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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS HEATING METHODS UPON
THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF RICE
BY—PRODUCTS AND THEIR FEEDING VALUES
FOR POULTRY AND SWINE

presented by

Maheshwar Sapkota

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

M.S. degreein Animal Science

/,

ajor professor

Date / k

0-7639

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© 1980

MAHESHWAR SAP KOTA

All Rights Reserved

 

P

THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS HEATING METHODS UPON
THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF RICE
BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR FEEDING VALUES

FOR POULTRY AND SWINE

BY

Maheshwar Sapkota

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Animal Science

1980

 

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS HEATING METHODS UPON
THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF RICE BY-PRODUCTS
AND THEIR FEEDING VALUES FOR POULTRY AND SWINE
BY

Maheshwar Sapkota

Two practical systems of heating rice mill feed,
dry and wet, were developed. The heat treated and untreat-
ed materials were chemically characterized and biologically
evaluated by feeding trials involving 600 day—old, unsexed,
broiler chicks, and 20 weanling pigs. Chicks were fed
diets containing graded levels of rice mill feed (replacing
60, 80 or 100% of corn) which had been heat treated (high
heated, 100 to 105°C; low heated, 85 to 9ooc; boiling—
water treated, and unheated) previously. The pigs were
fed diets containing 85% of the diet as wet heated or
untreated rice mill feed.

Heat treatments, dry and wet, reduced the free
fatty acid rise in the rice mill feed during the storage
period of 32 days. Dry and wet heating lowered the trypsin
inhibitor factor. Heat treatments had no apparent effect
on the measured nutrient concentrations in rice mill feed
as characterized chemically.

Chicks and pigs gained significantly more on heat

treated rice mill feed diets than on untreated diets. The

Maheshwar Sapkota

high-heat treatment was more effective in enhancing the
feeding value of rice mill feed for broilers than other
treatments. Chicks on heat treated rice mill feed diets
required lesser amounts of diets per unit of gain than
the chicks on untreated rice mill feed diets. Chicks on
diets containing lower levels (60 or 80%) of rice mill
feed gained faster and were more efficient than the chicks
fed high level of rice mill feed replacing corn. Pigs on
the wet heated rice mill feed diet tended to require less

feed per gain than the pigs on untreated material.

 

Dedicated to my parents
Mr. and Mrs. Tej Prasad Sapkota

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis is the end result of much work by many
people and organizations. First of all the author is deeply
indebted to his major professor, Dr. R. J. Deans, for his
guidance, encouragement and friendship which he provided
throughout the author's graduate program, and also for making
it possible for the author to acquire international exper—
iences in the animal—production systems.

Gratitude is expressed to other members of the auth-
or's graduate committee, Drs. D. E. Ullrey and M. L. Esmay,
for their continuous suggestions, encouragement and friend-
ship.

The author is also indebted to Dr. D. F. Fienup,
Coordinator, and Ms. A. Ward, Assistant Coordinator, MUCIA/—
Nepal Project, for their financial support, continuous help,
and excellent friendship. Gratitude is also extended to
.Mru N. B. Basnyat, Dean, Institute of Agriculture and Animal
Science, Rampur, for his encouragement and granting me the
study leave.

I wish to thank Dr. W. T. Magee for the statistical
vwork, and Drs. D. Penner, P. K. Ku and W. G. Bergen for their
helm) with analytical procedures. Thanks are also given to

Mr. 31. Vernon, Ms. J. Hall and other staff of the Chemistry

iv

 

 

Laboratory, Central Farms Station, for their help with

analytical procedures.
Special thanks are given to Dr. F. H. Kratzer,

Professor and Chairman, Department of Avian Sciences, Univ-

ersity of California, and Dr. H. R. Bird, Professor,

Department of Poultry Science, University of Wisconsin, for

their suggestions.

Thanks are also given to Belize Feedstuffs Project,
Central Farms Livestock Division, Mechanics Section, Ministry
of Agriculture, Belize; and Heifer Project International,
World Vision and Michigan——Partners of Americas for allowing
me to use their facilities and directly or indirectly sup-
porting the research project.

Thanks are also given to Dr. R. H. Nelson fin:allowing
me to use the facilities of the Department of Animal Science
and Dr. E. R. Miller for his friendship.

I thank the people and government of the United
States of America for their help, hospitality and friendship
wherever I went from New York City to San Diego and from

Sault Ste. Marie to New Orleans. I would also like to thank

the people and government of Belize for their hospitality

and friendship.

I would also like to thank my dear friends, D.
Grieve, D. Hall, D. Pullen and others who helped me in many
ways.

I would like to thank each member of my family for

theiJr constant supportand love duringnw'course of study.

V

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . .

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . .
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . .

Objective of the Current Studies . . . . .

 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . .

‘ Cultivated Species of Rice . . . . . . .
‘ Rice Milling By—Products . . . . . .
Physicochemical Characteristics of Rice Milling By-

Products . . . . . . . . . . .
l. Husks . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Bran . . . . . . .
, Nutrients in Rice Bran . . . . . . . .
' 3. Polishings . . . . . . . . .
} 4. Groats . . . . . . . . .
Deleterious Components in Rice By-Products . . .
i l. Trypsin inhibitor . . . . .
2. Oil and free fatty acids of rice bran . . .
J 3. Unavailability of nutrients in rice by- product
4. Unidentified growth depressing factor . . .
) Treatment of Rice By-Product . . . . . .
1. Heat treatments . . . . . . . .
i 2. Chemical treatment . . . . . .
I 3. Pressure pelleting . . .

The Feeding Value of Deoiled Rice By- Product . .
' Feeding of Rice By- -Product to Poultry and Swine .

1. Poultry . . . . . . . .

2. Swine . . . . . . . . .

a. Digestibility . . . . . .

b. Effects of protein levels . . . . .

c. Effects of fat treatment . . . . .
DEATERIALS AND METHODS . . . . . . . .
-A. Heat exchange systems . . . . . . .
1. Solar cabinet . . . . . . . . .

vi

Construction of the cabinet frame . . . . 53
Construction of glass frame . . . . . 53
Construction of inner trays . . . . 54
Sample preparation in the solar cabinet . . 55
2. Rotary drum heating system . . . . . 59
Methods of construction of furnace . . . . 59
Construction of heat exchange machine . . . 60.
Installation of the poles . . . . . . 63
Fuel system . . . . . . . 63
Standardization of the machine . . . . . 65
a. Load determination . . . . . . 65
b. Speed determination . . . . . . 65
c. Temperature measurement . . . . . 66
Dry heating the rice mill feed . . . . . 68
3. Wet heating system . . . . 70
B. Chemical Characterization of Rice Mill Feed . . 71
1. Preparation of samples . . . . . . 71
a. Free fatty acids . . . 71
b. Nutrient analysis of treated and untreated
samples . . . . . . . . 71
2. Methods of analyses . . . . . 72
In vitro trypsin inhibitory assay . . . 73
C. Feeding Trials . . . . . . . . . 74
Broiler trials . . . . . . . . . 74
Dry heat treatment . . . . . . . . 75
Wet heat treatment . . . . . . . . 77
Trial procedures . . . . . . . 78
Statistical procedures . . . . . . . 88
Swine trial . . . . . . . . . 89
Sources of ingredients and preparation of diets 90
Preparation of dry ration . . . . 90
Preparation of wet ration and feeding . . . 95
Statistical design . . . . . . . . 99

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Chemical Characterization of Rice Mill Feed . . 101
Amino acids . . . . . . . . . 105
Free fatty acids . . . . . . 109
In vitro trypsin inhibitor assay . . . . 111

Feeding Trials . . . . . . . . . 114
Poultry . . . . . 114
Starter period with 4 treatments (0- -4 weeks) . 114
Grower period (0- -6 weeks) . . . . . 119
Finisher period (6-8 weeks) . . . . . 121
Overall treatment period (0-8 weeks) . . . 123
Effects of heat treatments upon the dressing
percentages of chickens . . . . . 126
Swine . . . . . . 126
Economic Analyses of the Feeding Experiments . . 133
Poultry . . . . . . . . . . 141
Swine . . . . . . . . . . . 143

vii

DISCUSSION .

Chemical characterization of rice mill

Poultry .
Swine .

CONCLUSIONS .

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

GLOSSARY . .

Units of energy defined

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A .
APPENDIX B .
APPENDIX C .
APPENDIX D .

Comparison .

LIST OF REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

viii

145
145
147
149
151
152
154

157

158
160
165
169
170
177
190

 

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.

LIST OF TABLES

Uses of Rice Husks . . . . . . .

Proximate Analytical Values of Rice Bran (Houston,
1972) . . . . . . . . . . .

Amino Acid Content of Rice Bran (9. 1% Protein)
(Kik, 1956) . . . . .

Vitamins and Other Constituents in Rice Bran (Kik,
1956) . . . . . . . . . . .

Proximate Analytical Values of Rice Polishings
(Limcango—Lopez, et al., 1962) . . . . .

Amino Acid Content of Rice Polishings (10. 40%
Protein) (Kik,1956) . . . . . .

Vitamins and Other Constituents in Rice Polishings
(Kik, 1956) . . . . . . . . . .

Inhibitor Content in Rice Seed (Horiguchi et al.,
1971) . . . . . . . . .

Temperature of Rice By-Product at Different Depths
and Sites in the Inner Trays of Solar Cabinet in
the Month of May, 1980 . . . . . .

Composition of Starter Diets . . . . . .

Calculated Nutrient Composition of the Broiler
Diets for Starter Period . . . . . .

Composition of Finisher Diets . . . . .

Calculated Nutrient Composition of the Broiler
Diets for Finisher Period . . . . . .

Assignment of Pigs to Different Treatment Groups .
Swine Grower Ration Composition . . . . .

Proximate Analysis of Rice Mill Feed . . . .

ix

11

16

17

18

21

21

22

27

58

79

80

81

82
90
92

103

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

Mineral Composition of Rice Mill Feed . . .

Determination of Amino Acids in Treated and
Untreated Rice Mill Feeds . . . . . .

Comparative Data on Rice Mill Feed and Rice Brans
for Essential Amino Acids for Chicks . . . .

Free Fatty Acid Analysis of Treated and Untreated
Rice Mill Feed . . . . . . . . .

Trypsin Inhibitor Activity in Treated and Raw Rice

Mill Feeds 0 O O O I O O O O I
Expression of Trypsin Inhibitor Activity . . .
Patterns of Diets for Broiler Trial . . . .

Least-Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 0-4 Week Period . . . .

Least-Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 2-4 Week Period . . . .

Least Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 0-6 Week Period . . . .

Least Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 6-8 Week Period . . . .

Least Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 8 Week Period . . . .

Least Square Means for Each Heat Treatment and
Level Sub-Groups for 8 Week Weights, Dressing
Weights and Dressing Percentages of Sampled Birds
Overall Results of the Swine Feeding Trials . .
Analysis of Variance of Final weight . . . .
Analysis of Variance of Average Daily Gain . .

Analysis of Variance of Average Daily Feed Intake

Analysis of Variance of Feed Conversion, F:G . .

Prices of the Ingredients Used in Poultry and Swine

Diets . C I I O C O O O C 0

Prices of Ingredients and Mixed Diets for Broilers

104

106

108

110

112
113
115

116

118

120

122

124

127

128

129

129

129
130

134
134

 

37.
38.
39.

40.

41.

42.

Economic Analysis of Broiler Trial (0-4 Weeks) .
Economic Analysis of Broiler Trials (0—6 Weeks) .
Economic Analysis of Broiler Trial (6-8 Weeks) .

Overall Economic Analysis of Broiler Trials (0-8
Weeks) for the Entire Production Period . . .

Prices of Ingredients and Mixed Diets for Swine .

Overall Economic Analysis of Swine Trial (0—6
Weeks) .

xi

136
137

138

139

140

140

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.

LIST OF FIGURES

The Big Falls Ranch Paddy Rice Field. Mills are at the
Rear . . . . . . . .

Burning the Excess Rice Husks in the Big Falls Ranch,
Belize . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plan for Solar Cabinet Cooker

A. Solar cabinet C. Inner tray

B. Cover frame D. Cross section of the cabinet
The solar cabinet . . . . . . . . . .

Examining the Heated Rice Mill Feed in the Solar Cabinet

Loading and Unloading the Rice Mill Feed in the Rotary
Drum Heating System . . . . . .

The Rotary Drum Heating System . . . . . . .

Temperature Measurement System with Fluke Digital
Thermometer Using Thermocouples . . . .

Temperature Measurement System

A. Drum heating system with thermocouples attached

B. Cross section of the drum . . . . . .

A. Dry Heated Rice Mill Feed at 100 to 1050C

B. Dry Heated Rice Mill Feed at 85 to 90°C

C. Unheated Rice Mill Feed . . . . . . .
Design for Broiler Experiment, Initial 2-Week Period

Design for Broiler Experiment for Final 6 Weeks<of Experi-
ment Period . . . . . . . . . . .

Chicks in the Brooder with a Trough Feeder and a
Gravity-Fed Waterer . . . . . . . . .

Chicks in the Pen with Gravity-Fed Feeders and Waterers
Homemade Trough Feeders for the Swine . . . . .

Swine House Where the Swine Trials Were Conducted .

xii

 

 

51
52

56

61

62

64

67

69

83

84

85
86
91

93

 

17.
18.
19.
20.

21.

Experimental Design for Swine Trial
Wet Rice Mill Feed Before Mixing Other Ingredients

Method of Processing Wet Diet

Pigs on Wet Diet

A Comparative Performance of Swine on Two Different
Types of Diets . .

 

94

96

97

98

131

ADFI

BWR
CP
DE
F/G
GE
HHR

LHR

UR

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS

Average daily feed intake
Average daily gain

Boiling water treated rice mill feed
Crude protein

Digestible energy

Feed per unit of gain ratio
Gross Energy

High heated rice mill feed
Low heated rice mill feed
Meat and bone meal
Metabolize energy

Untreated rice mill feed

INTRODUCTION

Rice is the principal cereal in the tropical parts
of the world. The total worldfisproduction ofrough rice in
the year 1978 was 376.45 metrictons,and that in Nepal and
Belize was 2400 thousand metric tons and 7 thousand metric
tons (FAO, 1978), respectively. When 100 kilograms of
rough rice is milled, it not only produces 70 kilograms of
white rice,but also 30kilograms of by-products. Depending
upon the section of a paddy rice grain where the by-product
comes from, itis termed as hull kn'husksh bran,polishings
or groats. There are a number of rice by-products available
as animal feedstuffs such as bran,polishings and groats(or
broken riceL The rice hull which forms a major portion of
rice by—product is not commonly utilized as an animal feed-
stuff because of its rough texture, high silica content,
high lignin and poor digestibility by animals. However,
the hull can be treated with chemicals and used as a
ruminant feedstuff.

Rice by—products such as bran,polishings and groats
can form a substantial portion of the supplemental animal
feedstuffs in the rice-producing areas of the world. This
is especially true in the rice—producing areas of the de-

veloping countries where the larger portion of the grain

1

2
goes directly to human consumption.

The type and quality of rice by-products depend
upon the milling methods which vary from simple hand
pounding with a mortar and pestle to large—scale process-
ing in highly mechanized milling plants. Hand pounding
and pedaling, although declining in use, still are the
major processes in many areas. A substantial portion of
rough rice is milled by hand pounding and pedaling in
Nepal, and more than 75% of the rough rice processing is
done by hand pounding in Indonesia. In these primitive
methods all of the by—products come together so it is nec—
essary to sieve the mixed materials and separate other by—
products from the husks. However, it is practically im—
possible to obtain bran, polishings or groats separately.
When milling is performed in modern sophisticated mills,
two procedures are used. The system which is common in
the U. S. is one—break milling, where total bran is removed
in a single separation and provides a single product con-
taining inevitably small amounts of hull particles. The
other procedure is multi-break milling, where the bran
removal may take place in as many as three to five steps.
In this case, hull particles come in the first product
milled off and then come the bran fractions. The polish,
which is obtained after the bran, is quite similar in both
cases.

Bran production amounts to some 5 to 9% of the

weight of rough rice milled, but commonly it will be 8 to

 

 

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mum mHHfiz .pawflm moan moped nocmm mHHMh mam was .H madman

 

.wwflaom .romm
maamm mam map CH msts oOHH mmmoxm onu msfisusm .N wusmflm

 

5
9%. The lower values occur in those countries where the
percentage of bran removal is regulated. Besides bran,
polishings (or white bran) production amounts to 2 to 3%
of the weight of the rough rice milled. Groats production
is extremely variable depending upon the moisture content
in the rough rice, stage of harvest and the variety.
Therefore, a general figure of 10% may represent the pro-
portion of the combined rice by-products other than husks.
The rest of the by—products will be the husks. The estima-
ted production of rice bran in the world in the year 1978
was 37.645 million metric tons and that in Nepal and
Belize was 240 thousand metric tons and 700 metric tons re-
spectively. Rice by-product is often an economical source
of protein, oil and calories than grain, but it is yet
under-utilized and frequently wasted. Some is fed to
pigs, poultry and cattle. A small proportion is consumed
as food in the form of brown rice, therefore the recent
trend of exporting brown rice has been reducing potential
U. S. bran supplies.

Considerable amounts of bran are not utilized for
animal feedstuffs in some countries and serve only as fer-
tilizer, mulch or fuel. In view of its nutritional value
as feed, and as a potential source of oil and protein,
there is a great potential for a general upgrading of the
feeding value of rice bran. Therefore, it is vitally im-
portant to generate appropriate technology for preventing

the rapid deterioration of the bran, thus providing a

6
stable material for use as an animal-feed ingredient,
particularly when bran is used in a high proportion of

the diet.

Objective of the Current Studies

 

1. To establish an appropriate technology in
small farming systems to treat rice mill feed

2. To ascertain the degree to which various heat
treatments of rice mill feed would affect the deleterious
factors of free fatty acid and trypsin inhibitor

3. To chemically evaluate the treated and un-
treated rice mill feed

4. To biologically evaluate the treated and un-
treated rice mill feed through feeding experiments with
poultry and swine

5. To maximize the inclusion of rice mill feed
in monogastric animal diets while retaining higher levels

of efficiency of utilization and animal growth

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Rice bran and polishing are widely used for rumi-
nants such as cattle, sheep, water buffalo and bullocks
(Houston, 1972). However, the by-products are also fed to
monogastric animals such as poultry (Chaturvedi 23 al.,
1967; Rao, 1974; Majun, 1977), swine (Loosly 23 al., 1954;
Campabadal 22.21°' 1976; Lal, 1976) and horses (Houston,
1972). But the adOption of rice by-products as a feed was
retarded by the availability of lower-cost grains higher-
yielding varieties. However, skyrocketing grain prices,
especially in the developing countries, compel the farmers
of those countries to look for cheaper feed sources. Rice
by-products, being one of the cheapest and most abundant,
and frequently underutilized or wasted (Barber gt a_]_._.,
1980), can substitute for other ingredients as a substan-
tial portion of animal feed (Freivalds, 1975). Therefore,
it is important to improve our knowledge of the feeding
value of various by-products and types of treatments to
enhance their feeding value for different animal species.
This idea has stimulated the interest of researchers to

define the feeding value of rice by-products for animals.

Cultivated Species of Rice

 

Paddy rice is one of the leading food crops in the
world. Most varieties currently in production are in the

species Oryza sativa, L. However, some varieties grown in

 

Africa are in the species Oryza glaberrima, Steud (Adair,

 

1972). The cultivated rice Oryza sativa, L. is classified

 

into two subspecies such as Oryza sativa, L. subsp. indica,

 

Kato and Oryza sativa, L., subsp. japonica, Kato. These

 

subspecies, Indica and Japonica, are very similar tax—

onomically.

Rice Milling By-Products

 

The type, quantity and quality of each of the rice
milling by-products depend upon paddy species, variety,
maturity, moisture content, milling methods and other
physical conditions such as whether the grain has been
parboiled, is moldy, or is infested with insects. Never-
theless, the rice milling by-products are categorized into
the following groups based on the physical location of the
paddy seed from which they come and their texture, struc-
ture, quantity and quality.

The total by-products of milling are sometimes
utilized as rice mill feed, which usually contains about
61% hulls, 35% bran, and 4% polishings (Morrison, 1956;
Adair, 1972). However, the rice milling by-products are

broadly termed as:

\O

l. Hulls or husks

2. Bran

3. Polish or polishings or white bran

4. Groats, brewers rice, broken rice or rice

pollards.

Physicochemical Characteristics of
Rice MillIng By-Products

 

 

Rice milling by-products are of highly variable
quality, depending upon rice varieties (Juliano_etnal.,
1964) , season of production, irrigation intensity, soil types,
soil pH, and methods of milling (Arnott gt al., 1966). The
nutrient content of rice bran depends on the quantity of
hulls included with bran. The presence of finely ground
hulls can be revealed by microsc0pic analysis when they are

added to bran and polishings, and it is more difficult to

detect adulteration (Arnott St 31., 1966).

1. Husks

 

The outer coat of paddy grain is called rice hull
or rice husk. The usual range of sievable husk with a 72-
mesh sieve ranges from 40 to 80% but in some cases it goes
as high as 89% (Arnott gt al., 1966). About one-fifth the
weight of the harvested and dried crop is hulls or husks
(FAO, 1957).

A recent practical survey of actual and potential

hull uses has been prepared by Beagle and Beagle (1971)

10

based on their extensive personal experience. General
bibliographies on rice also (GBII, 1918; Kuilman, 1949;
Univ. Phil. 1958 to 1962; IRRI, 1963) contain information
on hulls. An excellent bibliography on rice hulls and
straw prepared by the National Agricultural Library
(Larson, 1957) covers much of the literature up to 1955.

The harsh woody covering around the caryopsis of
kernel of paddy grain consists of two interlocking halves;
the larger of the two is the flowering glume or lemma and
the smaller is the palea (Houston, 1972). The outer tip
of the lemma may be extended into a bristle-like awn. How—
ever, in most cultivars this is either small or vestigial.
Outer surfaces of the lemma and palea may contain short
stiff hairs, though they may have been eliminated in some
cases by breeding programs to develop smooth-hulled culti—
vars. There are two sterile glumes at the base of the
grain. They are separated from the flowering glumes by a
short section of the rachilla. All of these components
appear in the commercial hull fraction, but the flowering
glumes form the predominant material.

The appropriate analysis of husks studied by
Houston (1972) shows that the average values were, crude
protein, 4.48%; crude fat, 1.68%; nitrogen free extract,
31.74%; crude fiber, 40.82%; and ash, 21.20%. Thus, due
to the tough, woody, abrasive nature of the hulls, their low
nutritive properties,resistance to weathering,great bulk,

and high ash content, each rice—producing country has the

ll
challenging problem of utilization or disposal of rice
husks.
Probably the best estimate of rice husksrujlization

in the U. S. is the one made by Beagle (1970) presented in

 

 

 

 

Table 1.
TABLE 1. USES OF RICE HUSKS
Thousand
Use of tons
Feeds, whole or ground hulls 142
Feeds, ammoniated or chemically altered 58
Feeds and allied agricultural products mixed 120
Litter and bedding 94
Pressing and filtering aids 18
Furfural and other chemicals 17
Various miscellaneous uses 32
Rice hull ash (hull equivalent) 39
Excess hulls 300
Total 820

This table shows that a large quantity of husks is
utilized in the agricultural rather than industrial classi-
fication. It also makes clear that over one-third of the
hulls is still.not utilized.

