A STUDY OF PROGRAM PLANNING PRACTICES IN STUDENT PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LAURENCE CARL SARTOR 1970 THFH‘IQ LI BRA R y ' Riversity This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF PROGRAM PLANNING PRACTICES IN STUDENT PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION presented by Laurence O. Sartor has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for it);— degree in Education Major professoé'; I; Date May II, I970 0-169 ammua av 7’ IIIIAG 8: SONS’ IBIIIIK BINDERY IIID. '.- Illl l'.'" “I ':n'"' . :,_ _ “—c—h._ ABSTRACT A STUDY OF PROGRAM PLANNING PRACTICES IN STUDENT PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION By Laurence C. Sartor The general problem of this study was to investi- gate the structure of the planning process in student personnel administration with specific emphasis on selected characteristics or conditions within the col- legiate environment which determine the uniqueness of the planning style. Specifically, this study investi- gated: (l) the organizational structure and level of formality of the planning processes; (2) the extent to which research was used as an aid in planning; (3) the nature of the influence exerted by the chief student personnel officer upon the planning process; and (4) the degree of influence exerted by interest-groups. In view of the paucity of research pertaining to the problem under investigation, the literature re- view was devoted to establishing a theoretical model of the planning function for use both at the instrument cons truc final an sonnel at and unive student 6 lation wa by studen domly sel. Within eac twentY‘fou Th or Persona ended ques reSPOIISes y W scales divi Sta SIS, the no bility test, .I C Laurence C. Sartor construction stage and as a basis for comparison in the final analysis. The p0pulation consisted of the chief student per- sonnel administrators at the upper level public colleges and universities east of the Mississippi River with a student enrollment between 1,500 and 15,000. The popu- lation was stratified first by geographic region and then by student population size. Two institutions were ran- domly selected from each of the student population levels within each of the regions for a total sample size of twenty-four, or approximately 14% of the population. The subjects were interviewed either by telephone or personally and asked to respond to predominantly Open- ended questions pertaining to the areas under study. The responses were then quantified in a Student Personnel Planning Inventory consisting of fourteen four-point scales divided between the four areas of interest. Statistical techniques used included factor analy- sis, the nonparametric chi-square and Fisher exact proba- bility tests, and a profile analysis to explain raw score and percentage distritutions. The findings of the study were: (1) Response differences did not exist between geographic regions or student population levels. (2) The use of well-defined goals as a guide to departmental decision making is not a common practice. (3) With few exceptions, the planning .—- - nun-v.2- 1 - " functiOJ process. formaliz determin through stitutio. in long-J student 5 and progr Partmenta Was found ecIllipment found to b reSearch w. demographi The Part-IQ] attitude t0 sessing a 9 within thei decisicm ma mitted to P was limited and faculty ceteminatic The IIOlv _ ed “1 p1 Laurence C. Sartor function was not a formalized part of the administrative process. Furthermore, when the planning function was formalized, it tended to be limited to the initial plan determination stage, with little thought to follow- through techniques. (4) While three-quarters of the in- stitutions studied reported institution-wide involvement in long-range planning, the technique was not used in student personnel as a means to identify future goals and program direction. Contrary to planning theory, de— partmental involvement in long-range planning, when it was found, was limited to future facilities, staff and equipment needs. (5) Program review and evaluation was found to be the exception rather than the rule. When research was used, it tended to be limited to available demographic data during the initial planning stages. (6) The participants can be characterized as having a positive attitude toward planning as an administrative tool; pos- sessing a great deal of latitude to direct and innovate within their departments; and committed to participatory decision making. (7) While the participants were com- mitted to participatory decision making, this commitment was limited in practice to staff involvement. Students and faculty were seldom formally involved in program determination. The major proportion of the participants were in- volved in planning for staff and facilities, adding new programsI ever, we arevers planning places i than 1e; anticip student accepte 2. Laurence C. Sartor programs, and/or reviewing old ones. The process, how- ever, was haphazard and incomplete, usually resulting in a reversal of the means-ends relationship basic to planning theory. In these instances, an organization places itself in a position where it responds rather than leads; and where it is forced to change, rather than anticipating change. The study revealed that few student personnel programs significantly utilize the accepted theories and techniques of planning. A STUDY OF PROGRAM PLANNING PRACTICES IN STUDENT PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION BY Laurence Carl Sartor A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1970 Copyright by LAURENCE CARL SARTOR 1970 Dedication To my wife Ruth, whose untiring assistance, sacrifice and encouragement made the successful completion of this thesis possible. To my children, Mark Alan and Laura Reneé for their patience and understanding during the past two years. ii elation t during t} Committee time, prc and assi: Possible. I JOhDSQn .- assistan Of this Dr, Jame Getald 1: ASSistan ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appre— ciation to those who provided guidance and assistance during the course of this study. Dr. Laurine Fitzgerald, committee chairman, in addition to giving freely of her time, provided the necessary encouragement, stimulation and assistance which made the completion of this study possible. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Walter Johnson and Dr. Louis Stamatakos for their patient assistance and advice which contributed to the refinement of this study. The encouragement and support provided by Dr. James D. Edwards was also gratefully appreciated. A special word of thanks is extended to Dr. Gerald Duffy and Dr. David Murphy for their technical assistance. iii Chapter 1. IN”| Bac Pu] Apr Si. Su Li: De 0r II. RE In P1 P1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. II. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE Background to the Problem . Purpose of Study and Rationale for Approach . . . . . . . . Purpose of Study . . . Rationale for Approach . Framework for the Study Categories of Bounded Rationality Significance of Study . . Summary . . . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . Definitions . . . . . . . Organization of the Study REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction . . . . . . Planning and the Plan . . Introduction . . . . . Definition of Planning Hierarchy of Plans . . Plan Integration . . . Planning as a Process . . Evaluation and Research Leadership and Interest-Group Decision Making . . . . . Leadership: an Overview The Role of the Status- -Leader Influence of Interest-Groups Influence PROBLEM Leadership in Student Personnel and the Planning Function . . iv Page O‘I I—‘WONOA 19 21 22 23 25 25 26 26 27 32 35 39 42 48 48 54 58 62 LAH— .r———— .-———~ Chapter 111. Ml IV. A BIBLIo mezzo Chapter Page conCIuSions O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 66 III 0 METHODOLOGY I O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O O 6 8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Description of the Instrument . . . . . . . . 70 Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Instrument Validity and Reliability . . . . . 76 Definition of the Population . . . . . . . . 79 The sample I O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 79 Hypotheses to be Tested . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 IV 0 MMYSIS OF THE DATA 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 85 Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Independent Variable Analysis . . . . . . . . 89 Profile Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 111 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Discussion of Conclusions . . . . .-. . . . . 118 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Implications for Further Research . . . . . . 129 BIBLIOGWHY O I I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 133 APPENDICES O I O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 141 A. Identification of Population Stratified by Geographic Region and by Student Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 V Chapt -.I.. . . . Fiahdwm. - . 1. » Sprung...” ‘ V Eek.‘ :IIIlIIIII I Chapter Page B. Letter of Introduction . . . . . . . . . 142 C. Structured Interview: Student Personnel Planning . . . . . . . . . . . 143 D. Student Personnel Planning Inventory . . 145 E. Inter-Item Correlation Matrix . . . . . 150 F. Principal—Factor Pattern for Fourteen Planning Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 151 G. Memorandum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 vi Table 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4A 4.43 4.5 to Sar ac: Table 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4A 4.5A 4.53 4.5C 4.6 LIST OF TABLES Sample Distribution by Region According to Highest Degree Earned . . . . . . . . . Sample Distribution by Student Population according to Highest Degree Earned . . . . Factor Analysis - Factor I . . . . . . . . Factor Analysis - Factor II . . . . . . . . FaCtOI AnalYSiS — Factor III 0 o o o o o o Contingency Table for Geographic Regions Based on Above and Below Median Scores on TOtal Inventory 0 o o o o o '0 o o o o o o o Contingency Table for Student Enrollment Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contingency Table for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contingency Table for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Factor I: Structure of the Planning Process . . . Contingency Table for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Factor II: Use of Research . . . . . . . . . . . Contingency Table for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Factor III: Level of Leadership and Interest-Group Influence on the Planning Process . . . . . Contingency Table for Regularity of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory . . . . . . . . . vii Page 80 81 87 88 9O 91 92 93 94 94 95 96 x--“'.’". .",' a. 3" , . . Table 4.6A 4.6B 4.6C 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 Table 4.6A 4.6C 4.10 Contingency Table for Regularity of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Median Scores in Factor I: Structure of the Planning Contingency Table for Regularity of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Median Process . . . . . . . . . . Scores on Factor II: Use of Research Contingency Table for Regularity of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Factor III: and Interest-Group Influence on the Planning Process . Response Distributions for Factor I: Structure of the Planning Process . . Response Planning Response Research Response Level of Distributions for Long-Range Variable . . . . . . . . . . Distributions for Factor II: Application . . . . . . . . Distributions for Factor III: Leadership and Interest-Group Influence on the Planning Process . . viii Level of Leadership Page 96 97 97 99 102 103 104 WWI! " 4‘ nflZi‘ planr Speci tions the 1 be tI will stUdI mode mode That / 1 O [Ir/H, J? rn CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study will investigate the structure of the planning process in student personnel administration with Specific emphasis on selected characteristics or condi- tions within the collegiate environment which determine