\_ OVERDUE FINES: —-‘----- . 25¢ per day per Item RETURNING LIBRARY MATER'ALS: \ w -.._ Place In book return to rent ve charge from circulation records EFFECTS OF BOILING AND BOILING/ROASTING ON SUBSEQUENT UTILIZATION OF SOYBEANS BY CHICKENS BY Samson Olabanji Ogundipe A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Poultry Science 1980 ABSTRACT EFFECTS OF BOILING AND BOILING/ROASTING ON SUBSEQUENT UTILIZATION OF SOYBEANS BY CHICKENS BY Samson Olabanji Ogundipe Occasional shortages and rising prices of vegetable protein sources for poultry ration formulations have created the necessity for a continuous search for alternative sources of vegetable protein to replace the conventional oil meals in poultry rations. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which meals made from boiled soy- beans and boiled/roasted soybeans could be used in broiler and layer rations without adverse effects on the growing and laying performances. Three feeding experiments were conducted. The first feeding experiment lasting 7 1/2 weeks involved 336 Hubbard Broiler chicks. Its objective was to evaluate the responses. of the chicks to three levels (10, 20 and 30 percent) each of the boiled soybean meal (boilsoy) or of the boiled/roast- ed soybean meal (roastsoy) diets, respectively. In the second broiler feeding experiment involving 448 chicks, the effects of supplementing each of the levels (10, 20 and 30 percent) of the boilsoy and the roastsoy with 0.2% and 0.4% DL-Methionine in broiler diets were evaluated. The conventional 48% protein, soybean meal diets served as Samson Olabanji Ogundipe control diets for the two broiler studies. The criteria for evaluation for these two broiler studies included final body weight, body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion, pancreas weights and rate of mortality. Sensory evaluation of the baked meat samples taken from birds fed: (a) the SBMecontrol diet, (b) 30% boilsoy diet and (c) 30% roastsoy diet was obtained using a consumer- type panel. A combination of hedonic and ranking evaluations were requested for color, odor, flavor, juiciness, tenderness and overall acceptability. The third feeding experiment involved 224 laying hens. Three levels each (7.5, 15 and 22.5 percent) of boilsoy and roastsoy were fed for five, 28-day periods. The criteria for evaluation included total egg numbers per bird, hen~day egg production, hen-housed egg production, egg weights, pancreas weights, feed consumption, feed efficiency per dozen eggs, change in body weights and mortality rate. Finally, a urease activity test was conducted on four types of soybean meals (48% protein, solvent extracted soy- bean meal, raw soybean meal, boiled soybean meal and boiled/ roasted soybean meal) to determine the effectiveness of the amount of heat applied to the various soybeans. The follow- ing results were obtained: a. From the three feeding experiments, it was concluded that up to 22.5% and 25% roastsoy may be incorporated into layer and broiler diets, respectively, without Samson Olabanji Ogundipe adverse effects on the laying or the growing perform- ance of the birds provided the rations contain ade- quate sources of methionine. Boilsoy should not exceed 10% of broiler diets or 15% of layer diets. Further studies would be required to determine if levels higher than the levels specified above might have adverse effects. The boilsoy and roastsoy diets had no hypertrophic effect on the pancreases of the broilers or the layers fed. There was no beneficial effect from supplementing either the boilsoy or the roastsoy broiler diets with DL-Methionine at the 0.4% level when compared with 0.2% supplement. - Boilsoy and roastsoy, each at 30 percent of the ra- tions, had no adverse effects on the broiler meat quality when compared with the meat from the birds fed the control diet. The meat from the birds fed the roastsoy diet received the significantly highest overall ranking for eating quality (p*<0.05) and had the highest scores for most of the meat quality char- acteristics considered. Urease activity tests showed that the condition of time-temperature-moisture combination applied to the boilsoy and roastsoy during the processing improved their nutritional qualities to levels of extracted soybean meal in this study. Dedicated to my beloved wife Dupe ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation and thanks to his major Professor, Dr. Cal J. Flegal, for his guidance and interest during the graduate study and the course of his research. The author also appreciates the assistance provided by the members of his graduate committee, the late Professor H.C. Zindel, former chairman of the Department of Poultry Science, Professor T.H. Coleman, Department of Poultry Science, Dr. B.J. Marquez now at Texas A 5 M University and Drs. Warren Vincent and Tom Pearson of the Department of Agricultural Economics. Special thanks are extended to Professor L.E. Dawson and Kit L. Uerbersax of the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Drs. Clyde Anderson and J.L. Gill of the Department of Dairy Science and Dr. J.R. Black of the Depart- ment of Agricultural Economics for their participation and interest in this study. Sincere appreciations are extended to other faculty members of the Department of Poulty Science, to the staff of the Poultry Science Research and Teaching Center and to fellow graduate students for their assistance. Further thanks are due to Dr. D.F. Middendoff of Central Soya, iii Decatur, Indiana for the donation of the non-degummed soy- bean oil, to Mr. L.M. Stuttman of Inari Inc. for the dona- tion of the oil roast soybean by-product used in this study and to the kitchen supervisor of Holden Hall, M.S.U. for providing the facility for boiling the soybeans. The author is also grateful to the Ahmadu Bello Uni- versity, Zaria, Nigeria, the Federal Government of Nigeria and to Michigan State University for their generous finan- cial support without which this study would not be possible. Sincere thanks are also due to Dr. James Olukosi, Omolade Olukosi, Bayo and Tolani Oladimeji for their assist- ance and encouragement; and to Ruth Langenbacher for her excellent job of editing and accurate typing of the final copy of the dissertation. Finally, the author wishes to extend his most sincere gratitude to his wife, Dupe and to his children, Olayinka and Foluke for their sacrifice, patience and encouragement during this graduate study and research. iv INTRODUCTION . . LITERATURE REVIEW. TABLE OF CONTENTS WOrk on Trypsin Inhibitors . Mode of Action of Trypsin Inhibitors (TI) Effect of Heat Treatment on the Nutritional values of Soybeans . . Effect of Hemagglutinins on the Utilization of Raw Soybean by Chickens . Effect of Age on the Utilization of Raw Soybeans Effect of by Chickens . . Supplementing Raw Soybean Diets with Methionine . . . The Effects of Goitrogenic Factor in Soybeans Effect of Quality. Influence Value of Influence on Chickens . . Raw Soybean Diets on Egg of Soaking on the Nutritive Soybeans . . of Nutrition on Meat Quality Capacity of Female Chickens to Produce Mere Tender Meat . . Factors Influencing Eating Quality of Broiler Meat . . . Urease Activity as an Indicator of Effective Cooking of Soybeans . . MATERIALS AND METHODS. . . . . . General . Sources and Preparation of the Soybean Meal Ingredients for the Study . . Experiment I: Experiment II: The effect of boiled and roasted soybean meal diets on broiler chicks-. . . The influence of methionine supplement on the levels of boiled and roasted soybean meals in broiler diets. V Page comm ll 17 18 20 23 24 25 26 28 29 29 32 32 33 35 N38 Page Subjective Evaluation of Broiler Meat from Broiler Experiment II by Consumer , Taste Panel. . . . . . 42 Summary Keys for Taste Panel Scores . . . 43 Experiment III: The effect of boiled and roasted soybean meal diets on performance of laying hens . 44 Analyses of Soybean Meal Samples for Urease Activity. . . . . . . . 48 Statistical Procedures . . . . . . 49 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . 57 Experiment I: Broiler Feeding Experiment. . . 57 Treatment Effects . . . . 57 Effect of Soybean Meal Levels . . . . 59 Influence of Sex. . . . . . . . 64 Effect of Periods . . . 64 Experiment II: Broiler Feeding Experiment . . 66 Treatment Effects . . . . . 66 Effect of Soybean Meal Levels . . . . 70 Effects of Levels of Methionine . . . . 77 Influence of Broiler Sex on Response to Boiled Soybean and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets . . . . . . . . . . 79 Summary, Results and Discussion of Broiler Experiments I and II . . . . 79 Subjective Evaluation of Broiler Meat From Experiment II by Consumer Taste Panel . . . 87 Treatment Effects . . . . . . 87 Influence of Sex of Broilers on Consumer Taste Panel Meat Scores . . . 93 Effect of Meat Type (Light versus Dark Meat) on Taste Panel Scores. . . . 9S Experiment III: Layer Feeding Experiment. . . 101 Treatment Effects . . . . . 101 Effect of Soybean Meal Levels . . . . 102 Effect of Periods . . . . 107 Results of the Urease Analysis Tests. . . 111 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . 114 Broiler Feeding Trials . . . . . . 114 Consumer Taste Panel Evaluation of Broiler Meat. . . . . . . . 116 Layer Feeding Trial . . . . . . . 117 Urease Activity Tests . . . . . . 118 vi SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES . . . . ”PENDICES . O C O C C O C O A- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Broiler Feeding Experiment I. . . Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Broiler Feeding Experiment II . . Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Consumer Taste Panel Scores . . . Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Layer Feeding Experiment III. . . Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Table for Ureage Activity Measurement by Increase in P O O O O O O O 0 Tables of Means and Standard Errors for various Broiler Parameters by Periods-- Broiler Experiment I. . . . . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . vii Page 119 121 121 127 133 140 148 149 154 Table l. 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Composition of Ingredients in Broiler Rations for Experiment I . . . . . Composition of Ingredients in Broiler Rations for Experiment II . . . . . Composition of Ingredients in Broiler Rations for Experiment III. . . . . Vitamin-Trace Mineral Premix Used in Mixing the Rations. . . . . . . Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks (Results for Both Sexes Combined) . . . . . . . . . Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks (Results for Males) . . . . . Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks (Results for Females) . . . . Effect of Levels of Boiled Soybean Meal in Broiler Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks . . . Effect of Levels of Roasted Soybean Meal in Broiler Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks . . . Response by Sex of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks . . . . . . . . . Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks (Results for Both Sexes Combined. . viii Page 37 4O 47 49 58 60 60 62 63 65 68 Table 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Page Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks (Results for Males) . . . . . . 71 Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks (Results for Females) . . . . . 71 Effect of Levels of Boiled Soybean Meal in Broiler Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks . . . . 74 Effect of Levels of Roasted Soybean Meal in Broiler Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks . . . . 76 The Results of Feeding Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Broiler Diets Supplemented with Methionine . . . . . . . . 78 Response of Broilers by Sex to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Results for Both Sexes Combined) . . . . . . . 89 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Results for Males). . . . . . . . . . . 91 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Results for Females) . . . . . . . . . . 92 Effect of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Males, Females and Both Sexes Combined . . . . 94 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Results for Light Meat) . . . . . . . . . 96 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Quality (Results for Dark Meat). . . . . . . . . . 97 Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on Broiler Meat Type Quality (Com- parisons of Light and Dark Meat for Each Diet) . . . . . . . . . . . 100 ix Table 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. A-l. A-2. A-3. A-4. A-S. A-6. B-l. B-2. B-3. B-4. B-S. B-6. C-1. C-2. C-3. Page Effects of Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on the Performance of Laying Hens. . . 103 Effects of Levels of Boiled Soybean Meal Diets on the Performance of Laying Hens. . . 104 Effects of Levels of Roasted Soybean Meal Diets on the Performance of Laying Hens. . . 106 Percent Hen-Day Egg Production and Standard Error of Means by 28 Day Periods . . 109 Percent Hen-Housed Egg Production and Standard Errors of Means by 28 Day Periods . . 110 Urease Activities of Four Soybean Meal Samples Measured as Increased Change in P . . 112 ANOVA for Broiler Final Weight . . . . . 121 ANOVA for Broiler Weight Gain . . . . . 122 ANOVA for Broiler Feed Consumption . . . . 123 ANOVA for Broiler Feed Conversion . . . . 124 ANOVA for Broiler Pancreas Weights . . . . 125 ANOVA for Broiler Mortality. . . . . . 126 ANOVA for Broiler Final Weight . . . . . 127 ANOVA for Broiler Body Weight Gain . . . . 128 ANOVA for Broiler Feed Consumption Per Bird . . . . . . . . . . 129 ANOVA for Broiler Feed Conversion . . . . 130 ANOVA for Broiler Pancreas Weights . . . . 131 ANOVA for Broiler Mortality. . . . . . 132 ANOVA for Broiler Meat Color . . . . . 133 ANOVA for Broiler Meat Odor. . . . . . 134 ANOVA for Broiler Meat Flavor . . . . . 135 X Table C-4. C-5. C-6. C-7. D-1. D-2. D—3. D-4. D-5. D-6. D-7. D-8. E-l. F-l. F-Z. F-3- F-4. F-S. ANOVA for Juiciness of Broiler Meat. . . ANOVA for Broiler Meat Tenderness . . . ANOVA for Broiler Meat Overall Acceptability ANOVA for Broiler Meat Overall Ranking . . ANOVA for Total Number of Eggs . . . . ANOVA for Hen-Day Egg Production . . . ANOVA for Hen-Housed Egg Production. . . ANOVA for Layer Feed Consumption . . . ANOVA for Layer Feed Efficiency. . . . ANOVA for Layer Pancreas Weight. . . . ANOVA for Layer Body Weight Gain . . . ANOVA for Layer Mortality . . . . . ANOVA for Urease Activity Measured by Change in PH . . . . . . . . Broiler Mean Weights and Standard Errors in Grams by l4-Day Periods--Experiment I . . Broiler Mean Feed Consumption and Standard Error of Means in Grams Per Bird by l4-Day Periods-~Experiment II . . . . . . Broiler Cumulative Feed Conversion and ~Standard Error of Means in Grams Feed Per Gram of Gain by 14-Day Periods-- Experiment I . . . . . . . . Broiler Mean Pancreas Weights and Standard Error of Means in Grams by Periods-- Experiment I . . . . . . . . Broiler Chicks Mortality by 14-Day Periods For Experiment I (Actual Number of Deaths) . xi Page 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Design for Broiler Experiment I . . . . 54 2. Design for Broiler Experiment II . . . . 55 3. Design for Layer Experiment III . . . . 56 xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS TI SBM Boilsoy Roastsoy Trypsin Inhibitors Refers to 48% protein, solvent extracted soybean meal which supplies most of the vegetable protein in the control diets for all the feeding experiments. Refers to the name boiled soybeans which had been ground into a meal. This was one of the two soy- bean meals evaluated in this study. This product was prepared by boiling soybeans in water at 90.5°C for 50 minutes. The boiled beans were dried and ground into a meal. Refers to the names boiled/roasted soybean, oil roast soybean or roasted soybean. This product is prepared by first boiling the soybeans as de- scribed above for boiled soybeans. The boiled beans were air dried overnight before roasting in oil. The split beans, the overroasts and the sediments of fat and condiments that settle at the bottom of the roasting compartment of the machine-~a11 of which were considered not suit- able for human consumption, were collected and xiii Treatment Levels ground up into a meal. Currently, the roastsoy is of no value to the oil roast soybean industry and is being thrown away as wastes. However, in the near future, this by-product may attract some value as the industry expands and it be- comes possible to utilize the roastsoy as a live- stock feed ingredient. Refers to the types of soybean meal diets used in the experiments. These are SBM, boilsoy and roastsoy diets. It also refers to raw soybean, boilsoy, roastsoy and SBM in the urease tests. Refers to 10, 20 and 30 percent levels of the soybean types in the rations for the broiler feeding Experiments I and II and to 7.5, 15 and 22.5 percent levels for the layer feeding Experiment III. xiv INTRODUCTION Commercially processed soybean meal is the major source of vegetable protein for livestock and poultry feeds in the United States which now produces over 70 percent of the world's soybean output. Over 45 percent of the soybean meal output is consumed by the poultry industry. The pro- tein quality or amino acid balance of soybean probably excels that of any other plant protein product available for use in animal feeds. The U.S. soybean processing industry started in 1915 when soybeans were first processed in a North Carolina cottonseed oil mill. Early soybean processing was through a screwpress or expeller equipment. The first solvent ex- traction plant was put into Operation in 1934. There was a gradual, but definite shift from mechanical extraction to continuous solvent extraction operations. Since the early 1950‘s, the availability of mechanically processed soybean meal has been limited. Today, approximately 15 million metric tons of soybean meal produced in the U.S. are pro- cessed in large, modern, solvent extraction operations. There are about 20 soybean processing operations in the U.S. crushing over 2,000 tons of soybeans per day (Smith, 1977). The trend is for larger, more efficient 1 2 operations. The advantage of large operations to the nutri- tionist is that the soybean meal produced is a more uniform product of superior quality and backed by an intensive quality assurance program. Since soybean oil is a major edible oil and it is of greater value per unit weight than the meal, removal of about 5 kilograms ofoil per bushel of soybeans allows both the oil and the meal to contribute to the value of the raw material. The occasional low soybean oil prices plus the acceptance of the concept of high energy diets for broilers has created an interest in feeding full- fat, unextracted soybeans with their characteristic high oil content. Most farmers would prefer to feed unheated soybeans to chickens in order to eliminate the cost of transporting the raw materials to the processor and back to the farm as well as the heating costs. This has not been the case because it has been known for over six decades that proteins in raw soybeans have a low nutritive value and that cooking brings this value close to that of meat and milk products. The heat and moisture conditions of processing inactivate most of the antinutritional properties that cause poor growth and other poor results obtained when raw soybean diets are fed to monogastrics. Processing also improves the utiliza- tion of protein and energy contained in the soybean. Currently, the world is experiencing an increasing scarcity and rising prices of vegetable protein feed 3 ingredients for use in animal feeds. This condition has necessitated a continuous search for alternative vegetable protein sources for poultry and livestock ration formula- tions. A new industry processing oil roast soybeans for human consumption started in the early 1970's. Two impor- tant waste products of this industry consist of--(a) boiled soybeans consisting mainly of the split beans and (b) over- roasts mixed with condiments and fats (referred to as roastsoy or roasted soybeans hereafter) that settle at the floor of the roasting tunnel of the machine. One of such soybean roasting plant is located in Mason, near Lansing, Michigan. This plant, owned by Inari, processes about one and a half tons of soybean per day. A little over one percent of the processed beans end up as waste by-products and over 90 percent of this is overroasts. The oil roast soybean industry is still very young. Currently, about six tons of soybeans are processed daily by the four main plants known to exist in the U.S.A. The market for soybeans for human consumption has continued to grow both in the U.S.A. and ih Europe. If the industry continues to grow at the current rate, a substantial amount of the waste by-products (boiled and overroast) would result in the near future. Furthermore, there are some areas of the world where a soybean oil extraction industry does not exist. It would be beneficial for those areas if a domestic use could be established for the locally produced soybeans. 