Feeding hulls to animals was considered to be
harmful in the early years of the century. Early feeding
experiments led to comments that feeding in largequantities
was attended with some danger (Fraps 23 al., 1904), that
use in livestock feed was dangerous (Gobert, 1921) and that
animals died from the feed (Browne gt al., 1904).

Later, when it was found that ground rough rice

12
could be satisfactorily fed to cattle, hogs, horses and
mules (Dalrymple, 1910; Jordan gt gt., 1921; Bray, 1943),
it was recognized that rice husks could safely be included
as one of the ingredients of animal rations. Investiga-
tions of Noland (1953) and Noland gt gt. (1953, 1954) in
the early 19505 probably first established the potential
value of hulls as roughage for steers and ewes. Then
various workers (Ray gt gt., 1963; White, 1966; Horton gt
gt., 1967; White gt gt., 1969; Hutanuwatr gt_gt., 1974;
Hamad gt gt., 1976) investigated the feeding value of rice
hulls and proved that rice hulls can be used successfully
for finishing steers when 12% protein was supplied from
soybean meal (Ray, 1963). However, if a large quantity of
untreated rice hulls is added to livestock rations, inflam—
mation and ulceration of the gastrointestinal—tract lining
will develop and will consequently reduce the digestibility
of feeds, thereby reducing the growth rate of animals
(Loosli gt gt., 1954).

As stated above, rice husks can be used for various
purposes such as animal feeds, fuel and various industrial
uses, but little work has been done to investigate the
utility of rice husks. This is one of the reasons that
more than one—half of the husks produced is wasted (Hough
gt gt., 1966; Beagle gt gt., 1971).

Since heating improves the feeding value of rice
bran (Kratzer gt gt., 1974), and bran is cheaper than the

grain, it is desirable to heat the bran to improve its

13
feeding value. The heating of rice bran or drying of
grains using fossil fuels such as diesel oil, kerosene,
and liquefied petroleum gas, is becoming beyond the econ-
omic reach of small farmers, especially in the developing
nations. For instance, rice husks are available free of
cost in Belize. Since rice husks are available as a waste
by-product in the rice-milling industry, it is of economic
importance to find ways and means by which its heating
value can be utilized for heating rice bran, drying rough
rice and other cereal grains.

Rice hulls are of concave-convex structure (Beagle
gt gt., 1971) with a bulk density of 7 to 9 pounds per
cubic foot (10.43 kg to 13.41 kg/m3). The apparent density
of ground rice hull was 17 to 25 pounds per cubic foot
(25.32 to 37.24 kg/m3) and the absolute density was approx-
imately 45 pounds per cubic foot (67.03 kg/m3). Tucker
(1944) reported that the heating value of rice hull was
6,274 Btu per pound (3485.58 kcal/kg) of material at a
density of 6.24 pounds per cubic foot (9.30 kg/m3).

Acasio gt gt. (1973) studied the effects of four
levels of primary air (20,35,40,45 CFMcm:0.57,0.99,l.13,
1.27 CM) and three levels of fuel use (4.9, 6.5 and 9.55
pounds per hour or 2.22, 2.95 and 4.08 kilograms per hour)
on the effecient burning of rice hulls and found that the
effect of any level of primary air was not significantly
different from the other levels of primary air used. They

found that the difference among the responses due to the

14
effect of three levels of fuel feed rate was highly sig-
nificant. They concluded that the best feed rate was 9.55
pounds (or 4.33 kg) of rice hulls per hour. At that level,
they found a high burning efficiency. The Optimum depth of the
fuel bed was 3.0 inches with a furnace volume of 4. 0 cubic feet
and a grate area of 1. 0 square feet. In their experiment, tem-
perature fluctuation in the furnace was affected more by the

rates of fuel feeding than by the levels of primary air used.

2. Bran

Large-scale milling involves many processes which
consist of (a) cleaning by sieve, screw, blowers, and magnetic
separators to remove extraneous material (Arnott g g1_. , 1966) ,
(b) a drying stage to reduce the moisture below 15% , and (c)
hulling to remove the epicarp, mesocarp, cross-layer, testa
and aleurone layer.

The germ and outer layer are removed in one or two
stages and form the product known as bran, of which there
may be more than one grade. Based on the type of mill
used, the bran is made up of pericarp, some germ, ra-
chilla, small fragments of endosperm, some hulls, as well
as dust and soil particles. Bran removal amounts to some 5
to 9% of the weight of paddy milled (Houston, 1972). How-
ever, the amounts are usually in the upper part of the
range, or 8 to 9% of the paddy milled. Lower values can
occur in countries where the percentage of bran removal is
regulated.

Broadly, two types of machines are involved to mill

15
paddy rice, shellers, and whiteners. The material pro—
duced by sheller machines will be mainly of hulls, a small
portion of pericarp, some germ and some rachilla and small
fragments of endosperm, some dust and soil particles. The
under—runner disc huller performs coarse work (Barber,
1980). Pressure and friction are applied to remove the
hulls, and the under-runner disc huller produces l to 2.5%
bran with reference to paddy. In the process of whitening
the pericarp, the tegmen and the aleurone layer, together
with the germ, are removed from the brown rice. In the
majority of countries, commercial bran includes the pol—
ishings, germ and groats but in others, sieving in combina-
tion with an air stream is used to separate major fractions
such as bran, polishings, germ and broken rice of various
sizes. In Italy and Spain, separation of the germ is a
general practice (Barber, 1980).

There are a number of particles which can be rec—
ognized in rice bran, such as fragments of sterile glumes,
trichome fragments, pedicel fragments, pericarp fragments,
starchy endosperm fragments, entire germ or fragments of
it, fragments of seed coat, fibers from knots of the pani-
cula base, and the aleurone layer (Barber, 1980). Besides
these, there are other particles such as dusts from paddy
leaves or stems and soil particles which contribute a

small fraction of inert materials to the commercial bran.

16

Nutrients in Rice Bran

 

Rice bran feed is made up of seed-coat layers,
starchy endosperm, pericarp, the embryo or germ, and some
hulls. The seed—coat layers and the embryo contain more
than one-half of the mineral of the grain, a fourth of the
protein, practically all the vitamins and about three—
fourths of the fat (Sreenivasan, 1938 cited by Kik, 1956).
Kik (1956) also pointed out that the oil is largely con-
tained in the germ and about 85% of the entire oil content
of the hulled rice goes into the by-products. Therefore,
rice bran is a potential source of proteins, oil, nutrients,
and energy for animal-production systems (Kondo £3.21'r
1949; Kondo and Morita, 1954; McDowell, 1974; Ranjhan,
1972; Barber, 1980).

The nutrient content of rice bran is summarized in

Tables 2-4.

TABLE 2. PROXIMATE ANALYTICAL VALUES
OF RICE BRAN (HOUSTON, 1972)a

 

 

DM % Protein % Fat % Ash % NFE % Crude Fibers

 

88.45 12.60 15.05 13.85 40.15 13.30

 

aAverage of about 15 observations.

17

TABLE 3. AMINO ACID CONTENT OF RICE BRAN
(9.1% PROTEIN) (KIK, 1956)

 

 

Percent of Percent of

Amino acid

 

Dry matter Protein
Argininea 0.91 10.00
Aspartic acid 0.31 3.40
Cystine 0.11 1.22
Glutamic acid 0.71 7.80
Glycine 0.80 8.80
Histidine 0.30 3.30
Isoleucgnea 0.48 5.27
Leucine 0.70 7.70
Lysinea 0.56 6.15
Methionine 0.34 3.73
Phenylalanine 0.44 4.83
Proline 0.61 6.70
Serine 0.71 7.80
Threonine 0.37 4.06
TryptoPhana 0.36 3.95
Tyrosine 0.50 5.49
Valinea 0.61 6.70

 

aNutritionally essential for the rat.

TABLE 4.

18

VITAMINS AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS
IN RICE BRAN (KIK, 1956)

 

 

 

Item Amount
Thiamin, mg/g 24.00
Riboflavin, mg/g 2.00
Nicotinic acid, mg/g 336.00
Pantothenic acid, mg/g

Total 27.70

Free 11.60
Biotin, mg/g 0.60
Folic acid

Total 1.46

Free 0.16
Pyridoxine, mg/g 25.00
Inositol, mg/g 4627.00
Choline, mg/g 1700.00
p-Aminobenzoic acid, mg/g 0.75
Calcium, % 1.31
Phosphorous, % 1.48
Iron, %

Total 0.019

Available 0.010
Nitrogen, % 1.53
Protein (N x 5.95), % 9.10
Fat, % 13.66
Moisture, % 9.80
Ash, % 12.00

 

19

Rice bran feed is not considered to be protein-
rich feed because it is of highly variable husk-fiber con—
tent. Fiber content is sometimes raised by adulteration
with husk. This is a particular problem in the Philippines
(Arnott gt gt., 1966). It is fairly palatable when fed
fresh but turns rancid in storage. Thus, unless the bran
is fresh, animal intake levels may lower, resulting in a
decrease of growth (Arnott gt 21., 1966). However, the
growth depression on rice-bran diets is not totally under-
stood (Kratzer, 1980). Fresh rice bran has a pleasant
smell and taste which enhances its palatability and aids
in secretion of digestive juices resulting in the more-
efficient digestion of food by swine (Arnott gt_gt., 1966).
Various workers found that rice bran tends to produce soft
pork (Morrison, 1937; Thrasher gt_gt., 1965a, 1965b) but
this effect could be diminished by the exclusion of rice
bran during the finishing period prior to marketing the
animals (Gunn gt gt., 1951 cited by Arnott, gt gt., 1966).
However, it was not definitely stated that for how many
days the rice bran should be excluded from the diet before
marketing the pigs.

Rice bran, now used as animal feed, contains con-
siderable protein that can be used for human nutrition
(Chen gt_gt., 1969). Efforts have been made to make
human foods such as bread, muffins, pancakes, cookies
(Lynn, 1969) and 40 to 80% bran protein concentrate (Chen

gt gl., 1969). Rice bran is a good source of oil. For

20
years rice-bran oils have been available through solvent
extraction of rice bran. However, rice-bran oil has not
gained importance as an edible vegetable oil because
rice-bran oil is very unstable and does not have a
presently acceptable color. Besides these factors,
there are a number of reasons such as low oil yields
and processing difficulties, e. g., bran instability,
wax contaminants in oil and problems in removing defatted
fine rice polish solids (Lynn, 1969). Therefore, the
use of rice-bran oil is only a fraction of the potentially
available world supply of about 2.72 billion kilograms

(USDA, 1966).

3. Polishings

 

When husks and bran layers are removed from the
rice grain, it becomes nearly white, but the grain is
still rather rough and it is polished by one or two
machines. As a result of this process, polishings are
produced. Polishings are also known as polish or white
bran. In some areas, rice polishings are included in
commercial rice-bran feed. Polishings have a much lower
fiber content and a very low silica content, but have
much higher crude protein and oil than the bran.
Arnott gt git. (1966) suggested that oil, silica, and
crude fiber content can be used either singly or in
combination to distinguish between bran and polishings.

If the product has not been solvent extracted,kn2n1could be

21
defined as material having less than 12% oil and more than
8% fiber or 1.3% silica, and polishings can be defined as
material having more than 12% oil and less than 8% fiber
or 1.3% silica. However the chemical composition of
polishings determined by various workers are listed in
Tables 5-7.

TABLE 5. PROXIMATE ANALYTICAL VALUES OF RICE
POLISHINGS (LIMCANGO-LOPEZ, ET‘AL., 1962)

 

 

 

- Crude
DM, % Protein, % Fat, % Ash, % NFE, % Fiber, %
90.5 12.04 16.56 7.97 56.24 7.33

 

TABLE 6. AMINO ACID CONTENT OF RICE POLISHINGS
(10.40% PROTEIN) (KIK, 1956)

 

 

 

Amino Percent of Percent of

Acid Dry Matter Protein
Argininea 0.83 7.92
Aspartic acid 0.50 4.77
Cystine 0.15 1.43
Glutamic acid 0.76 7.25
Glycine 0.88 8.40
Histidine 0.39 3.72
Isoleucinea 0.54 5.15
Leucinea 0.68 6.49
Lysinea 0.62 5.92
Methioninea 0.43 4.10
Phenylalanine 0.48 4.58
Proline 0.68 6.34
Serine 0.77 7.95
Threonineaa 0.39 3.72
Trypt0phan 0.34 3.24
Tyrosine 0.70 6.68
Valine 0.63 6.01

 

aNutritionally essential

for the rat.

22

TABLE 7. VITAMINS AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS IN
RICE POLISHINGS (KIK, 1956)

 

 

 

Item Amount
Thiamin, mg/g 22.00
Riboflavin, mg/g 2.20
Nicotinic acid, mg/g 330.00
Pantothenic acid, mg/g

Total 33.30

Free 9.90
Biotin, mg/g 0.57
Folic acid, mg/g .

Total 1.92

Free 0.18
Pyridoxine, mg/g 20.00
Inositol, mg/g 4536.00
Choline, mg/g 1020.00
p-Aminobenzoic acid, mg/g 0.73
Calcium, % 0.91
Phosphorous, % 2.44
Iron, %

Total 0.028

Available 0.012
Nitrogen, % 1.76
Protein (N x 5.95), % 10.47
Fat, % 16.40
Moisture, % 9.80
Ash, % 13.20

 

4. Groats

 

Groats, also known as broken rice, brewer's rice or
pollards, are the small broken kernels that do not meet the
kernel-size requirements. These broken kernels of rice
will generally be less than three-fourths the size of whole
kernels. The nutrient contents of groats are the same as
those of rice kernels. The nutrient contents of polished
rice are protein, 9.75%; fat, 0.44; crude fiber, 0.34%;

ash, 0.56%; and NFE, 88.91% (Juliano gt gt., 1964).

23

Deleterious Components in Rice By-Products

 

A number of toxic substances in rice seeds and
ultimately in rice by-products have been discovered by var—
ious researchers (Arnott gt gl., 1966; Goering gt gt., 1970;
Horiguchi gt g}., 1971; Kratzer gt 33., 1974; Tsai, 1976;
Majun gt gl., 1977; Kratzer gt g}., 1977; Tashiro gt g}.,
1978). Among the known toxic substances are trypsin (pro-
tease) inhibitor, high free fatty acids level, high silica
content and unknown growth depressing factors which are
deleterious to animal performance.

When more than 30% rice bran was added to swine
(Thrasher gt g}., 1965) and poultry diets (Mahadevan_gt_g}.,

1957), a reduction in growth was observed. But Kratzer gt

_gl. (1974) found that when rice bran was used at a 60% level

in poultry diets, the growth of chickens was reduced by 30%.
When the bran was autoclaved or steamed the growth depressing
factor was destroyed. When antitryptic substance was ex-
tracted by mild acid, the growth of chickens was improved
(Tsai, 1976), but Kratzer gt g}. (1977) found that the growth
inhibition of rice bran was not due to its trypsin inhibitor
activity. They found that autoclaving, hot-water treatment
and parboiling improved the growth of the chickens. Lipase
activity in rice bran was destroyed by autoclaving or par-

boiling, and they predicted that these processes of treating

24

rice bran would be adequate to improve growth. When they
used ethoxyquin as an antioxidant.itdid not improve growth
of chicks fed diets containing rice bran and was less ef—
fective than autoclaving or parboiling in preventing the
development of rancidity. Thus, it appears that the growth de-
pressing factor, protease inhibitor and lipase are heat labile .

Besides the known chemical factors there are mech-
anical and physical factors which determine the quality of
rice bran. For example, environmental conditions such as
temperature, humidity and duration of storage, have a great
bearing upon the protein content of rice bran (Houston,
1972). If the temperature is about 24°C or higher and
moisture is 14% or higher, mold develops in the rice mill
feed. The digestibility of bran is lowered by adulteration
with husks. Rice husks have 11 to 19% silica, whereas good
quality bran will have only 1. 3% silica (Arnottgtgt. , 1966) .

From a survey conducted by Arnott gt gt. (1966) on
the variation of quality of bran and polishings, it has
been established that there was a significant negative cor-
relation between the crude-fiber content and the crude—
protein content. They found that the percentage of crude
fiber was positively correlated to percentage of silica.
Thus, a significant negative correlation exists between
crude protein and silica content of the rice by-products.

The deleterious components in rice by-products

are discussed in detail below.

25

l. Trypsin inhibitor

 

The low-molecular weight proteins which inhibit the
activity of proteolytic enzymes such as trypsin,chymotrypsin
and some microbial proteinases are present in cereal and
legume seeds in variable quantities (Liener 33 al., 1969;
VOgel gt al., 1969). These low molecular weight proteins
may interfere with activation of the pancreatic zymogens
(enzyme precursors), trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, in
the small intestine and ultimately they may interfere with
efficient proteolytic enzyme activity. When high levels of
inhibitors are present in feeds, dietary protein may not be
utilized efficiently, and may be excreted. The feedback
mechanism to the pancreas regulated by trypsin levels in the
intestine also may be seriously disturbed. Snook (1969)
found that the gastrointestinal hormone pancreozymin is
involved in this mechanism. The release of pancreozymin is
stimulated by protein products in the small intestine (Wang
35 al., 1951), and pancreozymin enhances synthesis of other
pancreatic enzymes (Rathman 25 al., 1967). As a result of
this process there is an increased demand for zymogen.output.
This causes hypertrophy of the pancreas and elevated demands
for sulfur-containing amino acids (Liener, 1975). There-
fore, when fed high rice bran rations animals will have an
enlarged pancreas (Kratzer 35 al., 1974). Different plant
seeds contain variable quantities of inhibitors. Soybean

seeds contain 6% of the total protein in the form of trypsin

26

inhibitors (Rackis et_al., 1964), potato tubers contain from
2 to 5% of soluble protein in the form of a specific
chymotrypsin inhibitor (Ryan gt al., 1968), and of the water
soluble protein in barley, 4 to 5% may be a specific trypsin
inhibitor and an additional 4 to 5% may be inhibitors affec-
ting chymotrypsin and microbial proteinases (Kirsi gt al.,
1971).

There may be variable quantities of inhibitors in
different parts of the same plant seeds. Horiguchi gt El°
(1971) separated rice seeds into embryo, bran and endosperm
and assayed for trypsin inhibitor. They found that the in-
hibitor was especially localized in the embryo. The bran
contained only 7.4% of the total inhibitor. They did not
find any trypsin inhibitor activity in the endosperm. The
inhibitor concentrate was the highest in the embryo. An

inhibitor for Aspergillus protease exists in bran containing the

 

embryo of rice seed, though its content is less than that in
other plant seeds (Matsushima, 1955). When protease inhi-
bitor in rice seed was investigated physiologically in con-
nection with plant development, it was found that the
inhibitor was localized in the embryo and its activity
decreased upon germination (Horiguchi gt al., 1971). It was
also established that the inhibitor was a protein-like sub-
stance which was non—diffusible through a cellophane mem-
brane, salted out on addition of ammonium sulfate, was
denatured on heating at 100°C and adsorbed into ion-exchange

cellulose. The protease lost its activity within 10 minutes

27

during incubation at 70°C but the inhibitor activity
remained unchanged after 30 minutes of treatment. The pro—
tease and the inhibitor could be separated from each other
by chromatography on a TEAE—cellulose column, and it was
found that the inhibitor reduced the activity of rice seed
protease.

Tashiro st 31. (1978) extracted a trypsin inhibitor
from rice bran with 1% sodium chloride and partially puri-
fied by 40 to 80% ammonium sulfate fractionation. The crude
product obtained inhibited the activity of trypsin but not
that of a—chymotrypsin or pepsin. The crude inhibitor was
stable at acidic and neutral pHs but was gradually inacti-
vated by the long—time incubation with pepsin. The estimated
molecular weight of the inhibitor by polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfaanas
13,500.

The trypsin inhibitor content of different parts of

the rice seed is given in Table 8.

TABLE 8. INHIBITOR CONTENT IN RICE SEED
(HORIGUCHI g3 59., 1971)

 

 

 

 

. a Inhibitor Inhibitor
Part Dry filght Contenta Concentration
g (IU) (IU/dry weight)
Embryo 1.70 75.60 44.50
Bran 1.80 6.00 3.30
Endosperm 33.50 0.00 0.00
Total 37.00 81.60 47.80

 

aFigures represent values for 2,000 grains.

28

Tsai (1976) conducted an experiment to find the
contribution of protease inhibitors to the deleterious ef-
fects of rice bran fractions and heat treated rice bran
when fed to chickens. He concluded that removal of the
antitryptic substance by mild acid extraction improved the
growth response of chicks and the feeding efficiency of
rice bran. He pointed out that most of the antitryptic ac—
tivity in rice bran was not destroyed by dry heating even
when heating time was as long as 30 minutes and there was
no improvement of growth nor of feed efficiency. Auto-
claving and steaming were the most—effective methods to de—
stroy the antitryptic substance, resulting in a signficant
improvement of feed efficiency and growth. He found that
there was a positive correlation between pancreatic hyper-
trophy in chicks and the antitryptic activity in rice bran.
However, Kratzer gt gt. (1974) found that dry heating of
bran improved its feeding value and destroyed the growth—
depressing factor. Further studies of Kratzer gt gt.
(1977) revealed that the growth inhibition of rice bran was
not due to its trypsin inhibitor activity because of the
fact that the hot-water treatment improved the growth of
the chicks; however, it did not lower the trypsin inhib—
itor. It is apparent that the issue of growth depression
by trypsin inhibitor or other heat-labile substances needs

further investigation.

29

2. Oil and free fatty acids of rice bran

 

The oil content of rice bran is variable depending
upon the country, rice varieties and environmental factors.
Arnott gt gt. (1966) found that the poor brans adulterated
with ground husks, from Malaya, had 3 to 10%,good bran had
11 to 16%, and polishings had 11 to 21% of oil content.
Similarly, the boiled-rice bran from India had 18 to 25%
whereas the boiled-rice bran from Burma had only 12 to 18%
of oil. When oil was extracted in the laboratory with pe-
troleum ether, it was clear and sweet smelling but of vary-
ing color from yellowish green or brown to red depending
upon the original material (Arnott gt gt., 1966). Thus,
good-quality bran and polishings which have 15 to 20% oil
do have a great potential for oil production in the future.
Defatted rice bran is a good source of protein. Alkaline
extraction of defatted California rice bran removed 33.3 to
82.5% of total crude protein (Chen gt gt., 1969) but the
highest amount of protein removal from full fat rice bran
was 70% (Lew EE.El-r 1975). As oil is removed from the
rice bran and polishings, the percentage of crude protein
is increased, and the keeping quality is improved.

