$3 J @fl-m‘ x ‘_.¢‘“5I” OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: fine in book return to remove charge from circuht‘lon records © 1981 HERMAN RUMMELT All Rights Reserved A STUDY OF EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE TEAM BEHAVIORS OF A PUPIL SERVICES CENTER STAFF By Herman Rummeit A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfiliment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 198] ABSTRACT A STUDY OF EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE TEAM BEHAVIORS OF A PUPIL SERVICES CENTER STAFF By Herman Rummelt Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the effective and ineffective team behaviors of a Pupil Services Center staff. Design and Procedure The study's population consisted of 54 elementary school teachers (l0% of the teachers making referrals), 44 elementary school princi- pals, and 44 elementary school pupil personnel specialists. All members of this population were from the Lansing, Michigan School District. The research instrument used in this study, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT), provided the methodology for data collection and data analysis. Respondents reported incidents in which the pupil personnel teams handled referrals in an effective way or in an ineffective way. Through use of mailed CIT report forms, a total of 152 significant incidents (63 effective and 89 ineffective) were gathered. From these incidents. specific behaviors of pupil personnel teams were identified. Significant Findings A total of 240 significant elements (99 effective and 141 ineffective) pupil personnel team behaviors, were extracted from the 152 significant elements. These elements were first combined into 28 refined elements and three additional elements, and then grouped into Herman Rummelt five significant areas of pupil personnel team behaviors. The signifi- cant areas that describe the work of the pupil personnel team were: AREA I. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Pre-Team Meeting Events AREA II. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Testing Issues AREA III. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Team Meeting Events AREA IV. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Post-Team Meeting Events AREA V. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Processes Involving Pre-Team Meeting Events, Team Meeting Events, and Post-Team Meeting Events Conclusions A synthesis of the Summary of Findings provides the following guidelines for future team participants. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Team members should meet in the elementary school building that they service regularly on an informal basis with elementary school teachers. Team members should make classroom observations of a referred child before making recommendations for behavior change. One week is the optimal time period in which a team should meet to discuss a referral. One month is the optimal period in which to report testing results to a referring teacher. Test reports should emphasize specific activities for behavior change. Team meetings should be a communication forum for all involved teachers and principals and emphasize shared strategies for changing behaviors. The operational steps for behavior change strategies should be stated in writing. 8) 9) l0) ll) 12) Herman Rummelt Program designers of behavior change strategies should provide opportunities for audience partici- pation as these strategies are demonstrated to staff carrying out programs. Proposed behavior changes should be followed through on. Behavior change strategies should consist of prog- nostic statements and short range goals that continue to successively approximate the prognostic statement. Teams should maintain a current list of referral resources in order to refer problems beyond the team's scope of practice to outside agencies with specialized services for handling such problems. Team leaders should have an inedepth understanding of the strengths, problems, and concerns affecting the team that he or she leads, and be able to discuss team activities with elementary school principals. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to Dr. James Costar for his continued support throughout my doctoral program, and his guidance through the lengthy process of completing this study. I am also thankful to the other members of my doctoral committee--Dr. Fred Ignatovitch for his assis- tance in tightening up the data analysis process; Dr. Gilbert DeRath for his help with literature problems; and Dr. Van Johnson for his helpful suggestions regarding the format of the study. I also wish to acknowledge the personal and professional help that Dr. Gilbert DeRath has given me which led me to begin this degree program in the first place, while Bonnie Wolfgang provided the insights and energetic typing skills which have enabled me to complete this dissertation and finish the doctoral program. Finally, I wish to thank my wife Carol, and my children Nick and Jina, for their graceful acceptance of the limited amount of attention that I have given them during the final year of completing this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES vi CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction to the Study ................ l A. Introduction ..................... 1 B. Background of Theory and Research ,,,,,,,,,, l C. An Orientation to Pupil Personnel Teams in This Study ...................... 7 D. Statement of the Problem ............... 8 E. Delimitations and Limitations of This Study ..... 9 F. Definition of Terms ................. )2 G. Assumptions Upon Which Study is Based ........ l5 H. Research Questions .................. 16 1. Summary and Overview ................. 17 II. Review of Related Literature ............... 19 A. Introduction ..................... 19 B. The Critical Incident Technique and Its Uses ..... 19 I. Background and General Use of the Critical Incident Technique ................ l9 2. Specific Use of the CIT: Examining Team and Group Behaviors ............... 24 C. Part One: Literature Related to Pupil Personnel Generalists (Teachers and Principals) as They Function in Relation to Pupil Personnel Teams . , . . 25 l. Elementary School Teachers ............ 25 a. Theory .................... 25 b- Application ................. 29 2. Elementary School Principals ........... 32 a. Theory .................... 32 l-a. 1. Staff and Program Development . . . 33 2-a. 2. Prevention Models ......... 35 3-a. 3. Student Referrals ......... 36 b. Application ................. 36 l-b. l. Evaluator of Pupil Personnel Services ................ 37 iii CHAPTER PAGE 2-b. 2. Participant in Direct and Indirect Activities Related to Pupil Personnel Services ........ 38 D. Part Two: Literature Related to Pupil Personnel Specialists as They Function in Relation to Pupil Personnel Teams ................... 40 l. Theory ...................... 4l a. 1. Organizational and Administrative Factors Related to Pupil Personnel Teams. . . 4l b. 2. Role and Function of the Pupil Personnel Specialist .................. 45 c. 3. Prevention Services vs. Intervention Services ................... 49 d. 4. The "4 C's" of Pupil Personnel Team Interaction ................. 51 e. 5. Evaluation of Pupil Personnel Teams . . . 57 2. Application ................... 57 a. 1. Organization and Administration of Pupil Personnel Teams ............ 58 b. 2. Role and Function of Pupil Personnel Team Members ................. 61 c. 3. Evaluation of Pupil Personnel Teams . . . 63 E. Summary ....................... 64 111. Design and Procedure of the Study ............ 66 A. Introduction ..................... 66 B. Population and Samples Used ............. 66 1. Size of the School District ........... 67 2. Ethnic Characteristics of Elementary School Professional Staff and Children ......... 68 3. Organization and Administration of Elementary School Pupil Personnel Teams ........... 69 C. Methodology Used to Develop Significant Behaviors . . 70 l. l. Establishment of General Aim of the Activity ..................... 7l 2. 2. Development of Plans and Specifications for Collecting Incidents Regarding the Activity . . . 7l 3. 3. Collection of the Data ............ 73 4. 4. Analysis of the Data ............. 74 5 5. Interpretation and Reporting of the Data. . . 76 D. Pre-testing Procedures ................ 78 E. Summary ....................... 79 iv CHAPTER PAGE IV. Analysis of the Data ................... 81 A. Introduction ..................... 81 B. Terminology Used in the Study ............ 81 C. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) Findings ...... 84 l. CIT Data on Significant Incidents ........ 84 2. CIT Data on Significant Elements and Significant Areas ...................... 87 3. Report of CIT Data in Relation to Research Questions .................... 94 D. Summary ....................... 113 V. Summary and Conclusions ................. 117 A. Summary ....................... 117 1. CIT Findings for Refined and Additional Elements Within Significant Areas ........ 119 2. CIT Findings in Relation to Research Questions. . 122 B. Summary of Findings ................. 125 1. Effective Team Behaviors for a Pupil Services Center Staff ................... 126 2. Ineffective Team Behaviors for a Pupil Services ’ Center Staff to Avoid .............. 127 C. Conclusions ..................... 128 O. Implications of the Study . . . . . . . . ...... 129 1. 1. Implications for Elementary School Pupil Personnel Specialists .............. 130 2. 2. Implications for Elementary School Staff Members ..................... 131 3. 3. Implications for Pupil Personnel Administrators .................. 133 4. 4. Implications for College and University Professors .................... 134 5. 5. Implications for Staff Members of State Departments of Education ............. 135 6. 6. Implications for Researchers in Pupil Personnel Services ................ 135 APPENDIX A: Cover Letter to Respondents ........... 137 APPENDIX B: Instructions and Report Forms .......... 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 146 TABLE NUMBER 1. 10. LIST OF TABLES Ethnic Composition Lansing School District--E1ementary School Professional Personnel ................ Ethnic Composition Lansing School District--E1ementary School Children (100.0%) ................... Significant Incidents Reported by Pupil Personnel Generalists and Pupil Personnel Specialists ..... AREA I. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Pre-Team Meeting Events (31) ...................... AREA II. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Testing Issues (45). . . AREA III. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Team Meeting Events (64) AREA IV. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Post-Team Meeting Events (31) ...................... AREA V. Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Processes Involving Pre-Team Meeting Events, Team Meeting Events, and Post-Team Meeting Events (9) ............. Significant Elements Reported by Teachers and Principals Across Significant Areas ......... Significant Elements Reported by School Psychologists, Speech Pathologists, School Social Workers, and School Nurses ..................... vi PAGE . 69 . 89 . 9O . 91 . 92 . 93 . 99 TABLE NUMBER 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Effective and Ineffective Elements Contributed by Principals and Pupil Personnel Specialists . . . . Comparisons of Principals and Pupil Personnel Specialist Reported Responses for Significant Elements ...................... Significant Elements Reported by Pupil Personnel Specialists and Principals ........ Effective and Ineffective Elements Contributed by Teachers and Pupil Personnel Specialists ...... Comparison of Teacher and Pupil Personnel Specialist Reported Responses for Significant Elements ...................... Significant Elements Reported by Pupil Personnel Specialists and Teachers ......... vii PAGE 102 Chapter I Introduction tg_thg_5tudy Introduction This chapter through theory and research presents some general problems that have confronted the orderly development of pupil personnel services. This orderly development has culminated in the belief that pupil personnel services are best presented to referring agents through a team approach. The orientation of the pupil personnel teams in this study will then be examined, along with the problems that will be studied in relation to those teams. The following components of the study will also be explored: l) delimitations and limitations of the study, 2) definitions of terms used in the study, 3) assumptions upon which the study was based, and 4) research questions to be answered by the study. Background 9: Theory and Research It is the general consensus among education writers that in the educational system involving grades K-12 there are three major compo— nents in the facilitation of the educational process: 1) instruction, 2) administration, and 3) pupil personnel services. It is also generally agreed that these three components must function harmoniously if the major consumers, pupils, are to receive maximum benefits. One of the components, pupil personnel services, first gained recognition as an integral part of the educational process in the 1930's, in the midwest--"...gradually it became apparent that no person could perform successfully all of the services needed. In the larger school districts the team approach evolved and, with it, a growth toward 1 2 departmentalization."1 In 1934, the Tri-State Conference on Pupil Personnel evolved in an attempt to meet "the needs for more unified effort in the school system."2 Attendance workers, nurses, social workers, psychologists, and guidance personnel, as conferees, were considered the mainstay of pupil personnel services. During the next 25 to 30 years, interest in pupil personnel services fluctuated, and with it, so did the concerns of the 1934 conference as to how these services should be organized. Shear assesses this problem--"Earlier authors had identified guidance as one among a number of pupil personnel services, then some others began to use 'guidance' and 'pupil personnel' interchangeably. It was like the old days when some were saying 'guidance is education and education is guidance.‘ The confusion set back the orderly development of the pupil personnel movement quite a few years."3 To resume the orderly development of pupil personnel services required a solution to a two—part problem. The first part of the problem involved finding appropriate models for the organization and administration of pupil personnel services. The second part involved the proper method for implementing these models so that effective services could be provided. 1L. B. Voorhees, "A Descriptive Study of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected School Districts." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1960, Michigan State University. 21bid. 3B. E. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," in G. A. Saltzman and H. J. Peters', eds. Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1967. 3 Attempts to solve the first part of the problem occurred in 1961, when the U. S. Office of Education and the National Institute of Mental Health brought together representatives of twelve associations to see what might be done to stimulate research and demonstration in the pupil personnel area. They established the International Research Commission on Pupil Personnel Services (IRCOPPS). A year later, the National Institute of Mental Health funded a five year research program to be administered by IRCOPPS. Since then several significant studies have been done of particular pupil personnel programs conducted within various states-- 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mulligan, Bowen, Farley, Barbarosh, Wahl, Heath, Croker,10 and 4A. R. Mulligan, "The Development and Application of Evaluation Criteria for Pupil Personnel Service Functions." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1968, St. Johns University. ‘ 5R. Bowen, Jr., "A Comparative Analysis of the Perceptions of the Role and Functions of Counselors, Directors of Pupil Personnel, and Social Workers, Held by Principals, Teachers, and Pupil Personnel Specialists in Selected Kentucky School Districts which have the 'Most' and 'Least' Pupil Personnel Specialists." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, Univer- sity of Kentucky. 65. Farley, "The Administration of Pupil Personnel Services: A Model Development and Its Application to Kentucky Schools." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, University of Kentucky. 7B. Barbarosh, "Administrator of Pupil Personnel Services in New Jersey Public Schools." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, Yeshiva University. 8E. E. Wahl, "Organization and Administration of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected West North Central School Systems." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, University of Nebraska. 9C. Heath, III, "Perceptions of the Pupil Personnel Services in High- land Park, Michigan." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1971, Wayne State University. 10F. R. Croker, "The Relationship of Pu il Personnel Services to Achievement of Elementary Pupils in Ei ht Se ected Cobb County Schools." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 197 , Auburn University. 4 Marlette.n Of these studies, Shear says, "On occasion, studies have been prepared in some states concerning provisions for pupil personnel services, but these have been primarily for 'home' consumption."12 Without a “generalizability” factor, these studies were limited in their usefulness. In a recent book, Hatch]3 has dealt with this problem by presenting representative organizational and administrative models for pupil personnel services thoughout the United States. As an author in this text, however, Shear notes--"Personnel workers as a group are without any universally acceptable criteria to measure the effectiveness of their programs and practices."14 While determining the most effective criteria for a pupil personnel services model is an area requiring further research, there does seem to be general agreement among major authors as to what kind of organiza- tional and administrative approach should be further studied. This organizational and administrative approach is called the team approach. Support for the team approach began to appear in the literature in the late 1960's and continues to appear today. Important contributors in 11F. R. Marlette, "North Carolina Pupil Personnel Services Programs in 1972 Compared to National Trends." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1973, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 128. E. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," p. 10. 13R. N. Hatch, ed.,. The Organization gj_Pupil Personnel Programs-- Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University~ Press, 1974, p. 433. 14B. E. Shear, "Critical Issues in Pupil Personnel Work," in R. N. Hatch's, ed., The Organization 9f.ngil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices, p. 20. 