the uniqueness of the planning style. It is designed to be the first step in a series of studies which, h0pefu11y, will culminate in an effective model for planning in student personnel administration. In reference to national develOpment planning models, Albert Waterston1 stated: Since the end of the second World War, a consider- able [amount of] Literature . . . has accumulated. Most of it is concerned with how planning ought to be practiced, or more explicitly, how planning would work if it worked as originally conceived, or as the writer might wish. The issue raised by Waterston is that an effective Inodel must close the gap between theory and practice. Trhat is, the extent to which the planning process, or Planning model, accomplishes its task is dependent upon ¥ lAlbert Waterston, Development_glanging: Lessons (If Experience. (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 19655, p. 3. whether the environmental conditions unique to the organi- 2'3 As an illustra- zation have been taken into account. tion, since presently any model for planning in student personnel would most likely be one adapted from other so- cial organizations, it is necessary to first identify the strengths and weaknesses in present student personnel plan- ning practices based on some general assumptions regarding the functions and purposes of planning. Isolating the strengths and weaknesses in student personnel planning practices can first provide a basis for further empirical research into the causes of the weaknesses, and second, lead to recommendations which would include corrective measures, and/or compensative measures which may be in- corporated into the model. Background to the Problem While most student personnel organizations are engaged in some form of planning, the extent of activity-- beyond that of facility, staff, and program expansion to meet increased enrollment projections--is not clear. In- vestigation of related literature verifies the importance of the planning function as a basic part of the 2John Pfeiffer, New Look at Education--Systems Analysis in ou£_Schools and ColIe es (Poughkeepsie, New York: Odyssey Press, 1968T, pp. -23. 3John Friedmann, "A Conceptual Model for the Analy- sis of Planning Behavior," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1967). “View! mg: 1!, I33 - ”I ‘S'. I‘m: .4" \ ' l ”‘2': ' . . I A...— -——-. 4... A ‘ ..._.— adminis effect: tion a1 crease nel se unders gate t office PIOgra clusic WI t} C] f1 11 administrative process.4 However, research concerning the effectiveness of planning in student personnel administra- tion and the techniques used is limited. In view of in- creased organizational responsibilities in student person- nel services over the last few decades, it is difficult to understand why studies have not been undertaken to investi- gate the managerial role of the chief student personnel officer. Korn,5 discussing research in higher education programs and student development offered the following con— clusion: When the student personnel profession considers both the ineffectiveness of past actions and the unsolved current problems, a dramatic reappraisal of the pro- fessional role seems inevitable. The urgency of prob- lems facing higher education and the paucity of rele- vant knowledge available from behavioral sciences demonstrate that a program of action research is vital. 4 . . . . . . . . P1ann1ng as a s1gn1f1cant function is d1scussed 1n E. G. Williamson, Student Persognel Services in Colleges and Universities (New York: McGraw-HilI Co., 1961). p. 45; E. E. Erickson, and R. N. Hatch, "Principles for Program- ming Personnel Services," National Society for the Study of Education, Personnel Services in Education (Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 1959), pp. 91-93; Raymond W. Hatch and Buford Stefflre, Administration of Guidance Services (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), pp. 35-38; C. Gilbert Wrenn, Student Person- nel Work in College (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1951), pp. 46-47, and 475-476; Dugald S. Arbuckle, Student Personnel Work in Higher Education (New York: McGraw-H111, Inc., 1953), pp. 33-35 and 17. 5Harold H. Korn, "Higher Education Programs and Student Development," Review of Educational Research - Guidance and Counseling, Vol. 39, No. 2 (April, 1969), p. 166. Is the planning function in student personnel sys- tematic and comprehensive? Or, are programs organized and then expected to simply "evolve"? A 1958 survey of 831 colleges and universities conducted by the consultant firm of 8002, Allen and Hamil- ton provide some insight in this regard. The results showed that 59% of the surveyed institutions had some form of future plans. Arnold F. Emch,6 vice-president with the firm observed that: "These figures would be more en- couraging if it were not for the fact that only one-third of the institutions are making plans that can be classi- fied as adequate or comprehensive. . . ." In 1964, Hun- gate7 visited over twenty institutions and found no com- prehensive long-range planning in progress. Furthermore, what planning was found lacked coordination and ". . . par- ticipation of interested staff members." John Pfeiffer,8 in a 1968 publication, stated that major studies regarding the application and use of planning techniques perfected in other organizations have only begun to be used in edu- cation in the past few years, and mainly as a result of a 6Arnold F. Emch, "Long Range Planning for Colleges and Universities," from the proceedings of the annual meet- ing of the Association of Governing Boards of State Univer- sities and Allied Institutions at Purdue University, La- fayette, Indiana, October 13, 1958, p. 2. 7Thad L. Hungate, Management in Higher Education (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964T, p0 1240 8Pfeiffer, op. cit., p. 140. ‘ ‘3': “a [1171‘ t 11": {Yr-‘1 I I "I. ' ‘," . .le White I all fee plannin dealt w plannin equally for the follows; Content systemat improvem I' jECt. effOl Of CC White House Executive Order in 1965 which stipulated that all federal programs should be evaluated using modern planning-budgeting techniques. Although these studies dealt with higher education in general, it is assumed that planning techniques used in student personnel have been' equally limited in sc0pe. In 1964, E. G. Williamson9 also expressed concern for the lack of emphasis upon comprehensive planning as follows: ". . . to a great extent, education has been content to organize its programs, then has failed to study systematically the outcome or products to determine needed improvement." Williamson warns: The determination of legitimate and worthwhile ob- jectives, while crucially important as an end goal of effort, makes no fundamental difference in e lives of concrete, specific programs of services. If "comprehensive" planning is practiced by student personnel administrators, it has somehow escaped notice and should be described for the benefit of the profession. If the kind of planning which student personnel administrators are engaged in is not fulfilling its recognized functions, (i.e., staff preparation and education, programming direc- tion and services based on present program evaluation and projected student and institutional needs)11 then weaknesses should be identified. 9Williamson, op. cit., p. 57. 10 11Erickson and Hatch, op. cit., pp. 91-93; Arbuckle, op. cit., pp. 18-19. Ibid., p. 112. Purpose of Study and Rationale for Approach Purpose of Study The broad purpose of this study is to investigate the structure of the planning process in student personnel administration. Specifically, the following conditions within the environment which determine the uniqueness of an organizations's planning style were selected for in— vestigation: l. the organizational structure and level of formality of planning processes in student personnel adminis- tration 2. the extent to which research is used as an aid in planning 3. the nature of the influence exerted by the chief student personnel officer upon the planning process 4. the degree of influence of interest-groups Rationale for Approach Research reported by Emch,12 Hungate,l3 and Pfeif- fer14 indicate that, compared to other social organizations, the values of comprehensive planning have only begun to be reCOgnized in higher education. There are differences between education and other social organizations, and the lack of attention to reconciling these differences may have contributed to the slowness with which education has adapted numerous management techniques perfected to other organiza- tions. 12Emch, op. cit. l3Hungate, op. cit. l4Pfeiffer, op. cit., p. 140. For example, one of the conditions in the environ- 15 which must be taken into ment identified by Friedmann account when considering a style of planning is "the edu- cational level of the population and size of the univer- sity educated elite." This particular factor has serious implications for the control function of planning in an educational organization. Getzels'16 theory of adminis- tration as a social process illustrates this point. The theory provides a means to predict behavior based on an explanation of conflict which exists between role expec- tations (conforming to institutionally defined roles) and need dispositions (self-defined roles). Figure I, a reproduction of Getzels' model, provides a graphic de- scription of the expected relationship between roles and needs. military professional artist Figure 1.--The interplay betweel role and person- ality in a behavioral act. ¥ 15Friedmann, 0p. cit., p. 235. 16Jacob W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social Plkocess," Administrative Theory in Education, ed. by An- drew W. Halpin (Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, UIliversity of Chicago, 1958), pp. 157-158. clear himsel tution seem t for stu level 0 and Stu< affectec sion ma} ences be Style ar Planning PIESent perts s} will W01 $601181 YOrk : For the purpose of the present discussion it is clear that the more professional an individual considers himself to be, the less inclined he is to support insti- tutionally defined roles, and accept techniques which seem to him to perpetrate conformity. The implication for student personnel is that since the independence level of those with whom it must work (faculty, staff, and students) is higher than in most organizations, those affected by decisions must be more involved in the deci- sion making process. The point is that there are environmental differ- ences between organizations which will affect the planning 17 style and the behavior of the planner. A model for planning, then, is effective only to the extent to which present conditions and capabilities of those who must direct the program have been taken into account.18 Clearly, the initial concentration by planning ex- perts should be on what "is" in order to determine what will work, rather than on what "ought" to be. This assump- tion is consistent with that proposed by administrative 19 20 theorists such as Daniel Griffiths and Andrew Halpin. 17Friedmann,.op. cit., p. 134. 18Ibid., p. 235. 19Daniel E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959), p. 16. 20Halpin, op. cit., p. 6. It is the opinion of these men that the "confrontment" between the "is's" and "ought's" of behavior is respon- sible for communication difficulties between social scientists and educators. This premise may also explain the communication difficulties between planning experts and educators. In summary, "planners must prepare plans which "21 take account of administrative capacity. To accomplish this task and to avoid misunderstandings, the environmen- 22 calls the "boundaries tal conditions, or what Pfeiffer of the problem" under which planning takes place, must be understood. Framework for this Study The importance in understanding the kinds of think- ing within the organization is basic to John Friedmann's23 conceptual model for analyzing planning behavior at the national level. According to Friedman,24 all political and planning activities are influenced to some degree by different kinds of thinking which he classifies as "ra- tional" and "extra-rational." Extra-rational thought in- cludes tradition, intuition and wisdom. "These forms of 21Friedmann, op. cit., p. 235. 