The fatty-acid compositions of rice by-product (bran-
polish) revealed by Lynn (1969) were: oleic acid, 44.0%;
linoleic acid, 35.5%; palmitic acid, 21.0%; linolenic acid,
2.7%; stearic acid, 2.0%; arachidic acid, 1.1%; and myris-
tic acid, 0.4%.

A problem of rice-bran oil is that it is very

30
unstable, and just after milling, free fatty acid develop-
ment proceeds rapidly. Experiments conducted by Arnott gt
gt. (1966) showed that in one sample the free fatty acids
rose from 9.2 to 78% in 32 days. Therefore, in order to
arrest free fatty acid development in rice bran, treat-
ments must be applied as early and as quickly as possible.
When volatile acids and phenols in the steam distillate of
rice bran were fractionated and identified, it was observed
that the acidic fraction had a rancid, butter-like odor
(Fujimaki gt_gt., 1977). The enzyme lipase present in rice
bran (Aizono gt gt., 1971; Shastry gt gt., 1971, 1972,
1975a, 1975b; Funatsu gt a” 1971; Aizonogta1., 1973, 1976,
1978; Fujiki gt gt., 1978) is very active at the optimum
pH between 7.5 and 8.0, and the optimum temperature at
about 37°C and preferentially splits fatty acid at the l,
3-position of substrate (Aizono gt gt., 1973). The lipase
activity is known to persist in the paddy grains for as
long as 15 years (Kondo gt gt., 1950 cited by Shastry gt
gt., 1971).

The purified lipase from rice bran catalyses hydro-
lysis of long and short chain synthetic triglycerides in
the oils from rice bran and groundnut (Shastry gt gt.,
1971). The lipase was found to be stable for at least a
month at 0 to 4°C, when adsorbed on calcium phosphate gel.
The enzyme is activated by lower concentrations of calcium
ions and bile salts, and inhibited by cupric ions and par-

tially inhibited by diisOpropylfluorophosphate,

31

ethylenediaminetetraacetate and p-chloromercuribenzoate
(Shastry gt gt., 1971). In order to stabilize the bran

and oils, rice-bran lipase must be inactivated. The enzyme
is stable at temperatures below 40°C (Aizono gt gt., 1973)
but loses activity by heating at 57°C for 15 minutes
(Aizono gt gt., 1976). However, the earlier work of
Shastry gt gt. (1971) indicated that when lipase was heated
at 500C, there was a rapid diminution in specific activity
during the first minute and then it remained constant over
a period of at least 10 minutes. When heated to 60°C the
activity diminished during the first two minutes and then
remained constant. When heat was applied at 105°, 1100
and 1200C for 3, 4% and 6 hour periods, all heat treatments
successfully arrested the rise in free fatty acids (Arnott

gt gt., 1966), with higher temperatures and longer times

increasingly effective in doing so.

3. Unavailability of nutrients in rice by-product

 

A number of nutrients present in rice by-products
are in bound form and thus biologically unavailable. Some
minerals are seriously deficient and some are imbalanced.

Rice bran is a phosphorus-rich by-product of the
food industry that has established feeding value for both
swine (Campabadal gt gt., 1976) and poultry (Kratzer gt_gt.,
1974; Mandal gt gt., 1974) but the problem is that much of
the phosphorus in rice bran, 5.1% (Nelson gt gt., 1968)

exists in the phytate form (O'Dell gt gt., 1972) and is

 

 

32
largely unavailable to non—ruminants (Corley gt gt.,
1969; Bayley gt gt., 1975) indicated that the availability
of phosphorus in complete diets could be increased by
steam pelleting. However, Summers gt gt. (1968) did not
get improvement in phosphorous availability due to pellet-
ing when individual ingredients were pelleted prior to
mixing. This work agrees with the findings of Corley gt
gt. (1980) that pelleting did not improve the availability
of phosphorus. They found that, as compared to total phos-
phorus, the availability of phosphorus was 17.6% for rice
bran. They also found that the dietary organic phosphorus
sources had no effect on utilization of phosphorus from in-
organic sources and the addition of 13% corn oil did not
influence phosphorus utilization. When two phosphates from
rice bran such as phosphomonoesterase, and phosphodiester-
ase, were partially purified and studies were done of their
nature, it was found that both enzymes were partially in—
hibited by inorganic phosphate (Shastry gt gt., 1972).
However, no details of the relationship between phytic acid
phosphorus and phosphatases are available. Therefore, an
intensive study is needed of the biological utility of
phosphorus present in phytate form in rice by—products.

A large part of vitamin B6 present in rice bran is
in bound form. When rice—bran extracts were fractionated
by gel filtration, it gave a variety of pyridoxine—contain-
ing compounds which were unavailable to the assay micro-

organisms unless hydrolyzed (Yasumoto gt gt., 1976). Thus,

33

it is obvious that the availability of these compounds as
vitamin B6 is very limited. Yasumoto gt gt. (1977) isola-
ted one of the bound forms of vitamin 36’ occurring in rice
bran, in a faintly yellowish syrup by repeated ion-exchange
and paper-partition chromatographic techniques.

Total folic acid and iron present in rice bran were
1.46 mg/g and 0.019% respectively, and their free and
available quantities only 0.16 mg/g and 0.01%, respectively
(Kik, 1956).

Some of the trace minerals, such as zinc, in rice
bran are seriously low. Therefore pigs on rice bran-
cassava based diets developed parakeratosis, gained slowly

and digested feed poorly (Maust gt gt., 1972).

4. Unidentifiedggrowth depressing factor

 

The presence of a growth-depressing factor in rice
bran is undoubted (Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976); how-
ever, the biochemical prOperties and the mechanism of
growth depression of this noxious substance, which is
thermolabile (Kratzer gt gt., 1974), are not understood.

Rice by-products did not make a satisfactory sub-
stitute for corn, wheat and oats and their by-products in
laying diet (Smith, 1934) and reduced egg production
(Smith, 1948). When rice bran was used at 60% of the diet,
replacing corn as an energy source in diets containing fish
meal or soybean meal, growth of chicks was depressed by

approximately 30%, and the weight of the pancreas was

34
significantly greater than on the control diets (Kratzer
gt gt., 1974). The hypertrophy of the pancreas was some-
what similar to the trypsin inhibitor effect in soybeans
(Chernick gt gt., 1948). Therefore, it was thought that
the growth depression in rice-bran diets might be its
trypsin-inhibitory action. Later, Tsai (1976) found that

there was a positive correlation between pancreatic hyper-

trOphy in chicks and the antitryptic activity in rice bran.

Removal of the antitryptic substance by mild acid extrac-
tion improved the growth response of chicks and the feed
efficiency of rice bran. However, when boiling water and
rice bran were mixed at a ratio of 1:1 for 40 minutes and
dried in the sun, there was no reduction in trypsin-
inhibitor activity but there was an increase in growth
rate of chicks fed this diet by about 40% (Kratzer gt gt.,
1977). The feeding value improved to some extent when
rice bran was soaked in hot water but was improved sig-
nificantly when an enzyme,a 0.5% of the diet, was added
to the bran (Din gt gt., 1979).

Pigs on rice bran-cassava diets also gained slowly
and digested feed poorly (Maust gt gt., 1972). When rice
bran was autoclaved (Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976;
Majun gt gt., 1977; Din gt gt., 1979), steamed (Kratzer gt

gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976), dry heated (Kratzer gt gt., 1974)

 

aThe enzymes they used were commercial enzyme com-
plex, ndxture of proteinases with some amylas from B sub-
tilis and food—grade alpha amylase from B subtilis.

u—r -1v ‘1‘ w .

 

35

or hot-water treated (Kratzer gt gt., 1977; Din gt gt.,
1979), there was an improvement in growth of chicks on
rice-bran diets, possibly due to the destruction of a
growth-depressing factor. The heat treatments also de-
stroyed the lipase and slowed the development of free
fatty acids in rice bran, but it is yet unknown whether
the free fatty acids have a significant role in the growth
reduction of animals.

Further investigation is needed to ascertain the
biochemical characteristics of the so-called growth—
depressing factor and the contribution of growth depression

by free fatty acids.

Treatment of Rice By—Product

 

Efforts have been made to improve the feeding value
of rice bran by heat treatment (Upp, 1933; Arnott gt gt.,
1966; Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976; Majun gt gt., 1977),
chemical treatment (Arnott gt gt., 1966; Kratzer gt gt.,
1974; Tsai, 1977; Horiguchi gt gt., 1978; Din gt gt., 1979),

and pressure pelleting (Kratzer gt gt., 1977).

1. Heat treatments

 

Heat treated rice bran was used in chicken trials
to investigate the effect of heat treated rice bran upon
egg production as early as 1933 (Upp, 1933). It was found
that winter egg production was higher when layers were fed
heat treated rice bran diets. However, it was not con—

firmed that the increase in egg production was due to the

 

36
effect of heat treatment. Heating rice bran to 65.56OC
(1500F) did not lessen the percentage of free fatty acids
present after several months' storage. Later, it was
found that heat treatment ranging from 105°C to 2000C was
effective in inactivating lipolytic—enzyme activity and
checking the development of free fatty acids (Arnott gt
gt., 1966) in freshly milled rice bran.

Autoclaving rice bran markedly improved its feed-
ing value (Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976; Kratzer et a1”
1977; Majun gt gt., 1977; Din gt gt., 1979). Steaming was
as good as autoclaving (Kratzer gt gt., 1974). Hot-water
treatment of rice bran was effective in improving the
feeding value of rice bran, but it was not as effective as
autoclaving or steaming (Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Din gt gt.,
1979). The growth rate of chickens on dry heated rice bran
diets was higher than on unheated rice bran diets; however,
it was not as high as on autoclaved or steamed rice bran
(Kratzer gt gt., 1974). The feeding value of rice bran
from parboiled rough rice was as good as autoclaved or
steam-treated rice bran, and was not influenced by further

autoclaving (Kratzer gt gt., 1977).

2. Chemical treatment

 

When studies were conducted to determine if the
metabolizable energy value was influenced by addition of
reserpine as a tranquilizer at a rate of 0.5 mg/kg diet

in diets containing 20 to 30% rice bran, it was found

 

37

that reserpine had no significant influence on metaboliz-
able energy values for chicken (Maust gt_gt,, 1972).

When oxidants such as Topanol OF, Topanol 0C
(Arnott gt gt., 1966) and ethoxyquin (Kratzer gt gt.,
1977) were used in treating rice bran, they were not ef-
fective in reducing free fatty acids and also were not
effective in improving the growth of chickens. When fed
ethoxyquin treated rice bran diets, chicks did not gain
significantly faster than chicks on autoclaved or steam
treated rice bran diets (Kratzer gt gt., 1977). The
feeding value of rice bran from parboiled rough rice was
not improved by ethoxyquine treatment (Kratzer gt gt.,
1977). The growth-depressing factor could not be extracted
with hexane or methanol (Kratzer gt gt., 1974). However,
a trypsin inhibitor was salted out on addition of ammonium
sulfate (Horiguchi gt gt., 1971) and was extracted from
rice bran with 1% sodium chloride and partially purified
by 40 to 80% ammonium sulfate fractionation (Tashiro gt gt.,

1978).

3. Pressure pelleting

 

When studies were conducted on the effects of cold
pressure pelleting upon the feeding value of rice bran, it
was found that growth of chickens was reduced irrespective
of whether the rice was untreated or autoclaved (Kratzer gt
gt., 1977). However, reasons for reduced growth of chick-

ens on cold pressure pelleted rice bran diets have not been

38

established.

The Feeding Value of Deoiled Rice By-Product

 

When experiments were conducted to find the feed-
ing value of deoiled rice bran (Reddy gt gt., 1972) and
rice polishings (Mandal gt gt., 1974), it was found that
the growth response of chickens on deoiled rice bran was
significantly higher than on whole oil rice bran (Reddy
gt gt., 1972). Reddy gt gt. (1972) found that the addi-
tion of tallow to deoiled rice bran diet either at 2 or 4%
levels did not appreciably improve feed utilization. They
also found that as compared to whole oil rice bran, the
deoiled rice bran was a good source of protein, nitrogen-
free extract and major elements, such as calcium and

phosphorus.

Feeding of Rice By-Product to Poultry and Swine

 

1. Poultry

In the process of conducting trials on different
levels of rice by-product in diets fed to different strains
of poultry at different physiological stages, mixed animal
performance has been observed by researchers. Different
researchers have used varying levels of rice by-products,
ranging from 0 to 60% in poultry diets (Upp, 1933; Smith,
1934, 1948; Fraps gt gt., 1939; Mahadevan gt gt., 1957;
Scott gt gt., 1976; Tsai gt gt., 1976; Majun gt gt., 1977;

Din gt gt., 1979). Studies conducted by Upp (1933) showed

39
that when large amounts of rice by-products were included
in laying pullet mashes, growth rate was comparable with
that on control diets containing corn. Pino (1962) ob-
tained the best results when rice polishings were sub-
stituted for 10% of the corn in a corn-soy chick diet.
There was no evidence that rice by-products influenced the
body weight of experimental birds, when rice bran constit-
uted up to 46% of the layer mashes (Smith, 1934). How-
ever, Desai gt gt. (1961) found that the maximum desirable
level of rice polishings in poultry rations was 20%. The
more-recent work reveals that when rice bran was used at
20% of broiler diets, a reduction of growth was observed;
but when the bran was deoiled and used in the same ratio,
a significant improvement in growth response resulted
(Reddy gt gt., 1972). Marked improvement in broiler
growth was not occurred in groups to which tallow was
added at different levels ix: diets containing deoiled rice
bran. Feed utilization was poorest for the group fed 20%
rice bran. When rice bran was used at 60% of the diet to
replace corn as an energy source in diets containing fish
meal or soybean meal, the growth of chicks was depressed
by approximately 30% (Kratzer gt gt., 1974). The higher
level of rice bran in chicken diets not only caused growth
reduction but also caused diarrhea. It was not possible
to extract the growth-depressing factor with hexane or
methanol. Even an addition of casein or soybean oil to

the diet containing 60% rice by-product produced no marked

40

improvement in growth (Kratzer gt gt., 1974). There was
no evidence that there was any interference in trace-
mineral availability; however, frayed feathers in chick-
ens, due to low zinc in high rice by-product diets, has
been observed (Bird, 1978). Higher levels of rice by-
products, when not treated, reduced egg production (Smith,
1948). When 60% rice bran was included in layer diets,
there was an adverse effect on egg production, shell
thickness and yolk color (Majun gt gt., 1977). The 0p-
timum amount of rice bran suggested by Mahadevan gt gt.
(1957) for layer diets was 20%. Buvanendran (1961) found
that in chick-starter diets, a level of 20% was the most
satisfactory from the standpoint of growth and sexual
maturity, and in layer rations 30% was satisfactory for
egg production, when other essential nutrients were pro-
vided in the mash. When 50% rice bran was used in the
diet, a significant depression in egg production resulted.

When antitryptic substance was extracted by mild
acid the growth response of chicks and the feed efficiency
of rice bran was improved (Tsai, 1976). Autoclaving or
steaming the rice by-products destroyed the growth-
depressing factor and caused a marked improvement in
growth (Upp, 1933; Kratzer gt gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976) even
though a high level of rice bran was included in the
poultry diets. Dry heating and hot-water treatment im-
proved the feeding value of rice by-products as compared

to untreated rice by-products (Kratzer gt gt., 1974, 1977;

41
Din, EE.2l-v 1979). However, Tsai (1976) found that most
of the antitryptic activity in rice bran was not destroyed
by heating even though heating time was as long as 30
minutes and had no effect upon the improvement of growth
response in chicks and feed efficiency of rice bran. Auto-
claving the rice bran at 120°C for 20 minutes prior to
mixing of diets overcame its deleterious effects on eggs
and egg production. The bran from parboiled rice was
equivalent to autoclaved rice and there was no further
improvement by autoclaving (Kratzer gt gt., 1977). Heat
treatments, whether dry or wet, were effective in reducing
free fatty acid development in rice by-products (Arnott gt
gt., 1966; Kratzer gt_gt., 1974).

Metabolizable energy values were studied by various
workers (Hill and Runner, 1960; Hill gt gt., 1960). When
studies were conducted to determine the metabolizable ener—
gy value of rice bran, Maust gt gt. (1972) found slightly
lower value, 3.03 kcal/g, than 3.40 kcal/g which was pre-
viously determined by Zablan gt gt. (1963). However,
Zablan gt gt. (1963) used fine rice bran which had lower
fiber content and was substituted for glucose at the 25%
level. Although the gross energy value of rice bran was
the highest (4896 cal/g) as compared to that of cassave
flour, raw cowpeas, germinated cowpeas or autoclaved cow-
peas (4306 cal/g, 4320 cal/g, 4217 cal/g, and 4400 cal/g,
respectively), the metabolizable energy value of rice bran

(3.03 kcal/g) ranked below that of cassave flour (4.31

42
kcal/g) and autoclaved cowpeas (3.29 kcal/g) (Maust gt gt.,
1972).

The metabolizable energy of the rice-bran samples
was about 12.55 kJ/ga and was not influenced by autoclav-
ing, steaming, dry heating or hot-water treatment (Kratzer
__t gt., 1977).

A positive correlation has been found between pan-
creatic hypertrophy in chicks and antitryptic activity in
rice bran. However, the causative entity of growth de-
pression in rice by-products is as yet unknown. Previous
researchers (Kratzer gt_gt., 1974; Tsai, 1976) reported
that the growth depression of chickens fed rice by-products
was due to trypsin inhibitors, but Kratzer gt gt. (1977)
found that the growth inhibition of rice bran was not due
to its trypsin-inhibitor activity.

The development of free fatty acids, which cause
rancid feed and reduce feed intake, is another problem in
rice by-products. Chemical treatments with antioxidants
such as Topanol OF and Topanol OC when applied at the rate
of 0.5 to 0.1% were inefficient in preventing the develop-
ment of free fatty acids (Arnott gt gt., 1966). Ethoxyquin
also did not improve growth of chicks fed diets containing
rice bran and was less effective than autoclaving or par-

boiling in preventing the development of rancidity (Kratzer

 

0.239 cal
4.185 Joules

al Joule
l kcal

43
gt gt., 1977). Heat treatments were quite effective in
reducing free fatty acid development in rice bran (Arnott
gt gt., 1966; Kratzer gt gt., 1974).

Thus, it appears that the maximum level of rice
bran that can be included in poultry diets is approximately
30%. However, when it is autoclaved or steamed, it can be
used at 50 to 60% without an appreciable loss in growth

rate or egg production.

2. Swine

Feed costs which alone constitute 74% of total pro—
duction costs (Sycip gt gt., 1965) determine the profit-
ability of a swine enterprise. Therefore, it is essential
to lower feed costs so that swine producers will realize
an adequate profit margin. Rice by-product, being one of
the Cheapest and most abundant feed ingredients, can be
used to a great advantage (Bistoyong gt gt., 1968). Rice
by-product, especially bran and polishings, are rich in
energy (Maust gt gt., 1972; Kratzer gt gt., 1977), rich in
certain vitamins, particularly thiamin and niacin, and
relatively high in crude protein (Bistoyong gt gt., 1968).

Researchers used different levels of rice bran in
swine diets ranging from 0% to 80% of the total diet (Tirol,
1933; Emasiri, 1940; Thrasher gt gt, 1965a, 1965b; Bistoy-
ong gt gt., 1968; Sagar gt gt., 1968; Campabadal gt gt.,
1976; Chicco gt gt., 1976; Lal gt gt., 1976). Thrasher gt

gt. (1965) conducted an experiment to re-evaluate rice bran

44
in modern swine rations. In their experiment, rice bran
replaced mostly corn but also some soybean meal, since
rice bran had a higher protein content (15% in their ex-
periment) than corn. Both 20 and 30% rice bran signifi—
cantly reduced rate of gain and increased the feed re-
quired per 45.36 kilograms (100 pounds) of gain. Pigs on
diets containing rice bran required about 14 more days to
reach 90.72 kilograms (200 pounds). This loss in time
probably represents more value than the slightly reduced
cost of gain due to including rice bran in the ration.
Based on feed efficiency alone, the value of rice bran in
this trial was about 85 to 90% that of corn. The quality
of protein in the diets containing rice bran was seriously
reduced. At the 20 and 30% level, rice bran accounted for
19 and 26%, respectively, of the total protein in the
grower diet. The carcasses of pigs fed rice bran were
heavier, had less backfat, and higher iodine numbers.
Subjective estimates of carcass firmness showed that car-
casses from pigs fed rice bran were slightly softer, where-
as those from pigs fed on corn were very firm.

Later, Thrasher gt gt. (1965) replaced corn in
swine diets with rice bran and found that 20% rice bran
was the maximum level that could be fed to pigs to produce
acceptable carcasses, fat, firmness, and rapid, economical
gains. This investigation also indicated that rice bran
should not replace any of the protein supplement in order

to avoid a serious reduction in gains due to a decrease in

45
protein quality. As the level of rice bran increased,
rate of gain and feed efficiency were depressed much less
in the lots that averaged 26.31 kilograms (58 pounds) to
30.39 kilograms (67 pounds) initially. Their experiment
showed that pigs fed the basal diets required significantly
less feed than those receiving rice bran, but the inclusion
of rice bran reduced cost of gain, especially among the
heavier groups fed the 20% level. Carcass evaluation re-
vealed that the inclusion of rice bran significantly de-
creased dressing percentage, backfat thickness, and the
firmness of the carcass. Lean-cut yield tended to increase
as the level of rice bran increased and was significantly
increased when expressed as a percentage of carcass weight.
This work agrees with that of Campabadal gt gt. (1976). A
total of 233 pigs was used to determine the effects on live
weight gain and feed conversion of adding graded amounts of
rice bran to weaner (starter) and grower-finished diets
and to examine the factors limiting the inclusion of rice
bran at high rates. Rice bran at up to 15% for weaners
and 30% for growing-finishing pigs did not affect perform-
ance and in one of the experiments a 40% rice-bran diet
was fed to weaners without appreciable reductions in per-
formance. Addition of fat to rice-bran diets improved per-
formance apparently by increasing palatability and/or di—
gestibility of the diets due to reducing dustiness. How-
ever, the addition of fat to rice-bran diets also increased

energy density.

46

When trials were conducted with three levels of
rice bran ranging from 0 to 80% of the diets, it was ob-
served that the digestibility of rice-bran diets was gen-
erally lower than that of corn-soy diets (Brook gt gt.,
1975a, 1975b). Rate of gain was depressed in a linear
fashion by rice-bran additions and the differences of
weight gains were significant (0.5) between the lower and

higher levels of bran.

a. Digestibility

 

When trials were conducted to study the effect of
crude fiber upon animal performance, Loosli gt gt. (1954)
found that rice bran with less crude fiber had more digest-
ible organic matter and protein than rice bran high in
fiber content. The digestibility of concentrates contain-
ing two kinds of rice bran also varied appreciably. De-
pending upon the percentage of husks in the bran, the fiber
content will be different in different rice bran. The more
husks or husk particles in rice bran, the higher the crude-
fiber content in rice bran will be (Arnott gt gt., 1966).
Husks are not only high in fiber but also high in silica
(11 to 19%) which reduces the digestibility of rice bran
and also causes intestinal irritation and a swollen colon
(Arnott gt gt., 1966; Campabadal gt gt., 1976).