5 this area have been Shear,15 Saltzman and Peters,16 Seyfert,17 Arbuckle,]8 Gamsky,19 and Hatch.20 The second part of the solution needed before the orderly develop- ment of pupil personnel services could be resumed involved the rationale for implementing a model which would provide effective services. Hatch presented a basis for judging the effectiveness of the team concept and pupil personnel services in general when he said, "the personnel pro- gram of the future will be judged by the degree to which it can bring the various services into a cohesive functioning component of the total educational program."21 Assessment of the "cohesive functioning component“ must begin at the elementary school level where most of the pupil personnel specialists are represented. To be an effective functioning component requires an understanding of the role and function of the pupil personnel services 15B. E. Shear, “Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth." 166. A. Saltzman and H. J. Peters, eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. PeacoCk Publishers, Inc., 1967. 17W. C. Seyfert, ed., National Association gf_Secondary School Principals, January, 1968, Vol. 52, Number 324. 13D. W. Arbuckle, "Counselor, Social Worker, Psychologist: Let's Ecumenicalize." Personnel and Guidance Journal, February, 1967, pp. 532-538. 19N. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," July, 1973. Wisconsin State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Bureau of Pupil Services, p. 78. 20R. N. Hatch, ed., The Organization of Pupil Personnel Programs-- Issues and Practices. 21Ibid. 6 in the total educational program by members of the other educational components--instruction and administration--as well as pupil personnel workers themselves. Liddle writes, "We also need to determine how the principal and teacher perceive the role of each pupil personnel service u 22 discipline. With principals and teachers representing the adminis- trative and instructional components, and making the majority of referrals to pupil personnel specialists, it is important that they understand the functioning of each pupil personnel specialty area as well as its role. Shear suggests, in a role that he describes as that for pupil personnel generalists, that teachers and principals must perform certain functions if the specialists are to be effective. He describes their functioning: Teachers--"First, the teacher must coordinate his activities in this area (pupil personnel generalist) and relate them to his instructional activities...As a generalist, the teacher may need the help of one or more of the specialists for many reasons. So this strand weaves together the work of the specialist with the teacher. Here generalist and specialist work together in a mutual support of a pupil's or group's adjustment and progress in school." Principals-~"Some...have worked on system-wide coordination and direction of these services. Many others have enlisted their school staff in efforts to initiate or improve pupil personnel coordination within the school and between their own and other schools...These principals see pupil personnel services as an integral part of education, a program to facilitate the full development of each pupil. They see themselves, teachers, and pupil personnel staff as working jointly to achieve the objectives of the school."24 226. P. Liddle, "The School Social Worker as He Sees Himself and as He is Seen by His Colleagues" in G. A. Saltzman and H. J. Peters', (eds.), Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings, p. 504. 238. E. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," National Associa- tion 9: Secondary School Principals, January, 1968, Vol. 52, Number 324, p. 40. bid, p. 37. 7 As pupil personnel generalists, then, principals and teachers seem to be in a position to evaluate the effectiveness of the services of the pupil personnel specialists being provided for them. The organizational and administrative model of pupil personnel services called the team approach does not, however, have a universally accept- able criteria for measuring the effectiveness of its services by: 1) those who would request the services, pupil personnel generalists, or 2) those who would collectively provide the services as a team, pupil personnel specialists. With pupil personnel teams becoming increas- ingly common at the elementary school level, evaluation of their effec- tiveness is now more urgent and should include examinations of the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of certain behaviors of the pupil personnel teams. An_0rientation tg_Pupi1 Personnel Teams jn_This Study In the present study, the Lansing School District was selected to examine the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of team behaviors. Teams in the Lansing School District were organized through a concept called Pupil Services Centers. Each team consisted of one or more persons in the following disciplines: school psychology, school nursing, school social work, and speech pathology. There were four teams and each team was based in an elementary school. From its base school, each team provided services to a surround- ing number of elementary schools so that each elementary school in the district was provided pupil personnel team service by a Pupil Services Center Staff. Team services were provided through two types of interaction with elementary school principals and elementary school teachers. The first type of interaction was referred to as a "mini-team" visit. Each 8 mini-team consisted ot two or three members of the larger team and would make regular trips to each elementary school that was in the larger team's service responsibility area. The purpose of these visits was to respond to informal referrals from teachers and principals, check on the progress of on-going cases (including classroom observations), and recommend formal referrals to the larger team when deemed appropriate. The second type of interaction involved the larger team meeting in a formal sense at least one day per week and responding to written referrals through diagnostic and/or treatment actions. Long term concerns related to Pupil Services Centers were under the centralized direction of the Director of Pupil Personnel Services for the Lansing School District. The Director usually met once a month with Pupil Services Center leaders (area principals) for discussing team related problems and developing long range planning for the teams for the future. The day to day concerns of the pupil personnel teams were decentralized and administered by an area principal. The area principal is a principal to whom school based principals within a certain geo— graphic area are responsible. As the administrator for a Pupil Services Center, an area principal serves as a liaison between the elementary schools in his area and the Pupil Services Center. Statement gf_the Problem The purpose of this study was to identify and describe effective and ineffective team behaviors of a Pupil Services Center staff. Elementary school principals and elementary school teachers, in their respective roles as pupil personnel generalists and pupil personnel specialists, acted as competent observers of team functioning. They 9 presented, through descriptive statements, effective team behavior and/ or ineffective team behavior. Information obtained in this study should be of importance in more succinctly describing current effective and ineffective practices of pupil personnel teams. Such knowledge should be of value to: 4 l. Practicing pupil personnel specialists as they work in interdisciplinary teams providing services to primary referral agents, teachers, and principals. 2. Members of elementary school staffs who are concerned with implementation and delivery of pupil personnel services through the team approach in their schools. 3. Administrators who are responsible for the organization and administration of district-wide or system-wide pupil personnel services. 4. College and university professors, as they develop preparation programs for pupil personnel specialists, teachers, school administrators, and pupil personnel administrators. 5. Staff members of state departments of education, as they supervise and evaluate pupil personnel services programs. 6. Researchers in the field of pupil personnel services as they develop hypotheses and/or research questions for future research. Delimitations and Limitations gf_This Study 1. This study was delimited in its scope to examine the effective and ineffective team behaviors of a Pupil Services Center Staff. 2. Further, although parents and pupils have their perceptions of what constitutes effective role and function behavior in the team approach to providing pupil services, this investigation was specifically designed to obtain perceptions of effective and ineffective behavior during team functioning from only: A) those professionals who employ Pupil Services Center (PSC) Staff services, and 8) those professionals who provide such services. 10 3. Another delimitation of this study was that teacher and princi- pal participants were limited to those who had a working knowledge of PSC teams. A working knowledge was defined as being teachers and principals who have established a relationship with a PSC team by sub- mitting referrals to the team. 4. A final delimitation of this study was the respondent population. Only elementary school teacher, principal, and specialist respondents from the Lansing School District in the state of Michigan were included. More specifically, the school system chosen was one which received an Elementary and Secondary Education Act grant. The purpose of the grant was to develOp demonstration and dissemination materials regarding the functioning of pupil personnel teams at the elementary school level. Limitations centered around the Critical Incident Technique, the analysis procedure that was used in this study. First, this procedure required that the respondent be able to satisfactorily complete the report form. Previous researchers, using the Critical Incident Technique, have not found this limitation to be a serious problem. Second, the mailing of the report form negates the possibility of direct explanation of the instructions to each respondent. To diminish the significance of this limitation, the report form and the instructions for filling it out were first examined by professional researchers, and after the suggestions of these researchers were incorporated, the revised report form was submitted to two teachers, two principals, and two pupil personnel specialists from the Lansing School District for further trial. Their suggestions for improvement were also incorporated into the final report form. 11 In addition to this pre-testing procedure, respondents were asked in the cover letter to telephone (collect, if needed) the investigator if further explanation was necessary. John C. Flanagan, developer of the Critical Incident Technique, says of written instructions: “In situations where the observers are motivated to read the instructions carefully and answer conscientiously, this 11.512121? 11315835?382122132112“.-filfirliiweiiiflfil‘l‘fli Third, the respondent's ability to recall critical incidents in- volving PSC teams imposes another limitation. To aid all respondents in this regard, they were asked to report only those significant pupil personnel team activities which had occurred for a two year period prior to the mailing of the report forms. In a previous study of the critical incidents in school board members' behavior, Corbally found that a two year period was long enough to generate a sufficient number of responses, but not so long that it diminished the memory of the incidents elicited.26 Fourth, completing the report form, required an expenditure of energy and time for the respondent. While this expenditure was considered a limitation, it was a limitation that was minimized by incorporating the suggestions of professional researchers, practicing pupil personnel specialists and pupil personnel generalists in a pre-testing of these report forms. Their suggestions prompted revisions in the report form which made the report form easier to complete and return. 25J. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," Psyghologjcal Bulletin, July, 1954, Vol. 51, p. 343. 250. E. Corbally, Jr., "A Study of the Critical Elements of School Board Community Relations!‘ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1955, University of California. 12 Definition 9_f_ 13.18%. The following definitions are of the categories of people and the terms often used in the Critical Incident Technique and in study. Pupil Personnel Generalist A person who is employed by the Lansing School District as a full time elementary school teacher or elementary school principal (grades K-5). This person made at least one referral to a Pupil Services Center (PSC) team between September, 1975, and June, 1977. Pupil Personnel Specialist A person who is employed by the Lansing School District as a full time school nurse, school psychologist, school social worker, or speech pathologist. Each specialist's primary duties will be at the elementary school level, and he will be a member of a Pupil Services Center (PSC) team receiving referrals from pupil personnel generalists. Pupil Services Center (PSC) Team An interaction of pupil personnel specialists in the Lansing School District that results in collective decision making regarding a referral from pupil personnel generalists. Team action is constituted by the receipt of a referral (either formal or informal) from pupil personnel generalists (each formal referral has the name of the referring teacher and his principal). Each team serves elementary schools within a specific geographic area in the Lansing School District. Respondents Pupil personnel generalists and pupil personnel specialists who have completed and returned their report forms. It is assumed that each respondent had sufficient knowledge of reported incidents to judge Pupil Services Center (PSC) team activities to the extent that these activities involved the handling of referrals by the teams. 13 Critical Incident Technique (CIT) A methodology for collecting and analyzing data that relate to the significant aspects of a service. The Critical Incident Technique examines a written or oral description of incidents that involve the service. The incidents, in the individual judgement of experts in the service, are presented in terms of the effective and ineffective behaviors that characterize the service. Incident A situation in which the Pupil Services Center (PSC) team provided services to the pupil personnel generalists by handling a submitted referral. This handling process involved: 1) team decision making, 2) team action, and 3) the involvement of any number of pupil personnel specialists and pupil personnel generalists providing a variety of services to significant individuals important to the referral. Team handling of a referral may have taken place in an hour, it may have consumed several weeks from beginning to end, or it may have been an on- going association with significant persons. Significant Incident An incident, in which according to a principal, teacher, or pupil personnel specialist55 judgement, a Pupil Services Center (PSC) team's activities had a marked effect, positive or negative, in handling a referral made by one or more pupil personnel generalists. The criteria for determining a significant incident was developed by the respondent's judgement. Therefore, if in the respondent's judgement, a PSC team activity had a marked effect, it was a significant incident. A11 incidents in this study that were completed on the report form and re- turned were considered significant incidents. 14 Effective Incident A significant incident in which, according to the judgement of the pupil personnel generalist or pupil personnel specialist, the activities of the pupil personnel team had a positive effect in handling a submitted referral. Ineffective Incident A significant incident in which, according to the judgement of the respondent, the activities of the pupil personnel team had a negative effect or no effect in handling a submitted referral. Element A specific activity or behavior involved in a situation known as an incident. There may be more than one specific activity or behavior comprising an incident. Significant Element Elements in which there is a high frequency of occurrence in significant incidents. These elements are pupil personnel team activities which are carried out in such an effective or ineffective manner that it results in the respondent making a judgement about the effectiveness of the pupil personnel team. All elements in this study were considered to be significant elements. Refined Elements A categorizing element formulated from a larger number of similar significant elements. gfignificant Area A grouping of related refined elements. 15 Activity A term synonymous with pupil personnel team behaviors that are classified as significant elements. Assumptions Upon Which Study j§_Based Basic to this study was the assumption that pupil personnel services are an integral component of the elementary school educational process, and along with the administrative component, exist primarily to facilitate the instructional component. Recognizing that pupil personnel generalists, teachers, and principals, work with pupil personnel specialists to maximize educational Opportunities for the consumers (pupils) of the educational process, it was assumed that both generalists and specialists have sufficient first hand knowledge of pupil personnel teams, in a school system where such teams exist, to 1) describe signi- ficant elements (behaviors) of the teams, and 2) determine whether these behaviors are effective or ineffective (significant incidents) in handling referred cases. Since principals, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists represented the administrative, instructional, and pupil personnel services components respectively, each being considered an expert in his field, it was assumed that they might bring different perspectives to their pupil personnel generalist and specialist roles, and conse- quently describe different significant pupil personnel team behaviors. It was also assumed that regardless of perspective, all groups would describe diagnostic aspects or treatment (plan and implementation) aspects which were the team functions associated with referrals. This study was designed, therefore, to analyze the Critical Incident Technique responses from the point of view of: 16 A. The principals as one group of respondents. B. The teachers as one group of respondents. C. The pupil personnel specialists as one group of respondents. D. The principals, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists as a combined group of respondents. Each separate group was coded to facilitate the analysis according to the type of respondent. This analysis procedure will be explained in detail in Chapter III of this study. Research Questions The main approach used in this study was to examine effective and ineffective team behaviors of a Pupil Services Center Staff as seen by the following groups: 1) those who submitted referrals--pupil personnel generalists, and 2) those who acted upon the referrals as a team--pupi1 personnel specialists. In addition, the following secondary aspects of the study were also examined: I. Observing Pupil Services Center teams from external groups A. What are the effective and ineffective team behaviors that teachers and principals will report? 8. Will teachers and principals report different effec- tive and ineffective team behaviors? II. Observing Pupil Services Center teams from within internal groups A. What are effective and ineffective team behaviors that pupil personnel specialists will report? 