4 The objective of this study was to evaluate the feeding values of both the boiled and overroast soybeans in poultry rations. It was also hoped that the study would contribute to the existing knowledge on the various methods for processing raw soybeans for poultry ration formulations. LITERATURE REVIEW During the past four decades, soybeans have become the major source of vegetable proteins for poultry and live- stock feeds in the United States and in many other areas of the world. Legumes in general are known to contain a number of factors which in one way or another may exhibit deleteri- ous effects when fed to monogastric animals. Hayward and Hafner (1941) and Bornstein and Lipstein (1963) showed that growth inhibition in chicks fed raw soybeans is not always due to decreased feed intake. Among the growth inhibitory factors found particularly in soybeans are Trypsin Inhibitors (TI), goitrogenic substances, saponins and a hemagglutinin. Soybeans have two special enzymes, urease and lipoxidase. Urease converts urea to ammonium and carbon dioxide. Dang and Visek (1964) suggested that the phenomenon of in vivo urea hydrolysis by urease may have considerable physiolog- ical significance. Urease is the only enzyme known to hy- drolyze urea in vivo. Its activity in mammals is largely confined to the gastro-intestinal tract (Kornberg and Davies 1955). Death in animals has been produced by urea injection and its resulting ammonemia (Barnett and Addis 1917). Lipoxidase catalyzes oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids with_the production of peroxides which interact with S 6 other compounds to cause harmful effects in vivo. Work on Trypsin Inhibitors Of major concern in monogastric species is the trypsin inhibitor (TI) compound which inhibits digestibility of proteins. The rapid change in status of soybean meal to the principal source of protein about 60 years ago has served to stimulate a vast amount of research regarding the possi- ble nutritional significance of TI (Liener 1977). Osborne and Mendel (1917) made a significant observation that heat treatment of soybeans would improve their nutritional value. These workers reported that rats fed raw soybeans as the sole source of proteins failed to grow normally while those on cooked soybean diets grew at a normal rate. Kunitz (1945) subsequently isolated from soybeans a protein which had the unique property of combining with trypsin to form an inactive complex. Rackis and Anderson (1964) were able to isolate four different types of TIs from soybeans by DEAE--Cellulose chromatography. Wang gt_gl. (1972) showed that TIs may exist in two forms. There is the heat resis- tant, inactive, and bound form and the unbound active form. Wang 35 31. (1972) studied the activity of soybean T13 of boiled soybeans fermented by Rhizopus oligosporus saito. They found that the extracts prepared from fermented boiled soybeans showed higher TI activity than extracts prepared from unfermented, boiled soybeans. The extractable 7 soybean TI increased as fermentation progressed and reached a maximum after 48 hours of incubation. The increased TI was not synthesized by the mold. They proved that active TI was liberated from the heat resistant, inactive, bound form by R. Oligosporus. Once released, the inhibitor was readily inactivated by heat. Liener (1977) reported on the previous studies con- ducted by himself and his associates to determine to what extent the poor nutritive value of soybeans was actually' caused by the TI itself. Working with 26 soybean varieties representing low, medium, and high levels of TI activity, they observed no correlation between TI activities and Pro- tein Efficiency Ratios but they observed a significant level of correlation (negative) between pancreas weights and Pro- tein Efficiency Ratios (PER) in rats. From this they speculated that there must be present in raw soybeans some other factors which were totally unrelated to the TI which was also capable of causing pancreas enlargement and inhibition of growth. In further studies with rat diets, Liener (1977) reported that he and his associates compared unheated soy- bean proteins from which the inhibitor had been selectively removed by affinity chromatography using immobilized trypsin (sepharose--bound trypsin) with the original soy protein still containing the inhibitor as well as an extract which had been subjected to the usual heat treatment normally 8 applied when making soy flour. Their results showed that, although the removal of the inhibitor increased the PER from 1.4 to 1.9, heat treatment effected a greater increase to PER of 2.7 similar to what one gets with soy flour itself. From their data they figured that about 40% of the difference in PER between raw and heated soybean protein may be attributed to the TI. They also observed that the removal of the inhibitor helped to decrease the size of pancreas by 40% of the decrease obtained by heat treatment. From these studies Liener and co-workers realized that the TI may not be the only factor responsible for the poor growth response one obtains with raw legume diets. They therefore considered the possibility that the fact that the protein itself had not been heated might be responsible for the poor growth and pancreas hypertrophy not accounted for by the inhibitor. The in vitro digestion with trypSin was tested with the protein extract from which the inhibitor had been removed. The result was compared with similar tests on the original extract before and after heat treatment. This test also confirmed the in vivo results as they observed again, about 40% of the difference in digestibility between the raw and heated soybean extract can be attributed to the trypsin inhibitor. Mode of Action of Trypsin Inhibitors (TI) Ham and Sandstedt (1944) discovered a substance in raw soybeans which greatly retarded the activity of typsin 9 in vitro. This discovery was confirmed by other workers and this led to the suggestion that growth depression caused by raw soybeans was the result of incomplete intestinal proteolysis. Borchers £5 31. (1947) stated that the trypsin in- hibitor from soybean acted not by combining with the sub- strate, but by acting on trypsin either to prevent its combination with the substrate or to prevent the dissocia- tion of the enzyme-~substrate complex. Lyman and Lepkovsky (1957) studied the effect of soybean TIs on the size of pancreas of rats and its secretion of enzymes. They found that feeding either crude TI or raw soybean meal enlarged the pancreas and greatly stimulated its activity. Shortly after intake started, the trypsin in the gut was reduced but this low tryptic activity was followed by an increased secretion of the enzymes so that after six hours, the secre- tion of trypsin was three times greater than normal. This led them to conclude that the growth inhibition caused by soybean TI was due to an endogenous loss of protein pro- duced by a hyperactive pancreas rather than insufficient intestinal proteolysis. Other workers, Lyman and Lepkovsky (1957) and Booth.gt'al. (1960) reported further work which suggested that there may be sufficient loss of essential amino acids in the feces due to the enzymes secreted by the pancreas, to reduce the nutritive value of the soybean protein. 10 Being of pancreatic origin, the endogenous protein, according to Lyman and Lepkovsky (1957), consisted largely of such enzymes as trypsin, chymotrypsin and amylase which are very rich in cystine. Since much of the cystine re- quired for biosynthesis of these proteins is presumably de- rived from methionine, an accelerated rate of synthesis of these enzymes in the pancreas would in effect deplete the rest of the body tissues of methionine. Knowing that corn- soy diets are normally deficient in sulfur-containing amino acids it is not surprising, therefore, that methionine sup- plementation appears to effectively alleviate most of the growth depression caused by the inhibitor despite the per- sistence of pancreatic hypertrophy (Khayambashi and Lyman 1966; Booth 35 31., 1960). Green and Lyman (1972) and Niess 33 21. (1972) reported that it is the level of active trypsin in the in- testines which controls the amount of enzymes secreted by the pancreas through a feedback inhibition. Low levels of active trypsin in the gastro-intestinal tract, as would be the case in the presence of a trypsin inhibitor, would cause the pancreas to respond by producing more enzyme. It is not known whether this effect is mediated through the action of pancreozymin. Liener (1977) maintained that although the growth in- hibition of the trypsin inhibitor cannot be explained solely by the inhibition of intestinal proteolysis, there is no ll doubt that intestinal proteolysis plays a significant role in the overall nutritive prOperties of soybean protein. This will be true particularly if the trypsin produced by the pancreas is not sufficient to neutralize all the inhib- itor present in the intestinal tract. In this case, the proteolysis of intact protein would be depressed resulting in increased fecal nitrogen as is generally observed in animals receiving diets containing the inhibitor. Effect of Heat Treatment on the Nutritional Values 6fSoybeans Numerous workers have demonstrated the existence of a definite relationship between the amount of heat applied and the nutritive value of soybeans (Hayward gg_al., 1936). Heat treatment destroys most of the inhibitory properties and renders the sulfur amino acids more available (Hayward and Hafner, 1941). Heat also increases the energy value of the raw beans (Scott gt_al., 1971). According to Melnick 33 31. (1946), optimum utilization of proteins requires that the essential amino acids must not only be available for absorption, but they must be'liberated during in vivo digestion at rates permitting their mutual supplementation. From in vitro digestibility tests, they concluded that methionine was released earlier from heat processed soybean meal than from raw soybean meal. In the raw soybean meal, the release and absorption of amino acids occurred too late in the intestinal tract to permit optimum supplementation 12 by other amino acids. The main problem in the search for effective processing methods for soybeans for feed use is to determine the amount of heat and moisture combination to sufficiently destroy the heat-labile growth inhibitors and yet not adversely affect the availability of the essen- tial amino acids. Among the various heating methods that have been investigated to date included steam heating at various pressures, extruding, roasting with dry heat, infra- red heating and microwave heating. Clandinin e5_31. (1947) demonstrated a time--tempera— ture relationship in producing soybean meals of high nutri- tional quality. They observed a rapid increase in the nutritive value of soybean meal for chicks when the length of heating was increased from 4 to 15 minutes at 121°C. However, as the heating time increased beyond 15 minutes there was a very drastic decline in the nutritional value of the meal. These workers found that the over-heated meal was deficient in vitamins as well as in the amino acids methionine and lysine. Hayward (1951) in a review stated that moist heating, such as boiling or autoclaving soybeans or meal or the use of moist heat in the processing of soybean oil meal has been the most effective way to obtain the optimum biological value of soybean proteins. Dry heat or roasting may improve the protein of whole, uncracked raw soybeans, but if the seed coat or hull of the seed is broken as in ground l3 soybeans or soybean meals, then dry heating is very ineffec- tive. He also warned that although autoclaving can be effec- tive, if the soybean is autoclaved for too long at high temperatures, the nutritional value of the protein would be impaired. This author pointed out that the impairment of biological value of soybean proteins from overheating is usually the result of destruction of one or more essential amino acids. When dry heating is employed, lysine is usual- ly one of the first amino acids to be destroyed or rendered unavailable. Riesen 35 31. (1947) investigated the liberation of essential amino acids from raw, properly heated and over- heated soybean oil meals. They found that except for lysine, arginine and tryptophane, the amount of each of the essen- tial amino acids liberated by acid hydrolysis from soybean oil meal was unaffected by heat treatment. The liberation of lysine, arginine and tryptophane was decreased by pro- longed heating. The amount of each of the essential amino acids liberated by pancreatic hydrolysis was increased by excessive heat treatment. These investigators concluded that the trypsin inhibitor is not the only factor involved in the observed difference between the nutritive values of raw and properly heated soybean oil meal. Renner gt _a_J_._. (1953) showed that large amounts of moisture can partially prevent the damaging effect of over- heating soybean meal. Through both chick feeding trials and 14 microbiological assays for lysine, they demonstrated that the detrimental effects of over-heating soybean meal could be partially prevented by addition of water prior to heat treatments. Mattingly and Bird (1945) also experienced a similar result when they found that heating of soybeans at 105°C interfered with the beneficial effects of subsequent auto- claving to improve the nutritive value of the protein. Fritz 25 31. (1947) in an experiment with turkey poults obtained best results when ground raw soybeans were autoclaved at 15 pounds pressure for 20 to 30 minutes. Dry heat was not as desirable as moist heat and the dry heat caused damage to the protein which was not readily corrected by mild hydrolysis or by additions of lysine and methionine. They also found that similar damage could be caused by ex- cessive moist heat, but autoclaving at 15 pounds pressure must be continued beyond 1.5 hours to cause serious damage to the biological value of the proteins. Longenecker and Lo (1974) attempted to make a quantitative estimate of the bio-availability of methionine in a severely heated soybean product. The soybean was heated for 8 hours with live steam in an autoclave. The experiments were carried out with rats and one human subject. The technique involved adding DL- Methionine to the diets in order to bring the biological criteria back to the level of unheated soy concentrate. In rats, the criterion was the PER. In the human subject, the 15 criterion was the difference between the average post- prandial plasma methionine and fasting plasma methionine. From these experiments, Longenecker and Lo estimated the methionine availability in the heated soy concentrate to be 54 percent of that in the unheated product. McGinnis and Evans (1947) found that heat damage to soybean protein could not be corrected by the addition of methionine, cystine, or lysine. They postulated that autoclaving soybeans improves the nutritive value by enhancing the availability of nutri- ents other than cystine or methionine. Utilizing a steam-jacketed cooker, Rogler and Carrick (1961) heated whole soybeans with additional injected steam and ground soybeans without supplementary steam injection. They obtained better chick growth results for both experi- mental diets than for chicks fed a soybean meal ration with added soybean oil. Rackis gt 31. (1975), using rats as experimental animals, examined the relationship of trypsin inhibitor activity to the nutritive value as affected by heat treat- ment which consisted of live steam at atmospheric pressure for various periods of time. The results indicated that pancreatic hypertrophy did not occur in the rats when as much as 46 percent of the trypsin inhibitor remained. They also indicated that 79 percent of the inhibitor had to be destroyed before maximum protein efficiency ratios could be observed. Destruction of this much of the inhibitor 16 required nine minutes of heat treatment as described above. Renner and Hill (1960) reported that autoclaved, ground soybeans were equally as effective in promoting rapid growth as the combination of autoclaved, extracted soybean flakes and soybean oil despite the lower absorbability of the oil supplied by the unextracted soybeans. Carew 33 31. (1961) reported their experiment with autoclaved, dehulled, unextracted soybean flakes produced a growth rate and feed efficiency equal to that obtained with the combination of soybean meal and degummed soybean oil, while autoclaved, ground, unextracted soybeans were less satisfactory. Gustafson 3E 31. (1971) studied the nutritive value of soybeans treated in a microwave oven (frequency of 2,450 megahertz with an output of 0.8 kilowatts) for a total period of 20 minutes. The beans were ground, dried and ex- tracted after heat treatment. They reported that feed con- version and pancreas weight for chicks fed the microwave heated soybeans was comparable to that of the control soy~ bean meal diets and better than chicks fed a raw soybean diet. . Six decades after the original work of Osborne and Mendel, it is still not possible to identify all the com- ponents which are modified by moist heat to give such a marked improvement in the nutritive value of the soybean. Most of the reports indicate that two of the main effects 17 are with protein quality and the energy content. There is a possibility that ammonia resulting from urea hydrolysis by the urease component of raw soybeans in vivo may be one of the toxins contributing to the detrimental effects of feeding raw soybeans to chickens. Dang and Visek (1960) and Visek (1962) postulated that the improvement in gain and efficiency of rats and chicks immunized with jackbean urease is due to a decrease in ureolytic activity of the gastro-intestinal tract. This reduction in urea hydrolysis caused by an antiurease-- urease reaction results in a decreased amount of ammonia which the body must detoxify. Therefore, energy is con- served for growth. Elevated blood ammonia and depressed blood urea levels were observed in rats, mice, rabbits and guienea pigs where injections of crystalline jackbean urease have been reported to be toxic (Dang and Visek, 1963). Effgct of Hemagglutinins on the Utilization of Raw Soybean by Chickens Raw soybeans also contain hemagglutinins. Jaffe and Camejo (1961) have shown that the addition of purified phy- tohemagglutinin from the black bean markedly reduced the digestibility of the protein (casein) component of the diet. In vitro experiments with isolated intestinal loops, taken from rats fed the black bean hemagglutinin revealed a 50% decrease in the rate of absorption of glucose across the intestinal wall. Liener (1977) reported Jaffe (1960) that 18 the action of the hemagglutinin was to combine with cells lining the intestinal wall, thus causing a nonspecific interference with the absorption of nutrients. Unfortunate- ly heat treatment may not destroy all the hemagglutinin component of soybeans, hence cooked products may sometimes produce diarrhea and severe vomiting (Korte, 1973a, b). Low concentrations of hemagglutinins may also affect the util- ization of some amino acids as demonstrated by a reduced excretion of sulfur in human urine after the ingestion of insufficiently heated beans (Korte, 1973b). Effect of Age on the Utilization of Raw Soybeans by ChiEkens Saxena 35 31. (1963b) reported that the susceptibility of chicks to the detrimental effects of raw soybean meal de- creased with age. Alumot and Nitsan (1961) reported pro- teolytic activity in the intestines of the chicks fed raw soybean meal was almost completely inhibited up to three weeks of age but after the fourth week, proteolytic activity increased, approaching that of the control chicks at six weeks of age. Nesheim 35 31. (1962) reported dietary raw soybean meal depressed fat absorption in chicks at two weeks of age but not at four weeks. They further stressed that the marked effect of raw soybean meal