Mean apparent digestibility coefficients for dry
matter, crude protein and ether extract in rice bran were

found by Campabadal EE.El' (1976) to be 79.4, 66.9 and

47
74.10%, respectively. These low digestibility coefficients
were associated with lowered digestibility of diets con-
taining rice bran and appeared to be directly related to
the poorer performance of pigs fed these diets. Inflamma-
tion and ulceration of the gastrointestinal-tract lining
was observed in pigs fed rice-bran diets, but the contribu-
tion of this condition to the depressed performance was not
established. Little work has been performed that was des-
ignated to overcome the depressing effects of rice-bran
diets fed to swine. Tillman EE.§l° (1951) and Leighton
(1958) demonstrated that lypolytic enzyme activity in rice
bran resulted in a rise in rancid free fatty acids which
rendered it offensive to livestock and, as a result, re-
duced feed intake.

Some mineral problems are also encountered while
feeding high rice bran diets to swine. Most of the phos-
phorus in rice bran is in phytate form (O'Dell gt gt.,
1971) which was not available to nonruminants (Nelson gt
al., 1968; Corley gt gt., 1980). As far as trace minerals
are concerned, zinc is very low in rice bran. Maust gt gt.
(1969, 1972) reported that pigs on rice bran-cassava based
diets developed parakeratosis, gained slowly and digested

feed poorly.

b. Effects of protein levels

 

When a trial was conducted (Bistoyong gt gt., 1968)

using 48 cross-bred weanling pigs to determine the effects

48
of rice bran-fish meal combinations with varying protein
levels from 12 to 22% on growth rate and feed efficiency of
growing pigs, the average daily gains increased from 0.41
to 0.66 kilograms as the protein level of the diet was in-
creased. Daily gains of pigs fed 18, 20, and 22% protein
diets were significantly higher than those fed a 12% protein
diet. The average feed gain ranged from 2.92 to 5.72. In
general, growth rate, feed efficiency, and efficiency of
energy utilization improved as the protein level of the
diet was increased. Pigs on the 18% protein diet made the
cheapest gain and those on the 14% diet made the most ex-
pensive.

Although rice bran is high in crude fiber it is
rich in some vitamins, particularly thiamin and niacin, and
relatively high in crude—protein content. But the protein
of rice bran is of poor quality. Therefore, rice bran
should not replace any of the protein supplement in order
to avoid a serious reduction in gains due to a decrease in

protein quality (Thrasher gt gt., 1965).

c. Effects of fat treatment

 

Addition of fat to rice—bran diets improved perform-
ance apparently by increasing palatability and digestibility
of the diets (Campabadal gt gt., 1976). The 20% bran diet
resulted in significantly poorer gains and feed conversion
when compared to the control and bran-plus-fat diets

(Campabadal gt gt., 1976). Dry-matter digestibility was

49
depressed by the addition of bran but was restored when
fat was added to this diet. Crude-protein digestibility
was significantly reduced by bran and was not affected by
addition of fat. Digestible energy of the 20% bran diet
was lower than the control by 93 kcal/kg. Addition of fat
brought digestible energy of the diet to within 18 kcal/kg
of the control. It is, therefore, important to avoid husks
in rice bran, and supplement with protein, fat and trace
minerals to high rice bran diets. Various treatments of
rice bran may also improve its feeding value.

In summary, previous workers using different levels
of rice bran ranging from 0 to 80% in swine diets have, in
general, concluded that the use of untreated rice bran in
swine diets up to approximately 30% reduced the cost of
production without adversely affecting carcass quality and

growth rate.

 

 

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A. Heat—Exchange Systems

 

1. Solar cabinet

 

Principle: The sun is the source of by far the
greatest part of all the heat received at the earth's sur-
face, outweighing that due to distant stars, universal
space, and radioactive discharge (Platt gt gt., 1972). It
is continuously emitting energy but only about four ten—
billionths (0.0000000004) of which is received by the Earth
and its atmosphere in the form of radiation. No country in
the world uses as much energy as is contained in the sun—
light that strikes just its buildings (Hayes, 1977). Thus,
the only safe, dependable, renewable and non—polluting
energy source is the solar radiant energy. Nevertheless,
the trapping of solar radiant would not be cheap or easy
because of the complexity of technology involved for large—
scale production, but its benefits would far outweigh the
costs and difficulties in the long run.

The radiant power (flux) from the sun outside the
Earth's atmosphere is constant within 2%. Approximately 96%
of the radiant power per unit area arriving at a surface
will penetrate through a clear glass. Only 4% of the total

radiation will be reflected back. Thus, glass is considered

50

51

 

Eu m.m—~ 3:33 2: 3 593 .: 9:2. .260 .o 3:23:—
Eo 2.8 3:33 or. 3 £23 .3 .993. N. .260 32325» .m
Eu 3.5 3:33 2: .o 392.. .9 3:33 9: 3 39“. v
.52 :3 3.: .o 3:33 2: 3 33 n
Eo 3.3 $0.. .u E0 86 52.23:. u
":3: 3:5 F
33:38
Eu «.2
i
Eu «Mm. 55.98 E: “.0

l

5:: mmZZ. .0

 

o— 20:.wa me¢o .o

   

hwz_m<o ¢<JOw .<

w2<¢u ¢w>00 .m m

 

.838 5:33 .28 2: .2 an... .m .9“.

 

.pocflnmo HmHOm 93. .v wusmfim

 

 

,
. ’ l t l
7 v r ‘ -
. . _ . .- .. l- - .
. \ ‘ .-
. t . I .. I .~-.» ~

 

   

53

as the best material for the cover frame of the solar cab-
inet. Most meteorological stations of the world report
solar ratiation, measured on a horizontal surface, in
langley, which is expressed as energy per unit area (1
calorie/cmz). The intensity of the solar radiation varies
with geographical location, time of day, season, clouds,
dust particles in the air, and atmospheric moisture. These
principles must be taken into account, if possible, in con-
structing any kind of device to trap the solar radiant
power.

The dimensions and materials of the construction of

all parts of the solar cabinet are given in Appendix B-l.

Construction of the cabinet frame

 

The solar cabinet consisted of a rectangular angle
iron frame divided crosswise by means of retaining bars at
the bottom and sides. The frame was strengthened with gal-
vanized sheet metal. The procedures of the construction of

the cabinet frame are given in Appendix B.

Construction of glass frame

 

The gover glass frame was made of wood. Two 215.9
cm X 5.08 cm lengthwise, and four 83.82 cm x 3.81 cm x 3.81
cm pieces of wood were used to construct the glass frame. A
1.27 groove in one side of each of the wooden pieces was
cut to fit the glass. At equidistance, two wooden strips
were fitted across the glass frame to avoid the risk of

breakage of the glass, ultimately to give the inside of the

54
cabinet an appearance of a three-room box. Three glass
pieces sized 86.36 cm X 66.04 cm X 0.95 cm were then in-
serted in the grooves and the joints were paved with pud-
dings and woodwax. In the front portion of the cover
frame, two strong handles were fitted to make easy handling
while opening and closing the cabinet. Then the cover
frame with glass attached was fitted with the cabinet frame
with the help of three pairs of hinges.

The empty space was then filled with rice husks as
an insulating material, leaving 15.24 cm deep space on the
top portion of the cabinet in order to fit the inner trays
where rice by-product was cooked afterwards. A layer of
insulating material was fitted all around the trim of the
box and was wrapped with a high temperature resistant tape.

Thus, the cabinet except the inner trays was completed.

Construction of inner trays

 

Three pieces of equal sized, 91.44 cm X 66.04 cm
sheet metal were bent over 15.24 cm from each side and pop-
riveted to make three equal sized, 76.2 cm X 50.8 cm X 15.24
cm, 15.24 cm deep inner trays. The trays were then placed
in the cabinet on the top of rice husks in a series leaving
approximately 5.08 cm space between them and 5.08 cm apart
from the innter surface of the cabinet frame. The empty
spaces between trays were filled with rice husks as insulat-
ing material.

The cabinet was placed on wooden blocks on a raised

55
ground to avoid the possibility of condensation of mois-
ture on the bottom of the cabinet and consequently it was
also helpful to minimize the rusting of cabinet legs. It
is very important to avoid shade over the cabinet during
any time of the day to obtain full intensity of solar
radiation on the cabinet.

All the exposed surfaces of the solar cabinet were
then painted flat black. The inner trays and the cover
slips of the inner trays made of sheet metal were also
painted in flat black for maximum radiation absorption and

heat-energy retention.

Sample preparation in the solar cabinet

 

In order to operate the cabinet the cover glass
frame (door) was opened, the rice-mill feed put in the in-
ner trays and covered with dark painted cover sheet metal
pieces. The door was then closed.

Although the cabinet was not fully air tight, the
air flow in and out of the cabinet was minimized by minimiz-
ing the gap between the cabinet frame and the cover frame.
The solar rays strike the glass, pass through it and sub-
sequently strike on the dark painted cover sheet metal
which absorbed energy. The rice-mill feed which was placed
in the inner trays was heated by conduction from the sheet
metal. The cabinet was designed to cook the material
rather than drying, where the free air movement becomes

crucial. Therefore, the air movement in the cabinet and

56

S—

a-

“Mr fiflv'w—

a
a .
T
.
l
_
m

HmHOw on» Ca comm HHME moan pwumwn may mcficafimxm

.m wuzmwm

.umcflnmo

 

57
out of it was minimized by tightly fitting the joints of
the pieces of materials. The temperature of the rice by-
product at three sites in a depth of 5.08 cm (2"), 7.62
cm (3"), and 12.70 cm (5") were measured three times a day
for a period of one month, e.g., May 1980 (Table 9). The
temperature was measured by thermocouple using a Fluke
digital readout thermometer. Nevertheless, the temperature
below 60°C was not recorded because of the fact that that
temperature was not effective to treat rice-mill feed in
order to enhance its feeding value (Bird, 1978). The means
of the temperature data for the month of May, 1980 are as
follows.

When it was observed that the temperature was the
lowest when 12.7 cm deep rice by-product was used, it was
used only about 7.62 cm deep to cook it per sample prepara-
tion. The rice by-product was then continuously heated in
the solar cabinet for three days, stirring once a day, and
mixed well and samples were taken and stored in bags. Ex-
cept during the transit period, the samples were stored in
a refrigerator until chemical analysis was performed.

It was not possible to heat adequate quantity of
rice-mill feed in the solar cabinet, especially during the
starting period of the rainy season when the trials were
conducted. Therefore, the solar heated rice mill feed was
chemically characterized but was not used in the feeding

trials of poultry and swine.

58

.SOCOB 0 NO '50:

v

.uocwnuo on» yo nocuoo yuan I o

.uocwndo on» ma noucuu I n
.uocuado on» no nucuoo unmum I ¢

.oucom ouaumaucoo cu commoumxo mud nousunuomsou Ha<u

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.vo on we no we we as «A or «can:
any no saw:
no mouoo om Hhuoo no onloo we obooo no «plow mo nhuoo ms mbnom om mmuoo vs canoe .E.& n
co Hpaoo om op-ow no ounce mo msuoo we ounce on om-oo ms mm-om do mm-ow on Ho-oo cooz «a
omv omv. omv omv owv omv Aw nouom no vmnoo Ho Nonoo do «once we vmuom Ho nouoo .E.o oa
asua
coo: gonna cum: 00:6“ cum: wand: :aoz wmcum :mwz manna :mwz moans cam: wo:mm coo: omcmm ado: omcux u:quu=mauz
v ousunquan
uufim
U m 4 U o m < u:oEouamuoz
ousuouuasua
.zm. Eu h.~H Azmv so 0.» Aanv Eu ~.m

 

 

 

 

coon ~H«:noowm way :w acoEmomHm mHmsoooEuwse mo guano

EouH

 

.ooma .aaz mo zazoz mze 2H emznm<o acqom so maaze muzzu

m:& 2H mmBHm 92¢ mzamuo BZQMMLmHo 94 Busooxmaam mUHm mo mumaacmumxus .o mama?

59

2. Rotary drum heating system

 

A "rotary drum heating system" was developed to
use for dry heating the rice-mill feed (Figures 6, 7, 8, and
9).

Materials of construction and dimensions are given
in Appendix B-2. Locally available materials were used to

construct the machine wherever it was possible.

Methods of construction of furnace

 

A rectangular groove of 86 cm wide and 10 cm deep
was dug allowing an area of 76 cm X 71 cm. The groove was
paved with bricks. Then a floor of bricks, one brick in
thickness, was established to serve as the foundation. The
walls of the rectangular furnace were raised to a height of
48 cm, leaving a distance of 28 cm in the front side of the
rectangle to serve as oven mouth to feed the fuel. The
furnace was made of bricks, and a cement-sand mixture which
was mixed in a ratio of 1:4. Three parallel iron rods were
placed over the empty portion of one side of the rectangular
furnace wall, and on the tOp of the rods bricks were placed
and were strengthened with the cement-sand mixture. Similar—
1y, 4 iron rods, two on each side, were placed crosswise to
strengthen the furnace wall and to control the fire flame to
the desired direction. Bricks and cement-sand mixture were
layered over the t0p. The rectangular furnace wall was then
raised 5 cm further which gave the furnace wall to a total

height of 53 cm. The 28 cm X 48 cm opening in the front was

60
designed for feeding fuel, for draft and for ash removal.
However, an air supply system was established to provide
sufficient air in order to obtain less smoke and more heat
energy.
The walls of the furnace were further paved with the
cement-sand mixture to make sure that that would not break

while cooking the material.

Construction of heat exchange machine

 

One end of a 55-gallon drum was cut giving a hole of
27 cm x 23 cm which was used as a door to put in and remove
the heated material out. Strips of iron were welded around
the door cover. A sliding door cover was fitted in the
groove on the drum and was used to open and close the door.
A handle was fixed with the door cover to facilitate opening
and closing of the door. The 5 blades, 80 cm x 5 cm each,
made of sheet metal-were bolted on the inner surface of the
drum to turn over the material in the drum.

Two holes, 5 cm in diameter, were made one in each
side of the drum to allow the pipe to pass through.

A measurement of 84 cm at the middle portion of the
pipe was taken and was marked at 4 points of equal distance
of 21 cm. Four holes were drilled at the four points to fix
the thermocouples in order to take the temperature of heated
material at different points.

The galvanized aluminium pipe with 4 holes in a

distance of 21 cm was inserted through the drum and was welded

'I'

61

.Ewumam
map EH comm HHHE wOHH map chUMOHcs paw msflpmoq

. n \ .ol \Y~unlr .6
. . .

mcfipmw: Educ humuou
.w wusmflm

 

62

£8»me mcflumm: Esau humuou was

. N. wuswflm

 

 

r s

A:
7.

63
with the drum. Four cupper-constantone thermocouples were
inserted through the holes (one through each hole) of the
pipe. The sensitive portion of the thermocouple was protrud-
ed 5 cm in the drum and the other ends of the thermocouples
were collected through one end of the pipe. A Z-shaped
handle was fixed to the other end of the pipe to turn the

machine while cooking the material.

Installation of the poles

 

The wooden poles of 183 cm each were installed at a
distance of 92 cm away from each side of the furnace, allow-
ing the poles a height of 92 cm above the ground surface.
Then the heat exchanger machine was hung on the Y-shaped
poles above the furnace. The distance between the furnace
and the machine was 20 cm. A grease was used on the Y-
shaped poles to facilitate the revolution of the machine.

Similarly, two Y-shaped poles of 198 cm each were
installed 2 meters away from the furnace at a distance of
244 cm apart. This system was used while loading and

unloading the materials cookes.

Fuel system

 

The main source of the fuel was strips of wood ob-
tained free of cost from the lumber mills. However, rice
husks were also mixed with the wood strips to generate

more stable heat energy.

64

d

 

.mmamsooofiumcu magma Hmuweofiwsu
Hmuflmflp 93am :3...» Ewumwm unwEwHSmmwfi wusumnwmfimfi .m wusmfim

la»

....9.... . .. (4.4...114 ,9.I. 1.»: .f. 9 .
..9 3; Ir ... 1...: m. s...
. .35.... .. E ..r

bl-

 

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65

Standardization of the machine

 

a. Load determination

 

It was essential to determine the capacity of the
machine which can heat the material most efficiently. There-
fore, rice mill feed was heated in the machine at a rate of
10 kg, 20 kg, 30 kg, 50 kg and 75 kg. When rice mill feed
was used below 20 kg, it was difficult to measure the
temperature of it, because it was not possible to establish
the time range when the material would get required tempera-
ture. When 20 kg to 30 kg rice mill feed was used, it
was easier to establish the temperature and time ranges, but
when more than 50 kg was used at a time, the material was not
heated evenly. When the higher amounts were used, it
was difficult to handle the machine while taking temperature
and was also difficult to turn the material inside the
machine. When the material was not uniformly mixed by turning
the machine, part of it was charred and the other part was
not heated well. Therefore, 30 kg rice mill feed was heated

in the machine at one time.

b. Speed determination

 

When the machine was cranked at low speed (less than
100 rpm) the materials touching the inner surface of the drum

stuck on the wall and charred, and when the machine was

 

66
cranked at high speed (>200 rpm), the material inside the
machine did not get sufficient time to mix uniformly. However,
when the machine was cranked at a speed of 140 rpm to 150
rpm the material got sufficient time to mix uniformly, and
there was less problem of sticking of material on the inner
surface of the drum. Therefore, the speed of the machine

maintained about 145 rpm to obtain the best heating result.

c. Temperature measurement

 

All the temperature measurements ofthe ricenull feed
when heated in the drum were taken using the Fluke digital
readout thermometer. During standardization period, the
temperature of the heated material was taken for 6 times in
an interval of 10 minutes, when a fixed quantity of 30 kg
rice mill feed was heated in the machine. The averages of
5 different temperature readings of the heatedricermttlfeed

was as follow,

 

Batch Time interval Temperature, OCa
lst 0 30.8
2nd 10 54.4
3rd 10 75.4
4th 10 95.4
5th 10 102.8
6th 10 112.4
7th 10 120.8b

 

aEach value is the mean of 5 readings.

bWhen the material was heated for one hour, the rice
mill feed particles started sticking on the inner surface
of the drum.

67

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can

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68

Dry heating the rice mill feed

 

The rice mill feed was heated at two different tem-
peratures for this trial, one high heated rice mill feed
(HHR) at 100 to 105°C and the other low heated ricelnillfeed
(LHR) at 85 to 90°C. Whether the temperature was 100 to
105°C or 85 to 90°C, the method of the heating was the same.
Only the difference was the length of heating time.

The rice mill feed to be heated was weighed 30
kilograms at a time and put in the heating machine and the
machine was placed over the furnace hanging on the Y-shaped
poles and was cranked continuously at a rate ofapproximately
145 rpm till the required temperature of the heated material
was achieved. It took 40 to 45 minutes mareachaatemperature
of 100 to 105°C in the material, whereas 85 to 90°C was
obtained in 25 to 30 minutes of heating time.

A continuous supply of wood-strips and rice husks
was maintained to generate a uniform heat energy to heat the
material. The higher temperature could be obtained in the
material heated for shorter duration, but when the higher
heat intensity and shorter time were used the material was
not heated evenly. Therefore, it was important bacontrol the
heat intensity by controlling the fuel supply. The material
was heated when the machine was cranked in clockwise as well
as anticlockwise directions shifting from one direction to

the other after each 4 to 5 minutes.

69

.pmwu HHHE wowu pwumwsss
.ooom 0: mm um ummm HHS: woflu wmumwn my:
.o0moH on OOH um wmwm Haas moan @6586; an:

.QH muswflm

 

 

70

heating system

 

heating
methods
essing

poultry

The same furnace which was used for rotary drum
system was also used for boiling the water. The

of boiling water, treating rice mill feed and proc-
the treated wet materials are described in swine and

sections.

71

B. Chemical Characterization of Rice Mill Feed

1. Preparation of samples

 

a. Free fatty acids: Fresh rice mill feed was

 

obtained from the Big Falls Ranch Mill, mixed well and divi-
ded into 3 equal portions. Two of them were placed sepa-
rately in two shallow pans to a thickness of 2 to 2.5 cm and
were heated at 85°C in an oven, one for 2 hours and the other
for 4 hours. The samples were removed from the shallow
trays, collected in burlap bags and stored in a room till
the analyses were completed. The raw sample was stored in
the same manner. On the day of analysis, samples were re-
moved from the burlap bags, placed in polyethylene bags and
taken to the laboratory.

A dried boiling water treated sample was prepared
in a subsequent year by adding fresh rice mill feed to an
equal weight of boiling water, and was stirred vigorously
till all the dry particles were wet. The mixture was spread
on a polyethylene sheet to a thickness of 2 to 3 cm, dried
for 3 days in the sun, ground in a hammer mill, mixed and
collected in burlap bags, stored as described previously,
and used for free fatty acid analysis.

b. Nutrient analysis of treated and untreated

 

Samples: The high heated (100 to 105°C), low heated (85 to

1N

fc

We

72
900C), boiling water treated and solar heated rice mill
feeds were prepared as described in "Heat-Exchange Systems."
Each of them was mixed well, and the samples were collected
in polyethylene bags, made air tight and stored in a refrig-
erator until analyses were done. The fresh, untreated rice
mill feed was obtained from the same mill, mixed well and
stored in the same manner. In order to determine the
chemical changes, each kind of treated and untreated rice
mill feed was stored in burlap bage for 45 days in the feed—
mixing room, and samples were taken, collected in poly-
ethylene bags, made air tight and stored in a freezer until

the analyses were done.

2. Methods of analyses

 

Dry matter, ash, silica and free fatty acid were
determined by the A. O. A. C. method (AOAC, 1975). However,
fat for free fatty acid analysis was extracted using Soxhlet
apparatus, and the free fatty acid was determined using A. O.
A. C. methods (AOAC, 1975) for crude fat. The crude oil was
mixed well and 7.05 g were weighed into a 250—ml flask to
which 50 ml of ethanol (previously neutralized by adding 2 ml
phenolphthelin solution and enough 0.1 N NaOH to produce a
faint permanent pink color) was added. The mixture was ti—
trated with 0.25 N sodium hydroxide with vigorous shaking
until a permanent faint pink color appeared and persisted
for more than one minute. Free fatty acid concentrations

were reported in percent as oleic acid (AOAC, 1975).