8. Will the following specialists report different effec- tive and ineffective team behaviors? School Nurses School Psychologists School Social Workers Speech Pathologists #wN—l 17 III. Observing Pupil Services Center teams between internal and external groups A. Will principals and pupil personnel specialists report different effective and ineffective team behaviors? 8. Will teachers and pupil personnel specialists report different effective and ineffective team behaviors? Summary and Overview This chapter through theory and research has presented some general problems that have confronted the orderly development of pupil personnel services. In this context, present day writers have hypothesized that the most appropriate way for pupil personnel specialists to provide services to referral agents, elementary school principals, and elemen- tary school teachers is through the team approach. In order to determine how effectively or ineffectively the team approach worked, a single school district was selected for study that offered pupil personnel services through team operations called Pupil Services Centers. The research methodology selected was the Critical Incident Technique which provided a means of collecting and analyzing data concerning how effectively and ineffectively Pupil Services Center teams operate as seen by principals, teachers, and pupil personnel Specialists. The following components of the study were presented in Chapter I: l) delimitations and limitations of the study, 2) definitions of terms used in the study, 3) assumptions upon which the study was based, and 4) research questions to be answered by the study. The second chapter contains a review of the literature related to the Critical Incident Technique and theory and application studies as they relate to principals, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists involved in the delivery of pupil personnel services. 18 The third chapter contains a description of the procedures involved in the collection and analysis of data and the populations and samples from which this data were derived. The fourth chapter includes an explanation of the results or out- comes of the study according to the research questions that were posed in the first chapter. Chapter V consists of a summary of the study, conclusions derived from the study,and implications of the study for various professionals working with different facets of pupil personnel services. Chapter II Review gf_Related Literature Introduction The purpose of this literature review was to examine theoretical and application materials which will provide the reader with a general, yet comprehensive, background that focuses on why the present study was made. With such a focus in mind, this chapter has been divided into two sections. The first section explored literature related to the Critical Incident Technique and its uses, and the second section examined the literature related to pupil personnel generalists (teachers and princi- pals) and pupil personnel specialists as they function in relation to the pupil personnel team. Section I The Critical Incident Technigue and Its Uses Background and General Use of the Critical Incident Technique Examining job requirements for various occupations became a serious undertaking for psychologists and sociologists just prior to and during World War II. John C. Flanagan was one of a plethora of researchers, and the technique that he developed was a process that was to be labeled the Critical Incident Technique (CIT). The process involved in this technique required an analysis and synthesis of on-the-job behaviors that were felt to be significant or critical to the performance of a certain task. The process also required qualified observers to ascertain and record the critical behaviors. Flanagan, and his associates, began developing the technique by trying to determine what were the critical requirements for U. S. Air 19 2O Force officers and combat leaders.27 In this particular report, a theory for the technique used as well as a collection of specific studies was included. With the termination of World War II, Flanagan and some of his associates moved on to the University of Pittsburgh where he founded the American Institute for Research. It was here that the technique was labeled and the methodology refined.28 The methodology was later presented as a specific paper detailing the necessary requirements for its successful use (these requirements are presented in Chapter III of this study).29 The CIT has been applied to a variety of occupations, more than 30 600 according to a recent bibliography, ranging from peace corps 31 32 volunteers to store managers. 27J. C. Flanagan, "The Aviation Psychology Program in the Army Air Forces," Army Air Forces Aviation Psychology Program Research Report Number 1. 28d. C. Flanagan, "Job Requirements" in Current Trends in Industrial Ps cholo (ed. Wayne Dennis). Pittsburgh, PennsyTvania: UHTVersity of Pittsgurgh Press, 1949, pp. 34-37. 29J. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, July, 1954. 306. Fivars, "The Critical Incident Technique: A Biography," American Institute for Research in Behavioral Sciences, Palo Alto, California, 1973, p. 39. 31G. Comstock and N. Maccoby, "The Day to Day Job of the Utiliza- tion Volunteer: Structure, Problems, and Solutions,“ The Peace Corps Educational Television Project in Columbia: Two Years of Research, 1970. 32B. Anderson and S. Nilsson, "Studies in the Reliability and Validity of the Critical Incident Technique," Journal gf_Applied Psychology, Vol. 48, December, 1964, pp. 398-403. 21 CIT studies have developed in other areas beyond studying effective and ineffective behaviors in occupations. Most recently, researchers have looked at behaviors involving interracial conflict33 and events critical to community development.34 The American Psychological Association's "Distinguished Professional Contribution Award for 1976" was presented to Flanagan.35 He is cited for 179 publications (1935 - 1976). He has used the CIT methodology continually in a variety of fields for the past 30 years.36 In the 1960's and 1970's, he utilized the CIT to initiate Project Talent, a national survey and follow—up study of 400,000 high school 33A. R. Davidson and J. M. Feldman, "An Attribution Theory Analysis of Interracial Conflict in Job Settings," Illinois Studies of the Technically Disadvantaged, Technical Report Number 113 July, 1971, p. 29. 34L. Davie, et. al., SHAPES: Shared Process Evaluation System; Toward a_Process gf_Community Development, Papers presented to the Adult Educat1on Research Conference, St. Louis, Missouri, April 16-18, 1975, p. 15. 35A. R. Pacht, "Distinguished Professional Contribution Award for 1976," American Psychologist, The American Psychological Association, Vol. 36, Number 1, January, 1977, pp. 72-79. 361bid, pp. 75-79. 22 students.37'42 From the critical findings of this study, he began developing PLAN (Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs) in 1968. This was a computer-supported program of individualized education aimed at correcting many of the defects revealed in American education by Project Talent.43'47 37J. C. Flanagan and J. T. Dailey, "Prospects for the TALENT Search," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1959, Vol. 37, pp. 387-389. 38J. C. Flanagan and J. T. Dailey, "Project TALENT: The Identifi- cation, Development, and Utilization of Human Talents," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1960, Vol. 38, pp. 504-505. 39J. C. Flanagan, "Project TALENT: Some Early Findings From a National Survey," NEA Journal, Vol. 53. PP. 8-10. 4°J. c. Flanagan, "The Implications of Project TALENT and Related Research for GuidanceJ' Measurement 8 Evaluation 1p_Guidance, 1969, Vol. 2. pp. 116-123. 41a. c. Flanagan, "Some Pertinent Findings of Project TALENT," Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1973, Vol. 22, pp. 92-96. 42J. C. Flanagan, "The First Fifteen Years of Project TALENT: Implications for Career Guidance," Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1973, Vol. 22, pp. 8-14. 43J. C. Flanagan, "Project PLAN," In Technology and Innovation lg Education (Aerospace Education Foundation). NeinBrk, N.Y.: Praeger, 1968. pp. 29-35. 44J. C. Flanagan, "The Role of the Computer in PLAN," Journal 9: Educational Data Processing, 1970, Vol. 7. PP. 7—17. 45d. C. Flanagan, "The PLAN System as an Application of Educational Technology," Educational Technology, 1972, Vol. 12 (9), pp. l7-21. 46J. C. Flanagan, "Project PLAN: Basic Assumptions, Implementation, and Significance," Journal ngSecondary Education, 1971, Vol. 46, pp. 173-178. 470. C. Flanagan, W. M. Shanner, H. J. Brudner, and R. W. Marker, "An Individualized Instructional System: PLAN." In H. Talmage, ed., S stems g: Individualized Education. Berkley, California: McCutchan u s ing,'1974, pp. 60-71. 23 Reviewing the most current literature for the use of the CIT by other educational researchers indicated that: A. Seventy-eight studies of teachers or teaching have been done; three of these studies pertain to elementary school teachers.“-50 8. Sixteen studies of school principals have been done; five of these studies are concerned with the elementary school principal.“-55 486. R. Musgrave, "Factors that Identify Effective Elementary Teachers on the Basis of Critical Incident Reaction." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1966, Texas Technical University. 49M. Z. Namazi, "Critical Teaching Behavior Influencing Attitudinal Development of Elementary School Children Toward Physical Education." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, University of Maryland. 50R. 0. Peterson, "A Critical Incident Study of Elementary School Teacher - Pupil Relations in Washington State." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1964, University of Washington. 510. Benjamin, "Critical Behaviors of Elementary Principals in the Improvement of Instruction." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1955, Stanford University. 52R. L. Buffington, "The Job of Elementary School Principal as Viewed by Parents." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1954, Stanford University. 53L. E. Holder, "A Comparison of the Critical Requirements for the Elementary School, Junior High School, and Senior High School Principal- ships." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1962, Colorado State College. 54L. L. Medsker, "The Job of the Elementary School Principal as Viewed by Teachers." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1954, Stanford University. 556. G. Symanski, “The Critical Requirements of the Elementary School Principalship as Experienced by Elementary School Teachers." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1962, New York University. 24 C. One study dealt with school psychologists.56 There were also studies that dealt with social work and nursing, but these studies did not deal with role or function in a school setting. A review of Dissertation Abstracts,57 ERIC,58 and the CIT Bibliography59 indicated there were no CIT studies dealing with speech pathology or speech pathologists. Specific Use of the CIT: Examining Team and Group Behaviors In reviewing the literature on teams and groups, eleven studies were found.60 Nine of these studies involved critical group behaviors in flight, combat,and other types of military training. One study is concerned with an educational setting,61 but involved critical behaviors in teacher - pupil interaction as observed by groups, rather than describing critical behaviors necessary to group or team functioning. 56D. R. Roberts, "Perceptions of Actual and Desired Role Function of School Psychologists by Psychologists and Teachers and Critical Behaviors in Role Fulfillment." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, University of Iowa. 57Dissertation Abstracts International, University Microfilms, Xerox Publications, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 58Education Resource Information Center, National Institute of Education, Washington D.C. 596. Fivars, "The Critical Incident Technique: A Biography," pp. 38-39. 60G. Fivars, "The Critical Incident Technique: A Biography," pp. 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 20. 51M. A. Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes, and Achievement," Comparative Research (Monograph No. 12), U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1965, pp. 1-22. 25 One study, through its title, suggested critical behaviors as they relate to team analysis and team training,62 but the study was not obtainable through the Inter-Library Loan Service at Michigan State University or any other resources. No resources could be identified that suggested any studies had ever been implemented using the CIT to examine pupil personnel teams or groups with similar roles and functions. The following section, Section II, of this chapter deals with a review of the literature related to pupil personnel generalists (teachers and principals) and pupil personnel specialists as they func- tion in relation to pupil personnel teams. Section II Part One: Literature Related tg_Pupil Personnel Generalists (Teachers and Principals) as_ They Function ip_Re1ation tg_Pupi1 Personnel Teams Through the use of theoretical and applied studies, the roles of elementary school teachers and elementary school principals in relation- ship to pupil personnel teams will be reviewed in terms of the strength and problems or concerns that occurs in this interactive relationship. Elementary School Teachers Theory. In 1956, Cottingham wrote: "In contrast to guidance services at the other levels, guidance functions rest largely in the hands of the person most closely associated with the pupil, his elementary teacher ...The obligation cannot be effectively shifted nor can other personnel function in a capacity equal to the pupil's teacher."63 62M. Glanzer, et. al., The Team Performance Record: Ag_Ajg_fpr_ Team Analysis and Team Training, from G. Fivars, p. 8. 63H. F. Cottingham, Guidance in Elementary Schools. Bloomington, Illinois: McKnight & McKnight, l956} p. 10. 26 Now after twenty years, with many pupil personnel services engrained at the elementary school level, most knowledgeable experts would probably take exception to the elementary school teacher having to bear singular responsibility for student guidance. Bonnel states, "the relationship existing between the teacher and the student is criti- 64 cal" but other special services play a significant part. Hatch points out, "...the administrative and personnel components facilitate the 65 primary element, the instructional component." Therefore, as pupil personnel programs are developed and pupil personnel specialists prepare to deliver services, "careful attention must be given to the significant role of the teacher in the self-contained classroom and to her relationship with special service workers."66 Hatch underscores this service delivery concern, "the teacher controls the pupils environ- 67 ment that can make the process more effective." Bonnel noted that "Much of what teachers do in relation to those who perform the major n68 personnel service functions are indirect services. Stripling and 64d. A. Bonnel, "Role of the Instructional Staff" in R. N. Hatch' 5, ed... The Organization of Pupil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices, East Lansing, Michigan. Michigan State University Press, 1974, p. 202. 65R. N. Hatch, "Introduction and Reviews," The Organization of Pupil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices. East LanSTng, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1974, p. 8. 666. Hill and D. Nitzschke, "Preparation Programs in Elementary School Guidance," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 40, October, 1961, p. 159. 67R. N. Hatch, “The Pupil Personnel Program in Perspective, " The Dr anization of Pupil Personnel Pro rams--Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1974, p. 415. 68d. A. Bonnel, “Role of the Instructional Staff," p. 207. 27 Antenem acknowledged that with the constant advances being made in the areas of child growth and development, personality development, and learning theory, it cannot be expected that the elementary school teacher will be able to keep up with this information and apply this knowledge to students. So, "a need has developed for several kinds of specialists to work as a team in facilitating the intellectual, personal and social growth of each child."69 Stripling and Antenem go on to point out that "these professional specialists (working as a team) are in a position to render contributions because they work in different ways, as well as in different settings, with students and their parents."70 Landy posed a related and important question, "How do we get teachers...to accept our efforts at enlisting their active cooperation in a truly preventative (and remediative) program?" 71 Fisher answered that there has to be a willingness to cooperate and "Teachers will need 72 to devote time to the better understanding of pupil services." He goes on to say, however, that "specialists themselves need to put forth effort in understanding and working with one another"73 before teacher cooperation can be maximized. 69R. 0. Stripling and W. W. Antenem, "Pupil Personnel Services: Aid to Curriculum Development" 1T1 G. A. Saltzman's and M. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc.,11967, p. 35. 701bid. 71E. Landy, "Implementing Change in Programs in Pupil Personnel Services" 111 R. N. Hatch's The Organization gf_Pupil Personnel Programs --Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan: MiEhigan State University Press,Tl974, p. 39. 72J. K. Fisher, "Changing Concepts of Pupil Personnel Services" in G. A. Saltzman's and H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1967, p. 130. 73Ibid., p. 130. 28 Using school psychologists as an example, Styles felt that cooper- ation could not be enlisted until investigations were done about the teacher's assumptions "of the qualifications and functions" of the school psychologist. He believed these assumptions were likely to ef- fect "teacher's choices of pupils to refer to the psychologist, their receptiveness to his recommendations, and their readiness to enter into various kinds of working relationships with the psychologist."74 Stripling and Antenem felt that teachers would be most receptive to pupil personnel support when they had release time to talk with specialists about remediation concerns, additional release time for consultation on preventative measures that can be incorporated into the curriculum, and favorable ratios between-~ppszstudents and ppszteachers especially where a majority of students are disadvantaged.75 Shear said that pupil personnel services (PPS) must be unrelenting in their efforts to have a sound working relationship with elementary school teachers because "They in turn can give important ideas about the pupil and can greatly broaden the assistance of the personnel n76 worker to pupil progress and further remind the PPS that such a 74W. A. Styles, "Teacher's Perception of the School Psychologist's Role" in G. A. Saltzman's and H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus. Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers. Inc.,71967, p. 421 75R. 0. Stripling and W. W. Antenem, "Pupil Personnel Services: Aid to Curriculum Development," p. 31. 768. E. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth" in R. N. Hatch's, ed., The Organization pf Pupil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State UniverSity Press, W4, p. '5. 