on fat absorption was probably a true age difference and not merely an adaptation to a raw soybean meal diet. 19 Contrary to this, Bonstein and Lipstein (1963) report- ed intestinal proteolysis was completely suppressed during the first eight experimental days in eight week old birds fed raw soybean meal and that the birds recovered intestinal proteolysis completely after 21 to 28 days. This result, according to Bonstein and Lipstein, suggests that age does not seem to affect the sensitivity of chicks to improperly processed soybeans but tends to shorten their physiological adaptation process. They noticed this adaptive phenomenon could not adequately compensate for the initial inhibitory properties of the underprocessed soybean meal within a four week experimental period. Fisher 33 31. (1957) concluded that insensitivity of chicks to the growth inhibitors did not assert itself until after 14 weeks of age. . Yates (1963) also reported that sensitivity of poultry to injury by raw soybeans decreased with age up to the onset of egg production. His result indicated the need for an adjustment period to allow the pullets to effectively use raw soybeans for egg production. Yates therefore, suggested that if raw soybeans are to be used, they should be started ~ before egg production to prevent excessive stress. Carver 3E 31. (1946), working with laying hens, reported raw soybean meal supported excellent egg production in all-mash diets that contained 13 percent protein. Griminger and Fisher (1960) also concluded that egg pro- duction and egg weight could be maintained on a practical 20 diet in which the major source of protein was raw, unex- tracted soybeans. Among other workers that have reported satisfactory egg production with raw soybean diets for layers are Fisher and Griminger (1961), Saxena 31 31. (1963a, b), Summers 33 31. (1966), and Salman and McGinnis (1968). In contrast, Hill and Renner (1963) observed a reduc- tion in egg production and metabolizable energy values for raw soybeans when compared with heated soybeans for layers. Rogler and Carrick (1964) and Ogundipe and Adams (1974) also observed a definite reduction in egg production when ground raw soybean diets were fed to layers. Lack of agree- ment in some results on feeding raw soybeans might be due to the fact that some researchers worked with extracted soy- beans while others worked with unextracted soybeans. It appears that many workers who obtained favorable results with.raw soybean diets used supplemental methionine. Effect of Supplementing Raw Soybean Diets witHIMethIOnine The beneficial effect of supplemental methionine in raw soybean diets was demonstrated by Hayward and Hafner (1941). They compared raw and cooked soybean meals in chick diets when supplemented with either cystine or methionine or a combination of the two amino acids at 0.3 percent levels and without any amino acid supplementation. They concluded that the raw soybean diet was deficient in available cystine 21 and methionine and that 0.3 percent supplemental methionine was effective and capable of replacing cystine in the diet while 0.3 percent cystine supplement could not replace methionine. Yates (1963) concluded from two of his studies with raw Soybeans involving supplemental methionine that raw soy- beans could be used with satisfactory results in poultry diets when properly supplemented with methionine but he observed that methionine supplementation did not prevent pancreatic hypertrophy. Fisher 35 31. (1957), working with raw soybean meal protein exclusively in a semi purified diet, noticed the importance of supplemental methionine which led them to con- clude that raw extracted soybeans would support good egg production when properly supplemented with methionine and vitamin 312‘ On the contrary, Yates (1963) did not observe any beneficial effect by supplementing raw soybean diets with vitamin 812‘ Other researchers who have reported improvement of raw soybean layer diets by addition of supplemental methionine include Saxena 35 31. (1963a) and Salman and McGinnis (1968). Waldroup 3£_31. (1969) have similarly dem- onstrated that effective utilization of raw soybeans in lay- ing diets requires total sulfur amino acid (methionine and cystine) levels considerably higher than 0.53 percent as suggested by the National Research Council (1977). 22 Ogundipe and Adams (1974) also reported on the bene- ficial effects of supplementing raw soybean diets with DL- methionine. These workers obtained no significant difference in percent change in body weight of egg-type pullets at 20 weeks of age when they compared the pullets fed raw soybean diets starting from 10 weeks of age with those fed from 14 weeks of age. The raw soybean growing diet contained 0.5 percent supplemental DL-methionine. Ogundipe and Adams also observed that the percent hen-day production of the birds reared on raw soybean meal diet plus 0.5 percent supplement- al DL-methionine was significantly higher than that of birds fed the raw soybean meal growing diet without supplemental methionine (61.5 versus 56.8 percent). Also, the production of birds reared on raw soybean meal diet plus 0.5 percent supplemental DL-methionine followed by the soybean meal layer diet was nearly equal to that of the birds fed soybean meal diets during both growing and laying periods (68.8 versus 70.3 percent). They concluded from these observa- tions that supplemental DL-methionine at 0.5 percent level improved the egg laying performance of birds fed the raw soybean meal growing diet. Attempts to improve the utilization of raw soybean diets with essential amino acid supplements other than methi- onine and cystine have also been reported. Alminquist 35 31. (1942) obtained little or no benefit by supplementing raw soybean chick diets with choline or L-cystine. Hill 35 31. 23 (1953) with a mixture of all essential amino acids could not overcome the growth depression of chicks receiving raw soy- bean diets. Booth 33 31. (1960) observed slow growth, reduced feed efficiency and pancreatic hypertrophy in rats fed a 14 percent protein raw soybean diet. Additions of four amino acids, 0.6% L-tyrosine, 0.6% DL-methionine and 0.2% DL-valine reversed the growth depression but not the enlarged pancreas. In the abnormal pancreas, they found that acini had lost their regular circular outlines and become jumbled without distinct lumens. The basilar portion of the hyperplastic acinar epithelium was intensely basophylic and increased at the expense of the zymogenic portion. 339 Effects of Goitrogenic Factor in Soybeans on ChiCkens Patton 33 31. (1939) was able to produce goiter experi- mentally in chickens fed a ration containing 25% soybean oil meal. According to Wilgus 32 31. (1941), soybean meal con- tains a goitrogenic factor which is insoluble in chloroform, hexane, diethyl ether, acetone and ethanol and is somewhat heat-labile. They claimed that this factor is capable of producing goiter in rats and that it can be removed or de- stroyed by fat solvents. Sharpless 33 31. (1939) reported that the goitrogenic factor of soybeans was partially inact- ivated by heat and that iodine would counteract the effect on the thyroid gland. Wilgus 33 31. (1941) also reported 24 that soybean oil meal was goitrogenic to chickens but no detrimental effect other than that on the thyroid was ob- served. Wilgus and co-workers however, could not extract the goitrogenic factor in soybeans by fat solvents as re- ported by Sharpless and co-workers. Yates (1963), in his attempt to stimualte growth by adding a hormone-like compound having thyroxine-like effect to the raw soybean diets could not improve the growth per- formance of the chicks. Hayward (1951), in his review on the feeding of oil meal for livestock and poultry, commented that the goitro- genic tendency of soybean oil meal is of no particular economic importance since practical poultry rations contain- ing soybean oil meal and known required levels of iodine produce marketable and apparently normal poultry.‘ Effect of Raw Soybean Diets on Egg Quality Saxena 32 31. (1963a) observed no significant differ- ences in the albumen and yolk quality measurements but they observed a greater incidence of blood spots in eggs laid by hens receiving raw soybean meal diets. On the contrary, Summers 3£_31. (1966) observed no increased incidence of blood spots by feeding raw, unextracted soybean diets to laying hens. Summers and co-workers also reported no differ- ences in Haugh units and shell weights but noticed a slight indication that, as the level of protein increased, egg weight increased in the groups fed raw, unextracted soybean 25 meal diets. Bonstein and Lipstein (1972) found methionine as the first limiting amino acid in increasing egg size of corn-soybean diets. Linoleic acid was the next limiting amino acid. Influence of Soaking on the Nutritive Value 5T*Soybeans There are various methods for processing soybeans for livestock feed or for human consumption. The choice of the process is important because it will involve differences in cost, acceptability and nutritive value. In processing soy- beans for human consumption, soybeans are often pre-soaked in either hot or cold water before further processing is done. Hand (1966) reported that soaking removes 1.5 to 15 percent of soybean solids. The composition of soak water after 24 hours of soaking at 2-°C indicates high values for non-protein nitrogen (NPN) and carbohydrate content. The carbohydrate content of soak water was about three times that of original dehulled beans and the NPN was about ten times as high as the original beans. Analysis of the soak water also revealed that there was a 60 percent decrease in oligosaccharides (stachyose) but only 5 percent diffused in- to the soak water. From this, they postulated that there could be two possible ways by which soaking can bring about changes in composition of soybeans. Firstly, by leaching of solutes and secondly, by 13,3133 biochemical changes. The leaching effect appears to be more serious by soaking de- hulled beans at elevated temperatures. 26 In another experiment in which soybean cotyledons were soaked for three hours at temperatures ranging from 25 to 65°C, analysis of the milk made from such soaked beans showed a fall in carbohydrate content from 15 to 7 percent while the lipid content rose from 54 to 58 percent. There was a slight drop in the yield of soy milk solids. They also found the biochemical changes in soaked beans to be similar to trans- formations occurring during germination since there was an increase in free amino acids at the expense of protein and some of the storage fats were converted to carbohydrates. They noticed the removal of undesirable substances by soaking. The soak water had a disagreeable flavor and would not sup- port growth of weaning rats although its amino acid content was adequate. Influence of Nutrition on Meat Quality Sturkie (1976) reported body fat is the most variable item among the major body constituents. It varies not only with species, sex and age but also with the level of nutri- tion. Tissue lipids are derived from dietary lipids as well as from lipogenesis, therefore, fat intake influences not only the quantity of lipogenesis but also the quality of lipids in various tissues. Each species and each different tissue within a given species has a certain constant fatty acid composition. The consumption of significant amounts of lipids, however changes the fatty acid composition of tissue lipids to varying degrees. 27 Yule and McBride (1976) suggested that feeding greater than 5% rapeseed meal could produce off-flavors in chicken meat. Steedman 3£_31. (1979) conducted a study involving the subjective evaluation by an untrained taste panel. The study was on the influence of rapeseed meal on the eating quality of chicken. These workers reported that inclusion of 15% span rapeseed meal (high glucosinolate variety) in broiler diets resulted in significantly lower flavor and overall acceptability scores for dark meat samples and flavor scores for broth samples than scores for dark meat and broth from chickens fed the control ration. There were no significant differences in juiciness attributable to ration. In another study by the same workers, they further reported that chickens fed rapeseed meal rations received slightly lower palatability scores than those fed the soy- bean meal control ration, but the differences were not sig- nificant. In contrast to the result of their first study, the second study showed that inclusion of 15% span rapeseed meal in broiler ration resulted in chicken which was judged acceptable in eating quality. Although there are lots of reports on the nutritive value of heat treated soybean meal, there is little or no information regarding the eating quality of broilers fed either boiled and boiled/oil roasted soybean meal rations. 28 Capacity of Female Chickens to Produce More Tender Meat Sturkie (1976) reported that endogenous estrogen is responsible for the increase in plasma lipids that occur at the time of sexual development. Testosterone prOprionate has no effect on the lipid level of male or female Japanese quail (Nirmalan and George, 1972). Senior (1974) also reported a gradual rise in the ~plasma levels of estrogen in female birds as they approach sexual maturity. Chan and Common (1974) demonstrated that l7a--estradiol is a major phenolic steroid of hen's blood. Korenbrot 33 31. (1974) also demonstrated by radio immunoass- ay that l7B--Estradiol levels of plasma of ring doves vary according to their sexual stage and behavior as follows: Females, isolated 40pg/ml or less Females, males introduced 8Spg/ml Females, nest building 67pg/ml Females incubating eggs Not detectable Estradiol was not detectable in the plasma of males at any of these stages. Estrogen administration increases the blood lipid and the deposition of fat in tissues possibly making the bird fatter and more desirable as a meat bird. Not only tender- ness, but also grade can be improved by estrogens in chickens and turkeys by virtue of increased subcutaneous fat deposits. 29 Factors Influencing Eating anlity of Broiler Meat Quality grades of meat are primarily intended to re- flect differences in eating quality. Quality, as used in grading meat, refers to its expected palatability, its tenderness, juiciness and flavor. Quality control of flavor in poultry is mainly preventing development of off flavors. If the feed contains too much oil from fish meal, or too much of the highly unsaturated fatty acids from any other source, the poultry meat may develop "fishy" or off-flavors. Other factors that may influence meat tenderness include processing procedures such as time for aging before cut cup, scalding temperatures and time (Cole and Magnar Ronning, 1974). Urease Actig1ty as an Indicator of.Effective Cookihg of Soybeans Urease activity in legume seeds can be used as an indicator of enzyme destruction. Since urease is relatively easy and quickly analyzed, the soybean processing industry uses urease as an indicator of trypsin inhibitor (TI) de- struction and of properly processed meal. According to Bird 33 31. (1947), the principle underlining the use of the urease test to determine the effectiveness of soybean heating procedure was described by Caskey and KnaPP (1944). They realized that the intensity of the heat treatment re- quired for development of high nutritive value in soybeans appeared to be the same as that required for the destruction 30 of the enzyme urease and that inadequately heated soybean oil meals could be detected by measuring their urease content. Hayward (1967) demonstrated the relationship be- tween protein efficiency, protein denaturization and urease activity. His results showed that the quality of protein increased with protein denaturization but excessive cooking results in a lower protein efficiency. His results are shown in the table below. Relative pro- Relative pro- Urease ac- tein effici- tein denatur- tivity (in- ency. (%) ization. (%) crease in PH) Control-skim milk 100 - ' - Soybean - raw 30 76.4 1.90 SBM unheated 36 76.2 1.80 SBM mildly heated 70 41.6 0.75 SBM properly cooked 89 14.2 0.20 SBM overcooked 81 5.1 0.05 Raw soybean meal had a PH rise of approximately 2.0 which falls fairly rapidly as the meal is toasted. A PH rise of 0.2 during cooking is considered adequate cooking. As the cooking time increases, the meal will eventually record a PH rise of zero. Since it is impossible to know whether a zero rise in PH indicates a meal that is perfectly cooked to the point of destroying the urease and antitrypsin enzymes or whether it was overcooked and the proteins damaged, the lower PH value of 0.05 was included as a check 31 against overcooking. He therefore recommended that a urease value of 0.05 to 0.2 rise could be considered a proper cook in soybean meal. Caskey and Knapp (1944), as reported by Bird 3£_31. (1947) established a higher criterion that any soybean sample that contained sufficient urease to "cause an in- crease in the PH of the solution of one unit" could be con- sidered not adequately heated for feeding. Rackis (1966) on the other hand, suggested a criterion much similar to that of Hayward (1967) that if the urease activity indicated a PH increase from 0.05 to 0.15, then soybeans could be con- sidered to have been properly processed. MATERIALS AND METHODS General Three feeding trials were conducted. In the first trial, the responses of broiler chicks to graded levels (10, 20 and 30 percent) of boiled and roasted soybeans were determined. In the second study, the effects of supplement- ing the same levels of soybeans as in the first trial with methionine in broiler diets were determined. The broiler feeding trials were evaluated by measuring the following parameters: growth rate, final weight, feed consumption, feed efficiency, pancreas weight and mortality. Consumer taste panel scores were determined for the second broiler growth study to evaluate the effect of the two soybean meal types on broiler meat quality. Since the requirements of laying birds differ marked- ly from those of growing broilers, a third feeding trial was conducted for laying pullets. Three levels each (7.5, 15, and 22.5 percent) of boiled and roasted soybean meals were fed to laying pullets for five 28-day periods. The diets were evaluated by their effects on the following para- meters: total egg production, percent hen-day and hen- housed egg production, egg weights, pancreas weights, feed consumption, feed efficiency per dozen eggs, change in body 32 33 weights and mortality. Following the feeding trials, four soybean samples (raw soybean, boiled soybean, roasted soybean and the con- ventional soybean meal 48% protein) were analyzed for urease activity to compare the effectiveness of the heating pro- cedures for processing the various types of soybeans. Sources and Preparation of the Soybean Meal Ihgredients for the Study The Inari oil roast soybean plant could not supply the quantity of boiled soybeans required for all the feeding trials within a reasonable time. Therefore, it was decided that the total amount of raw soybeans required for the boiled soybean diets be purchased elsewhere and cooked following the cooking procedures of Inari. About one and a half tons of fresh, 1978 harvested beans of Corsoy soybean variety were purchased for use in this study. The beans were boiled in a steam-jacketed cooker. The cooker was first filled about half way with water and brought to the boiling point. The cooker was then filled to about one third capacity with raw soybeans. The cooking temperature was then maintained at about 90.5°C for 50 minutes following the cooking procedure of Inari. After boiling, the beans were strained to remove excess water. The beans were then spread out in a thin layer on a concrete floor where they were allowed to dry as fast as 34 possible to prevent mold. The dried beans were then ground and stored for later use in the preparation of the cooked soybean diets. The roasted soybean feed ingredient for these studies was obtained directly from the Inari oil roast soybean plant. The first stage for processing oil roast soybeans involved the same cooking procedure as described for the boiled soy- beans except that the product was air dried overnight after straining off the excess water before roasting in deep fat. Condiments like common salt, sodium glutamate, spices etc. may be added. The roasting temperature was about 208°C. The portion of the beans that appear to be overroasted, as judged by their very dark brown color, and the split beans were discarded as wastes. The sediment of condiments that settle at the bottom of the roasting compartment of the machine were also dumped together with overroasts. It took over one month for the Inari plant to collect sufficient quantity of overroasts for each experiment. During this period, the overroasts were kept covered at room temperature inside the plant during the winter season. This collection time, depending on the temperatures within the plant might be enough to cause oxidative rancidity with- in any of the supplies of overroasts received from the plant. The storage conditions up to this stage were beyond the con- trol of the researcher. After receiving a supply of over- roasts from the plant, it was stored in a cool room with a 35 temperature of 5°C or below before and after grinding for use in feed mixing. The overroasts were found to be too oily to be ground alone. They were therefore custom-mixed and ground with yellow corn on an equal weight basis. Each batch in the mixer was thoroughly mixed after grinding to obtain a homo- geneous mixture. This mixture was then bagged and stored for use in the preparation of roastsoy diets for all the feeding trials. Experiment I: The effect of boiled and roasted soybean meal diets on broiler chicks In order to determine the amount of boiled and oil roasted soybeans that could be included in broiler rations with no adverse effects on the growing chicks, three levels each of the two soybean meal types were compared with a con- trol diet in which 48 percent protein, solvent extracted soybean meal (SBM) served as the main source of vegetable protein. There were seven dietary regimens made up as follows: 1. Control diet. SBM 48% protein was the main source of vegetable protein and it contained neither boiled nor roasted soybean meals. 