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""11." \ 11I. “ 11%;: z. 1" 1111111111111 . 11- “H 1111 1 f ' l ‘ I l 1 ‘ 11‘ ‘l..'.1‘ L3: It ‘ ‘| fig”). 1- "‘ '1‘” '1’1'1"? l . . a” 1" ‘ I J ‘ - ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘ 11111111 I {111 1111 1I‘111 ‘ 11.; 1 11111 11IIIII 1I.!11‘12‘1I‘JIII II IIIIII..1I1‘III1II11I11II11II 111111 . 1'I.11II' ' 11111 1???” 311111I I'urIst 111f ’ LJEQLfi _ 1Wr1ufifl1é1 23:33:“ THE" LIBRARY Michigan 5 musty This is to certify that the ‘ thesis entitled THE EFFECTS OF vnmnnovus ‘3» H005 0F \Jlsan PRESEN‘I'RTlO” nwn SEQHE~CE 0F ngsrlw FEEDBACK on qcmEvEHEN‘T |N n MmRoANI-‘s'rony CoqRSE presented by HRRQLD FRRNNLlN ROTH has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Flu D degree in QNRTOMQ’ DateB/la/7 CL 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ pER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. THE EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN MODE OF VISUAL PRESENTATION AND SEQUENCE OF QUESTION FEEDBACK ON ACHIEVEMENT IN A MICROANATOMY COURSE By Harold Franklin Roth A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Anatomy 1979 ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN MODE OF VISUAL PRESENTATION AND SEQUENCE OF QUESTION FEEDBACK ON ACHIEVEMENT IN A MICROANATOMY COURSE By Harold Franklin Roth Due to the increasing number of students enrolled in under- graduate, graduate and professional medical programs, the Department of Anatomy at Michigan State University has been unable to fully meet the demands placed on its medical microanatomy teaching laboratory facilities. In order to identify efficient teaching alternatives, several modes of instruction were statistically evaluated with respect to student achievement. The effects of biographical and attitudinal data, variations in the mode of visual presentation and variations in question sequence on achievement in a microanatomy course were studied on a group of 135 junior medical technology students. The conclusions drawn from the data are as follows: 1. No statistically significant differences (p<.05) were observed between either the visual media forms of microfiche and 35mm slides or the sequence of question feedback input into the laboratory manual with any of the achievement measures evaluated. 2. No significant interaction (p<.05) was recorded between ‘ the experimental variables of visual media and questioning techniques. .3. University computed grade point average and a pretest given to the students prior to the first laboratory examination proved to be the most reliable predictors of academic success within the microanatomy course (r>.30, p<.05). Harold Franklin Roth 4. None of the other biographical or attitudinal data collected was found to have a significant correlation with achievement within the course (r>.30, p<.05). 5. The following three items were found to have a statistically significant correlation with achievement (r>.30, p<.05). a. The time spent in the laboratory prior to examination one and two. b. Whether or not the student enjoyed studying histology by either the microfiche or 35mm method. c. Whether or not the student wished to be considered for a position as a teaching assistant when the course was offered again. Data from the present study support the contention that university computed grade point average can be used to predict academic success but fails to support the contention that biographical and attitudinal data can also be used as valid predictors. The results confirmed that student achievement was not affected by either the form of visual presentation or the method of questioning. Thus, future decisions regarding the inclusion of these experimental variables need not be based solely on the potential for student learning but rather such factors as cost effectiveness, ease of operation and student preference can be strongly considered. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES iv LIST OF FIGURES v Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 5 An Historical Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Color Microfiche--An Introduction to the Classroom . . . . . 7 Color Microfiche--Experiments in the Classroom . . . . 10 Color Microfiche--Its Use in Conjunction with Basic Science Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Microfiche--Variations in Printed Input . . . . . . . . . . . 13 35mm Slides-—An Introduction to the Classroom . . . . . . . . 15 35mm Slides--Experiments in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . l6 Audio-Tape—-An Introduction to the Classroom . . . . . . . . 18 Microanatomy Testing and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . 20 Computer Assisted Instruction in Microscopic Anatomy . . . . 21 Variations in Question Sequence and Its Effect on Learning . 22 Prediction of Academic and Career Achievement . . . . . . . . 25 Prior Academic Achievement and Biographical Data as Potential GPA Predictors. . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Self—Generated Grade Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Scholastic Achievement and Career Success . . . . . . . . . . 29 Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O METHODS AND MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Course Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Experimental Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Laboratory Sessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Laboratory Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Microfiche Versus 35mm Transparencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Projection Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Laboratory Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Instructor Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Teaching Assistants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Laboratory Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Testing Student Achievement . - - . - . - - . . - - - - . . - 42 Pretests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 ii METHODS AND MATERIALS (continued) Course Evaluation . . . . . . Statistical Analysis Histology Atlas . . . . . . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . Course Design . . . . . . . . Student Biographical Profile . Cost Analysis of Microfiche Versus 35mm Slides Projection Equipment . . . . . . Testing Measures . . . . . . . . Learning Analysis Environment . . . . . . . of Experimental Variables (Page 43 61 62 66 67 68 Biographical and Attitudinal Data as Potential Grade Predictors . . . . . . . . . . Course Evaluation . . . . . . Atlas Evaluation . . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS General Discussion and Prospective APPENDICES . Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix BIBLIOGRAPHY A (Student Data Forms) . B (Laboratory Manuals) C (Testing Instruments) . . D (Evaluation Instruments) . . . . . . E (Statistical Analyses of Experimental iii 0 72 75 77 . . . . . . 95 . . . . . . 128 . . . . . . 175 Data) . . . 187 . 193 Table LIST OF TABLES Laboratory Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biographical Profile of the Male and Female Students . Production Costs of Visual Materials Statistical Analysis of Test Items . Temperature and Sound Recordings . Means and Standard Deviations of the Dependent Variable iv Page 61 62 64 67 68 69 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Microfiche card prepared by Eastman Kodak Company . . . . 47 2. Microfiche card prepared by Sickles Inc. . . . . . . . . 47 3. Microfiche reader--COM model #150 . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 4. 35mm Slide Projector--Kodak Ektagraphic Model . . . . . . 49 5. 35mm Teaching Laboratory Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . 51 6. Microfiche Teaching Laboratory Facilities . . . . . . . . 51 7. Photomicrographs of the Glass Slide Tissue Sections used in the First Laboratory Examination . . . . . . . . . . 53 8. Photomicrographs of the Glass Slide Tissue Sections used in the Second Laboratory Examination . . . . . . . . . 55 9. Photomicrographs of the Glass Slide Tissue Sections used in the Third Laboratory Examination . . . . . . . . . . 57 10. Representative Photograph from the Histology Atlas-- Unipolar Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 11. Representative Photograph from the Histology Atlas-- Multipolar Neurons . 60 INTRODUCTION In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of students enrolled in medically related programs in colleges and universities throughout the United States (Dube 23 a1, 1971). This enrollment surge has placed a considerable strain on those basic science instructional models which rely heavily on laboratory experience as an intergral part of their program. Constraints placed on laboratory time, space and personnel often require the instructor to present information at either a compromised volume or at an inopportune time of the day, such as late afternoon, when student fatigue could adversely affect learning. For the past seven years the Department of Anatomy at Michigan State University has been unable to accommodate the large number of students wishing to enroll in its undergraduate medical microanatomy course. In an attempt to address this problem,the present study was designed to evaluate several potential time saving microanatomy laboratory teaching alternatives. The effect on student achievement was measured while varying both the format of color transparency input and the question feedback sequence in the laboratory manual. Biographical profiles, affective attitudes and prior academic achievement for each student were Statistically evaluated with respect to the mode of instruction and their respective academic achievement in the varied learning models. The data from the study were designed to provide the instructor of microanatomy [.4 with a program and statistical support to preselect and counsel students into the most effective mode of microanatomy instruction. In accordance with this general purpose the following null hypotheses were tested: Student achievement on microanatomy laboratory examinations is not significantly different (p<.05) when either 35mm slides or microfiche media forms are used for visual presentation. Student achievement on microanatomy laboratory examinations is not significantly different (p<.05) when either the sequence of question feedback input is placed at the end of each laboratory unit or scattered throughout each unit. No significant interaction (p<.05) exists between the variables of media form and question form. Student achievement on microanatomy laboratory examinations is not significantly affected (p<.05) by prior academic achievement, affective attitudes or biographical profile data. Microscopic anatomy occupies a position in the basic science segment of virtually every medical curriculum. Its importance in the growing allied health fields is also well documented by the growing number of programs which require a course in microanatomy for graduation. An objective of microanatomy instruction is the identification of the structural components of normal tissues and organs and the relationship between that morphology and its functional significance. To this end, the light microscope has been the primary laboratory tool for the student of histology. Many varied teaching techniques have been applied to histology instructional settings. The combination of 35mm slides with programmed texts (Stinson and Smith 1968 a and b) and with audiotapes (Koprowska 1971) have proven to be effective learning models. The programmed approach to microanatomy instruction allowed students to proceed at a rate appropriate for their learning capabilities (Rolston and Kochhar 1971). Varying the sequence of question feedback input into laboratory manuals has also been proven to significantly affect student achievement (Jones 1976). Students have even demonstrated the ability to learn through question answer sessions with computer terminals which integrate visual materials through television monitors (Griesen 1970). Two of the more recent innovations in educational visual presen- tations which directly affect the microanatomy teaching program were the development of: 1. PCF 135-36 ------- A fine grain, high contrast color photo- micrography film produced by Eastman Kodak whose use resulted in significantly improved color, contrast and resolution when compared to previously used photomicrography films. 2. Color Microfiche-A process also available from Eastman Kodak in which large volumes of information in either hard-copy or transparency format can be reduced to small, inexpensive, highly portable color transparency films. The alternative of utilizing microfiche over the 35mm format of visual presentation offered the advantages of potential increased student utilization, ease of operation and considerable financial savings in departmental investment in slide duplication. The cost of producing the microfiche is such that students could afford to purchase the visuals each time the course was offered thus offsetting departmental expense and allowing the instructor the luxury of completely revamping the visual input prior to each new class. This was a significant factor when considering that students, faculty and administrators were demanding a quality cost-effective individualized education. The data retrieved from the comparison of 35mm and microfiche media formats, variations in question feedback sequence and the effects of individual biographical profiles on student achievement will enable 4 the instructor to identify those students who are capable of achieving the laboratory objectives with each mode of instruction. Matching the student with the most cost effective and time saving mode may allow for a potential increase in enrollment through efficient utilization of limited laboratory time. The potential for academic success or failure could also be determined at an early stage and subsequent program modifications initiated to meet the needs of individual students. If the research data indicates that a specific variation in the sequence of question feedback content in the laboratory manual stimulates student learning and significantly increase achievement then that data can be used to justify appropriate modification of existing laboratory manuals. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction_ The following literature review encompasses many fields of scientific endeavor ranging from the historical development of the principles of photography to the theory supporting the application of these principles in an educational setting. A comprehensive review of each of the fields is beyond the sc0pe of the present literature search and accordingly efforts were made to emphasize the relationships between each area and its impact on medical microanatomy education. An Historical Note Many of the historical landmarks in the development of micro and macrophotography have become obscured in time but according to Luther (1959) the first microphotograph was made in 1839 by the English-born inventor John Benjamine Dancer. He reduced a twenty inch document on a 160 to 1 reduction scale to an image one-eighth of an inch long which was clearly legible under the lOOX objective of a light microscope. Dancer was also one of the first to record a larger than life size image on a photmicrograph by enlarging a flea to fill a 6 1/2 by 8 1/2 inch film plate. While in its infancy the science of microphotography was considered only as an amusing curosity for the wealthy but its commercial, political, military and educational potential was soon realized. According to Veaner (1976) the earliest known suggestion of using 5 micropublications for scholarly purposes was contained in an exchange of correspondence between Sir John Herschel and his brother-in-law John Stewart. In this letter written in 1853 Herschel wrote "The publication of concentrated microscopic editions of works of reference, maps, atlases, logarithmic tables-—is brought within the reach of anyone who possesses a small achromatic object-glass of an inch or an inch and a half in diameter." One of the earliest examples of the application of microphotography in wartime came in 1870 during the siege of Paris when microfilmed military documents were transported across enemy lines by carrier pigeons. By 1887 publishers were microfilming original manuscripts to protect against total loss were a fire to occur. However, it was not until 1928 when George McCarthy convinced the Eastman Kodak company to market a camera designed to microfilm bank checks as a deterrent to fraud that access to microfilming equipment and techniques became available to the general public. In 1936 practical, commercially and technically sound microforms were introduced to the library community. This date marked the beginning of a period of continuous development in educational micro— photography. The sophistication and application of microfilming techniques advanced rapidly from the experimental days of Dancer to the present. Through the years it has gained acceptance as the mostefficient means of storing and retrieving materials utilizing a printed format. In 1969 Eastman Kodak Co. announced the establishment of a color microfiche department. The word microfiche is derived from micro meaning small and the French word fiche meaning image. In essence, the process involves the reduction of either hard-copy reflective originals or transparencies into micro images which are then sequentially placed on a 4 by 6 inch film plate. Color Microfiche--An Introduction to the Classroom From 1971 through 1976, a number of papers were published which described the technical characteristics of color microfiche and its application to various teaching programs. The emphasis of these papers was not on the experimental comparison of the microfiche format to other modes of visual presentation but rather on presenting individual case studies of its application and relating the positive and negative attri- butes of this medium in specific educational settings. Hanson and Rhodes (1971) prepared a series of variable microfiche formats in an attempt to identify the optimum characteristics for subse— quent input into pathology and microbiology units. Color microfiche units were presented to a group of veterinary students two weeks prior to the end of Spring semester in 1971. Although the statistical data were not reported, a "definite rise in student awareness of the subject matter in pathogenic bacteria" and a better performance on the final examination were observed by both instructors. Hanson and Rhodes concluded that printed material should not be presented in the traditional black on white format due to a noticeable washout effect resulting in a lack of sharp definition between the dark figures and the light background. After attempting numerous color combinations, it was found that black letters on a pastel green background gave the most eye-pleasing effect. The quality of the microfiche produced from original 35mm slides was also determined to be superior to that produced from prints made from the same transparencies. Smith (1971) coordinated the development of microfiche based programmed pathology units for medical students at George Washington University. A key concept in his design protocol was that each unit or microfiche card was self-contained and as such included an introduction, gross and macrophotography, autopsy results, low and high magnification photomacrography and appropriate text and reference material. By using the five row sixty image vertical format, Smith was able to include five cases per card with twelve images devoted to each case. His report described the application of microfiche to a specific biological setting and was concerned primarily with discussion of the advantages and poten- tial future use of the color microfiche medium. Data relating to student response and academic achievement were not included in the paper. Palkute and Wismar (1972) were the first to apply the principle of microfiche to the histology teaching laboratory. Their report stressed the necessity of having a highly competent histologist supervising the selection and sequence of the slide materials. The microfiche format is discussed as a potential source for the replacement of the light microscope in the microanatomy teaching laboratory with the following advantages noted. 1. Increased student availability through the inexpensive highly portable nature of the microfiche. 2. A decrease in class hours with students spending more time studying at home. 3. A decrease in the number of structures which are misidentified by students reading a standardized script while viewing slightly different glass slide preparations . Renner and Walters (1974) applied the color microfiche format to a diagnostic skills project designed to familiarize medical students with the basic concepts of disease entities. Each of the self contained microfiche units included introductory descriptive data, representative clinical color photographs, schematics, radiographs and reference text material. Renner and Walters found that by forming an interdisciplinary team of specialists in clinical medicine, computer technology, illustra- tion and television they were able to readily incorporate the newest technological advancements from each field. Although no statistical data were available, they indicated that the initial student response to the microfiche units was highly favorable. Renner ggnal. (1976) have described the specific technical problems involved in the production of quality color microfiche. They suggested that Kodak photomicrography color film 2483 (PCP) should be used for all original histological transparency input due to its high resolution and vivid color qualities. The difficulty in accurately labeling either hardcopy or transparency microfiche input was discussed and several techniques were presented to circumvent these problems. They also state that when preparing scientific material it is often necessary to provide very strict guidelines for the microfiche production for it is unlikely that the technician preparing the master will be aware of the impact of subtle alterations in color or contrast. Fax (1975) replaced a 35mm slide tape program with a series of microfiche based audio tape laboratory units for undergraduate zoology students at Michigan State University. Frequent equipment maintenance, excessive classroom heat and expensive slide duplication were cited as potential problems inherent to the 35mm slide projection system. Contrary 10 to what Pax had anticipated the students were somewhat reluctant to purchase the microfiche materials and were content to review the visuals in the laboratory setting. Hurtgen (1975) discussed the potential uses of color microfiche in a dental curriculum and emphasized its many advantages over the 35mm format. Among those listed were reduced printing costs, quicker infor— mation dissemination, faster information retrieval, decreased mailing costs, decreased laboratory space and rapid and inexpensive duplication from master fiche transparencies. Mohammad (1976) in an initial report described his proposed attempts to incorporate color microfiche into the dental curriculum at the University of Tennessee. He expressed a hope that a microfiche system could be perfected which would eliminate or strongly curtail the use of the light microscope in the dental teaching laboratories. Mohammad also expressed the opinion that microfiche as a teaching tool was directly dependent on the creative imagination of the individual faculty member and unless there is a willingness to draft original and convert existing programs to the microfiche format the rate of progress for this medium will be far less than its potential. Color Microfiche—-Experiments in the Classroom Alexander gt a1. (1972) documented the first application of color microfiche in a learning experiment when they attempted to statistically determine the impact of color microfiche as an aid to recalling visual content in an undergraduate home economics course. During the lecture portion of the course, a series of 35mm slides including various architectural forms, interior designs and furnishings were presented to 11 136 students. These slides, from which all examination questions were to be taken, were converted to the microfiche format and made available for student review. Forty-five students were included in each of three randomly selected study groups. The first group was assigned mandatory use of the microfiche visuals, the second optional use and the third or control group was prohibited from using the microfiche materials._ None of the students had access to the 35mm visual materials. The results from both midterm and final examinations indicated that those students in both the mandatory and optional sections did significantly better (p<.05) on the visual identification portion of the examination than those in the control group. No significant differences in test scores were measured when comparing mandatory and optional users and no relationship was established between the amount of time spent studying the microfiche and examination scores. Unfortunately, the Alexander study was biased by two very important factors. First, the control group had no opportunity to review the examination slides other than the formal lecture periods and, second, not all of the students in the mandatory sections actually did study with the microfiche. Even though limited in some respects, the results of this initial study did reveal that color microfiche did not adversely effect learning. It was established that the use of color visuals in the form of microfiche cards was a significant adjunct to the learning process. Kahn g£_gl, (1973) have presented by far the most definitive study to date dealing with the application of color microfiche to microanatomy instruction. Their experimental goal was to determine if the identifi- cation of histologic tissues and organs could be taught from microfiche based audio-tape presentations with or without the utilization of the light microscope. An experimental group of 28 and a control group of 31 freshman 12 medical students at the University of Michigan were included in the study. The control group received six hours of microanatomy instruction per week including formal lectures and laboratory sessions where microscopes were used in the identification of tissue sections. The experimental group was assigned to two one hour sessions per week during which each student viewed selected microfiche photomicrographs while listening to a cassette tape presentation describing the structures on each color section. One half of the experimental group was given the additional option of review with a microscope and set of glass slides while the other half was not allowed the use of the microscope during the laboratory sessions. Four laboratory examinations were scheduled throughout the term and each was based on proper identification of structures, tissues and organs under the light microscope. When comparing the mean examination results no significant difference was observed between the experimental and control sections. However, the experimental group which had access to the microscopes scored an average of 4.03% higher on each examination than those students not allowed to use the microscopes. This observed increase was not proven to be statistically significant (p<.05). The data from the Kahn g£_§1, study suggests that medical students can master the skills required for proper identification of histologic sections of tissues and organs under the light microscope without having previous extensive laboratory experience with the light microscope. Their data further demonstrated that microfiche audio-tape presentations can accomplish similar learning objectives in one third of the time required by conventional lecture laboratory instruction. 13 Color Microfiche--Its Use in Conjunction with Basic Science Textbooks Two texts are currently available which incorporate color microfiche into a programmed learning package. Reith and Ross (1973) and King g£.