29 working relationship is part of their function, "Pupil personnel staff members should function in the school to help teachers to help pupils 1earn."77 Application. Most applied studies that utilize teachers in relation to PPS did so with the teacher in the role of evaluator. As Gamsky pointed out, "Since most of the referrals are initiated by teachers with a specific concern expressed at the time of the referral, it was believed that the teacher could best determine whether improve- ment had or had not taken place."78 One study by Mikaelian, however, was concerned with measuring what kind of teacher did not utilize PPS. He found that teachers who scored highest on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, an appraisal device for examining interpersonal relationships with students, had fewer contacts with the pupil services staff. Those who scored high were married, female and with smaller class loads.79 In those studies in which the teacher is utilized as an evaluator, the common theme is the disagreement between instruction, administration, and pupil personnel services as to the role and function of specialists 77B. E. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth“ in R. N. Hatch's, ed., The Organization gf_Pupil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices. EastTEEhSTng, 1c Tgan: ‘Michigan State University Press, 1974, p. 15. 78M. R. Gamsky, et. al., "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Services Programs for Wisconsin," Bulletin Number 3396, July, 1973. Madison, Wisdonsin: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, p. 41. 795. Mikaelian, "A Comparison of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Pupils and Teachers' Contacts with Pupil Personnel Services in a Selected Suburban Community: A Step Toward Accountability.“ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1972, Northwestern University. 30 80-83 in actual and ideal settings. A representative study, by Romig, indicated: 1. Overlapping of roles and disagreement among specialists made it impossible for teachers not to be in disagreement with specialists at some times. 2. Teachers believed that few functions were the exclusive property of any of the specialists. . 3. School psychologists, school social workers, and reading consultants were the most inflexible in terms of their roles and functions as compared to teachers and speech pathologists. 4. Teachers were dissatisfied with services (particularly the services of the school psychologist and school social worker). 5. Teachers saw school psychologists and school social workers as diagnostic and referral people, and speech pathologists and reading consultants as on-going services to pupils. 6. More than half of the teachers did not think the school psychologist and school social workers understood their everyday problems.84 80J. A. Farrell, "An Analysis of the Elementary School Counselor Position: The Role Expectation of Counselors, Principals, and Teachers." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1968, University of Rochester. 81R. D. Roberts, "Perceptions of Actual and Desired Role Functions of School Psychologists by Psychologists and Teachers, and Critical Behavior in Role Fulfillment." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, University of Iowa. 82C. W. Romig, "Attitudes of Classroom Teachers Toward the Role of the School Psychologist and Other Personnel of a Psychological Service Center for Children." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, University of Northern Colorado. 330. M. Wells, “A Study of the Role of the Elementary School Counselor as Perceived by Elementary School Counselors, Principals, and Teachers in Ohio." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1967, Ohio State University. 84C. W. Romig, "Attitudes of Classroom Teachers Toward the Role of the School Psychologist and Other Personnel of a Psychological Service Center for Children." p. 109. 31 Many studies also made suggestions or recommendations in how instruction, administration, and PPS could be brought more into accord regarding the role and function of PPS specialists. This section of the review of the literature will be aimed at the suggestions and recommendations for teachers in this integration process. Romig suggested that prospective teachers should be exposed to the exceptionalities of children and the various ancillary services that try to help, and teachers should expect consultation and follow-up services by PPS.85 Voorhees recommended that teachers should be good observationalists and be able to identify children who need PPS services. He also suggested that: 1) there was a need for more cooperation in the infor- mation exchange between the three educational components (instruction, administration, and PPS) and 2) instructional responsibility does not cease when a referral is made.86 87 Similarly, Wahl saw a need for more effective communication. Gamsky recommended that elementary teachers have increased: 1) know- ledge of pupil differences and the needs of pupils, 2) ability to cope with pupil behavior, and 3) understanding of environmental factors in 85C. W. Romig, "Attitudes of Classroom Teachers Toward the Role of the School Psychologist and Other Personnel of a Psychological Service Center for Children," p. 121. 86L. B. Voorhees, "A Descriptive Study of the Organization, Admin- istration and Operation of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected Michigan School Districts.“ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1960, Michigan State University, p. 102. 87E. E. Wahl, "Organization and Administration of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected West North Central School Systems." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, University of Nebraska. 32 pupil behavior. He felt implementing these recommendations would not only make teachers more effective in the classroom, but diminish the use of PPS as a "dumping ground" for unwanted students.88 Elementary School Principals nggry, The theoretical role of the elementary school principal in relation to pupil personnel services appeared to have changed over the last two decades. Twenty years ago it appeared that the principal was expected to have a very direct role in PPS. Reavis indicated in a book of that period, "Group intelligence (SIC) may be administered by the principal...the principal can select a capable teacher who can be trained in the administration of individual tests."89 Retrospectively, Fisher adds, "Historically...If the child became a problem for the classroom teacher, he was referred to the principal for action. Thus, the principal was probably the first pupil personnel specialist."90 In the present day, the principal appears to be expected to play a more supportive and varied role in relation to PPS. Holt said the principal "seemingly operates on the periphery of the PPS team."91 Other general descriptions of this role were: 88N. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," p. 16. 89W. C. Reavis, Administeripg the Elementary School. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957, p. 347. 90d. K. Fisher, "Changing Concepts of Pupil Personnel" in a G. A. Saltzman and H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1967, p. 30. 91F. D. Holt, The Pupil Personnel Team jp_the Elementary School. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1975, pp. 47148. 33 l. "...principals in elementary schools have a broad under— standing of the unique relationship which these service activities have to the educational effort of the school ...to the educational program, and the channels and techniques whereby Sge service activities may be utilized to best advantage." 2. "...the administrative and personnel components facilitate the primary element, the instructional component."93 3. "...principals...see themselves, the teachers and the pupil personnel staff as wogzing jointly to achieve the objec- tives of the school." 4. “Specialists may have interest and enthusiasm but this is of little consequence without the support of the principal."95 5. "Administrators, teachers, and the specialists must have a clear understanding of their own areas of responsibility and the competencies and responsibilities of the others." Specifically, the principal's role in relation to PPS involved: 1) staff and program development, 2) prevention models, and 3) student referrals. 1. Staff and Program Development The principal's role in staff development appeared to involve the integration of PPS and the instructional staff in a way that will be of the most benefit to children served. 92H. J. Otto and D. C. Sanders, Elementary School Organization and Administration. New York, N. Y.: Meridith Publishing Co., 1964, p. 2632 93R. N. Hatch, "Introduction & Reviews," p. 15. 94B. E. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," National Asso- ciation of Secondary School Principals' Bulletin, January, 1968, Vol. 52, No. 324,—p: 37. 95L. Wing, "Staff Development in Pupil Personnel Services," National Association gf_Secondary School Principals' Bulletin, January, 1968, Vol. 52, No. 324, p. 23. 968. E. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," p. 40. 34 Liddle and Ferguson point out: "One problem facing today's principal is that of integrating into the school's total program, the various specialists, and the services they provide...teachers must be helped to appreciate the special ways in which these personnel can be of benefit to them...differences in perception with regard to a youngster's problem...work schedules...tasks and techniques will differ from teachers."97 In another article, Liddle posed a statement in a similar vein, "It would be of value to know how a principal would utilize pupil service workers if they had at their disposal the full range of pupil services."98 Learning how to work together is perceived as the most important 99 100 aspect of staff development by Shear, and Monderer and 101 Wing, Johnson. Holt listed nine aspects of the principal's role in staff develop- ment, and said, “Administrators are responsible for the efficient functioning of the school and provide the leadership for all personnel to accomplish the tasks to which they are committed. Administrators who do these things contribute to the pupil service efforts."102 97G. P. Liddle and D. G. Ferguson, "Leadership for Guidance and Personnel Services," National Association pf Secondary Principals' Bulletin, January, 1968, Vol. 52, No. 324. pp. 3-4. 98G. P. Liddle, "The School Social Worker as he Sees Himself and As He is Seen By His Colleagues" in G. A. Saltzman's & H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1967, p. 504. 99 B. E. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," p. 41. 100L. Wing, "Staff Development in Pupil Personnel Services," p. 23. 101J. H. Monderer and C. C. Johnson, "Talking about Pupil Services - An Administrative Dialogue," National Association of Secondary School Principals' Bulletin, January, 1968, Vol. 52, No. 324: p. 36. 102F. D. Holt, The Pupil Personnel Team ip_the Elementary Schools, pp. 47-48. 35 Administrators should: 1. Function as a consultant regarding pupils in the school. 2. Be represented on pupil service committees (focused on developing pupil services). 3. Stay abreast of developments in the helping professions and attend pupil service in-service meetings. Demand evaluation reports of pupil service program functioning. 4 5. Develop staff meetings on pupil services. 6 Be knowledgeable of the system-wide approach to pupil services. 7 . Be aware of the financial needs of pupil services. A "shoe- string" budget won't provide services which may be needed. 8. Be alert to the needs of children - individual and in groups. 9. With pupil services, strive for a healthy school climate.)03 2. Prevention Models Some writers would like to see a more active emphasis on prevention models in PPS. The implementation of such models would necessitate an important role for the elementary school principal. Fisher pointed out that cooperativeness would be a vital aspect of the principal's role, "...schedule activities in different ways; this requires effort and "104 skill, in order to free people to work together. Landy felt the problem was how to facilitate cooperativeness from both teachers and principals. He suggested using consultation and in-service to sell prevention.105 103F. D. Holt, The Pupil Personnel Team in the Elementary School. pp. 47-48. — 104 p. 30. 105E. Landy, "Implementing Change in Programs of Pupil Personnel Services," p. 39. J. K. Fisher, "Changing Concepts of Pupil Personnel Services," 36 3. Student Referrals The importance of the referral process cannot be overemphasized. Holt suggested that "The development of the referral process fer the individual school and the system represents an approach to maximizing 106 He further the effectiveness of a complete educational system." suggested that the role of the principal is to become very know- ledgeable of the referral policies of the system so that a school policy can be tailored to meet the needs of the individual school.107 Shearer noted that the role of the principal is often overlooked in eliciting referral information and this role should be re-examined. "He carries, after all, the primary responsibility for the morale and smooth functioning of his school, and children who have been dis- ruptive have usually been through the disciplinary channels which he heads."108 Application. Applied studies emphasized two roles of the elementary school principal in relationship to pupil personnel services. Those roles were: 1) evaluator of PPS and 2) participant in direct and indirect activities related to PPS. 106F. D. Holt. The Pupil Personnel Team lg the Elementary Schools, p. 85. 1071b d, p. 48. 108M. Shearer, M.D., "The Principal is Often Overlooked," Community Mental Health Journal, February, 1968, Vol. 4:1, p. 47. 37 l. Evaluator of Pupil Personnel Services 109 110 looked at the Two separate studies by Weis and Farrell elementary school principal's perception of the counselor role. Both studies indicated that the principal and the elementary school counselor were in general agreement with the counselor role. These studies expressed the principal's perception of the counselor role as student oriented rather than institution oriented. In Bowen's study, the perception of principals and others with the "most" and "least" pupil personnel services in non-team settings was measured; the principal group Showed the greatest agreement among them- selves, between and within districts, as to the role of PPS. Principals and PPS workers were also in strong agreement, between and within districts, as to PPS roles. The "most" district principals saw PPS as the most helpful service to pupils while being critical of the organ- izational processes involved in PPS functioning.11] Similarly, Gamsky compared school districts that were receiving intensive pupil personnel service with districts that were receiving minimal pupil personnel services. PPS, however, were organized through 109D. M. Weis, "A Study of the Role of the Elementary School Counselor as Perceived by Elementary School Counselors, Principals, and Teachers in Ohio," ABSTRACT. 110d. A. Farrell, "An Analysis of the Elementary School Counselor Position: The Role Expectations of Counselors, Principals, and Teachers," ABSTRACT. 1nR. Bowens, Jr., "A Comparative Analysis of the Perceptions of the Role and Functions of Counselors, Directors of Pupil Personnel and Social Workers, Held by Principals, Teachers and Pupil Personnel Specialists in Selected Kentucky School Districts which have the 'Most' and 'Least' Pupil Personnel Specialists." Unpublished doctoral disser- tation, 1969, University of Kentucky. 38 a team approach in this study. After one year, administrators and others were asked to evaluate the on-going effectiveness of each team that they . were familiar with. Seventy-five percent of all administrators thought the services were good or excellent. The recommendations were: 1. More services were needed. 2. Better communication techniques were needed to keep teachers, administrators, and parents informed of progress with specific children. 3. A need for more structure that involved clearer definition of roles and schedules. 4. A need for greateg community awareness and understanding of the program. In a study involving principals and pupil service workers, Holden asked the question: What should pupil services do, and what is the basis for disagreement on role and function? He found that principals were more directive than pupil service workers (who were found to be more non-directive) in problem solving. Thus, principals in this study had a different opinion of what was a good interaction and/or counseling approach to students.”3 2. Participant in Direct and Indirect Activities Related to Pupil Personnel Services Gamsky indicated that administrators set general goals for them- selves based on evaluative feedback after the first year of the PPS program. Their goals were: 1) greater understanding of PPS and 112M. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for WisconsinJ'p. 32. 113L. D. Holden, "Directive and Non-Directive Pupil Personnel Strategies Preferred by Selected Educators and School Board Members." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1966, University of Arizona. 39 2) greater interest and willingness to support PPS. Activities designed to meet these goals were: A. Administrative participation in team staff meetings. 8. Regular meetings between the PPS administrator and the school administrator. C. Information sharing with principals regarding reviews of pupil service staff progress. 0. Social events such as staff dinners and parties.”4 In a survey study, Voorhees listed several activities that principals felt would help make their relationships with PPS more pro- ductive: l. Closer coordination between elementary and secondary planning. 2. Closer coordination and increased contact. 3. Monthly pupil personnel reports to the administrative staff. 4. Regular meetings of all members of the administrative cabinet. 5. Principals should be encouraged to screen problems before referrals and exhaust their own resources before making the referral. 6. Pupil services should be provided with more time for research studies. 7. Reports and evaluations should be developed that will be meaningful to administrators. 8. The director of pupil personnel should have high administrative status. 15 114M. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," pp. 10-11. 115L. B. Voorhees, "A Descriptive Study of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected School Districts," p. 107. 40 In 1962, Miller, in a nationwide survey, found that elementary school principals needed help from pupil personnel services in the areas of: l. Pupil assignment. 2. Pupil assessment and development. 3. Individual differences. 4. Cultural differences.H6 Nine years later, in a similar national study, Becker found that elementary school principals were still requesting similar kinds of help from pupil personnel services in: l. Recognizing and coping with individual differences. 2. Pupil assessment and pupil development. 3 Pupil management. 4. Student discipline.“7 Section II Part Twp; Literature Related tg_Pupil Personnel Specialists as_They Function ip_Relation tg_Pupil Personnel Teams Through the use of theoretical and applied studies, the roles of elementary school pupil personnel Specialists in relation to pupil personnel teams will be reviewed in terms of the strength and problems or concerns that exists within this interactive relationship. 