2. Boiled soybean meal (boilsoy) diet, boilsoy at 10% of ration; 3. Boilsoy diet, boilsoy at 20% of ration; 4. Boilsoy diet, boilsoy at 30% ration: 5. Roasted soybean meal (roastsoy) diet, roastsoy at 10% of ration; 36 6. Roastsoy diet, roastsoy at 20% ration; 7. Roastsoy diet, roastsoy at 30% of ration; The rations were computer formulated. Non-degummed soybean oil was used to balance the energy levels so as to make all the rations isonitrogenous and isocaloric as much as possible. Despite this, the protein level could not be held constant for the levels of the boilsoy and roastsoy but the amino acid contents expressed as percent of the energy content were kept reasonably constant. A total of 336 day old Hubbard broiler chicks, 168 of each sex, were wing banded and alloted into 3-gram weight groups. Chicks from each weight class were randomly dis- tributed into each of the 21 floor pens of the brooder house used for the experiment. Each pen measured 4.52 by 1.42 meters. There were 16 chicks, composed of an equal number of each sex, in each pen. By this procedure, average chick weights for all the pens were approximately the same. Each of the seven experimental diets was fed to three pens of chicks which represented the replicates. The calcu- lated analyses of the diets and the composition of the rations for Experiment I are shown in Table 1. The chicks were brooded in floor pens using gas fired brooders for space heating and electric heat lamps inside the brooder rings. Two half-gallon chick founts were pro- vided in each pen until about four weeks of age. At that time, each pen was supplied with a mechanical saucer-type .e m:8: 8m: 8:8. .98 :88: x8. .Nxeaua :aumfis 85.5233 8.: . 33 8:82 :8: 639:8 98:38:: «8 .89. 88 a new: 332:8. 9.. 8896.88? 8388 : 8.8: 8.2:: 8.2:: 2.8: 8.8: 2.8: 3:: 058 5389.288 :N. :~. :~. :m. :m. :N. :m. E 5:8 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. E 889333 28:88 8. ma. 8. «a. 2... «a. «a. at 58:8 mm. mm. :m. on. on. en. en. E 89:18am»: 8. .8. «a. «a. ma. 2... 8. E 8:88 e 8:828: 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 5 8:82am: 8.: 8.: 8.: 8.: 8.: 8.: 8.: E 8:8: ::.a~ 8.2a. 8.8 New 8.8 8.8 8.8 2.. 538a. «Bro 8:: 3.: 8.: :84: 8;: :8: 8;: mi? 2286582 ~.:: 1:: he 3: o.e: :5 are 3. e8 39:. e... E: :5 e: hm E... :.m as 89.: 8:6 2m: 88 8mm 28 28 88 2mm 92:8 v: 8.: .21. 88:8 c.8338 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: :58. me: me: 3: m8: 9.: 3: 3: :88888: 8388 8:. 8:. 8:. SN. em... 3:. 3:. 8:82:88 8:. 8m. 8m. 8m. 8m. mam. 2:. 89808 :83 8. 8. 8. :8. 8. 8. 8. 888.3 5.... :8. 8m. 8m. amm. mm. mm. :8 Rm 3. «A... m.~ Rm a... :e :8 888m 98 98 3: .. u .. u 258:. 286.88 u u u can 98 ed: .. 958:. .838 «.m: 3: SA a: :6: 28 E2: .8: 882.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 :58 8.2. 3.8 3.8 ties .58 33:2: 8m 2: El. men we“ 8: :888 38:88: 396.: homummom 393 >833 2mm : agrees sou 958mm 8:88 a: 38888: to 88:89.8 .: 38:. 38 drinker. Continuous light was provided in the house through- out the experimental period. Feed and water were provided 33 libitum. Feed was provided in chick size feed troughs up to three weeks of age. After three weeks, the feed troughs were replaced by hanging feeders, one in each pen. The chicks were weighed every two weeks and at the end of the feeding trial, which lasted 7.5 weeks. Feed consump- tion was also determined at the end of every two weeks and at 7.5 weeks. Mortality was recorded as it occurred. In order to determine the effects of the diets on weight of the pancreas, four birds, two of each sex, were randomly select- ed from each pen at four and 7.5 weeks of age. They were sacrificed, the pancreases were extracted and weighed. Experiment II: The influence of methionine supplement on the levels of boiled and roasted soybean meals in broiler diets. Four hundred and forty-eight day-old, Hubbard broiler chicks (equal numbers of each sex) were used for this ex- periment. The chicks were subdivided into 3-gram weight groups. Chicks from each weight class were randomly dis- tributed into each of the 28 floor pens of the brooder house _used for this experiment. There were 16 chicks (eight of each sex) in each pen. Each pen measured 4.52 by 1.42 meters. The average initial weight of the chicks in all the 28 pens was approximately the same. There were 14 dietary regimens as described below: 39 1. Control diet. Forty-eight percent protein, solvent extracted soybean meal (SBM) was the main source of vegetable protein. It contained neither boiled nor roasted soybean meals. It was supplemented with 0.2% DL-methionine. 2. Same as diet number 1, plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 3. Boiled soybean meal (boilsoy) at 10% of ration plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. 4. Boilsoy, 10% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 5. Boilsoy, 20% of ration plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. 6. Boilsoy, 20% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 7. Boilsoy, 30% of ration plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. 8. Boilsoy, 30% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 9. Roasted soybean meal (roastsoy), 10% of ration, plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. 10. Roastsoy, 10% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 11. Roastsoy, 20% of ration plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. 12. Roastsoy, 20% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. 13. Roastsoy, 30% of ration plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine. l4. Roastsoy, 30% of ration plus 0.4% supplemental DL-methionine. Each of the 14 experimental diets described above was fed to two replicate pens of chicks. 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The feeding trial lasted five and one-half weeks. Feed and water were provided a§_libitum. Continu— ous light was provided throughout the trial period. Records were kept on the initial weights and final weights of individual birds. Average feed consumption and feed efficiency were determined for each pen. At the end of the feeding trial, four birds, two of. each sex were randomly selected and sacrificed. The pan- creases were extracted for pancreas weight determinations. Records of mortality were kept for each pen throughout the experimental period. Subjective Evaluation of Broiler Meat from BroilerAExperiment II by Consumer—Taste Panel At the end of the feeding trial in broiler Experi— ment II, four birds (two of each sex) from each of the two pens receiving ration l (SBM-control diet plus 0.2% supple- mental DL-methionine), ration 7 (30% boilsoy diet plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine), and ration 13 (30% roastsoy diet plus 0.2% supplemental DL-methionine) were randomly selected, slaughtered and processed for sensory evaluation. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of the three soybean meal diets on the broiler meat eating quality. Sensory evaluation of the baked meat was obtained using a consumer-type panel of students and staff from the departments of Food Science and Human Nutrition and Poultry 43 Science. Two panels were conducted such that broilers of only one sex were evaluated on the panel day. On each of the two panel days, the dressed birds were halved and wrapped separately in aluminum foil. The birds were then baked in an oven at 177°C (350°F) until they reached an internal temperature of 85°C (185°F). The wrap- ping was done to prevent the cooking juices and odors from mingling in the oven. No spices, herbs nor salts were added to the baked chicken. The meat was boned prior to serving. Each panelist was presented with two replicates each of light meat taken from the breast and dark meat taken from the thigh muscles. The panelists were requested to evaluate the meat samples for color, odor, flavor, juiciness, tenderness and overall acceptability using a five point hedonic scale as shown in the scoring key presented below. The broiler meat was finally ranked in order of preference on a three point scale as shown in the scoring key below. Summary Keys for Taste Panel Scores Odor, Color and Flavor S—represents very desirable 4 ” moderately desirable 3 " neither desirable nor undesirable 2 " moderately undesirable l " very undesirable Juiciness S’represents very juicy 4 " moderately juicy 3 " neither juicy nor dry 2 " moderately dry 1 " very dry 44 Tenderness 5 represents very tender 4 " moderately tender 3 " neither tender nor tough 2 " moderately tough l " very tough Overall Acceptability 5 represents very acceptable " moderately acceptable 3 " neither acceptable nor unacceptable 2 " moderately unacceptable l " very unacceptable Overall Ranking 5 represents most preferred 3 " middle 1 ” least preferred For each broiler sex, the results from 15 randomly selected panel participants were tabulated. The data were analyzed using one way analysis of variance with all the parameters of interest regressed for sex as a covariate. Specific mean differences for each parameter were tested using Bonferroni t-statistics. Experiment III: The effect of boiled and roasted soybean meal diets on performance of laying hens. Two hundred and twenty-four single comb White Leghorn (SCWL) pullets of two age groups (22 and 26 weeks) were used for this study. The pullets were from the stock of Hannah .strain kept at the Michigan State University Poultry Science Research and Teaching Center. The pullets were already with wing bands at the time of this trial. 45 The birds from each age group were subdivided into 50- gram weight classes discarding the light and heavy birds. The pullets belonging to the same age group and weight class were then allocated at random to 28 stair step cage sections consisting of eight individual bird cages per section. Each individual cage measured 20.3 cm. wide by 40.6 cm. deep by 36 cm. high in front and 45.7 cm. high at the rear. The birds were assigned to the cages so that the birds in simi- lar location of the cage sections were comparable in age and weight class. There was one feed trough for each cage so that all the eight birds within each cage section shared the same feed trough. There were seven dietary regimens made up as follows: 1. Control diet in which 48% protein, solvent extracted soybean meal (SBM) was the main source of vegetable protein. It contained neither boiled nor roasted soybean meals. 2. Boiled soybean meal (boilsoy) diet, boilsoy at 7.5% ration. 3. Boilsoy diet, boilsoy at 15% of ration. 4. Boilsoy diet, boilsoy at 22.5% ration. 5. Oil roast or roasted soybean meal (roastsoy) diet, at 7.5% of ration. 6. Roastsoy diet, roastsoy at 15% of ration. 7. Roastsoy diet, roastsoy at 22.5% of ration. The rations were computer formulated. Non~degummed soybean oil was used to balance the energy levels in order to make the rations isonitrogenous and isocaloric. The 46 composition of the rations and the calculated analyses are presented in Table 3. Each of the seven diets was fed to birds in four of the 28 cage sections. The allocation of the diets to the 28 cage sections was done at random. The four cage sections that received the same type of diet represented the treat- ment replicates. The birds were maintained on the treatment diets for three days before data collection started. Feed and water were provided ad libitum throughout the feeding trial which consisted of five 28-day periods. The daily light period was maintained at 14 hours throughout the five periods. Records of the initial and final weights were kept for each individual pullet. Feed consumption was determined for each replicate of eight birds at the end of every 28-day period. Eggs were collected daily and recorded for individ- ual birds. All eggs used for egg weight determinations were held in the cooler overnight and brought to room temperature before the weights were recorded. These eggs were marked to allow specific identification of each egg. Egg weights in grams were determined for individual birds from the mean weights of all the eggs collected from that particular bird over three consecutive days. Records of mortality were kept for each replicate as they occurred. Hen-housed egg production for each replicate for each period was calculated on the basis of the number of pullets 47 . v manna. momm .86 .wfifia 2898. 85.833 28.... .8583... 89! «8.: .3868 58:88 «8.8 .8885 «8 ~ .32. 3:32 2:. :8... 88 of. ”.8: “3:8. mm $58289: 8388 H 28: 28: 28: 28: a8: 28: m8: 9.33 5308..ng a... a. :N. a. a. :N. a. E .588 m... 8. 8. cm. 8. 8. 8. E 882808 2829a 25 26 85 -.m 28 «um 26 .8 86:8 86 8. mm. 8. mm. mm. 2. E :flnfidg 88 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. E 8396 a 8:8th 28 2. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. 3. 3.3253. 56 8. 8. B. 8. 8. 8. 3e 9:93 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8308 886 8.2 2.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 92 8.2 9%... 2.8982 5.5 as he 3. ed 3. N8 3. “.3 :32. .3 9m in .8 9m «mm «.m 2: 828 8.5 282 «.82 «.82 «.82 «.82 182 «.82 958 a mi 8.528 88:8 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: 8.8: :38 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 $5888: 3388 m8. 80. 88. 8o. 2o. 98. So. 88082.8 mom. can. ham. mam. am. am. ow. uHMm o4 5.: m.~ mm.~ m: Tm ma 20 :888 m.- 2 m8 u u .. u 958m .8388 - .. u 2.2 0.2 m.» . 88m .828 m.q ~.m m.e: on. o.h m.m: o.m: leave :mmnaom 2.8 8.8 2.8 8.8 8.5 8.5 8.8 858m .68 .323 38268:: >033 Emma >033 >833 >838 >838 HOHEOU 8.8 8: 84. mem wmm am.» II 263 8388 mum. 20m 28 HHH waging MOM 953mm 20305 c: QBGOQSH no 50330980 .m wanna. 48 housed (8) per replicate. Hen-day egg production was calcu- lated on the basis of the number of pullets present in that replicate for the specific period. Feed consumption was calculated for each replicate as grams of feed per bird per day for each period. Feed efficiency was calculated for each replicate and for each period to obtain the amount of feed in kilograms required to produce a dozen eggs. At the end of the feeding trial, the first three birds from each cage section (replicate) were sacrificed. The pancreases were extracted for pancreas weight determination. In a few cases where one or two selected cages were found empty, the birds in the fourth and/or the fifth cages were selected to make up the sample size. Analyses of Soybean Meal Samples for Urease Activity The urease activity test involved the procedure of Caskey and Knapp (1944) as reported by Bird gt El- (1947) and the modification for the incubation temperature suggest- ed by Bird gg_al, (1947). This test was done to determine the effectiveness of the amount of heat applied to the various soybeans. About SO-gram samples were taken from four soybean meal types consisting of the following: 48 percent protein, solvent extracted soybean meal (SBM); raw soybean meal; boiled soybean meal and roasted soybean meal. The samples were ground through a 1 mm screen and were weighed out for the tests. 49 Table 4. Vitamin-Trace Mineral Premix Used in Mining the Rations Per lb of Premix Micro nutrients Starter-grower Layer Vitamin A, U.S.P. units 600,000 800,000 Vitamin 03, I.C. units 200,000 250,000 Riboflavin, mg 375 700 Pantothenic acid, mg 600 1,200 Niacin, mg. 1,800 2,500 Choline chloride, mg. 40,000 39,000 Folic acid, mg. - 100 Vitamin 812, mg. 0.9 1.2 Menadione sodium bisulfite, mg. 150.0 150.0 Vitamin E, I.U. 150.0 500.0 Maganese, mg. 1.28 1.287 Iodine, mg. 0.02 0.0201 Copper, mg. 0.08 0.081 Cobalt, mg. 0.005 0.0051 Zinc, mg. 1.00 1.00 Iron, mg. 0.5 0.5025 Used at the rate of 10 lbs per ton. Statistical Procedures The analysis common to all the experiments was the analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). the two broiler experiments. Pen averages were used for For the layer experiment, 50 individual bird data for each of the five 28-day periods for egg number, egg weight, and weight gain (for last period only) and the replicate mean data values for each of the five 28-day periods for hen-day egg production, hen- housed egg production, feed consumption, feed efficiency per dozen eggs, mortality and pancreas weight (for last period only) were used in the statistical analyses. The ANOVA for the first broiler and the layer feeding trials employed a split plot analysis as described by Gill (1978). In the first broiler and the layer feeding trials, the whole plot was represented by replicate within level of soybean meal within type of soybean while the sub plot was represented by period. The second broiler feeding trial involved a pseudo factorial treatment design with three factors, namely, type of soybean meal, level of soy- bean meal, and methionine level. To compute the ANOVA with the data for the feeding experiments, the sources of variation were grouped into various models for each trial as illustrated below: Broiler I - consisted of two models Model 1 - for Level within Treatment (Level/Trt) Model 2 - for Treatment, Replicate and Period. Broiler II - consisted of two models Model 1 - for Level within Treatment (Level/Trt) Model 2 - for Treatment, Replicate and Methionine Layer experiment - consisted of five models 51 Model 1 - for Level within Treatment (Level/Trt), Level/Trt x Replicate (Rep). Model 2 - for Level/Trt x Period. Model 3 - for Level/Trt x Bird, Body weight. Model 4 - for Bird, Treatment x Bird, Replicate x Bird. Model 5 - for Treatment, Replicate, Treatment x Replicate, Period, Treatment x Period, Period x Treatment x Replicate. Treatment x Replicate mean squares were tested against Level/Trt x Rep mean squares at p < 0.25. If this test was significant, then Treatment x Replicate mean square (called error al) was used to test Treatment for significance while Level/Trt x Rep (called error a2) was used to test Level/Trt. If, on the other hand, the above test at p < 0.25 was found to be non-significant, then the "error a" term was computed by pooling Treatment x Replicate and Level/Trt x Replicate mean squares and this was used to test for the significance of Treatment and Level/Trt. The "error b" term was used to test all other sources of variation besides Treatment and Level/Trt for significance. The ”error b" SS (or simply residual SS) and the asso- ciated degrees of freedom were computed as follows: Broiler I Error b SS 8 Total SS (model 2) minus Explained SS (model 2) Level/Trt SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Period SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep x Period SS (model 1) 52 Degrees of Freedom for Error b (DFb) DFb = Total DF (model 2) minus Explained df (model 2) Level/Trt df (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep df (model 1) Level/Trt x Period df (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep x Period df (model 1) Broiler II Error b $5 = Total SS (model 2) minus Explained SS (model 2) Level/Trt SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep SS (model 1) Degrees of Freedom for Error b (DFb) DFb = Total df (model 2) minus .Explained df (model 2) Level/Trt df (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep df (model 1) Layer experiment Total SS (model 5) minus Explained SS (model 5) Level/Trt SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep SS (model 1) Level/Trt x Period SS (model 2) Bird SS (model 4) Treatment x Bird SS (model 4) Replicate x Bird SS (model 4) Level/Trt x Bird SS (model 3) Body weight SS (model 3) Error b SS Degrees of Freedom for Error b (DFb) DFb = Total df (model 5) minus Explained df (model 5) Level/Trt df (model 1) Level/Trt x Rep df (model 1) Level/Trt x Period df (model 2) Bird df (model 4) Treatment x Bird df (model 4) Rep x Bird df (model 4) Level/Trt x Bird df (model 3) Body weight df (model 3) The taste panel scores for broiler meat qualities and themurease analysis data were analyzed by the simple one-way ANOVA. 