22Pfeiffer, op. cit., p. 23. 23Friedmann, op. cit., pp. 225-252. 24Ibid., p. 234. 10 thought are not derived from coherent, logical structures, 25 Planning nor based on Specific technical expertise." primarily based on these types of thought processes will tend to be weak, because the leader's ability to make rational choices is naturally bounded by: (a) his en- vironment; (b) his past experiences; and (c) his ability to handle complex situations. Rational thought is further divided into "bounded" and "nonbounded." Nonbounded rational thought is defined by Friedmann as utopian and ideological thought. It is here where the thought of the perfect order exists. UtOpian and ideological thought may be considered rational in two senses. Its constructions are not only logical and coherent; they are also concrete representations of abstract social values such as equality, freedom, and social justice. The concept of ”bounded rationality," which pro- vides the focus for this study, according to Friedmann: ". . . refers to the fact that thought and consequent action intended to be rational are contingent on environ- mental conditions--the social context of p1anning--which represents the medium in and through which planning de- . . 27 c1s1ons are made." It is through defining the nature of these conditions that the planning style and behavior of the planner can be determined. 25 26 Ibid., p. 238. Ibid., p. 237. 27Ibid., p. 234. 11 To summarize, two different kinds of thinking affect the planning style of an organization. In addition to the less technical, or "extra-rational," kinds of think- ing which include intuition, tradition and wisdom, the style of planning is also affected by thought processes which can be identified as rational. Rational thought can be said to be "bounded," in the sense that ends--both general and specific--and the means to these ends are es- tablished with reference to the uniqueness of the origi- nal environment. Rational thought can be also "non- bounded," in that decision-making is also affected by utopian and ideological thought, which are abstract re- presentations of the perfect order. Friedmann28 suggests that the outcome of the conflict between "bounded" and "nonbounded" thought determine the direction of the organ— ization's development. In education, this condition is exemplified by the conflict between what may be referred to as the traditional "ivory-tower" approach to education, and present interests in a social-action approach. Categories of Bounded Rationality.--In addition to the previously discussed considerations regarding the professional level of those affected by the plans, cate- gories of bounded rationality (environmental conditions) defined by Friedmann29 which are applicable to student 28 29 Ibid.’ p. 237. Ibid.’ p. 235. per fol t t a e 7. Au IlII . I re; the 12 personnel administration and this study are listed as follows: 1. 2. The structure of bureaucratic institutions and their performance. The degree to which political Opposition is toler- ated or adapted, and the role assigned to it. The number and diversity of organized interest groups and their power to influence decisions. The availability of relevant information and its reliability. According to Friedmann's model, before an organi- zation's most effective style and use of planning can be determined, something must be known about the conditions represented in the preceding categories. Specifically, the questions of interest in this study are: 1. What is the structure of the present planning pro- cesses in student personnel in terms of clarity of direction, its comprehensiveness, and its form- ality? How is research used? To what extent does it build confidence in the program? How sophistica- ted are the techniques of research used? What is the role played by the chief student per- sonnel officer in planning? What is his attitude toward planning? What is the level of support and control exerted by the chief student personnel of— ficer, and the relationship between the level of control and the organizational structure of the planning process? What interest groups are involved in the planning process? What is the nature of the influence ex- erted by participating interest groups in the planning process? What is the relationship be- tween the role played by the interest groups and planning comprehensiveness? l3 Significance of Study This study has significance simply because of the current lack of information regarding the role of planning in student personnel. Further, however, this study is significant because of the current pressure on student personnel to adapt to change and to become more relevant in its purposes which in turn demands more sophisticated knowledge of planning techniques. Outside pressures are forcing a need for relevant planning. For example, engaging faculty "support and 30 for student personnel programs is a factor in sympathy" measuring success. To this end, goals and objectives must be relevant, clearly defined and communicated; fail- ure to do so adds support to the following kind of indict- ment: Co-curricular and extracurricular activities have become large items in the budget. If efficient man- agement is to be cultivated, several areas such as student housing and actiyities should be re-examined. Student services are constantly demanding a larger portion of the budget. Perhaps the standards of stu— dent housing could be realistically leveled, and 31 costly and unnecessary embellishments eliminated. Current pressures brought to bear on the student personnel profession by critics such as the above state- ment by Law exemplify the kinds of strain with which the 30Williamson, op. cit., p. 41. 31Glen C. Law, The Urgengy of New Leadership in Higher Education (Connecticut: Press-tige Publishing Co., 1962), p. l. U Y'J U P- .- o" . .37 . 3‘1’ 1 .. “ I ' 14 profession must cope. The growing scarcity of educational funds, and the concomitant concern over the use of avail- able funds has serious implications for student personnel. If budget cuts are to be made, has the student personnel department justified its needs and direction sufficiently to avoid being seriously affected? In 1953, Arbuckle32 wrote ". . . when institutions are looking for every pos- sible means of paring the budget, those services which cannot justify their existence . . . will be the first to go." Obviously, planning is needed to justify future budgetary needs in student personnel to a far greater ex- tent than in 1953. Other pressures which influence the need for greater involvement in the planning function in student personnel operations include the following: 1. Increased use of the egalitarian approach to decision-making has increased the level of uncertainty regarding direction. "Government by consensus requires time for debate and sufficient institutional adaptability to permit change in objectives, resources and programs."33 More sophisticated use of planning techniques can keep this level of uncertainty at a manageable point. Unless this is accomplished, the necessary rewards which 32Arbuck1e, op. cit., p. 10. 33Hungate, op. cit., p. 124. 15 accompany achievement and enhance an organization's vi- ability are minimized. 2. Spiraling technological and social changes have drastically shortened the cushion-period previously allowed for adapting to changes. In just slightly over one decade dreams of space exploration have evolved from "flights of fancy" of fiction writers to the actuality of landing a man on the moon. The distance to that prover- bial "tomorrow" to which decisions are often delayed is shrinking, and from all indications it will continue to do so despite wishes to the contrary. Through more ef- ficient use of such techniques as forecasting and evalua- tion, which are basic to planning, a degree of preparedf ness is available. 3. From all indications, students will continue to create a pressured atmosphere in which the need for relevance both in the administrative functions and in cur- riculum will be prevalent. For example, Thomas Banta34 said: "Effective higher education today in the direction of increased autonomy for the student." From all indica- tions, the students are acting on this assumption without serious concern for the attitudes of faculty and adminis- trators. The role of student personnel is changing. The k 34Thomas J. Banta, "The Goals of Higher Education," ~Iournal of Higher Education, Vol. 37 (November, 1966), p. 438. 16 issue is whether it is in the interests of student per- sonnel for these changes to occur haphazardly, or as a part of dynamic process. Since student personnel is a part of the total educational process, it cannot ignore criticisms of higher education--such as those expressed by Peter Schrag.35 The fact is that the Class of '73 is arriving on the campus at a moment when the physical institution and its pedagogical practices have become, in some fashion, detached from their historic purposes; many institutions are as much museums as they are acade- m1es . . . . The point is not simply change, even accelerating change (and clearly the gap in attitude and percep- tion between the Class of '40 and the Class of '73 is greater than that between '07 and '40); it is, rather to indicate that American education is on the edge of a cultural upheaval that will require a quan- tum jump--in style, in content, and in orientation-- from the practices of the past. Judson Jerome,36 in his article, "The American .Academy 1970," underscored this same sense of urgency with the following statement: American higher education is thoroughly capable of adapting to fundamental change, if only it will. It is a pity that those of us involved must be scared into change by outbreaks of anarchy. It is a pity we cannot more willingly take advantage of the fluidity of our times, the availability of resources, the vital- ity and engagement of our students, and the bewilder- ment of a society in the throes of revolutionary 35Peter Schrag, "Comment: The Class of 1973," Change in Higher Education, Vol. I (September-October, I969), p. 5. 36Judson Jerome, "The American Academy 1970," Fulange in Higher Education, Vol. I (September-October, J~969). p. 47. 17 change. It is a pity we cannot show intellectual in- itiative rather than panic and rigidity at a time when the need is so great and the possibilities are so abundant. Although the remarks of Schrag and Jerome are not directed specifically toward student personnel services, there is the implication that student personnel cannot assume that its present functions, services, and, in fact, philosophy will emerge unscathed. The present intensity and complexity of crisis controlled decision-making ex- perienced by student personnel administrators reinforces the implication that changes will occur--whether they are planned for, or not. Perhaps it was the recognition of both this very point and the need in student personnel for more formal attention to its planning practices which resulted in the Executive Committee Report on student un- rest which was mailed to the National Association of Stu- dent Personnel Administrators membership in November, 1969. The last paragraph reads as follows: The issues of educational reform and governance which the student power movement surfaced, require advanced and innovative university positions. . . rather than a reactive stance which has characterized the past two years. Student power has wrought change. Higher education must be a leader in these processes, not a reactor to crises. The issue, then, for student personnel based on the underlying motive in the above considerations is: How can it maintain control over its own destiny? The need for something more, for example, than meeting crises 18 as they arise, was recognized in 1966 in a published com- mittee report on student personnel services for the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare:37 It has gradually been realized . . . that more than general insight, good intentions, and sympathy are necessary for effectively administering increas- inly complex programs of student services. To "effectively [administer] increasingly complex programs of student services," student personnel's source of decisions must be oriented towards the future. That is, student personnel must anticipate change, rather than being forced to change. In 1964, E. G. Williamson38 wrote: "The dean of students and other personnel workers BEES been forced by changing campus and student life to forge new content and new techniques." It is obvious from the preceding points one through four that change is inevit- able. The question is: Should FORCED change be necessary? How effective, comprehensive and/or consistent is a pro- gram brought about through force? Forced change may not be entirely eliminated in student personnel; however, a significant portion of the pressure can be alleviated through more efficient use and understanding of the 37United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Student Services Administration in Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: 1966). . 