regional variations and specific type of job, this latter figure could reasonably be expected to coincide with the projected salary for Salesman. The median amount of education received by the Salesman was thought to be 12. 6 years. Nearly four-tenths of the respondents 1Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Hand- book, 1957 Edition, Bulletin No. 1215 (Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office), pp. 441-44. Herman P. Miller, Income _o_f 1313:: American People (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc., 1955), Table C-2, p. 178. Highest earnings for sales workers are received by men selling furniture, major appliances, or floor coverings who are paid commission earnings with minimum guarantees. These average $100 a week or more. Bureau of Labor Statistics, op. cit. , p. 445. 119 credited this worker with schooling beyond high school. 1950 census data reaffirm the realism of these projections by providing a median of 12. 1 years of schooling for Salesman.1 Projections pertaining to age started working for Salesman yielded a median of 20. 6 years; median for projected retirement age was 65. 2 years. Income for Salesman the year before retirement was $6, 800. 00; about sixteen percent of the informants visualized this to be $9, 000. 00 or more, however. Median weeks vacation assigned the Salesman was 2. 5. About two-fifths of the respondents believed the Salesman's father was also a white collar worker in the sales or clerical cate- gory. A similar proportion felt his father's occupation was of a blue collar type, equally divided between skilled trades and unskilled work. Only two percent suggested professional work for father of Salesman. Seven-tenths of the respondents thought the Salesman was born in his present community, thereby indicating an urban origin. Fewer than one-tenth believed he came from another state. His parents are visualized as living close to him; only two-fifths of the respondents indicated their residence being beyond the Salesman's present community. All but ten percent of the informants expect the Salesman to spend the remainder of his working days in his present community. As for Bookkeeper, the image of the Salesman reflects 1Bogue, pp. cit, Table l7-A-4, p. 557. 120 little mobility. The Salesman is considered to be disappointed with his work by only slightly more than ten percent of the informants; very happy with work by one-fifth. Almost forty percent of the respon- dents believe he would prefer other work, but ninety percent consider it unlikely that he could get into another type of work. Worries on-the-job mentioned for Salesman were most frequently related to being able to do the job or make sales. Over half of the respondents suggested this. Second most frequent job worry pertained to money and finances. Job security, competition, and job promotion concerns formed an evident pattern of job worries also. B. Family and Home Patterns The Salesman is pictured as married and the father of three children (median equals 3.4). Fewer than thirty percent of the respondents considered it likely that his wife works outside the home, and if she did, most often expected her to hold white collar jobs. All but ten percent did not expect the Salesman's wife to have help with housework; those that did limited this outside assistance to part- time help. Over two-thirds of the respondents anticipated these parents as spending quite a bit of time with their children, although in terms of disciplinary attitude seventy percent expected them to be more lenient than strict. 121 About eighty-five percent of the respondents expected the Salesman to own his own home with a median valuation of $13, 332. 00. More specifically, about two-thirds or more expected this home to contain three bedrooms, a dining room, and a garage. Between thirty and forty percent visualized the Salesman's home as including a recreation room and fireplace. Fewer expected a den or study, and two baths were expected least of all. With respect to worries at home for Salesman, money and family and children were suggested with proportionately average frequencies on an inter-occupational comparison. Most unique for Salesman worries-at-home were suggestions pertaining to "keeping up” socially. Nearly all respondents expected the male children of this lower white collar worker to attend college. Based on multiple expectancies, responses to occupation(s) male children will follow showed highest percentage ascriptions to clerical and sales jobs, then salaried professional jobs, and next in order, managerial jobs. C. Consumption Patterns Almost three-fourths of the informants believed the Salesman's family would maintain a vegetable garden. About two— thirds believed they would preserve food in some manner for later use. The Salesman's family is perceived with most definiteness as buying groceries at supermarkets. Ascriptions of clothing for Salesman revealed a median 122 of 4. 2 suits, overalls, a median of 2. 3. One-fifth of the respondents expected the Salesman to own a tuxedo; seventy percent expected his wife to own an evening dress. Eighty percent of the respondents believed clothing purchases for this family would be made at main department stores; thirty percent indicated economy stores, followed by thirteen percent who indicated men's or women's specialty shops. Although a number of respondents volunteered suggestions that the Salesman could get appliances at a discount, total appliance ascriptions for him are not disproportionate to those occupations with comparable projected incomes. Seventy-five percent of the informants ascribed an automatic washing machine to this worker; about two-fifths ascribed a home freezer. Fourteen percent believed him to own a dish-washer, which on a percentage basis, ranks him only below the Doctor and Sales Manager for this item. The median number of books believed to be owned by the Salesman was thirty-five. Median magazines was four. Kinds of magazines thought to be found in the home of Salesman were of the general pictorial type, e. g. Life, Look. Next in named frequency were popular general weeklies as Collier’s and Saturday Evening Post followed by popular women's magazines as McCall/s. Eighty-five percent of the respondents ascribed a Ford, Chevrolet or Plymouth to the Salesman; none within the most expen- sive category of cars was named. Fewer than ten percent suggested current year cars; about fifty percent ascribed automobiles that were 123 one or two years old. The Salesman is expected to save money primarily in bank savings accounts. In addition one-fourth of the respondents indicated insurance savings for him. Median value of insurance thought to be carried by Salesman was $10, 268.00 with the narrowest dispersion limits of any occupation. D. Social and Activity Patterns The Salesman is viewed as a Republican by about one- half of the informants. Somewhat fewer than one-third believe him to be a Democrat. 1. The no response items of twelve percent, plus Independent ascriptions, indicate a more than average difficulty in making political assignments for this worker. Seventy percent of the respondents view the Salesman as a Protestant; fifteen percent made no specific religious ascription. Organizational memberships for Salesman were fewer in number than for any other occupation. The most frequently named affiliations for Salesman were church groups of various kinds, followed by Masonic orders, the P. T. A. , and then the Elks. Examin- ation of organizational memberships projected for Salesman and other 1In the 1952 presidential election a Detroit study showed 46% of sales and clerical workers supported Eisenhower. State and national analyses show 60-70%. Evidence somewhat suggests that more clerks than salesmen supported Stevenson. See Mary Monk and Theodore M. Newcomb, "Perceived Consensus within and among Occupational Classes, " American Sociological Review, Vol, 21, No. 1 (February, 1956), p. 74. 124 occupations gives the impression that this lower white collar worker belongs neither in the higher status organizations nor to the lower ones but rather occupies a no-man's land in terms of formal associations. The suggested leisure activities for Salesman listed in order of frequency are: golf and fishing, television or radio, reading, hunting, bowling or pool, plus other activities with smaller percentages. The most distinctively projected vacation activities for this worker are staying at a cottage and touring or sight seeing. No one expected him to travel to other countries, and not many expected him to spend his vacation at a resort. Only the Assembly Worker and Carpenter were expected to watch as much or more television daily than the 3. 2 hours projected for Salesman. Median number of movies attributed monthly to Sales- man was 2. 5, the same number as for Teacher, but he is expected to attend about one-third fewer concerts or plays. Median number of plays or concerts attended per year for Salesman was 1. 6. Family friends frequently associated with by Salesman were thought to number between one and four by two-thirds of the responding group; about a quarter of the respondents increased this number to include between five and ten other families. The majority of respondents confined these friends, spatially, to the same neigh- borhood lived in by Salesman. 125 Summary Here is seen an urban oriented worker whose precarious statuses shift in rank with Bookkeeper and Carpenter. In terms of rewards, he falls behind Carpenter but above Bookkeeper, and in some instances, above Teacher. Essentially geared to material consumption, his occupational success or failure is easily measured, and is independently attained without organized social or professional support. Organizational memberships for Salesman reflect lower middle class assignments. He was expected to be a Republican most often. 126 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR SALESMAN Of the 399 tests of significance performed on the Sales- man data, 8. 3 percent were significant at the . 05 level and 12. 0 were significant at the . 10 level and below. In respect to converging images, 12.8 percent were significantly different at the .90 level and above. Size of community was the most distinguishing variable relating to Salesman. 12.3 percent of the tests in relation to size of informant's home community were significantly different at the . 05 level and less. See Table 4.0. Work related characteristics showed more significant differences than any other type of image for Salesman at the . 10 level and below. A. Job Related Characteristics Eleven job related characteristics pertaining to Sales- man, significant at the . 05 level and less, were found for the following variables: academic standing, college major, sex, occupation of father, and size of informant's home community, two each. One significant difference was found for newspaper readership. In relation to academic standing, the lower two-thirds were lunaminous in believing that the Salesman had from 0 to 2 weeks vacation, while about nine percent of those with higher academic standing felt he would have a longer vacation. A greater percentage 127 of the upper academic group also believed that the Salesman would prefer other work than did those with lower academic standing. Education majors projected less income the year before retirement for Salesman than did any other major. About sixty per- cent of the students in engineering and "other'I categories assigned over $6, 000. 00 the year before retirement, while less than half of the business and less than one—third of the education majors did so. Education majors also ascribed monetary worries on-the-job to Salesman with greatest frequency. Females were more likely to project higher incomes and fewer working hours for the Salesman than were males. Only twenty percent of the females thought that the Salesman worked over eight hours a day, whereas forty percent of the males ascribed more than eight working hours per day. 3 (These support Hypothesis A.) Table 4. 7 shows that about one-half of the students with fathers in the white collar group believed that the Salesman started to work at age twenty-three or less, while fewer than one—tenth of the blue collar group visualized an age this young. The white collar informants also believed the Salesman would have a shorter working day than did the blue collar group. See Table 4. 8. (See Hypothesis D.) 1See Tables 4.1 and 4. 2. 2 See Tables 4. 3 and 4. 4. 3See Tables 4. 5 and 4. 6. 128 Students from large communities felt that the Salesman started to work at a younger age than did students from the more nearly rural communities. Respondents from more urban communities believed the Salesman to be happier in his work than did informants from small communities. As can be observed in Table 4. 11 daily newspaper readers felt that the Salesman had less education than those who read news- papers less often. Only one-fifth of the regular readers ascribed more than a high school education for the Salesman. B. Family and Home Patterns Two significant differences were found to be related to the Salesman's family and home patterns and newspaper readership; two such differences were also found in regard to occupation of the informant's father. One significant difference was found for both age and college major. Those students who read papers daily projected money worries at home for the Salesman more often than did students who read papers less often; informants who read papers daily also ascribed a greater number of bedrooms to the home of Salesman than did the less frequent readers. Informants with fathers in the white collar group assigned smaller families for Salesman than did blue collar informants. lSee Tables 4. 9 and 4.10. ZSee Tables 4.12 and 4.13. 129 Students from the white collar group were less likely to expect the Salesman's wife to be employed than were students in the blue collar 1 group. Younger informants visualized larger families for the Salesman than did older informants. Table 4. 16 shows that about one—third of the younger informants indicated four or more children while less than fifteen percent of the older students did so. As can be seen in Table 4.17, engineering majors were most likely to envision a professional occupation for male children of the Salesman. Business majors were least likely to ascribe pro- fessional occupations for them. (This relates to Hypothesis C.) C. Consumption Patterns For the eight significant differences found among cons sumption responses for Salesman, two appeared for the variable academic standing, two for sex, two for size of community, and one each was found for college major and age of informant. The academically inferior respondents in greater per- centage than the better performers proposed incomes of $10, 000.00 or more for the Salesman, and were also less apt to believe that the Salesman purchases clothing in economy chains. 1See Tables 4.14 and 4.15. 2See Tables 4.18 and 4.19. 130 Male informants twice as often as females ascribed an automatic clothes dryer to the Salesman. Males also assigned four or fewer magazines to the Salesman more frequently than did females. Community size differences show respondents from the largest sized communities ascribed the least formal attire to the Salesman. These same most urban informants were least inclined to believe that the Salesman cultivated a vegetable garden. Table 4.24 provides data concerning college major differences. In this instance education majors least expected the Salesman to own an automatic clothes dryer in his home. -About one- half of the engineers thought he would, representing the most generous ascriptions for clothes dryers. Older students in Table 4. 25 more frequently than younger students ascribed five or more suits to the Salesman. The majority for both groups however, assigned fewer than five suits. D. Social and Activity Patterns Three significant differences were found relating to size of community. Academic standing, age, college major, news- paper readership, and sex of informant each yielded one significant difference for a total of eight in this area of response. There was a greater tendency on the part of the least urban respondents to make Protestant church ascriptions for Salesman; 1See Tables 4. 20 and 4.21. 2 See Tables 4. 22 and 4.123. 131 respondents from the largest sized community were least inclined to expect the Salesman to spend his vacation at home. In addition, a substantially greater percentage of least urban respondents per- ceived geographically closer friendship patterns for Salesman when compared to responses by most urban informants. Respondents from the lower two-thirds of their high school class suggested golf as a leisure activity for Salesman less often than did the better academic performers, Table 4.29. Family friends for Salesman were more frequently thought to reside in his same neighborhood by younger informants compared to older respondents. See Table 4. 30. The miscellaneous subject matter majors categorized as "other" were found to be most definite in limiting the Salesman's play or concert attendance to fewer than two performances yearly. Play and concert attendance for Salesman also reflected different expectancies based on newspaper readership. For this variable the regular readers more emphatically limited the Salesman's attendance to fewer than two yearly. Males almost unaminously failed to suggest spending time with family as a leisure activity for Salesman as is evident from data in Table 4.33. 1 See Tables 4. 26, 4. 27, and 4. 28. ZSee Tables 4. 31 and 4. 32. 132 TABLE 4. 0--Summary of significant associations for Salesman Percent of associations at the . 05 level or less 1.1...ng roan v n e Work Family Consumption patterns patterns patterns patterns (N =15) (N =12) (N =15) (N = 57) Age 0. 8. 3 6. 7 5. 4 Sex 13. 0. 0 l3. 3 8. 8 Major 13. 8. 3 6.7 8.8 Academic standing 13. 0.0 13. 3 8.8 Occupation of father 13. 16. 7 0. 0 7. 0 Size of community 13. 0. 0 l3. 3 12. 3 Newspaper readership 6. 16. 7 0. 0 7. 0 Totals 10. 7.1 7. 6 8. 3 133 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR SALESMAN A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 4. l--Length of vacation by academic standing A ad . ta d' 0 to 2 More than 2 ' Totals C emic S n ing week‘s weeks % N Upper one-third 90.1% 8. 9% 100 81 Lower two-thirds 100. 0 '0. 0 100 72 2 (153) x 26.51 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 4. 2--Preference for other work by academic standing : Prefer Do not Totals Academic standing other ' prefer % 1 N work other work Upper one-third ' 71. 6% 28. 4% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 54.2 45.8 100 72 2 . (152)1 x =4.27 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 4. 3--Income received the. year before retirement by college majbr College major 0 to $5, 999 $6,000 or more WTotal; 0 Engineering 37-5% 62. 5% 100 16 Education , 70. 8 29. 2 100 23 Business 54. 8 45. 2 '100 30 Other 39.0 ‘ 61.0 100 80 2 I (149) x 28.90 3d.f. P<.05 For this and following Salesman tables discrepancies be- tween total number of responses and 153 equal no response items. 134 TABLE 4. 4--Monetary worries on the job by college major Worry Do not worry . Totals College major about money about money ,7 N on the job on the job 0 Engineering 11. 8% 88. 2% 100 16 Education 44. 4 55. 6 100 24 Business 18. 4 81. 6 100 31 Other 13.1 86. 9 100 82 (153) X2213.68 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 4. 5--Amount of money earned last year by sex of informant 0 to $4, 000 to $5, 000 to $7, 000 Totals $3, 999 $4, 999 $6, 999 and over % N Sex of informant Female . 18. 6% 22. 0% 28. 8% 30. 6% 100 57 Male 9. 6 38. 3 40. 4 11. 7 100 92 (149) 2 X 210.94 3d.f. P<.02 TABLE 4. 6--Number of hours worked daily by sex of informant More than Totals S . ex of informant 0 to 8 hours 8 hours % N Female 79. 7% 20. 3% 100 59 Male 60. 6 39. 4 100 93 _ (152) 2 X =4.54 ld.f. P<.05 135 TABLE 4. 7--Age started working by occupation of informant's father Occu ational class Under 23 23 years Totals p years of age or over % N White collar 48. 4% 51. 6% 100 95 Blue collar 8. 7 91. 3 100 46 2 (141)* x =19.67 ld.f. P<.001 *12 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 4.8--Number of hours worked daily by occupation of informant's father . More than Totals Occupational class 1 to 8 hours 8 hours % N White collar 37. 9% 62.1% 100 94 Blue collar 13. 0 87. 0 100 46 , y . * 2 . (140) x =8.0 ld.f. P<.01 *12 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 4. 9--Age started working by size of home community , , Under 23 23 years Totals Size of community , years of age or over % N Open country to 9, 999 60. 0% 40. 0% 100 50 10,000 to 99,999 81.0 19.0 100 63 100, 000 and over 84. 6 15. 4 100 39 2 (152)* .x :9.11 2d.f. P<.05 *One student not classifiable 136 TABLE 4. 10--Attitude toward work by size of home community Size of community Very happy Other WTotal; a Open country to 9, 999 13. 5% 82. 7% 100 50 10, 000 to 99, 999 25. 4 74. 6 100 62 100, 000 and over 20. 