§1. (1976) published texts in histology and pathology respectively which were designed to introduce the student to the basic principles of each discipline. The histology microfiche materials prepared by Reith and Ross concentrated on a survey of the four basic tissues (epithelium, muscle, nerve and connective tissue) with no discussion of organ structure or function. The pathology microfiche materials consisted of 386 images of gross and microscopic sections prepared on five microfiche cards. These visuals were integrated throughout the text which was designed around a systems approach to the study of pathology. Each text and microfiche is currently available at a retail price of less than seventeen dollars. Microfiche--Variations in Printed Input In the early 1970s when narrative microfiche materials were rapidly being introduced to both library and classroom teaching, a number of papers were written comparing the potential learning characteristics of microfiche versus hardcopy printed texts. Baldwin and Bailey (1971) compared the effects of positive and negative microfiche and offset copy on the reading retension of technical training material for a group of 133 Air—Force recruits. Tests were constructed which measured the students ability to recall the concepts most widely used in the training materials. The experimental results revealed no significant differences between the learning effectiveness of the three media when measuring the criteria- of long and short narrative, number verification, schematics, flow 14 diagrams, mechanical drawings, length estimation and tables. A significant difference (p<.05) was observed in favor of the offset copy over both microfiche methods when testing the concepts of figure identification, symbol translation and graphs. GrauSnick and Kottenstette (1971) in a similar experiment attempted to replicate the results of the Baldwin study. Again the three experimental media included positive and negative microfiche and offset copy and each was tested on approximately thirty randomly selected Air-Force recruits. As in the Baldwin study no significant differences (p<.05) were found between the three media in regard to retention of narrative type materials. Also, as in the Baldwin study, no significant differences were found for all measured factors when comparing the positive and negative microfiche formats. Significant differences were recorded in favor of the offset copy for the remaining tests. In a subsequent report Grausnick §£_§l, (1971) stated that although no differences were observed between examination results in either the positive or negative microfiche study groups the students responded more favorably to the negative microfiche format by a ratio of almost three to one. Kottenstette and Daily (1971) converted 1400 pages of hardcopy reference material for an undergraduate psychology course to the microfiche format. Readers were made available for student use in the University of Denver library and in the learning laboratory of the psychology department. Each student was given the option of studying the reference material by either the microfiche or hardcopy medium and at the end of the ten week course the following observations were made. 15 1. In general the preferential placement of the reader was on the opposite side of the table to the individuals handedness which allowed ample room for notetaking. 2. Of the students who spent 0 to 10% of their study time with the microfiche materials 81% wore either contact lenses or glasses. Of the remaining students who spent 15 to 90% of their study time with the microfiche materials, only 26% wore contacts or glasses. This strong negative correlation between vision disorders and the use of the microfiche was reinforced by the fact that 90% of the students using the microfiche materials stated that they suffered either physical or eye fatigue or both during the learning sessions. 3. The study concluded that other than the visual problems there were no overwhelming obstacles in incorporating microfiche materials in the undergraduate curriculum and that the few observed difficulties could be overcome by improved placement and quality of the microfiche reading equipment. 35mm Slides—~An Introduction to the Classroom Stinson and Smith (1968 a and b) introduced the 35mm transparency into the histology teaching laboratory. They compiled a series of 35mm slides for basic tissues and organ systems which included examples of gross and macrophotography, drawings, photomicrography and transmission electron microscopy. While in the laboratory, students worked in pairs with each student assigned a light microscope and set of glass slide tissue sections. Each pair shared the use of dual rear screen 35mm slide projectors. At the beginning of a typical laboratory session, the appropriate transparencies were reviewed by both students which was followed by the identification of similar structures under the light microscope. Although no statistical data were reported the instructors stated that student response to the 2 x 2 slides was highly favorable and far fewer repetitive questions dealing with structure identification were asked. l6 Fitzgerald (1972) developed a histology learning laboratory which utilized an introductory set of 35mm slides in a format virtually identical to that described earlier by Stinson and Smith (1968a). Care- fully selected color photomicrographs were presented at the beginning of each lab sesSion to a group of histology students at the University College in Galeway, Ireland. Fitzgerald reported that small group instruction was seen as a key asset in this medium format. A single instructor was able to point out structures and discuss functional concepts with groups of four or five students. Data collected from a series of questionnaires revealed a generally positive student attitude. Rolston and Kochhar (1971) over a three year period added self- paced microanatomy instructional units to the histology teaching labora- tory. A series of mastery based histology programs were developed which required successful completion of written and identification objectives prior to advancement into the next unit. Each student was given a set of 35mm slides, textbook assignments, worksheets, a microscope and box of glass slide tissue sections and allowed to proceed at his own learning rate. Weekly lectures were given, although attendance was not mandatory, and, in general, the emphasis was placed on the clinical application of microanatomy principles. The identification portion of each examination was given on a one to one basis with the instructor and was seen as an effective but time consuming method of evaluation which provided instant feedback to student responses. 35mm Slides--Experiments in the Classroom Calentine (1969) designed a study in an attempt to evaluate the effect of laboratory incorporated 2 x 2 slides on the achievement of 17 freshmen biology students in the microscopic portion of their laboratory examinations. All students received two hours of lecture and two hours of lab each week with the experimental variables being confined to the laboratory setting. An experimental group of 29 students was exposed to a selection of related 35mm photomicrographs prior to beginning their work with the microscope while a control groups of 27 students were not shown the photomicrographs and were directed to spend their laboratory time working with the microscope. Three examinations were given in the quarter and only those questions directly related to the microscopic slide study materials were evaluated. The Surprising results were that the students who were not exposed to the 35mm slides achieved significantly higher scores on all examinations (p<.05). The authors questioned whether or not the presen- tation of transparencies has a place in the modern histology teaching laboratory. Lack of sufficient laboratory study time was cited as a possible source of error in the study. Elwood and Haley (1974) evaluated the effects of four microanatomy instructional modes on first year dental students. Each student was given the option of completing the course objectives through any one or combination of the following. l. Lectures Fifty—seven classical one hour lectures were presented. 2. Laboratory sessions---Thirty-five two hour laboratory periods were scheduled during which instructors were present to answer questions concerning course content and slide identification. l8 3. Laboratory exercises--Twenty—five laboratory exercises were developed which were designed to improve identification skills with the light microscope. 4. Slide-Guides ---------- A series of twenty-two self-contained instructional units were prepared which included 35mm slide presentations accompanied by a written text. The mean usage pattern for each of the instructional modes included lectures 70%, laboratory sessions 48%, laboratory exercises 69% and slide- guides 93%. No significant correlation was observed between the number of lecture and lab sessions attended or the number of laboratory exercises completed and the final examination scores. However, a statistically significant correlation (R=0.56) was observed between the number of slide-guide units completed and achievement on both the written and practical portions of the final examination. Contrary to that reported by Calentine (1969), the results from the Elwood and Haley study indicate that the use of 35mm transparencies in the histology teaching laboratory significantly improves student achievement. Audio-Tape--An Introduction to the Classroom Postlethwait (1963, 1964, 1965) developed self-study biology laboratory programs at the University of Purdue. Each laboratory carrel contained an audio—tape which described the assignment, a small film projector, a microscope, dissection specimens and appropriate reading material. Students were allowed to review the laboratory assignment any time prior to their weekly 20-point conventional quiz. Postelthwait reported that the advantages of this method of learning included: l9 1. Emphasis was placed on student learning instead of teaching methodology. 2. The study pace was under the control of the student. He could repeat or omit any portion of the study program he desired. 3. Study conditions involved a minimum of distraction. 4. More students could be accommodated with less space and with less staff. 5. The students were not a "captive audience". They are free to choose those activities which are most instructive and challenging. 6. Students apparently learn more in less time. Following the reports by Postlethwait, a barrage of audio-tape devices were added as supplemental learning tools in the microanatomy teaching laboratory. Fletcher (1968) described a proposed plan for directing student microscopic evaluation of histologic sections through instruction provided by audio-tapes. The results of the study were not included in the preliminary report but in a similar unpublished study by Stinson (1971) student opinion of taped descriptions of glass slide tissue sections was highly unfavorable due to a number of factors including: 1. No two histologic sections are identical and therefore what is being described on tape may not correspond to what the student sees on his section. 2. Unless each section was mounted and labeled in a similar fashion and each student placed the slide on the scope in the same direction what appears in the upper right hand corner for one student will appear in the lower left corner for another. 3. Coordinating the timed verbal instructions with the operation of delicate microscopic equipment proved to be unnerving at best. 20 Fletcher and Watson (1968) utilized tape recorded instruction for the slide identification portion of a histopathology course. In a detailed paper they described the many potential pitfalls in using this medium format, chief among which was coordinating instructions with listener performance. The problem of student disinterest resulting from monotone voice patterns was overcome by using two announcers with the first providing the introductory information and the second the directional requests. Student response to this program was highly favorable. Koprowska (1971) described the development of a slide tape program for use in a cytopathology teaching laboratory. Each of the transparencies was accompanied by a brief audio description directing the students attention to the salient features of the section. Overall student response to the program was favorable and Koprowska recommended further testing of this educational medium. Clark (1975) recorded an improved long term learning retention as determined by a five month post test in those students who were exposed to a histology sequence taught entirely by audio-tape over a similar group taught by traditional lecture laboratory methods. Short and long term post tests were used as the measuring devices for recording learning patterns. The degree to which the results can be generalized to a larger population may be limited by the number of students included in the experimental study (n=12). Microanatomy Testing and Evaluation DeCastro and Da Silva Sasso (1959) described the classically accepted musical chairs technique for microanatomy examinations. Selected sections were focused and fixed on the stages of each laboratory 21 microscope and the students were then admitted to the room and allowed one minute at each station. The uniformity, efficiency and speed with which laboratory examinations could be conducted were listed as the key attributes of the muscial chairs technique. Ackerman and Wismar (1967) reported a comparable student perfor- mance and favorable acceptance of 5 by 7 inch color photomicrograph prints in place of the traditional microscopic glass slides in routine histology examinations. Among the many advantages of using the color print format were the high resolution, color quality, uniformity and constant focus characteristics of the prints and the ease with which examination materials could be prepared and stored for the future. Computer Assisted Instruction in Microscopic Anatomy A large volume of literature has been compiled on computer assisted instruction and as such an in depth review of its educational evolution is beyond the scope of the present literature search. Two of the more significant innovators in the application of computer assisted instruction to the microanatomy laboratory were Bowden (1967) and Griesen (1970). Bowden utilized the computer as a means of student self evaluation following each of a dozen or so segments of a second year medical pathology course. The computer provided a series of questions which required short answers such as true and false, multiple choice and one word descriptive terms. Following each question the student typed the appropriate answer on the computer terminal and was immediately provided with feedback indicating the correct response. At the end of each session, the student was given his percent of correct responses and was able to pinpoint areas of deficiency in the course and make the appropriate adjustments. 22 Griesen added a 35mm projector to the microanatomy computer program and was able to question students with respect to their ability to identify the structural and functional characteristics of over forty organs. Griesen's program, which was incorporated into the Ohio State University College of Medicine's CAI System, took approximately four hours for the student to complete and review introductory aspects of histology. Student response to computer assisted instruction in microscopic anatomy at Ohio State University was unfavorable with tension, fatigue and delay in updating programs cited as major Variations in Question Sequence and Learning Rothkopf (1965) studied the sequence on reading comprehension. word chapter, entitled "The Sunless Around Us. The chapter was divided type questions were constructed for two control groups were used in the concerns (Echt, 1978a). Its Effect on effect of varying test question Students were asked to read a 5,200 ' in Rachel Carson's book The Sea Sea,’ into seven sections and two fill-in each section. Five experimental and study. They differed primarily in the location of the experimental questions and whether or not the correct answers were provided. A 25-item fill-in test was given to all groups upon completion of the chapter. used for the experimental questions between the two testing measures. These questions were taken from material other than that in order to minimize the interaction Rothkopf's study revealed that students who were given the experimental questions after each section, with or without the correct answers, achieved significantly higher scores (p<.05) on the 25-item 23 fill-in test than did those students who were given the questions either prior to each section or in mass at the beginning of the chapter. Rothkopf also noted significantly higher test scores (p<.05) in the control group which was instructed to read the chapter carefully and slowly. Frase (1968) conducted an experiment with 128 college students. His conclusions were similar to those of Rothkopf in that questions facilitated reading retention more when they were placed at the end of the paragraph (p<.001). He also noted that the more frequent the questions the greater the retention (p<.05). This increase in reading retention with an increase in question frequency was only noted when the questions were placed at the end of the paragraphs. Frequent questions placed every 10 sentences just before each paragraph yielded the lowest retention scores. The location of question relevant material in either the first or second part of the paragraph did not effect reading retention. Also, no significant difference was observed when the questions were either in the multiple choice or constructed response formats. Frase g£_§1, (1970) in a similar experiment studied the effect of question sequence on reading retention in a group of 270 undergraduate psychology students. In order to study the influence of motivation in modifying the effect of question sequence on reading retention the students were promised either 0c, 3¢ or 10¢ for each correct response. Frase again noted a significant increase (p<.01) in reading retention in the groups where the questions were placed at the end of the paragraphs over the groups in which the questions preceded the paragraphs. Frase also concluded that as the monetary incentive increased the effect of question 24 sequence on reading retention decreased. A slight reduction in reading retention was reported in the massed post question group over the frequent post question group. MacGregor (1970) studied the effect of questions placed before, after and interspersed in factual reading material on reading retention. Unlike Rothkopf (1965) and Frase (1968, 1970) MacGregor was unable to find statistical data to support the hypotheses that: l. Prepositioned questions will prove superior to interspersing in terms of mean retention scores. 2. lnterspersed questions will be more effective than massed postquestioning. MacGregor concluded that the lack of poor readers in his sample may have biased the findings. Lamberg (1976) noted an increase in reading efficiency when questions were interspersed throughout the reading material. Eighty—six undergraduate college students participated in the experimental program. Reading assignments of approximately 2000 words were divided in half and five multiple-choice questions constructed for each half. The control group read each 2000 word section entirely and then answered all ten questions. The experimental group read half of each section and then answered five questions. Statistically significant differences at the p<.001 level were observed in favor of interspersing questions verses having them massed at the end of each reading. Jones (1976) studied the effects of varying the sequence of laboratory self test items on the achievement of a group of freshmen medical students. Two general pathology slide tape programs (A & B) were developed for the experiment each of which having three forms. 25 Form #1. Information with no self test items. Form #2. Information with self test items scattered throughout the unit. Form #3. Information with self test items grouped at the end of each unit. Six Students were randomly assigned to each of the program forms and the effect on achievement was determined by comparing the results of identifical pre and post tests. Data from the students in program B revealed a statistically significant increase in post test scores (p<.05) when comparing those students who were given self test items and those who were not. Also in group B a statistically significant difference at the p<.05 level was observed in favor of the self test items at the end of each unit over items scattered throughout the unit. Similar significant differences were not found between the various sections of students in group A. Student response to all three forms was highly favorable. Jones concluded that question feedback input into a laboratory manual was better than no questions at all and that the optimum placement for self test items was at the end of each unit. Prediction of Academic and Career Achievement A concise formula for the prediction of academic and career achievement has been sought for a number of years with varying degrees of success. A review of the literature reveals that the formula appears to be multifactoral, consisting not only of prior academic achievement but also of biographical and attitudinal data. The complexity of the prediction problem is increased by the fact that a workable formula for the Caucasian student may not be applicable to the minority student and thus multiple variations of predictive tools may be needed based on 26 individual biographical profiles. The relationship between academic and career achievement is also of paramount importance for if a zero or negative relationship exists between these two variables then the rationale for using prior academic achievement as the primary criteria for admittance to professional career programs is subject to considerable scrutiny. Virtually all of the papers relating to grade prediction indicate a significant positive correlation between future grade point average (GPA) and prior academic achievement as measured by class ranking, GPA and Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) entrance scores. The main thrust in the current research on achievement prediction is aimed at identifying non-cognitive criteria as potential predictors. Student background data as well as opinions and philosophies on subjects ranging from concepts of self esteem to political affiliation have been evaluated and rated in regard to their predictive merit. Prior Academic Achievement and Biographical Data as Potential GPA Predictors Many problems can arise if prior GPA is used as the sole criterion for predicting future academic success. One such difficulty, as reported by Goldman and Hewitt (1975) is that low ability students tend to choose a curriculum with lax grading standards, and when compared by GPA to students in a more rigorous program may appear to have an equal or better potential for future academic success. Anastasi _£__1, (1960) developed a scoring key that could be used with biographical data to produce a single score for subsequent GPA predic- tions. They found that the correlation between future GPA and computed ratings were consistently higher than that between future GPA and SAT verbal or math scores. Aiken (1964) and Hilton and Meyers (1967) also 27 found a strong correlation between individual student background data and academic achievement. Dohner (1967) noted that high school ratings and American College Test (ACT) scores were good freshman GPA predictors and that by adding biographical data the prediction reliability signifi- cantly increased. Beasley and Sease (1974) found a significant positive correlation (p<.05) between GPA and those students who had prior involvement in the following: 1. Organized a school political group or campaign 2. Appointed to a student office 3. Participated in two or more individual athletic activities 4. Writting for campus newspaper or yearbook 5. Religious group as an extracurricular activity Burton (1976) studied the biographical profiles and attitudinal responses of two hundred twenty—nine senior business administration students in order to determine effective GPA predictors. The student background factors which demonstrated significant positive correlations (p<.05) between one or more of the subdisciplines of business administra- tion and cumulative GPA were high school grades, SAT scores, number of colleges attended, independence and community activities. Those factors which demonstrated significant negative correlation (<.05) with final GPA included discipline, materialism, social acitvities, fathers' education and home town size. In addition female and Caucasian students achieved significantly higher GPA levels than did male and minority students. 28 Self-Generated Grade Prediction An often overlooked factor in grade prediction is the students ability to forecast his own degree of achievement. Young (1954) evaluated self-generated grade predictions in a group of over five hundred freshmen at the University of Wisconsin. His results supported the statement that self—predictions are significantly and positively correlated with actual achievement. Young also found that student-generated prediction had a slightly higher correlation with final grades than did the traditionally used high school ranking system. Doleys and Renzaglia (1963) compared self-grade predictions and SAT scores as potential predictors of academic achievement. They found both factors to be significant predictors of final grades (p<.01) with SAT scores having a slightly higher correlation. They also noted that, as a group, college freshmen tend to overestimate their actual academic success. Biggs and Tinsley (1970) and Biggs and Johnson (1972) reported significant (p<.01) correlations between GPA and both self predictions and ACT scores. Holen and Newhouse (1975) asked a group of one hundred fifty—nine college juniors to predict their final grade in an educational psycholOgy course. A significant correlation (p<.Ol) was found between the students predictions and their final grades. Similar positive correlations were also found for high school GPA, college GPA and prerequisite course grades. Keefer (1971) studied the background and personality traits of students which demonstrated both high and low grade predictive abilities. Age and sex did not prove to be significant variables in regard to self- grade prediction. The following were found to be significant positive variables (p<.01). 29 1. Class level (upperclassmen versus freshmen) 2. Scores on ACT 3. High school and college GPA 4. Student reported success in achieving past goals 5. Student self assessment and acceptance of present status The literature related to self-generated grade prediction indicates that this procedure can be used to accurately predict scholastic achieve- ment and that the degree to which it is successful is positively correlated and directly dependent on the emotional maturity of the student predictor. Scholastic Achievement and Career Success According to Wingard and Williamson (1973), grades are positive predictors of potential for career achievement but are poor predictors of actual achievement. Students who maintained a high GPA demonstrated the intellectual potential for career successbut in many cases lacked the motivation to achieve their career goals. In their paper, which was devoted to reviewing the related literature, they stated that although scanty and plagued with design errors the vast majority of the papers report little or no correlation between GPA and career success in the medical field as determined by peer evaluation. Peterson (1966) reported a low correlation (r=.25) between scores on the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) and physician competency as measured by internal medicine specialty board examinations. In an earlier report Peterson ggflgl. (1953) found no significant relationship between MCAT scores and either medical school grades or physician success in practice. Moffatt g; 31. (1971) were unable to find a significant 30 positive correlation between MCAT scores and achievement in a first year gross anatomy course . Learning Environment The potential adverse effects of excessive noise and variations in room temperature on learning have been studied for a number of years. According to a report by Mumford (1971) one of the earliest experiments substantiating the theory that learning was influenced by room temperature was conducted by Charles Peccolo in 1962 at the University of Iowa. Peccolo's studies were carried out in a two-room research school in which the room temperature, relative humidity and air motion could be controlled by the investigator. Progress in the mental tasks of reasoning, new concept formation and clerical routine were compared in two groups of 44 fourth-grade students. Mumford reported that the students exposed to a learning environment of 7O-74OF room temperature, 40-60% relative humidity and 20—40 feet per minute air motion achieved significantly higher scores on tests measuring reasoning and clerical routine than did a similar group studying in a learning environment of 72—810F room temperature, 33-75% relative humidity and 5-10 feet per minute air motion. Mumford also described a more rigorously controlled experiment by R.D. Pepler in which 72 college students at the Kansas State University were subjected to learning environments in which the temperature was varied in 6-degree increments from 62—920F. The relative humidity remained constant at 45% throughout the tests. A significant improvement in O 0 learning performance at the 80 F temperature was noted for the follow1ng: 31 1. Time to complete the assignment 2. Reduction in error rate 3. Effort required to learn (subjectively judged) This study was conducted in October prior to the onset of the winter cold.. Pepler concluded that the students remained acclimated to the summer weather thus accounting for the high temperature recorded for optimum learning. In a report by the National Swedish Institute for Building Research students in the cooler climate of Sweden were found to be very sensitive to high temperatures. Achievement declined in language learning, arithmetic ability, spelling, reading speed and comprehension at temperatures ranging from 81-860F. Numerous industrial studies have been conducted which measured the workers efficiency under varying room temperatures. According to Mumford (1971) Dr. Harry Johnson, Director of the Life Extension Institute in New York, states that "improving the environmental quality can probably increase office workers' productivity by 15%". Studies designed to measure the effects of sound levels on student achievement preceded those evaluating the thermal environment. Flexner (1932), Lehmann g£_§1, (1965) and Kavaler (1975) generally agree on the following standards for sound levels. 