38Edward G. Williamson, Student Personnel Services £Q_Colleges and Universities (New York: McGraw-Hill Book 00.. 1961), p. 34. planni: 39 mann tem. use of constit as well environ tion ha Weaknes tive me Student as a fr dent pe ticated Underst t0 adap l9 planning functions. For "planning," according to Fried- mann39 "is the guidance of change within the social sys- tem." The first-steps which can lead to more effective use of planning techniques is to identify what presently constitutes planning in student personnel administration, as well as the effects of selected conditions within the environment on the planning process. Once this informa- tion has been collected, it not only focuses attention on weaknesses which can have implications for future educa- tive measures, such as professional training programs in student personnel administration, but it can then be used as a framework for creating a model for planning in stu- dent personnel administration. Proposing a highly sophis- ticated model to organizations without for example, an 'understanding of the expertise of those who are to use it .is of little value. Until administrative improvements are clearly for- seeable, planners must prepare plans which take account of administrative capacity. This means, among other things, that complex forms of planning must be avoided when [an] administration is not ready for them. Summary The necessity for student personnel administration tC) adapt more sophisticated approaches to planning is based 0r! the following: \ 39Friedmann, op. cit., p. 225. 40Ibid., p. 235. 20 l. the increasing scarcity of educational funds is causing a reassessment of priorities which can have deleterious affects on student personnel pro- grams unless its relevance to changing educational needs can be documented 2. the increased demands by interest groups for more involvement in the planning process requires a system which can coordinate efforts, provide the necessary information to make competent decisions, and provide a means to experience accomplishment 3. the spiraling technological and social changes make a continuous planning program necessary 4. higher education as a whole is being forced to change in style, content and orientation. If stu- dent personnel work is to remain a dynamic pro- fession geared toward meeting the whole of student needs, it must be involved in a planning process which can effect change--rather than just react- ing to change. If student personnel is to retain its dignity as a self-defined, goal-directed profession, it must overcome its historical evolvement as a satellite in higher educa- tion responding only to needs and direction resulting from growth in other areas. Instead, student personnel .should be anticipating needs and effectuating direction 'through comprehensive planning both within its sphere of responsibility and in education as a whole. This study may provide the first in a series of neicessary steps which can lead to improved planning prac- tlices in student personnel administration. Specifically, t1‘11s study has significance in that: l. presently, there is limited empirical data avail- able regarding the style and role of planning in student personnel administration. II . vIrfIE .I; Pl‘ CE: 1is. ‘41 cl 21 2. identifying weaknesses and strengths in the use of planning techniques in student personnel is basic to providing information which can lead to corrective measures (this stEdy is based on a de- sign used by Horace P. Maxcy 1 in 1969 at Michi- gan State University to investigate the planning practices of public school superintendents. One of its purposes is, as stated by Maxey, to: "supply agencies or individuals with diagnostic information concerning the educational planning processes employed by school administrators at the present time.") 3. identifying the uniqueness of the environmental conditions which affect the planning process can be of value in the construction of a model applic- able to the planning needs of student personnel administration 4. the findings of this study can have implication for professional training programs in student personnel administration. Limitations This study is limited in the following manner: 1. The source of the information was limited to one individual in each of the institutions studied. 2. The sample was limited to upper level public in- stitutions east of the Mississippi River with student populations between 1,500 and 15,000. 3. The study is limited to selected planning vari- ables. 4. The study is limited in that most of the inter- views were conducted by telephone. 5. The study is limited in that planning behavior is primarily examined as it relates to goals and 41Horace p, Maxcy, "Dimensions of the Educational F¥lanning Process: A Study of Educational Planning Pro- <2esses in Selected Michigah School Districts" (Unpub- ldished Doctoral Dissertation, East Lansing, Michigan: b’lichigan State University, 1969)- ale-1i! ..-. ~ “ - ".l -r v . "4L .fiI: ' decisi izatio making activi SaniZa been 5; tiVES, aCtivi. tYpe, I and Ove thEm--L compreh for an 22 program plans. Because the telephone interview technique created a time limitation, this study assumed that plans, goals, objectives, and pro- gram direction should take precedence over staff- ing, facility, and finance plans. This point will be examined further in Chapter II. Definitions Planning.--Refers to the preparing of sets of decisions for guiding change and growth within the organ- ization; it provides the basis for rational decision making. It is futuristic and must, therefore, include activities which are creative and innovative. Planning Process.--A process whereby future or- ganizational needs, objectives and courses of action have been systematically ascertained from identified alterna- tives, integrated, and programmed. Comprehensive Planning.--Planning, in which the activities for the total organization are integrated by ‘type, purpose, (i.e., program, facilities, and financing) :and over time (i.e., short-term, and long-range planning). Short-term Planning.--The identification and sealection of objectives, and the methods for achieving themr-usually within a period of one or two years. Long-range Planning.--A significant part of a c=Ornprehensive planning program which identifies objectives fclr an extended period of time. respo. the f* staff' within made. mental t0 the into t Signit ments tion. pOSeS trans] are St 23 Administrative Process.--Refers to the management responsibilities of the chief administrator and includes the functions of planning, organizing, coordinating, staffing, directing and evaluating. Interest-Grogps.--Refers to identifiable groups within the social system who are affected by the decisions made. In this study, the interest-groups include depart- mental staff, students and faculty. Innovation.--A1though innovation generally refers to the creation and adaptation of entirely new programs into the system, it may also refer to activities which significantly alter present programs. §p§1§.--Refer to non-operational, global state- ments of purpose, which usually include a value orienta- tion. Objectives.--Refer to specifically defined pur- poses stated in Operational terms. Objectives are the translation of goals into detailed plans of action which are subject to evaluation. Organization of the Study The remainder of this study is organized as fol- lxaws. Chapter II is a survey of the literature. In view CNE the limited research available on planning in student Personnel, an overview of related research is presented. Ehight basic assumptions are generated regarding the iii-7.15.... . :1 functi | in pla intere tion 0 COllEC‘ statist sPonses 0f the imPlica 24 function and purpose of planning, the place of research in planning, and the role of the status-leader(s) and interest-groups. Chapter III, the Methodology, presents a defini- tion of the population and sample, the method of data collection, a description of the instruments, and the statistical techniques used to analyze the data. Chapter IV presents a profile analysis of the re- sponses obtained in the interviews, and an interpretation of the results. Chapter V provides a summary, conclusions, and implications for further study. I‘M-é”)? "u?! ' m‘ 1!“ the adr in stuc tunity Presen1 tion he tions ; the pr( as Wel.‘ litera' a Serlt sonnel the "h: SentEd "evalue UndEr P ‘ CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction The paucity of empirical research pertaining to the administrative and, in particular, planning practices in student personnel administration provided the oppor- tunity to explore the literature in related fields. The present day complexities of student personnel administra— tion have increased the similarities between its opera- tions and those of other organizations, suggesting that the profession can profit from the experiences of others, as well as from the accepted planning theories available. This chapter will, therefore, review the related literature on planning theory in an effort to arrive at .a series of basic assumptions applicable to student per- sonnel administration. First, a "definition of planning," “tile "hierarchy of plans," and "plan integration" are pre- Sented under Planning and the Plan. Secondly, the "planning process" and the role of '"Gsvaluation and research" in planning will be discussed under Planning as a Process. 25 on Dec "The I Group Planni Intro: I ments I Whethq I makin. I teria Organ PEISo neces tWEep 26 Lastly, Leadership and Interest-Group Influence on Decision Making includes "Leadership: On Overview," "The Role of the Status-Leader," "Influence of Interest- Groups," and "Leadership in Student Personnel and the Planning Function." Planning and the Plan Introduction It can be assumed that student personnel depart- ments do engage in a form of planning. To determine whether the practices are really planning or just decision making for the purposes of housekeeping will require cri- teria. Successful planning models used in various social organizations are available for assimilation in student personnel. To effectively assimilate the models, it is necessary to understand the differences which exist be- tween the administrations of different social organiza- tions,1 as well as between educational administrations.2'3 1Orin B. Graff and Calvin M. Street, "Developing a Value Framework for Educational Administration;" Roald F. Campbell and Russell T. Gregg, (eds.) Administrative Behavior in Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1957), pp. 120-121. 2Harry J. Hartley, Educational Planningf-Program- ming--Budgeting; A Systems Approach. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), pp. 150-151. 3Harold V. McAbee, "Planning--Programming Budget- Systems and State Educational Agency Administration." (A paper prepared for the United States Office of Educa- tion Department of Health, Education and Welfare, February 28, 1969). P. 57. Jm‘ Howev to id upon . first at a u Defini from a Plan v. System sPecif.