5 79. 5 100 39 2 (151)* X =23.93 2d.f. P<.001 *One student not classifiable TABLE 4. 11--Amount of education received by newspaper readership Ne s a er readershi . High school More than Totals w p p . p or less high school % N Read paper daily 79. 8% 20. 2% 100 89 Read paperless often 64.1 35.9 100 62 ' (151) X2=3.91 ld.f. P<.05 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 4.12--Monetary worries at home by newspaper readership Worry . Do not worry . Totals Newspaper readership about money about money % N at home at home Read paper daily '64. 0% 36. 0% 100 89 Read paper less often 45. 3 54. 7 100 64 (153) X22457 ld.f. P<.05 137 TABLE 4. l3--Number of bedrooms in home by newspaper readership News a er readershi 0 to 2 3 or more Totals p p p bedrooms bedrooms % N Read paper daily 27. 0% 73. 0% 100 87 Read paper less often 46. 9 53.1 100 62 2 (149) 'x =5.61 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 4. l4--Family size by occupation of informant's father O at' al lass 0 to 3 4 or more Totals “up 1°“ C children children % N White collar 85. 3% 14. 7% " 100 95 Blue collar , 67. 4 32. 6 100 46 2 . ’ (141)* x =5.01 d.f. P<.05 *12 farm. and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 4. 15--Likelihood of wife's employment by occupation of informant's father ‘ Occupational class Not likely Quite likely Totals or never or steady % N White collar 72. 6% 27. 4% 100 95 Blue collar ' 30. 4 69. 6 100 46 (141)* 2 x =21.08 d.f. P<.001 *12 farm and nonclassifiable fathers 138 TABLE 4. l6--Family size by age of informant A e of informant 0 to 3 , 4 or more Totals 3 children children % N 18 years and under 71. 0% 29. 0% 100 69 19 years and older 85. 7 l4. 3 100 83 2 (152) X :4.10 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 4. l7--Occupation male children will follow by college major College major Professional Other (fetal; - 0 Engineering 50.0% 50. 0% 100 16 Education 24. 3 75.7 100 24 Business 18.8 81.3 100 31 Other 35. 8 64. 2 100 81 2 ' (152) X =8.49 3d.f. P<.05 C. Consumption Patterns TABLE 4. 18--Amount of insurance carried by academic standing Academic standing 0 to $9,999 $10,000 or more o/Total; , 0 Upper one-third 42. 0% 58. 0% 100 78 Lower two-thirds 25. 0 75. 0 100 68 2 U46) X :4.16 ld.f. P<.01 139 TABLE 4. 19--Practice of buying clothing in economy chains by academic standing , Do not buy , , 5W clothing clothing in Totals Academic standing . in economy econom a] N chains chainsy 0 Upper one-third 39. 5% 68. 5% 100 81 Lower two-thirds 20. 8 79.2 100 72 2 (153) P < . 05 x =5.39 ld.f. TABLE 4. 20 --Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by sex of informant Own , Do not own - . . Totals Sex of informant automatic automatic ‘70 N dryer dryer Female 16. 4% 83. 6% 100 59 Male 36. 5 63. 5 100 94 2 (153) x =6.28 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 4. 21-—Number of magazines in home by sex of informant . 0 to 4 5 or more Totals Sex of informant , , magaz1nes magazmes % N Female 68. 4% 31. 6% 100 57 Male 91. 3 8.7 100 92 2 (149) X :11.39 ld.f. P<.001 140 TABLE 4. 22--Ownership of formal wear by size of home community No tuxedo, One or more Totals Size of community no evening items of dress formal wear % N Open country to 9. 999 28.0% 72. 0% 100 50 10,000 to 99.999 20. 6 79.4 100 63 100, 000 and over 43. 6 56. 4 100 39 2 (152) X =6.20 2d.f. P<.01 *One student not classifiable TABLE 4. 23--Cultivation of vegetable garden by size of home community Have no. Have . . Totals Size of community vegetable vegetable % N garden garden Open country to 9, 999 26. 0% 74. 0% 100 50 10, 000 to 99,999 15.9 84.1 100 63 100, 000 and over 46. 2 53. 8 100 39 2 (152) X =11.24 2d.f. P<.01 *One student not classifiable TABLE 4. 24--Ownership of automatic clothes dryer in home by college major . Own Do not own Totals College major dryer dryer % N Engineering 43. 8% 56. 2% 100 16 Education 4. 2 95. 8 100 24 Business 35. 5 64. 5 100 31 Other 28. 0 72. 0 - 100 82 2 (153) X =9.68 3d.f. P<.05 141 TABLE 4. 25--Number of suits owned by age of informant A e of informant 0 to 4 5 or more Totals g suits suits % N 18 years and under 84.1% 15. 9% 100 69 19 years and older 69. 0 31. 0 100 84 2 (153) X :3.87 ld.f. P<.05 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 4. 26--Church membership by size of home community _ _ j 4— Size of community Protestant Other WEOtaII: Open country to 9, 999 66. 0% 34. 0% 100 40 10, 000 to 99,999 81.0 19.0 100 53 100, 000 and over 59. 0 41. 0 100 37 2 (130)* x =6.27 2d.f. P<.05 *One student not classifiable TABLE 4. 27--Type of vacation by size of home community Size of community Stay at home Other 7Total; a Open country to 9, 999 2,4. 0% 76. 0% 100 50 10, 000 to 99, 999 39. 7 60. 3 100 63 100, 000 and over 17. 9 82.1 100 39 2 (152)* x =6.4l 2d.f. P<.05 *One student not classifiable 142 TABLE 4. 28--Place of residence of family friends by size of home com- munity Same Totals . . E Size of community neighborhood lsewhere % N Open country to 9, 999 88.0% 12. 0% 100 50 10, 000 to 99, 999 63. 5 36. 5 100 63 100, 000 and over 53. 8 46. 2 100 39 2 (152)* X =13.53 2d.f. P<.01 TABLE 4. 29--Golf as a leisure activity by academic standing * m Does not Totals . . G Academic standing olf golf % N Upper one-third 46. 9% 53.1% 100 81 Lower two-thirds 27. 8 72. 2 100 72 2 (153) X =5.l4 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 4.30--Place of residence of family friends by age of informant H Same Totals A f' f t El ge o in orman neighborhood sewhere % N 18 years and under 75. 4% 24. 6% 100 69 19 years and older 51. 2 48. 8 100 84 (153) 2 X =8.40 ld.f. P<.01 143 TABLE 4. 31--Number of plays or concerts attended last year by college major Colle e ma'or 0 to l 2 or more Totals 3 J performance performances % N Engineering 56. 3% 43. 8% 100 16 Education 58. 3 41. 7 100 24 Business 51. 6 48. 4 100 31 Other 68. 3 31. 7 100 82 2 (153) x =16.26 3d.f. p<.001 TABLE 4. 32--Number of plays or concerts attended last year by news- paper readership News a er readershi 0 to l 2 or more Totals p p p performance performances % N Read paper daily 70. 8% 29. 2% 100 89 Read paper less often 50. 0 50. 0 100 64 Z (153) x =5.97 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 4. 33--Spending time with family as a leisure activity by sex of informant Sex of informant Spend time Other Totals With family activ1ties % N Female 13. 6% 86. 4% 100 59 Male 4. 3 95.7 100 94 (153) 2 x 24.13 ld.f. P<.05 144 CHAPTER VII I. IMAGE OF THE SALES MANAGER The Sales Manager may be viewed as the "foreman" in the world of selling. He is midway between those who sell commodities directly to consumers and those in the top echelons of advertising and promotion who are often remotely removed from product pro- duction, as well as the consuming public. These latter persuaders deal in visions, intuitive guesses, and hunches about what the public wants or should have, the effectiveness of which can seldom be evaluated. It remains for the Sales Manager to direct the "doers" and be responsible ultimately for area sales and product distribution. While the specific duties and job demands of the Sales Manager vary according to the product with which he deals and the organization of the company he represents, it should be of interest to see if this same ambiguity extends to his social and community roles according to the following perceptions of 148 informants. A. Job Related Characteristics The median annual salary assigned to the Sales .Manager was $10, 242. 40. About a fourth of the informants felt that he earned as much as $15, 000. 00 yearly. The quartile range for salary pro- jections was $3, 751. 65, second only to the range of income ascriptions l for Doctor. Census data reveal that the annual salary for all Sales 1 Managers employed fifty weeks or more in 1950 amounted to a median 145 of $4, 411. 00.1 When the scope of this job according to the intro- ductory description is considered, the income projections made by these respondents should be regarded as less of an overestimate. Median pre-retirement income suggested for the Sales Manager was $11, 000. 00; almost one-third of the informants felt that his income would be as high as $20, 000. 00. The Sales Manager was visualized as working 8. 8 hours a day. Informants believed he started working at this job at a median age of twenty-nine years, and that he would stop working at a median age of 65. 10. The median age for starting work was the highest projected for any of the occu- pations studied, reflecting recognition by respondents that this type of job most often is attained only after a number of years of very successful job performance as a lower level salesman. He was said to have a median number of 3. 31 weeks vacation, second only to Teacher. The Sales Manager was assigned a median figure of 16. 2 years of schooling; eight-tenths of the respondents thought he would have more than a high school education. Census data relating to schooling received by Sales Managers range from medians of 11. 3 2 . to 13. 9 years. Based on this comparison, an overestimate of Herman P. Miller, Income of the American People m—_—— (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1955), p. 178. 2 Donald J. Bogue, The Population _o_f the United States (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), Table l7-A-4, p. 555. 146 education was projected, but at least respondents are aware that in many such jobs, especially in manufacturing, technical training such as engineering, chemistry, and pharmacy are required. The occupation ascribed to the Sales Manager‘s father was predominately a white collar occupation. Only one-tenth of the informants believed it would have been a blue collar job. In respect to projected place of birth for the Sales Manager, less than one-fourth of the respondents felt that he was born in the community in which he is now living. However, three- fourths of the informants believe that he will spend the rest of his working days in his present community. Fewer than one-fourth believed his parents lived in the same town as he. The Sales Manager was seen as having the greatest geographic mobility of all occupations studied. The Sales Manager is thought to be happy in his work; only two percent thought that he would be "somewhat disappointed. " Less than three percent felt that he would prefer other work, and only four percent regard it "very likely" or "likely" that he will go into another type of work. Aviation cadet aspirants who later occupied jobs as Sales Managers came from urban homes with books and well educated parents. They had experienced success in school athletics, selling, club activities, speaking, journalism, and Boy Scouts. Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1959), p. 221. 147 Projections relating to worries on-the-job reveal greatest concern for being able to do the job; more than half of the informants expressed the pressure and ”producing" aspects of this position. Other worries mentioned were doing a good job, concern for people under him, general economic conditions, money, and competition. There were 209 responses for worries on-the-job. B. Family and Home Patterns The Sales Manager's family is projected to have a median of 3. 4 children; only two percent of the respondents felt that his wife was likely to be working. If his wife did work, she would have a white collar job. One-half of the respondents ascribed help with her housework. Most of the respondents believed that the Sales Manager would spend quite a bit of time with his children, and the same pro- portion thought he would be lenient rather than strict with his children. Approximately ninety-nine percent of the informants thought he would own his home. This figure was higher than for any other occupational group. The median cost of home for Sales Manager amounted to $21, 282. 00, second in value only to the home of the Doctor. The majority of informants thought the Sales Manager‘s home would have three or more bedrooms, a dining room, recreation room, fireplace, garage, two baths and a den. Worries projected at home were widely scattered. Slightly more than one-fifth of the informants thought he would worry about money, bills, or taxes; about a fifth thought that he 148 would worry about work in general or about the family in general. Other worries were family happiness and concern for children's education, the latter being suggested more frequently for Sales Manager than for any other occupational group. Practically all of the informants believed his male children would go to college; all expected male children would pursue white collar jobs, and the largest percentage indicated managerial positions for them. C. Consumption Patterns About one—half of the respondents conceived the family of the Sales Manager as having a vegetable garden and about three- fifths thought that food would be preserved for later use by this family. Food purchases by phone were thought to be made by one- fifth of the informants; three-fourths specified shopping at super- markets. Shopping at neighborhood stores was mentioned least for Sales Manager than for all occupations studied. Informants designated a median number of 5. 8 suits and 2. 4 pairs of overalls for the Sales Manager. Four-fifths of the respondents ascribed a tuxedo to his wardrobe, and over ninety percent an evening dress to his wife's wardrobe. Clothing for this family was believed to be purchased most often in main department stores in-town, in men and women's specialty shops, or in main out-of—town department stores. Practically all respondents indicated owndership of a 149 television set, record player, and automatic washing machine for Sales Manager. More than one-half ascribed a home freezer and an automatic clothes dryer. An air conditioner and a Hi Fi set was pictured by about one-fifth of the respondents. The percentages for the various home appliances for Sales Manager were second only to those for Doctor. Median number of books believed to be in the home of the Sales Manager was 68. 33; only Doctor and Teacher were assigned a higher figure. The median number of magazines expected was 4. 50. According to type, three—fifths of the responses indicated general pictorial magazines as Life and Look and news weeklies as H; _S_. News; over one-third mentioned popular weeklies as Collier/s and Saturday Eveninj Post, popular monthlies as McCall’s and Ladies Home Journal, and business magazines like Fortune. Fortune was ascribed to the Sales Manager more often than for any other occupation, as were other business magazines. Over one-half of the respondents assigned a new car to the Sales Manager; the greatest percentage thought it would be a Buick, DeSoto, Oldsmobile, or Mercury. Fewer than one-fifth pro- jected a Ford, Chevrolet or Plymouth as a main car for the Sales Manager. About sixty percent of the informants believed this family would own two cars. All of the respondents felt that the Sales Manager would save money. Over two-thirds thought he would have a savings 150 account; about three-fifths believed he would have a checking account and stocks and bonds; over one-half thought he would have insurance savings; and one-fourth thought he would have real estate investments besides his home. All informants thought the Sales Manager would have life insurance yielding a median of $22, 333. 00. Only the Doctor had a higher expected amount of life insurance. D. Social and Activity Patterns The Sales Manager is pictured as a Republican by over two-thirds of the respondents;1 a fifth view him as a Democrat. Twelve informants did not assign any political party to him. Fewer than three percent believed him not to be a church member; almost three-fourths perceive him as a Protestant, while an eighth of the informants saw him as a Catholic. Two percent viewed him as a member of the Jewish faith. Of the 355 responses supplied concerning organizational membership, service clubs and church groups were named most frequently. Six—tenths of the respondents suggested civic-service club membership; one-third mentioned church groups. The Masons, Elks, and Country Club were specified by approximately one-fifth of the informants. The Masonic lodge was mentioned more often for Sales Manager than for any other occupation. 1Among urban residents those in a higher status occupation, such as professional or managerial, are likely to vote Republican. Duncan MacRae, Jr. , "Occupations and the Congressional Vote, 1940- 1950," American Sociological Review, Vol. 20, No. 3 (June, 1955), pp. 332-40. 151 Over one-half of the informants suggested golf as a leisure activity for the Sales Manager; one-third mentioned base- ball; about one-fourth specified reading and television. Golf was named more often for Sales Manager than for any other occupation considered. Most informants believe that the Sales Manager will stay at a cottage or go touring as a vacation activity. About one- seventh of the respondents thought that he would travel to other countries. The median number of movies per month for Sales Manager was 2. 66; median number of plays or concerts yearly was 3. 98 performances. This latter figure is surpassed only by Teacher and Doctor. Two-fifths of the informants felt that the Sales Manager's family would visit from five to nine other family friends living in the same neighborhood and elsewhere in town for the most part. Number of family friends for Sales Manager are second only to Teacher. Summary In terms of status, the image of the Sales Manager compares favorably with that of the Doctor. His material ascriptions in terms of money and ownership of consumer goods are seen as SeCond only to those for Doctor. As an outer-directed, urban aChiever who is conscious of his movement, he reflects more 152 upward mobility perhaps than does any of the other workers. He is perceived as a Republican in even greater proportions than the Doctor. His expected social affiliations and organizatiOnal assignments rank above those for the Teacher. Here, taken altogether, is a case where job title and occupational ambiguity function to yield more esteem than might normally be anticipated. 153 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR SALES MANAGER Of the 399 tests of significance performed on Sales Manager data, 8. 5 percent were significant at the . 05 level and below; 14. 3 percent were significant at the . 10 level and below. The latter figure, 14. 3 percent, is higher than for any other occu— pational group studied. In respect to a converging image, 14. 3 percent of the tests were also significant at the . 90 level and above. Academic standing of informant was the most discriminating variable for Sales Manager; 26. 3 percent of the tests relating to academic standing were significant at‘ the . 05 level. Next most discriminating variable was sex of informant with 17. 5 percent of the tests significantly different at the . 05 level and below. See Table 5. 0. Social and activity patterns was the category of response most significantly different; 20 percent of these patterns were signi- ficantly different, the highest for any occupational group. A. Job Related Characteristics Ten significant differences were found in this area of response. The academic standing variable provided four differences, three appeared for sex, and one each was found for age, occupation of father, and size of community. The academically superior respondents differed from their counterparts by assigning more incomes to the Sales Manager 154 under the $15, 000 bracket. The better academic performers more often believed that the Sales Manager worked eight hours or less daily. Future income of the Sales Manager was expected to be higher by respondents from the lower two-thirds of their high school class. Nearly all of the better academic performers perceived the Sales Manager's father as holding a white collar type job.1 Male income ascriptions for Sales Manager were con- siderably higher than female projections. However, more males believed that the Sales Manager's father held a blue collar job. On the other hand, more females than males perceived the Sales Manager as being happy with his work. Older students in greater proportion than younger students, as seen in Table 5. 8, believed that the Sales Manager's beginning working age was at least twenty-seven years. Respondents with white collar fathers were more emphatic in stating that the Sales Manager's father filled a white collar job than were blue collar informants. See Table 5. 9. (This supports Hypothesis D.) Inspection of Table 5. 10 reveals a rural-urban gradation with respect to income perceptions for Sales Manager. Respondents from the smaller communities were more prone to make larger in- come assignments for this occupation. 'See Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5. 3, and 5.4. 2See Tables 5. 5, 5. 6, and 5. 7 for sex differences. 