73
Nitrogen was determined by the semi-micro Kjeldahl method
and the estimated amount of crude protein was determined
by multiplying the percent nitrogen by 6.25. Ether extract
was determined with a Goldfisch apparatus. Gross energy
was determined using a Parra adiabatic oxygen bomb calori-
meter. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber
(ADF), cellulose (Gel) and Lignin (Lig) were determined
using the methods described by Van Soest (1963, 1965).
Hemicellulose (Hem) was determined by subtracting ADF from
NDF. Amino acids (AA) were determined by the proposed MSU
methods (Makdami gt gt., 1971; Bergen gt gt., 1973). For
minerals, approximately 1 g of each sample in duplicate was
wet ashed using 10 ml of concentrated nitric acid followed
by 2 ml of concentrated perchloric acid. Standards were
processed in the same manner. Concentrationf of calcium,
magnesium, iron, copper, manganese and zinc were determined
by atomic absorption, and sodium and potassium by atomic
emission as described by Ullrey gt gt. (1967). Phosphorus
was determined by the colorimetric method of Gomeri (1942)

using visible-light spectrophotometry.

lfl.!i££2 trypsin inhibitory assay

Twenty milligram samples of rice-mill feed were
placed in 40 m1 centrifuge tubes to which 1 m1 of acedified
water (pH 4.9) was added. Extraction was accomplished in

2 hours without agitation at 4 to 5°C. Twenty-two milligrams

 

aParr Corp., Moline, Illinois.

74
of Azocol,a a general proteolytic substrate, were added to
each tube. To facilitate the reaction between the water-
insoluble substrate and tube contents, a glass marble was
placed in each tube. The 1 m1 of phosphate buffer (pH 7.0)
and 1 m1 of a trypsin stock solution were added to the
tubes including the blanks. The trypsinb stock solution was
prepared (6 mg in 400 m1 of 0.001 M HCl) weekly and was re-
frigerated. The trypsin stock solution was warmed to 37°C
prior to use. Sample tubes were also warmed at the same
temperature prior to assay initiation. The tubes containing
samples and trypsin standard solution were placed in the
water bath and shaken vigorously for a lO-minute incubation
period at 37°C. The reaction was stopped by the addition
of 30% acetic acid to each tube in the same order as when
adding the standard trypsin solution. The tubes were then
centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10,000 X g. The supernatant
fluid was removed and absorbance was determined against a

water blank at 520 nm in a spectrophotometer.

C. Feeding Trials

 

Broiler Trials

 

Three levels of each type of treated rice-mill feed

were compared with the same level of untreated rice-mill feed

 

aCalbiochem, La Jolla, California.

bType IX, No. T-0134 framhog pancreas,crystallized,
dialyzed and lyophilized powder, Sigma Chem. Co., St. Louis, Miss-
ouri.

75
in order to evaluate the type of heat treatment of rice-
mill feed upon level of inclusions in the diet. There were

12 dietary regimens made up as follows:

 

Code Type of diet

1A = High (100 to 105°C) dry heated rice mill feed
(HHR) diet, HHR replacing 80% of corn in diet.

13 = HHR diet, HHR replacing 80% of corn in diet.

1C = HHR diet, HHR replacing 100% of corn in diet.

2A = Low (85 to 90°C) dry heated rice mill feed (LHR)
diet, LHR replacing 60% of corn in diet.

28 = LHR diet, LHR replacing 80% of corn in diet.

2C = LHR diet, LHR replacing 100% of corn in diet.

3A = Boiling-water treated and dried rice mill feed
(BWR) diet, BWR replacing 60% of corn in diet.

38 = BWR diet, BWR replacing 80% of corn in diet.

3C = BWR diet, BWR replacing 100% of corn in diet.

4A = Untreated rice mill feed (UR) diet, UR replacing
60% of diet.

4B = UR diet, UR replacing 80% of diet.

4C = UR diet, UR replacing 100% of diet.

 

Dry-heat treatment

 

The dry-heat treatments consisted of two levels of
heat, the higher being 100 to 105°C and the lower being 85 to
90°C. The dry-heating system as described in "Heat-Exchange Sys-
tems" was used to heat the rice-mill feed for both levels of temp-
erature.

The solar heated rice mill feed was chemically charac-
teri zed but was not used in either of the feeding experiments be-
:cause it was not possible to generate the temperature above

85°C constantly during the time when trials were conducted.

76

The rotary drum (dry heating machine) was placed over
the fire flame and warmed to evaporate the moisture stuck on the
inner surface of it. The machine was suspended over the fire-
place with the help of 5.08 cm (2") galvanized zinc pipe
and two Y-shaped wooden poles. After a few minutes when the
machine became warm enough to evaporate the condensed mois-
ture, it was shifted from the fire to another Y-shaped pole
away from the flame. The door of the machine was kept open
till the moisture evaporated. Then 30 kilograms of rice mill
feed which was to be heated was put in the machine and the
machine was shifted over the fireplace. Then the machine
was continuously cranked at a rate of about 140 rpm for
about 20 minutes and the temperature of the rice mill feed
was measured. Heating was resumed for another 10 minutes
and the temperature measurements were taken. Similarly, the
material in the machine was heated and temperatures were
measured till the temperature of the rice mill feed reached
100 to 105°C after about 45 minutes of heating. As the de-
sired temperature was obtained, the machine was shifted away
from the fire flame over a Y—shaped pole and cranked for
about 5 minutes to make sure that the particles of the rice
mill feed did not stick on the surface of the machine. Then
the heated material was collected in a tray and kept there for
about 25 minutes to cool the material . The material was then col-
lected in burlap bags till it was used in broiler diets.

The low dry heated rice mill feed was also prepared

:in the same way as that of high dry heated material except

77
that the low-heated material was removed from the machine
when the temperature of the machine reached 85 to 90°C. It
took about 30 minutes for the temperature of the rice-mill
feed to reach 85 to 90°C.

However, the time factor was directly proportional
to the intensity of the flame which in turn depended upon
the type of fuel used. Therefore, efforts were made to have
a constant supply of heat by regulating the amount of fuel

input.

Wet-heat treatment

The wet heating of the rice-mill feed was done ac-
cording to the method described in the swine section (p. 95).
The wet material was then removed from the vat and was spread
on a polyethylene sheet to a thickness of about 2 cm and air-
dried with frequent stirring for 3 days. During nights the
material was covered with polyethylene sheet to protect from
condensation of moisture on the surface of wet rice mill
feed. However, air passage was allowed to absorb the moist-
ure and to facilitate quicker drying of the material. A sour
odor developed but no mold developed as was also observed by
Kratzer gt gt. (1977) during 3 days of drying period. How-
ever, when it rained for a day or more during the drying
period, the material did not dry, and besides a sour odor,
Inold also developed. Nevertheless, no wet treated rice mill
feed, which took more than 3 days to dry, was included in
th e broiler diets.

In spite of the efforts to break down the chunks

78
which were formed during drying of the material, it was not
possible to break all of them into powdery form which could
be used in the chicken mash. Therefore, the chunks were
broken by a hammer mill and stored in sacks till the diets
were prepared.

The raw rice mill feed was used in the broiler diets
as it was obtained from the mill.

Efforts were made to use fresh rice mill feed in all
treatment diets during the entire trial period. The use of
rice mill feed older than 3 weeks was avoided in the diets.
The wet heated rice mill feed older than 2 weeks after the

treatment was avoided in the diets.

Trial procedures

 

The poultry houses which had thatched roofs and
each pen separated by chicken—wire were disinfected a week
before they were used to house the chicks for trials. All
pens were filled with wood shavings to a thickness of about
8 cm (3").

Six hundred unsexed, day—old broiler strain chicks
were obtained from a commercial Mennonite Hatchery Farma and
were weighed in groups of 25 birds and then randomly
assigned to 12 different treatment diet groups having 50
chicks per group. Each treatment group was put on deep lit-

ter base in electrically heated brooders and fed the

 

aHatching eggs were obtained from C. W. T. Farms,
Inc., P. O. Box 1396, 1180 Airport Parkway, GainSVIlle,
Georgia 30501.

79

TABLE 10. COMPOSITION OF STARTER DIETS

 

 

Ingredient Composition, %

 

Percent rice mill feed of total corn

 

 

A = 60a B = 80b C = 1000
Meat & bone meal 22.975 22.975 22.975
Soybean meal 9.0 8.0 7.0
Molasses 4.0 4.0 4.0
Corn 24.88 12.64 -0-
Rice by-product 37.32 50.56 64.2
Vitamin premix 0.5 0.5 0.5
g::;:;mineral 0.5 0.5 o 5
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5
Amprolium 0.025 0.025 0.025
Methionine 0.3 0.3 0.3

100.0 100.0 100.0

 

aSimilar in diets 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A.
bSimilar in diets 1B, 2B, 3B, and 4B.

CSimilar in diets 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4c.

80

TABLE 11. CALCULATED NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF THE
BROILER DIETS FOR STARTER PERIOD

 

 

Nutrienta Composition

 

Percent rice mill feed of total corn

 

 

A = 60b B = 80C C = 100d

ME, kcal/kg 2191 1965 1731

Crude protein, % 22.0 22.00 22.00
Methionine, % 0.63 0.63 0.62
Lysine, % 1.14 1.16 1.18
Cystine, % 0.19 0.18 0.17
Tryptophan, % 0.20 0.20 0.20
Calcium, % 2.42 2.43 2.43
Avail. phosphorus, % 1.46 1.48 1.51
Ca/P ratio 1.66 1.63 1.61
Ether extract, % 7.86 9.11 10.40
Crude Fiber 6.23 7.40 8.60
Ash 8.67 9.27 9.89

 

aNutrient contents of the diets were calculated
using the nutrient composition of untreated rice mill feed
given in Table and "Ingredient Analysis Chart" used in
Belize.

bSimilar in diets 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A.
cSimilar in diets 1B, 23, 3B, and 4B.

dSimilar in diets 1C, 2C, 3C, and 4C.

81

TABLE 12. COMPOSITION OF FINISHER DIETS

 

 

Ingredient Composition

 

Percent rice mill feed of total corn

 

 

A=6oa B=80b c=1ooC
Meat and bone meal 17.0 17.0 17.0
Soybean meal 5.0 4.0 3.0
Molasses 4.0 4.0 4.0
Corn 28.96 14.68 0
Rice mill feed 43.44 58.72 74.4
Vitamin premix .5 .5 .5
Trace mineral premix .5 .5 .5
Salt .5 .5 .5
Methionine .1 .1 .1

100.0 100.0 100.0

 

aSimilar in diets 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A.
bSimilar in diets 1B, 2B, 3B, and 4B.

cSimilar in diets 1C, 2C, BC, and 4C.

TABLE 13.

8

2

CALCULATED NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF
THE BROILER DIETS FOR FINISHER PERIOD

 

 

Nutrienta

Composition

 

Percent rice mill feed of total corn

 

 

 

A = 60b B = 80C c = 100d

ME, kcal/kg 2224 1961 1691
Crude protein, % 18.00 18.00 19.00
Methionine, % 0.39 0.38 0.38
Cystine, % 0.16 0.15 0.14
Lysine, % 0.91 0.94 1.97
Tryptophan, % 0.17 0.17 0.18
Calcium, % 1.81 1.82 1.82
Avail. phosphorus, % 1.18 1.21 1.24
Ca/P ratio 1.54 1.50 1.47
Ether extract 8.27 9.71 11.18
Crude fiber 6.56 7.92 9.31
Ash 7.51 8.21 8.93

aSee footnote (a) in Table 12.

bSimilar in diets 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A.

CSimilar in diets 1B, 2B, 3B, and 4B.

dSimilar in diets 1C,

3C,

and 4C.

83

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Building No. 1 Building No. 2
8 16
7 4c N 2c 15
6 4B ZB 14
5 4A I 2A 13
4 3C 1C 12
3 BB 13 11
2 3A 1A 10
1 9

 

 

 

 

 

 

Building No. 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

36 2C 3A 17
35 ZB 3B 18
34 2A 3C 19
33 1C 4A 20
32 13 4B 21
31 1A 4C 22
30 23
29 24
28 25
27 26

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 11. DESIGN FOR BROILER EXPERIMENT, INITIAL 2-WEEK
PERIOD.

84

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Building No. 1 Building No. 2
8 N 16
7 4c I 15
6 4B 14
5 4A 13
4 3C 12
3 3B 11

3A 10
£2? 9

1

Building No. 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

36 2C ---------- 4A 17
35 2B 4B 18
34 2A 4C 19
33 1C 3A 20
32 1B 3B 21
31 1A 3C 22
30 2C 1A 23
29 2B 1B 24
28 2A 1C 25
27 26

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 12. DESIGN FOR BROILER EXPERIMENT FOR FINAL 6 WEEKS
OF EXPERIMENT PERIOD.

85

m paw Hwowmm smsouu m nuflz

“moooun 636 an mx6fiao

A .4 mm“.
mm?

.Hwhwpm3 cwmnhpw>mnm
.ma musmflm

 

86

can mnwnwmm 6mm1>uw>muw sufi3 cmm mnu cfi mxoflno

.muwuwumz
.qa «Human

 

87
experimental diets for one week. Light and heat were pro-
vided 24 hours during brooding. The experimental diets
were provided ad libitum in trough feeders whereas the
water was provided E§.liB through automatic nipple waterers.
Chicks were vaccinated against smallpox on the third day
of hatching. A coccidiostat was added to the diets and
fed during the starter period.

The week—old chicks were wing banded, weighed in—
dividually, and time treatment group was divided and
assigned randomly to two respective replicate groups.

There were then 24 groups on 12 treatment diets. The
chicks were weighed individually on the second, fourth,
sixth, and eighth week of trial periods. Diets and
water were in the pen during weighing the chicks, and pen
feed consumption was recorded at weighing time.

During the second week of trial a portion of the
roof of building No. 2 (Figure 11) was blown away. There-
fore, the chicks housed in that building were shifted over
to building No. 3 as illustrated in Figure 12. However,
the rest of the chicks were maintained in the original pens.
Trials involving boiling water treated rice mill feed (both
replicates of ration 3A, 3B and 3C) were discontinued after
a four-week period because the wet-heated material could
not be sun dried due to heavy rainfall. However, the rest
of the trials were continued to 8 weeks.

At the end of the feeding trial, six heaviest birds,

three males and three females, from each pen (replicate)

88
were selected and sacrificed in a commercial slaughter

house to determine the dressing percentage.

Statistical procedures

 

Six hundred day-old chicks were assigned to an ex-
perimental design of a randomized complete block with 12
treatments in a 4 X 10 factorial arrangement up to 4 week
period. After 4 week period, three treatments involving
boiling water treated rice mill feed were discontinued;
therefore, the experimental design was a randomized com-
plete block with nine treatments in a 3 x 3 factorial
arrangement.

The method of analysis common to all the experi-
ments was the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the Stat-
istical Package developed at M. S. U. for the CDC 6500
computer. Individual bird data were used for weights,
average daily gains whereas the pen averages were used for
the average daily feed consumption. Live weights, average
daily gains, feed consumptions, feed conversions, and dress-
ing percentages were the parameters used to evaluate the
feeding trial. Bird days was used to calculate the feed-
conversion ratio. Approximate Studentized range test using
the average number in a treatment as the number in each
'treatment was used to test for statistically significant

diufferences among the means. The least-square procedure
353 outlined by Harvey (1960) was used for weights and aver-

age daily gain since there were unequal numbers in the

89
groups. The conventional ANOVA for equal numbers was used
for average daily feed intakes, feed conversion and dress-

ing percentages.

Swine Trial

 

Twenty cross-bred (Large White x Hampshire) x Large
White pigs from two different litters were weaned at an age
of six weeks. There was a difference of one day in age
between the litter groups. Pigs were ear notched for the
purpose of identification. They were obtained from the
Central Farm Experimental Station herd. Males were castrat-
ed at an age of five weeks. All pigs were dewormed with a
recommended dose of dichlorvox (Atgard)a one week before
the trial started.

Pigs were assigned to two replicated treatment
groups by complete randomization of litter, sex and weight.
The pigs were fed treatment diets for four dats before data
collection started.

The ten pigs in treatment group I were provided
with dry ration in self-feeders whereas ten other pigs in
treatment group II were provided with wet rations which
had been treated with boiling water. The wet diets were
fed in trough feeders. One automatic nipple waterer was
permanently fixed in each pen to have access to the drinking

water for the pigs.

 

aSwine wormer: Diamond Shamrock Corp., Nutrition
and Animal Health Division, 1100 Superior Avenue, Cleveland,
Ohio 44114.

90

TABLE 14. ASSIGNMENT OF PIGS TO DIFFERENT
TREATMENT GROUPS.

 

 

Item Treatment I Treatment II

 

Repl. l Repl. 2 Repl. 1 Repl. 2

No. of pigs 5 5 5 5
Initial pen average wt., kg 11.02 11.52 12.16 11.61
Initial treatment mean, kg 11.27 11.88
Mean of the total experimental

animals, kg 11.58

 

Sources of ingredients and preparation of diets

 

The treatment diets consisted of rice mill feed,
meat and bone meal, salt, vitamin premix and mineral premix.
Rice mill feed was obtained from the Belize Big Falls Ranch
rice mill. It was a mixture of rice bran, rice polishings,
very small portion of broken rice and the unavoidable part of
rice husks. The detailed analysis for nutrient contents of
rice mill feed is given under subtitle "Chemical Character-
istics of Rice By-Product" Tables 16 and 17. The rice mill feed
not obtained from a single rice paddy variety but was from a
mixture of several varieties. During the experiment period
no rice mill feed was used which was older than three weeks.
Meat and bone meal was obtained from the Belize Beef Corpora-
tion. (BBC) and was also not stored longer than
three weeks. The sources of mineral and vitamin premixes

are given in Appendix A.

Preparation of dry ration

 

The composition of rations for treatment number I

and II are as follows:

91

 

 

Homemade trough feeders for the swine.

Figure 15.

 

s, w

01 v
q—o--\
. c-
.\

\
, .

 

92

TABLE 15. SWINE GROWER RATION COMPOSITION

 

 

 

 

 

 

. Treatment
Ingredient I II
Unheated rice mill feed, % 88.5 0.0
Boiling water treated rice 0.0 88.5

mill feed, %

Meat and bone meal, % 10.0 10.0
Salt, % .5 .5
Trace mineral remixa .5 .5
Vitamin premix .5 .5
Calculated Nutrient NRC, 1979
Composition Requirement
DE, kcal/kg 3,576.0 3,576.0 3,380.0
CP, % 15.95 15.95 16.0
Lysine, % .74 .74 .7
Tryptophan, % .14 .14 .12
Methionine + ystine, % .36 .36 .45
Calcium, % .85 .85 .6
Phosphorus, % .97 .97 .5

 

aSee Appendix A-2.

bSee Appendix A-l.

The ration for treatment I was mixed once weekly.
All the feed ingredients were weighed separately and were
mixed in a horizontal mixer. Then the rations were collected
in sacks till they are fed. Each feeder was stirred during
the time of wet meal feeding to push the ration down so
that the pigs wouldhave continuous access to the diets

throughout the day.

93

.UwfiUDUCOO GH®3 WHMHHH OCH3m OS“ 0H0£3 wwDOS @CH3W

41.... H

 

 

- — .
_ .
_

u

. w

0. -: ..f

e

..
Ila.
1
ll
;

. m." musmflm

mn—.

 

 

 

 

Treatment No.

II

 

Treatment No.

I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

94

 

 

 

Treatment No.

I

 

Treatment No.

II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pen size = 8 x 7 square feet.

aPen number 1 to 16

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

FIGURE 17. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR SWINE TRIAL.

95

Preparation of wet ration and feeding

 

The required quantity of meat and bone mea1,Vitamin
premix, mineral premix and salt to make a fixed amount of
diet for pigs as wet ration was weighed and stored in bags.
Seven such bags were prepared for seven days period once
weekly. On the same day, the required quantity oij e mill
feed for seven days meal was also weighed and stored sep-
arately. The diets were prepared on the basis of the body
weight of pigs (NRC, 1979) and were provided to them as
much as they consume. The required quantity of ingredients
for wet diets were weighed on the same day as those of dry
diets in order to avoid bias of deteriorationcfl?ingredients
during storage period.

Each morning water was boiled in a vat and then
added to rice mill feed by equal weight. This was followed
with continuous stirring of the wet mixture which dropped
after 20 minutes to about 67°C. The wet mixture was then
removed from that vat and spread on a polyethylene sheet
to a thickness of approximately five centimeters. After
one hour when the wet rice mill feed cooled, other ingre—
dients were mixed. After thorough mixing the ration had a
dough-like consistency.

Approximately one half of the wet rationwes‘weighed
and fed immediately after mixing and the other one half
was fed in the afternoon. Thus the pigs were fed twice a

day for the trial period of 42 days. However, the diet

96

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4

whommn comm HHwE oven “03

.mH

wusmfim

 

97

  
 

.umwu um; mcwmwwooua mo vogue:

.mH wnsmflh

 

98

.uwww uw3 co mmflm

.om musmfim

 

99

consumption on the fifth or sixth day of the week was higher
than the first or second day of the week and pigs on cool
pleasant days consumed more diets than on very hot days.
Therefore, at times when pigs required additional amount of
diets, another batch of ration was prepared in the same
manner as described above and fed more than twice a day.
Since the leftover ration in the troughs after 24 hours de-
veloped a sour taste due to degradation of carbohydrate the
pigs refused it. Therefore, the leftover diets were col-
lected, weighed back and discarded. The moisture contentof
wet diets was determined immediately aftermixing the ration
after 6, 12 and 24 hours on the 14th, 28th and 42nd.day of
the trial period and on the basis of feed less weigh back
of it, the pen average feed consumption was determined.
After removing the leftover diets, the troughs were washed
and the fresh diets were fed in the same order as described,
previously.

Attempts were made to keep die ts constantly available
to the pigs.

The pen feed consumption of the pigs on dry diet

was recorded weekly at the time of weighing pigs.

Statistical design
The data of final weight, average daily weight gain
average daily feed intake and feed to gain ratio were sub-

jected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) as described by Gill

100
(1978). A 2 x 2 factorial design was performed for the
feeding trial. Heat treatments and locations were used

as the treatment factors.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

RESULTS

Chemical Characterization of Rice Mill Feed

The results of the chemical characterization of the
rice-mill feed for dry matter, crude protein, ether ex—
tract, ash, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent
fiber (ADF), hemicellulose, cellulose, acid detergent lig-
nin and gross energy determinations are shown in Table 16.
They are calculated on as-fed basis. The dry-matter con-
tent ranged from 51.8% for fresh boiling water treated to
93.0% for solar heated rice mill feed.' There was little
difference in dry-matter content of freshly sampled boiling
water treated rice mill feed and that,after 12 hours'
storage (0.4%). Nevertheless, the difference in dry-matter
content of dry heated and unheated rice mill feed was 1.10%
and that of fresh wet heated and fresh dry heated samples
was 32.1%. The crude—protein content of rice-mill feed
was similar to that found by Lynn (1969) for bran con-
taining both polishings and germ, and was not altered by
heat treatment. This is in agreement with the report of
Rao g£_31. (1974) for soybean protein. Slightly higher
values of protein for dry-heated samples overall because
of their higher dry-matter content. Ether-extract level
was similar to that of rice bran from Formosa or boiled-

101

102
rice brans from Burma, India or Japan and ash content was
slightly higher than polishings and lower than pure bran
as reported by Arnott gt gt. (1966). This is because the
rice-mill feed obtained from the Big Falls Ranch mill was
a mixture of bran, polishings containing germ, unseparable
portions of broken rice and unavoidable proportions of
husks. The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid deter-
gent fiber (ADF) were also lower than values reported by
Maust gt gt. (1972). The NDF is a measure of total fiber
and the ADF is a measure of lignocellulose. The main dif-
ference between NDF and ADF is hemicellulose which is
thought to have a somewhat higher digestive value in chick-
ens than cellulose (Scott gt gt., 1968). In previous stud-
ies which were conducted by Keys gt gt. (1969), it was
found that hemicellulose was digested to a greater extent
than cellulose in both the rat and the pig. Maust gt gt.
(1972) found that 4.9% of the total protein in rice bran was
bound in ADF and was largely unavailable to the non-
ruminants.