115V. Miller, "Power, People, and Principals," National Elementary Principal, Vol. 41, January, 1962, pp. 11-26. H7G. Becker, et. al., Elementary School Principals and Their Schools: Beacons gj_Brilliance and Potholes gf_Pestilence. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon Press, 1971, p. 38. 41 Theory There are five issues involved in the functioning of pupil personnel teams. These issues have appeared and reappeared over the last ten years, and while there are some changes in the content of these issues, the strengths, problems, and concerns described in the literature remain very much the same over this period of time. The issues are: 1. Organizational and Administrative Factors Related to Pupil Personnel Teams 2. Role and Function of the Pupil Personnel Specialist 3. Prevention Services vs. Intervention Services 4. The "4 C's" of Pupil Personnel Team Interaction Evaluation of Pupil Personnel Teams Viewing the dynamics of the relationship between pupil personnel specialists and the pupil personnel teams suggested that these issues were artificially separated from one another, and that in the natural environment all of the issues converged and interfaced. Yet, each of the authors had attempted to delineate one or more of the issues as a means of analyzing why the team functioned in an effective manner and/or why the team functioned in an ineffective manner. The following dis- cussion is a review of these issues. 1. Organizational and Administrative Factors Related to Pupil Personnel Teams. The team approach to pupil personnel services is an organizational and administrative modality for the delivery of services to children. These services, particularly at the elementary school level, are initiated when barriers to learning have become apparent to the school teacher that cannot be negated or significantly reduced without the intervention of the specialist. 42 While the team approach has been generally accepted as the most viable means for organizing pupil personnel specialists to assist their clients, and thus, its validity is not an issue at training institutions, "There are time factors in the determination of what is an issue as well as a gap between what is felt and shown to be optimum, and what is feasible in the local school district."“8 It has been expressed that most school districts are not ready to have formalized teams because their utility cannot be justified based ”9 Other on the outcomes that are produced in relation to the costs. districts have wanted teams sometimes; either after the school has exhausted all its resources or after and individual PPS worker has not been able to solve the problem.120 Sussman, however, indicated that the child should be referred to the team very early on in the barrier removal process, rather than letting the problem(s) grow and fester by passing the child from one professional to the next until the problem(s) had become unmanageable.121 1.180. C. Ferguson, "Critical Issues in Pupil Personnel Work," in G. A. Saltzman's and H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readin 5. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock PUblishers, Inc., 18 I§679 P- 119R. J. Anderson, "Teamwork in Pupil Personnel Services. The Story of the 70' s," Journal of the International Association of Pupil Personnel Workers, V0 1. l66-2’March, 1972, pp. 84-86. 120C. Sussman, "Guide to the Pupil Services Team Conference," Journal of the International Association of Pupil Personnel Workers, Vol. 17 -2:'M3Fcfi, 1973, p. 76. 121R. J. Anderson, "Teamwork in Pupil Personnel Services: The Story of the 70's," p. 4. 43 Where teams are organized and administered in some fashion, Brown stated that strong team leadership must be established to prevent inter- disciplinary totem poles from occurring.122 Team approaches should rather be governed by flexibility, balance, and good judgement.123 The teams should be organized so that there is an increasing emphasis on shared concerns, and a de-emphasis of professional differences which often fosters harmful stress.124 When shared concerns are emphasized, cases become team cases, rather than "my case" or "your case.“25 Several writers suggested, however, that team members don't know how to work together because of methodological differences and/or lack of team management training for the leader.126 From this kind of situa- tion, the status seeker or prima donna can emerge and dominate team meetings to the point that important information is lost from less asser- tive members,127 and threatens the role of the school administrator.128 122T. N. Brown, "The Team Approach for Social Work in a School System," Journal Lf the International Association Lf Pupil Personnel Workers, Vol.15- 4, September, 1971, pp. 210- 215. 123B. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," p. 42. 124B. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," p. 15. 125R. B. Williams, "The Team: What's Wrong With It, " Journal Lf the International Association Lf Pupil Personnel Workers, V0 1. 15- 3, June, 1971, p.137. 125d. J. Horowitz, Team Practice and the Specialist. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1970, Chapter 5. 127D. G. Ferguson, "Critical Issues in Pupil Personnel Work," p. 22. 128R. J. Anderson, "A Model for Developing Team Practice," Journal of the International Association Lf Pupil Personnel Workers, Vol.16-4, September, 31972, p. 150. 44 When the organization and administration of teams does not focus on the therapeutic orchestration of personnel, physical plant, curricula, and planning, then the needs of the child get lost,129 confidentiality becomes a problem,130 and little attention is paid to the role of crisis theory where "we should forget about long term goals...based on the needs of the profession,"131 and emphasize short term goals, the client‘s goals. "This way we move together from one plateau to another.”32 A few writers have also commented that the organization and admini- stration of teams was hampered because, unlike specific professional disciplines that fell under the pupil personnel services, teams have no power bases around which to form an identity. Ferguson pointed out that there is no national group, agency, or association supporting the team concept. He also noted that "state certification of the special- ists reflect no clear commitment to team functioning."133 Horowitz adds, "Few writers on interdisciplinary teams concern themselves with community relations problems of the group as an administrative unit. Thus, no information has been developed on comparing community relation 129R. B. Williams, "The Team: What's Wrong With It,“ p. 136. 130R. J. Anderson, I'A Model for Developing Team Practice," p. 149. 131R. J. Anderson, Teamwork in Pupil Personnel Services: The Story of the 70's," p. 84. 1321. N. Brown, "The Team Approach for Social Work in a School System," p. 212. 133D. G. Ferguson, "Critical Issues in Pupil Personnel Work," p. 22. 45 services provided by school systems and other agencies for their inter- disciplinary teams."134 2. Role and Function of the Pupil Personnel Specialist. In establishing pupil personnel teams in elementary schools, an effort has typically been made to have varying disciplines represented in varying quantities. Monderer and Johnson indicated that the National Associa- tion of Pupil Personnel Services lists health services, psychological services, and social work services, attendance counseling, and speech 135 There are other combinations of disciplines and hearing services. recognized as pupil personnel teams by other groups, as Anderson points out, "varying activities in varying localities, not all of which can stand the heat of the direct sun, others of which might run if they became wet."136 For pupil personnel team activities to be meaningful in any locality, members have to "understand each others strengths and weakness...while "137 soliciting each others help. Hays felt the expertise of the team rested on "the limitations of one member augmented by the talents of 134R. J. Anderson, "A Model for Developing Team Practice." P- 50- 135J. H. Monderer and C. C. Johnson, "Talking About Pupil Personnel Services - An Administrative Dialogue," p. 25. 136R. J. Anderson, "Teamwork in Pupil Personnel Services: The Story of the 70's," p. 82. 137Midwest Center/Consortium for Planned Change in Pupil Personnel Programs for Urban Schools, "A Final Program Report from Louisville Public Schools and the University of Louisville," 1974, p. 11. 46 138 another." With a variety of training and orientations unique to each discipline, each member must be willing to "learn and educate another."139 To answer Shear's question, "Do we now have a pupil personnel mixture which will rise to the occasion it was important for each specialist to understand his own area of responsibility, "and the competencies and responsibilities of all of the others."141 It was at this point that Anderson believed the major problem for pupil personnel teams occurred "over who does what, when, and how."142 Styles believed that, depending on how these areas are dealt with, would affect the relationship of the referring source with the team--"Teachers assumptions about...qualifications and functions warrant investigation because of the influence these assumptions are likely to have on teachers' choices of pupils to refer...their receptiveness to recommen- dations, and their readiness to enter into various kinds of working relationships..." 143 138D. G. Hays, "Program Objectives and Assessment " in R. N. Hatch's (ed.) Ihg_0r anization of Pupil Personnel Programs-~Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan:'—M1chigan State UniverSity Press, 1974, p. 60. 1398. Demsch and S. Kim, "Developing a Role Style for the School Social Worker," Journal of Eng International Association ngPupil Pg!- sonnel Workers, Vol. 14-37 June, 1976, p. 124. MOB. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," p. 5. 1413. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," P- 40- 142R. J. Anderson, "Teamwork in Pupil Personnel Services: The Story of the 70's," p. 82. 143W. A. Styles, "Teacher Perceptions of the School Psychologist's Role," p. 42. 47 While it may have been idealistically assumed that pupil personnel teams would deal with those in the greatest need, it appears that when teams are spread over too large an area, they tend to shape the be- haviors of referring sources by indicating their function is to help those who would derive the most measurable benefits in the shortest amount of time. "Bluntly...se1ection of referrals for service was and is based on a prognosis of success as against who is in the greatest need...The positive side of the picture is that as services are offered and accepted, the demand for services is greater. The negative side is that these services are not reaching those in the greatest need."144 A number of ideas were presented in the literature about factors necessary to the role and function of the team in providing quality services to those in the greatest need. Stripling and Antenem indicated, at minimum, there should be a favorable ratio between teams and students, and the ratio should be "even smaller where a large majority of students are from culturally and economically deprived backgrounds."145 Some writers saw the need for more flexibility in the team member's role. "A certain staff member might be the best person to relate to a problem student, even though it was outside of that staff "146 member's field of expertise. Pupil personnel teams "must be 144R. B. Rowen, "Pupil Personnel Services Designed to Fit the Child," International Journal gf_Pupil Personnel Workers, Vol. l3-4, September, 1969, p. 167. 145R. 0. Stripling and W. W. Antenem, "Pupil Personnel Services: Aid to Curriculum Development," p. 37. 146Midwest Center for Planned Change in Pupil Personnel Programs for Urban Schools, "A Final Program Report from Louisville Public Schools and the UniVersity of Louisville," 1974, p. 11. 48 committed to something definite while avoiding the locked in definition 147 of a professional definition." With the support of other specialists, team members should be "competent to deal with a variety of needs felt by teachers, students, community and systems..."148 Flexibility may also mean de-emphasizing the professional discipline in which academic preparation has occurred, as in psychology, counseling, and social work-- "...are there really three distinctly different professional groups of specialized workers...who have distinctiyely different functions which require a distinctively different kind of professional education and training?"149 A few writers suggested ways to dovetail a professional disciplines' academic preparation with the interdisciplinary team experience. Fisher indicated a need to have a core curriculum for nurses, psychologists, social workers and speech pathologists with a follow up practicum of going into the schools as an interdisciplinary team.150 Another typical view was that team members should also be trained as consultants and planners. in addition to the traditional disciplinary roles.151 147"The Atlanta Workshop Report," published by Leadership Training Institute, Bureau of Education, Professions Development, U.S. Office of Education, January, 1970, p. 1. 148Midwest Center for Planned Change in Pupil Personnel Programs for Urban Schools, "A Consortium Approach to Planned Change: A Review and Evaluation," p. 7. 149R. S. Arbuckle, “Counselor, Social Worker, Psychologist: Let's Ecumenicalize." Personnel and Guidance Journal, February, 1967, p. 532. 150 p. 29. 151Midwest Center for Planned Change in Pupil Personnel Programs for Urban Schools, "A Consortium Approach to Planned Change: A Review and Evaluation," p. 7. J. K. Fisher, "Changing Concepts of Pupil Personnel Services," 49 Recurring points of view also suggested that team members must carry on roles related to program implementation in addition to roles in diagnostic evaluations. Stripling and Antenem indicated that pro- fessional specialists are in a position to make contributions in this area because "they work in different ways, as well as in different 152 Shear pr0posed that-- settings with students and their parents." ”To aid in pupil development and help pupils in problem solving... programs should be carried out at the location of leverage and at the level of least complication and complexity."153 Anderson added, "...deployment of team members can become the most crucial aspect of team operations...The member with the expertise in the problem area or method would become the logical choice to 'quarterback' the immediate operation."154 3. Prevention Services vs. Intervention Services. Writers in the prevention arena seemed to be concerned with the question-~what popu- lations should pupil personnel teams serve? A decision to serve all children, Shaw suggested, eliminates "a focus on the remedial therapu- tic."155 Shear, however, indicated a prevention model changes the emphasis of services, but does not eliminate the curative approach-- "In being wise and effective in the early and continuing developmental 152R. O. Stripling and W. W. Antenem, "Pupil Personnel Services: Aid to Curriculum Developmentfl' 1538. Shear. "Team Action in Pupil Personnelg' P- 40- 154R. J. Anderson, "A Model for Developing Team Practice,ll p. 150. 155M. C. Shaw, “Role of Pupil Services with Significant Adults;' National Association pf_$econdary School Principals, Vol. 52, Number 324, January, 1968, p. 79. 50 functions, we will at the same time be adjustive for the 'few' who need it."156 Rowen said this "does not imply a lessening of direct services ...but rather implies a need to realign existing services..."157 To have an effective preventative program, pupil personnel teams must enlarge their concept of membership. Membership must include the adults who "have a more significant impact on student lives than we do."158 Fisher believed that this would in turn allow students to make better educational and occupational decisions.159 A related issue to membership involved the concerns that the pupil personnel team should address itself to. Ferguson proposed the com- prehensive approach by indicating, "...any problem a youngster faces discernable as a variable in his educational development is a proper concern..."160 Problems in designing and implementing a prevention pupil personnel services approach are noted by some writers. Peters pointed out that preventative approaches are rare because the present system of pupil 161 personnel teams grew out of the desperate needs of students. Liddle 1568. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," p. 13. 157R. B. Rowen, "Pupil Personnel Services Designed to Fit the Child," p. 169. 158M. C. Shaw, "Role of Pupil Services with Significant Adults," p. 77. . 159J. K. Fisher, "Changing Concepts of Pupil Personnel Services," p. 31. 160D. G. Ferguson, "Critical Issues in Pupil Personnel Work," p. 21. 161H. J. Peters, "The Pupil Behavioral System" in G. A. Saltzman's and H. J. Peters', eds., Pupil Personnel Services Selected Readings. Columbus, Ohio: F. E. Peacock PubliShers, Inc., 1967, p. 103. 51 and Ferguson added that school systems are not able to hire enough specialists to meet critical needs, let alone personnel to deal with 162 Landy suggested that the cooperation of developmental concerns. teachers would be vital in the preventative enterprise, but that it was not then known how that cooperation could be attained.163 Williams indicated that the typical orientation of teams is an interfering factor because the teams focus too much on "...what's the problem? rather than focusing upon measures designed to alter or dissipate potentially problematic situations."164 4. The "4 C's" of Pupil Personnel Team Interaction. Authors writing about pupil personnel teams used the terms communication, cooperation, coordination, and cohesiveness repeatedly to describe the functioning components of these teams. In the review of the literature for this study, these terms will be referred to as the "4 C's," The terms were used singularly and in various combinations. There was a sense that for each component to become fully operative, it must con- verge and interface with each of the other functions, yet each term often was discussed as an individual function so that its features were clearly delineated. This approach to individualization of the 4 C's will be used in this study. 1626. P. Liddle and D. G. Ferguson, "Leadership for Guidance and Personnel Services." p. 9. 163E. Landy, "Implementing Change in Programs of Pupil Personnel Services," p. 39. 164R. G. Williams, "The Team: What's Wrong with It?'I p. 136. 52 Communication Communication among team members involved a mutual comprehension of messages and attention to each other's point of view. A complete sharing of information with candor accounts for group movement becoming the responsibility of many rather than one, and thus, served as a vital component of communication.165 A team engaging in effective communication would not shy away from conflict resolution. A divided team, however, was recognizable by the way it handled conflicts. Here team interactions would be characterized by denial, suppression, and avoidance, rather than open candor.166 Communication becomes more difficult as many organizational goals were complex and tended to have multiple objectives. This created multiple perceptions as to the means necessary to achieve these goals.167 When there was confusion and disagreement over role function, lack of communication appeared to be the problem.168 165R. Wynn, "Theory and Practice of the Administrative Team, " National Association Lf Elementary School Principals, Arlington, Virginia, 1973, pTT39. 