155 B. Family and Home Patterns With three significant differences for the variable academic standing, two for informant's college major, and one each for age, newspaper readership, and sex, a total of eight significant differences were found for responses concerning home and family of the Sales Manager. There was a stronger tendency on the part of the better academic performers to expect male children of the Sales Manager to attend college. Twice as many academic inferiors as better performers visualized a four bedroom home for this job occupant. A higher proportion of the academic inferiors also did not mention money as a home worry for the Sales Manager. Examination of college major differences points out the similarity of views held by education and all "other" students in least expecting the wife of Sales Manager to "never" work out- side the home. Education majors were distinctive in representing the greatest proportion who thought these parents spent quite a bit of time with their children. Engineers made this observation least. (See Hypothesis C.) Older students as seen in Table 5.16 assigned more professional work to male children of Sales Manager than did younger students. Less regular newspaper readers ascribed more children 1See Tables 5.11, 5.12, and 5.13. 2see Tables 5.14 and 5.15. 156 to the Sales Manager than did daily readers. See Table 5. 17. More females than males believed that the Sales Manager's wife worked outside the home for pay according to Table 5. 18. C. Consumption Patterns Only four significant differences relating to consumption were found for Sales Manager. These appeared as two in number for the variable academic standing, and one each for age and sex. A preponderance of better academic performers be- lieved the Sales Manager utilized a bank checking account. However, nearly twenty percent more of the academic inferiors ascribed a home freezer to the Sales Manager.1 As seen in Table 5. 21 proportionally more of the younger students perceived the utilization of a bank checking account by the Sales Manager. More males in Table 5. 22 than females assigned over twenty-six books to the home of this worker. D. Social and Activity Patterns A total of sixteen significant differences appeared in this category for Sales Manager. Six were found for the variable academic standing, five for sex, two for age, and one each resulted for newspaper readership, occupation of father, and size of Community. ‘ 1See Tables 5.19 and 5. 20. 157 Tables 5. 23 through 5. 28 present data concerning aca- demic standing of informant. Substantially more of the academic superiors made Republican political ascriptions for Sales Manager. The better students also made more frequent Protestant church ascriptions for him. Reading as a leisure activity for this job occupant was suggested more frequently by the academic inferior respondents. The better academic performers mentioned church groups as a type of organizational membership for Sales Manager more often than did their counterparts. This same group of aca- demic superiors, more often than the poorer performers, indicated staying at home and touring as vacation activities for Sales Manager. Females made more Protestant ascriptions for Sales Manager than did males; females also mentioned P. T. A. member- ships more frequently than did males. 1 Females suggested both reading and bowling as leisure activities for Sales Manager more often than males did. Males, however, ascribed more hours of daily television to Sales Manager more often than did females. 2 (These differences support Hypothesis A.) With respect to age differences, older students more frequently suggested main civic clubs as organizational memberships held by the Sales Manager; older respondents also named golf as a 1See Tables 5. 29 and 5. 30. 2See Tables 5. 31, 5. 32, and 5. 33. 158 leisure activity more frequently than respondents aged eighteen and l younger. Protestant church membership ascriptions were made for Sales Manager to a greater extent by irregular newspaper readers as seen in Table 5. 36. Respondents with blue collar fathers projected radio or television as a leisure activity for Sales Manager less often than did white collar respondents. See Table 5. 37. Respondents from larger communities more often limited friendship patterns for Sales Manager to the same community in which he resides, somewhat in contrast to beliefs held by respon- dents from smaller communities. See Table 5. 38. 1 See Tables 5. 34 and 5. 35. 159 TABLE 5. 0--Summary of significant associations for Sales Manager Percent of associations at the . 05 level or less Indaep:::ient Totals V n es Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N=15) (N=12) (N=15) (N=15) (N257) Age 6. 7 8. 3 6. 13. 3 8. 8 Sex 20.0 8. 3 6. 33. 3 17.6 Major 0. 0 l6. 7 0. 0. 0 3. 5 Academic standing 26. 7 25. 0 13. 40. 0 26. 3 Occupation of father 6. 7 0. 0 0. 6. 7 3. 5 Size of community 6. 7 0. 0 0. 6. 7 3. 5 Newspaper readership 0. 0 8. 3 0. 6. 7 3. 5 Totals 9. 5 9. 5 3. 15. 2 9. 5 (N = 399) 160 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR SALES MANAGER A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 5. l--Amount of money earned last year by academic standing Academic standing 0 to $14,999 $15,000 or more 7T0“? 0 Upper one-third 81. 0% l9. 0% 100 75 Lower two-thirds 59. 4 40. 6 100 66 2 (141)1 X =7.31 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. 2--Hours worked daily by academic standing . . 0 to 8 More than Totals Academic standing hours 8 hours % N Upper one-third 67.1% 32. 9% 100 78 Lower two-thirds 46. 4 53. 6 100 68 2 (146) X :5.64 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 5.3-~lncome received the year before retirement by academic standing . . ~ Totals Academic standing 0 to $14,999 $15,000 or more (7 N 0 Upper one-third 57. 0% 43. 0% 100 76 Lower two-thirds 37. 7 62. 3 100 66 F2 (142) X =4.74 ld.f. P<.05 ’7 For this and following Sales Manager tables discrepancies between total number of responses and 148 equal no response items. 161 TABLE 5. 4--Occupation of father by academic standing Academic standing White collar Blue collar WTOtaII: 0 Upper one-third 94. 9% 5.1% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 81. 2 18. 8 100 69 2 (148) x =5.58 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 5--Amount of money earned last year by sex of informant sex of informant 0 to $4,000 to $5,000 to $7, 000 Totals $3. 999 $4. 999 $6. 999 and over % N Female 27. 6% 17. 2% 27. 6% 27. 6% 100 55 Male 12.2 14.4 18.9 54. 5 100 86 2 (141) X :7.95 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 6--Occupation of father by sex of informant Sex of informant White collar Blue collar gootalsv , Female 55. 2% 44. 8% '100 58 Male 31.1 68. 9 100 90 2 (148) x =7.66 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. 7--Attitude toward work by sex of informant Very happy diS:;ne:v.1I1::d Totals Sex of informant or fairly pp 1 happy or very % N disappointed Female 58. 6% 41. 4% 100 58 Male 35. 6 64. 4 100 89 (147) 2 x =7.38 ld.f. P<.01 162 TABLE 5. 8--Age started working by age of informant ‘— m , 27 years Totals Age of informant Under 27 and older % N 18 years and under 51. 4% 48. 6% 100 68 19 years and older 33. 3 66. 7 100 76 2 (144) X =4.24 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 9--Occupation of father by occupation of informant's father Occupational class White collar Blue collar WTOtalI: 0 White collar 91. 3% 8. 7% 100 92 Blue collar 76. 3 26. 7 100 38 2 (130)* X =4.07 ld.f. P<.05 *18 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 5. 10--Income received the year before retirement by size of home community Size of community 0 to $14,999 $15,000 or more WTotal; 0 Open country to 9, 999 25. 0% 75. 0% 100 46 10, 000 to 99, 999 48. 0 52. 0 100 48 100, 000 and over 52.1 47. 9 100 46 2 (140)* X :12.45 2d.f. P<.01 *Two students not classifiable 163 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 5. 11--Likelihood of male children going to college by academic standing Academic standin Will not Will Totals g attend college attend college % N Upper one-third 16. 7% 83. 3% 100 78 Lower two-thirds 32. 8 67. 2 100 69 2 (147) X =4.38 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 12--Number of bedrooms in home by academic standing Academic standin 1 to 3 4 or more Totals g bedrooms bedrooms % N Upper one-third 83. 5% 16. 5% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 62.3 37. 7 100 69 2 (148) X =7.49 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. l3--Monetary worries at home by academic standing . . Worry _ Do not worry Totals Ac ademic standing about money about money 070 N at home at home Upper one-third 32. 9% 67.1% 100 74 Lower two-thirds 7. 2 92. 8 100 64 (138) X2:l3.14 ld.f. P<.001 164 TABLE 5. 14--Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by college major - _— Other . Totals College major Never degrees of ,7 N likelihood ° Engineering 56. 3% 43. 8% 100 16 Education 24. 0 76. 0 100 25 Business 38. 5 61. 5 100 26 Other 22. 2 77. 8 100 81 2 (148) x =9.oo 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 15-—Amount of time parents spend with children by college major Colle e a'or Quite Some or Totals g m J abit very little % N Engineering 25. 0% 75. 0% 100 16 Education 80. 0 20. 0 100 25 Business 69. 2 30. 8 100 26 Other 60. 5 39. 5 100 81 Z (148) x =13.30 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. 16-—Occupation male children will follow by age of informant m Age of informant Professional Other than Totals profeSSional % N 18 years and under 42. 5% 57. 5% 100 70 19 years and older 57. 5 42. 5 100 77 2 (147) x :4.95 ld.f. P<.05 165 TABLE 5. 17--Family size by newspaper readership N a eade sh' 0 to 3 4 or more Totals “’5" per r r 1p children children % N Read paper daily 86. 3% 13. 7% 100 73 Read paper less often 68. 0 32. 0 100 75 2 (148) X 26.00 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 5. 18--Likelihood of wife‘s employment outside the home by sex of informant . Not likely Quite likely Totals Sex of informant or never or steady % N Female 15. 5% 84. 5% 100 58 Male 37. 8 62. 2 100 90 2 (148) X =7.54 ld.f. P<.01 C. Consumption Patterns TABLE 5. 19--Utilization of bank checking account by academic standing Have Do not have Totals Academic standing checking checking % N account account Upper one-third 81. 0% 19. 0% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 55. l 44. 9 100 69 (148) X =10.39 ld.f. P<.01 166 TABLE 5. 20--Ownership of home freezer by academic standing Academic standin Own DO mt TOtals g freezer freezer % N Upper one-third 61. 9% 38.1% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 79. 7 20. 3 100 69 Z (148) x =4.62 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 21--Utilization of bank checking account by age of informant Has Has no T tals Age of informant checking checking 0 account account % N 18 years and under 78. 6% 21. 4% 100 70 19 years and older 60. 3 39. 7 100 78 2 (148) x =4.95 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 22--Number of books owned by sex of informant Sex of informant 0 to 25 26 or more Totals ' books books % N Female 25. 0% 75. 0% 100 54 Male 10. 2 89. 8 100 86 (140) 2 x =4.49 ld.f. P<.05 167 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 5. 23--Politica1 allegiance by academic standing . . . Democrat Totals Academic standing Republican and other % N Upper one-third 81. 0% 19. 0% 100 74 Lower two-thirds 56. 5 43. 5 100 64 2 (138) X =9.31 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. 24-—Church membership by academic standing Catholic Totals A I O cademic standing Protestant and other % N Upper one-third 82. 3% l7. 7% 100 69 Lower two-thirds 62. 3 37. 7 100 65 2 (134) X =6.46 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 5. 25--Reading versus other leisure activities by academic standing Academic standing Reading Other TOtals % N Upper one-third 32. 9% 67. 1% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 17. 4 82. 6 100 69 (148) X 23.87 ld.f. P<.05 168 TABLE 5. 26--Church group versus other organizational membership by academic standing . , Church Other Totals Academic standing groups 9. groups % N Upper one-third 35. 4% 64.6% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 18. 8 81.2 100 69 2 (148) x =4.27 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 27--Type of vacation by academic standing Academic standing Stay at home Other 730ml; Upper one-third 19. 0% 81.0% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 5. 8 94.2 100 69 2 (148) x =4.6O ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 28--Type of vacation by academic standing Academic standing Tour or .go Other Totals Slghtseelng % N Upper one-third 68.4% 31. 6% 100 79 Lower two-thirds 44. 9 55. 1 100 69 2 (148) x 27.33 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5. 29--Church membership by sex of informant , Catholic Totals Sex of informant Protestant and other % N Female 86. 2% l3. 8% 100 51 Male 64. 6 35. 6 100 83 2 (134) x =7.49 ld.f. P<.01 169 TABLE 5. 30--P. T. A. membership by sex of informant Do not 1 Sex of informant B;1?8Ato belong to WTota I: ' ' ' P. T. A. ° Female 17. 2% 84.2% 100 58 Male 4. 4 95. 6 100 90 2 (148) X =5.45 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 5. 31--Reading as a leisure activity by sex of informant Sex of informant Reading Other Totals ‘70 N Female 39. 7% 60. 3% 100 58 Male 15. 7 82. 3 100 90 2 (148) X =8.72 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 5.32--Bowling or pool as a leisure activity by sex of informant Sex of informant Bowling Other Totals or pool % N Female 39. 7% 60. 3% 100 58 Male 16. 7 83. 3 100 90 T (148) X22870 ld.f. P<.01 170 TABLE 5. 33--Number of hours of television observed daily by sex of informant Sex of informant 0 to 2 3 or more Totals hours hours % N Female 20. 7% 79. 3% 100 57 Male 7. 8 92. 2 100 90 2 (147) x =4.20 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 34--Civic versus other organizational membership by age of informant . Kiwanis Totals Age of informant Lions, Rotary Other % N 18 years and under 47.1% 52. 9% 100 7O 19 years and older 65. 4 34. 6 100 78 2 (148) x 24.28 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 5. 35--Golf as a leisure activity by age of informant Does not Totals A ' P ge of informant lays golf play golf % N 18 years and under 48. 6% 51. 4% 100 70 19 years and older 66. 7 33. 3 100 78 (148) 2 x =4.24 ld.f. P<.05 171 TABLE 5. 36--Church membership by newspaper readership Catholic Totals ' P Newspaper readership rotestant and other % N Read paper daily 63. 0% 37. 0% 100 66 Read paper less often 82. 7 17. 3 100 68 2 (134) X =6.28 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 5. 37—-Radio or television as a leisure activity by occupation of informant's father . T. V. or Totals Occupational class radio Other % N White collar 30. 4% 69. 6% 100 92 Blue collar 7. 9 92.1 100 38 2 (130)* X =6.33 ld.f. P<.02 *18 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 5. 38--Place of residence of family friends by size of home community Same Totals 8' . we of community neighborhood Elsewhere % N Open country to 9, 999 50. 0% 50. 0% 100 48 10, 000 to 99, 999 60. 0 40.0 100 50 100, 000 and over 77.1 22. 9 100 48 (146)* X22167 2d.f. P<.05 *Two students not classifiable 172 CHAPTER VIII I. IMAGE OF THE TEACHER Among the salaried professions, the occupation of teaching is unique in several respects. It is distinctive in terms of the large number of persons engaged in it; in 1950 there were over six times as many teachers as there were either doctors and , l lawyers, self-employed or salaried. Secondly, the proportion of women employed in this profession is highest, serving to affect . . . Z . its status, standards, and organizational strength. Thirdly, the employers of teachers represent many scattered and diverse "publics" which exact a variety of job expectancies and offer inconsistent returns. Fourthly, unlike the professions of medicine and law, teaching does not have a history of independent entrepreneurship. Related to all these differences is the accessibility or ease of entry into the profession which accounts for a younger age composition; one-third of all teachers in 1950 ranged between the ages twenty- five and thirty-four. A final comparative dissimilarity between About 500, 000 teachers and supervisors were employed in private and public secondary schools in 1955-56. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1957 edition, Bulletin No. 1215 (Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office), p. 61. For a recent examination of differential job objectives and expectancies for men and women teachers see Ward S. Mason, Robert J. Dressel, and Robert K. Bain, ”Sex Role and the Career Orientations of Beginning Teachers, ” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Fall, 1959). pp. 370-83. 173 teaching and other professions, and one basic to its inclusion in this study, is the familiarity all people have with it. If contact with an occupation is an influential factor in determining realistic impressions, then the perceptions of the Teacher should stand next in order to occupational home experience impressions with respect to accuracy and consensus. The following perceptions of a male history teacher employed in a secondary school system in a community with 100, 000 inhabitants are based on responses by 139 informants. A. Job Related Characteristics The median number of daily working hours ascribed to the Teacher was 8. 8. The projected median annual wage for the Teacher was $4, 989. 30 as opposed to $3, 716.00 recorded in 1950 census figures.1 The quartile range for Teacher's annual salary was $825. 75--the lowest for any occupational group. 2 Informants 1Herman P. Miller, Income _o_f the American People (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc., 1955), p. 178. A more meaningful salary comparison results from recognition that in 1955 four-fifths of teachers in larger population centers averaged $4, 800. 00, as reported in The Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 79, No. 4 (April, 1956), p. 428. Information released by the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Michigan reveals an average teacher wage for 1955 as $4, 380. 00 in communities with a 100, 000 population. Department of Public Instruction, "An Analysis of the Receipts and Expenditures of the Michigan Public Schools for 1954-55, " Bulletin No. 1011, Lansing, Michigan, 1956. 2 Terrien in a 1947 study found that interviewees with higher incomes ascribed higher salaries to teachers and also were more likely to feel that they were underpaid. Frederic W. Terrien, "Who Thinks What about Educators ?", American Journal o_f Sociology, Vol. 59, No. 2 (September, 1953), pp. 150-58. 174 stated that the Teacher would earn a median of $6, 892. 00 the year before retirement; about one-third predicted a pre-retirement salary of $7, 000. 00 or over. The Teacher was believed to have started working as a Teacher at the median age of 23. 8 years; he was expected to retire at a median age of 63.8 years. The retire- ment age for Teacher was the lowest for any of the seven occupational groups. Projected number of weeks' vacation was 4. 85.1 This was the highest number of weeks assigned to any occupational group. The median years of schooling attributed to the Teacher was 17. 6 years. This is in agreement with 16 plus years reported by census data. The Teacher‘s father was thought to have been a white collar worker by three-fourths of the informants; a fourth believed that his father came from blue collar ranks. 1Census data reveal that at least half of the male teachers are employed 50 weeks a year. See Donald J. Bogue, The Population o_f_ th_e United States (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959). p. 510. 2lhid., p. 556. 3Brookover states that partial knowledge of teacher origins indicates lower-middle-class backgrounds. Wilbur B. Brookover, A Sociology if. Education (New York: American Book Company, 1955), p. 276. Also see writings of Allison Davis, Havighurst and Neugarten, and William Wattenberg. Thorndike and Hagen found that English and social science teachers came from homes with few tools and low paternal education; all other male high school teachers including principals came from nonurban homes of modest means. Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. 1959), p. 155. 175 Responses pertaining to place of birth suggest that the Teacher was born outside his present community; only one-fourth said he was born in the community in which he is now living. Less than one-fifth believed that the Teacher‘s parents live in the same community; three-fourths of the respondents felt that the teacher would spend the rest of his working days in his present place of employment. Only four percent of the respondents felt that the Teacher was unhappy with his work. Approximately half of the informants designated a possible interest in other work, but only one-tenth thought it likely that the Teacher would actually get into other work. The Teacher is believed to worry about his students, about being able to do his job, and about doing a good job. A total of 185 worries on-the-job were projected for Teacher or 1. 