‘ lation tUal be nique) with c. prograz of thi: ing So: ning a: 27 However, it is equally important, as Friedmann4 states, to identify the similarities which provide the foundation upon which to build an effective model. The appropriate first step toward building this foundation is to arrive at a working definition of "planning." Definition of Planning As might be expected, planning has many meanings, from an "academic exercise and the creation of a paper plan viewed as a goal in itself,"5 to a highly controlled system in which all resources--human and material--are specifically programmed and achievement is measured in re- lation to the amount of variance between expected and ac- tual behavior. PERT6 (Program Evaluation and Reveiw Tech- nique), developed in 1958 for the Government and credited with cutting years from the Polaris missile development program is an example of the latter. For the purposes of this study, however, the interest is more in establish- ing some general concepts regarding the meaning of "plan- ning as it may be applied to most organizaions. 4John Friedman, "The Institutional Context," in Bertram M. Gross (ed.), Action Under Planning: The Guid- ence of Economic Development (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1967). p. 63. 5Don Adams, Educational Planning (New York: ESyracuse University Press, 1964), p. 2. 6Harry F. Evarts, Introduction to PERT (Boston: .Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1964). DIET-73!}. I I and r tion desir_ menta‘ tional proach plishe Clude ning i also F ii“ in . e 89' Qi I 28 According to Terry:7 "Planning in the selecting and relating of facts in the visualization and formula- tion of proposed activities believed necessary to achieve desired results." Masterson8 says that planning is "a mental effort that precedes the physical effort." Hicks9 sees planning as: "(1) setting organiza- tional goals or objectives, and (2) determining the ap- proach by which the goals and objectives are to be accom- plished." Grosslo states that effective planning must in- clude "purposeful action," further suggesting that plan- ning is more than the making of "paper plans," including also plans for succeeding activity. As Shaferll states: . . . planning involves 'commitment.‘ This is much more than merely formulating proposals or expressing vague desires. It also is closely connected with im- plementation and evaluation. 7George R. Terry, Principals of Management (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1956Y, p. 110. 8Thomas R. Masterson, "Management Functions," College and University Business, Vol. 28, No. 2 (February, 1960), p. 22. 9Herbert G. Hicks, The Management of Organiza- tions (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1967), p. 200. loBertram M. Gross, Organizations and Their Manag- ing (New York: The Free Press, 1968), p. 573. 11Robert J. Shafer, "What is National Planning?", in Bertram M. Gross (ed.) Action Under Planning: The fguidance of Economic Development (New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1969), p. 259. ning plus I volve: a con' stand; relat: tinct: decis: Bowmar 0f dec With t Cisior SiOn u If it mug ing fu 29 According to Waterston12 and Friedmann,l3 plan- ning not only connotes the future and change, but "change plus growth." This further suggests that planning in- volves more than preparing for one point in time, but for a continuum of time periods. It is through an under- standing of the significance of this continuum and its relationship to the change-growth concept that the dis- tinction between plans and planning, and planning and decision making have meaning. According to Anderson and Bowman:l4 "Planning is the process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the future." It is dealing with the "set" of minimally related, interdependent de- cisions which distinguishes planning from general deci- sion making.15 If planning is "futuristic," "change," and "growth," it must include projections into the unknown. Project- ing future needs, or forecasting, is an activity which, by its very nature and without regard for the SOphistica- tion level of the forecasting technique used, is certain 12Albert Waterston, DeveloPment Planning: Lessons 9f Experience (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), p. 14. 13John Friedmann, "A Conceptual Model for the Analysis of Planning Behavior," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1967), p. 227. 14Arnold Anderson and Mary Jean Bowman, "Theoreti- cal Considerations in Educational Planning," in Don Adams (ed.) Educational Planning (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1964), p. 9. 15 Ibid., p. 8. 30 . l . to include error. 6 The presence of error, however, in no way negates the value of planning or forecasting, "pre- cisely because it is the only way of being certain that decisions about education are made as rationally as pos- sible, with the necessary value judgments and assumptions made explicit so that they can be consciously evaluated."l7 Because change within the society and its insti— tutions is as certain as the direction of that change is uncertain, planning must also include the concepts of 18 Creativty is necessary be- "creativity and innovation": cause the best estimation of alternatives about the future are needed in order to provide a framework for rational decision making. Innovation must be included because a program of action to meet projected needs is necessary to retain organizational viability. This suggests that ac- tivities described as "shoring-up present programs" or "planning" resulting from force in times of crises may be more decision-making for intrenchment, or for only immedi- ate relevance, rather than truly planning. Without an 16Robert H. Roy, The Administrative Process (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1958), p. 103. l7Herbert‘s. Parnes, "Assessing the Educational Needs of a Nation," in Don Adams, (ed.) Educational Plan- ning (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1964), p. 65. 18Richard Johnson, Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzeweig, The Theory andtManagement of Systems (New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1967), p. 27. 31 effective planning framework, crises can become internal- ized, and actions may become rigid and stereotyped.19 The intent in including the concept of innovation as a part of the definition of planning does not neces- sarily exclude planning programs which do not include something entirely new. The American College Dictionary includes in its definition of "innovate": "To . . . make changes in anything established; to alter," For example, the difference between what was previously described as "shoring up present programs," and planning as defined in this study is a matter of intent. Updating programs to meet changing needs is a necessary activity to retain or- ganizational relevancy. This activity can require innova- tive and creative thought, as long as the measure used to define need and program direction is futuristic; other— wise, it is not planning. The first assumption upon which this study is based is the following definition of the "planning." 1. Planning is the preparing of sets of decisions for guiding change and growth within the organi- zation; it provides the basis for rational de- cision making. It involves a commitment, it is futuristic, and must include activities which are both creative and innovative. (of. Anderson and Bowman, 1964; Gross, 1964; Friedmann, 1968; Shafer, 1967; and Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, 1967). 19Gross, OE' cit., p. 594. 32 Hierarchy of Plans Maxcy,20 in an attempt to define educational plan- ning, stated that: "The scope of educational planning is today largely undefined," and the planning which has been explored has been of a diverse nature dealing usually with limited areas such as curriculum development, facil- ity design and financing. The limiting of planning ac- tivities to the areas described by Maxcy was also evidenced in a recent study by Rhatigan and Hoyte.21 In an in- strument devised by the authors to compare the perceptions of practicing administrators in student personnel with their faculty-trainers, planning is defined as administer- ing the budget, which should include "staff, facilities, and equipment." Developing new programs, policies, and procedures were listed as activities which occurred "usu- ally through staff conferences and administrative meet- ings." The determination of goals and objectives was not listed as an activity in either category. There are various types of plans which can be de- signed by an organization, including those which define 20Horace P. Maxcy,’Dimensions of the Educational Process: A Study of Educational Planning Processes in Selected Michigan School Districts," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1969, p. 10. 21James J. Rhatigan and Donald P. Hoyte, "Student Personnel Administration: Faculty-Trainer Perceptions and the Reality of Practice," National Association of Student Persgnnel Administration, Vol. 7, No. 3 (January, 1970), p. 156. goals facil types pose, interI depenc but a] types and f1 0f pla tion 0 and (4 tives) there the la! in the the Sc] the N.( 19965 5 annual State u versity 33 goals, policies, or procedures, and those which project facility and financial needs. The differences between types of plans can be found both in their specific pur- pose, and in the length of time covered by the plan (i.e., intermediate, and long-range plans). Effective planning depends not only on an understanding of these differences, but also on an understanding of the relationship between types of plans. 23 staff, facility, According to Carter22 and Emch, and finance plans are at a lower level in the hierarchy of planning decisions, being superseded by the determina- tion of: (1) philosophy, (2) objectives, (3) programs, and (4) organization. Unless the ends (goals and objec- tives) precedes facility, staff, and finance planning, there is no basis for evaluating the judgments concerning the latter.24 In regard to the proper place of finance planning in the hierarchy, Emch25 says: 22Clyde Carter, "What Management Techniques Can the School Learn from Industry?" (A paper presented at the N.C.A. Annual Meeting, March 26, 1969), p. 360. 23Arnold F. Emch, "Long Range Planning for Col- leges and Universities." From the proceedings of the annual meeting of the Association of Governing Boards of State Universities and Allied Institutions at Purdue Uni- versity, Lafayette, Indiana, October 13, 1958, p. 7. 24Parnes, op. cit., p. 65. 25Emch, op. cit., p. 12. ; , 1 u" 57’ ‘- Ifi' el “I th so an an an. ti ce re 10' it. jet decisio tional. also pl Waterst and pro "admini finance Conside. 9131118 1'. timum u; seqllenct \ Change 0 I Planninc slug, M1 29, 34 Financing is and should be the last of the seven elements in the planning process. All too often edu- cational planning revolves around consideration of the funds at hand or that are immediately available, so that the planning process starts with financing and then progresses backwards to facilities, faculty, and programs. Although this is a common and possibly an expedient approach, it does not allow the institu- tion to plan its over-all destiny with any sense of certainty or conviction. Experience has demonstrated repeatedly that this ends-means inversion rarely al- lows an institution to achieve any clear picture of itself or satisfactorily to accomplish even those ob- jectives it may establish. Certainly, budgets create a boundary beyond which decisions regarding program direction may cease to be ra- tional. Budget limitations, according to Waterston,26 also plague many underdeveloped countries. However, says Waterston, the greatest obstacle to implementing programs and projects is not the fault of financial resources, but "administrative capacity." Planning which begins at the finance level rather than at the "ends" level may not have considered whether present functions, services, and pro- grams represent either present and future needs or an op- timum use of available funds. Leu's27 reaction to the reversal of the necessary sequence of events (the decision making hierarchy), and 26Waterston,boE. cit., p. 249. 27Donald J. Leu, "The Planning of Educational Change," in Floyd G. Parker and Max S. Smith (eds.) Planning_Community Junior College Facilities (East Lan- sing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1968), p. 29. 