10 decibels ----- The sound of breathing while one sits quietly reading 20-30 decibels—~Quiet level of noise in an office or classroom 45—60 decibels--Moderate level of noise in an office or classroom 70-85 decibels--High level of noise in an office or classroom 32 92 decibels---The sound of rush hour traffic 120 decibels--The sound of a loud thunder clap Studies by Flexner (1932) and Watson (1936) concluded that high levels of noise (70—85 decibels) had an adverse effect on student achievement.. Lehmann ggflgl. (1965) reported statistically significant differences (p<.05) for the following; 1. Students achieved their highest test scores in math and reading comprehension in the quiet conditions (20—25 decibels) and their lowest test scores in the high level noise conditions (75-85 decibels). 2. Students required significantly more time to complete the mathematical computation test under the loud noise condition. Individuals react to noise in a variety of ways. What may appear to be an excessive and relentless barrage of meaningless sounds to one person may be classified as enjoyable music by another. According to Bragdon (1971) there have been numerous case histories of excessive violence (murder and/or suicide) resulting from exposure to mildly excessive noise levels (70-95 decibels). Bragdon also states that approximately 10% of the population is "noise sensitive" and that problems in this group may well appear below the 95 decibel level. He concludes that there is little evidence to suggest that the general population may suffer behavioral disorders as the result of excessive noise. Noise appears to aggravate rather than precipitate behavioral disorders. The literature search revealed a general lack of data regarding the comparative learning effectiveness of microfiche versus 35mm visual presentation systems. There also appears to be a minimal amount of statistically significant data regarding the optimum placement of question answer segments within a laboratory manual. The present study is designed 33 to evaluate both research topics and thus increase the general pool of information available to the microanatomy laboratory instructor. METHODS AND MATERIALS Course Design During the Winter term of 1976, the Department of Anatomy at Michigan State University offered an undergraduate course in microscopic anatomy for a group of one hundred thirty-five junior Medical Technology majors. The course content was presented inaccordancewdth the basic tissue and organ systems approach to the study of microanatomy and student teaching contact was limited to three hours of lecture and six hours of laboratory per week. All students who registered for the program were scheduled for lectures during the same time period and had the option of enrolling in one of two morning laboratory sections based on personal preference and other class commitments. Students in each section were randomly divided into two groups based on an alternate selection procedure and were assigned to either a microfiche or 35mm laboratory. Experimental Variables The experimental variables were restricted to the laboratory periods and included 1. The form of visual presentation of transparency material. a. 35mm slide format b. Microfiche format 2. The method of question feedback sequence in the laboratory manual. a. Questions at the end of each laboratory session b. Questions scattered throughout the session. 34 35 Laboratory_§essions Thirty laboratory periods were scheduled throughout the term with one devoted to orientation, three to review sessions, three for testing and evaluation and the remaining twenty-three for instruction. During the first period, the students were instructed as to the proper use and maintenance of laboratory equipment. They were also asked to complete a biographical data sheet and respond to a questionnaire developed by Comrey and Newmeyer (1965) in order to measure their degree of radicalism or conservatism on a variety of subjects including religion, pacifism, welfare, anti—unionism, federal government, moral censorship, contracep- tion, racial tolerance, treatment of criminals, capital punishment, service to country, world government and service to the individual. Two equivalent forms of the attitudinal test were used in the study and copies of both the biographical data sheet and the attitudinal data tests are included in Appendix A. The alternate-forms reliability estimate was reported to be .96, correlating form A and form B. Laboratory Manuals The manuals used by all four groups were identical in content and varied only in the sequence of the question input. Both early morning laboratory sections were given manuals in which all of the study questions were placed at the end of each daily unit. Both late morning sections were given manuals in which the questions were divided and placed in the middle and end of each unit. The primary purpose of the laboratory manual was to provide a detailed description of the color transparencies and to instruct the students as to which structural components should be 36 identified on the glass slide histologic preparations. Samples of each manual are included in Appendix B. Microfiche Versus 35mm Transparencies A total of four hundred transparencies were presented to the students throughout the course of the experimental program. The slides were selected from a microanatomy teaching program developed by Al W. Stinson, D.V.M. professor of Anatomy at Michigan State University. These visuals were prepared in both the microfiche and 35mm format and comparisons made with respect to quality control and cost analysis of the final product. Five microfiche cards, each containing approximately eighty images, were developed for the program with the first two being processed by Eastman Kodak Co.1 and the final three by Sickles Inc.2 Figure 1 and 2 are representative examples of microfiche prepared by Eastman Kodak and Sickles, Inc., respectively. These figures were contact printed and processed simultaneously under identifical conditions in order that valid comparisons could be made. The four by six inch microfiche films are divided into six rows with each row having a potential for twelve horizontally or vertically placed slides, thus allowing for a maximum of eighty-four images per card (generally either forty-nine, sixty, eighty-four or ninety-six image formats are used in standard production by both companies). As the number of images per card increases, the size of each individual 1Eastman Kodak Co., 1187 Ridge Road, Rochester, New York 14650 2Sickles Inc., P.0. Box 339C Scottsdale, Arizona 85257 37 image decreases and this must be taken into consideration when matching the appropriate objective magnification on the reader to the proper image size. The color quality of the eighty-four image format has proven to be quite satisfactory and both Eastman Kodak and Sickles Inc. offer a set of proof cards to be evaluated prior to the final printing. The 35mm slides used in the program were duplicated at Photo Mart3 and the copies placed in Kodak carousel trays for subsequent viewing. Test strips of the slide duplications were made available by Photo Mart for inspection prior to the final printing. Projection Equipment The microfiche reader used in the experiment (Figure 3) was the C.O.M. Model #150 equipped with a floating lens, eight and one half by eleven inch grey screen, dual intensity twenty-four volt one hundred and fifty watt quartz halogen light source and a twenty-four X objective. Each reader measured fifteen inches high, nineteen inches long and twelve inches wide, weighed approximately twenty-three pounds and was constructed of steel and aluminum. This particular model of microfiche reader has proven to be very efficient and durable in several years of use in teaching laboratories at Michigan State University. It has a minimum of moveable parts and as such the potential for major repair is virtually nonexistant. The C.O.M. 150 reader may be purchased from Micro Design Inc. 3Photo Mart, 2312 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, Michigan 4Micro Design Inc., 857 West State Street, Hartford, Wisconsin 53027. 38 The slide projector used in the experiment (Figure 4) was the Kodak Ektagraphic Model #B-2 equipped with a three inch F 3.5 Ektanar lens and a dual intensity one hundred and twenty volt three hundred watt Quartz-line light source. It measures three and one half inches high, ten and one half inches long and ten and one half inches wide, weighs approximately twelve pounds and is constructed of heavychngrplastics. This projector has also proven itself very durable in several years of heavy use but, unlike the microfiche reader, it has several electrically operated moveable parts including both forward and reverse slide advance and remote control focus which are prone to occasional breakdown and require repair. The Model B-2 Ektagraphic slide projector may be purchased from the Eastman Kodak Co.5 Laboratory Facilities Two similar teaching facilities were utilized for these experi- ments. Laboratory A was equipped with nineteen teaching carrels (Figure 5) and could accommodate thirty-eight students. Students worked in pairs in the learning carrels and were allowed to proceed at their own rate during each of the laboratory sessions. Each student was given a microscope, five boxes of glass slides, a 35mm projector with remote control and numerous boxes of kodachrome 2 X 2 slide transparencies. The kodachrome slides were placed in carousel trays labeled either right or left with each student controlling one projector. The learning carrels 5Eastman Kodak Co., 1187 Ridge Road, Rochester, New York 14650. 39 were designed such that the slides could be alternately advanced which ~allowed the opportunity to compare and contrast two images at the same time. The second teaching laboratory, Lab B, (Figure 6) was separated from Lab Aiby a histotechnique prep room and an adjoining faculty office. This facility was equipped with sixteen learning carrels of similar dimensions and thus could accommodate thirty-two students. It was identical with Lab A in all respects with the exception that a single microfiche machine and five microfiche cards replaced the two slide projectors and numerous carousel trays. The visual material and its sequence was the same for students using either the 35mm projectors or microfiche machines. The microfiche readers were designed so that students could rapidly move from one section to the next when comparisons were to be made. Learning Environment In order to measure the physical environment of each of the teaching laboratories, temperature recording devices were centrally placed in each laboratory and readings taken just prior to student arrival and at one half hour intervals during the early morning microanatomy session. During the same laboratory period sound levels were recorded by technicians from the University Instructional Media Center. The recordings were made fifteen minutes after the beginning of the session without the knowledge of the students. 4O Instructor Profile The teaching team consisted of a primary lecturer, a group of eleven undergraduate teaching assistants and a laboratory coordinator. Twenty-three of the twenty-seven hourly lectures were presented by a professor in the Department of Anatomy who had taught the histology course four times prior to the present class. The remaining four lectures were presented by various faculty members on topics which were related to their primary research fields. During each of the lectures, emphasis was placed on the functional relationships of anatomical principles and current biomedical research on the topics being covered. Midway through the course the students evaluated the primary lecturer and the question— naire and subsequent data appear in Appendix D. Teaching Assistants Three months prior to the start of the learning experiment, one hundred and sixty senior medical technology students were informed by letter that the Department of Anatomy was in the process of establishing an undergraduate peer teaching program in microscopic anatomy. For several years a highly successful peer teaching program had been in operation in an undergraduate human gross anatomy course at Michigan State University (Jacobs and LaRochelle, 1973; and Baker and Mills, 1974) and this was used as a model for the proposed microanatomy project. All of the students contacted had taken the histology course nine months prior and of this group approximately fifty expressed an interest in the program. Through subsequent meetings during which the duties, responsibilities and possible rewards of participation were carefully 41 explained a final group of thirty keenly interested students was established. Due to scheduling conflicts between laboratory teaching time and required senior courses in Medical Technology, the group was limited to eleven highly motivated charter members. Two assistants were assigned to each morning laboratory section and they were encouraged to take maximum responsibility for their particular group of students including input into each of the testing and evaluation sessions. Those students who participated in the teaching program were not paid by the Department or the University for their services but rather were offered the option of enrolling, with fees, in a special problems course in microanatomy. Their final grade was determined by an anonymous evaluation by the students with which they had teaching contact throughout the term and a final evaluation by the laboratory coordinator. Each of the assistants completed the same biographical data sheet and attitude questionnaire used for the experimental student population. Laboratory Coordinator The laboratory coordinator was responsible for insuring that the labs ran smoothly and efficiently and that the assistants maintained a high level of equivalent competency. The prior experience of the coordinator in microanatomy instruction included three years as a graduate assistant in undergraduate, graduate and medical microanatomy COUI’SES . 42 Testing Student Achievement Three lecture and three laboratory tests were scheduled during the term. The lecture exams were written, administered and evaluated by the primary lecturer. The students took each unit lecture examination several hours prior to the unit laboratory examination. Copies of all three lecture tests are included in Appendix C. The laboratory tests included input from both the teaching assistants and the coordinator. One week prior to each examination, the assistants submitted test questions which were then evaluated by their peers with respect to relevancy, degree of difficulty and phrasing of each item. The approved questions, along with those submitted by the coordi- nator, were then combined into the final test form. As the term proceeded, progressively higher percentages of the laboratory tests were devoted to identification of tissue sections under the light microscope with 40% of the first, 45% of the second and 60% of the final exam related to identification skills. Figures 7, 8 and 9 include color contact printed photomicrographs taken from each of the test slides used in examinations one, two, and three respectively. Copies of each of the three laboratory tests are included in Appendix C. Pretests At the beginning of the first and second laboratory units a pretest was given to measure knowledge of the subject matter for each student. These test included both written questions and slide identi- fication. Copies of both pretests are included in Appendix C. Similar topics were covered in both the lecture and laboratory portions of the course. The emphasis in the lecture examinations was based primarily on recall of factual information while the emphasis in 43 the laboratory examinations was placed on the identification of glass mounted tissue sections. The pretests given to the students were patterned in a fashion similar to the laboratory examinations. Course Evaluation Immediately following the final examination each student was asked to fill out a comprehensive course evaluation. A copy of the questionnaire is included in Appendix D. Statistical Analysis Data from the first and second unit examinations were utilized for the statistical analysis of the experimental program. During the third segment of the course the students were allowed to study in either the microfiche or 35mm lab in order to gain familiarity with each system for future opinion surveys. A multivariate analysis of variance (Popham 1967) was prepared for the seven dependent and two independent variables. Dependent Variables Independent Variables 1. First lab examination score 1. Mode of visual input a. Microfiche 2. First lecture examination score b. 35mm slides 3. Second lab examination score 2. Question sequence 3. Questions at the end 4. Second lecture examination score b. Questions scattered throughout 5. Final laboratory grade 6. Final lecture grade 7. Final combined lecture and laboratory grade 44 In order to develop a formula for subsequent grade prediction, Pearson correlation coefficients (Walpole 1974) were calculated between the dependent variables and the following biographical and attitudinal data. 1. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Items number one through thirty of the radicalism versus conservatism test (Appendix A) Cumulateditenm of the radicalism versus conservatism test which measured religion, pacifism, welfare, anti-unionism, federal government, moral censorship, contraception, racial tolerance, treatment of criminals, capital punishment, service to country, world government and service to the individual Age Marital status Career preference Students ability to predict grade Family size Whether or not the student had a job during the term Whether or not the student had prior work experience in a hospital or laboratory Home town size Percent of education funded by the student Students preceived ability in past science courses The CPA that the student feels honestly reflects his efforts to date Actual prior GPA Prior exposure to teaching carrels Prior exposure to 35mm projectors Prior exposure to microfiche readers Prior exposure to the microscope Prior exposure to the proper use of the microscope P.\ .L 45 45 20. Method of visual presentation which they used during the term (35mm versus microfiche) 21. Whether or not they enjoyed using this form of visual presentation 22. Whether or not they wished to be considered for a position as.a teaching assistant when the course was offered again 23. Whether or not the questions helped them learn the material 24. Pretest one 25. Time spent in the laboratory prior to lab exam one 26. Pretest two 27. Time spent in the laboratory prior to lab test two 28. Student gender Those items with a correlation coefficient greater than .30 and a p<.05 were considered as potential achievement predictors. Pearson correlation coefficients were then calculated between the potential achievement predictors in order to identify those factors which were interrelated. A correlation coefficient greater than .50 was considered to demonstrate a strong interrelationship. One item from each subset of interrelated items was chosen for potential use as a predictor. The criteria for item selection were based on the highest correlation coefficient between thedependentvariables. Histology Atlas One of the current trends in microanatomy education has been the incorporation of a detailed color atlas as either a supplement to or total replacement of the laboratory experience. A number of texts are currently available for this purpose including diFiore (1976), Bergman and Afifi (1974), Reith and Ross (1973) and Sobotta (1976). In an attempt to elicit student response to such a program, sixteen color atlases were prepared 46 for laboratory session seven which included twenty slides and covered both the central and peripheral nervous systems. The content of each atlas was identical to that presented in both the 35mm and microfiche sections with the exception that in this case the visuals were in the form of four by five inch color photomicrographs. During both the early and late morning laboratory sessions eight atlases were randomly distributed to each room and these select students were asked to use this visual form in place of either the 35mm slides or microfiche cards. A total of thirty-two students participated in the study and immediately upon completion of the unit each filled out an evaluation of the atlas format. Representative examples of the atlas photographs appear in Figures 10 and 11 and a copy of the evaluation form is included in Appendix D. 47 Figure l.--Microfiche card prepared by Eastman Kodak Company Figure 2.--Microfiche card prepared by Sickles Inc. A VISUAL GOIOE TO MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY --..- “I A v r v V .0” '3 IFACE ‘ngfi‘lfi'grm L 5 INSON D M M 5 DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY ' , , . 7 W S: 7‘15 UNIVIRSH’V Figure T A VISUAL GUIDE TO MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY .uw. um. own. as. when: cannot—MM mm ”mam" Afi:&%3 . 3% I slum an! nag Figure 2 49 Figure 3.--Microfiche reader--COM model #150 Figure 4.--35mm slide projector—-Kodak Ektagraphic model #B-2 50 Figure 3. Figure 4. 51 Figure 5.--35mm teaching laboratory facilities Figure 6.-—Microfiche teaching laboratory facilities 52 53 Figure 7.--Photomicrographs of the glass slide tissue sections used in the first laboratory examination Figure 7 55 Figure 8.--Photomicrographs of the glass slide tissue sections used in the second laboratory examination. Figure 8 57 Figure 9.--Photomicrographs of the glass slide tissue sections used in the third laboratory examination. Figure 9 59 Figure lO.--Representative photograph from the histology atlas-- unipolar neurons. Figure ll.--Representative photograph from the histology atlas-- multipolar neurons. 60 Figure 11. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Course Design Table 1 indicates the number of students per experimental group and their prior grade point average with computed standard deviation. The maximum difference in GPA between any two groups was 0.11. A t-test (Glass and Stanley, 1970) yielded a t value of 0.47 which supports the contention that randomness was achieved during the selection process. Table l.-—Laboratory Assignments Microfiche 35mm Slides Number of students—~32 Number of students-~39 Quescions at Mean prior G.P.A.--2.71 Mean prior G.P.A.-—2.79 the end Standard deviation--l.05 Standard deviation-~l.00 Number of students-—29 Number of students-—35 Questions Throughout Mean prior G.P.A.--2.75 Mean prior G.P.A.--2.82 Standard deviation-—l.09 Standard deviation--O.85 61 62 Student Biographical Profile Biographical data collected at the introductory laboratory session revealed the following student profile. Table 2 summarizes the background information on the student population according to sex. The group con— sisted of one hundred twelve women and twenty-three men. When comparing the biographical data of the male and female students, many similarities were noted including prior GPA, work experience, family size, home town and marital status. However, by comparison several differences were observed in that the male students on the average were thirteen months older, funded seventeen percent more of their educational expenses and were considerably more flexible in their career choices. Table 2.--Biographical Profile of the Male and Female Students Male Female Number of students in the study 23 112 Average age 21.52 years 20.38 years range 19 to 27 19 to 27 Marital Status single 20 108 married 3 4 Prior work experience in a hospital or laboratory yes 7 42 no 16 70 Mean grade point average 2.77 2.77 range 1.58 to 4.00 1.54 to 4.00 63 Table 2.--Continued Male Female Mean percent of education funded by the student 47.75% 29.75% range 0% to 100% 0% to 100% Mean number of brothers and sisters 2.52 2.8 range 1 to 5 0 to 8 Mean geographic location where City slightly developing years (ages 1-8) were less than spent City of 100,000 100,000 Career goals medical technologist 12 79 doctor of veterinary medicine 2 16 biomedical research 0 6 veterinary research 0 4 allopathic physician 6 3 osteopathic physician 2 2 optometery l 1 crime lab technologist 0 1 Cost Analysis of Microfiche versus 35mm Slides Table 3 gives a detailed analysis of the production cost of microfiche prepared from both companies versus the duplication costs for a similar number of 35mm slides. The following key points should be noted in Table 3. 1. The average cost of 100 microfiche cards prepared by Eastman Kodak company is $246.89 2. The average cost of 100 microfiche cards prepared by Sickles Inc. is $152.26 3. The total cost of preparing five cards each having approxi- mately eighty images and 100 copies per card is $950.56 4. The total cost of duplicating a similar number of images on the 35mm format is $10,000.00. 64 Table 3.--Production Costs of Visual Materials Card # # of Images # of Copies Company Total Cost 1. 75 100 Eastman Kodak $242.50 2. 79 100 Eastman Kodak $251.28 3. 84 100 Sickles Inc. $168.28 4. 84 100 Sickles Inc. $144.54 5. 78 100 Sickles Inc. $143.96 # of Slides Cost Per Duplication Total # of Duplications Total Cost 400 $0.25 40,000 $10,000 These data revealed that the average production cost from Sickles Inc. was only 61% of that from Eastman Kodak. When considering a company for future microfiche production the quality of the final product must be of prime concern and thus the author strongly suggests careful analysis of figures 1 and 2 prior to such a decision. In the present study, the microfiche produced by Eastman Kodak Co. was considered to be of higher overall quality and thus warranted the additional expense in production costs. The cost of preparing the microfiche was only 9.5% of that of the duplication of a similar number of 35mm slides and this factor has proven to be significant in regard to the feasibility of making visuals available for student purchase. Students in the experimental program were not offered the option of purchasing the microfiche visuals. This insured that the amount of 65 time each student spent studying the transparencies could be accurately recorded. In a subsequent unpublished study by Roth (1977) approximately 40% of the second year Osteopathic medical students agreed to purchase a microfiche program on the histology of the genito-urinary system at a cost of $1.54 per transparency. The reluctance of undergraduate zoology students to purchase microfiche instructional materials was reported by Pax (1975). The lack of easily available microfiche readers is considered to be the strongest negative factor influencing the students decision not to purchase the microfiche visuals. Small hand held viewers can be purchased from a number of companies including Eastman Kodak at a cost of approximately twenty dollars. The reluctance of the students to purchase the visuals may diminish with the increased availability of the readers and the development of additional educational programs using the microfiche medium. Projection Equipment When comparing the microfiche reader and 35mm projector as poten- tial histology teaching laboratory tools many similarities can be noted including quality of the projected image and initial cost of both machines. Four significant factors which favor the use of the microfiche reader over the 35mm projector in a histology laboratory setting include: 1. The light source used in the microfiche reader emits signifi— cantly less heat than that used in the 35mm projectors and when this per unit increase in heat emission is multiplied ‘by thirty or forty projectors in a single teaching facility the resultant elevation in room temperature could be detrimental to the learning process. 