3 per respondent. This is the fewest number projected for any occupation studied. B. Family and Home Patterns The Teacher is pictured as the father of three children. A little over one-half of the respondents do not consider it likely that the Teacher's wife works outside the home for pay. Assuming 1According to a 1954 N. E. A. study 60, 000 teachers in the U. S. leave the profession. These would be largely women and elementary teachers however. Edgar G. Johnston, ”Teachers, ” Occupational Guide, No. 57, Michigan Employment Security Com- mission, 1956, p. 12. 176 that she did work, practically all believe she would have a white collar job. Three-fourths of the respondents indicated that the Teacher would spend quite a bit of time with his children and sixty percent felt that he would be strict with his children. It is interesting to note that the Teacher is thought to spend more time with his children and be more strict with his children than any of the other six occupational groups. Ninety-five percent of the informants thought that the Teacher would own his own home. His home is pictured as having the following features by over one-half of all respondents: three bedrooms, a dining room, fireplace, garage, and a den or study. The median cost of the Teacher's home amounted to $11, 696. 00. Next to Assembly Worker this was the lowest valuation assigned any of the seven occupations. The Teacher‘s worries at home included worries about money, children, family, and job advancement. Two-fifths of the informants attributed money worries to the Teacher; only the Assembly Worker and the Bookkeeper outranked the Teacher in this respect. Practically all informants said that the Teacher's male children would attend college and that they would have white collar jobs; specifically, seven-tenths indicated "salaried” professional work. This coincides with the "authoritarian" personality attribute often associated with teachers. See observations of Terrien and Brookover. Brookover, op. cit., p. 275. 177 C. Consumption Patterns Nearly nine-tenths of the respondents perceived the Teacher's family as buying groceries most often at supermarkets. Fewer than one-fourth indicated shopping at neighborhood stores; practically none expected groceries to be purchased by phone. About two-thirds of the informants expected the Teacher to have a vegetable garden in the summer; more than three-fourths said his family would preserve, can, or freeze food for later use. With respect to clothing the Teacher was assigned a median of 4. 53 suits and 2. 54 overalls. Forty percent felt that he owned a tuxedo and nine-tenths of the respondents thought his wife owned an evening dress. Only the Doctor and the Sales Manager were believed to have the last two items by a larger percentage of informants. Three-fourths of the respondents thought the Teacher's family purchased clothing at the main department stores in-town; one-third specified economy chains. Besides owning a television set and record player, three- fourths of the informants believed the Teacher's home would contain an automatic washing machine. About one-half designated a home freezer as one of the Teacher‘s appliances; nearly three-tenths indicated an automatic clothes dryer. Respondents assigned an air conditioner to the Teacher less often than to any other occupational group. A Hi Fi set was ascribed to him by about five percent of the students. 178 Median number of books allotted to the Teacher was 92. 5; median number of magazines was 4. 5. Only the Doctor was pictured as owning more books and magazines than the Teacher. Four-fifths of the respondents specified general pictorial magazines as Life. and Iflk for the Teacher; about two-thirds designated news weeklies as lime and _U. S. N_e_w_§. Other magazines included were popular weeklies as Collier/s, popular women‘s magazines as McCalls I and Ladies Home Journal, and literary periodicals as Atlantic. A greater percentage of informants projected literary periodicals for the Teacher than for any other occupation. Fewer than one—tenth of the respondents believed that the Teacher would own more than one automobile. Over four-fifths of the informants pictured the Teacher as driving a Ford, Chevrolet, or Plymouth; three-fifths thought his automobile would be one or two years old. In respect to both make and model-year, the Teacher's automobile ownership compares most closely to that of the Salesman. The Teacher saves money from his yearly income according to over ninety-five percent of the respondents; three- fourths indicated utilization of a savings account; two-fifths indicated insurance savings; and a third designated a bank checking account. Only one-fourth of the respondents attributed ownership of stocks and bonds to the Teacher. All respondents thought he carried life insurance, the median amount being $10, 406. 20. 179 D. Social and Activity Patterns The Teacher is believed to be a Republican by about one half of the respondents, a Democrat by one-third, and an Independent by one-tenth. Practically all believed him to be a church member; four-fifths thought him to be a Protestant. In fact, the Teacher was designated a Protestant more often than was any other occupational group studied. The Parent Teachers Association was named most fre- quently as the organizational affiliation for the Teacher; over one- half of the respondents specified this organization. Of the 309 organizational memberships named for Teacher, thirty percent of the respondents had mentioned church groups and twenty percent had mentioned the Masons. One-fifth of the informants also named professional organizations as the M. E. A.1 The Teacher's favorite form of relaxation was thought to be reading by three-fifths of the respondents. Fishing, golf, and television were suggested for the Teacher by one-fifth or more of the informants. As a vacation activity the Teacher was expected to go touring or sightseeing by over one-half of the students; two- fifths thought he would stay at a cottage and one-third believed that lIn Greenhoe‘s study 57. 3% of 2, 870 male teachers paid dues to religious organizations, 45. 3% to professional, and 34. 9% to fraternal organizations, with a median number of four memberships. Florence Greenhoe, Community Contacts and Participation of Teachers (Washington, D. C. : American Council on Public Affairs, 1941), pp. 64 and 65. 180 he would stay at home. He was considered least likely to visit a resort of all occupational groups studied. Median number of movies per month for Teacher was 2. 50; median number hours of television daily was 2. 67; median number of concerts or plays per year was 5. 40. Undoubtedly taking cognizance of school performances, the number of concerts or plays was highest for the Teacher when compared to other occupations. Summar y The highly uniform perceptions of the Teacher compare more closely to those of the Doctor and Sales Manager than those of the Bookkeeper or Salesman. In spite of rather realistic lower income ascriptions, the Teacher is believed to have access to the "better" cultural and material niceties, such as books, magazines, plays and concerts, den or study, and leisure pursuits. The Teacher is perceived as dedicated to his job, some upward mobility is in- dicated, and he is believed to have experienced more geographic mobility from parents and home. He is regarded primarily as an active Protestant with conservative political leanings. His organizational memberships are perceived as essentially middle- clas 3 affiliations . 181 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR TEACHER When variations in responses were analyzed by background characteristics of students, size of community was the most dis- criminating variable for the Teacher; over fifteen percent of the tests performed in relation to size of community were significant at the . 05 level. Sex, college major, and academic standing were next in importance; age, newspaper readership, and occupation of father were the least discriminating. (See Table 6. 0.) It is also apparent that there were more significant differences in relation to social patterns than for any of the other three categories considered. A. Job Related Characteristics Of the one hundred and five tests performed for Job Related characteristics of the Teacher, six were significant at the . 05 level and less. Two significant differences were found with respect to academic standing and college major, respectively. Table 6. 1 shows that nearly three-fourths of the aca- demically inferior respondents believed the father of the Teacher to have been a white collar worker, whereas the informants from the upper portion of their high school class made more nearly equally divided projections. In Table 6. 2 a greater percentage of the lower two-thirds group visualize the teacher as working in the same community in which his parents reside. Data in Table 6. 3 reveal business students view the Teacher‘s beginning working age most 182 differently, while all "other" subject matter majors in Table 6. 4 are least inclined to assign more than two weeks vacation to this job occupant. Over three-fourths of the less frequent newspaper readers are seen to assign the Teacher more than two weeks vacation in Table 6. 5 as different from the regular readers, sixty percent of whom do so. As an aspect of mobility expectations, data in Table 6. 6 reflect the tendency for the respondents from the less urban communities to expect that the Teacher was not born in his present community. B. Family and Home Patterns Six significant differences were found with respect to .Family and Home patterns. Females named teaching as a likely employment for wives of Teachers approximately fifty percent of the time, whereas males offered this specific type job less often. (See Table 6. 7.) Table 6. 8 shows females assigned larger dollar valuations to the Teacher's home more often than did male respondents. Percentage differences pertaining to family size in Table 6. 9 demonstrate progressive emphasis in perceiving fewer than four children for Teacher as degree of urbanity increases. Table 6. 10 in a similar pattern portrays an increasing expectancy that male children of the Teacher will pursue professional work as This is in keeping with the expectation that occupational image would differ in respect to sex (Hypothesis A). 183 degree of urbanity increases. Difference in perception relating to age of respondent is seen in Table 6. 11 relative to likelihood of employment of wife of Teacher. The older students more often felt she would not be apt to work outside the home. Table 6. 12 dealing with data on family size by college major shows a distinctive and almost complete agreement among business students that the Teacher would have three children or less. C. Consumption Patterns Six significant differences were found with respect to Consumption Patterns. The Teacher and his family is believed to preserve food for later use, and to utilize a bank checking account,2 by nearly ninety percent of the academically superior respondents as different from those with low academic standing. For both Tables 6.15 and 6.16 engineering majors, though fewer in number, unaminously agree in ascribing five or more magazines to the home of the Teacher, and also with respect to this worker's utilization of a bank checking account. The most urban respondents made more generous assignments of life insurance, Table 6. 17. But in regard to a home freezer, Table 6. l8, informants from the middle-sized communities 1Since the urban informants tended to project different patterns; this also supports Hypothesis A. ZSee Tables 6.13 and 6.14. 184 were more apt to assign one to the Teacher. D. Social and Activity Patterns As stated above more differences were found regarding Social and Activity patterns than for any other category for Teacher. Females more often than males felt that the Teacher would be Protestant; would be more likely to belong to the P. T. A. ; would . l belong to church groups more often; and would attend more mov1es. Male respondents more frequently projected attendance at plays 2 and concerts (Table 6. 23). A strong majority of respondents from the least urban communities classify the Teacher as a Republican, an even greater percentage of respondents from the most urban communities believe he is a Democrat. The belief that the Teacher is a Protestant is increasingly strengthened as the community size of informant . . . 3 diminishes. Table 6. 26 shows the tendency for rural respondents to name civic club membership for the Teacher more frequently than do the more urban respondents. With respect to leisure activities, golf playing was mentioned for Teacher more frequently by rural respondents than by urban respondents (Table 6. 27). k 1 See Tables 6.19, 6. 20, 6. 21, and 6. 22. 2 . . . This again supports HypotheSls A. 3See Tables 6. 24, and 6. 25. 185 Consideration of the academic standing variable reveals that more of the upper one-third group view the Teacher as a Protestant. See Table 6. 28. The lower two-thirds group more frequently mentioned fishing and television as a leisure activity for Teacher. (See Tables 6. 29 and 6. 30.) Examination of college major differences in Table 6. 31 finds over one-half of the education majors naming church groups among organization memberships for Teacher. To an even more emphatic degree, none of the education majors believed the Teacher would spend his vacation at home. See Table 6. 32. These support Hypothesis C. Summary Eight percent of the 399 tests of significance performed for Teacher were significant at the . 05 level and below, 12. 3 percent were significant at the . 10 level and below. A converging image, or one that was significant at the . 90 level and above was present in 15. 3 percent of the total tests performed. Size of community was the most differentiating control when Teacher data were analyzed. Social and activity patterns were more significant for Teacher than were any other type of patterns; 19 percent of these were significant at the . 10 level and below. 186 TABLE 6. 0--Summary of significant associations for Teacher Independent Percent of associations at the . 05 level or less 'abl Totals van es Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N=15) (N=12) (N=15) (N=15) (N=57) Age 0.0 8 3 0.0 0.0 1.8 Sex 0.0 16.7 0.0 33. 3 12. 3 Major 13.3 8 3 13.3 13.3 12.3 Academic standing l3. 3 O 0 l3. 3 20. 0 12. 3 Occupation of father 0. 0 0 0 0. 0 0. 0 O. 0* Size of community 6. 7 l6. 7 l3. 3 26. 7 15. 8 Newspaper readership 6. 7 0 0 0.0 0.0 1.8 Totals 5. 7 7 1 5. 7 13. 3 8.0 (N = 399) *This gives support to the original expectation that the public‘s familiarity with the various work and social roles of the Teacher tends to negate occupational htome experience as a differentiating variable affecting perceptions concerning this occupation. 187 SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR THE TEACHER A. Job Related Characteristics TABLE 6. 1--Occupation of father by academic standing of informant Academic standing White collar Blue collar fowl; 0 Upper one-third 46. 2% 53. 8% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 72. 9 27.1 100 59 2 (139) x 28.79 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 2--P1ace of residence of parents by academic standing of informant Academic standing Same town Elsewhere VTOtaJ‘; 0 Upper one-third 8. 8% 91. 2% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 22. 0 78. 0 100 58' 2 (138)1 x =3.84 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 3-—Age started working by informant's college major Colle e ma'or 19 to 22 23 years Totals g J years and over % N Engineering 38. 5% 61. 5% 100 13 Education 42. 4 57. 6 100 32 Business 8. 8 91. 2 100 33 Other 33. 3 66. 7 100 60 j (138) X =10.44 3d.f. P<.02 For this and following Teacher tables discrepancies between total number of responses and 139 equal no response items. 188 TABLE 6. 4--Length of vacation by informant’s college major Colle e ma'or 0 to 2 More than Totals g J weeks weeks % N Engineering 15. 4% 84. 6% 100 13 Education 0.0 100. 0 100 32 Business 26. 5 73. 5 100 33 Other 53. 3 46. 7 100 60 (138) Z X 230.21 3d.f. P<.001 TABLE 6. 5--Length of vacation by newspaper readership News a er readershi 0 to 2 More than Totals p p p weeks weeks % N Read paper daily 40. 9% 59. 1% 100 66 Read paper less often 21. 9 78.1 100 72 2 (138) X :4.99 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 6--Place of birth by size of home community Born Not born . . . . Totals Size of community in present in present ,7 N community community 0 Open country to 9, 999 13.1% 86. 9% 100 61 1 0, 000 to 99, 999 35.3 64. 7 100 34 1 00, 000 and over 36. 4 63. 6 100 44 T (139) X =9.26 2d.f. P<.01 189 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 6.7--Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant . Employed Other Totals Sex of informant as teacher employment % N Female 48. 2% 51. 8% 100 52 Male 28. 9 71.1 100 79 2 (131) x 24.66 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 8--Cost of home by sex of informant . More than Totals Sex of informant 0 to $18,000 $18, 000 % N Female 67. 3% 32. 7% 100 53 Male 86. 3 13. 7 100 80 (133) Z x 25.76 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 6. 9--Fami1y size by size of home community S‘ze of co munit l to 3 4 or more Totals 1 m y children children % N Open country to 9, 999 72.1% 27. 9% 100 61 10, 000 to 99, 999 85. 3 14. 7 100 34 100, 000 and over 93. 2 6. 8 100 44 _— 2 (139) X 28.00 2d.f. P<.02 190 TABLE 6. 10--Occupation male children will follow by size of the community Size of community Professional Other (7Tota11: 0 Open country to 9, 999 63. 5% 36. 5% 100 58 10, 000 to 99, 999 78. 7 21. 3 100 34 100, 000 and over 82. 4 17. 6 100 42 2 (134) X 28.15 2d.f. P<.02 TABLE 6. ll--Likelihood of wife's employment outside the home by age of informant Age of informant Not likely Quite likely Totals or never or steady % N 18 years and under 44. 4% 55. 6% 100 54 19 years and Older 65. 9‘, 34.1 100 85 2 (139) X 25.36 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 12--Family size by informant‘s college major m Colle e ma’or 0 to 3 4 or more Totals g J children children % N Engineering 76. 9% 23.1% 100 13 Education 75. 0 25. 0 100 32 Business 97.1 2. 9 100 34 Other 74. 0 26. 0 100 60 (139) 2 X 28.04 3d.f. P<.05 191 C. Consumption Patte rns TABLE 6. 13--Food preservation habits by academic standing of informant Do not Do Totals A d ' ' ca emic standing preserve food preserve food % N Upper one-third 12. 5% 87. 5% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 30. 5 69. 5 100 59 z (139) x =5.77 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 6.14--Utilization of bank checking account by academic standing Academic standin Have Do not have ‘ Totals g checking account checking account % N Upper one-third 87. 5% 12. 5% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 64. 4 35. 6 100 59 2 . (139) X =9.16 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 15--Number of magazines found in home by informant's college major . 0 to 4 5 or more Totals College major . . magazmes magazmes % N Engineering 0. 0% 100. 0% 100 13 Education 65. 6 34. 4 100 32 Business 64. 7 35. 3 100 33 Other 78. 3 21. 7 100 60 (138) 2 x 228.73 3d.f. P<.001 192 TABLE 6. l6--Utilization of bank checking account by informant's college major Colle e ma'or Have Do not have Totals g J checking account checking account % N Engineering 100. 0% 0. 0% 100 13 Education 84.4 15. 6 100 32 Business 64. 7 35. 3 100 34 Other 76. 7 23. 3 100 60 2 (139) X 27.90 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 6.17--Amount of insurance carried by size of home community . . More than Totals Size of community 0 to $10, 000 $10, 000 % N Open country to 9, 999 37. 7% 63. 3% 100 51 10, 000 to 99, 999 35. 3 64. 7 100 31 100, 000 and over 13. 6 86. 4 100 40 2 (122) X 27.84 2d.f. P<.02 TABLE 6‘. l8--Ownership of home freezer by size of home community Size of communit Have Do not have Totals y freezer freezer % N Open country to 9, 999 50. 8% 49. 2% 100 61 10, 000 to 99, 999 23. 5 76. 5 100 34 100, 000 and over 54. 5 45. 5 100 44 (139) X228.77 2d.f. P<.02 193 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 6. 19--Church membership by sex of informant S f' f a t P t ta t Catholic Totals ex 0 in orm n ro es n and other % N Female 92.9% 7.1% 100 50 Male 75. 9 24. 1 100 72 2 (122) X :5.64 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 6. 20--—P. T. A. membership by sex of informant , Belong to DO not Totals Sex of informant P T A belong to ,7 N ' ' ' P. T. A. ° Female 66. 1% 34. 5% 100 56 Male 42. 2 57. 8 100 83 2 (139) X 26.70 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 21-—Church versus other organizational membership by sex of informant Special Other types Sex of informant church group of group Totals membership membership % N Female 37. 5% 62. 5% 100 56 Male 20. 5 79. 5 100 83 (139) x224.34 ld.f. P<.05 194 TABLE 6. 22--Movie attendance as a leisure time activity by sex of informant Sex of informant Mov1es Other Totals or plays % N Female 25. 0% 75. 0% 100 56 Male 10. 8 89. 