166D. McGregor, The Professional Manager, cited in Handbook for Dr anizational Development in Schools, ed. by R. A. Schmuck, et. a1. Un versity okaregon, Center _for Advanced Study of Education Adminis- tration. Palo Alto, California: National Press Books, 1972, p.207. 1670. R. Kingdon, “Team or Group Development: The Development of Dyadic Relationships," Human Relations, Vol. 27, February, 1974, p. 176. 168W. B. Waetjen, "Policies and Practices in Pupil Personnel Services" in Guidance in American Education III: Needs and Influencing Forces, ed. by E. Landy and A. M. Kroll. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1966, p. 228. 53 Cooperation Wing, however, indicated that cooperation may also be involved in this problem. Where cooperation, in addition to communication, was haphazard, "duplication of efforts and confusion in roles resulted."169 Cole said that the best way to decrease role overlap and differ- ential status was a clearly channeled and legitimate authority.17o Shear stated that when cooperative efforts were occurring on a team, everyone was a receiver as well as a giver. "In the teaming of services, competencies and contributions are different and complemen- tary, not hierarchical." 17] Deutsch insisted that cooperation requires a commitment to a shared task. Competing for mutually exclusive goals within a group disrupts ‘72 He listed six characteristics of cooperative team cooperation. arrangements: 1. A channel and opportunities for information exchange. 2. The promotion of interdependent goals. 3. The modification of individual roles to facilitate group process. 169L. Wing, "Staff Development Practices and Potentials," p. 12. 170W. Cole, "The Effects of Formal Organization, Member Status and Administrative Authority as Related to Cooperative Behavior Among Pupil Personnel Specialists." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, State University of New York at Buffalo. 1“B. Shear, "Team Action in Pupil Personnel," p. 41. 172M. Deutsch, "The Effects of Cooperation and Competition Upon Group Process" in Group D namics: Research and Theory, ed. by Cartwright and lander, p. %I7. 54 4. Competencies of all members are used to the best advantage. 5. Acceptance of support from fellow staff members. 6. Mutual influence increases among members. In a succinct statement that integrated these characteristics and more, Simon said, "cooperation is that which is done by more than one person to facilitate the attainment of commonly shared goals."173 Coordination For coordination to occur on a pupil personnel team, there must be leadership effectiveness. Leadership effectiveness, according to Leavitt, depends on task technology and the motivational patterns of subordinates. Thus, leadership was seen as depending on rational behaviors. Behaviors which fulfill the needs of, and are congruent with, the expectations of the work group.174 If staff members helped set objectives, they were part of the team.175 However, one of the main causes of dissatisfaction in working relationships, involving teams, within larger school systems was the feeling that all the big decisions were made without their input.176 Besides involvement in decision making processes, another important piece of the coordination design was the importance of clearly designated 173M. A. Simon, Administrative Behavior, 2nd ed. New York, N.Y.: MacMillan Company, 1957, p. 72. 174H. J. Leavitt, Managerial Psychology, 3rd ed. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1972, p. 2l9. 1750. L. Hummel and S. J. Bonham, Jr., Pupil Personnel Services 3n Schools: 0r anization and Coordination. Chicago, Illinois: Rand MENally an Co., 1968, p. 77. 176D. R. Kingdon, "Team or Group Development: The Development of Dyadic Relationships," p. 176. 55 leadership. Where this designation was lacking, "Coordination becomes inefficient at best and competitive at worst with less direct service to children."177 Where competition occurred, specialists sometimes laid claim to the same territory, resulting in overlapping roles. "This territoriality of function may make specialists feel their roles are "178 Competition may circumscribed rather than supported by colleagues. also result from perceived differential status, in which members of a discipline want to present themselves to the public as a legitimate professional group.179 Fron his position of leadership, it thus became endemic for the pupil personnel director to "be supportive of 1) staff goals, 2) staff professional needs, and staff expectations in a prevailing interpersonal atmosphere."180 Cohesiveness Of all the components, cohesiveness was perceived by writers in the field as the most emotion invoking component. Cohesiveness was an 177W. H. Goff, et. al., Pupil Personnel Organization and Admini- stration, Ohio Association of Pupil Personnel Administrators, 1973, p. 178K. W. Rollins, "Staff and Role Relationships," in R. N. Hatch's, ed., Organization 9j_Pupil Personnel Programs--Issues and Practices. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1974, p. 187. 179J. Zdrale, "The Extent and Importance of Team Functioning as Perceived by Pupil Personnel Directors and Specialists in Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1976, Michigan State University. 180E. P. Hollander and J. W. Julian, "Contemporary Trends in the Analysis of Leadership Processes," cited in R. H. Hall's, Organizations: Structure and Processes. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972, p. 247. 56 achievement that results from a variety of factors which stimulated a magnetic pull drawing each of the members toward the team. Cartwright and Zander theorized that when cohesiveness was occurring, the following benefits were observed: A. Individual staff take on more responsibility for the group more often. B. Staff participate more readily in meetings. C. Staff persist longer in working toward more different goals. D. Staff members remain part of the team longer. E. Staff members are more willing to listen and accept the influence of fellow members. F. Greater value is placed on team goals.]8] Resistance to leaving the team for a similar position elsewhere, and the willingness to 1) receive direction for coordinated action steps in tasks and 2) practice that coordination indicated evidence of cohesiveness.182 Kingdon indicated that complex tasks contributed to interpersonal conflict, and the more means there were to achieve a myriad of goals (that are valued by team members), the more differences increase.183 Cohesiveness was also affected by the voluntary nature of team membership. When membership was required, cohesiveness tended to 1810. Cartwright and A. Zander, eds., Group Dynamics: Research and Theory. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row Publishers, 1960, p. 77. 1820. Cartwright and A. Zander, eds., Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, p. 72. 183D. R. Kingdon, "Team or Group Development: The Development of Dyadic Relationships," p. 176. 57 184 diminish. Cohesiveness was sure to be lost though if the team members could not identify with the organization.185 5. Evaluation of Pupil Personnel Teams. Sussman, in one of the few theoretical articles on this subject, indicated that evaluations should be of three types: A. Ongoing self-evaluations, using audio and video tape recordings, checklists, and discussion sessions. B. Infbrmal evaluations, which would take place through routine interactions between team members. C. The year end team conference which should provide a mechanism for evaluating the team processes for the preceding months. Of the process of evaluations, Anderson said, "Evaluation activities provide the criteria for self-monitoring of the team, plus the data for demonstrating accountability to the school community."187 Shear, although not focusing on the critical incident technique, stressed that evaluations would improve the team's processes and the programs these personnel use to serve students when they started reporting failures as well as successes.188 Application There were three issues involved in the functioning of pupil personnel teams. These issues involved research studies done in the 134p. Cartwright and A. Zander. eds., Group Dynamics: Research and Theory, p. 77. 185V. A. Thompson, Modern Organizations, New York, N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966, p. 99. 186 C. Sussman, "Guide to the Pupil Services Team Conference," p. 82. 187R. J. Anderson, "A Model for Developing Team Practice," p. 149. 188B. Shear, "Pupil Personnel Services: History and Growth," Po 13- 58 areas of 1) organization and administration of pupil personnel teams, 2) role and function of pupil personnel team members, and 3) evaluation of pupil personnel teams. 1. Organization and Administration of Pupil Personnel Teams. Voorhees found in 1960 that the type of school district (industrial, rural, racial, etc.) influenced “the range of special services required, the organizational theory needed, and the field of curricula offered."189 Barbarosh's data ten years later indicated that the type, size and extent of pupil personnel services was influenced by the size of the district.”0 Voorhees data indicated that there was a great deal of difference between the planning of pupil personnel services and what occurred in practice, particularly in districts over 50,000 pupils. Cooperation planned in relation to teaming (particularly in districts over 50,000 students) typically gave way to competition, overlapping services, and "sloughing off problems to other personnel."]91 Voorhees suggested that the administrative structure of the pupil personnel services needed to change. In 1964-65, Fisher found that pupil personnel teams in 62% of the cases were organized in an informal fashion with specialists meeting to 189L. B. Voorhees, "A Descriptive Study of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected School Districts," p. 113. 190B. Barbarosh, "Administrator of Pupil Personnel Services in New Jersey Public Schools." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, Yeshiva University. 191L. B. Voorhees, "A Descriptive Study of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected School Districts," p. 116. 59 exchange information out of a central based office for all the pupil personnel services. Fisher found this consistency in districts ranging from 100,000 pupils to 300 pupils.]92 In 1970, Wahl looked at selected school districts in the western states and found that despite a perceived lack of effectiveness on the part of instructional staff, there was a general administrative reluctance to change anything to do with pupil personnel services. He also found that districts did not maintain the minimum complement of pupil personnel services that was indicated as necessary by professional organizations and state departments of education.193 In other independent studies, around the same time period, Joliff194 195 reached similar conclusions. and Farley The data from Marlette's study indicated there was a national commitment to change in pupil personnel services; organizational and administrative components of this change were: 1) greater emphasis on accountability, 2) increased use of paraprofessionals, 3) a merger of lng. K. Fisher, "Role Perceptions and Characteristics of Attendance Coordinators, Psychologists, and Social Workers," p. 128. 193E. E. Wahl, "Organization and Administration of Pupil Personnel Services in Selected West North Central School Systems." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, University of Nebraska. 1940. L. Joliff, "The Effects of an Intensive Workshop Experience on the Development and Function of Pupil Personnel Services Teams in Selected School Districts." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1971, Southern Illinois University. 195S. Farley, "The Administration of Pupil Personnel Services: A Model Development and Its Application to Kentucky Schools." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1969, University of Kentucky. 60 special education and pupil personnel services, and 4) expanding services of all types for the handicapped.196 In 1973, Gamsky detailed a pupil personnel team model designed to provide 1) a large school district with a total complement of pupil personnel services in a team operation, and 2) two small school districts with a team composed of like pupil personnel disciplines as that of the large school district.197 Organizationally, the teams were considered to supplement and complement the instructional and administrative components. Four broad organizational goals were chosen: 1) establish pupil personnel services in school districts with few or no services, 2) provide local districts with a team model they could use in developing their own services, 3) serve as a remediation resource for dealing with specific students experiencing difficulty in adjusting to the school situation, and 4) serve as a preventative resource by contributing to the optimal develop- ment of all pupils by having a positive impact on the total school environment. Analysis of the study‘s data indicates the school district's personnel felt these goals were met through the team service model.198 Another large study looking at organizational and administrative concerns was done in California by the state department of education 196F. R. Marlette, "North Carolina Pupil Personnel Services Programs in 1972 Compared to National Trends." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1973, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 197N. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," p. 15. 198Ibid., p. 15. 61 who asked for a needs assessment with regard to the needs and problems of individuals and society as they relate to pupil personnel services. When these needs were identified, local school districts submitted plans for dealing with the identified needs. Thus, pupil personnel teams were being examined as a major change agent in current societal problems that were having an impact on schools.199 In 1976, a study done at the University of Pittsburgh concluded that when pupil personnel teams were organized from those who had participated in course work emphasizing the interdisciplinary team process, they were better able to interact and work with a number of different people including teachers, parents, and administrators. The most important recommendation of this study was that pupil personnel team members should not be trained in isolation from teachers, parents, 200 and administrators. 2. Role and Function of Pupil Personnel Team Members. Studies involving the role and function of pupil personnel team disciplines consistently examined the psychologist, social worker, counselor, and attendance worker to the exclusion of other disciplines such as the nurse and speech pathologist. Fisher examined social worker, psychologist, and attendance coordi- nator perceptions of themselves and each other in terms of availability 199Pupil Personnel Services jn_California Public Schools: Needs, Problems, and a_Plan for Solutions. State Department of Education, Sacramento, California, Bureau of Pupil Personnel Services, p. 101. 200Re ort of Satellite Center Activities, "Pupil Personnel Services: TraifiTng Professionals to Anticipate the Challenges of the Future." University of Pittsburgh, Department of Counselor Education, January, 1976, p. 115. 62 for direct service. He also had these three disciplines rank nine school disciplines in terms of 27 different activities: 1) handled presently, and 2) in terms of who should be handling these situations ideally. He found that social workers saw themselves as most available and performing the listed functions.201 Milsom found that while there was a great deal of overlap in counselor, psychologist, and social worker functions, the roles that 50 to 70 percent of the elementary counselors performed are roles per- formed by a smaller percentage of social workers and psychologists.202 Using a survey questionnaire, Wahl determined that attendance workers and social workers tended to share more functions than other specialists. His results also suggested that pupil personnel Specialists should modify their clinical approach to allow more time for a consulta- tive approach.203 In testing the hypothesis that cooperation is necessary to the success of specialist interaction, Cole found that predicted relation- ships between preciseness of role definition, coordination, and special- . . . . . . . 4 1st cooperation were not stat1st1cally s1gn1f1cant.20 201J. K. Fisher, "Role Perceptions and Characteristics of Atten- dance Coordinators, Psychologists, and Social Workers," p. 129. 202C. J. Milsom, "A Description of the Role of the Elementary School Counselor in Colorado, and How that Role Compares with Those of Other Pupil Personnel Workers." University of Northern Colorado, 1969. 203E. Wahl, "Organization and Administration of Selected West North Central School Systems," ABSTRACT. 204N. M. Cole, "The Effect of Formal Organization Members Status and Administrative Authority as Related to Cooperative Behavior Among Pupil Personnel Specialists." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1970, State University of New York at Buffalo. 63 In another study of pupil personnel perceptions of each other, Christenson's results suggested that problems in interprofessional com- munication interfered with an accurate perception of each specialist's understanding of the counselor's function.205 Gamsky determined the role and function of the pupil personnel teams in his study by taking into account existing instructional staff competencies and community resources for dealing with the unique nature and needs of the students within the school systems to be served. Depending on the nature of the referral concern, the pupil personnel team provided direct or indirect services within the context of a pre- ventative, remedial, or developmental model.206 3. Evaluation of Pupil Personnel Teams. Croker, in evaluating the effect of pupil personnel services as they relate to the achievement of elementary school students, found a 1) positive relationship between the amount and variety of pupil personnel services offered and achievement in reading and reading related skills, and 2) a positive relationship where pupil personnel services were offered and the achievement of male students.207 Gamsky's data indicated that behavioral problems were handled more ideally in districts where there was a full complement of pupil personnel 2050. J. Christenson, "A Comparison of School Counselors' Perceptions of their Functions with the Perceptions of Counselors' Functions of Other Members of Pupil Personnel Services in the Tacoma Public Schools." Un- published doctoral dissertation, 1972, Montana State University. 206N. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," p. 13. 207F. R. Croker, "The Relationship of Pupil Personnel Services to Achievement of Elementary Pupils in Eight Selected Cobb County Schools." Auburn University, 1973. 