The gross energy levels of rice mill feed were
slightly higher when expressed on dry-matter basis than the
report on rice bran (Maust gt gt., 1973), which was 4.896
kilocalories per gram dry matter. The results of the min—
eral determinations, calculated on an as-fed basis, are
given in Table 17. The total phosphorus content is quite
similar to that reported by Arnott gt gt. (1966) and Corley

gt gt. (1980). The silica content was lower than that

some on» we msHm> comm

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mwoum new aflcmfia ucwmnmump Uflom .mmoHDHHwo .meHDHHOOHEwn .Hmnflm usmmnwwmp pwom .Hwnflm

 

ucmmumump Hmubsmz

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on» CH mace mnm3 mCOHbmcHEHmump 5mm pom uomuuxw Hmnum .CHmuoum mpsuo .uwuume whom

103

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.pwcaEuwump Do: u oz
oz oz oz oz oz oz m3. 9m m.3 m.mm 30 an:
em .msm
. . . . . 630 who
oz oz oz oz oz oz 3m owe om.m 8.3 :33 .55
3.4 Ea mg. 33 0.34.: 33 3.3 33 8.3 30 383.5
No.4 86 m.» 33 333mm 35 3.3 33 3.8 owes .mo
3.4 35 ~13 33 3333 35 3.3 o4: 8.? EB
3.4 634 BB 3 3335 3a 3.3 3.3 3.3 62.7.6 .53
3.4 :6 we 3 333mm Sim 3.3 33 3.3 moo
3.4 36 35 BS 3333 Sta 5..: 4.3 3.3 mom
vino x w .1. w m... w w w w w
Swim x E
w % m % Gum W
3. m? n uwmmvmsm mg 538.. na
mo win n nmqam.wmq :3 mm 1m 6353
6% 1*wa m. WJeerme ea @686 m
K unu S s 7 u meL W44
3 e e 1 1
ommo oon moom oo mom>o<z< mme<zoxomo .SH moo<e

TABLE 17.

104

MINERAL COMPOSITION

 

OF RICE MILL FEED.

 

 

 

 

 

Sample designation Mineral

Ca, K, Si,a Fe, Mg, Mn Na, Cu Zn

% % % ing/kg % “1199/ % mg/kg mg/kg

HHR .07 .12 258 .80 F60 .088 11.96 53.06
LHR .06 .12 247 .63 252 .086 10.20 42.56
BWR, dried .07 .12 351 .70 264 .085 10.00 50.77
SHR .08 .14 261 .65 274 .089 10.41 50.40
UR .06 .13 221 .70 242 .082 11.60 48.86
NRC, 1979
Rice bran .07 NA .019,% .95 324 .07 13.0 30.0
Broken rice .08 NA NA .11 18 .07 NA 17.0
Polishings .05 NA .016,% .65 NA .10 NA 26.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

aSilica analysis was carried out in the Agricul-

tural Chemistry Laboratory of Central Farms Station,
Belize and the other analyses were conducted in the
Animal Nutrition Laboratory, M. S. U.

NOTE:

tions.

NA

Figures are means of duplicate determina-

not available.

105
reported by Arnott gt gt. (1966). This is in agreement

with the previous report that percentage of crude fiber
content is positively correlated with silica. The remain-
ing mineral concentrations are close to those of NRC (1979)

values.

Amino acids

 

The results of the amino acid analyses from dupli-
cate hydrolyses and chromatographic determinations ex-
pressed as percentage of total protein, calculated on the
as fed basis are given in Table 18. There are some varia-
tions among the amino acid contents of different samples.
The hydrolysis step is probably the major cause for vari-
ability in the chromatographic analytical procedure. The
chromatographic method might also produce low values for
certain amino acids by destruction during acid hydrolysis,
by incomplete hydrolysis or by oxidation. (Canr, 1965;
Kohler gt gt., 1967). Serine and threonine have slightly
lower values and are destroyed in moderate degrees by dry
heat (100 to 105°C) as was also pointed out by Houston gt
gt. (1969). Valine was only released slowly during hydrol-
ysis but was probably activated by heat treatment. There-
fore, the values for valine are higher for heated samples
than for unheated. Variations among the methionine,
histidine and glutamic acid contents of different samples
are in agreement with the previous findings for different

rice varieties (Houston gt gt., 1969). The results of

106

TABLE 18. DETERMINATION OF AMINO ACIDSa IN
TREATED AND UNTREATED RICE MILL FEEDS.

 

 

Comparative Data

 

. . . . b
Anuno Ac1d Belize Progect Data Houstongti (1969)
Treatment
HHR BWR, dried UR Ave.
Aspartic acid 9.32 8.57 9.31 9.07 9.05
Threonine 3.12 4.10 3.44 3.55 3.82
Serine 3.10 3.38 3.62 3.37 4.53
Glutamic acid 13.62 14.76 14.85 14.41 13.10
Proline 4.59 4.19 5.37 4.72 4.16
Glycine 4.52 4.06 4.88 4.49 5.57
Alamine 7.95 5.30 5.52 6.26 6.25
Valine 10.20(?) 9.21(?) 6.58 8.66 5.80
Cystine 2.78 3.38 4.09(?) 3.42 2.40
Methionine 2.48 3.44 2.30 2.74 2.04
Isoleucine 5.44 4.71 5.58 5.24 3.77
Leucine 8.07 8.45 7.23 7.92 6.56
Tyrosine 4.25 3.71 4.38 4.11 2.90
Phenylalamine 4.98 5.49 5.79 5.42 4.24
Lysine 4.34 4.56 4.92 4.61 5.06
Histidine 3.18 3.82 3.50 3.50 2.78
Arginine 8.06 8.87 8.64 8.53 7.98
Tryptophen ND ND ND ND ND

 

 

 

 

aAmino acids were analyzed in the Animal Nutrition
laboratory, M. S. U.

bMeans of duplicate determinations, and expressed as
percentage of protein. The protein content of high heated
(HHR) , boiling water treated (BWR) and unheated (UR) rice mill
feed was 15%, 14.43% and 14.54%, respectively.

cAmino acids of laboratory-milled bran including
polish, and presented as gram amino acid per 16 grams
nitrogen.

 

107

Houston gt gt. (1969) for rice bran, polish and germs com-
bined and determined for laboratory milled samples are
given in Table 18 to compare with the present findings.

Since the rice mill feed is used in swine and
poultry diets, the present results on essential amino
acids for poultry are compared with recent literature
values in Table 19. Houston gt gt. (1969) used bran,
polishings and the embryo but Tamura gt gt. (1963) did
not include the embryo in their samples. This would af—
fect the results. Very low value of tyrosin, probably by
oxidation during hydrolysis, was also observed in Tamura.
Houston gt gt. (1969) found that the 24 hour reflux in
6N HCl used by Lyman gt gt. (1956; 1958) would result in
losses of methionine and would not completely liberate
valine and isoleucine. The low amino acid data of Lain
gt gt. (1965) are likely the results of refluxing with
6N HCl at 120°C under nitrogen for 22 to 24 hours. The
high values for methionine and cystine may be due to lim-
ited oxidative destruction of these acids during hydroly-
sis. The value for methionine was close to that reported
by Lynn gt gt. (1967). The averages of the present
findings are close to the previous reports on rice by-
products (Schweigert, 1947; 1948; Kik, 1956; Lyman gt gt.,
1956; 1958; Tamura gt gt., 1963; Lain gt gt., 1965; Combs

gt gt., 1967; Houston gt gt., 1969).

108

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coumsom mnfiou mflmq musfima Dogma Cwom ocflfid

 

 

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109

Free fatty acids

 

The results of heat treatments as compared to no
treatment on the free fatty acids in oil from rice mill
feed samples (expressed as oleic acid as a percent of
total oil) are given in Table 20. The results of the
analyses show that in untreated samples the free fatty
acids rose from 2.4 to 36.6% whereas the sample which was
heated at 850C for 4 hours had only 4.5% after 32 days of
storage. All the heat treatments were effective in slow-
ing free fatty acid development during storage by inacti-
vating the lipolytic enzymatic action. The boiling water
treatment was less effective than the dry heat treatments.

The percentage free fatty acid content of the dry
heated samples (85°C for 4 hours) was similar to that of
Arnott gt gt. (1966) values when their samples were heated
at 160°C for 15 minutes. However, their values for
untreated bran ranged from 46.4 to 78% whereas the present
studies show 34.6% for 32 days storage periods. These
differences might have occurred due to difference in
moisture content of the samples as well as humidity, be-
cause in the presence of moisture the glycerides of the
rice oil hydrolyze to glycerol and a mixture of free fatty
acids.

Rice by-product with high free fatty acids will be
found to have an unpleasant taste associated with ranci-
dity. In order to produce palatable rice mill feed which

may be stored for some time it is obvious that the

 

110

TABLE 20. FREE FATTY ACID ANALYSISa OF
TREATED AND UNTREATED RICE MILL FEED.

 

 

Duration of Free fatty acidsb
Storage, days (expressed as oleic acid as % of total oil)

 

Heated at Heated at Boiling water

 

Unheated 85°C for 85°C for treated

2 hrs 4 hrs (dried)
0 2.4 ND ND ND
1 3.3 ND 2.4 ND
2 3.6 ND 2.8 ND
4 6.8 4.8 3.0 ND
8 10.0 5.5 3.5 ND
16 13.0 6.9 4.4 8.6
32 34.6 13.0 4.5 14.8

 

aAnalyses were done in the Agricultural Chemistry
Laboratory of Central Farms Station, Belize.

bEach value is a mean of duplicate determinations.

ND = Not determined.

lll
develOpment of rancidity must be checked. This can be
done by removing most of the oil by solvent extraction or
by heat treatment. Parboiling might be an acceptable
method in arresting free fatty acid and enhancing the

feeding values in large—scale production systems.

In vitro trypsin inhibitor assay

 

Kakade gt gt. (1969) defined one trypsin unit (TU)
as an increase of .01 absorbance units at 410 nm per 10
ml of total reactions mixture under the prescribed con—
ditions. Trypsin inhibitor activity was defined as the
number of trypsin units inhibited (TUI) under the same
conditions.

The optical density readings obtained from the
trypsin inhibition assays of the treated and untreated
samples are given in Table 21. Trypsin units (TU), tryp-
sin units inhibited (TUI), or trypsin inhibitory activity
were extrapolated from optical density readings according
to the derivations described by Kakade gt gt. (1969). All
types of heat treatments denatured the trypsin inhibitors.
Dry heating at 100 to 105°C was as effective as that
described by Horiguchi gt gt. (1971) in destroying the
trypsin inhibitor. Boiling water treatment was effective
in denaturing the trypsin inhibitor. This is different
than the results found by Kratzer gt gt. (1977). This
might be due to the fact that they soaked the bran for 40

minutes whereas in the present studies the material was

 

112

TABLE 21. TRYPSIN INHIBITOR ACTIVITYa IN
TREATED AND RAW RICE MILL FEEDS.

 

 

Sample designation Spectrophotometric absorbance

 

Repl. I Repl. II Average

 

High heated (HHR), fresh .83 .78 .80
HHR, 45 days old .81 .75 .78
Low heated (LHR), fresh .60 .58 .59
LHR, 45 days old .56 .57 .56
Boiling water treated

(BWR), fresh (dried) .85 .83 .84
BWR, 45 days old (dried) .83 .86 .84
Solar heated (SHR),

fresh .73 .71 .72
SHR, 45 days old .66 .68 .67
Untreated (UR), fresh .15 .24 .20
UR, 45 days old .12 .14 .13
Blank .90 .86 .88

 

aAnalyses were conducted in Dr. D. Penner's Lab-
oratory, Dept. of Crops and Soil Science, M. S. U.

bAbsorbance at 520 nm (OD) and are the means of
duplicate determinations.

113

TABLE 22. EXPRESSION OF TRYPSIN INHIBITOR ACTIVITY.

 

 

 

 

Sample Trypsin Trypsintrmis
Designation Units Inhibited
(TU) (TUI) /20 mg meal
HHR, fresha 80 8
HHR, oldb 78 10
LHR, fresh 59 29
LHR, old 56 32
BWR, fresh (dried) 84
BWR, old (dried) 84
SHR, fresh 72 16
SHR, old 67 21
UR, fresh 20 68
UR, old 13 75
Blank 88

‘

aSee in Table 21.

bForty-five days after milling.

114

soaked for 4 hours.

Feeding Trials

 

Poultry

The composition of the starter and the finisher
diets for the broiler trials are presented in Tables 10
and 12. The feeding trials are evaluated on the basis of
the parameters as stated in Methods.

The analyses of variances (ANOVA) for the overall
performance of chicks on the feeding trials during dif-
ferent periods show that there was a very strong inter-
action (P<0.001) between the levels of rice mill feed and
treatments as they affected weights and average daily gain
for each period. Observations of the subcell means indi—
cate the interaction is caused by the relationships that
as the level of rice mill feed in the broiler diets in-
creases the heat treatment becomes increasingly effective.

The results of the broiler trials for each feeding
period and trait are presented in the following. Each mean

is the average of daily basis.

Startertperiod with 4 treatments (0-4 weeks)

 

The 4-week weight of Chicks on high heated rice
mill feed 100% replacement of corn was higher (P<0.05) than
that of chicks on other treatments for the same level of
corn replacement diets as presented in Table 24. When the
diets were devoid of corn the body weights were higher

(P<0.05) for groups on treated rice mill feed diets (e. g.

115

TABLE 23. PATTERNS OF DIETS
FOR BROILER TRIALa.

 

 

Levels of rice mill feed

in replacements of corn Treatments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ _ --;:-- - _ Total celIs for
-HHR 2—LHR :3-BWR : 4—4R treatments
C=100, % 1C 2C :5 3C 3 4C 4
B=80, % 1B 2B : 3B 1 4B 4
A=60, % 1A 2A : 3A 2 4A 4
Total cells E 1
for levels 3 3 I 3 I 3 12

 

aSee in methods section for details.

bThe treatment within the dotted lines was discon—
tinued after 4 weeks trial period.
1C, 2C and 3C) than those on untreated rice mill feed
diets (4C). For instance, chicks on diet 1C, 2C and 3C
were heavier by 48 grams, 39 grams and 56 grams than the
chicks on diet 4C. When 80% of the corn was replaced by
the boiling water treated rice mill feed the chicks were
significantly heavier than the chicks on other treatments.
The chicks on diet ZB were lighter than the chicks on other
treatments, however, they consumed less amount of diet
(P<.05) diets per gain than the chicks on untreated rice
mill feed diets. When the higher levels of corn (80 or
100%) were replaced by heat treated rice mill feed, the
chicks on treated rice mill feed diets required less

(P<.05) amount of diet per unit of gain as compared to

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117

that on untreated rice mill feed diets. However, when

60% of the corn was replaced by the low heated or boiling
water treated rice mill feed in the broiler diets, the
chicks on treated diets tended to require less diets per
unit of gain than the chicks on untreated diets, but there
was no significant differenceeuzthe P<.05 probability
level. This indicates that when the higher percentages of
corn (80 to 100%) was replaced in the diets, the growth
response of chicks to the heat treatment of rice mill feed
becomes increasingly effective. When mean comparisons

are made under the same treatment (Table 24) the chicks

on diet 4A required significantly less (P<.5) diet per
unit of gain than the chicks on 4B or 4C diets. There was
no difference (P<.05) of feed required per unit of gain
for the chicks on diets 1A, 1B and 1C. Similarly, the
feed per unit of gain was the same (P<.05) for chicks on
diets 2A, 2B and 2C. Chicks on diet 3B needed less diet
than the other (3A or 3C), but there was no difference of
the amount of diet needed per unit of gain for chicks on
diets 3A and 3C.

A separate means comparisons were performed for 2
to 4 weeks period to determine whether there was an effect
upon the traits of interest by a possible variation in the
initial weight. The results of 2 to 4 weeks performance
and the mean comparisons are presented in Table 25.

Chicks on diets 1C, 2C and 3C needed less amount of diets

per gain (P<.05) than the chicks on diets 4C. Chicks on

 

 

 

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119
diet 1B and 3B needed less (P<.05) diet per gain than the
other. Chicks on diets ZB needed less diets per gain than
the chicks on diet 43. However, there was no significant
difference between the amount of diets required per unit

of gain for the chicks on diets 1A and 2A.

Grower period (0-6 weeks)

 

The chicks on heated rice mill feed diets except
the chicks on 60% low heated rice mill feed diet were more
efficient in feed conversion (P<.05) than the chicks on
raw rice mill feed diets as shown in Table 26. The treat-
ment effects were significant when corn was completely re-
placed by the rice mill feed in the diets. When 100% of
the corn was replaced in the experimental diets by rice
mill feed, chicks on heated rice mill feed diets were sig-
nificantly heavier (P<.05), gained more (P<.05) and
required less feed per unit of gain (P<.05) as compared to
that of the chicks on raw rice mill feed diets. Chicks on
diet 2C (low heated rice mill feed diet with 100% replace-
ment of corn) were heavier (P<.05), gained more (P<.05)
and were more efficient (P<.05) in feed conversion than
the chicks on 4C (unheated rice mill feed diet with 100%
replacement corn). The bird performance response to heated
rice mill was not as great when levels of rice mill feed
in the diet was lower.

The mean comparisions of the average overall

levels show that chicks on high heat treated rice mill

120

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121
feed diets were heavier (P<.05), by 124 grams gained more
(P<.05) and were more efficient (P<.05) in feed conversion
than the chicks on raw rice mill feed diets. _Chicks on
low heat treated rice mill feed diets were heavier (P<.05)
and required less feed (P<.05) than the chicks on diets
which were incorporated with untreated rice mill feed.
As expected, the mean comparison on the average overall
treatments indicate that the chicks on diets containing
lower percentages of rice mill feed (60 or 80%) were
heavier and gained more (P<.05) than the chicks on diets
which was without corn. However, there was no significant
(P<.05) difference for the amount of feed required per

unit of gain.

Finisher period (6-8 weeks)

 

The results of the performance of chicks from 6
to 8 weeks period are given in Table 27. Chicks on diets
1A, 13 and 1C were heavier (P<.05) and gained more (P<.05)
than the chicks on diets 4A, 4B and 4Ca. Chicks on diet
1C needed less (P<.05) feed per unit of gain as compared
to that of the chicks on diet 4C. Chicks on diet ZB were
heavier (P<.05) and gained more (P<.05) than the chicks

on diet 43. There was no difference among the means of

 

aAlthough diets BA, BB and 3C were not used in the
finisher phase, the diet numbers 4A, 4B and 4C are as they
were defined in the methodology.

122

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mLDCmCIEDw Ju>m3 oz< FszF<mzk
F<u= :U<w KCL mz<uz

uz<30m Fm<xd .hN Edz<k

123
the feed required per unit of gain of the chicks on diets
1A, 13 and 1C but chicks on 4A needed significantly less
units of diets per unit of gain than the chicks on either
4B or 4C.

When the average levels means were tested, the
chicks on high heated rice mill feed diets were heavier
(P<.05) and gained more (P<.05) than the chicks on
untreated rice mill feed diets. When the average overall
treatments means were tested, chicks on diets which were
devoid of corn were lighter (P<.05) than the chicks on
60% or 80% replacement of corn. However, there was no
significant differences (P<.05) when other traits means
(feed conversion, feed consumption and weight gain) were

tested.

Overall treatment period (0-8 weeks)

 

The least square means for each heat treatment
and level sub-groups for 8 weeks period which consisted
of two different dietary periods are given in Table 28.
The average overall levels and treatments means and their
comparisons are also presented in the same table. As
expected, chicks on diets 1A, 1B and 1C, except feed per
gain ratio in diet 43 performed significantly (P<.05)
better in each parameter, (body weight, average daily gain
and feed per unit gain) tested as compared to chicks on

diets 4A, 4B and 4C. The average daily feed consumption

124

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U.n.<

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033 030 n0n 0 .c3a0 0:03o3
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000.4 003.3 3040.0 0300 0\uo3v 0 .co3uuo>coo noon
n3o>o3 33uuo>o oocuo><
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043 0‘34 0030 n<mn o .0300 0:030:
0003 33(403 n<003 43(~03 0030\0 .00300500000 pooh
043.4 00443.4 04443.3 0444.3 4300 0\0030 0 .4034000400 0000 34. a .44
44443 040443 0<4043 04<3043 0 .040303 30434
444 0434 04.3 04434 0 .4300 04430:
4443 0<333 0<043 04343 0330\0 .40300444400 0004
0443.4 0444.4 04<44.4 0<44.3 4304 0x0030 0 .4030000400 0000 34. 4 .44
03443 043343 044443 044443 0 .040303 30434
033 0004 0030 amnn v .0300 0:03o3
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0<4= =0<m 400 42<4x 444404 04<40 .43 404<0

125
was not different significantly except that chicks which
were on diets 4B consumed significantly more (P<.05) diets
than the chicks either on diet 18 or ZB. Chicks on diets
28 and 2C gained significantly more (P<.05) than chicks on
diets 4B and 4C, respectively. Chicks on diet 2B were
more efficient in diet conversion (P<.05) than the chicks
on diet 43.

When the means are compared for the average over-
all levels, chicks on treatment HHR were heaviest, gained
most, consumed same amount of diets and needed least
amount of diets per unit of gain (P<.05) as compared to
either chicks on LHR or chicks on UR treatments. For
instance, chicks on HHR diets were heavier by 157 grams
than the chicks on UR diets. However, chicks on treatment
LHR were heavier, gained more, consumed less diet and
needed less amount of diet per unit of gain (P<.05) than
the chicks on treatment UR. Chicks on LHR diets were also
heavier by 51 grams than the chicks on UR diets. This
overall results ascertains the findings of Kratzer gt 2l°
(1974) that the dry heat treatment is effective in enhan-
cing the feeding value of rice by-products.

Chicks on diets which were devoid of corn were
significantly lighter, gained less, consumed same amount
of diets and were less efficient in feed conversion as
compared to 80% replacement of corn in the diets. This is
in agreement to the previous findings as described in the

results of 0 to 4 weeks trial period.

126

Effects of heat treatments upon the dressing percentages
of chickens

 

Chicks on diet 1C were heavier (P<.05) and had
higher dressed weight (P<.05) and had higher dressing
percentage (P<.05) than the chicks on diets 2C or 4C. The
live weight and dressed weight of chicks on diets 1B, 2B
and 4B were not different (P<.05). Chicks on diet 2A were
lighter than the chicks on diets on 1A or 4A, however,
there was no significant different (P<.05) among the
dressing percentages.