35 the capabilities of some administrators is more vehement. After listing the sequence of events which should be a part of plan development, the last of which is facility needs, Leu states: . . . the space, or the building, is the last thing we look at when planning the future community col- leges . . . I become disturbed when I observe p1an- ners who start with the planning of a science room, or the total community college without going through the important sequence of events . . . . Plan Integration It was suggested earlier that effective planning must include elements of creativity and innovation. How- ever, Thompson28 states: "There is evidence that the highly structured and hierarchical organization is not conducive to creative planning." Although Friedmannzg has no difficulty accepting Thompson's conclusions, March and Simon30 suggest that the organizational effect on in- novation is dependent on the degree to which it is insti- tutionalized. For example, industry can institutionalize innovation through the use of the "rates of change" con- cept. That is, by aiming for increases in annual sales 28Victor A. Thompson, "Bureaucracy and Innovation, Administrative Science Quarterly (June, 1965), p. 7. 29 Friedmann, op. cit., p. 248. 30J. G. March and H. A. Simon, Or anizations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 958), p. 185. esti abou plis vati ance can the sion the tion trat does Coulc StIu< :1 mnann troln Ordin 36 estimates, nonprogrammed activity is induced to bring about changes which the existing program could not accom- plish. Although Friedmann31 would argue that true inno- vation--that is, free of both defined means (process guid- ance) and ends (goals)--decreases to the extent that it is institutionalized, he does not deny that innovation can be present in a structured organization. Whatever the argument, innovation seems to be a necessary dimen- sion in effective planning. At the same time, however, the complexity which exists in the educational organiza- tion, and the defined role of student personnel adminis- tration in terms of responsibilities in that structure, does suggest some limits on the degree to which ends could remain ambiguous. There must be some unifying structure 0 Ours is an age of organization. From our govern- ment to the corner grocery store our lives are meti- culously organized. Organization itself is not dan- gerous: the subtle relationships among social phen- omena would explode into pandemonium if not guided by some kind of order. Decentralization of authority and "span of con- trol"-—which relates the number of subordinates a super- ordinate can effectively supervise--are examples of 31Friedmann, op, cit., pp. 248-249. 32Glen Charles Law, The Urgency of New Leadership in Higher Education (Stanford, Connecticut: Press-Tige Publishing Company, 1962), p. 5. 37 concepts which provide order, without stifling creativity at lower levels. "But once decentralization is necessary, the problem of coordination arises . . ,"33 if the organ- ization is to achieve a unity of purpose. If the alternative to planning is "random behav- 34 ior," the alternative to some form of coordination and integration of types of plans and planning agencies would 35 have similar dysfunctional effects. "Unless," says 36 "there is a clear-cut Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, understanding of what over-all objectives and goals are paramount, some of the subgroup activities may be maxi- mized at the expense of total organizational effective- ness." Total program integration is one of the major strengths of the increasingly popular PPBS (Planning- Programming-Budgeting Systems). As the systems approach to planning suggest, effective planning integration must include the dimensions of both purpose and time. Among 33March and Simon, op. cit., p. 203. 34Hicks, op. cit., p. 201. 35James C. Worthy, "Organizational Structure and Employee Morale," American Sociological Review, Vol. 19, (April, 1950), pp. 166-179. 36Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, op. cit., p. 27. 38 others, Carter,37 McAbee,38 and Johnson, Kast and Rosen- zweig39 see long-range planning as an integral--if not basic--part of the total process. Says Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig: It is our view that strategic or long-range plans are not a separate type of plan. Under the systems concept they are an integral part of the total plan- ning process, and establish the basic framework upon which more detailed programming and operational plan- ning takes place. Terry4O sums up the importance of integration as follows: "For maximum benefits, plans within an enter- prise must be integrated and, in effect, support each other and contain a consistency of purpose and intent." Few plans, says Terry, can stand by themselves, and the plans of the organization can be no stronger than its weakest link." In summary, the nature of the planning function and its role in a formal organization indicate a matrix of concerns beyond a segmentalized approach to facility or budget planning. Planning which focuses primarily in these areas without regard to the interdependency of plans in every area of concern; without a clearly defined set 37Carter, op. cit., p. 353. 38McAbee, op. cit., p. 11. 39Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, op. cit., p. 34. 40Terry, op. cit., p. 119. "«~_ , u ‘>.. ,1. of hot best "what ObVlO‘ centre tive r and in author \ based . 2. 39 of both Operational and non-operational ends based on the best estimation of future needs, answers only the question "what" is being planned, but not "why," or other than the obvious physical descriptions, "how." Although effective planning requires some form of central activity, this activity should be of a coordina- tive nature, as opposed to central control. If creativity and innovation are to be encouraged at lower levels, authority should be decentralized. Additional assumptions upon which this study is based include the following: 2. Organizational viability, and individual creativ- ity and innovation are detrimentally affected to the extent that the hierarchy of planning decision levels is reversed. That is, financing and facil- ity considerations must proceed goal, objective, and program determination. (cf. Carter, 1969; Emch, 1958; and Leu, 1968.) 3. Effective planning is comprehensive. Comprehen- sive in the sense that there is an integration of types of plans--both by purpose and over time--and planning agencies. To preserve opportunities for creativity and innovation, integration should be achieved through a decentralized organizational structure in which the emphasis is on coordination, instead of control. (cf. March and Simon, 1958; Worthy, 1950; Hicks, 1967; Terry, 1956) Planning as a Process Planning can provide the means for an organiza- 41, 42, 43 txl<3rl to control its own destiny. The first step \ 41Thad L. Hungate, Management in Higher Education éNe: York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964) , ‘ 4. 42Hartley, op. cit., p. 3. towa and ends planx sive as: of ob ratio 40 toward controlling its destiny is defining its ends (goals and objectives), and the necessary means to attain those ends. The making of plans, however, is not effective planning unless it is accompanied by a program of "aggres- . O 44 I I I Sive action" --unless it IS a continuous process. The "process" is defined by Learned and Sproat45 as: "A series of actions that lead to the accomplishment of objectives," thus providing the framework for making rational choices.46 If rational choices are dependent on a series of cdefined actions, a clear understanding of the dimensions <3f these actions must be specified. Firedmann47 defines tflmese actions as: (l) surveying total systems resources 'tc> discover where the main effort is required . . . and tr) envisage the alternative courses of action; (2) mak- (3) ing a general decision between these alternatives; drawing up the program; (4) executing the program; and (5) adjusting the program to changing circumstances." Gross's48 definition of the process adds an additional SEA-arification to Friedmann's. In addition to setting 43Masterson, op. cit., p. 22. 44Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, op. cit., p. 27. 45Edmend P. Learned and Audrey T. Sproat, Organi- -§¥E§g§on Theoryand Poligy (Homewood, Illinois: Richard rwin, Inc., 1966), p. 76. 46Hartley, op. cit., p. 3. 47Friedmann, "The Institutional Context," op. cit., 9~ 34. 48Gross, 0p. cit., pp. 45—46. 41 goals, making plans and evaluating their development, Gross includes: "activating people and processes needed to develop the plan." Planning theorists are in agreement that effec- tive planning must begin by activating what Hatch ating plans"--the action ance of this plan-action 50, 51, 52 theory. Hatch with ends determination, followed and Stefflre49 refer to as "oper- aspect of planning. The import- relationship is basic to planning and Stefflre53 summarize with the following: "Planning that results in a proposal and a plan of action is contigent only on the effective adminis- tration of the subsequent administrative processes." It is in the "effective administration of the subsequent administrative processes" that distinguishes ineffective planning which is limited to the initial plan making stage from planning which is dynamic and flexible. Only through acceptance of planning as a continuous pro- cess can feedback and evaluation attune the planner to the inevitability of environmental change which in turn 49 Raymond N. Hatch and Buford Stefflre, Adminis- tration of Guidance Services (Englewood Cliffs, New Jer- sey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1965, p. 35. 50 51 Parnes, op. cit., p. 48. Graf and Street, op. cit., p. 133. 52Hicks, op. cit., p. 379. 53 Hatch and Stefflre, op. cit., p. 35. 42 affects the level of rationality in his plans. According 54 to Friedmann, once feedback and evaluation are intro- duced into the system, "the blue-print ceases to be a stable set of goals and priorities . . . ." To summarize, the planning process generally follows a sequence of activities which include: defining overall goals; identifying alternative courses of action to attain the goals, and selecting the most appropriate (the objectives); defining the necessary activities, and putting them into operation; and finally, evaluating the progress and readjusting the goals and objectives accord- ingly. Figure I provides a visual illustration of the process. Because of the significance of research and evaluation to the total planning process, it will be treated separately. Evaluation and Research The specific intent in the model by Suchman (Fig. l) is to clarify the place and role of evaluation in pro- gram development in social agencies. Evaluation must start with some value--"either explicit or implicit," 55 according to Suchman. For example, student personnel 54 Friedmann, op. cit., p. 36. 55Edward A. Suchman, Evaluative Research: Prin- ciples and Practice in Public Service and Social Action Programs. (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1967). 43 A.>©cum many ca poms amoHo IGHEHou on» cuflz mucoumflmcoo Gannon ou Mano cowmapoe coon mm: Hopoe manev .nmmd .cowumpcsom mmmm HHommsm “xuow 3ozv mfimnmonm coauod Hmwoom can ooH>Hom Uflansm ca oowuomum ocm moamwocwum «commemom o>wumsam>m .cmanosm .< vumspm Eoum voodooumom« «.mmmooum coflumsam>mll.m madman Amo>fluoonno Hmcowumummov mufl>suo< Hmoo mchMHucooH AcOHumuomo Emumonmv , coflumuomo Amwuouauov mcflusmmoz Hmoo Amuse hua>fiuod mcwuusm Acowpmsam>m Emumonmv coaumuomo many Aamcoflumnomoucocv mcflupom Hmow mo uoommm on» mcflmmmmmc cowumEHom osam> 44 services perform a necessary function in an educational program. Goal selection in the model follows value form- ulation. To further illustrate, student personnel ser- vices exist to compliment the curricular activity, would be a goal consistent with the above value. The next step is finding some way of "measuring goal attainment." That is, if the goal is defined as pro- viding services which compliment the academic experience, research is presently needed to define the quality of the present experience, the kinds of programs needed, and how to measure the effects of programs (objectives) selected. Although Suchman suggests that research normally begins at this point--following the "goal-setting" activity, re- search in education should properly begin prior to goal determination. Alter,56 in his assessment of the role of planning in education, says that the process of defining goals in education should begin with a full and accurate codification of the descriptive facts about the college. Alter continues: "Often these facts . . . are readily available. But the likelihood is that they have never before been systematically collected, codified, and analyzed." The collection of this information is 56Chester M. Alter, "Why Long Range Planning: An Essential in College Administration" (A paper presented in the EPDA Institute for presidents and trustees of small colleges at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1969), p. 10. 