2. The light source used in the 35mm projectors will last up to one hundred hours when used on the high position and the light source in the microfiche machines will last up to four hundred hours also on high. The replacement bulbs 66 for both machines cost approximately the same so there is a four fold increase in duration without a concomitant increase in cost. The students are able to isolate random images on the micro- fiche card with greater speed and less noise than when attempting similar maneuvers with the 35mm projector. The microfiche reader can also serve as a low power projection microscope and magnify small glass slide tissue sections such that they fill the entire eight and one half by eleven inch screen. This has proven to be an excellent teaching aid for small group discussions on subgross histologic morphology. Figure 6 demonstrates a glass slide tissue section of a lymph node magnified by the microfiche reader. Testing Measures The items in pretest I and laboratory examinations I and 11 were statistically analyzed with respect to reliability, mean item difficulty, mean item discrimination and standard error of measurement. A validity study was also prepared on the test items by a content expert in the field of microscopic anatomy. The individual preparing the validity analysis had in excess of ten years of experience in teaching microscopic anatomy as well as being one of the co-authors of the laboratory manual used in the experimental study. Each item was rated on a scale of one to five according to the following: 1. Poor correlation with the material in the laboratory manual Fair correlation with the material in the laboratory manual Average correlation with the material in the laboratory manual Good correlation with the material in the laboratory manual Excellent correlation with the material in the laboratory manual Data from the item analysis described above appear in table 4. 67 Table 4.--Statistical Analysis of Test Items Pretest I Lab Exam I Lab Exam II Kuder Richardson Reliability #20 0.77 0.83 0.89 Mean item validity V 4.45 4.40 4.29 Mean item difficulty 62.00 18.00 19.00 Mean item discrimination 34.00 19.00 25.00 Standard error of measurement 2.38 3.03 3.25 LearningiEnvironment Data in Table 5 summarizes the results from temperature and sound level recordings taken in the teaching laboratories. The temperature in the.microfiche laboratory rose from a level of 71.6OF to a high of 75.00F giving a net increase of 3.4OF. The temperature in the 35mm room rose from a level of 74.3OF to 83.80F giving a net increase of 9.50F. Mumford (1971) states that the effects of temperature on student achieve- ment varies with respect to the climate to which the student has become acclimated. This study was conducted during the Winter months from January to March in lower-central Michigan. Academic achievement under similar climate conditions in Sweden was shown to deteriorate in temperatures ranging from 81-86OF. Therefore, academic achievement of the students in the 35mm teaching laboratories may have been compromised by excessive heat. The noise level in the microfiche laboratory averaged 58.3 decibels and that in the 35mm laboratory averaged 61.8 decibles. Both of these 68 figures fall within the upper limits of moderate classroom noise as described by Flexner (1932), Lehmann g£_§l, (1965) and Kavaler (1975). Data suggesting that this level of noise is detrimental to the learning process is scant and somewhat inconclusive. Table 5.--Temperature and Sound Recordings. Tempgrature 35mm Laboratory Microfiche Laboratory 9:00 A.M. 74.3OF 71.6°r 9:30 A.M. 80.6OF 72.5°r 10 00 A.M. 83.80F 75.00F 11:00 A.M. 80.6OF 75.00F Sound Levels 35mm Laboratory Microfiche Laboratory First reading 59.5 decibels 55.5 decibels Second reading 62.5 decibels 57.5 decibels Third reading 63.5 decibels 62.0 decibels Mean reading 61.8 decibels 58.3 decibels Analysis of Experimental Variables Data in Table 6 includes the mean and standard deviation of the seven dependent variables for each of the experimental groups. No statistically significant differences (p<.05) were observed between either the visual media forms or the questioning techniques and any of the seven achievement measures. In a similar analysis (p<.05) no significant 69 interaction was recorded between the experimental variables of visual media and questioning techniques. The results confirmed that student achievement was not affected by either the form of visual presentation or the method of questioning. Thus, future decisions regarding the inclusion of these experimental variables need not be based solely on the potential for student learning but rather such factors as cost effectiveness, ease of operation and student preference can be strongly considered. Data from the statistical analysis of the experimental variables of mode of visual presentation and sequence of questions with respect to the dependent variables are included in Appendix F. Table 6.--Means and Standard deviations of the Dependent Variables. Questions at the End Microfiche 35mm Slides Lab exam #1 80.62 9.42 Lab exam #1 81.17 9.68 Lecture exam #1 71.06 14.97 Lecture exam #1 73.23 12.54 Lab exam #2 79.64 11.45 Lab exam #2 79.96 12.34 Lecture exam #2 76.03 12.62 Lecture exam #2 76.53 12.74 Lab grade 4.31 1.92 Lab grade 4.23 2.07 Lecture grade 4.53 2.46 Lecture grade 4.35 2.23 Final grade 4,31 1.97 Final grade 4.23 2.04 Table 6.--Continued. 70 Questions Throughout Microfiche 35mm Slides Lab exam #1 82.75 9.33 Lab exam #1 81.97 9.86 Lecture exam #1 72.72 14.97 Lecture exam #1 72.28 10.78 Lab exam #2 82.33 12.15 Lab exam #2 78.54 13.42 Lecture exam #2 76.86 15.45 Lecture exam #2 77.00 10.11 Lab grade 3.51 1.82 Lab grade 4.25 1.80 Lecture grade 4.24 2.51 Lecture grade 4.31 1.49 Final grade 3.72 2 03 Final grade 4.02 1.61 Biographical and Attitudinal Data as Potential Grade Predictors When Pearson correlation coefficients were prepared between the examination scores and the biographical and attitudinal data, the following items were found to have a p<.05 and an r>0.30 with one or more of the dependent variables. 1. The students stated GPA in past science courses 2. Pretest #1 3. The time spent in the laboratory prior to examination 4. The time spent in the laboratory prior to examination 5. The grade that the student predicted he would receive the course 6. The CPA that the student feels he deserves regardless the actual transcripts state for what 71 7. Actual GPA according to university records 8. Whether or not the student enjoyed studying histology by either the microfiche or 35mm method 9. Whether or not the student wished to be considered for a position as a teaching assistant when the course was offered again. Data from items 3, 4, 8 and 9 from the above were collected after the experimental course was in progress and as such cannot be used as initial predictors of achievement. Items 1, 5, 6 and 7 includes data regarding various aspects of the students past and predicted future grade point average. When Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated for these potential performance predictors a correlation greater than 0.50 (p<.05) was observed between the items. University computed grade point average demonstrated the highest correlation with the dependent variables and was selected for use as a predictor. Item 2 (pretest #1) did not demonstrate a significant correlation between any of the other items and was chosen as the second achievement predictor. The Pearson correlation coefficients for the nine potentialachievementpmedictors are included in Appendix E. The majority of the related literature including Keefer (1971), Holen and Newhouse (1975) and Burton (1976) reports a strong positive correlation between previous GPA and future GPA. According to Payne gg,‘gl. (1973) in his summary on the predictors of academic success "the best predictor of future performance is past performance". Data from the present study supports this contention in that University computed previous CPA demonstrated the strongest positive correlation with academic success among the potential predictors evaluated. 72 In recent studies Goldman and Slaughter (1976) and Sharp 35, Q1, (1976) were unable to find a significant relationship between past and future GPA. Different grading standards in different types of college classes were cited as a primary source in confounding the reliability of using past GPA as a predictor. Sharp §£_§1, (1976) stressed the importance of the first cognitive test as a highly reliable predictor of achievement within a specific course. Data from this study do not support the hypothesis by Beasley and Sease (1974) and Burton (1976) that attitudinal and biographical data can be used to predict academic success within a course. None of the attitudinal or biographical variables tested proved to have a significant correlation with the dependent variables (r>0.30, p<.05). Thus university computed GPA and Pretest I were the only reliable predictors of academic success within this microanatomy course. Grade point average has been extensively studied and used in numerous prediction formulas and therefore a similar computation in the present study was not deemed meaningful and as such was not computed. Course Evaluation The course evaluation forms and accumulated data are included in Appendix D and can be summarized as follows: 1. When asked to respond as to whether or not they enjoyed studying histology by their laboratory format, 68.8% of the students in the microfiche sections indicated that they were very happy with their method while 43.2% of those in the 35mm sections gave a similar response. [0 Fifty-two percent of the students who used laboratory manuals in which the questions were all at the end of each unit responded that the questions were very helpful. Thirty- two percent of the students who used laboratory manuals in which the questions were divided between the middle and end 73 of each unit indicated that the questions were very helpful. 3. Of the students in the microfiche sections who were exposed to both forms of visual media, 92.3% preferred the microfiche format while 52.6% of the students in the 35mm sections who were exposed to both methods preferred the 35mm slides. 4. When asked if they would be interested in participating in the teaching assistant program next year when the course was offered again 40% of the class indicated that they would be interested in a teaching position. Further analysis revealed that 46.0% of the students in the microfiche sections wished to be teaching assistants while 35.1% of the students in the 35mm sections wished to be involved in the program. These data can be summarized by stating that the microfiche format was the most favorably received and that one measure of student response was their greater interest in participating in the teaching assistant program. Atlas Evaluation The atlas evaluation forms and accumulated data are included in Appendix D. The majority of the students were very receptive to the atlas form of laboratory learning with 81% preferring it over their present instructional mode. The novelty of this new learning experience may account for a percentage of the students preference over their present mode of instruction (Hawthorne Effect, Bugelski 1964). Ninty- six percent of the students in the 35mm laboratories preferred the atlas format.and 79% of the students in the microfiche laboratories gave it a higher rating. This difference of over 17% suggests that those students studying microanatomy by the microfiche method were more content with their form of instruction than those in the 35mm sections. 74 Written responses to the atlas were positive with respect to its style and potential as a laboratory learning tool. Several students responded that the atlas was a superior teaching format because it eliminated the distracting noise created by the 35mm projectors. Similar responses regarding noise were not elicited from the microfiche sections. Several students also stated that they preferred the atlas because they could study on their own and not have to worry about a slower or faster lab partner. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Several ‘modes of microanatomy laboratory instruction were statistically evaluated with respect to student achievement on cognitive examinations. The modes of instruction which were evaluated included: 1. The use of microfiche versus 35mm slides as the media format for laboratory transparencies. 2. The use of a color histology atlas in place of either the microfiche or 35mm format. 3. The sequence of question feedback sessions in the laboratory manual. a. The questions scattered throughout each laboratory exercise. b. The questions compiled, in mass, at the end of each laboratory exercise. No significant differences (p<.05) were observed between the media formats of microfiche versus 35mm slides. Sixty-eight percent of the students in the microfiche sections and 43% of the students in the 35mm sections stated that they enjoyed studying histology by their respective media formats. The use of microfiche was determined to be a viable teaching alternative with the potential for decreased departmental production costs and increased student utilization as described by Palkute and Wismar (1972), Alexander g£.§1. (1972), Kahn '_£__1. (1973) and Renner and Wlaters (1974). Student response to the use of the color atlas was highly favorable. Data from a subsequent questionnaire indicated that 96% of the students in the 35mm labs and 79% of the students in the microfiche 75 76 labs preferred the atlas format over their present mode of visual presentation. Statistical data evaluating achievement among those students using the atlas was not determined. No significant difference (p<.05) was observed between the groups in which the questions were placed at the end or scattered throughout each laboratory exercise. Fifty—two percent of the students who used the laboratory manuals in which the questions were at the end of each unit indicated that the questions were very helpful while 32% of the students using manuals in which the questions were divided between the middle and end of each unit indicated that they were helpful. Data from the present study does not support the contention by Jones (1976) that placing questions at the end of laboratory exercises significantly increases student achievement when compared to scattering the questions throughout the unit. Biographical and attitudinal data collected from the students prior to the beginning of the microanatomy course did not significantly correlate with achievement (r>.30, p<.05). University computed GPA and a pretest given to the students before the first laboratory examination were the most reliable predictors of academic success within the course (r>.30,p<.05) accounting for 30% and 10% of the variance respectively. A statistically significant correlation with achievement on laboratory examinations was found for the following: 1. The time spent in the laboratory prior to examination one and two. 2. Whether or not the student enjoyed studying histology by either the microfiche or 35mm method. 77 3. Whether or not the student wished to be considered for a position as a teaching assistant when the course was offered again. The learning environment in the microfiche and 35mm labs was compared with respect to noise level and variations in room temperature. In both sections the noise level fell within the upper limits of "moderate classroom noise" as defined by Flexner (1932), Lehmann SE 31. (1965) and Kavaler (1975). The literature suggesting that this level. of noise is detrimental to the learning process is not conclusive. The room temperature in the microfiche lab reached a high of 75.00F while that in the 35mm lab reached a high of 83.80F. The higher temperature in the 35mm lab does fall within the range described by Mumford (1971) as having a negative effect on the learning process. The results of the present study provides statistical support for the utilization of both microfiche and 35mm slides in the micro- anatomy teaching laboratory. Student response to the use of a color print atlas suggests that it may serve as an additional instructional alternative. Further study with respect to the influence of the atlas format on academic achievement is necessary before valid conclusions can be made regarding its potential. General Discussion and Prospective 1. Can students with potential learning problems be identified at an early stage and steps taken to assist them? Sharp 3; £1. (1976) emphasized the significance of using the first cognitive test as a valid predictor of success within a specific course. In the present study, a significantly positive correlation 78 (r=.75) was observed between the first lab examination and the final course grade. These data support the conclusions of Sharp 35 31. and stress the importance of early identification of students who may experience academic difficulty. Data from the present study also support the hypothesis that university computed previous GPA and student predicted GPA can be used as valid predictors of academic success (p<.05, r>.30). It is well documented by Keffer (1971) and Burton (1976) that a significant number of students who experience academic difficulty may be identified at the beginning of the course through computed prior GPA or at the time of the first cognitive examination. The difficulty in improving the students'achievement appears to be not so much in their identification but rather in the additional instructional time required to achieve increased productivity. In most courses the primary lecturer does not have the expertise necessary to adequately counsel each student demonstrating potential academic difficulty. One alternative to this problem is the efficient utilization of a peer teaching assistant program. Generally the same teaching assistant will work with a small group of students several times during the week. If each assistant is informed of the individuals who may require additional help that assistance can be given early in the program. In my experience, when the teaching assistants are highly motivated, they prove to be competent instructors and are more than willing to assist students requiring additional help. 79 2. What direction will the evolution in microanatomy laboratory education take in the near future? The direction in which microanatomy laboratory education has evolved has closely paralleled advances in the fields of differential tissue staining, photography and microscopy. In the early part of the twentieth century numerous staining techniques were develOped which emphasized specific tissue and/or cell types. The thrust in microanatomy education that followed these discoveries stressed the significance of differential staining by exposing the student to a wide variety of highly colorful selectively stained tissue sections. The reality of routine hematoxylin and eosin staining procedures employed by the modern pathology laboratory is beginning to change the trend in microanatomy education toward a more realistic approach to the study of tissue sections. Less emphasis is being placed on evaluating multiple stained sections and more on the types of stains the students will commonly encounter following his formal education. The incorporation of visual media in the microanatomy laboratory has progressed from the use of lantern slides through the use of 35mm and microfiche transparencies. One area that has yet to be fully explored is the use of a color atlas medium in place of either micro- fiche of 35mm slides. Echt(l978b) used the Reith and Ross atlas (1970) in conjunction with histologic glass slides in teaching microscopic anatomy to freshmen medical students at Michigan State University. A favorable student response to the atlas medium was reported. The alternative of using the atlas format would reduce the complexity of the microanatomy teaching laboratory by eliminating the problems that 80 accompany the purchase and maintenance of projection equipment. A microscope, set of glass slides and text—atlas reference would consti- tute the primary teaching tools utilized in the laboratory facility. This could also reduce the necessity of maintaining a carrel system which is extensively used when either microfiche or 35mm transparencies are employed. Ideally a combination text—atlas could be used for this purpose. Unfortunately, a comprehensive color text-atlas microanatomy reference is not currently available but it may likely be one of the innovations of the near future. APPENDICES APPENDIX A (STUDENT DATA FORMS) 83 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA SHEET The Department of Anatomy in conjunction with the College of Human Medicine and the School of Medical Technology is conducting a research program designed to improve the quality of medical education. The following questionnaire is a significant part of that official study and any information provided by the student will be held in strictest confidence. Your cooperation in this study is sincerely appreciated. BIOGRAPHICAL DATA (PLEASE PRINT) NAME STUDENT NUMBER last first middle CLASS Fresh Soph Jr Sr Grad _____ AGE NUMBER OF BROTHERS NUMBER OF SISTERS MARITAL STATUS: Single _____ Married ____. Divorced _____Widowed ____ Separated NUMBER OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN AGES OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN 1. The majority of your developing years (ages 1 through 18) were spent in which of the following geographic areas. A. ._____The inner city of a large metropolitan area (over 100,000 population). B. _____ The suburbs of a large metropolitan area (over 100,000 population). 0. _____ A city greater than 20,000 but less than 100,000. D. ____ A city greater than 500 but less than 20,000. E. ’ A city less than 500. IO 0 84 Which One of the following most accurately describes your career goals: A. _____A110pathic physician (M.D.) B. ____ Osteopathic physician (D.0.) C. _____Dentist D. ____ Medical Technologist E. ____ Other (Specify) Indicate the percent of your college educational expenses which you have paid for. (This does not include that portion paid by your parents) A 0% B 25% C 50% D 75% E 100% Will you have a job during any portion of the winter term of 1976? Yes No If yes indicate the number of hours per week you will be working on that job hours per week Have you had any prior working-experience in a hospital or laboratory situation other than that directly related to school experiences? Yes No If yes briefly describe the situation and your responsibilities What is your ability in science type courses? A . (4.0-3.5) B (3.5-3.0) C (3.0-2.S) D (2.5-2.0) E (2.0-l.S) F (l.5-l.0) G (1.0—0.5) H (0.5-0.0) Which of the following will you predict as your final grade for this histology course? t\) O A 4.0 B 3.5 C 3.0 D 2.5 E LA) 0 85 ATTITUDINAL TEST FORM A Every child should have religious instruction. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 God exists, in the form in which the Bible describes him. Strongly Strongly. Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 This country would be better off if religion had a greater influence in daily life. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 All people alive today are the descendants of Adam and Eve. Strongly Strongly Agree - Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 ' 6 7 8 9 This country should disarm regardless of whether or not other countries do. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 If my country had been destroyed, I still would not push the button to wipe out the attacking enemy. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree l , 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10. ll. 12. 13. 86 Our country should be engaged constantly in research to develop superior weapons for our national defense. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The average man today is getting less than his rightful share of our national wealth. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The government should guarantee every citizen enough to eat. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 Many large unions have officers with criminal records. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 . 5 ’ 6 7 8 9 Most unions do not elect officers by honest, secret-ballot elections. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Central government should run only those things which cannot be run effectively at the local level. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 _ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The federal government has too much power over citizens and local government. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree k.) u.) .L\ U1 0‘ \l CD 1 9 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 87 Greater decentralization of power would be better for this country. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A greater degree of government control over business would result in a weakening of this country's economy. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 If a man is showing a sex movie to friends in his own home, the police should stop it. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Every city should prevent the sale of objectable books. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree l 2 3 4 A 5 6 7 8 9 Sexual relations between unmarried people should be illegal. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The police should hunt down homosexuals and put them in jail. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Abortion should be legalized. Strongly trongly Agree ' Disagree Ix) b.) £5 U1 C) \l (I) l 9 21. 23. 24. 25. 26. 88 Employers should be prevented by law from hiring only people of their own race. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Criminals convicted of three separate felonies should never be released. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 In our country, the sentences handed out to criminals are usually too light. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A mentally ill man who attacks and kills a little girl should be executed. Strongly Strongly Agree . Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A gunman who kills someone in an armed robbery should receive the death sentence. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Every able bodied male should willingly serve for a period of time in his country's military service. Strongly Strongly Agree‘ Disagree U1 0‘ \l 03 l 2 3 4 9 89 27. A man who is ready to die for his country deserves the highest honor. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 28. The United States should work peacefully for a strong world govern- ment. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 29. The United States should be willing to surrender some of its rights to strengthen the United Nations. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30. Laws which benefit the people are more important than laws which strengthen the nation. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 l 5 6 7 8 9 I hereby certify that all of the information and opinions expressed are my own and accurate to the best of my knowledge. I further grant the Department of Anatomy permission to equate my performance in this histology course with my past academic record including overall G.P.A., prerequisite courses and their grades, and entrance examination scores. Signed. l. 90 ATTITUDINAL TEST FORM B School teachers should believe in God. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 _ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 It should be against the law to do anything which the Bible says is wrong. Strongly Strongly ' Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Moses got the ten commandments directly from God. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 All the miracles described in the Bible really happened. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Under no circumstances should our country use nuclear bombs against anybody. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I would rather have a foreign power take over our country than start another war to stop it. Strongly Strongly Agree. Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 Our country should prepare to employ every available weapon to destroy any major power that seriously attacks us. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10. ll. 12. 13. 91 It is the responsibility of the government to take care of people who can't take care of themselves. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 If the government must go deeper in debt to help people, it should do so. Strongly Strongly. Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 Most unions try to prevent the efficient use of labor. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Many union leaders use threats and violence to keep themselves in power. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The federal government should not interfere in the affairs of individual states unless absolutely necessary. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 The strength of this country today is largely a product of the free enterprise system. Strongly Strongly Agree. Disagree 4 5 6 7 8 9 l 2 3 14. 15. l6. l7. l8. 19. 20. 92 Regulation of business by government usually does more harm than good. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 When something is run by the government, it is apt to be inefficient and wasteful. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Motion pictures which offend any sizeable religious group should be banned. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Public libraries should contain only books which are morally sound. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 - 5 6 7 8 9 A woman who has sexual relations with a man for money should go to jail. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 More restrictions should be imposed to prevent young people from having sexual relations before marriage. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Birth control devices should be made readily available to anyone who wants to use them. ' Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 9 lo La) .15 U1 0“ \1 O) l 21. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 93 Marriages between persons of different races should be socially acceptable. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . Teenage hoodlums should be punished severely. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Our laws give too much protection to criminals. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A dictator who orders the extermination of thousands of innocent people should be executed for his crimes. Strongly Strongly Agree ‘ Disagree 1 2 3 4 - 5 6 7 8 9 Someone who plans and carries out the murder of his or her spouse should be executed. ' Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 If called upon to do so, a citizen should be willing to sacrifice his life for his country. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Patriotism is one of the great virtues. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 9 15 U1 0“ ‘Nl 00 l 2 3 28. 29. 30. 94 The United States eventually should give up its military power to a strong world government. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Present nations should become states within an all powerful world government. Strongly Strongly_ Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The welfare of the individual is more important than the welfare of the country. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I hereby certify that all of the information and opinions expressed are my own and accurate to the best of my knowledge. I further grant the Department of Anatomy permission to equate my performance in this histology course with my past academic record including overall G.P.A., prerequisite courses and their grades,and entrance examination scores. Signed. APPENDIX B LABORATORY MANUALS 96 MICROFICHE MANUAL--QUESTIONS AT THE END BONE AND CARTILAGE Slide #C-3. Hyaline Cartilage. In this section of hyaline cartilage from the trachea the nuclei of the chondrocytes are seen as red dots. The matrix immediately around the chondrocytes stains slightly different from the matrix that is farther away. The younger, lighter staining portion is called the territorial matrix while the older, darker blue staining portion is the interterritorial matrix. Notice in some places two cells are close together, while in others, the cells are more widely separated. The cells located close together are the result of recent cell division. Slide #C-4. Elastic Cartilage. This section of elastic cartilage was taken from the ear. The irregular spaces in the tissue are the lacunae of the cartilage. These are small spaces in the matrix that contain the cell body of the chondrocyte. Many times the chondrocyte cell body will shrink during the preparation of the slide but the matrix, because it is quite firm, does not shrink, therefore, the lacunae will appear to be empty spaces. Slide #C—S. Elastic Cartilage. , A higher magnification of the above slide demonstrates the elastic fibers as purple staining elements in the matrix. Eaintly staining chondrocytes can be seen in the lacunae. Slide #C-6. Fibrocartilage. This type of cartilage is very similar to hyaline, but it contains large masses of collagenous fibers embedded in the matrix. These fibers form a felt-work among the chondrocytes. This type of cartilage occurs in places where a tough support or tensil strength is needed. The intervertebral disks are a good example of fibrocartilage. 1:.N’jém 1 34 \‘J :2; (P J :2; ' r--- q" “ v /0\l ta\‘/, 435 “544 (:3 Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage BONE Slide *C-7. Ground Bone. This is a slide of a piece of bone that has been ground to paper thinness and stained to show the structural pattern of the tissue. It 97 is composed of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal. This unit is called an osteon or Haversian system and the central canal is the Haversian canal. Slide #C-8. Ground Bone. This is a slightly higher magnification of the previous section of ground bone which shows several cross sections of Haversian systems with the typical lamella of osteocytes surrounding the Haversian canal. In the upper left corner you can see a cross connection between two Haversian canals. This is called a Volkmann's canal. Slide #C-9. Haversian Systems. Compare this section of an osteon to the drawing on the left. An osteon or Haversian system is composed of concentric layers of osteocytes surrounding a central Haversian canal. The osteocytes have cytoplasmic extensions that penetrate through the bony matrix and intercommuni- cate. The spaces which contain the cyto— plasmic processes are called canaliculi and they can be clearly seen on the slide. Canaliculi Haversian Canal Slide #C-lO. Decalcified Bone. In this section taken from decalcified bone the Haversian systems are present but not as conspicuous as in the previous slide. The Haversian canals are clearly seen as the large spaces in the matrix. Slide #C-ll. Haversian Canals. This is a higher magnification of an Haversian canal from decalci- fied bone. Both blood and lymph capillaries are often found in the canal but it is difficult to distinguish which is which in this section. Slide #C—12. Developing Long Bone. The long bones develop by first being laid down as a cartilage model. This section was taken through the limb of a pig embryo. The light blue stained end of the bone is composed of hyaline cartilage and is the epiphysis. The shaft or diaphysis is composed mainly of bone and bone marrow cavity. The junctional area between these two portions is called the metaphysis and is the region where the cartilage is being replaced by bone. Compare this section to the diagram below and identify all of the labeled parts. 98 Hyaline Cartilage . , v . . . .. . . u I 0 g - . - ' I' , , . . - - , o k . o ' , . . ' O h i V . v .. . , \‘ , . ‘ \— . Q _ - | I ‘ ' . . v \\ ~,\ “' \\‘\ Metaphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis Slide #D-l. Epiphyseal Cartilage. Compare this section of epi- physeal cartilage to the drawing on the left. The zone of multi- r5‘ plication can be seen on the ‘[::%f a}\ right of the screen. In this N {.0, 9‘J\ zone, the chondrocytes seem to be ‘JI'E F‘VH stacked up like coins. The zone ll’b. °; 3 of lacunar enlargement, where the u 2t; t'l Li , :11 lacunae become much larger, is ‘H4 9 gill. seen in the middle of the slide “kg 0 'Lgii and slightly to the left. The , D \1 narrow edge next to the left hand I L margin is the area where the cartilage is being calcified and bone is being layed down. Zone of lacunar Zone of enlargement multiplication Slide #D-Z. Metaphysis. This slide shows the periosteal buds that are penetrating the cartilage of the epiphysis and eroding away the calcified cartilage. The periosteal buds are composed of blood capillaries and osteocytes. Slide #D-4. Diaphysis. This is a longitudinal section through the diaphysis of the phalynx of a new born pig. It is easy to distinguish the marrow cavity from the more compact outer cortical bone. Notice that the Haversian canals are oriented with the longitudinal axis of the bone. The Volkmann's canals are short connections between the longitudinally oriented Haversian canals. 99 Slide #D-S. Developing Cortical Bone. This is a higher magnification of the cortical region of the previous slide. The longitudinally oriented Haversian canals and the inter- connecting Volkmann's canals are clearly illustrated. Lamellar bone will be layed down around the Haversian canal and the canal will thus become smaller in size. The periosteum is visible at the top of the slide. It is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer with numerous osteoblasts. Slide #D-6. Epiphyseal Cavity. This is a section of the pharynx of a newborn pig. The epiphyseal cavity is on the left and the diaphyseal cavity is on the right. The plate of cartilage between the two cavities is the epiphyseal plate. ' Slide #D-7. Developing Flat Bone. In the developing flat bone the bone is layed down first as interconnecting spicules. As the bone enlarges, the osteoblasts lay down bone on the outside surface and the osteoclasts destroy the bone on the inside; thus with this method the flat bones of the skull can enlarge and increase the size of the cavity they are designed to protect (cranial cavity). In this slide, the osteoblasts are seen on the right hand side and the multinucleate osteoclasts are on the left hand side.’ On which side is the bone being layed down in this section and on which side is it being resorbed? Slide #D-8. Osteoclast. This is the multinucleate cell seen in the center of the picture. It is lying next to a spicule of bone and functions to absorb bone. Slide #D-9. Joint. This is a section of the joint between the first and second phalanges of the newborn pig. The insertion of the joint capsule is visible in the upper part of the picture. HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS Slide #2-74. Trachea-—Hyaline Cartilage. This is a section from the trachea and the cartilage rings in the wall of the organ permit the air passages to remain Open. With the scanning objective locate the cartilage which almost completely encircles the center part of the section. It stains a bluish purple. After locating the cartilage rings, study them with the higher objectives. Identify the lacunae, territorial matrix and chondrocytes. Slide #2-75. Bronchus--Hyaline Cartilage. This is another example of hyaline cartilage. You should have little trouble in locating this tissue in the section. Slide #2—73. Larvnx--Hyaline Cartilage. Scan this section of the larynx and locate the cartilage tissue. 100 Slide #1-42. Ear Canal-~Elastic Cartilage. In some body structures it is necessary to add some elasticity to the cartilage. This section of the external ear is an excellent example. With the scanning objective locate the central band of tissue. The cells are in lacunae as before, however, the interterritorial matrix is laced with elastic fibers. This section was stained so that the elastic fibers appear dark. Slide #2-73.’ Epiglottis-—Elastic Cartilage. The epiglottis has a core of elastic cartilage and this one is stained with H & E. Can you see the elastic fibers? They will be more apparent if you partially close the iris diaphragm and carefully focus with the fine adjustment. Slide #1-43. Heart--Fibrocartilage. This slide was taken from the heart of the dog where there is a core of connective tissue around the valves. With the scanning objective, locate the dense mass of blue stained material-—the cardiac muscle stains red. Once you have found the fibrocartilage, study it with higher magnification. This type of cartilage also occurs in the intervertebral disks and where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. Slide #1-47. Ground Bone. This is a slide of ground bone with both cross and longitudinal sections. It is called "ground" bone because it has been reduced to paper thinness by grinding dried bone that has lost its organic matrix. You must cut the light down (close the substage condenser) in order to see the details in this unstained section. You should find Haversian canals, lacunae, canilculi, and Volkmann's canals. Slide #1-49. Long Bone. This is a longitudinal section of a leg bone. Identify the junction of epiphyseal cartilage and bone. Slide #l-Sl. JOint. Before putting this slide on the microscope, rotate the slide 90 to the right and look at it with your eye. The upper segment (longest bone) is the femur. It is as if the knee were slightly flexed. The patella is the small bone on the right and the other segment is one of the bones of the lower leg. Identify the following structures on this section: 0 Femur Patella Joint'capsule Meniscus (fibrocartilage) Joint_cavity Tibia @WDWNH lOl PRACTICE EXAMINATION Match the following types of cartilage with their location in the body A. Hyaline cartilage 1. Ear B. Elastic cartilage 2. Intervertebral disk C. Fibrocartilage 3. Trachea The cell type responsible for the production of cartilage is the The irregular chambers which enclose the chondrocytes in the matrix of the cartilage are called Of all the cartilage types the one having the most strength and the greatest abundance of fibers is The functional unit of bone tissue consisting of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal is called an The central canal of this functional unit of bone tissue is called a MATCHING A. Canaliculi 1. The junctional area between the epiphysis and diaphysis B. Volkmann's canal 2. Connects two Haversian canals C. Diaphysis 3. Enlarged end of long bone D. _ Epiphysis 4. Connects osteocytes E. Metaphysis 5. Shaft of long bone The cell type responsible for destroying bone is called the 102 9. Using lecture notes, the text, and the lab manual as resources describe the following ways in which bone can develop. A. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in length B. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in width C. Describe the processes by which the flat bones of the skull develop and enlarge to accommodate the contents of the cranial cavity ANSWERS l. A. -- 3 3. Lacunae 6. Haversian canal B. -- l C. -- 2 4. Fibrocartilage 7. A--4, B--2, C--5 D—-3, E--l 2. Chondrocyte 5. Osteon or Haversian System 8. Osteoclast lO3 MICROFICHE MANUAL --QUESTIONS SCATTERED THROUGHOUT BONE AND CARTILAGE Slide #C-3. Hyaline Cartilage. In this section of hyaline cartilage from the trachea the nuclei of the chondrocytes are seen as red dots. The matrix immediately around the chondrocytes stains slightly different from the matrix that is farther away. The younger, lighter staining portion is called the territorial matrix while the older, darker blue staining portion is the interterri- torial matrix. Notice in some places two cells are close together, while in others, the cells are more widely separated. The cells located close together are the result of recent cell division. Slide #C-4. Elastic Cartilage. This section of elastic cartilage was taken from the ear. The irregular spaces in the tissue are the lacunae of the cartilage. These are small spaces in the matrix that contain the cell body of the chondrocyte. Many times the chondrocyte cell body will shrink during the preparation of the slide but the matrix, because it is quite firm, does not shrink, therefore, the lacunae will appear to be empty spaces. Slide #C—S. Elastic Cartilage. A higher magnification of the above slide demonstrates the elastic fibers as purple staining elements in the matrix. Faintly staining chondrocytes can be seen in the lacunae. Slide #C-6. Fibrocartilage. This type of cartilage is very similar to hyaline, but it contains large masses of collagenous fibers embedded in the matrix. These fibers form a felt-work among the chondrocytes. This type of cartilage occurs in places where a tough support or tensil strength is needed. The intervertebral disks are a good example of fibrocartilage. Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage Slide #C—7. Ground Bone. This is a slide of a piece of bone that has been ground to paper thinness and stained to show the structural pattern of the tissue. It is composed of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal. This unit is called an osteon or Haversian system and the central canal is the Haversian canal. 104 Slide #C—8. Ground Bone. This is a slightly higher magnification of the previous section of ground bone which shows several cross sections of Haversian systems with the typical lamella of osteocytes surrounding the Haversian canal. In the upper left corner you can see a cross connection between two Haversian canals. This is called a Volkmann's canal. Slide #C-9. Haversian System. Compare this section of an osteon to the drawing on the left. An osteon or Haversian system is composed of concentric layers of osteocytes surrounding a central Haversian canal. The osteocytes have cytOplasmic extensions that penetrate through the bony matrix and intercommunicate. The spaces which contain the cyto— plasmic processes are called canaliculi and they can be clearly seen on the slide. Caniliculi Haversian canal Slide #C—lO. Decalcified Bone. In this section taken from decalcified bone the Haversian systems are present but not as conspicuous as in the previous slide. The Haversian canals are clearly seen as the large spaces in the matrix. Slide #C-ll. Haversian Canal. This is a higher magnification of an Haversian canal from decalcified bone. Both blood and lymph capillaries are often found in the canal but it is difficult to distinguish which is which in this section. 105 PRACTICE EXAMINATION 1. Match the following types of cartilage with their location in the body A. _____ Hyaline cartilage 1. Ear B. _____ Elastic cartilage 2. Intervertebral disk C. _____ Eibrocartilage 3. Trachea 2. The cell type responsible for the production of cartilage is the 3. The irregular chambers which enclose the chondrocytes in the matrix of the cartilage are called 4. Of all the cartilage types the one having the most strength and the greatest abundance of fibers is 5. The functional unit of bone tissue consisting of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal is called an 6. The central canal of thisfunctionalrnut of bone tissue is called a ANSWERS l. A. -- 3 B -- l C -— 2 2. Chondrocyte 3. Lacunae 4. Fibrocartilage 5. Osteon or Haversian system 6. Haversian canal 106 Slide #C-lZ. Developing Long Bone. The long bones develop by first being laid down as a cartilage model. This section was taken through the limb of a pig embryo. The light blue stained end of the bone is composed of hyaline cartilage and is the epiphysis. The shaft or diaphysis is composed mainly of bone and bone marrow cavity. The junctional area between these two portions is called the metaphysis and is the region where the cartilage is being replaced by bone. Compare this section to the diagram below and identify all of the labeled parts. .I I fix...— __'__‘_ \\\9 I II. .II I‘ka “'72-“ I‘"‘ L“ -:_“~~. '_ \ix -__:,|I\\ ‘9‘9‘9I I:.. IIII9". . a. I I I». \_..j t, ~: 7‘; ,~ .J i“\ Hyaline Cartilage Metaphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis Slide #D-l. Epiphyseal Cartilage. Compare this section of epiphyseal cartilage to the drawing on the left. The zone of multiplication can be seen on the right of the screen. In this zone, the chondro— cytes seem to be stacked up like coins. The zone of lacunar enlarge— ment, where the lacunae become much larger, is seen in the middle of the slide and slightly to the left. The narrow edge next to the left hand margin is the area where the cartilage is being calcified and bone is being layed down. Zone of lacunar Zon of enlargement multiplication Slide #D—Z. Metaphysis. This is a higher magnification of the junction between the epiphysis and diaphysis. The calcified cartilage and bone spicules are seen in this section. As the cartilage calcifies, it takes on a darker blue stain and spicules of calcified cartilage are evident in this section. Once the matrix around a chondrocyte calcifies, it diminishes its nutritional support and the cell dies. Osteoblasts move into the area and start to deposit bone around the calcified cartilage (see the orange stained spicules in the slide). 107 Slide #D-3. Periosteal Buds. This slide shows the periosteal buds that are penetrating the cartilage of the epiphysis and eroding away the calcified cartilage. The periosteal buds are composed of blood capillaries and osteocytes. Slide #D—4. Diaphysis. This is a longitudinal section through the diaphysis of the phalynx of a new born pig. It is easy to distinguish the marrow cavity from the more compact outer cortical bone. Notice that the Haversian canals are oriented with the longitudinal axis of the bone. The Volkmann's canals are short connections between the longitudinally oriented Haversian canals. Slide #D—S. Developing Cortical Bone. This is a higher magnification of the cortical region of the previous slide. The longitudinally oriented Haversian canals and the interconnecting Volkmann's canals are clearly illustrated. Lamellar bone will be layed down around the Haversian canal and the canal will thus become smaller in size. The periosteum is visible at the top of the slide. It is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer with numerous osteoblasts. Slide #D-6. Epiphyseal Cavigy. This is a section of the phalynx of a newborn pig. The epiphyseal cavity is on the left and the diaphyseal cavity is on the right. The plate of cartilage between the two cavities is the epiphyseal plate. Slide #D-7. Developing Flat Bone. In the developing flat bone the bone is layed down first as interconnecting spicules. As the bone enlarges, the osteoblasts lay down on the outside surface and the osteoclasts destroy the bone on the inside; thus with this method the flat bones of the skull can enlarge and increase the size of the cavity they are designed to protect (cranial cavity). In this slide, the osteoblasts are seen on the right hand side and the multinucleate osteoclasts are on the left hand side. On which side is the bone being layed down in this section and on which side is it being resorbed? Slide #D—8. Osteoclast. This is the multinucleate cell seen in the center of the picture. It is lying next to a spicule of bone and functions to absorb bone. Slide #D-9. Joint. This is a section of the joint between the first and second phalan- ges of the newborn pig. The insertion of the joint capsule is visible in the upper part of the picture. 108 HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS Slide #2-74. Trachea--Hyaline Cartilage. This is a section from the trachea and the cartilage rings in the wall of the organ permit the air passages to remain open. With the scanning objective locate the cartilage which almost completely encircles the center part of the section. It stains a bluish purple. After locating the cartilage rings, study them with the higher objectives. Identify the lacunae, territorial matrix and chondrocytes. Slide #2-75. Bronchus—-Hyaline Cartilage. This is another example of hyaline cartilage. You should have little trouble in locating this tissue in the section. Slide #2-72. Lagynx--Hyaline Cartilage. Scan this section of the larynx and locate the cartilage tissue. Slide ¥1—42. Ear Canal--Elastic Cartilage. In some body structures it is necessary to add some elasticity to the cartilage. This section of the external ear is an excellent example. With the scanning objective locate the central band of tissue. The cells are in lacunae as before, however, the interterritorial matrix is laced with elastic fibers. This section was stained so that the elastic fibers appear dark. Slide #2-73. Epiglottis--Elastic Cartilage. The epiglottis has a core of elastic cartilage and this one is stained with H & E. Can you see the elastic fibers? They will be more apparent if you partially close the iris diaphragm and carefully focus with the fine adjustment. Slide #1-43. Heart--Fibrocartilage. This slide was taken from the heart of the dog where there is a core of connective tissue around the valves. With the scanning objective, locate the dense mass of blue stained material--the cardiac muscle stains red. Once you have found the fibrocartilage, study it with higher magnification. This type of cartilage also occurs in the intervertebral disks and where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. Slide #1—47. Ground Bone. This is a slide of ground bone with both cross and longitudinal sections. It is called "ground" bone because it has been reduced to paper thinness by grinding dried bone that has lost its organic matrix. You must cut the light down (close the substage condenser) in order to see the details in this unstained section. You should find Haversian canals, lacunae, caniliculi, and Volkmann's canals. Slide 91-49. Long Bone. This is a longitudinal section of a leg bone. Identify the junction of epiphyseal cartilage and bone. 109 Slide 31-51. Joint. Before putting this slide on the microscope, rotate the slide 900 to the right and look at it with your eye. The upper segment (longest bone) is the femur. It is as if the knee were slightly flexed. The patella is the small bone on the right and the other segment is one of the bones of the lower leg. Identify the following structures on this section: 1. Femur 2. Patella 3. Joint capsule 4. Meniscus (fibrocartilage) 5. Joint cavity 6. Tibia llO .PRACTICE EXAMINATION MATCHING A. Canaliculi l. The junctional area between the epiphysis and diaphysis. B. Volkmann's canal . 2. Connects two Haversian canals C. Diaphysis 3. Enlarged end of long bone D. Epiphysis 4. Connects osteocytes E. Metaphysis 5. Shaft of long bone The cell type responsible for destroying bone is called the Using lecture notes, the text, and the lab manual as resources describe the following ways in which bone can develop. A. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in length B. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in width 111 C. Describe the processes by which the flat bones of the skull develop and enlarge to accommodate the contents of the cranial cavity AN S'I-I’E R S l. MUOUU3> I I HWUINL‘ 2. Osteoclast 112 35mm MANUAL--QUESTIONS AT THE END BONE AND CARTILAGE Slide #L—67. Hyaline Cartilage. In this section of hyaline cartilage from the trachea the nuclei of the chondrocytes are seen as red dots. The matrix immediately around the chondrocytes stains slightly different from the matrix that is farther away. The younger, lighter staining portion is called the territorial matrix while the older, darker blue staining portion is the interterritorial matrix. Notice in some places two cells are close together, while in others, the cells are more widely separated. The cells located close together are the result of recent cell division. Slide #R-70. Elastic Cartilage. This section of elastic cartilage was taken from the ear. The irregular spaces in the tissue are the lacunae of the cartilage. These are small spaces in the matrix that contain the cell body of the chondro- cyte. Many times the chondrocyte cell body will shrink during the preparation of the slide but the matrix, because it is quite firm, does not shrink, therefore, the lacunae will appear to be empty spaces. Slide #L-68. Elastic Cartilage. A higher magnification of the above slide demonstrates the elastic fibers as purple staining elements in the matrix. Faintly staining chondrocytes can be seen in the lacunae. Slide #L-69. Fibrocartilagfi. This type of cartilage is very similar to hyaline, but it contains large masses of collagenous fibers embedded in the matrix. These fibers form a felt—work among the chondrocytes. This type of cartilage occurs in places where a tough support or tensil strength is needed. The intervertebral disks are a good example of fibrocartilage. gees; I": Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Eibrocartilage BONE Slide #L-70. Ground Bone. This is a slide of a piece of bone that has been ground to paper thinness and stained to show the structural pattern of the tissue. It is composed of numberous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central 113 canal. This unit is called an osteon or Haversian system and the central canal is the Haversian canal. Slide #R-7l. Ground Bone. This is a slightly higher magnification of the previous section of ground bone which shows several cross sections of Haversian systems with the typical lamella of osteocytes surrounding the Haversian canal. In the upper left corner you can see a cross connection between two Haversian canals. This is called a Volkmann's canal. Slide #L-71. Haversian System. Compare this section of an osteon to the drawing on the left. An osteon or Haversian system is composed of concentric layers of osteocytes surrounding a central Haversian canal. The osteocytes have cyto- plasmic extensions that penetrate through the bony matrix and inter- communicate. The spaces which contain the cytoplasmic processes are called canaliculi and they can be clearly seen on the slide. Canaliculi Haversian canal Slide #L-72. Decalcified Bone. In this section taken from decalcified bone the Haversian systems are present but not as conspicuous as in the previous slide. The Haversian canals are clearly seen as the large spaces in the matrix. Slide #R-72. Haversian Canal. This is a higher magnification of an Haversian canal from decalci- fied bone. Both blood and lymph capillaries are often found in the canal but it is difficult to distinguish which is which in this section. Slide #R-73. Developing Long Bone. The long bones develop by first being laid down as a cartilage model. This section was taken through the limb of a pig embryo. The light blue stained and of the bone is composed of hyaline cartilage and is the epiphysis. The shaft or diaphysis is composed mainly of bone and bone marrow cavity. The junctional area between these two portions is called the metaphysis and is the region where the cartilage is being replaced by bone. Compare this section to the diagram below and identify all of the labeled parts. M”;fi ' Ir - W. 3 «Jar-t ”'“T‘T” 34‘7“; 39H 1. ‘-‘ ,1 .\ -.- (A I“ . ‘ ‘ I \ ”-s __ “ ’A‘ I". \ ‘ . a“. ‘ ‘ \ } Hyaline ~ . *" l C til . «\- - . t 81‘ age ’3‘“, _.“- fl~~ riff: 9.. < .19 ”a“; I Metaphysis DiaphySis Epiphy81s 114 Slide #L-74. Epiphyseal Cartilage. Compare this section of epiphyseal cartilage to the drawing on the left. The zone of multiplication ; .\ can be seen on the left of the :=‘.‘j~\\ ////<<; screen. In this zone, the chondro- e9‘ 9 - ‘I§g______\w”’_,f—r \CIIZ cytes seem to be stacked up like fI9‘-9.I ? L C 3,: 3 C J ”.9.’|‘ coins. The zone of lacunar -i. ' ‘ A i I 3 f 3 ; I 9'Ji'i I enlargement, where the lacunae :‘9I '- 9 g Q U 3 V V ;?II‘: become much larger, is seen in the 9‘. _'~, I, g c- 3 I, I' middle of the slide and slightly 9 I i Q l, to the right. The narrow edge next to the right hand margin is the area where the cartilage is being calcified and bone is being layed down. Zone of lacunar Zone of enlargement Multiplication Slide #R-74. Metaphysis. This is a higher magnification of the junction between the epiphysis and diaphysis. The calcified cartilage and bone spicules are seen in this section. As the cartilage calcifies, it takes on a darker blue stain and spicules of calcified cartilage are evident in this section. Once the matrix around a chondrocyte calcifies, it diminishes its nutritional support and the cell dies. Osteoblasts move into the area and start to deposit bone around the calcified cartilage (see the orange stained spicules in the slide). Slide #L-75. Periosteal Buds. This slide shows the periosteal buds that are penetrating the cartilage of the epiphysis and eroding away the calcified cartilage. The periosteal buds are composed of blood capillaries and osteocytes. Slide #L-76. Diaphysis. This is a longitudinal section through the diaphysis of the phalynx of a new born pig. It is easy to distinguish the marrow cavity from the more compact outer cortical bone. Notice that the Haversian canals are oriented with the longitudinal axis of the bone. The Volkmann's canals are short connections between the longitudinally oriented Haversian canals. Slide #R-75. Developing Cortical Bone. This is a higher magnification of the cortical region of the previous slide. The longitudinally oriented Haversian canals and the intercon- necting Volkmann's canals are clearly illustrated. Lamellar bone will be layed down around the Haversian canal and the canal will thus become smaller in size. The periosteum is visible at the top of the slide. It is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer with numerous osteoblasts. 115 Slide fiR-Té. Epiphyseal Cavity. This is a section of the phalynx of a newborn pig. The epiphyseal cavity is on the left and the diaphyseal cavity is on the right. The plate of cartilage between the two cavities is the epiphyseal plate. Slide #L-77. Developing Flat Bone. In the developing flat bone the bone is layed down first as interconnecting spicules. As the bone enlarges, the osteoblasts lay down bone on the outside surface and the osteoclasts destroy the bone on the inside; thus with this method the flat bones of the skull can enlarge and increase the size of the cavity they are designed to protect (cranial cavity). In this slide, the osteoblasts are seen on the right hand side and the multinucleate osteoclasts are on the left hand side. On which side is the bone being layed down in this section andcxlwhich side is it being resorbed? Slide #R-77. Osteoclast. This is the multinucleate cell seen in the center of the picture. It is lying next to a spicule of bone and functions to absorb bone. Slide #L-78. Joint. This is a section of the joint between the first and second phalanges of the newborn pig. The insertion of the joint capsule is visible in the upper part of the picture. HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS Slide #2-74. Trachea-~Hyaline Cartilage. This is a section from the trachea and the cartilage rings in the wall of the organ permit the air passages to remain Open. With the scanning objective locate the cartilage which almost completely encircles the center part of the section. It stains a bluish purple. After locating the cartilage rings, study them with the higher objectives. Identify the lacunae, territorial matrix and chondrocytes. Slide #2—75. Bronchus--Hyaline Cartilage. This is another example of hyaline cartilage. You should have little trouble in locating this tissue in the section. Slide #2-72. La;ynx--Hyaline Cartilage. Scan this section of the larynx and locate the cartilage tissue. Slide #1—42. Ear Canal--Elastic Cartilage. In some body structures it is neccessary to add some elasticity to the cartilage. This section of the external ear is an excellent example. With the scanning objective locate the central band of tissue. The cells are in lacunae as before, however, the interterritorial matrix is laced with elastic fibers. This section was stained so that the elastic fibers appear dark. 116 Slide #2—73. Epiglottis--Elastic Cartilage. The epiglottis has a core of elastic cartilage and this one is stained with H & E. Can you see the elastic fibers? They will be more apparent if you partially close the iris diaphragm and carefully focus with the fine adjustment. Slide #1—43. Heart--Eibrocartilage. This slide was taken from the heart of the dog where there is a core of connective tissue around the valves. With the scanning objective, locate the dense mass of blue stained material--the cardiac muscle stains red. Once you have found the fibrocartilage, study it with higher magnification. This type of cartilage also occurs in the intervertebral disks and where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. Slide #1-47. Ground Bone. This is a slide of ground bone with both cross and longitudinal sections. It is called "ground" bone because it has been reduced to paper thinness by grinding dried bone that has lost its organic matrix. You must cut the light down (close the substage condenser) in order to see the details in this unstained section. You should find Haversian canals, lacunae, caniculi, and Volkmann's canals. Slide #1-49. Long Bone. This is a longitudinal section of a leg bone. Identify the junction of epiphyseal cartilage and bone. Slide #l-Sl. Joint. 0 Before putting this slide on the microscope, rotate the slide 90 to the right and look at it with your eye. The upper segment (longest bone) is the femur. It is as if the knee were slightly flexed. The patella is the small bone on the right and the other segment is one of the bones of the lower leg. Identify the following structures on this section: Femur Patella Joint capsule Meniscus (fibrocartilage) Joint cavity Tibia wal-J O‘U1 117 PRACTICE EXAMINATION Match the following types of cartilage with their location in the body A. Hyaline cartilage 1. Ear B. .Elastic cartilage 2. Intervertebral disk C. .Fibrocartilage 3. Trachea The cell type responsible for the production of cartilage is the The irregular chambers which enclose the chondrocytes in the matrix of the cartilage are called Of all the cartilage types the one having the most strength and the greatest abundance of fibers is The functional unit of bone tissue consisting of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal is called an The central canal of this functional unit of bone tissue is called a MATCHING A. Canaliculi 1. The junctional area between the epiphysis and diaphysis B. Volkmann's canal 2. Connects two Haversian canals C. Diaphysis 3. Enlarged end of long bone D. Eiphysis 4. Connects osteocytes E. Metaphysis 5. Shaft of long bone The cell type responsible for destroying bone is called the 118 9. Using lecture notes, the text, and the lab manual as resources describe the following ways in which bone can develop. A. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in length. B. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in width C. Describe the processes by which the flat bones of the skull develop and enlarge to accommodate the contents of the cranial cavity. ANSWERS 1. A. -- 3 3. Lacunae 6. Haversian canal B. -- l C. --.2 4. Fibrocartilage 7. A -- 4, B -- 2 C -- 5, D -- 3 2. Chondrocyte 5. Osteon or Haversian E -- 1 System 8. Osteoclast 119 35mm MANUAL-—QUESTIONS SCATTERED THROUGHOUT BONE AND CARTILAGE Slide #L-67. Hyaline Cartilage. In this section of hyaline cartilage from the trachea the nuclei of the chondrocytes are seen as red dots. The matrix immediately around the chondrocytes stains slightly different from the matrix that is far- ther away. The younger, lighter staining portion is called the .territorial matrix while the older, darker blue staining portion is the interterritorial matrix. Notice in some places two cells are close together, while in others, the cells are more widely separated. The cells located close together are the result of recent cell division. Slide #R-70. Elastic Cartilage. _ This section of elastic cartilage was taken from the ear. The irregular spaces in the tissue are the lacunae of the cartilage. These are small spaces in the matrix that contain the cell body of the chondrocyte. Many times the chondrocyte cell body will shrink during the preparation of the slide but the matrix, because it is quite firm, does not shrink, therefore, the lacunae will appear to be empty spaces. Slide #L-68. Elastic Cartilage. A higher magnification of the above slide demonstrates the elastic fibers as purple staining elements in the matrix. Faintly staining chondrocytes can be seen in the lacunae. Slide #L-69. Fibrocartilage. This type of cartilage is very similar to hyaline, but it contains large masses of collagenous fibers embedded in the matrix. These fibers form a felt-work among the chondrocytes. This type of cartilage occurs in places where a tough support or tensil strength is needed. The intervertebral disks are a good example of fibrocartilage. Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage BONE Slide #L-70. Ground Bone. This is a slide of a piece of bone that has been ground to paper thinness and stained to show the structural pattern of the tissue. It is composed of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central 120 canal. This unit is called an osteon or Haversian system and the central canal is the Haversian canal. Slide #R-71. Ground Bone. _ This is a slightly higher magnification of the previous section of ground bone which shows several cross sections of Haversian systems with the typical lamella of osteocytes surrounding the Haversian canal. In the upper left corner you can see a cross connection between two Haversian canals. This is called a Volkmann's canal. Slide #L-71. Haversian System. Compare this section of an osteon to the drawing on the left. An osteon or Haversian system is composed of concentric layers of osteocytes surrounding a central Haversian canal. The osteocytes have cytoplasmic extensions that penetrate through the bony matrix and intercommunicate. The spaces which contain the cyto- plasmic processes are called canali- culi and they can be clearly seen on the slide. Cana iculi Haversial canal Slide #L-72. Decalcified Bone. In this section taken from decalcified bone the Haversian systems are present but not as conspicuous as in the previous slide. The Haversian canals are clearly seen as the large spaces in the matrix. Slide #R-72. Haversian Canal. This is a higher magnification of an Haversian canal from decalci- fied bone. Both blood and lymph capillaries are often found in the canal but it is difficult to distinguish which is which in this section. 121 PRACTICE EXAMINATION 1. Match the following types of cartilage with their location in the body A. Hyaline cartilage 1. Ear B. Elastic cartilage 2. Intervertebral disk C. Fibrocartilage 3. Trachea 2. The cell type responsible for the production of cartilage is the 3. The irregular chambers which enclose the chondrocytes in the matrix of the cartilage are called 4. Of all the cartilage types the one having the most strength and the greatest abundance of fibers is 5. The functional unit of bone tissue consisting of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal is called an 6. The central canal of this functional unit of bone tissue is called a . ANSWERS l. A. -— 3 B. -- l C. -+ 2 2. Chondrocyte 3. Lacunae 4. Fibrocartilage 5. Osteon or Haversian system Haversian canal 122 Slide #R-73. Developing Long Bone. The long bones develop by first being laid down as a cartilage model. This section was taken through the limb of a pig embryo. The light blue stained and of the bone is composed of hyaline cartilage and is the epiphysis. The shaft or diaphysis is composed mainly of bone and bone marrow cavity. The junctional area between these two portions is called the metaphysis and is the region where the cartilage is being replaced by bone. Compare this section to the diagram below and identify all of the labeled parts. _.'-\ ‘ ‘9 ALLIALU'J-ll-LLYJL_ 9.1399199 9999 999 9 9 “\;»_\‘:’\_\,\ \f‘ra 9 9 9 9999‘ 9\ I "7‘:/ > i 9IIIH‘H H l' ‘ -J\ a 1ne :i::\ 9/«\' \:\ } ‘9 |IIH “I Cartilage ~~ \. if}: ~«IIIIIIII9II \‘t‘yrflw Metaphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis Slide #L-74. Epiphyseal Cartilage. Compare this section of epiphyseal cartilage to the drawing on the left. The zone of multiplication can be seen on the left of the I; screen. In this zone, the chondro- ‘ 9":\5“7~. n )9) ‘ cytes seem to be stacked up like f; 3 8 m 99 C o 3 00V 9‘ coins. The zone of lacunar 99 -I T t IV Q 3- b 9‘l enlargement, where the lacunae \ 9“ b J 9 I, 5 I. 6‘3 9 0 9 ' I become much larger, is seen in the 99 ' g d p , p a .9 , 9 OI 'I middle of the slide and slightly . .V 5 y '5 V L: 9.99 to the right. The narrow edge next “ t V g e 9 to the right hand margin is the area where the cartilage is being calcified and bone is being layed down. Zone of lacunar Zone of enlargement multiplication Slide #R-74. Metaphysis. This is a higher magnification of the junction between the epiphysis and diaphysis. The calcified cartilage and bone spicules are seen in this section. As the cartilage calcifies, it takes on a darker blue stain and spicules of calcified cartilage are evident in this section. Once the matrix around a chondrocyte calcifies, it diminishes its nutritional support and the cell dies. Osteoblasts move into the area and start to deposit bone around the calcified cartilage (see the orange stained spicules in the slide). 123 Slide #L-75. Periosteal Buds. This slide shows the periosteal buds that are penetrating the cartilage of the epiphysis and eroding away the calcified cartilage. The periosteal buds are composed of blood capillaries and osteocytes. Slide #L-76. Diaphysis. This is a longitudinal section through the diaphysis of the phalynx of a new born pig. It is easy to distinguish the marrow cavity from the more compact outer cortical bone. Notice that the Haversian canals are oriented with the longitudinal axis of the bone. The Volkmann's canals are short connections between the longitudinally oriented Haversian canals. Slide #R-75. Developing,Cortical Bone. This is a higher magnification of the cortical region of the previous slide. The longitudinally oriented Haversian canals and the interconnecting Volkmann's canals are clearly illustrated. Lamellar bone will be layed down around the Haversian canal and the canal will thus become smaller in size. The periosteum is visible at the top of the slide. It is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer with numerous osteoblasts. Slide #R-76. Epiphyseal Cavi_y. This is a section of the phalynx of a newborn pig. The epiphyseal cavity is on the left and the diaphyseal cavity is on the right. The plate of cartilage between the two cavities is the epiphyseal plate. Slide #L-77. Developing Flat Bone. In the developing flat bone the bone is layed down first as interconnecting spicules. As the bone enlarges, the osteoblasts lay down bone on the outside surface and the osteoclasts destroy the bone on the inside; thus with this method the flat bones of the skull can enlarge and increase the size of the cavity they are designed to protect (cranial cavity). In this slide, the osteoblasts are seen on the right hand side and the multinucleate osteoclasts are on the left hand side. On which side is the bone being layed down in this section and 0n which side is it being resorbed? Slide #R—ll. Osteoclast. This is the multinucleate cell seen in the center of the picture. It is lying next to a spicule of bone and functions to absorb bone. Slide #L-78. Joint. This is a section of the joint between the first and second phalanges of the newborn pig. The insertion of the joint capsule is visible in the upper part of the picture. 124 HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS Slide #2—74. Trachea-~Hyaline Cartilage. This is a section from the trachea and the cartilage rings in the wall of the organ permit the air passages to remain open. With the scanning objective locate the cartilage which almost completely encircles the center part of the section. It stains a bluish purple. After locating the cartilage rings, study them with the higher objectives. Identify the lacunae, territorial matrix and chondrocytes. Slide #2-75. Bronchus--Hyaline Cartilage. This is anotherexample of hyaline cartilage. You should have little trouble in locating this tissue in the section. Slide #2-72. Larynx—-Hyaline Cartilage. Scan this section of the larynx and locate the cartilage tissue. Slide #1-42. Ear Canal--Elastic Cartilage. In some body structures it is necessary to add some elasticity to the cartilage. This section of the external ear is an excellent example. With the scanning objective locate the central band of tissue. The cells are in lacunae as before, however, the interterritorial matrix is laced with elastic fibers. This section was stained so that the elastic fibers appear dark. Slide #2—73. Epiglottis--Elastic Cartilage. The epiglottis has a core of elastic cartilage and this one is stained with H & E. Can you see the elastic fibers? They will be more apparent if you partially close the iris diaphragm and carefully focus with the fine adjustment. Slide #1-43. Heart--Fibrocartilage. This slide was taken from the heart of the dog where there is a core of connective tissue around the valves. With the scanning objective, locate the dense mass of blue stained material--the cardiac muscle stains red. Once you have found the fibrocartilage, study it with higher magnification. This type of cartilage also occurs in the intervertebral disks and where tendons and ligaments attach to bone. Slide #1-47. Ground Bone. This is a slide of ground bone with both cross and longitudinal sections. It is called "ground" bone because it has been reduced to paper thinness by grinding dried bone that has lost its organic matrix. You must cut the light down (close the substage condenser) in order to see the details in this unstained section. You should find Haversian canals, lacunae, canaliculi, and Volkmann's canals. ' Slide #1—49. Long Bone. This is a longitudinal section of a leg bone. Identify the junction of epiphyseal cartilage and bone. 125 Slide #1-51. Joint. Before putting this slide on the microscope, rotate the slide 90 to the right and look at it with your eye. The upper segment (longest bone) is the femur. It is as if the knee were slightly flexed. The patella is the small bone on the right and the other segment is one of the bones of the lower leg. Identify the following structures on this section: 0 Femur Patella Joint capsule Meniscus (fibrocartilage) Joint cavity Tibia bLAJNH GUI 126 PRACTICE EXAMINATION MATCHING A. Canaliculi l. The junctional area between the epiphysis and diaphysis B. Volkmann's canal 2. Connects two Haversian canals C. Diaphysis 3. Enlarged end of long bone D. Epiphysis , 4. Connects osteocytes E. Metaphysis 5. Shaft of long bone The cell type responsible for destroying bone is called the Using lecture notes, the text, and the lab manual as resources describe the following ways in which bone can develop. A. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in length B. Describe the processes by which a long bone can grow in width 127 C. Describe the processes by which the flat bones of the skull develop and enlarge to accommodate the contents of the cranial cavity ANSWERS l. mcnw> ! I H‘UJUIKJD~ IQ Osteoclast APPENDIX C TESTING INSTRUMENTS 129 LECTURE EXAM #1 Questions 1-16. Place the one correct answer (number) in the blank at the left of each question. (2 pts. each) 1. [\J The total number of cells in the adult human has been estimated as 0.. l. 25 thousand 4. 25 trillion 2. 25 million 5. 25 quadrillion 3. 25 billion 6. 25 quintillion Mitochondria are ... 1. double membrane structures which contain primarily hydro- lytic enzymes important in the digestion of macromolecules. 2. structures found within cells (intracellular) which contain on their outer membrane surface the enzymes of the Krebs cycle 3. structures lying between cells (intercellular) which are important in respiration. 4. single membrane structures found within cells and important in the production of energy rich ATP. 5. structures found within cells which on their outer membrane surface contain enzymes which phosphorylate ADP yielding ATP 6. more than one of the above 7. none of the above (1-5). In which of the following divisions of the cell cycle do the chromosomes (pairs of chromatids) split and the chromatid of each pair move toward one pole of the cell? 1. anaphase 5. metaphase 2. G1 6. prophase 3. G 7. S 4. interphase 8. telophase The time span (duration in minutes or hours) would be the longest in which division of the cell cycle? 1. anaphase 5. prophase 2. G1 6. S 3. G 7. telophase 4. metaphase A type of cell membrane to cell membrane (adjacent cells) interaction chemically characterized by a fusion of the protein components of the membrane and which fusion extends entirely around the periphery of the cell is ... l. desmosomes. 4. patchy occludens. 2. macula adherens. 5. zonula adherens. 3. patchy adherens. 6. zonula occludens. 130 Reticular fibers differ from collagenous fibers in that reticular fibers are much stronger branch extensively are found intracellular (within cells). are chemically very much different. are mucopolysaccharides. more than one above. none of the above (1-5). \lCfiLflJ—‘WNH That portion of the epidermis which, because of its chemical composition, provides the most effective water impermeability property (waterproof) is ... l. stratum basale. 4. stratum lucidum. 2. stratum corneum. 5. stratum spinosum. 3. stratum granulosum 6. none of the above. Of the following cell types, in which cell would one expect (but not necessarily find) the most active smooth surfaced endoplasmic reticulum? fibroblast fat cell (adipose cell, adipocyte) lymphocyte macrophage mast cell mesenchyme cell O‘IUIJ-‘LIONH Melanocytes can normally be found in cellular organizations located in the ... l. epidermis. 4. 2 of the above. 2. dermis. 5. all of the above. 3. hypodermis. 6. none of the above. One of the following statements is not true. Which one? Sebaceous_glands ... most often empty into hair follicles. are epithelial tissue. should be as numerous in thick skin as in thin skin. are activated by sex hormones. are glands whose secretory products are whole cells or large portions of whole cells. secrete an oily substance called sebum. Ulbb)l\J9—' 0‘ 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 9\JO\UI-L\UJN9-‘ 131 The structure(s) typically found in the cell body of the neuron would be ... neurotubules. . 2 of the above. . all of the above (1-6). 1. Golgi complex. 5. 2. lysosomes. 6. Nissl bodies 3. mitochondria. 7 4. neurofilaments. 8 The propagation of a nervous impulse along an axon is primarily the function of which structure? 1. axolemma 5. 2. myelin sheath 6. 3. neurofilaments 7. 4. neurolemma 8. neurotubules Nissl bodies nodes of Ranvier smooth endoplasmic reticulum Typical structures found in smooth muscle cells would be... l. actin filaments. 5. tonofilaments. 2. collagenous fibers. 6. voluntary nerves. 3. intercalated disks. 7. 2 of the above. 4. sarcomeres. 8. none of the above (1-6). Red fiber of muscle is able to perform long-term heavy work because of than white fibers of muscle. 1. better vascularization 2. more end-plates (neuromuscular junctions) 3. more mitochondria 4. more myofibrils 5. more sarcomeres 6. more transverse canals 7. 2 of the above 8. all of the above (1-6). Calcification of bone is dependent on ... innervation. an acid pH. 2 of the above. none of the above (1-5). concentration of sodium and potassium ions. osteocytes secreting bone crystals (minerals). production of alkaline phosphatase. 132 16. Transplantation of cartilage from one human to another can be successful because cartilage ... oowoxmwaI—I o 0 does not have blood vessels. does not have nerves. has excellent supporting qualities. is poorly antigenic. cells have the ability to divide. has cartilage-inductive capacity. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-6). Questions 17-30. Place the one correct answer (usually one word) in the blank at the left of each question. (3 pts. each) 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Proteinase is a class of enzymes which break down proteins into polypeptides and amino acids (by the addition of H20 to a peptide bond). What major structure in a typical cell would contain very large amounts of these enzymes? Aggregations of organized complexes of ribonucleic acids and proteins which are not attached to any cytoplasmic structure and whose function is a site of protein synthesis are named... Which specific chemical component of the cell membrane has as one of its components antigens, i.e., immunological recognition sites (confine your answer to one word)? An enzyme which is an enzyme DNA repair packet found in the nucleus of most normal human cells and whose function it is to excise dimers formed by excess U.V. light exposure called ... A specific macromolecule hypothesized to be found within cells and capable of suppressing cellular division is called ... Most epithelial cells rest upon an amorphous ground substance which we refer to as the (name of structure)... That specific region of the integument in which one finds the greatest concentration of neurons (axons) would be the ... Stratified epithelium are found covering and lining a number of tissues. What is the single most important functional contribution of this tissue? A downward extension into the dermis of the epidermis into which a sweat gland discharges its secretory products is named ... 