64 services than in districts where there were only individual disciplines operating. Gamsky stated, however, that the data pointed toward trends as the data was not statistically significant.208 Summar The review of literature for this study focused on two major areas: 1) the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) and its uses, and 2) literature related to pupil personnel teams. Among its many applied uses, the CIT was used to examine the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of some educational groups and specific pupil personnel specialties. There were no studies identified, however, that examined the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of pupil personnel teams. Literature related to pupil personnel teams was examined in terms of the pupil personnel generalist (principals and teachers) component and the pupil personnel specialist component. Each component was addressed in terms of theoretical and applied studies. Both theoretical and applied studies related to the relationship between teachers and teams indicated that further study must be done to determine models that would be effective in generating appropriate relationships between teachers and the team. While there seemed to be general agreement that PPS exists to facilitate the instructional component, when teachers were asked to evaluate PPS, they tended, across studies, to see the specialist as not having a clearly defined role and function. On the other side, 208N. R. Gamsky, "An Effective Team Approach to Pupil Personnel Programs for Wisconsin," p. 30. 65 specialists felt teachers should engage in self-examination regarding their assumptions about PPS. Thus, the interactive relationship between instructional and PPS components did not appear to be operating effectively. Studies focused on the relationship between principals and teams indicated that the principal's role involves: 1) staff and program development, 2) planning for prevention models, and 3) student referrals. The principal also finds himself 1) in the role of an evaluator, and 2) as a participant in direct and indirect activities related to pupil personnel services. As an evaluator, principals generally were supportive of PPS efforts. After exposure to PPS, principals tended to want to look for mechanisms to increase communication and increase coordination between themselves, their instructional staffs, and pupil personnel services. Over the last decade, principals indicated that the types of services needed from PPS have remained similar in terms of analyzing individual differences, pupil assignments, and pupil assessment and development. Literature aimed at the specialist component focused on 1) the organization and administration of PPS, 2) the role and function of the specialist, 3) the issues of preventative vs. intervention services, 4) an examination of communication, coordination, cooperation and cohesion skills, and 5) evaluation methods of PPS. These five areas served as bases for generating discussions of strengths and problem areas within the teams. Chapter III Design and Procedures 9_f_t_h_e__S_t_y_c_ly Introduction This study was designed to identify and describe effective and ineffective team behaviors of a Pupil ServicesCenter staff. The primary research instrument used was the Critical Incident Technique (CIT). The CIT served two purposes: 1) a means of gathering data, and 2) a procedure for analyzing the data. The data were identified and analyzed in terms of research questions proposed prior to the gathering of data. Elementary school principals and elementary school teachers in their roles as pupil personnel generalists and pupil personnel specialists acted as competent observers of interdisciplinary team functioning. The responses were analyzed in total and according to each group of participants. Population and Samples Used The population for this study was made up of all elementary school teachers and principals who have submitted referrals to Pupil Services Centers (PSC), and pupil personnel specialists who manned the PSC's and responded to the referrals in the Lansing School District in Michigan. From this population: 1) all 44 principals, all 44 pupil personnel specialists (operating in Pupil ServicesCenter teams) were selected, and 2) fifty-four teachers, 10% of the population of teachers making referrals, were randomly sampled by numbering them, and then selecting them through the use of a random table of numbers. In accordance with the CIT, preparation was made to take additional samples from the teacher group, if new categories of significant PSC team behavior occurred from 66 67 this group. Checks for new categories of significant pupil personnel team behavior occurred after: 1) the first 100 significant incidents were obtained from respondents, and 2) the next 50 significant incidents were obtained from respondents. The Lansing School District was chosen for this study for the following reasons: A. The district received a grant from the State of Michigan to develop demonstration and dissemination materials about its pupil personnel teams at the elementary school level. This grant indicates that the Lansing School District's organization and administration of pupil personnel teams might act as a model for other school districts that desired to implement or improve on existing pupil personnel teams. B. The district has been organizing and administrating pupil personnel services through the team approach for a number of years. The following information describes three characteristics of the district that show its structure from which the information in this study is drawn: A. The size of the school district B. The ethnic characteristics of professional staff and students at the elementary school level. C. The organization and administration of the pupil personnel teams at the elementary school level. Size of the School District The Lansing School District at the time of this study consisted of approximately 1,500 administrators, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists serving in combination or singularly: 1) the district as a whole, 2) adult education, 3) special education, 4) secondary educa- tion, and/or 5) elementary education. The district provided educational services to approximately 45,000 persons, adults and children. 68 Ethnic Characteristics of Elementary School Professional Staff and Children This study focused on the elementary school level of the Lansing School District. At this level, at the time of this study, there were 794 teachers, 44 pupil personnel specialists, and 44 principals serving at 47 schools, consisting of 16,734 children. The ethnic composition at the time of this study for administration, instruction, and pupil personnel services is listed below in Table 1 by number and percentage. Table 1 Ethnic Composition Lansing School District Elementary School Professional Personnel PUPIL PERSONNEL PRINCIPALS TEACHERS SPECIALISTS No. 2 No. 2 No. 27 Caucasian 33 75 628 85.4 39 66.1 Black 9 20 94 12.6 12 20.3 Spanish 2 05 13 1.8 6 10.2 Oriental 0 00 0 0.0 l 1.7 Other __(_)_ __o_g __l_ . 2 _l_ 1 .7 44 100 735 100.0 59 100.0 Grades K-5 are represented in the Lansing School District's elementary schools. The ethnic composition for these grades is listed in Table 2 by numbers and percentages. 69 Table 2 Ethnic Composition Lansing School District Elementary School Children (100.0%) American Caucasian Black Spanish Indian Other No. % No. % No. % 1 No. % No. % __ 1 I 11,798 70.5 (2,988 17.9 1 1,592 9.5 l 166 .9 190 1.2 Organization and Administration of Elementary School Pupil Personnel Teams Pupil personnel teams, called Pupil Services Centers, in the Lansing School District were organized into four teams, at the time of this study. Each team was based in an elementary school and served the referral needs of that school and other schools in a geographically defined area. Thus, four pupil personnel teams served all 47 elementary schools in the district, without an overlap of services. Long range concerns were under the centralized direction of the Director of Pupil Personnel Services for the Lansing School District and these concerns were developed and implemented through monthly meetings with team leaders (area principals). The day to day concerns of the pupil personnel teams were decentralized and administered by an area principal. The area principal's principle function was as a principal to whom school based principals within a certain geographic area were responsible. Each PSC team served the geographic area that was admini- stered by the team leader (area principal). As the administrator for a pupil personnel team, an area principal served as a liaison between elementary schools and the team, and acted as a coordinator of team activities within the team structure. 70 Methodology Used tg_0evelop Significant Behaviors A form letter and a form booklet containing instructions and recording sheets were sent to each respondent. These materials were evaluated in terms of the procedures called the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) developed by John C. Flanagan. Generally, the CIT can be considered as a process that involves the reporting of incidents that reveal whether an activity has been carried out effectively or ineffectively. In this study, pupil personnel generalists and pupil personnel specialists determined if referrals handled by pupil personnel teams were effective or ineffective. While the CIT does not consist of a rigid set of principles,209 the process does consist of five specific steps: 1. Establishment of the general aim of the activity: a statement clarifying the purpose or aim of the study. Potential respondents are asked to agree or disagree with this aim. 2. Development of plans and specifications for collecting inci- dents regarding the activity: potential respondents are given an explanation of the methods they will use in reporting their observations. 3. Collection of the data: the method of obtaining the data either by interview and/or questionnaire. 4. Analysis of the data: categorical systematization of the obtained data. 5. Interpretation and presentation of the data: reporting the results of the study. 209J. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, July, 1954, p. 335. 71 This study incorporated the previously noted five steps of the CIT in the following ways: 1. Establishment of General Aim of the Activity The following statement was presented to counselor-educators at Michigan State University's College of Education who have expertise in pupil personnel work to determine the acceptability of the aim: A general aim of pupil personnel services operating in a team concept is to work effectively with the instructional and administrative components through referrals to enhance the goals of the educational process. 2. Development of Plans and Specifications for Collecting Incidents Regardingrthe Activity Elementary school teachers and elementary school principals as well as pupil personnel specialists were chosen as respondents for the study for the following reasons: A. By the nature of their primary roles, principals, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists observe and interact with students and their parents on a regular basis. B. Principals, teachers, and pupil personnel specialists are experts in the administrative, instructional, and pupil personnel services areas respectively, the three major components of the educational process. C. Principals and teachers in their roles as pupil personnel generalists converge and interface their skills, in the handling of referrals, with the skills of pupil personnel specialists to maximize educational opportunities for students. 0. All teachers and principals have participated in an in- service meeting where pupil personnel services have described team procedures and specialist duties. A cover letter was sent to each respondent that included the following: A. An appeal for the respondent's participation. 72 B. Information that abstracts would be made available at the administrative offices for anyone in the school district after the study was completed. C. Notice that all responses would be anonymous. 0. An explanation that completion of the report forms would take approximately one hour. E. An invitation for potential respondents to call the investigator regarding any concerns associated with the study. A sample of this cover letter is in Appendix A. The cover letter, instructions, and recording sheets were printed on 8%" x 11" sheets. The respondents were asked to report up to four significant incidents. Two significant incidents involved the reporting of effec- tively handled referrals. Two significant incidents involved the reporting of ineffectively handled referrals. This number satisfied the need for brevity, as Corbally determined that asking for a greater number of significant incidents discouraged respondents from partici- pating in a study.210 The respondents were asked to report only significant incidents with which they had direct first hand knowledge. Emphasis was placed on the importance of the respondents statements reflecting his own judgement. His own judgement being how effectively or ineffectively the pupil personnel teams handled referrals. Flanagan emphasized, "It is important that these behaviors be identified by those who describe them as especially effective according to their own standards, not those of any outside person or group..."211 The incidents reported were those which had occurred from 1975 until the end of 1977 in the Lansing School District. 210a. E. Corbally, Jr., "A Study of the Critical Elements of School Board Community Relations." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1955, University of California. 2]]J. C. Flanagan, "Critical Requirements for Research Personnel," American Institute for Research, Pittsburgh, 1949, p. 6. 73 Instructions were given in detail so that the respondents would know exactly how to complete the report forms. Examples of significant incidents were provided in the report form to clarify the instructions. These incidents demonstrated three examples of effective pupil per- sonnel team activities in handling referrals and three examples of ineffective pupil personnel team activities in handling referrals. A sample of the instructions is found in Appendix B. 3. Collection of the Data The data in this study were collected by means of a questionnaire report form. The information gathered by this approach seems to be essentially the same as that gathered by the interview approach.2]2 Corbally confirmed this in his dissertation by using both questionnaire and interview approaches for information gathering.213 Corbally found the interview approach to be time consuming and concluded "the questionnaire method is, thus, the only practical method for a single researcher to use in utilizing the CIT."214 The cover letter, instructions, and recording sheets were mailed to 54 teachers, 44 principals, and 44 pupil personnel specialists with a self~addressed postage-paid envelope provided for each respondent. Attempts to encourage participation were noted in the cover letter, each respondent was encouraged to call the investigator about any questions concerning the study, and it was noted that abstracts of the study would be made available through the office of the Director of Pupil Personnel Services. 212d. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique." 213a. E. Corbally, Jr., "A Study of the Critical Elements of School Board Community Relations.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 1955, University of California. 214Ibid., p. 247 74 The report forms were mailed out in early 1977. After four weeks, the principal at each elementary school in the Lansing School District where there iS a potential participating principal, one or more teachers, and/or one or more pupil personnel specialists was asked to remind the potential participants via the school's staff communication procedure (intercom, bulletin, etc.) to return their report forms if they wished to participate. This procedure was followed again in May, 1977. In the fall of 1977, the responses from pupil personnel specialists was still minimal. An opportunity to present the research study to the monthly meeting of area principals was granted by the Director of Pupil Personnel Services. After this presentation, an invitation was extended to present the study to the four interdisciplinary teams in the district. After the presentation to the interdisciplinary teams, no further attempts were made to encourage respondent participation. The final report form was received in December, 1977. 4. Analysis of the Data As suggested by Flanagan, the data was analyzed in a descriptive manner according to the investigator's grouping of incidents and elements of pupil personnel team behaviors, as those behaviors were reported. A check of the investigator's classification of incidents and elements was made by a professional researcher in pupil personnel services at Michigan State University. When a report form was returned, the data were transferred to 3" X 5" cards and were labeled data records. A data record was used for each incident reported by the respondents, and each incident was given a number in the order in which it was received. The elements were extracted from each incident and recorded on that particular data record card. 75 The following information was listed in a row at the top of each data record card: A. The number of the incident. B. The respondent type--Principal (P), Teacher (T), Speech Pathologist (ST), School Psychologist (SP), School Social Worker (SW), or School Nurse (SN). C. The responses to the general aim of the pupil personnel team-~either Yes (Y) or No (N). D. Category of the incident--either Effective (E) or Ineffective (I). The incidents were then analyzed so as to extract the significant elements. This extraction procedure is discussed within the context of number 5. Interpretation of the data. In analyzing the data in a descriptive way, Flanagan has established a framework for the classification of incidents based on: A. The respondent-~reporter of the incident. B. The investigator--recorder and evaluator of the responses. A check was made on the first 100 reported incidents and again after the next 50 reported incidents. This was done in order to determine that no new types of incidents or no new patterns of pupil personnel team behavior had occurred in the collection and analysis of the data. If new categories of incidents had occurred, an additional 50 incidents would have been repeatedly gathered from the random sampled group (teachers) until no incidents occurred.215 The basic outline for the data analysis by the CIT procedure was in terms of isolating significant elements from Significant incidents. 215d. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," p. 343. 76 Where duplication occurred, with a frequency of two or more Signi- ficant elements, in the pupil personnel team behaviors (Significant elements) listed, these elements were consolidated into refined elements; thus, reducing the number of listed behaviors (elements) with- out loss of meaning. The number of elements included in each refined element was noted in the reporting. The Significant areas, the grouping of refined elements, was the last stage in the analysis of data. 5. Interpretation and Reporting of the Data It was assumed that the interpretation and reporting of data was a synthesis of significant incidents reported by respondents and analyzed by the investigator in accordance with the CIT procedure. That is, information that was reported as effective and ineffective Pupil Services Center team behavior, and analyzed in terms of significant elements, refined elements, and significant areas. To legitimize the synthesis of the data, the following two concerns are discussed: A) validity of the information collected and analyzed, and B) a procedure for extracting significant elements, refined elements,and significant areas; and interpreting this data in terms of the stated research questions. About validity, Flanagan says: "If the sample is representative, the judges well qualified, the types of judgements appropriate and well defined, and the procedures for observing and reporting such that incidents are reported accurately, the stated requirements canuge6 expected to be comprehen51ve, detailed, and val1d... Thus, in this study, elementary school principals, pupil personnel specialists, and a random sample of elementary school teachers in the Lansing School District who related to the general aim and where the 216J. C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," p. 343. 