2 100 83 2 . (139) X 23.94 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 23--Number of plays or concerts attended yearly by sex of informant . O to 2 3 or more Totals Sex of informant . performances performances % N Female 37. 5% 62. 5% 100 56 Male 20. 5 79. 5 100 81 2 (137) X 24.08 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6. 24--Politica1 allegiance by size of home community - -———v E . Democrat Totals S f ' ' me 0 community Republican and other % N Open country to 9, 999 67. 2% 32. 8% 100 51 10, 000 to 99, 999 44.1 55. 9 100 31 100, 000 and over 27. 3 72. 7 100 40 (122) 2 X 216.73 2d.f. P<.001 TABLE 6. 25--Church membership by 195 size of home community Size of community Protestant Other WTotal; 0 Open country to 9, 999 93. 4% 6. 6% 100 57 10, 000 to 99, 999 85. 3 14. 7 100 30 100, 000 and over 65. 9 34.1 100 37 2 (124) x 213.77 2d.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 26--Civic versus other organizational membership by size of community . . Kiwanis Totals Size of community Lions, Rotary Other % N Open country to 9, 999 55. 7% 44. 3% 100 61 10, 000 to 99, 999 20. 6 79. 4 100 34 100, 000 and over 36. 4 63.6 100 44 2 (139) x 211.72 2d.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 27--Golf—playing as a leisure activity by size of home community . Does not Totals S 0 we of community Plays golf golf % N Open country to 9, 999 37. 7% 62. 3% 100 61 10, 000 to 99, 999 32. 4 67. 6 100 34 100, 000 and over 13. 6 86. 4 100 44 (139) 2 x 27.50 2d.f. P<.05 196 TABLE 6. 28--Church membership by academic standing of informant . . Catholic Totals Academic standing Protestant and other % N Upper one-third 90. 0% 10. 0% 100 70 Lower two-thirds 72. 9 27.1 100 52 2 (122) X 25.81 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 6. 29--Fishing as a leisure activity by academic standing of informant Academic standing Fish Do not fish O’Totall: 0 Upper one-third 23. 8% 76. 2% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 42. 4 57. 6 100 59 2 (139) X 24.61 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 6.30—-Number of hours of television observed daily by academic standing Academic standin 0 to 2 3 or more Totals g hours hours % N Upper one-third 78. 8% 21. 2% 100 80 Lower two-thirds 59. 3 40. 7 100 59 Z (139) X 25.26 ld.f. P<.05 197 TABLE 6. 31--Church versus other organizational membership by ! 4‘ college major College major Church groups Other groups (7301:2111: Engineering 30. 8% 69. 2% 100 13 Education 53. 1 46. 9 100 32 Business 14. 7 85. 3 100 34 Other 21. 7 78.3 100 60 2 . (139) x 214.22 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 6. 32--Type of vacation by informant's college major College major Stay at home Other 7301:“; Engineering 23.1% 76. 9% 100 13 Education 0. 0 100. 0 100 32 Business 32. 4 67. 6 100 34 Other 45. 0 55. 0 100 60 (139) x2220.71 3d.f. P<.001 198 CHAPTER IX 1. IMAGE OF THE DOCTOR The social role and status of the M. D. ranks among the very top of the occupational and professional hierarchy in the United States almost irrespective of the rating criterion used. The past decade has witnessed social and scientific trends particularly affecting this profession such as increased public subscription to sickness and hospitalization insurance plans, growing proportions of population of older age groups, advanced medical technology and growing preven- tive medical practices, increased government involvment in adminis- tration of medical services, and occupational specialization of the profession. The extent of this latter development, specialization, is serving to decrease the number of general practitioners in substantial numbers. In 1950 the American Medical Directory listed 96, 000 general practitioners compared to 55, 000 specialists; by 1956 the general practitioners numbered 90, 300, specialists numbered 77, 000.1 Partial effects of this movement result in increased medical costs to patients, less availability of round-the-clock medical service, and increasing patient dissatisfaction with impersonal and fragmentary 1Frank V. Cargill, editor, American Medical Directory, > 18th and 19th editions (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1950 and 1956). 199 treatment.1 In addition, more so than for the general practitioner, the specialist is less apt to be a self employed professional but. in increasing numbers a salaried worker attached to clinics, research institutes, and private and public health agencies. A detailed examination of the image of the general prac- titioner in an urban setting should be particularly relevant in view of the above considerations. The summary that follows is based on the views and ideas of 148 respondents. A. Job Related Characteristics The median annual income for the general practitioner was $15, 285. 50; over one-fourth of the respondents ascribed incomes in excess of $20, 000. 2 With a quartile range of $5, 440. 00, the widest dispersion of any of the seven occupations studied is reflected. 1950 census data report an. annual income figure of $8, 115. 00 for For a somewhat biased but insightful examination of discriminatory policies and practices of the organized medical profession see Richard Carter, The Doctor Business (Garden City: Doubleday 8t Company, Inc. , 1958). A nation-wide survey of 1, 086 male medical students conducted by NORC in June, 1956 revealed that their median net income expectations as general practitioners 10 years out of medical school was $14, 050. 00; senior, opposed to freshmen students, and those expecting to specialize indicated an additional $3, 000. Com- pared with actual incomes, the authors regarded these perceptions as being fairly realistic. Median figure for net annual income ex- pectations of all students at the peak of their careers was $22, 340.. Only one-fourth of the students in this study expected to become general practitioners. Don C'ahalan, Patricia Collette and Norman A. Hillmar, ”Career Interests and Expectations of U. S. Medical Students: Journal gMedicaI Education Vol. 32, No. 8 (August, 1957), p. 558. 200 physicians, about four-fifths of whom were engaged in full-time practice. Median hours worked daily was 9. 9 again highest of all occupations investigated. Median age started working was 27. 4 years. With respect to years of schooling received, slightly more than four-fifths of the responding group said at least seven years beyond high school. Median weeks vacation for Doctor was 3. 3 weeks. The median retirement age prescribed for Doctor was 64 years. Pre-retirement income ascriptions yielded a median figure of $19, 558. 50 with nearly thirty percent of the informants suggesting an annual income of $25, 000 or more. An interesting retirement age comparison, using 1950 census data, shows that eleven percent of all employed physicians in the U.S. were 65 years of age or older. Fewer than four percent of the informants considered it likely that the Doctor's father would have filled a blue collar job including farmers. Over seven-tenths of the group indicated self employed professional origins for the Doctor. 1Donald J. Bogue, The Population if. t_h_e United States (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959). Tables 17-A-3 and 17-A-4, p. 545 and 554. 2 Ibid. , "Age Distribution of Employed Population, " Table 17-A—2, p. 537. 3Aviation cadet examinees who later became M. D.‘s came from well educated families with many books in the home. Successful school preferences were of an academic nature; negative for shop and mechanical drawing. Athletic experiences were largely track and swimming; hobby experiences, largely collecting. Had participated in Boy Scouts. Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen, Ten Thousand Careers (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , 1959), pp. 160-163. 201 Geographic and social mobility for Doctor as reflected by place of birth and residence of parents show expectancies fairly (comparable to those projected for Sales Manager and Teacher. About one-fifth of the informants visualized an out-of—state birthplace for Doctor; fewer than a third suggested present community. Fewer than fifteen percent of the respondents believed his parents would reside in the same community in which he now lives. By contrast practically all of the respondents believed he will spend the remainder of his working days in his present community; this is indicative of the element of tenure inherent in an established practice. This same feature is reinforced by projections relating to job satisfaction. Fewer than two percent of the informants con- sidered the Doctor even somewhat disappointed in his chosen work; about two—thirds regarded him as very happy with it. Over four- fifths of the responding group did not believe he would be even interested in other work. Consequently, practically all of the respon- dents thought it not likely that he would change his occupation. On-the-job worries for Doctor supplied by informants are least comparable to those for other occupations. For example worries concerning money were suggested by fewer than four percent. Most frequently, concerns about doing a ”good" job or being able to do job was supplied by over one-half of the respondents. Directly related, health of patients was mentioned nearly forty percent of the time. Less frequently, but next in order, appeared worries about family and ”time" enough to do work. 202 B. FamilLand Home Patterns The Doctor is viewed as having three children. Practically none of the respondents regarded it likely that his wife would be employed outside the home. If she were working, all but four of the jobs mentioned as her employment were white collar posit ions. Nearly seventy percent of the informants viewed her as having part- time outside help with her housework; more than ten percent indicated full-time help for the Doctor's wife. About forty-five percent in- dicated these parents would spend quite a bit of time with children, which next to Assembly Worker, ranks as a low percentage as sign- ment for this item. On a percentage basis, slightly more than one- half of the informants felt these parents would reflect strict disciplinary attitudes toward children. The Doctor is perceived as owning his own home by nearly all the respondents. Median value of this home was $25, 428. 40 with a quartile-range dispersion of $7, 477. 00. Sixty percent of the informants ascribed a three-bedroom home; thirty percent a four- bedroom home. Nearly all visualized his home as including a dining room, garage, and study. About eighty percent, or over, also ascribed a fireplace, recreation room and two baths. Among the Seven occupations studied, the Doctor's home was viewed as costing more and containing more features than any other. Projected worries at home for Doctor, as for job worries Prescribed for him, are most at variance, substantively speaking, 203 with those of other workers. In addition to the most frequently mentioned worries about family, nearly three-tenths of the respon- dents suggested concerns about patients; nearly two-tenths suggested worries about sufficient time to complete activities. Monetary worries at home, lowest for any occupation, were projected for Doctor by sixteen percent of the respondents. All respondents expected the male children of Doctor to attend college. Multiple expectancies for occupation male children will follow find independent professional work indicated by eighty- eight percent, salaried professional work by forty percent, managerial or business ownership by nearly thirty percent. All other type work indications totalled less than three percent. C. Consumption Patterns About one-third of the informants believed that the Doctor would cultivate a vegetable garden; food preservation by canning or freezing was anticipated for this family by slightly less than one— half of the respondents. About seven-tenths suggested that groceries would be purchased at supermarkets and about one-third indicated groceries would be ordered by phone, the greatest frequency for any occupational group. Clothing assignment for the Doctor specified a median number of 5. 8 suits and a median 2. 3 pairs of overalls. More than eight-tenths believed the Doctor would own a tuxedo; almost all expected his wife to own an evening dress. Clothing purchases were 204 thought to be made most consistently at men's or women's specialty shops by over two-thirds of the informants. Main department stores out-of-town were suggested by over one-fourth of the respondents, yielding the greatest frequency for any of the seven occupations. Over one-half indicated main department stores in-town. Almost all informants stated that the Doctor had a tele- vision set, automatic washing machine, home freezer, and record player. About one-half believed he owned an automatic dishwasher, air conditioner, and clothes dryer; one-fifth thought he owned a Hi Fi set. A median number of 4. 8 magazines wa s assigned to this family. By type, the pictorial weekly as Life and Look were named by two-thirds; news weeklies as Time and Newsweek were mentioned by six-tenths; popular general weeklies as Collier's and Saturd_ay Evening Post and popular women's magazines as McCall's were named by about one-third. Median number of books owned by the Doctor was 152. 5 books. This was the highest number of books for any occupational group. With respect to automobile ownership, about two-thirds believed the Doctor would own a Buick or an Oldsmobile, and one- fourth named a Cadillac, Lincoln, or Chrysler. Sixty percent thought that the Doctor would own a ”new" car. Eighty percent believed the family would own two automobiles. All informants believed that the Doctor saved money; 205 about two-thirds stated that he would have a savings account, that he would utilize a checking account, that he would own stocks and bonds. Over one-half contended that he would also have insurance savings or annuities. Median amount of life insurance projected for the Doctor was $27, 272. 00; this again was higher than for any other occupation. D. Social and Activity Patterns The Doctor is considered to be a Republican by about seventy percent of the respondents; fourteen percent suggested he would support the Democratic party. Ten percent considered him to be an Independent. Church affiliation responses for Doctor revealed seventy-two percent Protestant ascriptions and ten percent Catholic. No denominations were specified by seventeen percent of the informants which may well be regarded as an index of difficulty for making projections in this social area. Organizational membership responses for Doctor yielded a total of 377, over one hundred more than were named for Assembly Worker.1 Most frequently mentioned were professional medical associations. About a fifth of the respondents named Rotary and Lions and country club. Church groups were named for Doctor less frequently than for the other occupations. Based on national samples 29% of businessmen and Professionals belonged to two or more voluntary organizations com- Pared to only 5-13% blue collar workers. This excludes labor union membership. Charles R. Wright and Herbert H. Hyman, ”Voluntary ASSociation Memberships of American Adults: Evidence from National SaInple Surveys, ” American Sociological Review, Vol. 23, No. 3 (June, 1958), pp. 284-294. 206 Leisure activities named for Doctor included golf- playing by fifty percent, fishing by slightly less than fifty percent, reading by one-third of the respondents. Swimming or boating was mentioned by slightly fewer respondents than for Sales Manager. Vacation projections for Doctor included substantial indications of activities as staying at a cottage, visiting a resort, and touring. About one-third of the informants indicated visiting other countries for Doctor. Median movies projected for Doctor were not quite two per month and median hours of television were 2.2 daily; less than projected for other occupations. However, next to Teacher, concert and play ascriptions were high for Doctor providing a median of 4. 7 performances yearly. For close family friends for Doctor about half of the respon- dents indicated them as numbering five or more; one-fifth suggested ten or more other families would be included. Thirty-five percent suggested this friendship circle would extend to other communities. Summary In conclusion, the image of the Doctor converges in picturing a person whose superior early life chances enabled him to pursue a well organized, humanitarian profession in which he works hard and with conservative concern; his richly rewarded efforts endow him and his family with modest wealth, influence, respect, and 207 even reverence and love by neighborhood and community. The "sesame" that opens nearly all doors for this professional is the suffix M. D. or the title ”doctor" which, in this society, has peculiarly restricted symbolic reference. 208 II. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR DOCTOR Seven percent of the 399 tests of significance performed for Doctor were significant at the . 05 level and below; 12. 3 percent were significant at the . 10 level and below. When one designates those tests significantly different at the .90 level and above as illustrative of donverging images, then 15. 3 percent of the tests showed convergence. Variables that showed significant differences for Doctor were sex of informant, college major, and size of community; these produced significant images in 14. 0 percent, 12. 1 percent, and 10. 3 percent of the tests performed, respectively. See Table 7. 0. More differences for Doctor occurred among home and family patterns than for any other category of response. A. Job Related Characteristics Significant relationships for work related characteristics of Doctor were eight in number. Two each appeared for the variables age, college major, and size of informant's home community; single relationships appeared for newspaper readership and sex. Younger students held different conceptions from older students, first, by minimizing the Doctor‘s income, and secondly, by assigning the Doctor an earlier retirement age. 1 See Tables 7.1 and 7. 2. 209 Among college major differences, business students compared to other majors were more extreme in assigning the Doctor an earlier retirement age. Business students more often felt that the Doctor‘s parents reside in his present community, while engineering majors were unaminous in holding opposite . 1 . Views (HypotheSis C). Respondents from the smallest sized communities over- whelmingly visualized geographic mobility for the Doctor by their views concerning his birthplace and by their views concerning present residence of parents. As community size increased, respon- dents more frequently expected less mobility. Less frequent newspaper readers differed significantly from regular readers by mentioning fewer job worries for Doctor about doing work well. See Table 7. 7. Females more markedly than males ascribed longer working days to the Doctor as shown in Table 7. 8. B. Family and Home Patterns Five significant differences were found in this area of response. The variables were: college major with two differences; age, sex, and size of community with one difference each. Engineering majors believed most definitely that the Doctor and his wife spend less time with their children, proportionately 1see Tables 7. 3 and 7. 4. Zsee Tables 7. 5 and 7. o. 210 speaking; respondents majoring in business and in engineering were least inclined to assign four bedroom homes to this professional. Almost a quarter of the females shown in Table 7. 12 named teaching as a likely kind of job for working wives of Doctor, while males suggested this type work very few times. Data in Table 7. 13 reveal that respondents from the smaller communities least of all expected other than professional work for male children of Doctor. C. Consumption Patterns The seven significantly different variables for consumption items resulted in four for sex of informant, two for occupation of father, and one for college major. Females indicated insurance-savings for Doctor more often than did males, and they visualized out-of—town clothing pur- chases more than twice as frequently as males did. On the other hand, more males ascribed home air conditioners for Doctor than did females. Similarly, more males expected the Doctor to have a vegetable garden than did females. 2 This supports Hypothesis A. Respondents whose fathers were engaged in white collar Work in larger percentage than blue collar informants assigned five or more suits to this professional, and more white collar than blue 1See Tables 7. 9 and 7.10. 2See Tables 7.14, 7.15, 7.16, and 7.17. 211 collar informants visualized five or more magazines in the Doctor's home. Examination of differences based on college major in Table 7. 