53 Further tests beyond the ANOVA for all the experi- ments employed the Bonferroni t-statistics to determine the specific differences between means. In those cases where the effects of soybean meal levels were examined, all linear and quadratic effects were computed as described by Gill (1978). The square root of the variance divided by the number of observations per mean was used as the standard error of mean. For each parameter discussed with a statistical analy- sis, the ANOVA tables are provided in Appendices A to F. The 0.01 and 0.05 levels of probability provided the basis for all statements concerning statistically significant differences. The experimental designs for the feeding trials are illustrated in Figures 1 to 3. 54 Soybean Levels Soy-type (8) Replicates * 1 SBM-control - ----------- diet 30 ______3 ------ 3 Boiled — ------------ soybean 10 _____________ meal diets 20 _____________ 30 _ ____________ Roasted _ ____________ soybean 10 meal diets ............ q 20 _ ____________ F- ----------- .1 30 ___________ ‘ F l Figure 1. Design for Broiler Experiment I. 55 Soybean Supplanentary levels Methionine levels Soy-type (M (is) Replicates ( SBM-omtrol ' 0 2 1 diet ' 2 35 0.4 Boiled 0 2 soybean neal diets 10 0.4 0.2 20 0.4 0.2 30 0.4 Roasted 0.2 soybean meal diets 10 W 0.4 ' 0.2 20 0.4 0.2 30 0.4 Figure 2. Design for Broiler mperimmt II 56 Soybean Levels Soy-type (8) Replicates SBM-control 2L diet 19.5 1 LL 4 Boiled soybean neal diets 7.5 15.0 22.5 Roasted soybean meal diets 7.5 15.0 22.5 Figure 3. Design for Layer Ezqaeriment III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment I: Broiler Feeding Experiment Treatment Effects Treatment in this study refers to the types of soy- bean meal diets fed. These include 48% protein soybean meal (SBM) diet, boiled soybean meal (boilsoy) diet and roasted soybean meal (roastsoy) diet. The analyses of var- iance of the data for final weights, body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion, pancreas weights and mortality are presented in Appendix Tables A-l to A-6, respectively. These tables show that treatment had no significant influ- ence on the birds for all the parameters examined. Table 5 shows the response of broiler chicks to boiled and roasted soybean meal diets for both sexes. The values of the boilsoy and the roastsoy diets for each of the para- meters shown represented the means for the groups of birds fed each of the three levels of boilsoy or each of the three levels of roastsoy diets, respectively. Comparison of mean values also indicated no significant difference between the birds fed the SBM (control), the boil- soy and the roastsoy diets for all the parameters studied except body weight gain. In this case, the birds fed the boilsoy diets had a significantly larger weight gain 57 58 .3233on no ~92 85 um manganese? 8&8 8: 8 8808QO 88.2 9.8 so fit. 28: vva\h h¢.o Mmm.v mvc. mmm.a o.mma mmm.m¢cv mm.o Mem.m nbN.vmom m.ma~ odh.dmam muwwo homummom vva\> mm.o wom.v mac. mom.a h.mma mam.hmoq m¢.o ech.m www.mmam o.va~ omm.amam human acmflom me\m mo.~ om~.m Nmo. omm.a H.mv mvo.avav No.0 Mmo.m ommm.hmam m.~e~ am¢.moam ammo Aaonucoov 2mm E8 mm“ a :8: mm“ :8: mm“ :8: mm“ mums. 282 mm“ 88: B32 38 98x88 99 .83x29 83 $5 3583 ES. 199 3:3.“94 cannot/coo momma 55.0450 coon.— mmmunxnmm 5mm ”50wa 3:39; Hawk .8588 38m 58 you flange 8.35 m.» you 8.... Emma H82 588m @3888 RB oofiom B 8.35 8:85 mo 338m .m 838. 59 (p < 0.05) than the birds fed roastsoy diets. The birds fed the boilsoy diet had a slightly larger weight gain value than the SBM (control) diet although the difference was not significant. There was also no significant difference in body weight gain values between the birds fed the roastsoy and those fed the SBM (control) diet. When the sexes were separated as shown in Tables 6 and 7, there were no signifi- cant differences in the mean values for pancreas weights, final weights and weight gains between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets. Effect of Soybean Meal Levels Soybean meal levels for this trial were 10, 20 and 30 percent of the ration for the boilsoy and roastsoy diets. The ANOVA presented in Tables A-l to A-6 (Appendix A) also indicated that levels of soybean meals had no significant influence on the performance of broilers for final weight, body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion, pan- creas weights and mortality. Tables 8 and 9 show the effect of levels of boiled and roasted soybean meals, respectively, in broiler diets on the response of birds for pancreas weight, final body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion and mortal- ity. 'Comparisons of means of the birds fed SBM (control) diet with those fed any of the three boilsoy levels 60 Table 6. Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks (Results for Males) Pancreas Final weights Weight gain Weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean iSE Mean :SE Mean SBM ‘ (control) a a a Diet 3.93 .48 2409.06 27.4 2371.49 Boilsoy a a a Diets 4.04 .78 2372.63 106.8 2335.96 Roastsoy a a a Diets 4.22 .56 2318.44 118.4 2281.82 Means with the same letter superscript do not nificantly at 0.05 level of probability. differ sig- Table 7. Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks (Results for Females) Pancreas Final weights Weight gain Weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean tSE Mean :SE Mean SBM (control) a a a Diet 3.43 .73 1921.83 77.2 1883.41 Boilsoy a a a Diets 3.44 .72 2010.87 218.7 1971.43 Roastsoy a a a Diets 3.46 .30 1944.98 69.7 1906.56 Means with the same letter superscript do not differ sig- nificantly at 0.05 level of probability. 61 (Table 8) show no significant difference for all the para- meters studied. There was also no significant difference between the birds fed the control diet and those fed any of the three roastsoy levels for pancreas weights, final body weights, feed conversion and mortality but there were, however, significant differences in these groups of birds for body weight gain and feed consumption (Table 9). Birds fed the 10% roastsoy diet had significantly faster gain than those birds fed the 20% roastsoy diet (p < 0.05) but not significantly faster than those birds fed either the 30% roastsoy diet or the SBM (control) diet. Body weight gain for the birds fed the control diet was not significantly higher than the values for any of the three roastsoy levels. Similarly, feed consumption was higher for the birds that consumed the 10% roastsoy diet (p < 0.05) than for those birds fed the 208 roastsoy diet but not significantly higher than the consumption of the birds fed the 30% roast- soy diet or than the consumption of those fed the SBM (control) diet. In fact, the amount of feed consumed by the birds visually correlated very well with the values for their body weight gain. Feed consumption by the birds fed the SBM (control) diet was not significantly different from those fed the 10% or the 30% roastsoy diets but was higher than that of the birds fed the 20% roastsoy diet at 0.05 level of probability. 62 .bSEBoE mo H93 86 an. >353“an .838 u.8. 8 53889... 853 83m 9.» fins 88: mv\m ma.~ um~.o Hmo. mam.H e.~m m~o.«~oe www.4mam «.4HN mmm.~mam as. mum.m “man somehow mom mvxm H~.H maa.¢ Hmo. mam.H H.mHm mmm.ooae mmm.¢aam ~.oo~ m-.-- as. mma.m amen somaaom mow mvxm oa.~ man.« «so. mqa.H m.pqa mmm.~mav mvm.amam m.vc~ www.mmHN ms. mam.m ammo somehow mom m¢\m ma.~ am~.m «me. mmm.a H.ov mac.avav mom.ama~ m.~p~ mmv.mmam mm. use.m some 38.802 2mm ammo muu_a_sma_ mam cams. mm“ :mmz. cam: mm“ Lama. mm“ .amu‘ finance. .camm mamxuoom meme.cuan\aeme con» .meme Imam. amass unmams bwgg counmumscoo nook (959.50 comm 330 ”2303 3:39» Hugh moon—08mm 8.8: me. you com 308 838m 5 H82 Saginaw 6638 no 393 no powwow .m 638. 63 Suflfinmnouo mo H93” mod on mauccgmficmfim young uoc on anemone—«gm noun—0H gm 0:» 5“: 232 mv\m .84 dd mac. 34 new 3.5mm 848m o.mm~ mmdmam 3. «Wm #03 we a no on m m a mom m¢\~ Hmé Medea. nmo. mmmé fimoa om~.~mmm £8.88 9th emmfimom mm. unfim owed moan—moon «om mv\m Hmé ammé mmo. M34 9mg @36va M2553 06mm www.momm 2.. mfié poem Emma wed we)” mo.~ mud «no. mmA adv 3.1V: wmfimam méhm manna we. mo.m amen m m m on m a 38.263 2mm 688 mmmwcmsa mm“ 5m: mm“ :82 5% mm... 59.. mm,“ 58: 352 3% Page 9.9 Ghnxmsm. 83 $8. ABE i=3 ueflmz Hagen,— cg Em>coo pooh nab-.650 comm 5mm .539.— muzmfimz gm mmmuocmm 9.003 mfi MOM com Mums umflonm 5 H82 cg boom—mom mo magma mo uooumm .m wanna. 64 Influence of Sex The analysis of variance shows that sex of the birds had a highly significant influence (p < 0.01) on the birds' final body weights and body weight gain (see Appendices Tables A-1 and A-2), but not for pancreas weights (Appendix Table A-S). Comparisons of treatment means for the birds' final body weights and body weight gain presented in Table 10 also confirmed this by showing males to be consistently heavier (p < 0.01) than the females for all the types of soybean meals fed. For the boilsoy and the roastsoy diets, the differences in pancreas weights between the sexes were highly significant (p < 0.01) with males having the larger pancreases. The males from the group of birds fed the SBM (control) diet also had larger pancreases than the females but the differences were not significant. Effect of Periods As expected, the ANOVA for broiler data presented in Tables of Appendix A-l to A-6 showed that periods had a highly significant influence (p < 0.01) on the birds re- sponse for final body weight, body weight gain, feed consump- tion, feed conversion, pancreas weight and mortality. The mean response values of the birds to the seven diets by periods for final body weights, feed consumption, feed con- version, pancreas weights and mortality are presented in Appendix Tables F-l to F-S. Table of Appendix F-S for mor- tality, indicates more than 70 percent of the mortality 65 Table 10. Response by Sex of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 7.5 Weeks Pancreas Final weights Weight gain Weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean :SE Mean :SE Mean SBM (control) Both sexes 3.68 .62 2165.45 271.8 2127.96 Males 3.93a .48 2409.06a 27.4 2372.49a Females 3.43a .73 1921.83b 77.2 1383.41° Boilsoy Diets Both sexes 3.74ab .43 2191.35ab 214.6 2153.69b Males 4.04a .78 2372.63a 106.8 2335.96a Females 3.44b .72 2010.87b 218.7 1971.43c Roastsoy Diet a ab b Both sexes 3.84 .59 2131.71 213.8 2094.20 Males 4.22a .56 2318.44a 118.4 2231.82a Females 3.46b .30 1944.98b 69.7 1906.56c Within each type of soybean meal diet, means having the same letter superscripts are not significantly different while means not having the same letter superscripts are significantly different at the .01 level of probability. 66 occurred between the third and the fourth periods. This result could be related to similar observations made for both broiler feeding trials. In each case, beginning from the third week, many chicks from all the pens began to de- velop swollen books. This eventually resulted in lameness and hence starvation due to inability of the affected chicks to reach the feeders and waterers. This condition seemed to be aggravated by the periodic handling of the birds for weighing because the condition was less serious in the second broiler feeding trial where the birds were handled for weighing only at the beginning and at the end of the trial. Most of the mortality recorded after the second period was found to be related to this problem. Some of the affected chicks were sent to Michigan State University's Animal Health Diagnostic laboratory for examination and post mortem. The reports could not relate the cause of this con- dition to the experimental diets. This condition was not observed during the feeding trial with laying hens. Experiment II: Broiler Feeding Experiment Treatment Effects Treatment in this trial refers to the three types of soybean meals (SBM, boilsoy and roastsoy). The ANOVA of the broiler data for final body weight, body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion, pancreas weights and mortality are presented in the Appendices Tables B-l to B-6, 67 respectively. The ANOVA tables indicate no significant effect of treatment on the response of birds for all the parameters studied. Table 11 shows the response of broiler chicks to boiled and roasted soybean meal diets for both sexes. The values of the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets for all the parameters represented the mean values for all the birds fed the three levels of either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets. The comparison of the treatment means of the birds' response to the various parameters shown in Table 11 indi- cated significant differences between the groups of birds fed the different soybean meals for final body weights, body weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion. There were no significant differences between the three groups of birds for pancreas weights and percent mortality. Table 11 also indicates SBM (control) diet supported the production of birds with significantly (p < 0.05) larger final body weights than the boilsoy diets but not signifi- cantly larger than those birds fed the roastsoy diets. There was no significant difference between the final body weights of the birds fed the boilsoy diets and those fed the roastsoy diets. The final body weight treatment means and the standard errors were 1462.6 1 142.52 for the control diet, 1413.87 I 142.39 for roastsoy diets and 1377.35 : 124.73 for boilsoy diets, respectively. 68 .wagfloommou Suzanna.“ mo magma mo. can 3. on» an ”25335.6 34.583203 mfim gum: c958 magma uoc 989. odd? agave hflgwugfim no: man. 3359896 H933 $85 no gem—mo c958 magma memo: «me «.8. see 3&2 sum: 8. new. «2). Se 84 182 8.3.2 92: e.m Bea m m. an no one up >033 \ 3e. 2e. «.3 $62 2.42 2.. emu NS m 34 :4 .82 25:2 $.22 3.». 363 a n BEN n n a 628m em; 3o. Rem 3.34 «me: mm. mm“ 46>. mme s; .3: SS: 8.2: 85 663 a no mam m m m 30.3603 :6 008 w can 3 . g 3 g g 334 156.... 8568.4. 23 8305.5 :03 in... ES. ES. 9533 unease: .58968 Bee .8528 88 fine ”.68: 36st ASE 6.6888 89:5 8x8 58 you 38mg 8663 Q... new 66.... 368 39 :38 @3662 can 838 B 8.25 06:63 .45 68866: .2 638. 69 The comparisons of treatment means for body weight gain were quite similar to those described for final body weights. The control diets also supported significantly faster gain (1422.63 gms : 138.94 gms) than the value of 1341.76 1 124.69 grams obtained for the birds fed the boil- soy diets (p < 0.05). Again there was no significant dif- ference between the birds fed the control diet and the birds fed the roastsoy diets with a mean weight of 1378.91 1 142.35 grams. There was also no significant difference between the birds fed the boilsoy diets and those birds fed the roastsoy diets for body weight gain. In the case of feed consumption, Table 11 also indi- cated that the birds fed the SBM (control) diet consumed considerably more feed (2416.56 : 90.66 grams) than either those birds fed the boilsoy diets (2330.25 1 89.4 grams) (p < 0.05), or those fed the roastsoy diets (2301.14 : 90.91 grams) (p < 0.01). Again, there was no significant difference in the feed consumption between the birds fed either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets. The birds fed the roastsoy diets had a significantly better feed conversion than those birds fed the boilsoy diets (p < 0.05). All the birds fed the roastsoy diets had a feed to gain ratio of 1.68 t 0.029 versus a ratio of 1.74 i 0.047 for all the birds fed the boilsoy diets. There were no significant differences between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet with a feed to gain ratio of 1.71 i 0.051 70 and the feed to gain ratio of either the birds fed the boil- soy or the roastsoy diets. Tables 12 and 13 show the response of broiler chicks to boiled and roasted soybean meal diets for males and fe- males, respectively. There were no significant differences in the pancreas weights between the birds fed the SBM (con- trol) diet and those birds fed the boilsoy or the roastsoy diet when the sexes were separated. Table 12, however, in- dicated highly significant differences (p < 0.01), in the final body weights and body weight gains between the males fed the SBM (control) diet and those fed the boilsoy diets. Again, for the males (Table 12), there were no significant differences in the final body weights and body weight gains between the birds fed SBM (control) diet and the mean for the group of birds fed the roastsoy diets. For the females only (Table 13), the birds fed the SBM (control) diet had a significantly higher final body weight and body weight gain than either those birds fed the boilsoy or those fed the roastsoy diets at the 0.05 level of probability but there were no significant differences in these two parameters be- tween the birds fed the boilsoy and those fed the roastsoy diets. Effect of Soybean Meal Levels Levels of soybean meals for this trial were 10, 20 and 30 percent of the ration for the boilsoy and roastsoy 71 \ Table 12. Response of Broiler Chicks to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks (Results for Males) Pancreas Final weights Weight gain weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean :SE Mean :SE Mean :82 SBM (control) a a a Diet 4.18 .30 1590.00 62.4 1545.08 62.4 Boilsoy a b b Diets 4.05 .49 1489.83 59.32 1454.19 59.18 Roastsoy Diets 3.82a .34 1543.78ab 36.95 1508.84ab 40.38 Means with the same letter superscript are not significantly different while means not having the same letter superscript are significantly different at the .01 level of probability. Table 13. Response of Broiler Chicks Soybean Meal Diets Fed for for Females) to Boiled and Roasted 5.5 Weeks (Results SBM (control) Diet Boilsoy Diets Roastsoy Diets Pancreas Final weights Weight gain Weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean :SE Mean :SE Mean :_SE 3.41a .30 1335.19a 20.60 1300.18a 20.88 a b b ' 3.62 .26 1264.88 7.45 1229.33 7.33 3.51a .26 1283.95b 45.51 1248.99b 45.52 Means with the same letter superscript are not significantly different while means not having the same letter superscript are significantly different at the 0.05 level of probability. 