45 especially important in student personnel where a part of the department's effectiveness is dependent on the staff's knowledge about the student and the college, and his ability to communicate that knowledge.57 In terms of Suchman's model, collecting descrip— tive facts or assessing the present environment would be- gin prior to the "goal-setting" activity. This single adjustment in Suchman's model, although minor, is import- ant because: a) a goal is a decision about the future and should be based on the best information available, and b) to strengthen the point that goals are not inelas- tic, and, although non-operational in definition, must also be weighted for relevancy. The fourth step, then, is to identify the "goal- attaining activity"--the objectives. It is at this point that activities which can realize the goals are selected and put into operation. In the case of the example pre- viously used, it may be decided to expand, professional- ize, and/or decentralize academic advisement. Finally, an assessment is made as to the value of the program. Did the retention rate or grade point average increase? How was the program accepted? What factors detracted from the program's success? 57C. Dean Miller and Allen E. Ivey, "A Data Bank for Studies in Higher Education," National Association of Student Personnel Administration, Vol. 4, No. 1 (July, 1966), p. 15. 46 58 concludes: "At the end of the As Suchman evaluation process, we may get a new value, or we may re- affirm, reassess, or redefine an old value." Although much of the literature in student per- sonnel extol the virtues of evaluation, its purpose was most succinctly stated by Robinson59 in 1962. Among them were: 1. evaluation provides our best possible means of clarifying program goals and objectives, 2. evaluation provides a means of relating program objectives to the broad educational objectives of the institution, and clarifying the relation- ship of the student personnel program to the educational program of the institution, 3. it is only through evaluation that the effective- ness of the total program and its several sub- divisions can be measured, 4. when conducted in the proper spirt . . . evalua- tion insures that all phases of the studnet personnel program will remain in proper perspec- tive, and 5. evaluation may well provide the stimulus for basic research regarding the (future) student personnel program. Generally speaking, according to McAbee,60 evalu- ation should include the following properties: 58Suchman, op. cit. 59Donald W. Robinson, "Evaluation as a Function of Student Personnel Administration," in Laurine E. Fitz- gerald, Walter F. Johnson and Willa Norris (eds.) College Student Personnel (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1970): P. 156. 60 McAbee, op. cit., p. 51. 47 1. evaluation should be planned for, otherwise, if left to last, it suffers from lack of adequate time, personnel, and money to accomplish satis- factorily, 2. evaluation should include both quantitative and qualitative data, 3. evaluation should properly begin with the initial planning of programs by involving those affected, 4. when possible, a third party or outside agent should be involved in the evaluation to increase objectivity, and 5. evaluation should eventually deal with the pro- gram or department in its entirity. In summary, theorists suggest that research and evaluation is an integral part of the total planning pro- cess. It begins with accumulating all available data which can be used to select goals. In addition to assess- ing the present state of the institution, further research is used to define future needs which are to form the basis for defining objectives. Finally, applicable evaluative research is identified to assess program progress and achievement. Assumptions four and five relate to the planning process and the role of evaluation and are stated as follows: 4. Organizational viability is dependent on the ex- tent to which it harnesses change--rather than being controlled by change. The initial step to accomplishing this end is to clarify and define organizational goals and operational objectives which are based on the best assessment of the present environment and estimation of future needs. (cf. Parnes, 1964; McAbee, 1969; and Alter, 1969.) Xv}; ‘ sion son and zati< lEgia Prior inSpiJ 48 5. Effective planning must include not only the establishment of goals and objectives (the ends), but also a set of "operating plans" which acti- vate both peOple and processes, parallelled by a continuous program of evaluation, culminating in a reassessment of the original goals and objec- tives. (of. Johnson, Kast, and Rosenzweig, 1967; Hatch and Stefflre, 1965; Graf and Street, 1957; McAbee, 1969; Friedmann, 1967; Suchman, 1967.) Leadership and Interest-Group Influence on Decision Making Leadership: An Overview Patterns of leadership, or structures for deci— sion making, have been described in various ways. Thomp- son and Tuden61 suggest four: (1) bureaucracy (the means and ends are predetermined); (2) representative (organi- zation members agree on means, but not ends); (3) col- legial (the majority rules); and (4) inspiration (no prior agreement on means or ends--decisions result from inspiration). In most research, leadership patterns are usually 62 The discussed in the following terms defined by Gross. authoritarians are those who are expected to dominate the situation and will usually deal with subordinates separately. Democratic leadership will usually encourage 1James D. Thompson, and Arthur Tuden, Compara- tive Studies in Administgetion. (Pittsburgh, Penn.: University ofPittsburgH Press, 1959), pp. 195-216. 62 Gross, op. cit., p. 251. 49 initiative and participation in decision making. Laissez— Faire leadership will withdraw from situations; subordi- nates are neither dominated directly, nor influenced in- directly. The type of leadership most conducive to group productivity has been the focus of much research over the years. One of the earlier and well-known studies attempting to measure the effectiveness of different leadership patterns was conducted by Lewin, Lippitt, and White.63 In studying the reactions of groups of ten year olds under different leadership styles, these re- searchers found that groups exposed to autocratic leader- ship exhibited agression eight times higher than those under democratic leadership. Almost twenty years later, Likert64 studied the effects of authoritarian leadership in industrial plants. The findings suggest that command type leadership is ef- fective only in the short-run. That is, in organizations with rapid turnover, where subordinate morale is not a significant factor. 63Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt and R. K. White, "Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created Social Climates," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 10 (1939), pp. 271-299. 4Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1961), Chapter 5. 50 65 In 1964, Hollander tested 268 Naval cadets and found a negative correlation between authoritarianism and desired leadership. The significance of this study, according to Hollander, is that even in a monolithic or- ganization where command leadership is usually accepted as necessary to organizational effectiveness, social in- telligence and social perception were still the more de- sired characteristics. These results, however, would be understandable in this country where, as Beal66 states: "The fundamental belief . . . is in the dignity of man." In education, administering according to demo- . . . . . 67 cratic pr1nc1ples 18 an accepted ax1om. However, Young68 concludes: "This [often] appears to be something frequently advised, widely accepted, and seldom practiced. Part of the difficulty lies in interpreting what consti- tutes democratic principles of leadership. In its simpl- ist form, democratic leadership means involvement of/those affected by the decision in the decision making process. 65E. P. Hollander, Leaders, Groups and Influence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 50. 66George Beal, Joe Bohlen, J Neil Raudabaugh, Leadership and Dynamic Group Action (Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 19627) p. 23. 67Robert L. Saunders, Ray C. Phillips, Harold T. .Johnson, A Thepry of Educational!Leadership (Columbus, Ohio: Chafies E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1966i, p. 93. 68David A. Young,'An Initial Inquiry into the .Applicability of a General Administrative Science to ‘University Counseling Services and Student Affairs" (Un- published Doctoral Dissertation, University Park, Penn: Pennsylvania State University, 1969) , p. 108. 51 Confusion arises, however, in defining the nature of that "involvement." This is especially difficult in higher education institutions where the differences in individ- ual predispositions with which it must work (faculty, students, and trustees) are far more diversified and less susceptable to control techniques than their counterparts in other social organizations. In addition to present student inclinations against university control over their lives and for meaningful involvement in policy making, the chief administrator must also contend with the attitudes toward autonomy and specialization which normally accompany professionalism.69’ 70 Only if immune from ordinary social pressures and free to innovate, to experiment, to take risks without the usual social repercussions of failure, can a professional carry out his work effectively. It is this highly individual principle which is diametrically opposed to the very essence of the organizational prinpiple of control and coordination by superiors. . . . l 69Jacob W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social Process," in Andrew W. Halpin, (ed.) Administrative Theory in Education (Chicago, Illinois: Midwest Adminis- tration Center, University of Chicago, 1958), pp. 157- 158. 7oAmitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations (Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1964), pp. 76- 81. 7lIbid., p. 76. 52 Etzioni clarifies his statement at a later point by suggesting that the administrative function is to <1ffer'advice to the professionals on everything from econ- Median Total Middle East *3 3 6 **(3.00) (3.00) New England 4 2 6 (3.00) (3.00) Great Lakes 2 4 6 (3.00) (3.00) Southeast 3 3 6 (3.00) (3.00) Total 12 12 24 X2 = 1.33; df = 3; p > .05; *Observed; **expected Table 4.4B again shows little difference between the Observed and expectedirequencies. The chi sguare value obtained with two degrees of freedom was 1.40. This value did not equal or exceed the .05 level of sig- nificance. The hypothesis--There are no significant dif- ferences among responses given during the interviews according to student enrollment--was not rejected. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 in Chapter III presented the distributions of the participants by highest degree earned and fields of study. The data show that twelve partici- pants received their degree in student personnel or related fields (counseling and guidance; higher education 92 TABLE 4.4B.