20 show equally divided responses for vegetable gardening for Doctor by education and business students; "other" and engineering respondents positively expect this activity. D. Social and Activity Patterns Size of community yielded three significant differences, college major and sex each yielded two significant differences, and academic standing yielded one such difference for a total of eight for this category of response. Respondents from the largest sized community were least definite in making Protestant church ascriptions for the Doctor. Membership in main civic clubs for Doctor were specified least often by the most urban respondents and reading as a leisure time activity for Doctor was suggested least often by the respondents from the smallest sized communitiesZ (Hypothesis A). Engineering respondents named church groups as a type of organizational affiliation for Doctor with less frequency than any other major; education majors suggested this type membership fifty percent of the time. Education majors also mentioned three 1See Tables 7.18 and 7.19. 2See Tables 7. 21, 7. 22, and 7. 23. 212 specific civic clubs as organizational affiliations for Doctor most often, followed by engineers, percentagewise. 1 This relates to Hypothesis C. Females mentioned church groups as a type of organi- zational membership for Doctor more frequently than did males. See Table 7. 26. Females also indicated staying at home as a vacation activity for Doctor more often than did males; nearly all males indicated other vacation activities. See Table 7. 27. Finally, in Table 7. 28, the academically superior students are seen to make substantially more Republican political ascriptions for Doctor than do the respondents from the lower two- thirds of their high school class. 1 See Tables 7. 24 and 7. 25. 213 TABLE 7. 0--Summary of significant associations for Doctor Percent of associations at the .05 level or less Independent ariables Totals v Work Family Consumption Social patterns patterns patterns patterns (N=15) (N212) (N=15) (N=15) (N=57) Age 13. 3 6.7 0.0 0.0 5.4 Sex 6. 7 8. 3 0.0 20.0 14.0 Major 13.3 16.7 6.7 13.3 12.3 Academic standing 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 6. 7 l. 8 Occupation of father 0. O 0. 0 l3. 3 0. 0 3. 5 Size of community 13. 3 6. 7 0. 0 20. 0 10. 5 Newspaper readership 6. 7 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 l. 8 Totals 7. 6 6.0 6. 7 7.6 7.0 (N 399) SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AMONG PROJECTIONS FOR THE DOCTOR A. Job Related Characteristics 214 TABLE 7. 1--Amount of money earned last year by age of informant I i i L m . $15, 000 Totals Age of informant 0 to $14, 999 and- over % N 18 years and under 67. 2% 32. 8% 100 58 19 years and over 45. 6 54. 4 100 88 2 (146)1 X 25.83 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 7. 2-—Age stopped working by age of informant Age of informant 40 to 65 Over 65 Totals years % N 18 years and under 86. 2% l3. 8% 100 58 19 years and over 62. 2 37. 8 100 89 2 (149) X 28.83 ld.f. P<.01 TABLE 7. 3--Retirement age by college major College major 45 to 65 66 and over Totals % N Engineering 60. 0% 40. 0% 100 15 Education 75. 0 25. 0 100 20 Business 86. 7 13. 3 100 45 Other 64. 2 35. 8 100 67 j (147) X 28.01 3d.f. P<.05 For this and following Doctor tables discrepancies be- tween total number of responses and 148 equal no response items. TABLE 7. 4--Place of residence of parents by college major 215 College major Same town Elsewhere (fetal; 0 Engineering 0. 0% 100. 0% 100 15 Education 5. 0 95. 0 100 20 Business 28. 9 71.1 100 44 Other 11. 8 88. 2 100 66 2 (145) X :ll.66 3d.f. P<.01 TABLE 7. 5--Place of birth by size of home community Born in Not born in . . Totals Size of community present present community community % N Open country to 9, 999 16. 7% 83. 3% 100 60 10, 000 to 99, 999 37.0 63. 0 100 46 100, 000 and over 41. 5 58. 5 100 41 2 (147)* x 28.71 2d.f. P<.02 *One student not classifiable TABLE 7.6-~Place of residence of parents by size of home community Size of community Same town Elsewhere WTotaI; 0 Open country to 9, 999 5. 0% 95. 0% 100 60 10, 000 to 99, 999 17. 4 82. 6 100 44 100, 000 and over 26. 8 73. 2 100 40 (144)* 2 X :9.42 2d.f. P<.01 *One student not classifiable. 216 TABLE 7. 7--Concern for workmanship on the job by newspaper readership Worry Do not worry Totals Newspaper readership about doing about doing ,7 N a good job a good job a Read paper daily 55. 4% 44. 6% 100 61 Read paper less often 37. 3 62. 7 100 80 2 (141) X 24.08 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. 8--Number of hours worked daily by sex of informant Sex of informant 0 to 8 More than Totals hours 8 hours % N Female 19. 2% 80. 8% 100 52 Male 44. 4 62. 2 100 95 2 (147) X 26.73 ld.f. P<.01 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 7. 9--Time parents spend with children by college major Colle e ma'or Quite Some or Totals g J a bit very little % N Engineering 13. 3% 86. 7% 100 15 Education 55. 0 45. 0 100 20 Business 60. 0 40. 0 100 45 Other 38. 2 61. 8 100 67 (147) X :12.24 3d.f. P<.01 217 TABLE 7. 10--Number of bedrooms in home by college major Colle e ma'or 1 to 3 4 or more Totals g J bedrooms bedrooms % N Engineering 80. 0% 20. 0% 100 15 Education 47. 6 52. 4 100 20 Business 77. 3 22. 7 100 45 Other 60. 3 39. 7 100 68 2 (148) X 27.97 3d.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. ll--Number of bathrooms in home by age of informant A e of informant l to 2 3 or more Totals g bathrooms bathrooms % N 18 years or under 24.1% 75. 9% 100 58 19 years or older 8. 9 91.1 100 90 2 (148) x =5.33 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. 12-—Type of employment for working wives by sex of informant Sex of informant Employed Other Totals as teacher employment % N Female 23.1% 76. 9% 100 52 Male 3.1 96. 9 100 96 2 (148) X 212.69 ld.f. P<.001 218 TABLE 7. l3--Occupation male children will follow by size of home community Size of community Professional Other (7Total; a Open country to 9, 999 83. 3% 16. 7% 100 60 10, 000 to 99, 999 54.1 45. 3 100 45 100, 000 and over 63. 5 36. 5 100 41 2 (146)* X =12.9l 2d.f. P<.01 *One student not classifiable C. Consumption Patterns TABLE 7. 14--Ownership of insurance-savings by sex of informant Have Do not have . . . Totals Sex of informant insurance insurance (7 N savings savings 0 Female 71. 2% 28. 8% 100 52 Male 53.1 46. 9 100 96 2 (148) X 23.92 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. 15--Practice of buying clothing at out-of—town stores by sex of informant Buy at Do not buy at Sex of informant out-of—town out-of-town Totals department department % N stores stores Female 40. 4% 59. 6% 100 52 Male 17. 7 82. 3 100 96 (148) X 28.04 ld.f. P<.01 219 TABLE 7.16--Ownership of air conditioner in home by sex of informant . Own air Do not own, Totals Sex of informant . . . . conditioner conditioner % N Female 30. 8% 70. 2% 100 52 Male 49.0 51.0 100 96 2 (148) X 23.94 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. l7--Cu1tivation of vegetable garden by sex of informant Have Have no Totals Sex of informant vegetable vegetable % N garden garden Female 51. 9% 48. 1% 100 52 Male 70. 5 29. 5 100 96 2 (148) X 24.35 ld.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. 18--Number of suits owned by occupation of informant's father Occupation of informant's 0 to 4 5 or more ’ Totals father ‘ suits suits % N White collar 21. 9% 78.1% 100 96 Blue collar 45. 2 54. 8 , 100 31 2 (127)* X 25.25 ld.f. P<.05 *21 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 7. l9--Number of magazines found in home by occupation of informant's father . 0 to 4 5 or more Totals Occupational class , , magazmes magazmes % N White collar 45. 8% 54. 2% 100 96 Blue collar 71. 0 29. 0 100 31 2 (127)* X :4.96 ld.f. P<.05 *21 farm and nonclassifiable fathers TABLE 7. 20--Cultivation of vegetable garden by college major 220 Have no Have . Totals College major vegetable vegetable % N garden garden Engineering 26. 7% 73. 3% 100 15 Education 45. 0 55. 0 100 20 Business 55. 6 44. 4 100 45 Other 23. 5 76. 5 100 68 2 (148) x 213.23 3d.f. P<.01 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 7. 21--Church membership by size of home community Size of community Protestant Other Totals % N Open country to 9, 999 75. 0% 25. 0% 100 50 10,000 to 99,999 80.4 19. 6 100 36 100, 000 and over 58.5 41. 5 100 34 2 (120) x 25.99 2d.f. P<.05 TABLE 7. 22-—Civic versus other organizational membership by size of community Size of co ‘t Kiwanis Oth Totals mmuni Y Lions, Rotary er % N Open country to 9, 999 61. 7% 38. 3% 100 60 10,000 to 99,999 71.7 28.6 100 46 100,000 and over 36.6 63.4 100 41 2 (147)* x 211.59 2d.f. P<.01 *One student not classifiable 221 TABLE 7. 23--Reading versus other leisure activities by size of home community Size of community Reading Other Totals ‘70 N Open country to 9, 999 21. 7% 78. 3% 100 60 10, 000 to 99, 999 39.1 60. 9 100 46 100, 000 and over 43. 9 56.1 100 41 2 (147)* X 26.43 2d.f. P<.05 *One student not classifiable TABLE 7. 24—-Church group versus other organizational membership by college major ' T t 1 College major Church groups Other groups a] O a; 0 Engineering 13. 3% 86. 7% 100 15 Education 50. 0 50. 0 100 20 Business ‘ 13. 3 86. 7 100 45 Other 25. 0 75. 0 , 100 68 2 F1 (148) X 211.29 3d.f. P<.02 TABLE 7. 25--Civic versus other organizational membership by college major Kiwanis Totals C l ' 0 legs major Lions, Rotary Other % N Engineering 73. 3% 26. 7% 100 15 Education 85. O 15. 0 100 20 Business 55. 6 44. 4 100 45 Other 47.1 52. 9 100 68 (148) x 210.82 3d.f. P<.02 222 TABLE 7. 26--Church group versus other organizational membership by sex of informant Special Other types Sex of informant church group of group Totals membership membership % N Female 42. 3% 57. 7% 100 52 Male 13. 5 86. 5 100 96 2 (148) . X 214.03 ld.f. P<.001 TABLE 7. 27--Type of vacation by sex of informant Sex of informant Stay at home Other WTotaI; 0 Female 15. 4% 84. 6% 100 52 Male 3.1 96. 9 100 96 2 (148) x 25.74 ld.f. P<.02 TABLE 7. 28--Politica1 allegiance by academic standing Democrat Totals A d u u u ca emic standing Republican and other % N Upper one-third 76.1% 23. 9% 100 85 Lower two-thirds 57.1 42. 9 100 51 2 (136) x 24.98 ld.f. P<.05 223 CHAPTER 1X COMPARISON OF ALL SEVEN OCCUPATIONS Data in this chapter present a comparative examination of responses to sixty-one items relating to the seven occupations studied. Although not specifically stated in the hypotheses, the author expected that similarities of perception would appear for the two manual occupations and for the middle-range and for the upper- range white collar occupations as well. Further, if one uses ”pres- tige level" as a frame of reference, the occupations might logically be expected to fall in the following ascending order: Assembly Worker, Carpenter, Bookkeeper, Salesman, Sales Manager, Teacher, and Doctor. Examination of specific components of prestige might raise questions as to the priority ranking of Bookkeeper versus Salesman or Sales Manager versus Teacher; however, at least three distinct status levels might be anticipated among the seven occupations ordered above.1 Thus, these occupational life style profiles should reveal whether or not informants held converging views, that is, tended to stereotype occupations in terms of rank order. Prestige as used here may be defined as the subjective esteem granted to a perceived cluster of expectations associated with the statuses of a given position. This is compatible with Caplow‘s analysis of the various elements subsumed in prestige scaling. His term ”behavior control” is analogous to the term prestige level. Theodore Caplow, The Sociology cif Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957), Chapter 2. 224 Using this frame of reference an examination of the occupational images w e r e- made within each of the four categories of response: Job Related characteristics, Family and Home patterns, Consumption patterns, and Social and Activity patterns. Special emphasis on the ”anomalies or distortions of order” among perceptions will be noted for the more unusual cases, along with possible cues to the kinds of bias in the imagery. Tables referred to appear on pages 234 through 254. In summary, sixty-one comparisons were made among the occupational images; slightly over one-fourth of them followed the general prestige order expected. Approximately the same pro- portion could be considered quite obvious anomalies or distortions of rank order. These are described under their respective categories below. A. Job Related Characteristics The three-level prestige order pattern suggested above was found in three of the fifteen tables comparing work related characteristics. These appeared in images concerning amount of education received, age started working and occupation of father. The two professional groupsvhad the highest education, began work later, and had the highest occupational origins. Data in six additional tables show that at least Doctor and Assembly Worker hold the most extreme positions. Doctors are attributed highest annual earnings 1See Tables 8. 2, 8. 4, and 8. 8. 225 and Assembly Workers the lowest. The same type of relationship is also true for income earned before retirement, concern for good workmanship, and being happy in work.1 Furthermore, the Doctor is considered least likely and the Assembly Worker most likely to worry about money on the job, or to prefer other work. On three occasions the Teacher is placed on one extreme and either the Assembly Worker or Carpenter holds an opposite place. This can be found in relation to age started working, amount of education, and retirement age. (Teachers retired earliest.) See Tables 8. 4, 8. 2, and 8. 5. It is also important to observe that in six instances the Bookkeeper held a position below Carpenter. 3 These white collar versus blue collar reversals showed that the Carpenter earned more money last year and the year before retirement; the Carpenter retired at an older age; the Carpenter had a longer vacation; the Carpenter was considered happier in his work and less likely to prefer other work. In the section Job Related characteristics perhaps the most inordinated table, from the prestige point of view, deals with likelihood of change in occupation. Over one-tenth feel that the 1See Tables 8.1, 8. 6, 8.14, and 8. 9. ZSee Tables 8.15, and 8.10. 3See Tables 8.1, 8. 5, 8. 6, 8. 7, 8. 9, and 8.10. 226 Teacher will change his occupation; the Salesman and Bookkeeper are next most likely to change, while Carpenter and Doctor are considered least apt to change occupations. Here is a case where length of time for job preparation is regarded as fiot in keeping with job tenure or stability. It might be pointed out that the relative ranking of hours worked in Table 8. 3 coincide rather highly with findings among two occupationally classified samples from Detroit, Michigan.1 Book- keeper represents the only occupation misjudged in this instance. B. Family and Home Patterns Of the fourteen tables relating to Family and Home patterns, four showed data compatible with the three-level prestige patterns. These were: type of employment for working wives, ownership of home with den or study, likelihood of male children going to college, and occupation male children will follow. 2 In addition, the Doctor and Assembly Worker images were most diverse in respect to having help with housework; likelihood of wife's employment; cost of home and monetary worries at home. "Professionals, managers, proprietors, and officials are about three times as likely to work over fifty hours per week as are factory workers. Clerical and sales persons work slightly longer hours than factory workers but shorter hours than professionals, managers, proprietors, and officials. “ University of Michigan, "A Social Profile of Detroit, 1956, ” Detroit Area Study, 1957, p. 35. 2See Tables 8.18, 8. 26, 8. 28, and 8. 29. 3See Tables 8.17, 8.19, 8. 24, and 8. 27. 227 Tables 8.16, 8.18, and 8. 21 reveal that the Teacher and the Assembly Worker held extreme positions with respect to white collar job expectancies for working wives, number of children in family, and amount of time parents spend with children. The Teacher was thought to have fewest children, to spend the most time with children, and to be most likely to have a wife with a white collar job. In six instances the Bookkeeper held a position of lower rank than that of Carpenter. These anomalies pertained to the likelihood of outside employment for wife, the likelihood of white collar jobs for wife, cost of home, having two bathrooms in home, having three bedrooms in home, and monetary worries at home. Two particularly unordered tables from the prestige fr ame of reference are Tables 8. 20 and 8. 21. In relation to dis- Ciplinary attitude toward children, the Teacher and the Doctor Were considered most strict while at the opposite end of the scale appear the Sales Manager and Salesman. Assembly Worker, Carpenter, and Bookkeeper were assigned intermediary positions. The more dominant authoritarian images attributed to the Teacher and Doctor may be explained as a possible carry over of the authori- taI‘ian work roles of these two occupations. From Table 8. 21 it is eVident that Teacher and Carpenter were expected to spend most time with their children; Assembly Worker and Doctor were expected \ 1 See Tables 8.17, 8.18, 8. 22, 8. 24, 8. 25, and 8. 27. 228 to spend least time. Again, this appears less of an inconsistency if examined in terms of values previously implied for these particular occupations. Since spending time with children is in keeping with currently idealized American child rearing practices, the Teacher might well be expected to perform this model behavior. Similarly, the Carpenter has repeatedly been pictured as the competent, capable citizen in contrast to the Assembly Worker and others. The deviation in the case of the Doctor may reflect not perceived lack of enlighten— ment, but lack of time at home as indicated by other responses. In Table 8. 29, the frequency with which ”any occupation” appeared for occupation male children of Assembly Worker and Carpenter will follow may suggest a democratic bias relating to acceptance of the notion of l'equal occupational opportunity” in our society. Another explanation resides in the realization that a certain portion of the respondents actually are upwardly mobile blue collar children. At least the first of these would be consistent with the higher education expectancies for male children of these same two manual occupations shown in the previous table, 8. 28. C. Consumption Patterns In respect to prestige order, four out of seventeen tables coincided with the order expected: purchasing of clothing in economy chains, number of suits owned, ownership of formal wear, 1 and number of books found in the home. In each of these tables the 1See Tables 8. 33, 8. 34, 8. 36, and 8. 41. 229 Doctor, Teacher, and Sales Manager were in the top status level, the Salesman and Bookkeeper were in the middle, and the Carpenter and Assembly Worker were in the lowest category. Although the extreme positions were as expected, some inordination of ranking appeared in relation to preserving food (Teacher and Sales Manager were expected to preserve food more often than the Bookkeeper and Salesman); ordering groceries by telephone (Teacher ranked below Salesman and Bookkeeper); ownership of auto- matic washing machine, clothes dryer or high priced automobile (Teacher and Salesman ranked below Assembly Worker or Carpenter); ownership of bank checking account, stocks and bonds, and amount of life insurance (Carpenter ranked above either Salesman or Book- keeper). 1 Two extensive dis similarities resulted between white collar and professional occupations. See Tables 8. 42 and 8. 43. In the first is seen the greatest percentage of low-priced automobiles for Salesman; the least for Doctor. With respect to age of automobiles owned, Table 8. 43, new cars were most often assigned to the Doctor and least often to Bookkeeper and Teacher. Two distinctive divergencies not completely consistent with views relating to propensity to spend are seen on the part of the Carpenter versus Doctor. In Tables 8. 30 and 8. 31 the Carpenter 1 See Tables 8. 31, 8. 32, 8. 37, 8. 42, 8. 44, 8. 45, and 8. 46. 230 was most frequently and Doctor least often believed to cultivate a summer vegetable garden and to can, freeze, or preserve food. From data previously presented it will be remembered that the Doctor's income was most often regarded to be highest and he was most often believed to own a home freezer, but in both of these respects the Carpenter did not appear in the bottom position. While it may be suggested that the Doctor's income does not necessitate these economic food growing and preserving practices, neither is the ascribed in- come for Carpenter lowest among the seven occupations. Here seemingly apart from economic necessity, the image of the Carpenter as a solid, competent, thrifty citizen is reinforced. D. Social and Activity Patterns For this area of response, six out of fifteen comparisons showed the expected pattern of three prestige levels. The Teacher, Sales Manager and Doctor were considered most likely to be Protes- 1 . . . . tant. The same pattern was prOJected for c1v1c club membership, television or radio habits, touring as a type of vacation, number of plays or concerts attended, and place of residence of family friends. In addition, the Doctor and Assembly Worker represented opposite It is also interesting to note that fifteen percent of the respondents said that the’Assembly Worker would not be a church member, and in only three occupations were any expected to be Jewish; specifically Salesman, Sales Manager, and Doctor. 