72 diets. There was only one level for the SBM (control) diet which was the percentage amount supplying the total oil seed meal protein of the control ration. Tables 14 and 15 show the effect of levels of boiled soybean meal and roasted soy- bean meal respectively, in broiler diets. Each mean value shown along the same row, for each diet for the six para- meters presented in each table represents the mean of the birds fed each of the two levels of supplementary methionine (0.2 and 0.4 percent supplementary DL-methionine). The ANOVA results presented in Appendix Tables B-l to B-6 showed that the levels of the boilsoy and roastsoy had no significant influence on the response of broiler chicks for final body weight, feed consumption, feed conversion, pancreas weights and rate of mortality, but the levels had a significant influence on the body weight gain at 0.05 level of probability. Table 14 indicated no significant differences between the groups of birds fed any of the boilsoy levels (10, 20 and 30 percent), for pancreas weights, feed conversion and mor- tality rate. It could also be observed from the same table that as the levels of boilsoy increased, the final body weight and body weight gain decreased. The birds fed the SBM (control) diet had a mean final body weight of 1462.60 1 142.54 grams which was not significantly different from a mean final body weight value of 1412.69 : 161.71 grams for the birds fed the 10% boilsoy diet. The birds that consumed 73 the SBM (control) diet, however, had significantly larger final body weight at the 0.01 level of probability than those groups of birds that consumed either the 20 or 30 percent boilsoy diets. There were no significant differ- ences in the final body weights between the birds fed either 10, 20 or 30 percent boilsoy diets. For body weight gain, Table 14 showed no significant difference between the birds that consumed the SBM (control) diet and those that consumed the 10% boilsoy diet but the birds that consumed the control diet had significantly higher body weight gain than those birds that consumed either the 20 or 30 percent boilsoy diets (p < 0.01). There were no significant differences for body weight gain between the birds that consumed either the 10 or 20 percent boilsoy diets or between those that consumed either the 20 or 30 percent boilsoy diets. Orthogonal polynomial tests for final weight and weight gain indicated a linear weight decline as the level of boilsoy increased. Only body weight gain was significant quadratically which suggests that the decrease was not at a uniform rate over the range of boilsoy levels studied. Feed consumption was not significantly different be- tween the birds fed the control diet with a mean value of 2416.56 1 90.66 grams and that of the birds fed the 10% boil- soy diet with a mean feed consumption of 2419.32 1 51.24 grams. The birds that were fed either the 20% boilsoy diet, 74 .3333on no aged 36 um aficmofimdawm new“? no: on unflOmHWw—m swung 95m 05 and; menu: \ :5 3o. 3% :32 8.8 mm. mm“ S m 26. £4 “.mmmm £332 3.32 35 008 m m an o n 6 >838 3m \ 8.6 mg. 8.8 8.3a 34.: 2. mm“ 3 a 8.6 :4 TmRm 2&an TQE 3.1,. 008 a a ha 8 an a >838 8N \ :4 3o. «NA... 342 :43 8. Eu. E N 2.,” 24 «BS: 8.:2 $.23 8... p.08 6 m m an an 6 >838 8H m~.H Hmo. mo.om oa.mma 4m.~va am. an“ so} «86 6:; 68.3: 63%: 68.3: 68.,” 003 2838. 2mm 0&8 a nag nag page 3 53.— page 3.02 .58 06808 2.9 €an. 83 106. .99 .06. £682 539. counmugcoo 68m .0528 68m a 9:303 3:033 3 gm 9.603 m.m How “you 53H— .HMHMOHm 5 E 5% Radon HO mags mo yam-Hm .vd 0.3g 75 however, consumed significantly less feed (p < 0.01) than those birds fed the SBM (control) diet or the 10% boilsoy diet. Again, there was no significant difference between the feed consumption of the birds fed the 20% boilsoy and those fed the 30% boilsoy diets which had the values of 2272.32 1 66.23 grams and 2298.13 + 82.53 grams, respectively. I The effects of levels of roasted soybean meal in broiler diets are presented in Table 15. This table indi- cates no significant differences in the response of broiler chicks between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and any of the groups of birds fed either the 10, 20, or 30 percent roastsoy for pancreas weights, body weight gain, feed conversion and the mortality rate. There were also no significant differences in the response of the birds between the three roastsoy levels for those parameters mentioned. For final body weight, the birds fed the SBM (control) diet were not significantly different from those birds fed either the 10 or 20 percent roastsoy diets but had a sig- nificantly higher mean final body weight than those birds fed the 30% roastsoy (p < 0.05). Although there were no significant differences in the final body weight values be- tween the groups of birds fed any of the three roastsoy dietary levels, the optimum level of roastsoy in broiler diets for maximum response was found by regression to be 25%. .hagfiommmmu .333qu no 393 mo. 98 .3. 05 um ucgmmufic hflcmowmdhmfim mum gaggm swung c9360 055m: no: 9808 0353 ”50.533 hflsmoflficmwm uoc who 39..ng .333 .395 no Housman c928 magma 0:002 om. NNO. min: v4.6a $5.93 mv. mm... ER 2.,” 004 .002 $.82 $.32 55 003 m M 3N m Q m same man 2.. 08. 042 0.2: 0.0.5: on. 00H 00> 0m; 84 0.82 3.82 2.2: m3” 008 0 0 ha 0 n0 0 63008 wow 2.. one. 0.0 «.2; 3.2: mm. 00H 00: 84 $4 dflmm 8.82 3.5; $5 008 m 0 0 has 0 n0 0 63008 03 004 Ga. 5.00 0.02 3&2 mm. 00H 2S. 3.... SA 0.30.0. 8.23 8.3: 8.0. 0.03 m w 2 m m m 35:93 :00 068 w 3 G3.— 3 3 S 3 H8000 .500 053000.... 06. 83050.9 83 10.6. .05 .06. 0030: 320000: 880088 0000 550:8 0000 £00 0.30: 3:303 35. 0000050 9.003 m.m .80 00.... 0003 00385 5 H00: 50060 000008 00 3003 no 000000 .2 2.109 77 The feed consumed by the birds fed the SBM (control) diet was significantly higher than the amount consumed by either those fed the 10% roastsoy diet (p < 0.05), the 20% roastsoy diet (p < 0.01), or the 30% roastsoy diet (p < 0.01). There were no significant differences in the amount of feed consumed by the birds fed either the 10, 20 or 30 percent roastsoy diets. Effects of Levels of Methionine The ANOVA tables presented in Appendices B-l to B-6 show that methionine supplementation to the three types of soybean meal broiler diets had no significant influence on the response of broiler chicks to final body weight, feed consumption, feed conversion and mortality rate. The in- fluence of methionine supplementation was significant only for the response of broiler chicks to body weight gain and pancreas weights, both at 0.05 level of probability. Table 16 shows the response of broiler chicks to supple— mentary methionine levels in boiled and roasted soybean meal diets fed for S 1/2 weeks. The two supplementary methionine levels (0.2 and 0.4 percent) for each type of soybean meal were compared in this table. The table reveal- ed no significant differences in the response of the broiler chicks for all the parameters studied when the diets were supplemented with either 0.2% or 0.4% DL-methionine for any of the groups fed any of the diets. 78 0000000080 00 00000 00.0 00 3020003005000. 000.0—«flu no: 8 003.000.0090.... 0033 0000.0 0:... 503 0:00.: 3000 Home. 00000500 No 0&3 some c.0503 00.0 000. 00.00 0.000 00.000 00.. 00..0 000 000.0 000.0 000.0000 000.0000 000.0000 00.0 .50: 00.0 00.0 000. 00.00 0.000 00.000 00. 000 000 000.0 000.0 000.0000 000.0000 000.0000 00.0.0 .000: 00.0 00000 >033 00.0 0.0.0 00.00-- 0.000 00.000 00. 000 000 000.0 000.0 000.0000 03.002 000.002 000.0 .50: 00.0 00.0 000. 00.00 0.000 00.000 0... 00+ 000 000.0 000.0 000.0000 000.0000 000.0000 000.0 .502 00.0 00000 0800.00 00.0 000. 00.02 0.000 00.000 00. 000.. 00\0 000 0 000 0 000 0000 000 002 000 0000 000 0 £0: 00. 0 00.0 000. 00.00 0.000 00.000 00. 0.0+ 00\0 000.0 000.0 000.0000 000.0000 000.0000 000.0 .502 00.0 00000 008508. :00 88 w 3 fig 3 59‘ 2mg E 00300 .500 0.000000 050. 00039.0. 800 00.5. 02.00 02.3 000003 30.03.09. 20.3.0268 @800 $0000 000.0 5.05 £5003 305003 2.0 000.00.00.00 80800000: 503 0000900090 00000 000080 0002 000008 0000000 000 000000 0000000 .05 0000000 0.00. .00 0000.0. 79 gnfluenge of BroilerSex on_Response to Boiled Soybean and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets The ANOVA tables in Appendices B-l, B-2 and B-5 indi- cate that sex of broiler chicks had a highly significant influence on the birds' final body weight and body weight gain (p < 0.01), but had no significant influence on the pancreas weights. Table 17 shows the response of broiler chicks by sex to boiled and roasted soybean meal diets fed for 5 1/2 weeks. The table shows the comparisons of mean values of both sexes together and separated for each type of soybean meal (SBM, boilsoy and roastsoy) diets, and for the follow- ing parameters-—pancreas weights, final body weights and body weight gain. According to this table, there were no significant differences in the pancreas weights between the sexes whether separated or combined for any of the SBM, boilsoy or roastsoy diets. As for the body weight gain and for final body weights, the male birds had consistently larger values (p < 0.05) than the females. These observa- tions were quite similar to those made in the first broiler feeding trial. Summary, Results and Discussion of r firoiler Experiments I and If The results of the two broiler feeding trials agreed in that the birds fed either the SBM (control), the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets indicated no significant differences 80 Table 17. Response of Broilers by Sex to Boiled and Roasted Soybean Meal Diets Fed for 5.5 Weeks Pancreas Final weights Weight gain Weight (gms) (gms) (gms) Mean :SE Mean iSE Mean iSE SBM (control) Diets a a b Both sexes 3.80 .59 1462.60 142.52 1422.63 138.94 Males 4.18a .3o 1590.00a 62.4 1545.08a 74.89 Females 3.41a .30 1335.19c 20.69 1300.18c 20.88 Boilsoy Diets a b b Both sexes 3.84 .47 1377.35 124.73 1341.76 24.69 Males 4.05a .49 1489.83a 59.32 1454.19a 59.18 Females 3.62a .26 1264.88c 7.45 1229.33c 7.33 Roastsoy Diets a b b Both sexes 3.67 .40 1413.87 142.39 1378.91 142.35 Males 3.82a .34 1543.78a 36.95 1508.84a 40.38 Females 3.51a .26 1283.95c 45.51 1248.99c 45.52 Within each type of soybean meal diets, means with the same letter superscript do not differ significantly at 0.01 level of probability. 81 for pancreas weights and rate of mortality. The two results differ, however, with respect to the response of the birds to the three types of soybean meals tested for final body weights, body weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion. Table 5 which shows the response of broiler chicks to boiled and roasted soybean diets for the first broiler ex- periment indicated that all the birds fed the boilsoy diets had a higher mean body weight gain (p 4< 0.05) than all the birds fed the roastsoy diets. There was no significant dif- ference between the response of birds fed the SBM (control) diets and either all those birds fed the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets for all the parameters studied. Tables 8 and 9 present the results for the first broiler experiment on the effect of levels of boiled and roasted soybean meals, re- spectively, in broiler diets. These tables also indicate no adverse effects on the birds by feeding any of the three levels (10, 20 and 30 percent) of either the boilsoy or the roastsoy in broiler diets for all the parameters examined when compared with the results of those birds fed the SBM (control) diet. In the second broiler experiment, however, Table 11 which shows the response of broiler chicks to boiled and roasted soybean meal diets for both sexes together indicated no significant difference between all the birds fed the boilsoy diets and all those birds that consumed the roastsoy 82 diets for all the parameters studied except for feed con- version. This table indicated a better feed conversion for all the birds fed the roastsoy diets compared with all those that were fed the boilsoy diets. Table 11 also indicated a lower performance by the birds fed the boilsoy than those fed the SBM (control) diet for final body weight and body weight gain both at the 0.05 level of probability. The birds fed the roastsoy diets, on the other hand, performed satisfactorily when compared with those that consumed the SBM (control) diet for all the parameters studied. Tables 14 and 15 show the effect of levels of boiled or roasted soybean meals, respectively, in broiler diets for the second broiler experiment. Table 14 indicated that the birds fed the 10% boilsoy diet had no significant dif- ference in their response for all the parameters studied when compared with those birds fed the SBM (control) diet. The 20% or 30% boilsoy diets resulted in birds that per- formed less than those fed the SBM (control) diet for final body weight and body weight gain. With the 10, 20 and 30 percent roastsoy diets, however, the birds performed satis- factorily at all levels and for all the parameters studied when compared with the birds that consumed the SBM (control) diet except the significantly lower final weight (p < 0.05) obtained from the birds that consumed the 30% roastsoy diet (see Table 15). 83 In general, for all the parameters studied in both broiler experiments, the performances of the birds fed the roasted soybean were quite satisfactory when compared with those obtained from the birds fed the SBM (control) diets. These results agreed with the reports of many previous workers that heat treatment improves the nutritional values of soybeans (Obsorne and Mendel, 1917; Hayward 35 31., 1936; Hayward and Hafner, 1941; Rogler and Carrick, 1961; Scott et 31., 1971). The results for the birds fed the boilsoy diets, how- ever, were not consistent for both broiler studies. The birds fed the boilsoy diets performed as well as those fed the SBM (control) diet for all the parameters studied in the first broiler feeding experiment. This observation also agreed with the reports of many previous workers in this field that moist heat treatment improves the nutritional values of soybeans (Fritz gt 31., 1947; Hayward, 1951; Renner gt 31., 1953; Rogler and Carrick, 1961). In the second broiler feeding experiment however, the birds fed the boilsoy diets did not perform as well as those fed the control diet for final body weight and body weight gain (Table 14). It was noticed in the two broiler feeding experiments that the amount of feed consumed by the birds fed the boils soy and roastsoy diets were lower than the amount consumed by the birds fed the SBM (control) diet. This reduced feed 84 consumption for both the boilsoy and roastsoy diets was not significant during the first broiler feeding experiment but in the second experiment, the birds fed either the 20% or the 30% boilsoy diets, or either the 10%, 20% or the 30% roastsoy diet consumed significantly less feed than the birds fed the control diet. These reduced feed consumptions were also reflected through the significantly lower final body weights and body weight gain obtained by the birds fed the 20% and the 30% boilsoy diets when compared with those fed the SBM (control) diet. There seems to be no definite explanation for the lower final weights and weight gain obtained in the second broiler eXperiment for the birds fed the 20 and 30 percent boilsoy diets. One probable cause for this poor growth performance by the birds fed the boilsoy diets may relate to the effect of soaking soybeans in water during cooking. According to Hand (1966), soaking of soybeans can bring about changes in composition in two possible ways. Firstly by leaching of solutes and secondly by in gitg biochemical changes. Since the leaching effect appears to be accentu- ated by soaking at elevated temperatures, one could expect this factor to be responsible for part of the lower growth response of the birds fed the boilsoy diets in the second broiler feeding trial. The amount of fat added during roasting after boiling for the roastsoy ingredient might have restored some of the energy lost through the leached 85 carbohydrates during the boiling stage of the roastsoy prep- aration. This might have accounted for the better growth results obtained from the broilers fed the roastsoy diets. Some of the factors that could possibly cause the dis- crepancy between the first and the second broiler feeding experiments include (a) difference in the time the two ex- periments were conducted. There was a five month gap be- tween the first and the second experiment. (b) The compo- sition of the rations for the second experiment was slight- ly different from those of the first trial. For example, meat and bone meal was added at the 5% level in the first experiment but at 3% level in the second experiment although the calculated analyses of the rations for both experiments were kept quite similar. (c) The collection time for the roasted soybean wastes and the storage conditions within the oil roast plant, both of which were beyond the control of the researcher, could be adequate for the development of mold and oxidative rancidity in the total fat content of the oil roast soybean wastes (roastsoy). This factor, again, might have decreased the energy value of the roast- soy diets. It could also have decreased the palatability of the roastsoy diets to some degree especially for the second broiler feeding experiment. In the light of the un- certainty just mentioned, it is suggested that further work in this area should investigate whether the use of antioxi- dant and fungistats would help to eliminate the slight 86 problem of lower final body weight observed with birds fed the 30% roastsoy broiler diet in the second feeding experi- ment. (d) The fourth factor is the difference in the dura- tion of the two experiments. The first broiler feeding experiment lasted 7 1/2 weeks, while the second feeding experiment lasted 5 l/2 weeks. There is a possibility for the development of a physiological adaptation by the broiler chicks to any of the diets with age. The chicks that were fed a certain diet for a longer period of time are more likely to be able to digest and absorb some particular nu- trients more efficiently from the diet (Saxena gt 31., 1963; Alumot and Nitsan, 1961; Nesheim £5 31., 1962). The two weeks difference in the age at which the two experiments were terminated could make a difference in the response of the birds to the diets, especially if the birds become more adapted to the diets with time and/or age. Lack of significant difference in the response be- tween the broilers fed 0.2% DL-methionine and those fed 0.4% DL-methionine for all the parameters tested as indicated in Table 16 suggests that the sulfur amino acid requirements of the broiler chicks were met even at the lower level of methionine supplementation for the boilsoy and the roastsoy diets. This may also mean that the trypsin inhibitor con- tents of the soybeans were reduced low enough to prevent pancreatic hypertrophy and excessive endogenous nitrogen loss from hypersecretion of pancreatic enzymes (Lyman and 87 Lepkovsky, 1957; Booth gt 21., 1972). Judging from the results of the two broiler feeding experiments, it appears that up to 25% roastsoy could be in- corporated into broiler diets without adverse effects on the growth of broilers provided the diets contain Other sources of protein rich in methionine. As for the boilsoy, although the results of the first broiler experiment indicated that up to 30% of this ingredient could safely be incorporated into broiler diets without adverse effects on growth, the results of the second broiler experiment however, did not agree with this. The results of the second broiler experi- ment indicated that not more than 10% boilsoy could be in- corporated into broiler rations without adverse effects on growth. Based on these results, it appears there is a pos- sibility that boilsoy may be incorporated into broiler rations up to 30% level provided the rations contain other sources of protein high in methionine. It is only reason- able at this moment to suggest limiting boilsoy to only 10% of broiler rations. Further work would be required to de- termine if levels higher than 10% boilsoy in broiler diets might have adverse effects. Subjective Evaluation of Broiler Meat From Experiment II by Consumer Taste Panel Treatment Effects For this study, the term treatment again refers to the three types of soybean meals (SBMrcontrol, boilsoy and 88 roastsoy). The ANOVA on broiler meat quality scores for color, odor, flavor, juiciness, tenderness, overall accept- ability and overall ranking are presented in Appendices Tables C-l to C-7, respectively. A study of the tables shows significant differences in the meat flavor (p < 0.05) tenderness (p < 0.01) and overall ranking for quality (p < 0.01) between the meat from the three groups of birds fed either SBM (control), boilsoy or roastsoy diets. There were no significant differences between those three groups of broiler meat for color, odor, juiciness and overall ac- ceptability. Table 18 shows the effect of boiled and roasted soy- bean meal diets on broiler meat quality. The mean values shown are for both sexes. Although the ANOVA indicated a significant difference in the flavor of the meat between the three groups of broilers fed each of the three soybean diets at the 0.05 level of probability, this difference did not show in the comparison of the flavor treatment means for both sexes together. With the sexes separated however, Table 19 which contains the results for the males shows that the meat of the male broilers from the group of birds fed the roastsoy diet scored significantly higher for flavor (p < 0.01) than the meat from the male birds fed the SBM (control) diet. There was no significant difference in the broiler meat scores for flavor between those birds fed the roastsoy and the boilsoy diets. 89 00900000000 2000000080 no 0.00500 mo. was 3. on» us pageant 0030000030053 080 £83096 030000 008.50 gm: no: momma 000:3 #:0900300 00300063003000 no: 0080 3000008890.. .0303 30.5 00 30900 5:30 90.020: 20.030 0000. 