133 26. That specific region of hair which comprises the largest area and contains pigment is the ... 27. The number of neurons participating in a simple reflex arc (knee jerk) is ... 28. Regeneration of the neuron is limited to its ... 29. The fiber of striated muscle is multinucleated because of myocytes during embryonic development of the fiber. 30. Exercising increases the number of in the muscle. 31. 32. 33. (8 pts.) In the research laboratory, when administering drugs to various experimental animals, injections of these drugs subcutaneous (sc) (immediately beneath the integument) results in a relatively rapid distribution of the drug throughout the animal's body. What histological feature or features in this region might explain this phenomena? If you injected these drugs intraepidermal or intra- dermal (intra means inside of), as is commonly done, rapidity of drug distribution might be quite different. Explain. Be specific. (8 pts.) Trace the life history of a cartilage cell that is located in the epiphyseal region (epiphyseal plate) of an actively growing long bone. Where might this cell arise? Under what conditions does it die? Describe all intermediary stages utilizing appropriate nomenclature. Indicate the key cellular activity of each stage (e.g., cellular secretions) and whether or not the cell at a particular stage is capable of division. (10 pts.) The cell membrane of a human cell has been damaged to the point where small portions of the membrane are missing. Within minutes, this membrane is repaired, i.e., the missing portions are replaced. Diagramatically explain in detail how the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex would interact in this repair process. Indicate the key activities of both the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi in this repair process epg_how they are struc- tured so that they can perform this activity. Diagramatically, clearly show how they interact in producing their important products for this repair process. 134 LECTURE EXAM #2 Questions 1-15. Place the one correct answer (number) in the blank at the left of each question (2 l/2 pts. each) 1. A neutrophil ... l. is an agranular leukocyte which can phagocytize within the cardiovascular system (in the blood). 2. is an erythrocyte which has the capacity to carry oxygen. is a white blood cell which is capable of phagocytosis only within the cardiovascular system. arises from a promyeloblast. arises from a monoblast. 2 of the above none of the above (1-5). w \lO‘UTD 2. Platelets are ... blood cells lacking a cell membrane. more numerous in the blood than erythrocytes. the only blood cell lacking a nucleus. blood cells which arise in the bone marrow from proplate- lets. 5. blood cells functionally important because of their participation in the blood clotting process. 6. 2 of the above. 7. none of the above (1-5). J-‘UONH 3. Veins differ from arteries in that veins... have valves. have a thicker tunica media. have a thinner tunica adventitia. normally carry blood away from the heart. more than one of the above. all of the above (1—4). none of the above (-4). \JOU‘IL‘WNH 4. That area of the heart primarily responsibile for contraction of this organ is the... 1. endocardium. 4. epicardium. 2. endomysium. 5. myocardium. 93. endoneurium. 6. none of the above. 5. A blood cell functionally important because it can produce antibodies is a ... l. basophil. 5 lymphocyte, T type. 2. eosinophil. 6. monocyte. 3. erythrocyte. 7 neutrOphil. 4. lymphocyte, B type 8. platelets. lO. UIDLIQNH 0000 135 Melanocytes can normally be found in cellular organizations located in the... l. epidermis. 4. 2 of the above. 2. dermis. 5. all of the above (1—3). 3. hypodermis. 6. none of the above (1-3). White pulp of the spleen contains... lymphocytes but is lacking reticular cells. reticular cells but is lacking lymphocytes. reticular connective tissue fibers. a peculiar modification of the structure of its capillaries commonly referred to as an epithelial barrier. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-4). 7. none of the above (1-4). L‘UJNH 0000 0‘ U1 0 o The thymus gland ... 1. has blood vessels. has Hassall's corpuscles, unique structures found only in this gland. has lymphocytes and reticular-epithelial cells. produces lymphocytes, T type. 2 of the above. . 3 of the above (1-4). all of the above (1-4). N o \JO‘U‘L‘W o co. Lymphocytes of the T type ... 9...; O produce antibodies. 2. when sensitized, can assist ("arming") reticular cells helping them phagocytize more readily. 3. when sensitized, can assist ("helper effect") B-type lymphocytes to produce antibodies. 4. when sensitized, take a prominent role in the rejection of transplanted tissues from one individual to another. 5. 2 of the above. 6. 3 of the above (1-4). 7. all of the above (1-4). Of the following organs of the respiratory system which one(s) .has (have) a simple squamous epithelium? . alveoli . nose bronchi . trachea larynx 2 of the above more than 2 of the above (1-7) none of the above (l-7). nasal cavity nasopharynx l OOCDNO‘ 11. 13. 14. 15. 136 The trachea is lined by which type of epithelium? L‘UJNH simple squamous 5. simple cuboidal 6. simple columnar 7. stratified 8. squamous pseudostratified-ciliated pseudostratified-nonciliated transitional none of the above Absorption of H O is the principal function of which of the following organs? wab—J anus 5. esophagus 6. large intestine 7. mouth 8. orOpharynx rectum small intestine stomach Trypsin, an enzyme very active in the digestion of proteins, is synthesized (produced) in the wall of which of the following organs? 1. anus 6. 2. esophagus 7. 3. large intestine 8. 4. mouth 9. 5. oropharynx 10. Crypts of Lieberkuhn would organs? 1. anus 5. 2. esophagus 6. 3. large intestine 7. 4. oropharynx 8. rectum small intestine stomach 2 of the above none of the above (1-8). be found in which of the following small intestine stomach 2 of the above 3 of the above (1-6) Blood flows into an hepatic lobule from branches of the ... l. hepatic artery and the hepatic vein; blood in the hepatic artery, compared to blood in the hepatic vein, is very rich in oxygen. hepatic artery, artery and the hepatic vein; blood in the hepatic compared to blood in the hepatic vein, is very rich in recently absorbed nutrients. heaptic artery, artery and the portal vein; blood in the hepatic compared to blood in the portal vein, is very rich in recently absorbed nutrients. hepatic artery, artery and the portal vein; blood in the hepatic compared to blood in the portal vein, is very poor in recently absorbed nutrients. hepatic vein and the portal vein; blood in the hepatic vein, compared to blood in the portal vein, is very poor in recently absorbed nutrients. 6. 7. 137 hepatic vein and the portal vein; blood in the hepatic vein, compared to blood in the portal vein, is very rich in recently absorbed nutrients. 2 of the above. Questions 16-30. Place the correct answer in the blank at the left of each question. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. I27. '28. (2 1/2 pts. each) The specific blood vessel found ;p_an hepatic lobule and which drains this lobule is ... An enzyme, produced in an exocrine tissue, which is very active and effective in the digestion of fats in the digestive system is ... A cell located in the mucosa of an organ of the digestive system and functions in the digestive process by secreting hydrochloric acid is ... Cells capable of producing a secretion which functions to prevent the collapse of respiratory alveoli are ... The lymphatic organ most important in filtering blood is Aggregations of lymphatic nodules lying in the posterior wall of the naSOpharynx just under the epithelium are ... A probable source of elastic connective tissue fibers commonly found in the tunica media of larger arteries would be ... The structural type of capillaries most commonly seen in the tissues of the lung is ... The most numerous cell in the blood is ... That structure in the cytoplasm of a typical cell which functions to attach carbohydrate to newly synthesized proteins forming glycoproteins is ... A process by which a cell engulfs fluids and very small particles is ... Amorphous ground substances chemically consist of and . (2 answers) A very tight junction (e.g., zonula occludens) between 2 adjacent cells would be a fusion of which chemical constituents found in the cell membrane? 138 29. A cell found in the integument which provides for this organ its characteristic pigmentation is... 30. A cell which is particularly abundant around blood 31. 32. 33. 34. vessels in connective tissue and which contains very striking cytoplasmic granules chemically consisting of heparin or histamine is ... (7 pts.) Reconstruct, by use of a diagram, a medium sized artery (cross section). Show where the following components are located: tunica adventitia (TA), tunica intima (TI), tunica media (TM), elastic fibers (EF), endothelium (E), external elastic membrane (EEM), fibroelastic c.t. area (FECT), internal elastic membrane (IEM), loose-dense connective tissue area (LDCT), squamous cells (SC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC). (6 pts.) The cells in the wall of a medium-large sized artery, like all cells, require nourishment (O , nutrients, etc.). They also require a menas by which they can get rid of their waste products (CO , etc.). Describe with precision these events. You may wish to use a simplified version of the diagram you used in the previous question. (6 pts.) A nervous impulse is conducted through the heart in a definite sequence. Arrange the following structures according to this sequence, i.e., which receives the impulse first, second, etc. atria cardiac cells (ACC) AV node (AV) bundle of His (BH) l§£_+ + + + + + + + + + Last Purkinje fibers (PF) SA node (SA) ventricular cardiac cells (VCC) What is the relationship of the subendocardial space to this process? Be specific. (6 pts.) Reconstruct, by use of a diagram, a lymphatic nodule. What are the major cells and fibrous components of this structure? Why is it important? How does it work? Where is it commonly found? Be specific. 139 LECTURE EXAM # Questions 1-50. Place the one correct answer (number) in the blank at the left of each question (1 pt. each). 1. k.) Melanocytes can normally be found in cellular organizations located in the ... l. epidermis. 4. 2 of the above 2. dermis. 5. all of the above (1-3). 3. hypodermis. 6. none of the above (1-3). That portion of the epidermis which, because of its chemical composition, provides the most effective water impermeability property (waterproof) is ... stratum lucidum. stratum spinosum. none of the above. 1. stratum basale. 2. stratum corneum. 3. stratum granulosum. O‘U14-\ The cell membrane ... 1. must be a rigid structure, i.e., little internal molecular rearrangement. 2. is a lipid-protein-lipid (lipid on the outside and inside) trilamellar structure. 3. will allow water soluble substances to pass through the lipid portion of the membrane. does not contain carbohydrates. 2 of the above. 3 of the above (1-4). all of the above (1-4). . none of the above (1-4). CIDNO‘UIb The synthesis of DNA for cellular division occurs in which of the following stages of the cell cycle? 1. anaphase 4. prophase 2. interphase 5. telophase 3. metaphase 6. none of the above Which of the following cells would be expected to have a large number of active lysosomes in its cytoplasm? l. adipose cells 4. mast cells 2. erythrocytes 5. neutrophils . 3. fibroblasts 6. smooth muscle cells 10. 140 A lymphocyte of the T type ... l. U) mVOUI-L‘ is a cell which is directly involved in the immunological process referred to as the "humoral response". actively produces antibodies. is found in lymphatic tissue such as the white pulp of the spleen. is a granular leukocyte. 2 of the above 3 of the above (1-4). all of the above (1-4). none of the above (1-4). A lymph node... 1. 4. 5. 6 is a rather small cellular structure which is found in the cortex region of much larger lymphatic structures called lymphatic nodules. filters blood. is a lymphatic structure commonly found immediately below epithelial linings. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-3). Which of the following lymphatic structures would be most active in filtering blood? 1. 2. 3. The N ombw adenoids - 4. spleen lymph nodes 5. thymus lymphatic nodules 6. tonsils thymus gland ... is composed of an outer medulla and an inner cortex. "programs" or modifies certain leukocytes, transferring them into T type lymphocytes. after around puberty, becomes smaller as one ages. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-3). Most of the organs of the respiratory tract have in its mucosa «L‘WNH I which type of epithelium? pseudostratified-ciliated pseudostratified-nonciliated transitional none of the above simple squamous simple cuboidal simple columnar stratified squamous (”\JO‘U‘I 11. 13. 14. 15. 141 Of the following organs of the respiratory system, which one has in its mucosa, prominent rings of hyaline cartilage? 1. alveoli 5. nasal cavity 2. bronchi 6. nasopharynx 3. bronchioles 7. trachea 4. larynx 8. none of the above Which of the following cells of the blood have phagocytic capabilities inside the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system? 1. basophil 4. lymphocyte 2. eosinophil 5. monocyte 3. erythrocyte 6. none of the above Which of the following cells are capable of giving rise to platelets? l. lymphoblast 4. proerythroblast 2. megakaryocyte 5. promyeloblast 3. monoblast 6. none of the above The myocardium ... l. is found in the ventricles but not in the atria. is composed of cardiac muscle cells which are capable of contraction but not capable of conducting nervous impulses. is lacking blood vessels. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-3). N O‘Ikflbw coo. Purkinje fibers ... l. are modified cardiac cells which are found in the subendocardial space of the atria and the ventricles. 2. are modified cardiac cells which are found in the endo- cardium of the atria and the ventricles. receive a nervous impulse from the bundle of His. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-3). OUWDLAJ 0000 For questions 16-20, use the following key: 16. l. esophagus 6. small intestine 2. gall bladder 7. stomach 3. large intestine 8. more than one of the above (1-7) 4. liver 9. none of the above (l-7) 5. pancreas In the wall (muscularis externa) of which organ(s) would one find skeletal muscle as well as smooth muscle? 17. 18. 19. 20. 142 Villi are found in which organ(s)? Which organ(s) would have in its mucosa, a stratified squamous type of epithelium? Which organ(s) would contain alpha cells? Solidification of undigested, unabsorbed foodstuffs by active extraction of water occurs predominantly in which organ(s)? For questions 21-28, use the following key: 25. 26. 27. 28. l. adrenal cortex 5. parathyroid 2. adrenal medulla 6. posterior pituitary 3. anterior pituitary 7. thyroid 4. pancreas 8. none of the above Which organ contains exocrine types of secreting units? Which organ can synthesize (make) a hormone important in lowering blood calcium? Chromaffin cells would be a component of which organ? Neurohormones produced in the central nervous system (hypo- thalamus) would play a role in directly regulating which organ? Dense bodies called Herring bodies would be found in which organ? . Chief cells would be a component of which organ? Which organ produces hormones important in preparing one for emergencies, i.e., "fight or flight"? Which organ would produce a hormone which would markedly influence the activity of the distal convoluted tubules? For questions 29-32, use the following key: 30. l. collecting ducts 6. urethra 2. distal convuluted 7. ureter tubules 8. urinary bladder 3. loop of Henle 9. more than one of the above 4. proximal convoluted 10. none of the above tubules » 5. renal corpuscle The macula densa is a component of which structure(s)? Amino acids would be most actively reabsorbed in which structures? 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 143 Podocytes would be found in which structure(s)? Which structure would be most important in maintaining the high concentration of sodium found in the medulla region of the kidney? Spermatogenesis ... 1. occurs in the seminal vesicles. 2. occurs from birth to death. 3. is stimulated by testosterone. 4. has a peculiar temperature dependency, i.e., thig process occurs most actively at a temperature of about 1 above body temperature. 5. 2 of the above. 6. 3 of the above (1-4). 7. all of the above (1-4). 8. none of the above (1-4). The Cowpers gland ... l. discharges its secretions into the ejaculatory duct. 2. discharges its secretions primarily prior to ejaculation (during the erectile process). 3. provides a fluid that will aid spermatozoa nourishment. 4. provides an alkaline fluid that will help in neutralizing the male reproductive tract. 5. 2 of the above. 6. 3 of the above (1—4). 7. all of the above (1-4). 8. none of the above (1-4). Erectile tissue can become enlarged (engorged with blood) because of ... l. a phenomena known as the psychic effect, i.e., simply thinking of sexual activity. 2. an autonomic nervous system induced contraction of the tunica media of small arteries in this tissue. 3. a collapse of small veins in erectile tissue due to the increasing quantity of blood in this tissue. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). 6. none of the above (1-3). U‘ D o o 36. 37. 38. 39. 144 In contrasting ejaculation with emission ... 1. DU) '0 0 CDVO‘W The O\U‘|«L\b.) 0.. The O‘LnJ-‘LJIJNH The ejaculation involves an involuntary discharge of semen out of the male urethra, emission is a voluntary act. ejaculation involves a voluntary discharge of semen out of the male urethra, emission is an involuntary act. ejaculation occurs prior to emission. the products of ejaculation contain spermatozoa, whereas the products of emission are lacking in spermatozoa. 2 of the above. 3 of the above (1-4). all of the above (1-4). none of the above (1-4). seminal vesicles are paired structures, i.e., there are 2 seminal vesicles in the male reproductive tract. discharge an alkaline secretion during sexual intercourse; this fluid is important, at least in part, because it neutralizes the male reproductive tract. are an active site of Spermatogenesis. 2 of the above. all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-0). seminal vesicles, in contrast to the prostate gland ... are an active site of Spermatogenesis, the prostate is not. are surrounded by cells of Leydig, the prostate is not. are a fairly long tubular structure, the prostate is not. 2 of the above. 9 all of the above (1-3). none of the above (1-3). cells of Leydig ... discharge their secretory products into the seminiferous tubules. secrete a substance which would increase the growth of skeletal muscles. are found adjacent to the seminal vesicles. would be classified as an exocrine tissue. 2 of the above. 3 of the above (1-4). all of the above (1-4). none of the above (1-4). 40. 145 Mature spermatozoa capable of fertilizing the female ova are stored for the greatest length of time in which of the below organs? 1. Cowpers gland 6. rete testis 2. ductus epididymis 7. seminal vesicles 3. efferent ductules 8. seminiferous tubules 4. ejaculatory duct 9. urethra '5. prostate gland 10. vas deferens For questions 41—44 use the following key: 42. 43. 44. l. cervix 5. uterus 2. fallopian tube 6. vagina 3. infundibulum 7. none of the above 4. ovary 8. all of the above Which structure has a sinple squamous type of epithelium in its mucosa? Fertilization of the female ova occurs predominantly in which structure? Blood capillaries would be found in which structure? Cancers arising from stratified squamous epithelium can occur in the female reproductive tract. Which structure contains this highly proliferative pathological growth most often? For questions 45-48 use the following key: 45. 46. l. ischemic stage 4. secretory stage 2. menstrual stage 5. none of the above 3. proliferative stage Which stage is associated with increased secretory activity of the theca cells? In which stage is the myometrium discharged or sloughed? The formation of the corpus albicans would give rise to which stage? In which stage would the wall of the uterus be the thickest? The post-puberty (non-pregnancy, non-menopausic) mammary gland consists of essentially ... l. a duct system with relatively few elements of connective and adipose tissues. 2. a ductal and alveoli system with relatively few elements of connective and adipose tissue. 146 3. a ductal and alveoli system with large amounts of connective and adipose tissues. 4. a ductal system with large amounts of connective and adipose tissues. . 5. an alveoli system with large amounts of connective and adipose tissues. 6. none of the above. 50. A characteristic of the human mammary gland during lactation is stimulation by ... glucocorticoids and estrogen. glucocorticoids and prolactin. estrogen and prolactin. estrogen and progesterone. glucoCorticoids and progesterone. progesterone and prolactin. O‘U’twaH Place the correct word(s) in the provided blank. (Each question is worth 2 pts.) 51. 52. 53. U1 0\ The dermis is divided into 2 regions. That region found closest to the epidermis is the region. The region containing a relatively dense type ofconnective tissue is the region. A gland found in the integument and very active in secreting an oily material for lubricating the surface of this organ is the gland. The oily material is called The cellular structure most efficient in providing for the cell adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the . An endothelium consists of a type of epithelium and its underlining . That structural portion of the cardiovascular system where exchange of nutrients and wastes takes place is the . That specific structure in the heart which relays a nervous impulse to the bundle of His is the 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 147 The epicardium has on its exterior surface a single layer of cells. What are these cells called? A T type of lymphocyte can cause rejection of transplanted foreign cells. We call this a type of immune response. Tubular-like glands lying in the mucosa of the large intestine are called . The phagocytic cell of the liver closely associated with hepatic sinusoids are cells. The cell which secretes prolactin is the of the gland (be specific). An unusual vascular structure (system) characterized by a vein providing blood £p_a capillary (or sinusoid) bed is called a system. Name 2 sites in the human body where this occurs (be specific). and Another unusual vascular structure characterized by a capillary providing blood £2.3n artery (arteriole) is found in the human body. Where? (Be specific) Lymphatic vessels are generally closely associated with blood vessels. Name one tissue that has an extensive blood supply but is totally lacking in lymphatic vessels. (Be specific) If the primary function of a certain cell is to actively absorb substances, that cell should have many on its absorbing surface. The adrenal cortex is divided into 3 major histological regions. They are the , , and . The cells that are closely associated (adjacent) with spermatozoa and assist in their maturation process are cells. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 148 An enzyme found in the head region of a mature spermatozoa and capable of breaking down amorphous ground substances is . The specific erectile tissue whiCh surrounds the urethra of the male penis is Small arteries found in erectile tissue which markedly influence the activity of this tissue are called arteries. A type of tumor found in ovarian tissue and unusual because histologically it contains a wide variety of tissue types is a Progesterone is important because it and . (2 functional activities) A loose type of connective tissue lying immediately beneath the epithelium of the uterus is the p 9 . The number of chromosomes found in an ova of a primary follicle is The female breast is divided into regions called . The structure which separates one region from another is called the . 149 PRETEST FOR LABORATORY EXAMINATION 1 All of these are examples of organelles (living self-perpetuating components of the cytoplasm) except: A. Secretion granules B. Mitochondria C. Golgi body D. Lysosome During which of the following stages of the cell cycle does the cell differentiate into its primary functional state? A. CT Interphase G2 Anaphase COCK, All of the following are true statements about mitochondria except: It has been described as the power plant of the cell. It contains hydrolytic enzymes which digest foreign substances. . It has an inner and outer membranous structure. The inner membrane is thrown into numerous folds. UOw> Ribosomes are closely associated with: Carbohydrate formation Lipid formation Protein formation Salt formation UOUJ3> The three components common to all connective tissue are: A. B. C. Describe the function that a histiocyte might perform in the lung? Which of the following is not a characteristic of epithelial membranes? . The epithelium rests on a basement membrane. There is a rapid turnover in the cell population. There is extensive vascularity throughout the epithelial membrane. There is minimal intercellular substance. 50133:" 10. 11. 12. 13. 150 Describe stratified squamous (keratinized) epithelium according to the following criteria: A. # of cell layers B. Shape of the top cell layer C. surface modifications Define the following: A. Exocrine gland B. Goblet Cell C. Acinus The epithelium covering the surface of the palm of the hand is classified as The term which describes the connective tissue which surrounds an entire nerve is: ' . perineurium . epineurium . endoneurium . extraneurium C163U3>> The endoplasmic reticulum of the neuron is often referred to as: . perikaryon . golgi apparatus . nissl substance . neuroglia UGW?’ Which of the following is not a true statement concerning skeletal muScle? long threadlike shaped cells numerous nuclei per cell nuclei located in the center of the fiber . presence of striations UOUC’IP 151 14. The functional unit of muscle tissue consisting of two adjacent Z disks and the filaments contained within their outer boundaries is called a:' 15. Match the following types of cartilage with their location in the body. A. ._____ Hyaline cartilage B. ______ Elastic cartilage C. Pibrocartilage 1. Ear 2. Intervertebral disk 3. Trachea 16. The functional unit of bone tissue consisting of numerous cylinders of mineralized tissue around a central canal is called an l7. . MATCHING A. _____. Canaliculi l. B. '_____ Volkmann's canal C. ______ Diaphysis 29 D. ______ Epiphysis 3. E. ______ Metaphysis :9 The junctional areas between the epiphysis and diaphysis Connects two Haversian canals Enlarged end of long bone Connects osteocytes Shaft of long bone HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS Describe the following histologic sections according to the criteria below. Slide #1—62 Type of tissue Describe the structural arrangement of the tissue Slide #1-47 Type of tissue Describe the structural arrangement of the tissue 152 Slide #1-45 Type of tissue Describe the structural arrangement of the tissue 153 PRETEST FOR LABORATORY EXAMINATION II NAME ' STUDENT NUMBER 1. All of the following are parts of the walls of blood vessels except: A. tunica intima B. adventitia C. tunica exterior D. tunica media 2. All of the following are characteristics of a maturing red blood cell except:‘ A. The nucleus becomes dark and dense in texture. B. The overall size of the cell increases. C. The color of the cytoplasm changes to a brick red. D. The nucleus disappears as the cell matures. 3. The Purkinje fiber differs from the remaining cardiac muscle in all of the following except: A. It is wider than the contractile cardiac muscle. B. Its myofibrils move toward the periphery leaving the area around the nucleus rather clear. C. This clear area around the nucleus is filled with large amounts of lipid material. D. The fibers are located nearer the endocardium than the majority of the contractile cardiac muscle. 