77 plans and specifications for collecting data were developed, the data collected and analyzed in accordance with the procedures set forth by the Critical Incident Technique developed by John C. Flanagan, then the criteria for interpretation, that is validity, was established. The following procedure was developed and used to accurately and consistently extract significant elements, refined elements, and Significant areas; and interpreting this data in terms of the stated research questions. 1. Look for action verbs in relation to a pupil personnel team member or members on the respondents report form. Copy the sentence verbatim, that indicates the pupil personnel team member(s) taking action, on a 3" X 5" index card. It should be remembered that each of these cards has the following information coded at the top of the card--A) the number of the incident, B) the respon- dent's type, C) the response to the general aim of the pupil personnel team, and 0) category of the incident. Generally describe the nature of the activity in five words or less (in a different colored ink) below the copied sentence. For example, counseling with groups. Where two or more duplicated verbatim activities occur (usually each activity is on a separate 3" X 5" index card), put a rubber band around these cards with a Slip of paper indicating these are refined elements. Develop significant areas from the significant elements, pupil personnel team behaviors, by reorganizing the 3" X 5" cards into piles based upon the information noted in step 3 of this procedure. That information was based on a description of the general activity in five words or less. Record on an Blé' X 11" Sheet of paper, the significant areas and the significant elements that constitutes each significant area. Where refined elements occur as a con- stituent part of the significant area, note in parentheses next to each refined element, the number of significant elements which made up the refined element. Utilizing the information recorded in step 6 of this pro- cedure, it is then possible to answer the stated research questions by reorganizing the 3" X 5" index cards in relation to the coded information at the top of each of the index cards. For example, to determine what behaviors principals 78 reported, all the index cards with a 'P' at the t0p would be grouped together, and the Significant areas, Significant elements, and refined elements on each card noted on a copy of the 8%" x 11" sheet (that had been designated for principals in the example). Thus, a tally of behaviors reported by principals is recorded. Percentage of responses can then be determined for each Significant area, Significant element, and refined element. 8. Put the 3" x 5" cards away for two weeks and repeat steps 1-7 of this procedure. Compare the results of the first procedure with the repeated procedure; this is an internal control approach for determining the consistency of steps 1-7 of this procedure. 9. Submit the cards, procedure, and recorded results to another professional researcher he deems advisable. He or She will then follow steps 1-7 of this procedure and compare the results with the results of the primary researcher as an external approach for validating steps 1-7 of this procedure. By cross-validating the information collected and analyzed, and utilizing the procedure above, interpretation and reporting the data should be accurate and consistent. Pre-testing Procedures Before the letter of introduction and report form were sent to each potential respondent, the material was reviewed by two groups: 1) the doctoral guidance committee for this study and 2) a field group from the Lansing School District consisting of two teachers, two principals,and two pupil personnel specialists. The following changes in the structure and content of the letter to the respondents and the accompanying report form were made after meeting with the Michigan State University doctoral guidance committee: 1. The letter was shortened and personalized. 2. Specific pupil personnel specialists were listed along with teachers and principals under the "primary role that you perform" component of the report form. The Specialty areas listed were: school social worker, school nurse, school psychologist, and speech pathologist. 79 3. The Sheets to be filled out by the respondents were alternated between effective and ineffective in the fol- lowing sequence: First Effectively Handled Referral, First Ineffectively Handled Referral, Second Effectively Handled Referral, and Second Ineffectively Handled Referral. This sequencing was done to effect the widest range of responses. The report format was then presented to two teachers, two principals, and two pupil personnel specialists for further suggestions and comments. It was suggested that the letter be altered to eliminate any references to the study being of interest to or under the auspices of the Director of Pupil Personnel Services. It was felt these kinds of references would make respondents less than candid if they responded to the report format at all. It was commented upon that a full school year Should be given for completion of the report form because educational professionals in the Lansing School District were requested on a regular basis to participate in a number of research studies, and they were contractually committed to having to participate in only a limited number of these studies. All references to the Director of Pupil Personnel Services were eliminated except that copies of the abstract of this study would be available in the Director's office if any one of the respondents wished to have one. The comment from the field group was adhered to by accepting the respondent's return of the report form from January, 1977, through December, 1977. M A brief introduction reviewed: The purpose of the study, the types of respondents and the context in which their responses would be analyzed, the research instrument and its functions, and how the data would be analyzed. 80 The population and samples of the study were drawn from the Lansing School District. A sample of 54 teachers, and the total population of principals and pupil personnel specialists (44 each) were used as respondents. The reasons why the Lansing School District was chosen for the study, the size of the district, its ethnic characteristics in terms of staff and students, and the organizational and administrative structure of its pupil personnel teams were discussed. The methodology used to identify Significant behaviors was discussed in terms of the five steps of the Critical Incident Technique. These steps were: 1. Establishment of the general aim of the study. 2. Development of the plans and Specifications for collecting data from the respondents regarding the activities that the respondents are reporting on. 3. Collection of the data on report forms. 4. Analysis of the data from the report forms. 5. Interpretation and presentation of the data through an examination of validity and consistency procedures. Prior to materials being sent to respondents, the material was reviewed by two groups: 1) a group of professional researchers com- prising the doctoral guidance committee for this study, and 2) a field group consisting of two teachers, two principals, and two pupil personnel specialists. The changes recommended by the two groups were discussed in terms of their incorporation into the report format structure. The intent of the discussion within the three major sections of this chapter (introduction, population and samples used, and methodology used to develop significant behaviors) was to provide the reader with a framework for understanding the findings of the data, the text of Chapter IV. Chapter IV Analysis 9_f__t_h_e__D_a_t_§_ Introduction This chapter has two components. First, the findings of this study will be reported. Second, brief comments will be made on these findings. The findings of this study are presented in terms of the principles of the Critical Incident Technique and in response to the research questions stated in Chapter I of this study. In an effort to assist the reader in understanding the findings of this study, a brief review of the terminology used throughout the study is presented in the first section of this chapter. Section I Terminology Used ir_thg_$tudy The first group of respondents used in this study consisted of elementary school teachers and elementary school principals from the Lansing, Michigan School District who were involved in the referral process to pupil personnel teams in that school district. This group was referred to as pupil personnel generalists (an external group making referrals to a pupil personnel team), and the symbol (T) was used to designate teachers and the symbol (P) was used to designate principals in the data collection and data analysis for this study. The second group of respondents used in this study consisted of school psychologists, speech pathologists, school social workers, and school nurses who worked on elementary school pupil personnel teams heferred to as Pupil Services Centers) in the Lansing, Michigan School District. This group was referred to as pupil personnel specialists 81 82 (an internal group accepting referrals from pupil personnel generalists). The following symbols were used to designate these specialists in the data collection and data analysis for this study: SP -- School Psychologist ST -- Speech Pathologist SW -- School Social Worker SN -- School Nurse All incidents reported by both groups of respondents were consi- dered significant incidents Since the respondents were asked to report only those incidents in which they had first hand knowledge of Pupil Services Center team behaviors that had a connection with the referral process. The respondents were asked to report a maximum of two effec- tive incidents involving Pupil Services Center team behavior, and a maximum of two ineffective incidents involving Pupil Services Center team behaviors. Respondents were also asked to report whether they agreed or disagreed with the general aim of the team approach. All incidents were used whether the respondents agreed or disagreed with this general aim. The general aim was: A general aim of pupil personnel services operating in a team concept is to work effectively with the instructional and administrative components through referrals to enhance the goals of the educational process. To repeat, all reported incidents were considered significant. Significant incidents were reported in two catagories, effective inci- dents and ineffective incidents. An effective incident was an incident in which, according to the judgement of the respondent, Pupil Services Center teams handled a referral effectively. An ineffective incident was an incident in which, according to the judgement of the respondent, Pupil Services Center teams did not handle a referral effectively. 83 Each reported incident contained one or more Specific behaviors (activities) exhibited by one or more of the Pupil Services Center team members. These behaviors (activities) were defined as elements, that is, parts of the incident that had been extracted from the reported incident. Because all of the extracted elements were taken from signi- ficant incidents, each element was considered a Significant element. The Significant elements were considered effective elements if they were drawn from effective incidents. The significant elements were considered ineffective elements if they were drawn from ineffective incidents. In the process of identifying elements, it was noted that across incidents elements similar in content would recur. In order to make the data easier to analyze, groups of very Similar or identical elements were combined and treated as Singular elements. Singular elements formulated in this manner were labeled refined elements. In the report- ing of findings section of this chapter, the total number of elements used to formulate a refined element are stated. Refined elements and those which could not be refined were synthesized by a common content into larger categories defined as significant areas. Comments The following information pertains to the rate of response by the participants in the study. 84 NUMBER RESPONDENTS SOLICITED RESPONDING PERCENT 1. 54 Teachers (10%) 30 56% 2. 44 Principals (100%) 12 27% 3. 44 Specialists (100%) 19 43% A. 8 School Psychologists 5 62% B. 8 Speech Pathologists 3 38% C. 20 School Social Workers 7 35% D. 8 School Nurses 4 50% Of the study's 61 respondents, 58 (95%) agreed with the following general aim of the team approach: A general aim of pupil personnel services operating in a team concept is to work effectively with the instructional and administrative components through referrals to enhance the goals of the educational process. Of the study's 61 respondents, 3 (5%) disagreed in some manner with this general aim. Regardless of the respondents' replies to this aim, all of them reported incidents related to the above statements. Since all of the reported incidents and elements were related to the purpose of this investigation, all were used in the analysis of data. Section II Critical Incident Technique (CIT) Findings CIT Data on Significant Incidents A total of 152 Significant incidents were reported by 61 respondents. Of these, 63 were effective incidents and 89 were ineffective incidents. A detailed account of these effective and ineffective incidents is present across pupil personnel generalist respondents and pupil personnel specialist respondents in Table 3. The number in parenthesis next to the respondent is the number of individuals in that category. Comments The data in Table 3 indicates that effective incidents generated across pupil personnel specialists and pupil personnel generalists 85 accounted for 41% of the total number of incidents reported. Ineffec- tive incidents accounted for 59% of the total number of incidents reported. Respondent groups returned more ineffective incidents than effec- tive incidents with the exception of School Social Workers. This group reported more effective incidents than ineffective incidents, and accounted for 18% of the total number of effective incidents reported, and accounted for 10% of the total number of ineffective incidents reported. 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Reporting on the Question of Teachers and Principals Differences in Recording Effective and Ineffective Team Behaviors. Of the 105 significant elements reported by teachers, the largest tally-- 43 (41%)--was noted in AREA IV: Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Post-Team Meeting Events. The largest tally of effective team behaviors (activities) reported by teachers was 27 (26%) and this was recorded in AREA IV. The largest tally of ineffective team behaviors (activities) reported by teachers was 25 (24%) in AREA II: Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Testing Issues. Of the 56 significant elements reported by principals, the largest tally--26 (47%) was in AREA IV. The largest tally of effective team behaviors and activities reported by principals was 11 (20%) in AREA IV. The largest tally of ineffective team behaviors and activities reported by principals was 15 (27%) in AREA IV. Thus, teachers and principals agree on the major concentration of their responses in AREA IV for 1) total responses (with similar percen- tages), and 2) effective responses (with similar percentages). Teachers and principals disagree on the concentration of ineffective responses (although the percentages are similar). Teachers concentrated on AREA II, principals concentrated on AREA IV. The greatest percentage point difference in effective elements, between teachers and principals, is in AREA III: Pupil Services Center Team Behaviors (Activities) as a Function of Team Meeting Events. Principals gave 14% of their responses to this area, while teachers gave 4% of their responses to this area (10 percentage points difference). The greatest percentage point differences in ineffective elements 98 between teachers and principals was in AREA II. Teachers gave 24% of their responses to this area, while principals gave 7% of their responses to this area (17 percentage points difference). II. A. The Effective and Ineffective Team Behaviors That Pupil Personnel Specialists Reported. Five school psychologists contributed 26 Significant elements, 5 (19%) of these elements were reported to be effective, and 21 (81%) of these elements were reported to be ineffective. Three speech pathologists contributed 13 significant elements, 4 (31%) of these elements were reported to be effective, and 9 (69%) of these elements were reported to be ineffective. Seven school social workers contributed 29 Significant elements, 15 (52%) of these elements were reported to be effective, and 14 (48%) of these elements were reported to be ineffective. Four school nurses contributed 11 significant elements, 4 (36%) of these elements were reported to be effective, and 7 (64%) were reported to be ineffective. Table 10 indicates the reporting of effective and ineffective elements, for school psychologists, speech pathologists, school social workers, and school nurses across Significant areas by number and percentage. > H ppomudmzp Azppondm App oppomudmzp m>Hpomuum pzmozodmmm pmppopooom poooomomo ppooo ooo Foopoopoo we moompoooeoo mpowaopm pooopmpompm Low mmmooomom oopoooom NF mpnoh 103 104 Comments Principals reported more ineffective team behaviors than they observed effective team behaviors. School psychologists, Speech pathologists, and school nurses also reported more ineffective team behaviors than they observed effective team behaviors. School social workers reported more effective team behaviors than they observed ineffective team behaviors. AS a group, principals and pupil personnel specialists reported more ineffective team behaviors than they observed effective team behaviors. Principals had the highest rate of response for effective elements, averaging 2.2 responses per responding principal. School psychologists had the highest rate of response for ineffective elements, averaging 4.2 responses per responding school psychologist. School psychologists and school nurses had the lowest rate of response for effective elements, averaging 1.0 responses for each responding school psychologist and each responding school nurse. School nurses had the lowest rate of response for ineffective elements, averaging 1.8 responses per responding school nurse. School psychologists had the highest rate of response for the total number of elements reported, averaging 5.2 total responses per responding school psychologist. School nurses had the lowest rate of response for the total number of elements reported, averaging 2.8 total responses per responding school nurse. 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