0000. 0000 00000 00000 0000. .0000 00+ . 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 .gmnwuwfl 000.0. 000.00 000.00 000.0. 000.00 000.00 000.00 000 000.0 000.0 000.0 0000.0 000.0 000.0 000.0 Agflwswwwm 000.0. 000.0. 00000 00000 00000 .000. 0000. 000.0 000.0 000.0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 mfimmmm 0900.0 .0008 008 0:00:00 00000000000 000509.00. 00800000. 000086 .2 000005 89038 mmxwm 50m HON Ban—mm”; Ewing 00mg HGHHQHm co 300G H0090 among 0093 can 60.208 no gmwm .mH manna. 90 Tables 19 and 20 show the effects of boiled and roast- ed soybean meal diets on broiler meat quality for the males and for the females, respectively. These tables together with Table 18 indicated that the type of soybean meal had a significant effect on the tenderness of the broiler meat. In all cases but one, the meat from the birds fed the roast- soy diet was significantly more tender than the meat from the birds fed the boilsoy diet but not significantly more tender than the meat from the birds fed the SBM (control) diet. Table 20 shows that the meat from the females fed the roastsoy diet was more tender than that from the females fed the SBM (control) diet at the 0.01 level of probability. The meat from the broilers fed the roastsoy diets received an overall ranking for quality which was signifi- cantly higher (P < 0.01), than the meat from those birds fed either the boilsoy or the SBM (control) diets when the results of both sexes were analyzed together (Table 18). Also the same table shows no significant differences in the scores for overall ranking between the meat from the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and those fed the boilsoy diet. With the results for the sexes analyzed separately, Table 19 shows that the meat of the male birds fed the SBM (con- trol) diet received an almost equal overall ranking (3.76) with the meat of the male birds fed the roastsoy diet which had a score of 3.67. The meat of the male birds fed either the SBM (control) diet or those fed the roastsoy diet 91 5930.98 52338.“ no magma mo. 95 .8. on”. an 953mm? bus—83a? mum flaggm .333 c938 0992 no: . magma mag ugwmflo aflccoflgfim #0: man mumwuomumgm .333 :95 H0 338 .5560 952...: mag 80.8 Game Ammuov 398 A36. 8mg: 3.33 mm... 43$ 0mm q mod v cued moaé 436 now m Amswflmwmuwwwm 5.8 13.8 8T8 5.8 3&8 5.8 :~.8 mmH mcooé momé cmmé mmm.~ Mama mmm.m mmm.m Amcmmw‘nwmwwwm 5.8 5.8 8....8 5.8 3.8 888 5:8 emu mmhgm mooé Mmaé 423m omwé Hm>wuoomm¢n Suwfinmnoum mo magma mo. 95 Ho. 05 um “Bowman? aflcmoamgwm mum magmasm .333 .5350 mayo: no: mummy: 3.23 unammuwc Engaged no: man fimwgm umuuma :95 Ho H338 :9.an mun—«>9.— momma mo. «.34. 3. «SJ. 8. m3... mm. at; Z. «.24 3. m8; 2. <36 has: 6.8 3. m3” 2. mmé aa. 8.... em. S...” «N. 3.... mm. amé mm. m: ”.8... £03 o m m m m m m amen >033 2. n36 mm. «8... «m. «.36 mm. mama S. n85 om. m8.m S. «$5 39. find em. 8% «N. «86 en. mar. mm. om.m mm. 8;. ea. 8;” mm. in name £33 a m a m 4 an $3 EH8 «A. mama mm. mama em. ~84 om. «mad 3. mama Hm. mmma S. «Rd ”.82 £8 E. «med mm. emu; 5. «.36 mm. m8.~ mm. ~85 m1 «.8; mm. mo: name £34 umE GHQHUCBV a mm“ 5% mm“ 5m: mmH :8: mm.+. cum: mmH 5% mmH 58: mm“ :8: “.ng H38 .360 mm. 5 Nmfiwnmummo ammo—Dong? mmgogn 3985 :04 38mg «0 903559 3380 on? has .43an :0 963 H8: 38 Bug 93 838 no 38mg .88 zoom no“ ”.8: £8 93 £53 .vN manna. 101 was found that the meat from the birds fed the roastsoy diet received significantly higher score for flavor (p < 0.01) than the meat from the birds fed the SBM (control) diet but not significantly higher than the score for flavor for the meat from the birds fed the boilsoy diet. The significant influence of the roastsoy diet on the meat flavor was expected because the browning reaction of soybeans during oil roasting usually involves some degree of Maillard reaction, caramelization of the sugars and flavor improvement. The flavor developed from the roasting process might have improved the flavor of the meat of the birds fed the roastsoy diet. This in turn could have led to the high- est score for overall ranking received by the meat from the birds fed the roastsoy diet. Experiment III - Layer Feeding Experiment Treatment Effects Treatment in this experiment refers to the three types of soybean meal diets--SBM (control), boilsoy and the roast- soy diets, while the soybean meal levels were 7.5, 15 and 22.5 percent of the ration for the boilsoy and the roastsoy diets. The only level for the SBM (control) diet was the 19.6% of SBM~48 which supplied the maximum amount of SBM required to make up the balance of the vegetable protein of the control ration. 102 The ANOVA of the layer data for total egg number, hen- day egg production, hen-housed egg production, feed consump- tion, feed efficiency (kg/dozen eggs), pancreas weights, body weight gain and mortality are presented in the Appendi- ces Tables D-l to D-8), respectively. The ANOVA tables show that treatment (type of soybean meal) had no significant effect on the birds for all the parameters studied. Table 25 shows the effects of boiled and roasted soy- bean meal diets on the performance of laying hens. The mean values of the boilsoy and the roastsoy diets for all the parameters shown represent the mean values for all the birds fed each of the three levels of either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets. The standard error of means are in brackets under each mean value. This table also indicated no significant differences between the birds fed either the boilsoy, the roastsoy or the SBM (control) diets for all the parameters studied. Effect of Soybean Meal Levels The tables of ANOVA (Appendices D-l to D-8) revealed no significant effect of the soybean meal levels on the layers' response to all the parameters studied except for pancreas weights. Table 26 shows the effects of levels of boiled soybean meal diets on the performance of laying hens. The standard errors for each mean are also shown in brackets under each mean. This table also revealed no significant 103 .BHEBBQ mo ~92 86 05 an signage... “8ch no: 8 $2839... H.833 $8 mfi .33 mammal .mm.o. .om.cv Am.mmac lem.. A¢.HH. Am.mv .m.m. A~.~mc Av.me an“ 3% SA SA :53 93 $52 $6... :23 ::8 338.5%. 303 w 6 6 M M M m m 0 Emma Am~.oc .mm.o. Am.mma. Amm.c Av.HH. A~.cev Ac.oH. Am.mnv .~.m. an“ . . . gm To: 2.8 3.3. 3.8 mvdflmfime 33o mm} a: m «.8 m «mm a: m up a m. m m >838 Amm.oc xmv.cc A~.q-c Am~.c .a.cav Aq.mc Ac.m. .e.a~v A~.qv an“ ~m\~ «£6 «£5 was: «.34 «85: «3.5 «.83 «3.8 «New .Emwwuwmww 2mm 38 a 8:3 :53 8me >8 :5 5 BB 329 H992 £533 \mamv . 839: \Eéfiae 58a :83 Hoe 338. 33339. mmmno 5mm 5:303 5395.." @030: amcucmm . oz mmm mmm Icmm “Ego: nun p8,".— ucoo comm 1cm: 2% 8&3 mo 8§Bouumm we... 8 mums Hum; 583m 888: can 338 to 308%.. .mm 2nt 104 $35300me .333? no magma mo. g 8. an... an ”.5333 aflfioagfim mum mumwuowumgm awn—um: £9.50 @523 no: 989: 0:53 usammmfiu aflcmofimgfim no: mum mumwuomHQO EH3 :95 Ho gang :QEBO 9&6: mg \ Ac.ov .c¢.o. Ac.~o~v .o¢.o. .m.av .m.m. Am.a. Ao.qm. Am.m. mm“ mm c 85 as” $52 fl.~ 3.3 «.3 «.3 .8 33 3:82. 83 a m m m m m m an m >838 $.- \ 8%: 898 8.88 :3: 8.3 2.5: 2.3. 3.3 3.3 mm.“ mm m mm... -.m £5: mo.~ 24: «é «.8 .8 mam 359. 33 m m m m m m m an 6 >838 3H \ A~5.Hv Adm.ov Am.ohav .vv.o. Am.mav Am.oav AH.oHV Am.mm. .H.m. mm“ mm m £6 fla 84.2 Him 85: «a... fine .2. 33. .985 83 m m m m m m 0 gm m Ewen $4. \ Amp.~. Amq.ov .~.¢-. Am~.cv .m.oHV .e.mv Ao.m. A~.a~. as... mm“ an N £6 £5 Ami; a; $5: .15 98 .8 «.3 3:3: 88 m. m m up a m a Sam M 393.33 2% 38 a BB. .83 Room 3. E 5 EB A25. :32 3.83 Ba. . 8&9: \Bfifimé 58m 68m “an “.333 EHBHQ‘ mg 5mm mocwwowm :Qfifiwim c939.— »mclcmfi .02 0mm mom ncmm £33: nmm Emu :80 3mm :5: mama mfiufl mo 83583.“ 05 so 33a H8: 583m R58 mo £93 no 308% .mm mama 105 differences between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and any of the groups of birds fed each of the three levels of boilsoy (7.5, 15 and 22.5 percent) diets for all the layer parameters studied except for egg numbers. The birds fed the 22.5% boilsoy diet produced a lower number of eggs per bird than the birds fed either the 7.5% boilsoy diet (p < 0.05), 15% boilsoy diet (p < 0.01) or the SBM (control) diet (p < 0.01). The standard error of mean for egg number shows that the birds fed the 22.5% boilsoy had the largest variation when compared with the results for the groups of birds fed any other diet. The ANOVA table in Appendix D-l for egg numbers also indicated a highly significant bird variation at 0.01 level of probability. The lower egg number obtained for the group of birds fed the 22.5% boilsoy diet may therefore not be related to the nature of the diet fed. When the egg numbers were trans- formed into percent hen-day or percent hen-housed egg pro- duction, there were no significant differences observed between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and those fed any of the three levels of boilsoy diets. Table 27 shows the effects of levels of roasted soy- bean meal diets on the performance of laying hens. This table again reveals no significant difference between the birds fed the SBM (control) diet and any of the three groups of birds fed each of the levels of roastsoy (7.5, 15 and 22.5 percent) diets for all the parameters studied except 106 .>Hm>floommmu .533nt no magma mo. 65.. 3. 93 um “Emmoumflo aflqmowmdhmfim our. mumfiuomummom H833 cos—.8 mayo: no: 9mm: 3.33 9590.33 wan—£83203 no: mum flown—Ugo Manama :98 no #338 .3550 936: 989.. \ .o.o. .m3.cc Ao.mmH. .3~.o. Ae.~H. .3.u. 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The reason for the lower egg number from the birds fed the 7.5% roastsoy diet is not clear. It could also be observed from Table 27, however, that there was a high degree of variation as indicated by the large values for the standard errors of means. The standard error of mean was highest for the birds fed the 7.5% roastsoy (86.9 i 35.7). The table of Appendix D-l on the ANOVA for total number of eggs also shows that there was a high de- gree of bird variation at 0.01 level of probability. It is therefore possible that the lower egg number obtained from the birds fed 7.5% roastsoy was not due to the diet fed. Lack of significant differences between the pancreas weights of the birds fed any of the diets for this trial also sug- gests a substantial reduction in the level of trypsin in- hibitor content of the boilsoy and roastsoy ingredients by the amount of heat applied during processing (Rackis and McGhee, 1975). Effect of Periods As expected, the ANOVA indicated a high-significant effect of period at 0.01 level of probability on the birds for all the parameters except for mortality. The rate of mortality was very low for all the diets; 2 out of 32 birds for the birds that received the control diet, 5 out of 96 108 birds for those birds fed the boilsoy diets and 3 out of 96 birds for the groups of birds fed the roastsoy diets." Tables 28 and 29 show the percent hen-day and hen- housed egg production and the standard error of means by 28 day periods for each diet fed. The results in these tables suggest that the birds were either already at the peak of the production curve right from the beginning of the experi- ment or more likely, that the birds were set back in pro- duction and could not quite attain the potential peak of production due to the stress from handling and weighing for the experiment after the production had started. The birds fed the diets that contained the roastsoy ingredient performed just as well in this layer feeding ex- periment as broilers fed in the two broiler feeding experi- ments. This satisfactory result for the birds fed the roastsoy diets agreed with many previous reports that heat treatment improved the nutritional values of soybeans (Hay- ward and Hafner, 1941; Clandinin st 31., 1947; Fritz 22 31., 1947; Renner and Hill, 1960; Rogler and Carrick, 1961; Scott 25 31., 1971; Rackis 22 31., 1975; Liener, 1977). The results here suggest that the roastsoy could be incorporated into laying rations up to 22.5% without adverse effects on the performance of the laying hens provided the rations con- tain other sources of critical amino acids such as methion- ine. As for the birds fed the diets that contained the 109 8m «.4. 8.: ~.m 8m 3. 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There were, how- ever, strong evidences from the high standard error of mean for egg numbers (Table 26) and from the highly significant bird variation for egg numbers per bird as indicated in the ANOVA (Appendix Table D-l) that the lower egg number for this group of birds fed the 22.5% boilsoy may not be related to the nature of the diet fed. Despite the evidences advanced to justify the lower egg numbers for the birds fed the boilsoy diets when come pared with the birds fed the control diet, it is more real- istic to suggest at this stage that the use of boilsoy in layer rations be limited to 15% level until further studies indicate that layer rations may contain higher levels of boilsoy without adverse effects on the laying hens. Results of the Urease Analysis Tests Analysis of variance for urease activity measurement by PH (Table E-l) indicates a highly significant difference in urease activity among the types of soybean meal tested at 0.01 level of probability. Comparisons of soybean sample means shown in Table 30 revealed that raw soybean meal had significantly higher- urease activity (p < 0.01) than either the boiled soybean meal (boilsoy), roasted soybean meal (roastsoy) or 48% pro- tein, solvent extracted soybean meal (SBM). Raw soybean 112 Table 30. Urease Activities of Four SoybeanHMeal Samples Measured as Increased Change in P Urease activity . No. of Deter- (Mean P change) :53 minations Raw soybean 2.162a 0.138 16 Boiled soybean , 0.168b 0.123 16 Roasted soybean 0.065b 0.113 16 Soybean meal-48% b (control) 0.174 0.114 16 Means with the same letter superscript do not differ significantly at 0.01 level of probability. meal had a PH rise of 2.162 compared with 0.168 rise for boilsoy, 0.065 rise for roastsoy and 0.174 rise for SBM. There were no significant differences in the PH rise between the boilsoy, roastsoy and SBM samples. Results of the urease test show a close agreement with that of Hayward (1967) who reported a PH increase of about 2.0 for raw soybean meal, 0.2 rise for properly cooked soy- bean meal and 0.05 rise for overcooked soybean meal. The roastsoy in this test with a PH rise of 0.065 was very close to the value of 0.05 which is the lower limit of the cri- terion suggested by Hayward before the soybean can be said to be overcooked. The time-temperature-moisture combination applied to the boilsoy, the roastsoy and the SBM can be con- sidered to be adequate according to the criterion of 0.05 to 0.2 PH rise suggested by Hayward (1967), and according to the criterion of Caskey and Knapp (1944) reported by Bird 113 t 1. (1947), that is, a less than "one unit PH increase" for an adequate heat treatment. ‘ Table 30 shows that the PH increase of the boilsoy and roastsoy were both less than one unit. This result, according to Caskey and Knapp (1944), indicated that the amount of heat applied to both the boilsoy and the roastsoy used in this study can therefore be said to have improved the nutritional qualities of these products to the standard of the commercially prepared soybean meal used in this study. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Three feeding experiments (two with broiler chicks and one with laying hens), one subjective taste panel evalu- ation of broiler meat eating quality characteristics and urease tests were performed to evaluate the feeding values of boiled soybean (boilsoy) and roasted soybean (roastsoy) for chickens. The following results were obtained. Broiler Feeding Trials 1. The broiler chicks fed the diets containing up to 30% roastsoy diets compared favorably with'the birds fed the control diet for all the parameters examined in the first broiler study. The optimum level of roastsoy in broiler diets for maximum response in the second study was only 25%. It appears therefore, practicable to incorporate up to 25% roastsoy in broiler diets without adverse ~ effects on the growth of broiler chicks provided the rations contain other sources of protein with reasonable methionine content. The broiler chicks fed the boilsoy diets performed satisfactorily compared with the birds fed the control diet for all the parameters studied in the first broiler experiment. The results of the 114 115 second broiler feeding experiment, however, were not so encouraging. Although it may be possible to incorporate boilsoy in broiler rations at higher levels, it is more reasonable to suggest that boilsoy should not exceed 10% of broiler rations based on the present results. Further work would be required to determine if levels higher than 10% boilsoy in broiler diets might have adverse effects. The birds fed either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets consumed significantly less feed than those birds fed the SBM (control) diet. This reduced feed consumption was more pronounced in the second broiler feeding trial. In the second broiler experiment, the birds fed the boilsoy diets and those fed the roastsoy diets consumed significant- ly less feed (p < 0.05 and p .< 0.01, respectively) than those birds fed the SBM (control) diet. It appears that the higher the level of either the boilsoy or the roastsoy in the diets, the lower the feed consumption. The boilsoy and the roastsoy diets had no hyper- trophic effect on the pancreases of the chicks fed these diets in both broiler studies. S. 116 There was no beneficial effect by supplementing either the boilsoy or the roastsoy diets with DL-Methionine up to10.4%'level. Consumer Taste Panel Evaluation of Broiler Meat 1. The meat from the birds fed the roastsoy diet had a significantly higher overall ranking for eating quality (p < 0.01) than the meat from the birds fed the control diet. There were no significant differences due to dietary treatment between the meat from the roastsoy diet and that from the control diet for all other meat quality character- istics examined. The meat from the birds fed the boilsoy diet was less tender (p < 0.01) than the meat from the birds fed the control diet. No significant dif- ferences were observed between the meat from the birds fed the boilsoy diet and the meat from the birds fed the control diet for all other meat quality characteristics studied. The birds that were fed the roastsoy diet received the highest scores for most of the meat quality characteristics considered. 117 Layer Feeding Trial 1. The birds that were fed either 7.5% or 15% boilsoy diets performed (in all parameters studied) as well as those birds that were fed the control diet. The birds fed 22.5% boilsoy diet also performed satisfactorily in all parameters studied, except for their significantly lower egg number (p < 0.01), when compared with those birds fed the controled diet. There were no significant differences in any of the parameters studied between the birds fed either 7.5%, 15% or 22.5% roastsoy diets when compared with those birds fed the control diet except for the significantly lower egg number (p < 0.01) for the birds fed 7.5% roastsoy diet. Judging from the overall results of the layer feed- ing trial, it is concluded that up to 22.5% roast- soy may be included in laying rations without any adverse effect on the performance of the birds provided the rations contain adequate sources of methionine. Also, boilsoy may be used up to 15% in laying rations. Further work would be required to determine if levels higher than 15% boilsoy in laying rations might have adverse effects. 118 Urease Activity Tests The results of the urease activity tests showed that the condition of time-temperature—moisture combination applied to the boilsoy and roastsoy during the process- ing improved their nutritional qualities to levels of 48% protein, solvent extracted soybean meal used in this study. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES Based on the results and observations made during this study on the evaluation of boiled soybeans and boiled/roasted soybeans as feed ingredients for broiler and layer rations, the following areas of further studies are suggested: 1. Studies on the feeding of graded levels of boiled soy~ beans to both broilers and layers to determine if levels higher than 10% (broiler rations) and 15% (layer rations) established from this study could be fed in poultry rations. 