2See Tables 8. 48, 8. 49, 8. 53, 8. 54, 8. 59, and 8. 61. 231 extremes in four more comparisons. These extremes applied to political party affiliation, attending two or more movies per month, membership in main civic clubs, and staying at home on vacations. The Sales Manager personified occupational views most unlike those held about blue collar occupations in Tables 8. 51 and 8. 52. In the first table Sales Manager ranked highest with respect to golf playing opposed to lowest for Assembly Worker, and, in the second table, fishing was most frequently mentioned for Carpenter, but least of all for Sales Manager. Two notable distortions of position related to Assembly Worker who was ranked near Teacher for projected golf-playing and next to Doctor for fishing as a leisure activity. The realism of these perceptions is questionable (Tables 8.51 and 8. 52): On a prestige basis the Teacher ranked with the blue collar occupations in respect to visiting a resort and movie attendance (Tables 8. 56 and 8. 57). It is evident that the images for Bookkeeper with respect to Social and Activity patterns are again more like those for the Assembly Worker than are those of the Carpenter. The Bookkeeper ranked next to Assembly Worker in regard to number of family friends, number of movies attended per month, number of hours of television 1See Tables 8. 47, 8. 49, 8. 55, and 8. 57. 232 viewing, and touring as a vacation activity. In conclusion it should be mentioned that other criteria could have been used for comparative purposes. For example, if one were to consider purely economically-based criteria as a frame of reference, the Carpenter was usually perceived higher than one would expect. He was frequently expected to have more income and consumer goods than was Bookkeeper, Salesman, and Teacher. On the other hand, the Teacher was often ranked low in an economic sense. However, if purely ”cultural" criteria were used as a basis for ranking, e. g. , possession of books, play attendance, amount of education, the Teacher ranks especially high, in most instances equal to Doctor or above. Apart from the substantive findings, one theoretical conclusion can be drawn. Examination of the above life style per- ceptions demonstrates rather emphatically that no one status dimension yields a consistent ranking order for the seven occupations considered; neither economically-based criteria, culturally-based criteria, nor the more "spongy" clusters of esteem termed ”prestige. " 1 . A 1956 study supports Coffin's earlier conclusion that "the less privileged groups spend more time in viewing, hold more favorable opinions, and show greater effects of TV in their lives. " Kent Geiger and Robert Sokol, "Social Norms in Television Watching," American Journal o_fSociology, Vol. LXV, No. 2 (September, 1959), pp. 174-81. 2See Tables 8. 60, 8. 57, 8. 58 and 8. 54. 233 This gives added support to Hatt's ”Situs" concept and like occupa- tional classifications which allow for horizontal as well as vertical differentiation. Paul K. Hatt, "Occupation and Social Stratification, " American Journal o_fSociology, Vol. LV, No. 6 (May, 1950), pp. 533-43 A. Job Related Characteristics 234 TABLE 8. l--Percentage distribution of projected amount of mOney earned last year by all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to $4, 999 $5,000 or more N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 65. 8% 33. 5% . 7% 100% Carpenter 19. 5 79. 2 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 53. 5 45. 2 1. 3 100 Salesman 45.1 52. 3 2.6 100 Sales Manager 4.1 91. 2 4. 7 100 Teacher 49. 6 48.9 1. 5 100 ' Doctor 2. O 96. 6 1. 4 100 TABLE 8. 2--Percentage distribution of projected amount of education received by all seven occupational groups Occupation High school More than N. R. Totals or less high school Assembly Worker 96. 6% 3. 4% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 84. 4 15. 6 0. O 100 Bookkeeper 26. 8 72. 6 . 6 100 Salesman 73. 2 25. 5 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 13. 5 86. 5 O. 0 100 Teacher 0. 0 100. O 0. 0 100 Doctor '0. 0 100.0 0. o 100 TABLE 8. 3--Percentage distribution of projected number of hours worked each day for all seven occupational groups Occupation 8 hours More than N. R. Totals or less 8 hours Assembly Worker 78. 8% 21. 2% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 77.9 21.4 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 87. 9 11. 5 . 6 100 Salesman 68. 6 30. 7 . 7 100 Sales Manager 57. 4 41. 2 l. 4 100 Teacher 51. 8 46. O 2. 2 100 Doctor 34. 5 64. 9 . 6 100 235 TABLE 8. 4--Percentage distribution of projected age started working for all seven occupational groups Occupation Under 21 21 years N. R. Totals years of age or over Assembly Worker 76. 0% 22. 6% 1. 4% 100% Carpenter 86. 4 13. 0, . 6 100 Bookkeeper 33. 8 65. 6 . 6 100 Salesman 58. 8 39. 9 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 4. 7 92. 6 2. 7 100 Teacher 0.0 99.4 .6 100 Doctor 1. 4 98. 6 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 5--Percentage distribution of projected retirement age for all seven occupational groups Occupation 40 to 64 65 years N. R. Totals years of age and older Assembly Worker 22. 6% 77. 4% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 46. 1 53. 9 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 33. 8 65. 6 . 6 100 Salesman 37. 3 62. 1 . 6 100 Sales Manager 45. 3 54. 1 . 6 100 Teacher 51. 1 48. 9 0. 0 100 Doctor 50. 0 49. 3 . 7 100 TABLE 8. 6--Percentage distribution of projected income received the year before retirement by all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to $5, 999 $6,000 or more N. R.’ Totals Assembly Worker 78.1% 19. 8% Z. 1% 100% Carpenter 34. 4 64. 3 1. 3 100 , Bookkeeper 52. 9 46. 5 . 6 100 Salesman 47.1 49. 7 3. 2 100 Sales Manager 2. 7 93. _2 4.1 100 Teacher 46. 0 49.6 4. 4 100 Doctor 2. 0 93. 9 4.1 100 236 TABLE 8. 7--Percentage distribution of projected length of vacation for all seven occupational groups Occupation 2 weeks More than N. R. Totals 2 weeks Assembly Worker 94. 5% 5. 5% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 77. 3 22.1 . 6 100 Bookkeeper 91.1 8. 9 0. 0 100 Salesman 88. 9 11.1 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 32. 8 66. 5 . 7 100 Teacher 30. 9 68. 4 . 7 100 Doctor 40. 5 56. 8 2. 7 100 TABLE 8. 8--Percentage distribution of projected occupation of father for all seven occupational groups Father' 5 occupation Occupation N. R. Totals White collar Blue collar Assembly Worker 2.1% 92. 2% . 7% 100% Carpenter . 6 98. 7 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 64. 3 35. 7 0. O 100 Salesman 54. 2 45. 8 O. O 100 Sales Manager 88. 5 11. 5 O. 0 100 Teacher 75. 5 24. 5 0. 0 100 Doctor 96. 6 I 3. 4 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 9--Percentage distribution of projected attitude toward work engaged in for all Seven occupational groups Somewhat Very Occupation 1:21;; £2331; disap- disap- N. R. Totals pointed pointed Assembly Worker 3. 4% 73. 3% 19. 8% 1. 5% 2.1% 100% Carpenter 40. 3 59. 7 0. O 0. 0 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 19.1 66. 3 l4. 6 O. 0 O. 0 100 Salesman 20. 3 66. 6 2. 4 0. 0 . 7 100 Sales Manager 44. 6 52. 7 2. O 0. 0 . 7 100 Teacher 36. 7 59. 0 3. 6 0. 0 . 7 100 Doctor 65. 5 33.1 1. 4 0. 0 O. O 100 237 TABLE 8. 10--Percentage distribution of projected preference for other work by those engaged in all seven occupations Prefer Would not Occupation other p'refer other N. R. Totals work work Assembly Worker 76. 0% 23. 3% . 7% 100% Carpenter 34. 4 65. 6 O. 0 100 Bookkeeper 61. 8 38. 0 0. 0 100 Salesman 62. 7 36. 6 . 7 100 Sales Manager 37. 8 62.2 0. 0 100 Teacher 48. 2 51. 8 0. 0 100 Doctor 17. 6 82. 8 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 11--Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of change in occupation for all seven occupational groups Not very ~.Highly Occupation Likely likely unlikely N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 8. 2% 73. 3% 17. 8% . 7% 100% Carpenter 2. 6 66. 9 30. 5 O. 0 100 Bookkeeper 7. O 77.1 15. 3 . 6 100 Salesman 9. 8 74. 5 15. 0 . 7 100 Sales Manager 4.1 66. 2 29. 7 0. 0 100 Teacher 10. 8 70. 5 18. 0 . 7 100 Doctor 1. 3 33. 8 64. 9 0. O 100 TABLE 8. 12--Percentage distribution of projected place all seven occupational groups of birth for Born in Not born in Occupation present present N. R. Totals community community Assembly Worker 63. 0% 36. 3% . 7% 100% Carpenter 76. 0 24. O O. 0 100 Bookkeeper 63.1 36. 9 0. O - 100 Salesman 68. 6 30. 7 . 7 100 Sales Manager 23. 0 77. 0 0. 0 100 Teacher 25. 2 74. 8 O. 0 100 Doctor 29. 7 70. 3 0. 0 100 238 TABLE 8. l3--Percentage distribution of projected place of residence of parents for all seven occupational groups Occupation Same town Elsewhere N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 54. 1% 43. 8% 2.1% 100% Carpenter 56. 5 42. 8 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 47. 1 52. 9 0. O 100 Salesman 57. 5 41. 8 . 7 100 Sales Manager 11. 6 87.. 0 1. 4 100 Teacher 14. 4 84. 9 . 7 100 Doctor 14. 9 83.1 2. 0 100 TABLE 8. l4--Percentage distribution of projected concern for good workmanship on the job for all seven occupational groups Worry Do not worry Occupation about doing about doing N. R. Totals a good job a good job Assembly Worker . 7% 97.9% 1. 4% 100% Carpenter 38. 3% 59. 8% 1. 9 100 Bookkeeper 40. 8 56. 1 3. 2 100 Salesman 4. 6 94. l 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 10.1 87. 9 2. 0 100 Teacher 24. 5 71. 9 3. 6 100 Doctor 45. 3 50. 0 4. 7 100 TABLE 8. 15-—Percentage distribution of projected monetary worries on the job for all seven occupational groups Worry Do not worry Occupation about money about money N. R. Totals on the job on the job Assembly Worker 30. 8% 67. 8% 1. 4% 100% Carpenter 15. 6 82. 5 1. 9 100 Bookkeeper 22. 9 73. 9 3. 2 100 Salesman 27. 5 71. 2 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 8.1 89. 9 2. 0 100 Teacher 10.1 86. 3 3. 6 100 Doctor 3. 4 91. 9 4. 7 100 239 B. Family and Home Patterns TABLE 8. 16--Percentage distribution of projected family size for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0,to 3 4 children N. R. Totals children or more Assembly Worker 42. 5% 57. 5% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 43. 5 55. 8 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 72.5 27. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 78. 4 21.6 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 77. 0 23. 0 0. 0 100 Teacher 82. 0 18. 0 0. 0 100 Doctor 75. 0 25. 0 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 17--Percentage distribution of projected possibility of wife‘s employment outside the home for all seven occupational groups Occupation Not likely Quite likely N. R. Totals or never or steady Assembly Worker 50. 0% 50. 0% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 78. 6 21. 4 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 71. 3 28. 7 . 6 100 Salesman 71. 9 27. 5 . 6 100 Sales Manager 98. O 2. 0 O. O 100 Teacher 57. 6 42. 4 0. 0 100 Doctor 99. 3 .7 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 18--Percentage distribution of projected type of employment for working wives of all seven occupational groups White collar Blue collar Occupation N. R. Totals employment employment Assembly Worker 53. 4% 67. 8% 2. 7% 124. 0 Carpenter 70. 9 38. 5 Z. 6 107. 9 Bookkeeper 85. 6 19.1 3. 2 112. 0 Salesman 90. 2 10. 5 3. 9 104. 6 Sales Manager 90.1 9. 5 9. 5 109.1 Teacher 93.8 7.2 5.8 106.8 Doctor 92. 9 28. 4 6. 8 128.1 *Multiple responses yielded totals over 100% 240 TABLE 8. l9--Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of wife having help with housework for all seven occupational groups . Help with Occupation No help housework N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 99. 3% 0. 0% . 7% 100% Carpenter 97. 4 2. 6 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 94. 9 5.1 0. 0 100 Salesman 90. 8 9. 2 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 49. 3 50. 7 0. 0 100 Teacher 92.8 7.2 0.0 100 Doctor 20. 9 79.1 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 20—-Percentage distribution of projecterarental disciplinary attitude toward children for all seven occupational groups Strict with Lenient with Occupation children children N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 48. 6% 50. 7% . 7% 100% Carpenter 55. 8 43.5 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 55. 4 44. 6 0. 0 100 Salesman 29. 4 70. 6 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 37. 2 62. 2 . 6 100 Teacher 61.2 38.8 0.0 100 Doctor 56. 8 42. 6 . 6 100 TABLE 8. 21--Percentage distribution of projected amount of time par- ents spend with children for all seven occupational groups Occupation Quite Some Very N. R. Totals a bit little Assembly Worker 43. 8% 45. 2% 0. 3% . 7% 100% Carpenter 7'4. 0 23. 4 2. 6 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 66. 9 30. 6 2. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 65. 4 32. 6 2. 0 O. 0 100 Sales Manager 61. 5 36. 5 Z. 0 0. 0 100 Teacher 77. 0 22. 3 .7 0. 0 100 Doctor 44. 6 52. 0 2. 7 . 7 100 241 TABLE 8. 22--Percentage distribution of projected cost of home for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to $13,999 $14,000 and over N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 80. 8% 19. 2% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 57. 8 40. 9 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 59. 9 38. 2 1. 9 100 Salesman 62.1 35. 9 2. 0 100 Sales Manager 11. 5 83.1 5. 4 100 Teacher 50. 4 45. 3 4. 3 100 Doctor 3. 4 93. 2 3. 4 100 TABLE 8. 23--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of a home which includes separate dining room, recreation room, den Dr study, two baths, garage, and fireplace for all seven occupational groups Occupation Home including Home with less N. R. Totals all features Assembly Worker 0. 0% 96. 6% 3. 4% 100% Carpenter o. o 98.7 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 0. 0 100. 0 0. 0 100 Salesman 3. 3 94.1 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 35. 8 63. 5 . 7 100 Teacher 6. 5 93.5 0. 0 100 Doctor 63. 5 36. 5 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 24-—Percentage distribution of projected number of bathrooms in home for all seven occupational groups . Less than Occupation 2 baths 2 baths N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 8. 2% 88. 4% 3. 4% 100% Carpenter 22. 7 76. 0 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 14. 9 87.1 0. 0 100 Salesman 12. 4 85. 0 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 57. 4 41. 9 . 7 100 Teacher 22. 3 77. 7 0. 0 100 Doctor 78. 4 21. 6 0. 0 100 242 TABLE 8. 25--Percentage distribution of projected number of bedrooms in home for all seven occupational groups . 1 to 2 3 or more Occupation bedrooms bedrooms N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 45. 2% 51. 4% 3. 4% 100% Carpenter 27. 9 70. 8 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 31.8 68.2 0. 0 100 Salesman 35. 3 62.1 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 9. 5 90. 5 0. 0 100 Teacher 35. 3 64.7 0. 0 100 Doctor 10.1 89.9 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 26--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of home with. den or study for all seven occupational groups, Home with Home without Occupation den or study den or study N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 5.5% - 91.1% 3. 4% 100% Carpenter 17.5 81.2 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 29.3 70. 7 0. 0 100 Salesman 20. 9 76. 5 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 68.9 30. 4 .7 100 Teacher 66. 2 33. 8 0. 0 100 Doctor 97.3 2.7 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 27--Percentage distribution of projected monetary worries at home for all seven occupational groups Worry Do not worry Occupation about money about money N. R. . Totals at home at home Assembly Worker 69. 9% 27. 4% 2. 7% I 100% Carpenter 41.6 51.9 6. 5 100 Bookkeeper 65. 6 30. 6 3. 8 100 Salesman 56. Z 40. 5 3. 3 100 Sales Manager 20.9 71. 7 7.4 ‘100 Teacher 60. 4 32.4 7. 2 100 Doctor 16. 2 80. 4 3. 4 100 243 TABLE 8. 28--Percentage distribution of projected likelihood of male children going to college for all seven occupational groups Will not Will . NI 0 Occupation attend college attend college R Totals Assembly Worker 43. 8% 55. 5% . 7% 100% Carpenter 17.5 82.5 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 5. 7 94. 3 0. 0 100 Salesman 5. 2 94. 8 0. 0 100 Sales Manager .7 98.6 .7 100 Teacher . 7 99. 3 0. 0 100 Doctor 0. O 100. 0 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 29--Percentage distribution of projected occupation male children will follow for all seven occupational groups Other Blue Any Occupation Professional white of Totals collar lcollar above Assembly Worker 11. 0% 28.1% 85. 6% 19. 2% 143. 970* Carpenter 33.1 53.2 54. 5 ll. 7 152. 5 Bookkeeper 48.4 84. 7 9. 6 7. 6 150. 3 Salesman 49. 0 88. 9 9. 8 . 7 148. 4 Sales Manager 83.8 82.4 0.0 . 7 166.9 Teacher 110.8* 35. 3 1.4 3.6 151.1 Doctor 129.2 29.3 .7 1.4 160.6 *Multiple responses yielded totals over 100% 244 C. Consumption Patterns TABLE 8. 30--Percentage distribution of projected cultivation of vegetable garden for all seven occupational groups Have no Have Occupation vegetable vegetable N. R. Totals garden garden Assembly Worker 33. 6% 65. 7% . 7% 100% Carpenter 17.5 82. 5 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 31. 8 68. 2 0. 0 100 Salesman 26.8 72. 5 .7 100 Sales Manager 50. 0 50. 0 O. 0 100 Teacher 32. 4 66. 9 . 7 100 Doctor 63. 5 35.8 . 7 100 TABLE 8. 31-—Percentage distribution of projected food preservation habits for all seven occupational groups Do not Do Occupation preserve food preserve food N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 17. 8% 81. 5% . 7% 100% Carpenter 12. 3 87.7 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 21. 0 79. 0 0. 0 100 Salesman 32. 0 67.3 . 7 100 Sales Manager 37. 8 61. 5 . 7 100 Teacher 20.1 79.2 .7 100 Doctor 54.7 45.3 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 32--Percentage distribution of projected buying of groceries by telephone for all seven occupational groups Order Do not order Occupation groceries by groceries by N. R. Totals telephone telephone Assembly Worker 0. 0% 100. 0% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter . 6 99. 4 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 1. 3 98. 7 0. 0 100 Salesman 1. 3 98.7 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 18. 9 81.1 0. 0 100 Teacher .7 99.3 0.0 100 Doctor 31. 8 68.2 0.0 100 245 TABLE 8. 33--Percentage distribution of projected practice of buying clothing in economy chains for all seven occupational groups Buy clothing Do not buy Occupation in economy clothing in N. R. Totals chains economy chains Assembly Worker 72. 6% 27. 4% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 54. 5 45. 5 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 40. 8 59. 2 0. 0 100 Salesman 30. 7 69. 3 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 6. 8 93.2 0. 0 100 Teacher 29.5 70. 5 0. 0 100 Doctor 8.8 91.2 0.0 100 TABLE 8. 34--Percentage distribution of projected number of suits owned by all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 t? 2 3 or more N. R. Totals suits suits Assembly Worker 71. 9% 27. 4% . 7% 100% Carpenter 53. 9 46. 1 0. O 100 Bookkeeper 18. 5 81. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 15. 0 85. 0 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 1. 4 98. 6 0. O 100 Teacher 7. 2 92. 8 . 7 100 Doctor 2.7 95.9 1.4 100 TABLE 8. 35--Percentage distribution of projected number of overalls owned by all seven occupational groups Occupation O t? 2' 3 or more N. R. Totals pair pair Assembly Worker 5. 5% 91. 8% 2. 7% 100% Carpenter 2. 6 96.1 1. 3 100 Bookkeeper 64. 3 34. 4 1. 3 100 Salesman 68.6 28. 8 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 64.2 33. 8 2.0 100 Teacher 66.9 33.1 0. 0 100 Doctor 70. 9 28.4 . 7 100 246 TABLE 8. 36--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of formal wear for all seven occupational groups No tuxedo, One or more Occupation no evening items of N. R. Totals dress formal wear Assembly Worker 58. 2% 41. 8% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 45. 5 54. 5 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 33. 8 66. 2 0. 0 100 Salesman 28. 8 71. 2 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 3. 4 95. 9 . 7 100 Teacher 10.1 89. 9 0. 0 100 Doctor 1. 4 98. 0 . 6 100 TABLE 8. 37--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of an auto- matic clothes dryer for all seven occupational groups Occupation Own Do not own N. R. Totals dryer dryer Assembly Worker 30. 8% 69. 2% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 26. 