When aVerage overall levels means were tested,
chicks on treatment HHR were heavier (P<.05) and had higher
dressed weight than the chicks either on treatment LHR or
UR, but there was no significant difference among the
dressing percentages. When overall treatments means were
tested, chicks on diets having no corn were higher and had
less dressed weight than the chicks on diets having 40% or
20% corn. Nevertheless, there was no significant dif-

ference among the dressing percentages.

gm:

The composition of treatment diets fed in swine
experiments are presented in Table 15. The raw data of
the results of the feeding trials are given in Appendix
C. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for

final body weight, average daily gain, average daily feed

TABLE 29.

127

LEAST SQUARE MEANS FOR EACH HEAT

TREATMENT AND LEVEL SUB-GROUPS FOR 8 WEEK

WEIGHTS, DRESSING WEIGHTS AND DRESSING
PERCENTAGES OF SAMPLED BIRDS.

 

 

Average Overall

 

 

Level Traita Treatment Treatments
1=HHR gELHR 3=un
10o, a (C) Eight week weight, g 1993Ab 1733BC 1753BC 1345C
Dressed weight, g 1421Ab 12423° 1212BC 1292C
Dressing percentage 71.30Ab 69.67Ac 69.17Ac 70.05B
so, a (E) Light week weight, g 1926Ab 1968Ab 1887Ab 1927B
Dressed weight, g 1362Ab 1352Ab 1328Ab 134aB
Dressing percentage 71.07Ab 63.74AC 70.47Ab 70.1B
so, a (A) Eight week weight, g 2026Ab 1806BC 1970Ab 1934B
Dressed weight, g 1400Ab 124sBC 1357Ab 1337B
Dressing percentage 69.06Ab 69.03Ab 69.40Ab 69.16B
Average overall levels
Eight week weight, g 1984b 1852c 1870C
Dressed weight, g 1394b 1280c 13ozC
Dressing percentage 70.48b 69.14b 69.63b

 

do not differ significantly at the P<.OS level.

aError mean square for eight week weight, dressed weight and dressing
percentage was 24644, 11324 and 12.080, respectively.

b’cMemusin a line for the same trait bearing a superscript letter in common

A'B’CMeans in a column for the same trait bearing a superscript letter in
common do not differ significantly at the P<.05 level.

128
consumption and the feed required per unit of gain are
presented in Tables 31, 32, 33, and 34, respectively.

The final weights and average daily gains of pigs
on wet heated rice mill feed diet were significantly higher
at P<.Ol for final weight and P<.OOl forgain than those of
pigs fed diets containing raw rice mill feed. There was
no significant difference between the replicatesa, and
interaction between treatments and replicates for both
traits as mentioned before. Average daily feed intake
tended to be slightly higher among the pigs on wet diets

than on dry diets.

TABLE 30. OVERALL RESULTS OF THE SWINE TRIALS.

 

 

 

 

 

Item Treatment
Drygfeed Wet feed
Number of animals 10 10
Irritial average body weight, kg 11.27 11.88
[haration of trial, weeks 6 6
Egrformance
FiJaal average body weight, kg 21.95 28.85
Average daily gain, g 254 404
.Average daily feed intake, 9 937 1030
Feed conversion, F/G 3.76 2.55
Kilogram of feed consumed/
100 kg body weight 4.27 3.57

 

 

aReplicates were used as location factor as illus-
trated in Figures 16 and 17.

 

129

TABLE 31. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FINAL WEIGHT.

 

 

Sources of

 

Variation d.f. 55 MS F P<
Treatments (A) 1 238 238 8.18 .01084a
Replications (B) 1 14.9 14.9 .51

A.x B 1 21.8 21.8 .71
Residual 16 490 30.9

 

aSignificantly different at P<.Ol.

TABLE 32. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF AVERAGE DAILY GAIN.

 

 

Sources of d.f.

 

Variation 58 MS F P<
Treatments (A) 1 .112 .112 18.76 .00045a
Replications (B) 1 .009 .009 1.45 .245

A x B 1 .007 .007 1.16 .296
Residual 16 .101 .006

 

aSignificantly different at P<.001.

TABLE 33. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF AVERAGE DAILY FEED INTAKE.

 

 

Sources of

 

Variation d.f. ss MS F P<
Treatments 1 .00865 .00865 9.75 .0888
Error 2 .00177 .000884

Total 3

 

130

TABLE 34. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF FEED CONVERSION, F:G.

 

 

Sources of

 

Variation d.f. 35 MS F P<
Treatments 1 1.48 1.48 6.62 .1236
Error 2 .446 .223

Total 3 1.92

 

The units of feed required per unit of gain for the
untreated group was 3.76 and for the treated group was 2.55.
However, the samples were not large enough to show statis-
tical difference in feed conversion at the P<.05 level of
probability.

The treatments and the time relationship on the per-
formance of pigs fed on different treatment diets is illus-
trated in Figure 21. The overall performances of pigs are
presented in Table 30.

Based on the overall performance of the pigs on wet
diet and dry diet, it is observed that pigs on wet feed
gained more and had lower average feed requirements per
gain than the pigs on dry diets.

The factors which enhanced the feeding value of rice
mill feed to the swine are that the boiling water treatment
slowed down the development of free fatty acid and reduced
the trypsin inhibitor action. The slowing down of the free
fatty acid development in the wet heated rice mill feed is
in agreement with the findings of Kratzer at 31. (1977),

however, the reduction of trypsin inhibitor action observed

131

average daily feed intake; grams

So.

8:

coup

955 m0 ma>h .PmewmuE
02:. 20 wZi’w uO woz<2¢0mcwn m>.h<m<a200 < ..N ..9“.

4<.¢h ZOmxwu3

 

 

I

Vx _ _ _ _ _ _

:5 to .6 9.2568”. 4
in .25 co 3.2:. 68“. o
:5 an S 22.3 .68 0

:5 is 5 22.3 68 D

    

 

'6). :mbgam Apoq abalone

132

in this experiment is in the contrary of their results.
This is due to the fact that they soaked the material for

shorter time as compared to the present studies.

Economic Analyses of the Feeding Experiments

 

The purpose of this analysis is to examine the
impact which a Process can have upon the production costs
by allowing the inclusion of greater quantities of a lower
cost feedstuff to a ration system. In a country in which
most commodity prices are floating, it must choose the
price regime from among the available commodity alterna-
tives. When the prices of ingredients are perfectly
flexible, it becomes more difficult to get the cost-profit
phenomenon for long term. However, assuming the price of
each ingredient is constant in a given time, the economic
analyses of the feeding trials are performed.

An overhead cost of $7.72 per 100 kilograms is
included for each kind of mixed diet used in the feeding
experiments, regardless of the type of diets used either
in broiler or in swine trials. An approximate cost of
$2.50 per 100 kilograms ($2.25 as labor cost, and $0.25
as machinery depreciation cost) is included for each type
of heat treated rice mill feed ingredient. The cost of
each individual ingredient, mixed diets for broiler and
swine, and the cost per kilogram of gain by broiler as

well as swine are illustrated in Tables 35 through 42.

133

134

TABLE 35. PRICES OF THE INGREDIENTS USED IN
POULTRY AND SWINE DIETS.

 

 

 

(3.5328423;
Meat and bone meal 66.14
Soybean meal 83.77
Molasses 11.02
Corn 48.06
Untreated rice mill feed 26.46
Treated rice mill feedb 28.96
Vitamin premix 136.68
Trace—mineral premix 85.98
Salt 30.86
Amprolium 110.23
DL—Methionine (98%) 727.52

 

aPrices are as of May 1, 1980.

bThe price of treated rice mill feed is raised by
$2.50 per 100 kg ($2.25 as labor cost, and $0.25 as depre—
ciation cost) regardless of the type of treatment done.

 

 

135

TABLE 36. PRICES OF INGREDIENTS AND
MIXED DIETS FOR BROILERS

 

 

Total price of Price ofa
Item ingredients/kg diet mixed diets /kg
(centsl (cents)

 

Type of diet for
starter period

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1C or 2C or 3C 43.56 43.64
13 or 28 or 3B 46.52 46.60
1A or 2A or 3A 49.42 49.50
4C 41.96 42.04
4B 45.26 45.34
4A 48.48 48.56

Type of diet for

finishergperiod
1C or 2C 37.72 37.80
18 or 28 39.07 39.15
1A or 2A 44.35 44.43
4C 35.86 35.94
4B 37.61 37.69
4A 43.26 43.34

 

 

 

aCost of mixed diet includes $7.72/100 kg as

overhead.

All prices are in Belizean currency, i. e.,

U. S. $1.00 = Belize $2.00.

136

TABLE 37. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BROILER TRIAL (0-4 WEEKS)

 

 

 

. a Cost/kg gain

Type of diet F/G (Cents)
1C (HHR, 100%) 1.94 84.66
1B (HHR, 80%) 1.86 86.67
lA (HHR, 60%) 1.73 85.64

Mean 85.66
2C (LHR, 100%) 2.04 89.02
2B (LHR, 80%) 2.34 109.04
2A (LHR, 60%) 2.09 103.46

Mean 100.51
3C (BWR, 100%) 2.29 99.94
3B (BWR, 80%) 2.03 94.60
3A (BWR, 60%) 2. 9 123.26

Mean 105.93
4C (UR, 100%) 2.74 115.19
4B (UR, 80%) 2.93 132.85
4A (UR, 60%) 2.37 115.09

Mean 121.04

 

aKilograms of feed required per kg live-weight
gain.

 

137

TABLE 38. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BROILER TRIALS (0-6 WEEKS)

 

 

 

. a Cost/kg gain

Type of Diet F/G (Cents)
1C (HHR, 100%) 2.30 100.37

1B (HHR, 80%) 2.17 101.12

1A (HHR, 60%) 2.14 105.93
Mean 102.93
2C (LHR, 100%) 2.50 109.10

2B (LHR, 80%) 2.48 115.57

2A (LHR, 60%) 2.56 126.72
Mean 117.13
4C (UR, 100%) 3.33 139.99

4B (UR, 80%) 3.10 140.55

4A (UR, 60%) 2.61 126.74
Mean 135.76

 

aKilogram of feed per kg gain.

138

TABLE 39. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BROILER TRIAL (6-8 WEEKS)

 

 

 

Type of Diet F/Ga Cos(tC/el;gtsg)ain
1C (HHR, 100%) 2.93 110.75
1B (HHR, 80%) 2.94 115.10
1A (HHR, 60%) 2.88 127.96
Mean 117.94
2C (LHR, 100%) 3.24 122.47
ZB (LHR, 80%) 2.61 102.18
2A (LHR, 60%) 2.94 130.62
Mean 118.42
4C (UR, 100%) 3.59 129.02
48 (UR, 80%) 3.20 120.61
4A (UR, 60%) 2.89 125.25
Mean 124.96

 

aKilogram of feed per kg gain.

TABLE

40.

139

OVERALL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BROILER TRIALS

(0-8 WEEKS) FOR THE ENTIRE PRODUCTION PERIOD

 

 

Cost/kg gainb

 

Type of Diet F/Ga (Cents)
1C (HHR, 100%) 3.18 105.56
1B (HHR, 80%) 3.07 108.11
1A (HHR, 60%) 2.96 116.94
Mean 110.20
2C (LHR, 100%) 3.36 115.78
2B (LHR, 80%) 3.05 108.88
2A (LHR, 60%) 3.29 128.67
Mean 117.78
4C (UR, 100%) 3.59 134.50
48 (UR, 80%) 3.67 139.44
4A (UR, 60%) 3.20 132.72
Mean 135.55

 

aKilogram of feed per kg gain.

bCost per kg gain for the entire period is the

weighted mean of the costs per kg gain for grower and

finisher

periods.

140

TABLE 41. PRICES OF INGREDIENTS AND MIXED DIETS FOR SWINE

 

 

 

Total price of Price of a
Type of Diet ingredients/kg diet ndxed diets/kg
(cents) (cents)
Wet diet 33.50 33.58
Dry diet 31.29 31.37

 

aSee Table 35.

TABLE 42. OVERALL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SWINE TRIAL

 

 

 

(0-6 WEEKS)
- Cost k ain
Type of Diet (éééiéi
Wet diet 2.55 85.63

Dry diet 3.76 117.95

 

 

 

 

141

Poultry

Prices are the dynamic factors in animal indus-
tries, therefore, the current analyses are done based on
the commodity prices as of May 1, 1980, in Belize.

The gross income comparisons are made through
productivity comparisons by comparing the cost per kilo-
gram of gain by the broiler chicks in each treatment for
different trial periods.

The costs of corn ingredients are $48.06, treated
rice mill feed $29.96, and untreated rice mill feed $26.46
per 100 kilograms, respectively (Table 35), which directly
affect the economy of the feeding experiments because of
the fact that each of these ingredients are basically in-
corporated in the diets to supply the same nutrient energy.
For instance, the cost of 100 kilograms of untreated rice
mill feed diets for the starter period at 40%, 20%, and
0% inclusion of corn is $48.56, $45.34, and $42.02,
respectively, and that of treated diets at the same per-
centile basis is $49.50, $46.60, and $43.64, respectively.
Hence, there is a difference of more than $6.00 per 100
kg between the rations containing all rice mill feed and
that containing 40% of corn (Table 36).

The average overall cost of one kilogram of gain
byithe broilers on high heat treatment, low heat treat-
ment, boiling water treatment, and no heat treatment is
85.66¢, 100.51¢, 105.93¢, and 121.04¢ during 0 to 4 weeks

feeding period, respectively (Table 37). During the full

142
starter period (0 to 6 weeks), the cost per kilogram gain
was 102.47¢, 117.13¢, and 135.76¢ for high heated, low
heated, and no heated treatments, respectively (Table 38).
The cost per kilogram of gain during the finishing period
(6 to 8 weeks) by the chicks on high heated, low heated,
and unheated rice mill feed diets was 117.94¢, 118.42¢,
and 124.96¢, respectively. The difference of costs per
between the high and low heated was 33.29¢ per kg gain
during 0-6 weeks period, but that was only 7.02¢ per kg
gain during the finishing period. Thus, it is obvious
that the cost of gain between the two treatments slopes
off as the birds became older because of the fact that
they started depositing adipose fat rather than depositing
muscle. However, the difference of cost of gain as com-
pared between the treated groups and untreated groups was
noticeably lower among treated groups than the cost of
gain on untreated rice mill feed diets (Table 39).

When the average overall economic analysis of the
broiler trials was performed (0 to 8 weeks), the cost per
kilogram gain for high heated, low heated, and unheated
rice mill feed diet groups was 110.20¢, ll7.78¢, and
135.55¢, respectively (Table 40).

When 100% of the corn was replaced by high heated
rice mill feed, the cost per kilogram gain was the lowest
(110.20¢/kg gain). Similarly, when 100% of the corn was
replaced by low heated rice mill feed, the cost per kilo-

gram gain was lower than when only 60% of the corn was

143
replaced by low heated treated rice mill feed. However,
when 100% of the corn was replaced by untreated rice mill
feed, the cost per kilogram was higher, indicating that
when 100% of corn was replaced by untreated rice mill
feed, the chicks utilized diets less efficiently. For
instance, the cost of one kilogram gain for HHR was
110.2¢, for LHR was ll7.78¢, and per UR was 135.55¢.
Thus, when economically evaluated, the heat treatment of
rice mill feed was effective to lower the cost of gain,

thereby allowing a wider margin of profit.

£321.12

The prices of each ingredient are given in Table
35, and the cumulative price of each ingredient to make a
kilogram of diet and price of mixed diet per kilogram are
presented in Table 41. The cost of treated and untreated
rice mill feed diets for the swine is $33.58 and $31.37
per 100 kilograms, respectively, because of the fact that
$2.50 per 100 kilograms of treated rice mill feed is added
to the market price of it as a labor and machinery cost.

When an average overall economic analysis of swine
trial was performed, it was found that the cost per kilo-
.gram of gain by the pigs on treated and untreated rice
mill feed diets was 85.63¢ and ll7.95¢, respectively
(Table 42). Thus, it is obvious that the heat treatment

enhanced the feeding value of rice mill feed so that the

144
amount of diet per unit of gain was less in heat treated
rice mill feed diet groups than the untreated rice mill

feed diet groups.

DISCUSSION

Chemical characterization of rice mill feed

 

The chemical characterization of rice mill feed as
illustrated in the results section revealedthat the mater-
ial used in the current studies had higher protein and fat
content than that of rice bran as reported by Arnott et a1.
(1966) for Malayan rice bran and Kratzer 33 31. (1974) used
in their experiments. This is due to the fact that thexjrma
mill feed used for the current studies was a mixture ofrice
bran, rice polishings and a small fraction of rice pollards.
The crude protein, fat and gross energy content of the raw
rice mill feed was 12.9%, 16.18% and 4.22 kilocalories per
gram, respectively. The amino acid content of varioustypes
of treated and untreated rice mill feed was comparable to
that of reported by Houston E; El‘ (1969), Houston and
Kohler (1970). Dry heat treatment up to 105°C did not af-
fect the amino acid contents of the material. This is in
agreement with the report by Rao et 31. (1974) that
roasting at 120°C did not affect the amino acid content
of dehulled soybean.

The free fatty acid for the wet heated, unheated
and dry heated at 85°C for 2 and 4 hours were determinedenul
the results are presented in the results section. All types
of heat treatments were effective in arresting the rise in

145

 

146

free fatty acids during the storage period. Heat treatment of
the rice mill feed at 85°C for 4 hours was moneeffectivethan
the other. This is in agreement with the result reported

by Arnott at El’ (1966) that when the rice bran was heated
at 160°C for 15 minutes the free fatty acid was 6.9% as
compared to that of untreated material which had 36.6% after
32 days of treatment. In the present studies, the free
fatty acid for untreated, dry heated at 85°C for 2 hours, at
85°C for 4 hours and boiling water treatment after 32 days
of storage duration was 34.6%, 13%, 4.5% and 14.8%,
respectively.

The free fatty acid for the wet heated samples were
not determined for the first few days storage intervals
because that samples had to be dried and ground before ex-
tracting enough oil for the analysis. There was some mechan-
ical problem with the Soxhlet apparatus also, however, the
analyses were carried out at the 16th and 32nd day of storage
after fixing the apparatus.

The results of the in yitrg trypsin inhibitor assay
indicate that all types of heat treatments affected the
trypsin inhibitor in rice mill feed. The trypsin units
(TI) for blank were 88. The mean TI for high heated (100 to
105°C), low heated (85 to 90°C), wet heated (boiling water
treated), solar heated and unheated rice mill feed for the
freshly prepared samples were 80, 59, 84, 72 and 20 per 20
miligrams of samples, respectively. Thus, the mean trypsin

units inhibited (TUI) for the high heated, low heated,

147

boiling water treated, solar heated and unheated samples were
8, 29, 4, 16 and 68 per 20 miligrams of sample, respectively.
The results are in agreement with the results reported by
Tashiro gt gt. (1978). It was reported that the TI extracted
from rice bran was heat labile and was completely inactivated
during the 10 minutes incubation at pH 10.0 and 90°C. This
finding also confirms the results reported by Horiguchi gt
g1. (1971) that the inhibitor was denatured on heating it at
100°C. It was also reported that during incubation at 70°C
for 30 minutes, the inhibitor activity remained unchanged.
Tashiro gt gt. (1978) illustrated that the stability of crude
trypsin inhibitor for heating at pH 2.0, 7.0 and 10.0 and
claimed that the trypsin inhibitor extracted from the rice
bran was stable at acidic pH. It was pointed out that at
acidic and neutral pHs, the trypsin inhibitor retained more
than 50% of its activity after the 30 minutes incubation

at 90°C.

Poultry

While formulating the broiler diets, the protein
value of rice mill feed was taken into account. Therefore,
as it is presented in the composition of starter and finisher
diets, the soybean meal was lowered down by 1% as the percent
of rice mill feed was increased, eg. soybean meal for starter
diets 9%, 8% and 7% for 60%, 80% and 100% of rice mill feed
in replacements of corn, respectively. The DL-methionine

was added at .3% level to all the starter diets and .1% level

148

was added to all the finisher diets. As the level of the
corn was reduced in the diet, the calculated metabolizable
energy value of the diet was also dropped down because of

the fact that the metabolizable energy value for corn is
higher than that of rice mill feed. However, the protein
content was quite similar for all diets. The analyzed value
of protein for untreated rice mull feed was used to calculate
the protein value of rice mill feed and the "feed ingredients
analysis chart" used in Belize was used for the protein
content of other ingredients.

As the results of the broiler feeding trials for
various period as illustrated in the results section indi-
cated that chicks on diets which consisted of heat treated
rice mill feed performed better, eg. for final period the
chicks on treated rice mill feed diets were heavier, gained
more and required less amount of diets per unit of gain
(P<.05) than the chicks on untreated rice mill feed diet.
This is because of the fact that as described previously, the
heat treatment not only arrested the rise of free fatty
acid and reduced the trypsin inhibitor action but also perhaps
affected the unknown growth depressing factor.

The increase in growth rate of chicks on heat
treated rice mill feed diets is also in agreement with the
findings reported for rice bran diets by Kratzer gt gt.
(1974).

At the age of 8 weeks old, the selected biggest

birds from each treatment were sacrificed in a commercial

149

slaughter house and the dressed weights were taken without
including the heart, liver and gizzard. The chicks on high
heated rice mill feed diets were heavier at 8 weeks of age,
and had higher dressing weight (P<.05) than the chicks on
low heated or unheated material. However, there was no
significant difference in dressing percentage at the P<.05
level of probability except the dressing percentage of chicks
on high heated rice mill feed diet 100% in replacement of
corn (1C).

The male birds tended to have slightly heavier body
weight than the females, however there was no significant
differenCe in the performances at the P<.05 level of

probability.

81122
Pigs on diets which consisted of 88.5% of boiling
water treated rice mill feed were significantly heavier
(P<.01) and gained more (P<.001) than the pigs on diets which
contained the same level of untreated rice mill feed. The
reasons of enhancing the feeding value of rice mill feed are
that heat treatment affected the deleterious factors of free
fatty acid and trypsin inhibitors. It also perhaps affected
the growth depressing factor. Yasumoto gt_g;. (1977) pointed
out that the bound form of vitamin 36 in rice bran extracts
was available to the assay microorganisms when hydrolyzed.
Thus the wet heating enhanced the availability of some bound

forms of nutrients such as vitamin 36' When hydrothermally

150
processed liquid feed, which had approximately 38% dry matter,
was fed to pigs weaned at 3 weeks of age, it was observed
that pigs on processed liquid feed digested 88.3% dry matter
whereas the pigs on dry diets had 84.8% digestibility for
the dry matter (Binder gt gt., 1978). The liquid diet was
manufactured by blending finely ground corn and soybean meal
with water, which was then hydrothermally processed at 150°C
using direct steam application. It was also reported that
the percent energy and protein digested were both higher for
the processed liquid diet when compared to the crumbled
(dry) diet.