2. Determination of the optimum level of methionine supple- mentation in boiled soybean broiler diets. The Optimum sup- plementary level of DL-methionine may fall somewhere between the 0.2% and 0.4% levels examined in this study. 3. To determine if lysine supplementation could improve the nutritive value of the boiled/roasted soybeans for both broilers and layers. 4. To determine if the nutritive value of the boiled/roasted soybean ingredient could be improved by the addition of an antioxidant and/or a fungistat. This study could be preced- ed by first determining if the boiled/roasted soybean by- product really undergoes some degree of oxidative rancidity and/or moldiness at any of the various stages of processing and storage. 119 120 All the feeding experiments may involve peanut meal diets as comparisons in those areas where peanut meal serves as the major source of vegetable protein for poultry rations. 5. When further studies indicate that boiled soybeans and boiled/roasted soybeans may be used successfully in broiler or layer rations without adverse effects, there would be a need to establish standards for the nutrient composition of the two ingredients to facilitate trade and to permit uni- formity of the ingredients for ration formulations. Such standards should include: ‘(a) Metabolizable energy content for poultry K.cal/Kg. (b) Percent minimum fat (c) Percent minimum crude protein (d) Percent minimum available lysine (e) Percent maximum fiber (f) Percent maximum sodium 6. Following the above, there would be a need to determine the monetary values of the boiled soybean and the boiled/ roasted soybean meals so as to arrive at prices that the producers of the by-product might expect. In such areas where oil roast soybean industries do not exist, the determi- nation of monetary value would only be required for the boiled soybean as a poultry feed ingredient. Factors to con- sider should include costs of the raw products as well as handling and processing costs so that individuals and com- panies interested may determine the feasibility of establish- ing trade in the processing and marketing of this product on a commercial scale. APPENDIX A Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Broiler Feeding Experiment I 121 .aaeeesnnoso no e0>oe so. so osmoeuesoema me~.-ee~e oeo.oemmeeee ewe Hobos mom.oemom eeb.ooe~mem bee o nouns emooooo.o sem.o eem.o e usoeos emanate aomo.mm oee.eoeme~e oeo.moeme~e e xom emn.o. mem.ommae eeo.ommsm~ ma non x one x one eme.o omm.ea~me one.mmeea o non x mom mme.o eoo.eoeo~ oes.eeoe~m «a non x unexeo>oo oom.o emm.emeee moe.o~eoe o nos x use emem.eom emo.eoeemee~ moe.meoeo~mo m ooeson omo.~oomm ame.eeeo~e me 6 House moo.o om~.memm~ Hem.omeom N meooeeoom aoe.o bee.mome~ moe.ooemee s euexeosoa eeo.o eme.mom eo~.ooee m usmsuoosa mofiumwumum mumsvm moumsvm Eocmmuh cOwHMfium> mo.mmonsom m coo: mo Esm mo mooumon unmemz Hoses Hoaeosm sow ¢>oz< .HI< GHQMB 122 .saaeaonnoao mo eo>0e so. so osooeoeooem l vaa.voom~ vvm.omhmmav nod Hmuoa meo.mmm~ Nam.mowmm~ pod n Houum «www.mma mmm.vommmm mmm.voammm a xmm mee.o mmm.emee mmo.meome NH nos x mom x use mm~.o HvN.mHo www.mahm m mom x mom cmm.a omm.m~mm hmH.~mmmm NH Mom x uua\am>oq ma~.o www.mae osm.mhmq m use x use «mmm.mh¢ ham.aamwvaa Hmo.mmmmmvm m noHuom «No.~mmm mm~.vvh~¢ NH n uouum Hom.o eme.mee ~e~.e~ee N manoeeoom mmm.o mac.ooam annevmmma v uua\am>md mmm.o Nmm.mmv~ moh.mhmv N usefiumoua mowumwuoum mumsvm moumsvm Boomoum cofiumauo> mo mousom m com: mo Sam mo mooumoo capo names: uoawoum new ¢>oz¢ .NI< wdnma 123 .sueeenoooao mo e0>0e so. on osooeuesoem I meo.moomoe oam.~moeeeme mm sauce mee.emoe eeo.oomom em o scene «Ho.e use.emoe one.momoe we use x one x one mmm.e ~eo.oem~ eeo.moome b boo x nos eeo.~ eoe.eamm mem.ooeoe me nos x sue\e0>0u mme.o mmm.~m~e ~H~.mome o use a one .Nae.mmem ome.ooooome ome.e~mo~mme m ooesoo mm~.emom eoe.omoeo me a bonus ee~.~ oao.oeem ~m~.mmee N meooeenom eem.e ome.meooe bee.moe~e e us9\e0>0q m~m.o omm.oeo~ oeo.eeom m unmannoae mOfiUmHHflum Ohmfimum mOHM—amvm EOQOOHE COAHMMHG> MO mmOHQOm m saw: no saw no awesome cofiumasmcoo comm Hmawoum How ¢>oz¢ ml‘ manna 124 .sueeeonsouo «0 eo>oe so. so esteemesoem C voH.o mme.oe mm Hosea meo.o mom.o on a mouse ~mo.o ooo.o moe.o we use x mom x sue mom.o eoo.o oao.o o ems x mom mon.o oeo.o oee.o «a mom x uue\em>0a ~mo.o moo.o mmo.o o mom x use ammm.~mm moe.m mom.me m oceuoo Ho.o bee.o me o nouns mom.o moo.o oeo.o N successes m.~ mwo.o moo.o e uue\eo>0a ~.o ~oo.o moo.o a unmannoue mOHumfiumum OHMQUW mOHMH—Um EOGOOHE GOHHMHHM> HO QQOHQOm h com: «0 55m mo nmoumoo soenumssoo some soeeoum sou ¢>oz< .eu< manna 125 .huwawnmnonm mo Ho>oH do. no accofimwcmwma a. .auaeesonoso mo e0>0e mo. an atonemesoem % who.o 5mm.Nm an Hones amo.o hum.m av n Houum oom.eN eeN.N seN.N a steam: Hoses NN¢.H oNH.o ONH.o a xom omo.m omN.o mmm.o N use x mom meN.N Noe.o mee.o e “on x use\N0>0q meo.N mea.o Hmm.o N mom x was «tohm.¢am qwm.ae www.av H cONHom H¢H.o ham.d NH o Houum «moo.m Noe.o moo.o N ouooeeoms mam.N mmm.o th.o N uua\am>oq Hmo.o moo.o Noa.o N usefiunmua mowumfiuoum mumsvm moumsvm Eocomum scaumwum> mo moousom m com: mo Esm no momummo magmas: mmmuocmm Hoafioum How <>Oz< .mufl manna 126 .Nueeannnouo No Nm>0e No. on osooemesoem fl oNN.o mme.me mm sauce ANN.o mmo.m eN n House oom.o oNH.o eev.e Ne ems x dom x use Non.N bem.o omN.N m use x dos oom.o eoN.o msv.N Ne Hoe x uue\eo>0q moo.a NHN.N oeN.N o nos x one aoom.m HNH.H emm.m m oceuoo Hoe.o eoN.N NH a woman ome.o one.o oeN.o N ounoeeoom mNb.o NNN.o voe.o e uue\eo>0q mmo.o oeo.o Nmo.o N usmsummue . mOMHmflumvm OHQDUm mOHm—avm EOGOOHh COHHMfiHM> MO mOOHn—Om h coo: mo saw no mooumoa huwamuuoz Hmawoum Hem ¢>024 .wlfl wanna APPENDIX B Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Broiler Feeding Experiment II 127 moN.ooomH mme.oooemm mm Noyce moN.NoeN Nom.oemem on scene Noo.o NHN.o oNN.o N assess emanate emm.aom emm.oeoeem oom.oeoeem N xmm moN.o www.mme onm.eeo N menacenumz x dos x use Hom.o mmm.on mmm.oNo N maesoesuos x mom ooN.H mem.omNm omo.memo N menacesumz x one ene.m mmo.momm mmo.mmmm H maesoesumz omo.e Nee.ooeN Hee.oooN a mensweaom N342 moonNoN e No boast. mom on uuexegmq moN.m mom.meNN Hma.amee N lam sebum. mom x use oo.e bee.Neom eme.emeee e one\e0>og Nee.o nee.meNmN oom.oNooe N usosumwue mofiumwunum mumsvm monsoon Eocmoum saquNHm> mo moousom m saw: no saw no momummo amoeba Hoses “mesons sou ¢>oz< .Nam manna 128 .Nseeennooeo no eo>oe as. so usooeNNsmen fl t .aueeennnoun mo e0>oe mo. an unnoamesoam a. Hee.moNoN oNs.eoNoooe mm Hosea mee.momN eeo.oeoem mm Hosea aaosN.oNN moe.emeeNm moe.smeeNm H xom mmN.o eNm.mme moo.eeee N maesoesuoz x mom a use eNo.o mee.oeme oee.oeme N onesoesuoz x mom oom.N emN.emom mem.oooe N seasonssoz x one aoom.e mee.emeee mee.emeee e onesoesuoz eoe.o moo.meae moo.meme H ousoeeoom 312$ STNEN e No Hosea: mom x seahorse: ome.m omo.memN oem.eoov N .No bonus. mom x use seam.o eoe.ooee eoa.emooe e use\N0>0a moN.o oNo.ommeN bmo.meeme N usmsenoue mOHumflumum Than—Um mOHM§Um EOOOOHK :OfiH—MHHMKV HO GOOHnuOm h new: no saw no mmoummo came unmwoz zoom Hoawoum How <>oz¢ .Nlm CHQMB 129 mse.NHeommH omo.moeNmNoe mm Hnuoe eHm.mmomHHN ooN.onmoHoe on _ a noose NHoo.o Noo.emmN NNm.meHm N 0sHsoHso02 x mom x use emoo.o mNe.omNe mNm.omNe H osHsoHssoz x mom eNoooo.o mme.em mHo.eHH N 0sHtoHsu0= x one moo.o NoH.oHoeH NoH.oHoeH H osHsoHsumz meoooo.o emo.oa emo.oo H monoHHomm emo.memN HNo.HomeH e a House omo.N mHo.eHmo mmo.oonN e uae\Ho>0H HmH.e HNN.oaoo Nem.omoaH N usosunous mOflumHumum Oumfimvm NOHMSUm EOQOOHK GOfluBHHQN’ HO mOOHHHOm m com: mo saw no nomummo ouHm ems soHuoesnsoo boom soHHosm new «>024 .mum 0Hboe 130 Nee.o HHo.oe mm Hence mmH.H eme.oe on o noses eooo.o Hoo.o Hoo.o N osHsoHsuoz x mom x one mooo.o Hoo.o Hoo.o H osHsoHsuoz x mom Noo.o Noo.o moo.o N osHsoHsuoz x use Hoo.o Hoo.o Hoo.o H osHsoHsuoz Hoo.o boo.o o o nouns Hoo.o Hoo.o Hoo.o H ouooHHnom oo.H Hoo.o moo.o e oue\Ho>0H oo.m moo.o HHo.o N usosuooee mOfiumHHmHm OHMNHUm mOHMSUm EOGOOHM fiOflUflHHm> HO MOOHHHOW m coo: mo Esm mo momumoo coflmum>coo comm Hmawoum How ¢>oz¢ .vnm manna 131 .NuHHHonooas no HosoH Ho. so ssooHeHson % a. .auNHfinmnoum mo Hm>mH mo. um acmoHuficmwm % NNH.o meo.e mm House moH.o Noe.m em nouns aaHoo.HH emN.H emN.H H usoHoz HnsHs oHo.o Noo.o Noo.o H xom noe.o meo.o emH.o N 0sHsoHsumz x mom x use «NH.o oNo.o oNo.o H maesoHsuoz x mom mHm.o mmo.o ooH.o N osHsoHsomz x use «Hma.m HHo.o NHb.o H onesoesuoz NNN.H eNH.o eNH.o H ounoHHoom mmoo ammo a No .833 nos x assigns oem.N NHN.o one.o N AHn sesame mom x use emo.N meH.o NHe.o e suexH0>0H mHo.o ooN.o Hoe.o N assaunmue mowumfiumum mumsvm mmumsvm Eonmoum coNHMNHm> mo moousom a saw: no Esm mo momumon nusmHms nnouosom noHHosm mom ¢>oz¢ .mam 0Hnoe 132 .auHHHnmnoum mo Ho>mH Ho» an ucmoHMHcmHm a. whN.o mvN.mH mm Hmu09 mmN.o omH.m mm a Houum oom.H mmm.o hoo.o N 0sHsoHnumz x cos x use NNm.o mMH.o MMH.o H mchoHsuoz x mom oom.H mmm.o hmo.o N ochoHnumz x use NNm.o mmH.o MMH.o H ochochoz th.m mmm.o mmm.o H mumOHHmom HNo.o 336 v New Houses mom x uu.H.\Ho>m.H «mom.ms moo.H moo.N N AHo boasts dom x use Nmo.v eoH.o eHe.o e uae\H0>0H om.o «Nm.o moo.H N ucoEumoua moHumHuoum mumsvm mouosvm Eocwoum coHuMHHm> mo moousom m com: mo Sam mo momumwo >uHHmuuoz HoHHoum How ¢>oz¢ .mum oHnma APPENDIX C Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Consumer Taste Panel Scores 133 .soHHHnnnosn no HosoH Ho. on osooHNHson fl mmo.o mmo.~ MN Hmuoe vo.o HNm.o mH . uouum mmv.H mo.o oo.o H xom oo.N soo.o moH.o N was» new: x use www.o th.o hNo.o H max» woo: x mom Nb.m meH.o HNN.o N one x nos «mvm.mH mm>.o mmn.o H mama use: ooH.o eoo.o eoo.o H osooHHsom Ham.N mHH.o HmN.o N ucosunmua moHunHumum mumsvm mouosmm Sansone coHumHHm> mo moousom m saw: no Sam «0 momummo HOHOU #002 HoHMOHm HON <>Oz< .HIU wanna 134 .auHHHnmnoua mo Hm>oH mo. um acoOHuchHma Hbo.o NHv.H NN Hoses omo.o «on.o NH nouns mmm.N emH.o noH.o H xmm mom.o mHo.o omo.o N was» now: x use moe.o Neo.o Noo.o H was» now: x dos mom.o mHo.o omo.o N one x dmm mNo.o Noo.o Noo.o H moms new: aemm.m eNm.o nNm.o H ounoHHomm eem.o No.o Heo.o N unusunmue mowumHuoum mumsvm nmumsvm Eocmmuh coHumHHo> mo moousom m com: «o Esm mo momummo uovo use: HmHHoum How ¢>Oz¢ .NIU CHQMB 135 .NaHHHnoooso mo H0>0H no. on unnoHNHson i mmo.o mom.o MN Hmuoa «No.o NHm.o mH Houum «mm.H wmo.o vmo.o H xom «nmm.e NH.o HeN.o N mean you: x use hmm.o No.o No.o H omau use: x mom NHo.o ooo.o Hoo.o N one x ems hHo.o ooo.o ooo.o H mean use: hmo.N mo.o mo.o H ounoHHmom «HmH.¢ HoH.o moN.o . N acoeuomua moHumHumum mumsvm moumswm Eocmouh coHunHHm> mo moousom m saw: no 25m «0 momummo so>mHm umoz soHHoum sow ¢>oz¢ .mno 0Hnne 136 .NuHHHosnono so H0>6H Ho. as usmoHeHson ¥ i .huHHHnsnoum Ho He>eH mo. us ecsOHMHcmHm fl hmH.o mmN.q MN Hsuoa Hmo.o me.H NH uouum mno.o hco.o woo.o H xem Hoo.m «NN.o mom.c N emau use: x Hue voH.o mHo.o mHo.o H seas use: x ems mmo.o moo.o Ho.o N use x me: «anam.mH mHN.H mHm.H H emhu use: aoom.o Noo.o Noo.o H oesoHHnmm mmm.o mmo.o wHH.o N usesuseua moHumHusum eussvm menssvm Eoceeum :oHusHHs> mo nevusom m cse: mo Ham «0 meeuweo use: HeHHonm mo wmecHOHsh HON <>OZ£ .vIU eHQsE 137 .wuHHHnsnoum mo He>eH Ho. as ucsoHMHcmHmt i .huHHHnsnoum mo He>eH mo. us ucseHchmHm l moN.o mm.v MN Hsuoa vo.o me.o MH uouum NHm.o No.o No.o H xem anom.m NmH.o mom.o N mean one: x use moN.H mo.o mo.o H mean use: x ems Nvo.o Noc.o moo.o N one x mes eeHHH.mN ooo.H ooo.H H moss use: NNo.m NH.o NH.o H oesoHHoom «ath.mm NNm.H mvm.N N aceeuseua moHumHusum eussvm neussvm Eooeeum coHusHHs> no meousom m cse: mo saw no meeumeo QMGQHQCCOB Hmmz HQH fiOHm How <>Oz¢ .mIU eHnsB 138 .NuHHHnssous so HeseH so. us ussoHeHsoHn fl meo.o NNH.H NN Hsuoe so.o st.o NH nouns mo.H Neo.o Neo.o H see asse.o ooN.o HNm.o N enmu use: x use mes.H ooo.o osc.o H enau use: x me: mmm.o Nmo.o eno.o N use x mes mmo.o NNo.o NNo.o H eemu use: Nmm.m mmH.o mmH.o H eusoHHoem onm.H mmo.o HHH.o N usesuseue mOMumfififln—m OHwSUm mOHmHHUm EOQOOHK 00¢MHHM> MO MOOHHHOm .m cse: mo saw. no meeumeo NuHHHnsueeoos HHsue>o use: ueHHoum sou «>024 .eno eHnse 139 .NuHHHnsoouo so He>eH Ho. us ussoHuHson a. msm.o .mHs.m mN Hsuoe NNH.o mes.H NH . nouns sHo.o Noo.o Noo.o H see «eno.mH Nmm.H eoo.m N eemu use: x use oHo.o Noo.o Noo.o H enau use: x nee oso.N eN.o em.o N use x mes mHo.o Noo.o Noo.o H enau use: oHo.o Noo.o Noo.o H euseHHeem «Nem.oH Hem.H moo.N N usesuseue mOfiumfiuflum Ohflflmum mOHmHHUm EOUOOHh GOHHMHHM> HO WOOHHHOm m cse: mo Esm mo meeumeo msuxsss HHsue>o use: ueHHoue sou ¢>oz< .Nno eHnse APPENDIX D Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Tables for Layer Feeding Experiment III 140 .NuHHHssooue so He>eH Ho. us ussoHeHsoum i t .NuHHHnssoue uo He>eH mo. us ussouuusoum n. mvm.oth mmH Hsuoa mmN.o mmH.H m a noun: «shaN.mm NNH.vH mom.omm mN UHHm x uuB\He>eH ssmmn.on on.bH «HH.mmm HN ouHm x me: «sva.mm Hmm.mH th.mHN vH ouHm x uua «smqo.m>H mmm.Ne th.th h cuHm senoN.mN oeH.s Nes.eeH HN use x me: x uue aeamH.om Nes.s mms.moH NH uee x gem eemso.sm mNo.N NNm.NmH sH uem x uue\He>eH ssovo.mN mom.m Hmo.qv m uem x uus «smmm.vH NHm.m hvo.vH v voHuem NHm.mv ooh.VNm NH s uouum «omm.e ooo.H Hoe.m m eusoHHoem mom.o mNm.ms NmN.mmH e uuB\He>eH mHv.o me.ON mmm.oq N uceauseue moHumHusum meussz meusswm Eoceeum coHusHHs> mo meousom h :se: mo saw no meeumeo . mam: mo Henfisz Hsuoa HON ¢>Oz¢ .HID eHnsE 141 .euHHHnsnoue so Hs>eH Ho. us ussoHuHseum # i .NuHHHosnoue so Hs>eH mo. us usssuuusoum i om.vmoOH HmH Hsuoa om¢.m omh.h¢m Hv a noun: asome.e meN.oe eso.esm eN use x ese x uue «mam.N ovm.o~ mmo.v¢N NH uem x me: aoHe.H NNN.oH mme.mmN sH use x uue\He>eH asme¢.m www.mv Nm5.Hhm m uee x uua «toom.ov moo.omm mmv.emmH e coHuem Hmm.oNN hq.vmem 5H s uouum «mao.mm omm.eme sem.eeMH N sussHHess mam.o hme.hHN hm>.oem v uua\He>eH mHh.o vqm.mmH mmo.hHm N usefiuseus moHumHusum eussvm meussvm Eoceeum coHusHus> no meousom h cse: Mo Esm mo neeumeo soHusssoue see esnusem use s>oz< .Nuo eHnse 142 .NuHHHnsnoue so HessH Ho. us usseHsHsmHm l ooo.ssssH NHH Hsuoe Nms.o HmH.me mm b uouue aeeN.sm Nmo.ee ems.HNHH eN use x eem x uue «Hme.eN oss.oN mmm.omN NH use x eee amee.om Nsm.sN mHH.NNe oH use x uue\Hs>sH «oem.He Hem.mm mNH.meN m use x uue «omN.oNo sso.Nsm oem.ssHN e soHuse omH.eeN omH.smHo eH s uouue «oeH.eNe NNm.NoN ope.HmoH N suseHHeee esm.o omm.eoH Nem.eHe H uue\Hs>su moe.o oNN.esH Nms.mem N usssuseue mowflmwumum OHMHHmvm mOHflHHUm EOUOOHK GONHMfiHMHV HO QOOHHHOm .m cse: «0 Sam mo meeumeo soHuessoue mom sensoeuss: uou s>oz< .muo anse 143 .auHHHnsnoum mo He>eH Ho. us ucsonHcmHmt % .euHHHsssoue so Hs>sH mo. us ussoHuHsoHe i pl oHo.omemH omH Hsuoe omm.mN mNs.NHHH as n uouue eem.o eHs.NH mHs.eom eN use a eee x uue Nmm.H on.oN NHm.mme NH use x ese Hmm.H mHe.mm eom.Hem oH use x uue\Hs>wu emee.N meo.es mem.NHm m use x uue eeNm.ee Nee.momH sso.mHNe e souuse mmN.eoN HsN.eeem «H s uouum eaose.NH smo.NmN eoN.eem m eussHHeem mes.o Nmm.smH emH.emm s uue\He>eu eee.o mem.ooH meo.HoN N usssuseue moHumHusum eusswm neussvm Eoceeum coHusHus> mo meousom m cse: mo saw no meeumeo coHumssmsou been Hews: HON ¢>oz< .elo eHnsB 144 .NuHHHsssoue uo Hs>sH Ho. us usseHuHseHm fl va.cH mMH Hsuoa hNo.o mmN.H mv n uouum msH.H Nmo.o mme.o «N use x ese x uue mse.o «No.o esN.o NH use x es: use.H meo.o mHe.o sH use x uue\He>eH hmo.N mmo.o H¢¢.o a Hem x uua «omH.mm hHm.H moo.m v coHuem mmN.o mMH.m NH s uouum eeoe.s mmN.o ooh.o N susoHHese mom.o heN.o cmm.o v uuB\He>eH Hmm.o omN.o Hmm.o N usefiuseue eoHumHusum eussvm meussvm Eoceeum soHusHus> mo meousom m cse: mo Sam «0 meeumen hoseHonum been uest uou <>ozs .muo anse 145 .huHHHnsaoum no He>eH mo. us ucsonHcmHm a NmH.omHN Ne Hsuoe esH.HN Hem.oooH Hm o uouus mmm.N HNH.No NeN.eNH N unsusz woos «mes.m eeo.Ns eao.esH N suue ssm.eH sHe.NNN sH. s uouue Nos.o Nma.oH eam.om m eusoHHeee eeHm.e HmH.Hs moe.eNN e uue\Hs>sH NNN.H sHH.HN mmN.Ne N ussEussue MOMumHu—mum OHMHHUm QOHMHHUQ EOGOOHE GOHHMAHMNH HO mOOHHHOm m sse: mo Esm mo meeumeo uane3 mseuocsm Hews: MOM <>OZ¢ .mlo eHnsa 146 .euHHHnsnoue «0 Hs>sH mo. us usssHHHseHn % Hom.Nemh¢Nm mmH Hsuoa mmm.vonN mvm.mOHm>mH mm uouum th.H wa.mmva mmN.oomhmm mN cuHm x uuB\He>eH wm¢.H me.mmeq Nwm.mmHomm HN cHHm x me: moH.H mom.ooHNm chm.¢avmqv «H cuHm x uuB «mow.N Nm.ovmm> owm.mmmHmm h cuHm hmmfibmmv mmhonvvm NH ANs uouuev mem x uu.H.\He>e.H mma.eeeoe amm.oesNNe s .Hs uouuee ese x uue smNo.v moo.N¢NhHH mHo.thHmm m eusoHHmem hh¢.o ohm.NmoHN mom.HHmmm v uua\He>eH hmo.o hHm.mmmm mmo.thmH N uceEuseuB moHumHusum eusswm meussvm Eooeeum :oHusHus> mo meousom m sse: mo Sam mo meeuoeo sHso usmusz esoe ustH uou s>ozs .euo sHose 147 mmh.m NMH Hsupa meo.o st.m me n uouum hem.o «so.o aNm.H «N use x eee x uue ees.o .sso.o mee.o NH use x eee o.H meo.o HsH.H eH use x uue\Hs>sH sHs.H mHH.o see.o m use x uue see.H oNH.o ose.o e soHuee emo.o Hee.o NH ANs uouus. eee x uue\Hs>sH Heo.o «Ne.o s :Hs uouuse ese x uue Heo.H oeo.o eNN.o m susoHHese see.H mmo.o NNN.o e uue\He>sH sem.o sNo.o Nmo.o N usssuseue mOflumfluwum OHMHHUW mmumflmvm EOCOOHE GOHHQHHM> HO mOOHQOm m cse: «0 Sam mo meeumeo euHHsuuo: usesH uou 4>oz< .muo eHnse APPENDIX E Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Table for Urease Activity Measurement by Increase in P 148 .huHHHnsnoum mo He>em Ho. us unsOHchmHms mmh.o Nom.om mm Hsuoa aoo.o seeps me uouue «Hme.m , Nmo.o omN.o. a ese x uue smvH.o hmo.o ohH.o m eusoHHmem «mov.Hth mo¢.oH mmm.aq m emmu >0m moHumHusum eussvm meussvm Eoceeum :oHusHus> mo meeusom h cse: mo Esm mo meeumeo : m cH emssnu an oeusnse: auH>Huo< emseu: How ¢>OZ¢ .Hum eHnsB APPENDIX F Tables of Means and Standard Errors for Various Broiler Parameters by Periods--Broiler Experiment I 149 H .maso oH hHso.oeunsH v coHuemH o.mmN m.NVH o.¢mN N.vHN N.owN m.vON m.HhN mm v.mNHN m.hmoN m.moNN m.NmHN N.NHNN m.¢oHN m.moHN nuse: v coHuee m.wom N.hNH o.HmH N.NmH e.ohH N.NmH w.moH mm o.momH o.mmmH N.mmoH v.momH m.m¢mH N.ommH N.NQmH mcse: m coHuee m.mh o.H> H.Hm N.om m.vm o.oe m.mo mm m.oom m.oca m.Hmm v.qmm m.MNm m.mmm w.mmm mcse: N ooHuee o.mH N.NH m.NH m.MH N.oH o.oH m.NH mm e.amN s.Nom H.mom e.NmN s.Nom o.meN e.maN sass: H ooHuee .usHo .usHo .ueHe .usHo .ueHo .usHo .usHo homumsom homumsom homumsom homHHom moeHHom homHHom Houucou won woN moH «on NON NOHI :mm ceEHmem >usueHa H useEHuemxm II mooHuee asoIvH an mEsuu CH muouum nusnssum ces muanez :se: ueHHoum .Hlm eHnsa 150 .masv oH cho oeumsH v coHuee H N.Nv N.NH m.vh N.Nm N.NNH N.NN H.NN mm N.NNvH N.m¢mH H.mmvH N.NHNH N.HNvH o.omsH o.mth ease: q coHuem o.mv m.Nm e.mm H.NH h.mHH N.Nm o.vh mm ¢.oo¢H N.NmmH o.momH H.NH¢H N.mm¢H N.NNVH N.NNvH mcse: m coHuee H.h N.NN N.Nm m.mN H.mm w.qN H.v mm N.NVN N.NNN N.Hmm m.omm N.th N.Hem «.mmm mcse: N voHuee m.oH m.vH H.q m.oH ¢.vN N.N m.oH mm m.HNm N.Nvm m.mmm N.NMN H.5vm N.Nvm N.NNN muse: H voHuee .ueHo .usHo .ueHo .usHo .usuo .usHo .ueHo homumsom homunsom NOmumsom acmHHom momHHom homHHom Houucou Nom NON NoH Nomi NON NOH mmm :eEHmem husuewa H useSHuemxmll mooHuem hsoleH an ouHm Hem mssuu 2H ease: mo uouum cusczsum ces coHumEsecooHceem ase: HeHHoum .Nnm eHnsB 151 .mhso OH tho OeumsH w coHueeH mNO. NNO. mmO. HmO. ONO. HHO. NMO. mm HO.H mO.H vm.H hm.H OO.H vm.H mm.H muse: v coHuee HNO. NNO. mmo. mNO. NMO. mmO. ONO. mm OO.H OO.H O>.H NO.H mO.H NO.H NO.H mcse: m ooHuee va. HO. ONO. mmc. OOO. NHO. HO. mm Nv.H N¢.H mv.H Ov.H mm.H Hv.H vv.H ease: N ooHuee NmO. ONO. mNO. HMO. ONO. mNO. NHO. mm mN.H mN.H ON.H Nm.H Hm.H mm.H vm.H esse: H ooHuee .ueHa .ueHo .ueHO .ueHO .ueHa .ueHO .ueHO momumsom aomumsom HOmumsom MOmHHom hemHHom acmHHom Houucoo NOm Now NOH NOm NON NOH :mm :eEHmem husueHa H uceEHuemxmll spoHuem asalvH an cHso mo Esuw uem Oeem masuu :H mcse: mo uouum ousocsu ocs conue>coo ceem e>HusHsEso ueHHoum .mnm eHnsa 152 .ness eN ssunsH N soHuse sHuss .seso NN ssussH H souuee H «O. mm. He. He. vv. mv. NO. mm mo.m m>.m HH.N hm.m me.m em.m mm.m mcse: N ooHuee NH. Ov. ON. NH. mm. Om. NH. mm HH.N «N.N hm.H NO.H mO.N NH.N Nm.N ease: H ooHuee .ueHO .ueHo .ueHo .ueHn .ueHO .ueHo .ueHo HOmumsom womumsom hamunsom HOmHHom NOnHHom acmHHom Houucoo NOm NON NOH NON Now) NOH :mm seEHmem ausueHo H useEHuemxHII mooHuem we mEsuo cH mcse: Ho uouum nusccsum ocs muanez mseuocse sse:HueHHoum. .qle eHasB 153 N N N N N N N sHsuoe IHI 1m! IHI. Imu. 11ml 1H! Iml e H H N H H H N N o o o o o o o N o H o o a H o o H soHuee .ueHe .usHo .usHo .ueHo .usHo .usHo .ueHo acmumsom hamumsom hemumsom acmHHom NOmHHom NOmHHom Houusoo Non NON NOH Nam NON NOH :mm ceEHmem husueHQ Hmnusen Ho uenEsz Hssuo¢v H uceEHuemxm uow mooHuee hsnth an HuHHsuuo: eonnu ueHHoum .mlm eHnsB REFERENCES REFERENCES Alminquist, H.J., E. Mecchi, F.H. Kratzer and C.R. Crau, 1942. Soybean protein as a source of amino acids for the chick. J. Nutri. 24 : 385-392. Almuot, E. and Z. Nitsan, 1961. The influence of soybean antitrypsin on the intestinal proteolysis of the chick. J. Nutri. 737: 71-77. Barnett, G.D. and T. Addis, 1917. 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