0 74. 0 0. 0 100 . Bookkeeper 28. 7 71. 3 0. 0 100 Salesman 27. 5 72. 5 0. O 100 Sales Manager 58.8 41. 2 0. 0 100 Teacher 27. 3 72. 7 0. 0 100 Doctor 64.2 35. 8 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 38--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of home freezer for all seven occupational groups Occupation Own DO not own N. R. Totals freezer freezer Assembly Worker 30. 8% 68. 5% . 7% 100% Carpenter 52. 6 47. 4 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 43. 3 55. 4 1. 3 100 Salesman 41. 2 58. 5 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 69. 6 30. 4 0. 0 100 Teacher 45. 3 54. 0 . 7 100 Doctor 80. 4 19. 6 0. 0 100 247 TABLE 8. 39--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of auto- matic dishwasher for all seven occupational groups Have Do not have Occupation dishwasher dishwasher N' R' Totals Assembly Worker 2.1% 97. 3% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 8. 4 91. 6 0. O 100 Bookkeeper 5. 7 94. 3 0. 0 100 Salesman l4. 4 85. 6 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 29. 7 70. 3 0. 0 100 Teacher 4. 3 95. 7 0. 0 100 Doctor 48.6 51.4 0.0 100 TABLE 8. 40--Percentage distribution of projected number of magazines found in home for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to 4 5 or more N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 84. 2% 12. 4% 3. 4% 100% Carpenter 75.3 22.1 2. 6 100 Bookkeeper 77.1 22. 9 0. 0 100 Salesman 80. 4 17. 0 2. 6 100 Sales Manager 61. 5 37. 2 1. 3 100 Teacher 65.5 33. 8 . 7 100 Doctor 51. 7 43. 9 1. 4 100 TABLE 8. 41--Percentage distribution of projected number of books found in home for all seven occupational groups 1 to 24 . 25 or more Occupation books books N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 65.1% 26. 7% 8. 2% 100 Carpenter 51. 3 46.1 2. 6 100 Bookkeeper 42. O 56. 1 1. 9 100 Salesman 34. 6 58. 8 6. 6 100 Sales Manager 14. 9 79. 7 5. 4 100 Teacher 4.3 90.7 5.0 100 Doctor 2. 0 88.5 9. 5 100 248 TABLE 8. 42--Percentage distribution of projected make of automobile owned by all seven occupational groups Ford, Chevro— All other Occupation let, Plymouth makes N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 71. 2% 28.1% . 7% 100% Carpenter 81. 8 18. 2 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 72. 6 27. 4 0. 0 100 Salesman 83.7 15. 0 l. 3 100 Sales Manager 27. 0 73. 0 O. 0 100 Teacher 83. 5 15. 8 .7 100 Doctor 12. 2 87. 8 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 43--Percentage distribution of projected age of car owned by all seven occupational groups Occupation Own Own older 'N. R. Totals new car model Assembly Worker 8. 2% 91.1% . 7% 100% Carpenter 10. 4 89. 6 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 4. 5 95. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 7.2 91.5 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 52. 7 46. 6 . 7 100 Teacher 5. 8 93. 5 . 7 100 Doctor 56. 1 43. 9 0. O 100 TABLE 8. 44--Percentage distribution of projected utilization of bank checking account for all seven occupational groups Have Do not have Occupation checking checking N. R. Totals account account Assembly Worker 19. 9% . 80.1% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 33.1 66. 9 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 28.0 72. O 0. 0 100 Salesman 32. 7 67. 3 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 61. 5 38. 5 0. 0 100 Teacher 35. 3 64. 7 0. 0 100 Doctor « 64.9 35. 1 0. 0 100 249 TABLE 8. 45--Percentage distribution of projected ownership of stocks and bonds for all seven occupational groups Own stocks Do not own Occupation and stocks and N. R. Totals bonds bonds Assembly Worker 10. 3% 89. 7% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 13. 2 86. 4 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 21. O 79. 0 0. 0 100 Salesman ll. 8 88.2 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 58. 8 41. 2 0. 0 100 Teacher 25.2 74. 8 0. 0 100 Doctor 64. 2 35. 8 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 46-—Percentage distribution of projected amount of insurance owned for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to $9, 999 $10, 000 or more N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 56. 2% 34. 2% 9. 6% 100% Carpenter 41. 6 51. 3 7.1 100 Bookkeeper 40.1 51. 0 8. 9 100 Salesman 34.0 57. 5 8. 5 100 Sales Manager 6. 8 93. 2 10. 8 100 Teacher 29. 5 57.6 12. 9 100 Doctor 6.8 81.0 12.2 100 D. Social and Activity Patterns TABLE 8. 47--Percentage distribution of projected political allegiance for all seven occupational groups Occupation Republican Democrat Other None Totals aSSigned Assembly Worker 15. 8% 76. 7% . 7% 6. 8% 100% Carpenter 19. 5' 70.2 1. 9 8. 4 100 Bookkeeper 54.8 33. 8 7. 0 4. 4 100 Salesman 52. 3 30. 7 5. 2 ll. 8 100 Sales Manager 69. 6 18. 9 3. 4 8.1 100 Teacher 48.9 31. 7 7.2 12.2 100 9 13. 5 9. 5 8. l 100 Doctor 68. 250 TABLE 8. 48--Percentage distribution of projected church membership for all seven occupational groups Non- None Totals Occupation Protestant Catholic Jewish . . member assigned Assembly Worker 49. 3% 18. 5% 0. 0% 15.1% 17.1% 100% Carpenter 64. 9 18. 9 0. 0 2. 6 13. 6 100 Bookkeeper 72. 0 15. 9 0. 0 1. 9 10. 2 100 Salesman 70. 6 7. 8 . 7 5. 9 15. 0 100 Sales Manager 73. 0 12. 8 2. 0 2. 7 .9. 5 100 Teacher 82. 8 4. 3 0. 0 1. 4 11. 5 100 Doctor 72. 3 10.1 . 7 0. 0 16. 9 100 TABLE 8. 49--Percentage distribution of projected membership in civic clubs compared to other organizations for all seven occupations Occupation .Kiwanis Other N. R. Totals Lions, Rotary Assembly Worker 3. 4% 96. 6% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 10. 4 89. 6 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 22. 9 77. 1 0. 0 100 Salesman 20. 9 79. 1 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 56. 8 43. 2 0. 0 100 Teacher 41. 0 59. 0 0. 0 100 Doctor 57. 4 42. 6 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 50—-Percentage distribution of projected reading compared to other leisure activities for all seven occupational groups 4 Occupation Reading Other , ‘N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 9. 6% 90. 4% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 13. 6 86. 4 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 32. 5 67. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 24. 2 75. 8 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 25. 7 74. 3 0. 0 100 Teacher 61. 2 38. 8 0. 0 100 Doctor 33.1 66. 9 ' 0. 0 100 251 TABLE 8. 51--Percentage distribution of golf-playing as a projected leisure activity for all seven occupational groups n . Occupation Golf Do not golf N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 8. 2% 91. 8% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 9. 7 90. 3 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 32. 5 67. 5 0. 0 100 Salesman 37. 9 62. 1 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 58.1 41. 9 0. 0 100 Teacher 28. 8 71. 2 0. 0 100 Doctor 51. 4 48. 6 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 52--Percentage distribution of fishing as a projected leisure activity for all seven occupational groups Occupation Fish Do not fish N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 45. 2% 54. 8% 0 0% 100% Carpenter 48. 7 21. 3 0 0 100 Bookkeeper 33. 8 -66. 2 0. 0 100 Salesman 37. 3 62. 7 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 35. 8 64. 2 0 0 100 Teacher 31. 7 68. 3 0 0 100 Doctor 46. 6 53. 4 0 0 100 TABLE 8. 53--Percentage distribution of projected television or radio habits compared to other leisure activities for all seven occupations Occupation TV or radio Other N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 45. 2% 54. 8% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 37. 0 63. 0 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 31. 2 68. 8 0. 0 ' 100 Salesman 33. 3 66. 7 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 20. 3 79. 7 0. 0 100 Teacher 21. 6 78. 4 0. 0 100 Doctor 12. 8 87. 2 0. 0. 100 252 TABLE 8. 54--Percentage distribution of touring as a projected type of vacation for all seven occupational groups Tour or go Occupation , , Other N. R. Totals Sightseeing Assembly Worker 21. 9% 78.1% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 38. 3 61. 0 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 37. 6 62. 4 0. 0 100 Salesman 39. 2 60.1 . 7 100 Sales Manager 53. 4 45. 9 . 7 100 Teacher 56. 8 43. 2 0. 0 100 Doctor 60.1 39. 9 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 55--Percentage distribution of staying at home as a projected type of vacation for all seven occupational groups Occupation Stay at home Other N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 52. 7% 47. 3% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 39. 0 61. 0 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 29. 9 70. 1 0. 0 100 Salesman Z8. 8 71. 3 . 7 100 Sales Manager 12. 8 86. 5 . 7 100 Teacher 34. 5 65. 5 0. O 100 Doctor 7. 4 92. 6 0. 0 100 TABLE 8. 56--Percentage distribution of vacationing at a resort as a projected type of vacation for all seven occupational groups Occupation Visit a resort Other N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 7. 5% 92. 5% 0. 0% 100% Carpenter 9. 7 89. 7 . 6 100 Bookkeeper 12.1 87. 9 0. 0 100 Salesman 13.1 86. 2 . 7 100 Sales Manager 39.9 59. 5 . 6 100 Teacher 6. 5 93. 5 0. 0 100 Doctor 56.1 43. 9 0. 0 100 253 TABLE 8. 57--Percentage distribution of projected number of movies per month for all seven occupational groups 0 to 1 2 or more Occupation , , N. R. Totals mov1e mov1es Assembly Worker 26. 7% 70. 6% 2. 7% 100% Carpenter 44. 2 55. 8 0. 0 100 Bookkeeper 38. 2 61. 8 0. 0 100 Salesman 33. 3 66. 0 . 7 100 Sales Manager 54. l 45. 3 . 6 100 Teacher 33.1 66. 2 . 7 100 Doctor 60. 8 38. 5 . 7 100 TABLE 8. 58--Percentage distribution of projected number of hours of television observed daily for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to 2 3 or more N. R. Totals hours hours Assembly Worker 32. 9% 65.1% 2. 1% 100% Carpenter 42. 9 56. 5 . 6 100 Bookkeeper 30. 6 69. 4 0. 0 100 Salesman 41. 8 57. 5 . 7 100 Sales Manager 62. 2 37. 2 . 6 100 Teacher 62. 3 37.7 0. 0 100 Doctor 79. 7 17. 6 2. 7 100 TABLE 8. 59—-Percentage distribution of projected number of plays or concerts attended last year for all seven occupational groups Occupation 0 to 1 2 or more N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 82. 2% 15.1% 2. 7% 100% Carpenter 65. 6 \ ' 33. 8 . 6 100 Bookkeeper 56. 1 44. 8 0. O 100 Salesman 62.1 37. 9 0. 0 100 Sales Manager 13.5 85. 8 . 7 100 Teacher 9.4 89.2 1.4 100 Doctor 9. 5 89. 8 . 7 100 254 TABLE 8. 60--Percentage distribution of projected number of family friends for all seven occupational groups 1 to 4 5 or more Occupation friends friends N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 66. 4% 31. 5% 2.1% 100% Carpenter 65. 6 34. 2 . 6 100 Bookkeeper 68. 8 31. 2 0. 0 100 Salesman 64. 7 34. 0 l. 3 100 Sales Manager 37.8 61. 5 . 7 100 Teacher 43. 9 54. 7 l. 4 100 Doctor 52. 7 46. 6 . 7 100 TABLE 8. 6l--Percentage distribution of projected places of residence of family friends for all seven occupational groups Occupation neiglsigcrari-iiood Elsewhere N. R. Totals Assembly Worker 78. 8% 19. 8% l. 4% . 100% Carpenter 77. 9 21. 4 . 7 100 Bookkeeper 73. 9 26.1 0. 0 100 Salesman 62.1 36. 6 1. 3 100 Sales Manager 62. 2 37. 8 0. 0 100 Teacher 61. 2 38. 8 0. 0 100 Doctor 49. 3 50. 7 0. 0 100 255 CHAPTER XI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The primary purpose of this study was to explore whether people have extensive perceptions relating to four aspects of behavior associated with seven specific occupations. These perceptions were sought for the Assembly Worker, Carpenter, Bookkeeper, Salesman, Sales Manager, Teacher, and Doctor. For each occupation inquiry was particularly directed toward ascertaining imagery concerning four substantive areas: Job Related characteristics, Family and Home patterns, Consumption patterns, and Social and Activity patterns. Together these reflect what might be called an occupational life style. The secondaryobjective was to ascertain whether images of life style were affected by selected background characteristics of the informants. These characteristics were: age, sex, size of community, father‘s occupation, newspaper readership, academic standing, and college major. The chi-square test of significance was used as a measure for evaluating differences in perception. Extremely nonsignificant relationships were also noted as evidence of strongly converging projections. Comparison of pertinent per- ceptual data with established occupational information was made in the several instances possible as a relative measure of image realism. The most clear cut images were those of the Assembly Worker and the Doctor; that is, there were fewer differences 256 resulting from analysis of background factors of respondents for these two occupations. The Bookkeeper and the Sales Manager were the two most ambiguous occupations when examined on this basis. In addition, there were shifts in the areas of difference in regard to the four behavior patterns (Job Related characteristics, Family and Home patterns, Consumption patterns, Social and Activity patterns) and variation in distinguishing variables for each occupation. Analyses of Assembly Worker data showed that the type of image most often significantly different was that in relation to Family and Home patterns; the most discriminating variable in respect to images of Assembly Worker was the sex of informant. In general the Assembly Worker was given a low status position and was not considered to be happy with his work. Informants tended to overestimate his education, home ownership, magazine reader- ship, work clothing requirements, and likelihood of sending sons to college. Perceptions most nearly coincident with verifiable characteristics of the Assembly Worker were income estimates, family size, monetary worries, chain store buying, political pre- ference, and limited mobility. Images most often significantly different for Carpenter fell in the category of Social and Activity patterns, with size of community being the most differentiating variable. Specifically, the Carpenter was thought to be happy with his work, not likely to 257 prefer other work, and was particularly concerned with "good workmanship. " Respondents tended to overestimate his income, education, and ownership of consumer goods, but were probably more nearly accurate about his organizational activities, size of family, home ownership, and type of home. It was very evident that the occupation of Carpenter ranked high in esteem. Family and Home patterns were most often significantly distinct for Bookkeeper when analyzed by background factors, while sex of informant was the most distinguishing variable. Even though the Bookkeeper was thought to have received more education and to have higher occupational class origins, he was rated low in general prestige, income, and ownership of material goods. He was often pictured lower than the Salesman and often on an equal par with Assembly Worker. He was thought to have fewer friends and very limited mobility. Of the seven occupations studied, the greatest number of significant differences in relation to background factors of informants were found for Bookkeeper. This implies highly ambiguous perceptions for this occupation and may be related to the high proportion of women employed as Bookkeepers. Work Related characteristics were most often signifi- cantly different for Salesman; size of community was the most discriminating control. In general, the Salesman was assigned a middle-range income, an average amount of consumer goods, a high school education, and was considered moderately satisfied 258 with his job. He was thought to be a Protestant, a Republican, and was ascribed a wider circle of friends than the blue collar occupations and the Bookkeeper. The category of response most often significantly different for Sales Manager was that concerning Social and Activity patterns; academic standing was the most differentiating variable. The Sales Manager was considered to have a high income, to be happy in his work, and most geographically mobile. On an overall basis he was given the highest socio-economic status with the exception of the Doctor. However, cast against background variables, perceptions concerning the Sales Manager showed great variation, thereby yielding an element of ambiguity second only to Bookkeeper. Social and Activity patterns were most often significantly different for Teacher; size of community was the most discriminating variable, Although low economic expectations were perceived for Teacher, he was believed to have access to cultural amenities beyond his income. He was thought to be quite geographically mobile, dedicated to his job, but one of the most likely to change occupation. The kind of image most often significantly different for Doctor was found to be related to Social and Activity patterns; sex of informant was the most distinguishing independent variable. On the whole, the Doctor had the most favorable image in terms of monetary rewards, material possessions, devotion to and happiness with his work. He was thought most likely to have come from a \\ \P 259 professional family and to be most deeply rooted in his present community. All expected his children would go to college and follow a professional or managerial career. Considering all occupations together, Social and Activity patterns had a greater number of significant differences at the . 05 level of significance. Images seemed to converge more often for Job Related characteristics and for Consumption patterns. The independent variables proved to be discriminating in the following order: sex of informant, size of community, academic standing, college major, father's occupation, age, and newspaper readership. Although the specific hypotheses formulated in Chapter I were deemed to be of secondary importance as far as objectives of the study were concerned, three of the four major hypotheses turned out to be substantiated by the data: 1. Occupational images were differentiated at the . 05 level or less with regard to sex, size of community, and age of informant. Sex was a discriminating variable for all occupations; size of com- munity for all occupations except Sales Manager. Age discriminated only for Sales Manager. 2. Occupational images did differ significantly in respect to college major for four occupations. For example, education majors perceived the Teacher differently, business majors visualized the Salesman and Bookkeeper and Doctor differently. 260 3. Those informants who were upwardly mobile (students with blue collar fathers) did differ significantly from those who had fathers in the white collar group. This was found in relation to Carpenter, Bookkeeper, and Salesman. 4. The hypothesis termed "the principle of status congruity" did not hold up in analysis. More realistic images were not perceived for the white collar occupations by students whose father had white collar occupations using at least two evaluative criteria. There were no significant differences when occupation of informant's father was examined in relation to projected income received or in relation to amount of education received for any of the occupations studied. In fact, the informants with blue collar fathers were slightly better judges of the incomes of Salesman, Sales Manager, and Teacher, and the informants with fathers in the white collar groups were slightly better judges of the incomes of Assembly Workers and Carpenters when projections were checked against actual census data. When all seven occupational images were compared with each other, the three postulated levels of prestige ranking appeared in about one-fourth of the comparisons. Notable distortions occurred in almost a third of the comparisons. Here seems to be Substantial evidence which seriously questions the frequent assumptions concerning unidimensional stereotyping in viewing Occupations . 261 In conclusion, it can be stated that people do possess and are able to project highly detailed ideas about occupations. For this sample at least, the extremely small categories of no response further attest to the ability to project imagery extending into most aspects of behavior for persons engaged in specific occupations. Slight reluctance or difficulty was detected for religious and political ascriptions. In addition, occupational perceptions are distinct in differentiating one occupation from another. Since findings of this study revealed that sex of informant, size of community, academic standing, and college major are more discriminating variables than occupation of informant's father, the generalization is suggested, and partially supported, that one's aspirations may be more nearly related to occupational imagery than is social background. 262 LITERATURE CITED Becker, Howard A. and James W. Carper. ”The Development of Identification with an Occupation, " American Journal of Sociology, Vol. LXI, No. 4 (January, 1956). Beegle, J. 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