4. All of the following are major functions of the lymphatic system except: A. Supply lymphocytes B. Produce antibodies C. Erythropoiesis D. Filtration of lymph 5. MATCHING 1. Primary lymphoid organ A. C.T. partition 2. Peripheral lymphatic organ B. Spleen 3. Foreign substance C. Thymus 4. Trabecula D. Antigen 5. Origin of lymphocytes E. Bone marrow 6. Define the following: A. Thoracocentesis B. Respiratory bronchiole 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. ”fif’lUOUdtl’ are The COWS» The 154 MATCHING Growth hormone (Somatotropin STH) l Pars distalis Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH 2 Pars intermedia Antidiuretic hormone 3. Pars nervosa Glomerular zone of adrenal 4. Control water and Reticular zone of adrenal salts Fasciculate zone of adrenal 5. Control carbohy- drate metabolism 6. Produces male and female steroids two main cell types found in the fundic glands of the stomach the and cells. absence of villi is characteristic of the: Ileum Jejunum Colon Duodenum two hormones produced by the Islets of Langerhans are and Identify the three white blood cells present on the screen: Identify the organ in slide H-l-55 Identify this section of glandular tissue: (Slide #H-2-24) Identify the organ in slide #2-53. NAME 155 ANATOMY 420--HISTOLOGY LABORATORY EXAMINATION #l--JANUARY 30, 1976 STUDENT NUMBER The examination is divided into two sections: A. A written portion weighted 60%. B. An identification portion weighted 40%. 2. The examination is based on 100 points and the point value is indicated by each question. 3. If you have any questions concerning the examination format feel free to ask any Teaching Assistant. 4. Please PRINT. 1. Fill in the spaces in the following muscle chart. (6 points) NUMBER LOCATION PRESENCE LOCATION OF NUCLEI OF NUCLEI OF STRIATIONS IN BODY CARDIAC MUSCLE 9 SMOOTH MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE The process by which a nucleus fragments into chromatin clumps is called: (2 points) Pyknosis Karyolysis Cellular explosion Karyorrhexis DOCUIID 156 3. Identify the following components of this multipolar neuron by printing the correct name on the arrows provided. (2.5 points) ‘9 ....r a a 9‘ i. '9’) .M V 'g- -' , I! . . ~‘ . .»~. 3 “I ’\ 9“ 4. Fill in the spaces in the following chart comparing the size and function of cilia and microvilli. (4 points) SIZE FUNCTION Cilia Microvilli 5. Describe the function that a macrophage might perform in the lung. (2 points) 6. List three fiber types and three cell types commonly found in connective tissue. (6 points) FIBER TYPES CELL TYPES 10. 11. 157 The four basic tissues of the body are: (4 points) MATCHING Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 1. Contains hydrolytic enzymes Rough endoplasmic reticulum 2. Steroid synthesis Golgi apparatus 3. Cell self destruction Lysosomes 4. Studded with ribosomes Autolysis 5. Adds carbohydrates to pro- teins List three of the many functions of the integument. (3 points) A. B. C. Which of the following is the most embryonic form of connective tissue? (2 points) Mucous connective tissue Reticular connective tissue Mesenchymal connective tissue Loose connective tissue Unwtb Smooth muscle is found in all of the following EXCEPT: (2 points) A. Walls of blood vessels B. Walls of the heart C. Walls of the digestive system D. Walls of the urinary system 158 12. Identify the following components of this cross section of compact bone by printing the correct name on the arrows provided (2 points) Volkmann's canal Canaliculi Lacunae (containing osteocyte) Haversian canal 13. TRUE OR FALSE (4 points) Purkinje cells are most predominant in the dermis of hairy skin. An osteoclast is a multinuclear cell of bone tissue which under proper hormonal stimulation breaks down bone releasing calcium. The periosteum is composed of an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer with numerous osteoblasts. Autosomes are the type of lysosomes which specifically degranulate when a cell undergoes autolysis. l4. MATCHING (7 points) Stroma 1. Grape-like cluster of cells. Endocrine gland 2. Covers an entire muscle. Acinus 3. Mature cartilage cell enclosed in lacunae. Epimysium 4. Simple squamous epithelium of blood Sarcomere vessels. Endothelium 5. Connective tissue component of a gland Chondrocyte 6. Functional unit of skeletal muscle. 7. Secretion product picked up by nearby blood vessels. 15. The method by which one analyzes the structure of chromosomes is called (1 point) l6. The main function of connective tissue is (1 point). 17. 18. 19. 20. 159 Glandular epithelium is formed by the involution of (1 point) The supporting cells of nervous tissue which are scattered through- out the neurons and their processes are called (1 point). The melanin pigmented cells found in the stratum basale of skin are called (1 point) . Define: (3.5 points) A. Parenchyma B. Intralobular duct C. Holocrine mode of secretion (1) Give an example of a gland with this characteristic 160 HISTOLOGIC SECTIONS l. The sketches accompaning each of the following slides will direct you toward the area on the slide which contains the specific type of epithelium. Identify the epithelial type and list its most probable function. (8 points) Slide #1 . Type of epithelium . Function of epithelium . Type of epithelium . Function of epithelium . Type of epithelium . Function of epithelium . Slide #4 Type-of epithelium . Function of epithelium . Slide #5 In this section identify the type of epithelium lining the lumen (arrow #1) and the tissue component indicated by arrow #2. Type of epithelium Tissue component . Slide #6. Identify the type of epithelium that lines the lumens of both circular structures (arrow #1) and the tissue components indicated by arrows 2 and 3. (8 points) Type of epithelium' . -Tissue #2 . Tissue #3 161 Slide #7. Identify the type of tissue present in this slide and give a general description of its structure. (4 points) Tissue type Structure Slide #8. Identify the type of tissue present in this slide and give a general description of its structure. (4 points) Tissue'type . Structure Slide #9. Carefully scan this tissue section and indicate which of the following are present (place a yes if present and a no if not. (5 points) A. B. C. D. E. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Serous glands Sweat ducts Mucous glands Skeletal muscle Slide #10. Identify this tissue section and make a detailed (labeled) sketch as well as a written description of the tissue. (5 points) SKETCH Tissue DESCRIPTION 162 ANATOMY 420--HISTOLOGY LABORATORY EXAMINATION #2--FEBRUARY 271 1976 NAME ‘ STUDENT NUMBER 1. The examination is divided into three sections A. Identification of blood cell types and disorders (weighted 18% . B. A written portion (weighted 37%). C. A slide identification portion (weighted 45%). 2. The examination is based on 100 points and the point value is indicated by each question. 3. If you have any questions concerning the examination format feel free to ask any Teaching Assistant. Identify the following blood cell types ".§§ SPECIFIC (18 points) 9. In this slide the Teaching Assistant will point out two blood cells and you will be asked to identify the one which is most mature and state the characteristics of that cell which reflects its stage of maturity. A. B. 163 R.B.C. ABNORMALITIES 10. 11. The last three slides were taken from the peripheral blood of hospital patients. Look at each smear carefully and indicate. A. Does it appear normal or abnormal (you need not indicate the disorder if the slide appears abnormal). B. The rationale for your decision (why does it look normal or abnormal). 12. A. B. 13. A. B. 14. A. 164 WRITTEN PORTION l. The two most important sites of red blood cell formation are the f‘ 4 points) A. B. 2. Compare and contrast a muscular artery and vein according to the following criteria. (3 points) SHAPE AND SIZE THICKNESS AND TYPE OF PRESENCE OF A WELL' OF THE LUMEN TISSUE FOUND IN THE DEFINED INTERNAL TUNICA MEDIA. ELASTIC MEMBRANE. ARTERY VEIN 3. MATCHING Ameloblast A. Removal of fluid from the pleural cavity. Thymus B. HCl production. Thoracocentesis C. Outermost covering of the teeth. Intercalated ducts D. Hassall's corpuscle. Odontoblast E. Produces enamel. Enamel F. Lined by cuboidal epithelium. Ileum G. Presence of cilia in its epithelium. Colon H. Peyer's patch. Duodenum I. Brunner's glands. Primary bronchus J. Vast numbers of goblet cells. Argentaffin cells K. Produces dentin. Parietal cell L. Serotonin production. The MUOUJP 165 TRUE AND FALSE (6 points) Pain sensitive nerve fibers are primarily found in the pulp cavity of the tooth. The ventricles of the heart are designed with thin muscular walls to aid in the pumping of blood throughout the body. the The Antibody production is a function of the humoral division of lymphatic system. submandibular salivary gland contains both mucus and serous secreting cells. The are humoral and cellular divisions of the lymphatic system functionally independent of each other when dealing with an antigen. The colon differs from the anal canal in its type of epithelial lining. thymus receives its developing lymphocytes from the: (1 point) Lymph nodes Bursa Fabricius Spleen Bone Marrow Embryonic connective tissue (Mesenchyme) After antigenic stimulation one is like to see a noticeable increase in the number of in the lymph nodes. (1 point) MUCH,» Medullary sinuses Primary follicles Secondary follicles Afferent lymphatic vessels Efferent lymphatic vessels The type of papillae which have a thick stratum corneum and lack taste buds are: (1 point) UOW> The U031» Filiform Fungiform Circumvallate Foliate epiglottis: (1 point) May contain taste buds in its submucosa. Protects the airways upon swallowing. Surrounds the periglottis and the endoglottis. All of the above. ll. 166 The endocrine portion of the pancreas is seen in aggregated units called 3 . These units consist primarily of two types of hormone producing cells. Name the cells, the hor- mone produced by each and the function of the hormone. (7 points) CELL HORMONE FUNCTION A structure unique to the liver is the portal triad. List the three components of the portal triad. (1.5 points) Label the following component parts of this cross section of a tooth. Blood vessels and nerves 167 MwaH (Cross section of the Ileum) (2.5 points) Match the arrows with the following. Peyer's patch Circular smooth muscle fibers Villus Longitudinal smooth muscle Submucosa 13. As food passes through the digestive tube it comes in contact with a variety of surface epithelial types. The physical structure of these epithelial membranes is directly related to the function which it must perform. (4 points) For the following areas of the digestive tube list: A. The SPECIFIC name for its surface epithelium. B. Describe how the structure of the epithelium helps to perform its function. Esophagus A. BO Fundic A. Stomach B. Ileum A. Colon 168 SLIDE IDENTIFICATION Each of the following histologic sections contains a single example of an organ. Identify the organs by their SPECIFIC names. Each slide is worth 2.5 points. Slide Slide Slide # Slide Slide # Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide Slide #97. #H—13. #H—66. #H-54. #4. #139. #H-Sl. #125. #41. #84. (2.5 points) was taken. Identify the ORGAN from which this tissue (5 points) This slide contains examples of two organs which are closely associated in the body. Identify both organs. 1. . 2. 169 Slide #31. This slide contains a number of organs that were studied since the first examination. Identify one organ from each of the following systems. (7.5 points) 1. Respiratory system 2. Digestive system 3. Cardiovascular system 170 ANATOMY 420--HISTOLOGY LABORATORY EXAMINATION #3--MARCH 12, 1976 FLAT # NAME STUDENT NUMBER 1. The examination is divided into two sections: A. A written portion weighted 40%. B. An identification portion which is divided according to the following criteria: 1. Review slides weighted 25%. 2. Identification of current slide material weighted 35%. 2. The examination is based on 100 points and the point value is indicated by each question. 3. If you have any questions concerning the examination format feel free to ask any Teaching Assistant. MATCHING Select the BEST answer from column B and place its letter next to your choice from column A. (6 points) \DCD\JO\U1-L\UJN|—‘ H O o H IQ COLUMN A COLUMN B Luteinizing hormone A. Essential to life Adrenal cortex B. Macula densa Proximal convoluted tubule C. Produce male hormone Distal convoluted tubule D. Pars distalis Prostate E. Storage and maturation Leydig's cells of sperm Epididymis F. Pars intermedia Seminiferous tubules G. Brush border Melanocyte-stimulating hormone H. Urethra passes through Oxytocin I. Pars nervosa Glomerulus J. Presence of germinal cells Thyroid K. Epithelial height varies according to state of functional activity L. Located between two arterioles 171 (4 points) (4 points) 172 List the hormones and their functions for the following organs. (6 points) ORGAN HORMONE FUNCTION Thyroid 1. 2. Parathyroid 1. Contrast the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the kidney according to the following criteria (4 points) LENGTH OF PRESENCE OF PRESENCE OF PRESENCE OF TUBULE MICROVILLI ’ MACULA DENSA JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS PROXIMAL TUBULE DISTAL TUBULE Make a sketch of a secondary follicle and label the following: (8 points) Antrum . Zona pellucida Cumulus oophorus Theca interna Theca externa Membrane granulosa Oocyte \lChUIbLAJNI-J O. .0 O Unsuccessful follicles undergo degeneration, first of the ovum then of the follicular cells. The follicle is replaced by and is called a(n) follicle. 173 The four main components of the spermatic cord are: (4 points) 1. 2. 3. 4. Describe the endometrium of the uterus during the following phases: (4 points) 1. Proliferative phase 2. Secretory phase 3. Menstruation phase The type of epithelium lining the vagina is classed as 174 SLIDE IDENTIFICATION The number of spaces Each Identify the organs found on the following slides. indicates the number of organs that you are to identify per slide. identification is worth 2.5 points. Slide #120 A. B. Slide #96 Slide #64 Slide #32 Slide #H—42 Slide #H—62 Slide #99 Slide #H-46 Slide #H-l6 Slide #H-48 Slide #135 Slide #28 A. B. Slide #14 A. B. C. D. E. Slide #H—12 Slide #114 Slide #5 Slide #U-4 Slide #H-7O Identify the type of tissue APPENDIX D EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS 176 Evaluation of PrimaryiLecturer (98 Students RespOnded to the Following Questionnaire) 1. How worthwhile were the class sessions (lectures, discussions, labs.? 1. Not worth going to 3. Worthwhile to attend 2. Nothing special 4. Very worthwhile and beneficial l. 0% 2. 0% 3. 16.3% 4. 83% 2. Ikncwould you rate the instructor's style in presenting course material? - 1. Inadequate 3. Above average 2. Sufficient 4. Superior 1. 1.1% 2. 2.0% 3. 29.6% 4. 67.3% 3. How would you rate the instructor's style in presenting course material? 1. Very boring 3. Satisfactory 2. Somewhat monotonous 4. Interesting 5. Stimulating l. 0% 2. 1.0% 3. 3.0% 4. 37.8% 5. 58.2% 4. How well was the instructor able to respond to questions? 1. More confusing than helpful 3. Reasonably well 2. Adequately 4. Very thoroughly and clearly 5. No opportunity to ask questions 1. 0% 2. 2.0% 3. 12.3% 4. 33.8% 5. 44.9% 5. How logical and organized was the instructor's direction throughout the course? 1. Confusing and undirected 3. Good organization 2. A little confusing 4. Exceptionally well organized l. 0% 2. 1.0% 3. 30.6% 4. 68.4% 6. How would you rate the course load, taking into consideration the course level and the number of earned credits? 1. Easy 3. Rather demanding 2. Moderate 4. Extremely demanding 1. 0% 2. 28.6% 3. 63.3% 4. 8.1% 10. 11. 177 How would you rate the difficulty of the instructor's grading? 1. Easy 3. Difficult Average 4. Extremely difficult to 1. 0% 2. 31.7% 3. 55.1% 4. 11.2% How well did the exams test your knowledge of the course material? 1. Poorly 3. Very well 2. Fairly well 4. There were no written exams l. 4.1% 2. 32.7% 3. 62.2% 4. 0% How would you rate the instructor's attitude toward teaching the course? 1. Very apathetic 3. Interested 2. Indifferent 4. Very enthusiastic l. % 2. 2.0% 3. 12.2% 4. 84.3% How well did the instructor supplement the course material through use of examples, personal analogies, etc.? 1. Poorly 3. Effectively 2. Adequately 4. Very effectively 1. 0% 2. 4.1% 3. 24.5% 4. 71.4% How would you rate this instructor on an overall scale? Poor 3. Average Below average 4. Very good 5. Excellent NH 1. 0% 2. 1.0% 3. 3.1% 4. 24.5% 5. 71.4% 178 STUDENT EVALUATION OF TEACHING ASSISTANTS Teaching Assistant 4.0 3.5 3.0 Other Female teaching assistant #1 21 6 4 1 Female teaching assistant #2 17 6 2 0 Female teaching assistant #3 20 9 4 1 Female teaching assistant #4 16 15 2 1 Female teaching assistant #5 14 9 4 1 Female teaching assistant #6 12 5 4 0 Female teaching assistant #7 14 7 4 0 Female teaching assistant #8 29 6 1 0 Male teaching assistant #9 24 9 l 0 Male teaching assistant #10 22 10 9 0 Male teaching assistant #11 48 13 l 0 179 STUDENT EVALUATION OF MICROANATOMY COURSE In which method of laboratory instruction did you spend the majority of your time? 35mm slides Microfiche Did you enjoy studying histology by this method? 1. 2. 3. 4. Very happy with Disliked this this method method Were the questions in the lab manual helpful to you in studying histology? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Very helpful Neutral Not helpful Where do you feel that the questions should be placed in the lab manuals? 1. At the end of each unit 2. Some in the middle and some at the end of each unit 3. Scattered throughout the unit 4. No preference For those students who have had an oppontunity to use both the 35mm and microfiche methods of histology instruction please select the method which you prefer. 1. 35mm method 2. I have not been exposed to both methods 3. Microfice method 4. I have been exposed to both methods and have no preference If you would like to be considered for a teaching assistant position next year when Anatomy 420 is taught please print your name and address and telephone number where you may be reached during the Fall term of 1976. [FH‘AU‘ I. . UL‘LAJIQH O 0... Mean Mean Mean Mean tnbwrul—I Mean Mean Mean Mean Key: 180 COURSE EVALUATION DATA Did you enjoy study histology by this method? LBJ-\UONH M-9:00 2 for for for (M-9:00) for OF‘JWGH Very happy with this method Neutral Disliked this method M-11:00 ' 2 OOUJUIH (M-9:00 + M-11:00) (M-9:00 + S—9:00) (M-11:00) 68. 18. Ohio Percent Obooooo NNNNN 1.47 1.69 1.56 1.37 Were the questions in the lab histology? 1. Very helpful 2. -- 3. Neutral 4 O --——— 5. Not helpful M-9:00 M—11:00 Percent 18 8 42.6% 10 16 42.6% 3 2 8.2% 0 2 3.2% 1 l 3.4% for (M-9:OO + M-11:00) = 1.84 for (M—9:00 + S-9:00) = 1.34 for (M-9z00) = 1.62 for (M-11:00) 2.03 LII-DOOM!“ Mean Mean Mean Mean S-9:00 S-11:00 Percent l6 16 43.2% 16 15 42.1% 6 4 13.5% 1 0 1.2% 0 0 0.0% for (S-9:00 + S-ll:00) = 1.7 for (M-11:00 + S-11:00)= 1.5 for (S-9:00) = 1.7 for (S-ll:00) = 1.6 manual helpful to you in studying S-9:00 S-11:00 Percent l. 19 13 43.2% 2. 14 17 41.9% 3. 5 3 10.8% 4. l 2 4.1% 5. 0 0 0.0% Mean for (S-9:00 + S-11:00) = 1. Mean for (M-11:00 + S-ll:00) = 1. Mean for (S-9:00) = 1. Mean for (S-11:00) = 1. M—9:00--Microfiche—-Questions at the end M-ll:00-—Microfiche--Questions Scattered Throughout S—9:00—-35mm slides--Questions at the end S-11:00—-35mm slides--Questions Scattered Throughout m©\0\l IQONU‘I 181 3. Where do you feel that the questions should be placed in the lab manuals? 1. At the end of each unit. 2. Some in the middle and some at the end of each unit. 3. Scattered throughout the unit. 4. NO preference. M-9:00 M-11:00 Percent S-9:00 S-11:00 Percent l. 18 19 60.6% 1. 20 16 48.6% 2. 6 .5 18.0% 2. 11 7 24.3% 3. 6 4 16.4% 3. 4 8 16.2% 4. 2 1 5.0% 4 4 4 10.9% Mean for (M-9:00 + M+11:00) = 1.66 Mean for (S—9:00 + S-11:00) = 1.89 Mean for (M—9:00 + S-9:00) = 1.77 Mean for (M-11:00 + S-ll:00) = 1.79 Mean for (M-9:00) = 1.75 Mean for (S-9:00) = 1.79 Mean for (M—11:00) = 1.55 Mean for (S-ll:00) = 2.00 4. For those students who have had an opportunity to use both the 35mm and microfiche methods of histology instruction please select the method which you prefer. 1. 35mm method 2. Microfiche method 3. I have not been exposed to both methods 4. I have been exposed to both methods and have no preference. M-9:00 M-11:00 Percent S-9:00 S-11:00 Percent 1. 3 l 6.5% l. 7 3 13.5% 2. 21 27 78.7% 2. 6 1 9.4% 3. 8 1 14.8% 3. 25 30 74.3% 4. O 0 0.0% 4. l l 2.8% Of those students in the microfiche sections who were exposed to both methods 92.3% preferred the microfiche. Of those students in the 35mm sections who were exposed to both methods 52.6% preferred the 35mm slides. 182 Would you like to be considered for a Teaching Assistant position next year when Anatomy 420 is being taught? 5. 1. Yes 2. No M-9:00 1. l3 2. ‘19 Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Total average M-11:00 Percent S-9:00 S-11:00' Percent 15 46.0% 1. 13 13 35.1% 14 54.0% 2. 26 22 64.9% those in (M-9: 00) wishing to be Teaching Assistants--40.. 6% those those those in (M—11:00) wishing to be Teaching Assistants--51. 7% in (S- 9: 00) wishing to be Teaching Assistants--33. 3% in (S- 11: 00) wishing to be Teaching Assistants--37. 1% percentage of those students wishing to be Teaching Assistants = 40.0%. NAME 183 STUDENT EVALUATION ATLAS OF NEUROANATOMY STUDENT NUMBER' The quality of the pictures in the atlas is: Excellent Good Fair Poor Studying histology with this type of atlas is Faster Slower than the method that we have used so far in the laboratory. What portion of the visual laboratory materials would you like to see converted to a color atlas format? All 3/4 1/2 1/4 None Which of the following educational formats would you prefer to use while studying histology? 35mm Color Atlas Microfiche Any additional comments that you might have concerning the use of this color atlas will be sincerely appreciated. LAJIJH is The quality of the pictures in the atlas is 1. Excellent 2. Good 3. Fair 4. Poor Microfiche Laboratory Percent 35mm Laboratory Percent 22 91.6% 1. 18 75.0% 2 8.4% 2. 6 25.0% 0 0.0% 3. O 0.0% 0 0.0% 4. 0 0.0% i _\ NI—J UI-bUJNH bwl‘QH 184 Studying histology with this type of atlas is Faster , Slower the same as the method that we have been using so far in the laboratory. 1. Faster 2. Slower 3. The same Microfiche Laboratory Percent 35mm Laboratory Percent 18 74.0% 1. 22 91.6% 3 12.5% 2. O 0.0% 3 ' 12.5% 3. 2 8.4% What portion of the visual laboratory materials would you like to see converted to the color atlas format? 1. A11 2. 3/4 3. 1/2 4. 1/4 5. None Microfiche Laboratory Percent 35mm Laboratory Percent 10 41.6% 1. 14 58.3% 5 20.8% 2. 4 16.6% 7 29.2% 3. 5 20.8% 1 4.2% 4. l 4.2% 1 4.2% 5. 0 0.0% Which of the following educational formats would you prefer to use while studying histology? 1. 35mm 2. Color atlas 3. Microfiche 4. No preference Microfiche Laboratory Percent 35mm Laboratory Percent 0 0.0% l. 8 33.3% 19 79.1% 2. 11 45.8% 4 16.7% 3. 1 4.2% 1 .4.2% 4. 4 16.7% 10. 11. 13. 14. 15. 16. 185 Written Atlas Comments Comments from Microfiche Laboratory The atlas is nice because it allows one to review at home. The pictures in the atlas are clearer than those in the microfiche projections. It would be nice if these pictures could be made into a regular lab book that we could study at home. The atlas would be an excellent reference material to be used in conjunction with the microfiche. I like the microfiche much better because you can go from one photo to another much faster. The atlas was nice because you don't have to focus the pictures. Some of the structures on the microfiche cards were better because they were enlarged and easier to see. If you use the atlas format I'll volunteer to use it instead of the fiche. The atlas is the best presentation media for this type of material that I have seen to date. The atlas was well worth the time and money invested in it and I really enjoyed learning from it. There was no need to coordinate the study with a lab partner and it was nice to be able to look back at certain things that the lab partner might not have thought necessary. Each student can proceed at his own rate and is no longer held back by a slower lab partner. The atlas pictures seemed to be focused a little better than the microfiche. I see very little difference in using the atlas over the microfiche. It goes faster than the microfiche because you don't have to wait for your partner to catch up. If each student had his own atlas this would be great but if two students had to share the atlas I would prefer to use the micro- fiche. It was nice to have the pictures and the text in the same book. This made the studying much less tedious. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 186 Comments from 35mm Laboratory I found the atlas much easier to work with than the 35mm slides. I thought the pictures in the atlas were much clearer than the 35mm slides. It is nice to have both the pictures and reading material on the same level or page. If the labs do turn to the atlas form people should still have lab partners to discuss pictures with. It also cuts down on noise from the projectors. I found the color atlas less distracting than the 35mm slides because of less noise and not having to look up and down from the screen to the text. The fact that you don't have to focus each slide is nice. I personally felt that the session using the atlas was the most beneficial we have had to date. It would be nice to have a few copies of these around for use for studying for the final exam. I think the atlas would be valuable in reviewing for tests. I thought the atlas was a much more compact way of studying. It would be nice to photograph some of the histologic sections and convert them to the atlas format. The enlarged slides give you a better overall view. Perhaps these notebooks would be nice to check out and study from at home. The setup in the atlas is easier to follow and the structures are much easier to locate and identify. It is nice to have the pictures and text on the same page. The atlas did not provide a place to take notes. With the 35mm you have the advantage of side by side comparison which has been invaluable for me thus far. It would make a great take home study guide. APPENDIX E STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA 188 Table A.--Statistica1 Analysis of the Differences Between Microfiche and 35mm Sections with Respect to the Dependent Variables Variable Hypothesis Mean Square Univariate F . P Less Than Lab exam I 4 00.2432 .0026 .9591 Lecture exam 1 29.0021 .1667 .6838 Lab exam 11 88.1563 .5738 .4502 Lecture exam 11 03.6529 .0225 .8811 Lab exam III 30.5751 .1481 .7010 Lecture exam III 05.7629 .0324 .8574 Lab grade 03.1888 .8672 .3535 Lecture grade 00.1043 .0215 .8837 Final grade 00.3503 .0947 . .7588 F-ratio for multivariate test of equality of the mean vectors = .7348 Degrees of freedom = 9 and 123--P less than .6764 Degrees of freedom for the hypothesis = 1 Degrees of freedom for error = 131 189 Table B.--Statistica1 Analysis of the Differences Between Methods of Question Sequence with Respect to the Dependent Variables. Variable Hypothesis Mean Square Univariate F P Less Than Lab exam 1 065.8163 0.7150 .3994 Lecture exam I 001.8290 0.0105 .9185 Lab exam II ‘ 006.3950 0.0416 .8387 Lecture exam II 013.2934 0.0818 .7753 Lab exam III 204.2508 0.9895 .3218 Lecture exam III 106.3334 0.5982 .4407 Lab grade 004.0059 1.0894 .2986 Lecture grade 000.8139 0.1693 .6815 Final grade 004.7772 1.2915 .2579 F-ratio for multivariate test of equality of the mean vectors - .7455 Degrees of freedom = 9 and 123-—P less than .6666 Degrees of freedom for the hypothesis = 1 Degrees of freedom for error = 131 190 Table C.—-The Statistical Analysis of the Interaction Between the Method of Visual Presentation and the Sequence of Questions with Respect to the Dependent Variables Variable Hypothesis Mean Square Univariate F . P Less Than Lab exam I 015.0077 0.1630 .6871 Lecture exam I 056.6496 0.3256 .5693: Lab exam II 141.1010 0.9184 .3397 Lecture exam II 001.1369 0.0070 .9335 Lab exam III 323.4911 1.5671 .2129 Lecture exam III 014.0235 0.0789 .7793 Lab grade 005.6282 1.5305 .2183 Lecture grade 000.5012 0.1042 .7474 Final grade 001.2433 0.3361 .5631 F-ratio for multivariate teSt of equality of the mean vectors = .4309 Degrees of freedom = 9 and 123-—P less than .9163 Degrees of freedom for the hypothesis = 1 Degrees of freedom for error = 131 191 mao.nn Hoo.um omo.um Nmo.nm fimm.um wa~.um oNH.um N©~.nm moo.nm wma. coo.a N©H.I mad. mmc.l sco.l HOH.I mmo.l HHH. x EmuH oao.um Omo.nm Hoo.nm Hoo.nm Hoo.nm moo.nm mao.nm Hoo.nm Hoo.um qu.I NcH.I ooo.H Hoo.l qmq.n mmm. cod. New. ¢H0.I m anw moo.nm N¢0.um Hoo.nm Hoo.um Hoc.nm oao.nm «mo.um mao.nm Hoo.um mmm. mHH. 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