Pigs on wet heated rice mill feed diet tended to
consume slightly more diets as compared to the pigs on dry
diets, however, there was no significant difference (P<.05)
between the two. This is in agreement with the report by
Binder gt gt. (1978) that pigs on hydrothermally prepared
liquid ration consumed more diet on dry matter basis as
compared to the pigs on dry diet.

Grifo gt gt. (1974) reported that paste (a blend of
1.2 parts dry feed and 1.5 parts water) increased the daily
gain and daily feed intake during the growing—finishing
periods.

The feeding experiment with the swine on heat treated
rice mill feed diets was not found within the limit of

available information (review of literature).

CONCLUSIONS

Under the experimental conditions and procedures pre-
sented in this thesis, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. Both dry and wet heat treatments of rice mill
feed lowered the deleterious factors of free fatty acid and
trypsin inhibitor.

2. Heat treatment of rice mill feed did not affect
the nutrient content of it.

3. Based on the nutrient content of the samples, the
rice mill feed obtained from Big Falls Ranch Mill was of high
quality having less than 1% silica as compared to the rice
bran reported.

4. The drum-heating and wet-heating systems can be
used to enhance the feeding value of rice mill feed diets.

5. When higher levels of rice mill feed are used in
broiler diets, the heat treatment becomes more effective.
Chicks on diets containing lower levels performed better than
the chicks on diets which had higher levels of rice millfeed

6. Wet heat treatment of rice mill feed enhanced the
feeding value of it by growing pigs when 88.5% of the wet
heated rice mill feed diet was compared with the diet which

contained the same level of untreated material.

151

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

Based on the results and observations made during
the current studies on the apprOpriate technology in small
farming systems to treat rice mill feed, and evaluation of
a dry heated, wet heated and unheated rice mill feed as feed
ingredients for broiler and swine diets, the following areas
of further investigations are suggested:

1. Improvement of the drum heating system by fixing
one layer of metal all around the 55-gallon drum. This im-
provement will protect the main drum from direct connection
of flame and will slowly but evenly heat the material in
the drum.

2. Studies on the feeding values of various types
of heat treated rice mill feeds to layers.

3. £2.21EEQ and/or 12.2i22 studies on theavailibil—
ity of lysine from the treated and untreated rice mill feed.

4. Studies on the effects of addition of graded leV’
els of tallow in treated and untreated rice mill feed di£¥t25
for broiler and swine to evaluate that whether the oil pre 5"
ent in rice mill feed is an energy-contributing factor (Dr
not.

5. Studies on the effects of rancid fat with chicken

to determine whether the rancidity is one of the growtlr-

152

153

depressing factors of the rice mill feed.

6. Studies on effects of dry as well as wet
heated treatments of rice mill feed to enhance the feeding
values of it by swine using reasonably more samples to
ascertain the present findings.

7. Studies on the effects of high levels of
rice mill feed on the body composition of pigs and

chickens.

 

GLOSSARY

own rice--It is the unmilled product, but with hulls re-
moved. It retains the bran coat which consists of
seven layers of differentiated types of cells and at
one end of the kernel lies the germ or embryo, is
attached firmly to the endosperm or starchy body of
the kernel.

ryopsis--It is the edible portion of rice grain. It is also
called as brown rice because of its brownish pericarp.
Red rice has a red pericarp or tegmen or both. The
rice caryOpsis varies widely among varietiesirlshape,
size and width.

7 heating—~It is a process of treatment where rice by-
products are heated or roasted without added moisture.

>ats or brewer's or broken rice or rice pollards--Small
broken kernels that do not meet the kernel-size re-
quirements second heats and screenings. These kernels
of rice will generally be having less than three-
fourths of whole kernels.

.d rice--It is the whole kernels of milled orgxflished rice.
It is slightly smaller than brown rice.

.15 or husks--The harsh woody covering around the caryopsis

154

155
is called as husks or hulls. Hulls are tough,
woody, abrasive, resistant to weathering, great
bulk, high silica and ash content and have low
nutritive properties. Usually it amounts about
one-fifth of the weight of the paddy.

Milled rice--It is the product from which the bran layer
and a part of the germ have been removed.

Paddy or unmilled or rough rice--It is the harvested prod-
uct received at the rice mill from the farm
thresher, and is contained in a hard siliceous
hull which encloses the edible kernel. It is made
up of the hull, the seed coat (pericarp), the
starchy endosperm and the embryo or germ.

Parboiling or boiling or overheating or hydrothermic rice
treatment--It is the Operation to which the paddy
is subjected before milling. This process involves
soaking rough rice in water, draining, then pres-
sure cooking in a steam atmosphere to completely
gelatinize the starch. Then the rice is dried
and milled.

Polish or polishings or white bran—-These are finely pow—
dered by-products obtained in polishing the rice
kernels after the hulls and bran have been removed.
The production of polishings amounts to 2 to 3% of
the paddy milled.

Rice bran--A by-product from the milling of rice, consis-

ting of the outer bran layers of the kernel with

156
part of the germ. Depending upon the type ofndll,
it is made up of pericarp, some germ, rachilla,
small fragments of endosperm, some hulls, as well
as dust and soil particles. It generally amounts
8 to 9% of the rough rice milled.

Rice mill feed-~Rice mill feed, as described in this
thesis, is a mixture of rice bran, rice polishings,
small amounts of broken rice with only such quan-
tity of hull fragments as is unavoidable in the
regular milling of rice. Rice by-product is used

as a synonym for rice mill feed. The rice by:

 

product or rice mill feed used by Houston gt gt.

 

(1969), "defining product comprises total rice
milling by-products and may contain 50 to 65% of
rice hulls" does not imply in this thesis through-
out, because of the fact that rice hulls do not
have much feeding value in non-ruminants.

Screenings--Medium broken kernels, not more than 10% of
which can be removed by a No. 5 sizing plate.

Second heads--Large broken kernels not more than 7% of
which can be removed by a No. 6 sizing plate.

Wet heating--It is a process of heating or cooking rice
by-product in a condition where added moisture is
involved.

Steaming--It is one of the methods of rice-bran treatment.
It is generally carried out by placing samples on

shallow trays and subjecting it to live steam in a

157

zlosed system.

[nits of energy defined

 

tritish Thermal Unit (BHU)--It is defined as the amount of

:alorie

heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water 10F (i. e., from 62°F to 63°F).

1 BHU = 252 calories.

(cal)—-One calorie = 1/1000 kcal = amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram (1 ml)
of water by 1°C. One calories = 4.184 Joules.

l Joule = 107 ergs = 0.239 cal.

{ilocalories (kcal)--One kilocalorie of energy is the

amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of

1000 gram (1 liter) of water by 1°C (i. e., from

14.5 to 15.50C). 1 kcal 4.185 kilo Joules.

One megacalorie (megcal) 1000 kcal.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

158

TABLE A-l. NUTRIENT CONTENT OF "BELIZE
VITAMIN PREMIX - x5"a.b

 

 

Guaranteed analysis per pound (or per kilogram) is,

 

Item Amount/Pound Amount/Kilogram
Vitamin A 3,636,500 USP Units 8,017,027.0USP Units
Vitamin D3 454,500 IC Units 1,001,900.71I2Units
Vitamin E 9,090 IUC 20,039.811Uc
d-Pantothenic acid 5,454.5 mg 12,024.99 mg
Niacin 13,636.5 mg 30,063.03 mg
Riboflavin 1,818 mg 4,007.96 mg

BHT 0.0455 lb 45.50 g
Vitamin B12 9.091 mg 20.24 mg
Choline chloride 136,365 mg 300,630.28 mg

 

aIngredients used'are vitamin A acetate in gelatin,
d-activated animal sterol (source of vitamin D3), vitamin E
supplement, menadione sodium bisulfate complex (source of
vitamin K activity, added at a rate of 2,885 mg per pound
or 6,360.27 mg per kilogram), d-calcium pantothenate,
niacin, riboflavin supplement, butylated hydroxytolyene
(BTH) (a preservative), vitamin B12 supplement, choline
chloride and corn fermentation solubles.

bOne kilogram of this vitamin premix was mixed with
four kilograms of carrier and used as a rate of 500 grams
per 100 kilograms in broiler as well as in swine diets.

cInt. units.

159

TABLE A-2. NUTRIENT CONTENT OF "BELIZE TRACE
MINERAL PREMIX - x5"a.b

 

 

Guaranteed minimum analysis per pound (or per kilogram) is,

 

Item Amount/Pound £§¥:::Z;

Manganese (Mn) 5.00 , % 5.00 , %
Zinc (Zn) 7.00 , % 7.00 , %
Iron (Fe) 5.00 , % 5.00 , %
Iodine (I) 0.025, % 0.025, %
Selenium (Se) 45.455 mg 100.21 mg

 

aIngredients used are manganous oxide, zinc oxide,
iron sulfate, ethylene diamine dihydroxide, sodium selenite
and corn fermentation solubles.

bOne kilogram of this trace mineral premix was mixed
with four kilograms of carrier and used as a rate of 500
grams per 100 kilograms in broiler as well as in swine
diets.

APPENDIX B

The solar cabinet was constructed in the following
Inaunrmer.

Four pieces of 215.9 cm X 5.08 cm and other four
pieces of 91.44 cm X 5.08 cm were separated from the long
pieces and the longer four pieces were used lengthwise
retaining bars, two at the bottom and two at the top,

whereas the shorter four pieces were used widthwise re-

taining bars. Six pieces of 106.68 cm X 5.08 cm angle

iron were used to construct the six legs of the cabinet,
four at two sides of the frame and two at the middle of
the cabinet in order to strengthen it to hold the load.

All the pieces of angle iron were joined together with the

help of .79 cm nuts and bolts. The pieces at the bottom

of the fram were joined leaving a distance of 15.24 cm.
The leg pieces at the bottom of the frame were joined

leaving a distance of 15.24 cm to allow sufficient space
'UJthe legs to stand on the ground and to avoid the rest

Ofthe cabinet to touch the ground in order to protect the

mnface of the iron pieces from rusting. Then three

pumes of 228.6 cm X 101.6 cm sheet metal were separated
frmnthe long sheet and two of them were fixed with the

lmxfih of the frame with drilling holes in the sheets and
johfing to the frame with the help of nuts and bolts.

Then

thethird sheet was laid at the bottom of the frame. Two

160

 

161

pieces of 91.44 cm X 91.44 cm sheet metal, one on each
side, were also fixed with sides of the frame. Since the
size of the frame was 215.9 cm X 97.79 cm X 91.44 cm, the
extra lengths of sheets were bent over and turned outside
edges inwards to strengthen the cabinet. Each edge of the
sheets was strongly bolted with the frame to avoid the
possibility of environmental cooler air flow inside the
cabinet. Each corner of the sides was supported strongly
with iron strips.

Two pieces of 215.9 cm X 5.08 cm X 5.08 cmmahogany
wood were fixed lengthwise on the tOp of the frame with the
help of wooden screws, and nuts and bolts.

Two pieces of 215.9 cm X 5.08 cm X 5.08 cm length-
wise and two pieces of 83.82 cm X 3.81 cm X 3.81 cm width-
wise mahogany wood were fixed on the top and one piece
215.5 cm X 101.6 cm X 10.16 cm was fixed lengthwise at the
top on the back side of the frame in order to allow suf-

ficient space to join the glass frame.

162

TABLE B-l. SOLAR CABINET.

 

Dimensions:

Cabinet
Size of the cabinet: 215.9 cm x 97.79 cm x 91.44 cm
(85" x 38.5" x 36")
Supporting legs : 15.24 cm (6") long beyond the
cabinet
Glass frame : 215.9 cm x 5.08 cm x 5.08 cm
(85" x 2" x 2")

Sheet metala

TEree pieces of equal size: 228.6 cm x 101.60 cm
(90" x 40")

Two pieces of equal size : 91.44 cm x 91.44 cm
(36" x 36")

Three pieces of equal size: 76.2 cm x 49.53 cm
(29.5" x 19.5")

Three pieces of equal size: 91.44 cm x 66.04 cm

 

 

(36" x 26")
Wood
One piece: 215.9 cm x 10.16 cm x 10.16 cm
(85" X 4" X 4»)
Four pieces: 215.9 cm x 5.08 cm x 5.08 cm
(85" x 2" x 2")
Six pieces: 83.82 cm x 3.81 cm x 3.81 cm
(33" x 1.5" x 1.5")
Angle iron
SIx pieces: 106.68 cm x 5.08 cm
(42" x 2")
Four pieces: 91.44 cm x 5.08 cm (36" x 2")
Iron strips (24 pieces of equal size):
12.7 cm x .64 cm (5" x .25")
Miscellaneous

 

AThree pieces of hinges: ordinary door hinge size
Two handles
Three trays: 76.2 cm x 50.8 cm x 15.24 cm
(30" x 20" x 6")
Three pieces of transparent glass: 86.36 cm x
66.04 cm x 0.95 cm (34" x 26" x 3/8")
Bolts and nuts--.79 cm (3%?)

Materialg of construction
Galvanized sheet metal
Angle iron

 

aThe galvanized sheet metal was of 24 gauge galva—
nized aluminum made rust resistant.

163

 

 

Mahogany wood

Transparent glass

Dark paint

Hinges

Door handles

Rice husks as insulating material

Miscellaneous (nuts, bolts, nails, puddings, wood
gum, tape, etc.)

164

TABLE B-2. ROTARY DRUM HEATING SYSTEM.

 

 

Dimensions

Length of the pipe: 366 cm

Diameter of the pipe: 5.08 cm

Length of the drum: 84 cm

Circumference of the drum: 180 cm

Diameter of the drum: 64 cm

Iron rods: 58 cm x 2 cm

Height of two wooden poles: 183 cm

Height of other two wooden poles: 198 cm

The length of each of the wooden poles buried in the
ground: 92 cm

The area of the opening of the drum door:
23 cm x 27 cm

 

The furnace

Length: 92 cm

Width : 86 cm

Height: 54 cm

The length of the gate: 48 cm

The width of the gate: 28 cm

The thickness of the furnace wall: 10 cm

The area of the Opening of the furnace to allow
fire flame: 61 cm x 48 cm

The distance between the furnace and the drum
(dry heating machine): 20 cm

Tray to collect the cooked material:
64 cm x 51 cm x 20 cm

 

Materials

Galvanized aluminum pipe made rust resistant

55 gallon drum

Four wooden poles

Red bricks

Cement

Sand

Iron rods

Sheet metal

Tray

Miscellaneous (wood strips, rice husks, nuts, bolts,
tools such as drill, drill bits, hammer, knives,
ranches, etc.)

 

 

APPENDIX C

165

 

 

 

 

 

mm.m~ Hm.m~ mo.- em.ma «6.6H mm.mH mm.HH cams

em.mm m4.mm RN.~N m~.ma mo.oa mm.ma HS.HH m HH .Hmmm

mo.m~ mH.om ao.m~ om.o~ ma.efl mH.4H GH.NH m H .Hmmm came um:

ma.am oo.om Hm.mH mo.ma mm.4H mm.ma RN.HH

mm.mm Sm.H~ mm.ma em.ea om.me mH.ma mm.HH m HH .Hmmm

mo.o~ 4H.ma mm.ea mo.mH mm.eH HG.NH mo.HH m H .Hmmm cmmw sue
a m e m N H HmauaaH mamsflaa

xwoz xmmz Moog xwmz xmmz MODS . . mo .02

 

COHHOQ mcflpmmh

usmfiumoua

 

 

GM .BmOHmz wmom m0¢mm>< .HIU mqmfle

 

 

166

 

mme Hme mam ewe HmN mmN cam:
4H4 cow «m4 amw «me HNH HH .Hmmm
mHe H44 mom mew N04 mmN H .Hmmm cmmH Hm:
NNN aHN SON mmN mNN omN cam:
mmN HHN omm NNN HmN NNN HH .Hdmm
NHN HHH HNH «HN NAN ANN H .Hmmm wmmH HHQ

 

w R663 m Emma 4 Emma N Emma N Emma H Emma

 

COHHOQ mafipmmm uswfiumoue

 

 

.m .53 3H3 mo§m>¢ .Nuo mHmNH.

167

 

 

 

 

 

«baa emHH wwoa Hmoa mmm mmm and:
NNHH HONH HeoH HNOH omm HHR HH .Hdmm
omHH nNHH HNHH Hooa mvoa emu H .Hmmm comm HUB
mmoa maoa maoa «mm gem new COOS
whoa voaa mmoa coca hmw mow HH .Hmmm
SNOH NNN Hem mom omm owe H .Hde emmH HHO
m xmmz m Moog xmmz xomz Roms H MUTE
COHHOm maepwmm usmfiumwue

 

 

.m

.meNBZH Dmmm NAHflQ m0§m>4 .mIU mqmflh

168

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HN.N mm.N mH.N ON.N SN.N Hm.m cams
4S.N Hm.N H4.N mN.N om.H mm.m HH .Hdmm

HH.N mm.N mo.m NH.N om.N om.N H .Hmmm cmmH Hm:
NH.N m4.4 NH.N 4N.m mm.N mN.N cams

NH.m mm.m No.m N4.m NN.N eo.m HH .Hdmm

HH.N 44.m Hm.m mN.N mo.m m4.m H .Hmmm emmH HHo
w R663 m Rama 4 Emma m Emma N Emma H Rao:

OOHHOQ maepmwm
.LO\HV zHNO Ho Hst mam ommHoomm QHHH Ho mHHzo .4IO mHmNH

APPENDIX D

The least square analyses were performed as described
in the statistical procedure section. The comparisons of
means were made taking the difference of mean and comparing
the mean difference with the standard statistical value (test
value). The test value is obtained by dividing the error
mean square for the defined trait of a particular period by
the number of samples (observations) for that particular
trait. Then take the square root of it and multiply the
value by "Oi" value as listed by Harvey (1960) for the
number of comparison(s) made.

eg. Means comparison for the body weight of week 4
old chicks on 12 different treatment diets:

Error mean square (EMS)=5209.41

Total number of samples for overall treatment(n)=584
Approximate number of sample in one treatment(n)=584

12
=48.67
=49.

Test value=Syi - a.

.‘L
._ EMS
51”" ]/'n—
= .1/5209.4l
T—9

10.31

Degree of freedom for error mean square (EMS)=559.
The a value for 5% probability using 559 d.f. for
EMS and P=2 (pair of comparison) is 2.78 (Harvey's
least square Table, 1960)
Test value=10.31 x 2.78
=28.66.

169

170

Comparison:
If the difference of means is more than the test

 

value (eg. 28.66), then the two means are significantly
different at the P<.05 level of probability. All the
important information for each parameter tested at different

trial periods are presented in Tables "D"s.

 

 

 

 

171

TABLE D-l. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK 4 BODY WEIGHT.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 1085577.11 24 45232.38 8.6828 <.0005
Error 2912062 559 5209.41
Total about mean 3997639.55 583

 

TABLE D-2. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
WEEK 0-4 AVERAGE DAILY GAIN (ADG).

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 1361.38 24 56.72 8.5368<L0005
Error 3714.37 559 6.64
Total about mean 5075.75 583

 

TABLE D-3. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
WEEK 0-4 AVERAGE DAILY FEED INTAKE (ADFI).

 

 

 

ss d.f. Ms F Sig.
Regression about mean 777.06 11 70.64 14.1499<§0005
Error 59.91 12 4.99
Total amount mean 836.97 23

 

TABLE D-4. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK
0-4 FEED REQUIRED PER UNIT OF GAIN (F/G).

 

 

 

ss d.f. Ms F Sig.
Regression about mean 2.8815 11 .2619 10.8695<;0005
Error .2892 12 .0241

Total about mean 3.1707 23

 

172

TABLE D-Sa. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
WEEK 2-4 BODY WEIGHT.

TABLE D-6. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
WEEK 2-4 ADG.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 4630.93 24 192.96 9.311 <.0005
Error 11584.36 559 20.72
Total about mean 16215.28 583

 

TABLE D-7. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK 2-4 ADFI.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 1484.47 11 134.95 6.7579 .001
Error 239.64 12 19.97
Total about mean 1724.11 23

 

TABLE D-8. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK 2-4

 

 

 

F/G.
SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 3.3544 11 3.0494 5.9167 .002
Error .6185 12 .0515
Total about mean 3.9728 23

 

TABLE D-9. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK
0-6 BODY WEIGHT.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 4272026.04 18 237334.78 13.2908 <.0005
Error 7178530.26 402 17857.04
Total about mean ll450556.29 420

 

aSee in Table D-l.

173

TABLE D-lO. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-6 ADG.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 2464.43 18 136.91 12.8196 <.0005
Error 4378.77 410 10.68
Total about mean 6843.20 428

 

TABLE D-ll. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-6 ADFI.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 621.69 8 77.71 16.3335 <.0005
Error 42.82 9 4.76
Total about mean 664.51 17

 

TABLE D-12. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-6 F/G.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 2.5786 8 .3223 7.7058 <3003
Error .3764 9 .0418
Total about mean 2.9550 17

 

TABLE D-13. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
WEEK 6-8 BODY WEIGHT.

 

 

 

SS . d.f. MS F‘ Sig.
Regression about mean 11869881.98 18- 659437.89 22.916 <.0005
Error 11568254.84 402 28776.75

Total about mean 23438136.82

 

174

TABLE D-14. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK 6-8

 

 

 

ADG.
SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 15944.09 18 885.78 11.2322 <.0005
Error 31702.25 .402 78.86
Total about mean 47646.34 420

 

TABLE D-15. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK 6-8

 

 

 

ADFI.
SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 340.88 8 42.61 .7516 .651
Error 510.24 9 56.69

Total about mean 851.12 17

 

TABLE D-16. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

6-8 F/G.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean .5995 8 .0749 1.1059 .438
Error .60986 9 .0677
Total about mean 1.2094 17

 

TABLE D-17a. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK
0-8 (FINAL) BODY WEIGHT.

 

aSee in Table D-13.

175

TABLE D-18. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-8 ADG.
SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 3747.35 18 208.19 22.6875 <.0005
Error 3688.86 402 9.18
Total about mean 7436.20

 

TABLE D-l9. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-8 ADFI.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 224.19 8 28.02 2.3084 .117
Error 109.26 9 12.14
Total about mean 333.44 17

 

TABLE D-20. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, WEEK

 

 

 

0-8 F/G.

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean .93708 8 .1171 7.485 <.003
Error .1408 9 .0156
Total about mean 1.0779 17

 

TABLE D-21. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, FINAL
(WEEK 8) BODY WEIGHT OF SELECTED BIRDS.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 2899221.03 18 161067.83 6.5357 <Jm05
Error 2119403.73 86 24644.23

Total about mean 5018624.76 104

 

176

TABLE D-22. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION, DRESSED
WEIGHT OF THE SELECTED BIRDS.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 1420752.25 ll! 78930.68 6.9702
Error 973872.52 86 11324.10
Total about mean 2394624.76 104

 

TABLE D-23. ANOVA FOR OVERALL REGRESSION,
DRESSING PERCENTAGE OF THE SELECTED BIRDS.

 

 

 

SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Regression about mean 266.0281 18 14.779 1.2224 <.262
Error 1039.7385 86 12.090

Total about mean 1305.7667 104

 

LIST OF REFERENCES

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