--Contingency Table for Student Enrollment Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory Student Population No. < Median No. > Median Total Size 1,500 - 2,999 *5 3 8 **(3.59) (3.59) 3,000 - 8,999 3 5 8 (3.59) (3.59) 9,000 - 15,000 4 4 8 (3.59) (3.59) Total 12 12 24 X2 = 1.40; df = 2; p > .05; *Observed; **expected administration; or psychology), and 12 received their degree in other fields. Using the Fisher exact probabil- ity (one-tailed) test.for 2 x 2 contingency tables, the null hypothesis pertaining to the field of study in which the status-leader received his last degree was tested. Table 4.5 shows that the observed cell frequencies were fairly evenly distributed. The probability of this dis- tribution occuring was greater than a = .05. The hypothe- sis--High planning institutions will show equal proportions in the field of study in which the status- 1eader received his last degree--was not rejected. The hypothesis pertaining to the field of study ‘was extended to the three empirically determined factors in the Inventory to test consistency with the results 93 TABLE 4.5.--Contingency Table for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory. Field of Study NO. < Median NO. > Median Total Student Person- nel and Re- lated Fields 7 5 12 Other Fields 5 7 12 Total 12 12 24 p > .05 Obtained in the analysis based on total Inventory score. Tables 4.5A, 4.5B, and 4.5C present the frequency distri- butions and analysis results for these three factors. The observed frequency distributions in the three tables failed to show critical cell values as defined by the Fisher test. That is, the probabilities Of these distri- butions occurring were greater than a = .05. The deci- sion against rejecting the null hypothesis as tested on total inventory scores was not reversed on any of the three major factors. 94 Contingencijables for Fields of Study Based on Above and Below Median Scores on each of The Three Major Factors in the Plannipg Inventogy» TABLE 4.5A.--Factor I: Structure of the Planning Process- Field Of Study No. < Median No. > Median Total Student Personnel and Related Fields 8 4 12 Other Fields 5 7 12 Total 13 11 24 p > .05 TABLE 4.5B.--Factor II: Use of Research. Field of Study NO. < Median NO. > Median Total Student Personnel and Related Fields 6 6 12 Other Fields 7 5 12 Total 13 ll 24 p > .05 95 TABLE 4.5C.—-Factor III: Level of Leadership and Interest Group Influence on the Planning Process Field of Study NO. < Median NO. > Median Total Student Personnel and Related Fields 6 5 11 Other Fields 6 7 13 Total 12 12 24 p > .05 The participants were asked whether they held regular staff meetings. Defining regular staff meetings as at least two per month, the total inventory and major factor scores were again analyzed using the Fisher exact probability test. Tables 4.6 through 4.6C show the fre- quency distributions and the decisions pertaining to the probability of these distributions occurring at the .05 level of significance. Results show that with the excep- tion of Factor I, the null hypothesis--High planning institutions and low planning institutions will show equal proportions based on the frequency of staff meet- ings--was not rejected. The findings concerning Factor I (Table 4.6A) indicate the probable existence Of a rela- tionship between the formality of the planning process and the frequency of staff meetings. 96 TABLE 4.6--Contingency Table for Regularity of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Median Scores on Total Inventory. Frequency of Staff Meetings NO' < Median N°° > Median Total At least twice per month 7 10 17 NO regular meetings 5 2 7 Total 12 12 24 p > .05 Contingency Tables for Regularity Of Staff Meetings Based on Above and Below Scores on Each of the Three Major Factors in the PlanningiInventory TABLE 4.6A.--Factor I: Structure of the Planning Process Frequency of Staff Meetings NO' < Median N°° > Median Total At least twice per month 6 11 17 NO regular meetings 6 1 7 Total 12 12 24 p < .05 97 TABLE 4.6B.--Factor II: Use of Research Frequency of At least twice per month 8 9 17 NO regular meetings 4 3 7 Total 12 12 24 p > .05 TABLE 4.6C.--Factor III: Level of Leadership and Interest- Group Influence on the Planning Process. Frequency of Staff Meetings No. < Median NO. > Median Total At least twice per month 8 9 17 No regular meetings 5 2 7 p > .05 98 Profile Analysis With the exception of the status-leaders' "atti- tude toward planning" scale, analysis of the ratings generally revealed little differences among the items which defined the planning process itself (Factors I and II). The medians for these items ranged from 1.30 to 2.35. Factor I, Structure of the Planning Process, in- cludes four items: the degree Of integrated direction for planning; the extent of planning; the formality Of the planning process; and the status-leaders' attitude towards planning. Table 4.7 shows the scale ratings, percentage distributions, and medians for the total group as well as for the high and low planning group for Factor I. The questions related to the first item attempt to identify the extent to which chief student personnel administrators clarify their goals and Objectives. The findings indicate that eighteen or 75% were either vague or unable to identify specific departmental goals. Only two of the sample clearly identified departmental goals. This apparent lack of defined direction was reflected in the second item which investigated the extent to which the departments were engaged in developing and revising departmental programs. Although a significantly greater 99 hm.m u smacoE msoum mcflccmam 30A mm.m u smaoos maouo mewscmam roam Ammm.mmv m mH.m u stance macho Hmuoa opsufluum Amma.vmv ma Amm.mav m u o I o>apamoo magmas occufluum m>fluflmom opsumuum Hmuusoz occuwuum O>Hummmz mmmccmam mpum3oa opsuauud .v Awmm.mv N mmmo loud Oaumsoumam .pmnwsmmno warmer oH.H u cowooe msoum mcHGGMHm Boa mm.m n undone macho ocflccmam roam om.a u nuance msoum Hmuoa Amma.mmv h Amm.mav m Awomv ma Ammmmoooum coconsuu3OHH0m CH xmoBV ucm lumflmcoo uoc ugh mmoooum OHumEoumxm mmoooum coaumNHcmmuo oEOm 0c “ocuwcmmuoco mcmscmam HmEHOm Oz mmooonm.mcflccmam .m Amm.mav m mmmooum o>Hu Imnumflcflapm mo puma HCMOHMHcmflm «Emumoum mafia (scam msoscflucoo mo.a u smapoe msonm mcficcmam 304 no.m u cowome macho mcflccmam roam mm.~ u unflome maonm Hmuoa Awmm.mmv m Awma.mmv h Awmmv m possumoucfl corp coma Iamucoemom ouoE nomads «muOOnOHm mo HOQEOG oumuocoz one omoom CH mmooonm muomnoum oouHEHA mcflccmam HmEHOm oz ‘mcflccmam mo ucouxm .m Awmm.mav v mamom ooswm [on Hams rues ooumumouca cam omenaumao coauMOHosH oc pan mm.a u stance msouo mcflscmam 30A oa.m u chance QDOHm OGHGGMHQ roam mn.a u spaces msonm Hmuoa Awmm.mv m Awmm.mmv m Ammo.avv 0H coaumumoucfl m>auoonno mo osmm> mo>HpOOn Ibo H0\osm mamom mo>HpOOnno can mamom mm>HuOOnno .coAMHHMHO mamou mo cofluOMOHMHHMHU mo cOHuMOAMHHMHO oz nmcflccmHm new coauoonfia pounumoucH mo moumoo .H v m m a oamom .mmoooum mcflccmam orb mo oncuosuum "H Houomm How mcofiusnauumwo oncommom|l.n.v mqmda 100 number were developing or revitalizing programs, only Ehpee or lgiéi had programs which clearly indicated an integration of objectives with goals. A larger number, eighp or 33.33%, were moderately involved in updating and establishing new programs, but in a segmentalized fashion. Of the remaining, §£§_or 2§§_had no programs under study or plans for new programs in the past year, and seyen or 29.16% had one or two programs being plan- ned or reconsidered. The reason why the majority (77.5%) reflected a limited or segmentalized approach to planning is evi- denced in the third variable. The planning process for twelve or 503 indicated an absence Of formal structure. While nine, or 314§§_were found to have a degree of formality in their planning structure, seven of the pipe or 29.16% of the sample seemed to limit their plan- ning to the initial plan formulation stage. The last item in the first factor rated the participants' attitude with regard to the use of plan- ning techniques in student personnel administration. Twenty one or 87.5% felt that planning was an important function. Most of these respondents further indicated a lack of satisfaction with their present planning practices. Reasons Offered by the participants for their failure to properly fulfill the planning function included: lack of time and staff (one participant 101 complained, "We are bogged down with trivia"); lack of competent and/or professionally trained staff; and in- sufficient funds. Although the "Range of Planning" item failed to load on the "Structure of the Planning Process" factor, a report on the rating results seemed most appropriate at this point. Specifically, the "Range Of Planning" item (Table 4.8) shows the extent to which long-range planning was used as a tool within the department. This scale had the lowest median on the Inventory (1.30). The findings in- dicate that fifteen or p3;§§_were not projecting any program Of organizational needs. Thgee or lgpéi were engaged in short-term planning (no more than two years). Tye or §L§3§_had intermediate plans (three to five years), and fppp or 16.66% had long-range plans encompassing total departmental needs (five or more years). Scores on Factor II were consistent with the first three items in Factor I in that all were positively skewed (Table 4.9). The medians for the two items in the Research Application dimension were 1.87 and 1.42. The first item in this dimension showed that eeyep or 29.16% used research (from collecting demographic data, informal and formal surveys within the institution and between institutions, to experimental research) to identify program needs and direction. However, only two or 8.33% 102 TABLE 4.8.--Response Distributions for Long-Range Planning Variable. Range of Planning 1 2 4 NO Long-Range Less Than Three-Five More Than Planning Two Years Years Ahead Five Years 15 (62.5%) 3 (12.5%) 2 (8.33%) 4 (16.66%) Total median = 1.30 Median for the high planning group = 2.16 Median for the low planning group = 1.04 used research significantly beyond the initial planning stages. Program review and evaluation even among those who had collected relevant data is the exception rather than the rule. The second item attempted to define the extent of departmental involvement in research. Seyen or 29.16% were either not involved in research in any form, or were only collecting demographic data. One of the remaining departments was found to be involved in experimental forms Of research. Factor III was concerned with the role Of the leadership and interest-groups in planning. The medians ranged from 1.59 to 2.70 (Table 4.10). The intent in the first item was to determine the extent to which the staff were encouraged to expand their experiences and continue their professional growth. 103 vo.H u CCHCOE mCOHm mCHCCMHm 30H oh.m n CCHpoE msonm mCHCCmHm anm N¢.H u CMHpoE msoum Hobos AmmH.vv H Ammmo m Awmm.mHv v Ame.omv mH pouomHHoo “Cofiuummoo or» mH moOHCOm Hocuo CHCuHs COCOOHHOO Eonm Concomou OCm CouOCUCOO mum quCHuHom HO\OCm Cosmomou HCEHOM m>o>usm HmEHOmCH pouomHHoo wouooaHoo mo momau Hozuo .mumo OHcmmumOEoo aHHmOHumsoummm mH maasmomomusm pOC OCm HmuCoEHHomxm ou COHuHoom CH sumo OHCQCHmOeoo mH sumo Cosmomom mCHCCMHm CH coma Concomom mo COHHMOHumHCmmw .N mm.H n CmHooE maoum mCHCCMHm 30H on.~ u CMHooE maonm oCHCCmHm rmHm mm.H u cmeoE msoum Hobos Ammm.mv m Awmm.omv m Ammm.mmv m Awom.nmv m COHumsHm>o OCm 3mH>OH Emumoum mCHCCmHm mmoooum CH own OOHHEHH mo mommum HCHUH poms hHHCm usormsouru pom: “mommum HCHuHCH :CH CH Commomou Immomusm uOC mH mHquOHMHCon CH poms roumomom mo mm: pouHEHH pump Commomom mCHCCMHm CH Commoner comb OOCMHHom .H v m N H mamom COHHMOHHQQC Commomom "HH uouomm How mCOHuCnHHumHQ omCommomu|.m.o mqmds 104 mm.H u CCHUOE msoum mCHCCMHm 304 mm.m n CCHOOE macho mCHCCmHm cmHm mm.~ n CMHcoE msoum Hmuoa Awmm.mv m Awmm.Hov 0H Awmmv m Awmmv m mEOCOqu >Ho>Hu tumor .umop or“ opHm mo mouoop COHC ImmomOOO mCHxnos mCHOCCOm mm pom: luso mHCmHoomoH >HO>HCMHmH rqu moouuHEEoo pCm mmouuHEEOO usn omOHHoo HO COHuOCCm muHCC ”OONH HOuOOHHO an oooH> .HouoonHo .umop .HouooHHo .umoo IHmuuCooop COHHOOHHQ Iona COHuooHHQ EOHm COHHOOHHQ EOHM COHHOOHHQ CoHuMHuHCH mCHCCCHm mo msooq .N «o.H n CMHOoE msoum mCHCCmHm 30H oo.m u CmHOoE QCOHm mCHCCmam rmHm mH.m n CmeoE QCOHm Hmuoa “www.mHv v Awmm.wav v Awmm.mvaH Awmm.omv m mCHCCmHm mo mCHCCmHQ muuom mCHCCmHm mo mCHCCMHQ mo o>HuHOQmCm >HcmHm Imsm mHoumnoooz unommsm OOUHEHA o>HuuommCm COZ unommsm mo Ho>oq .H m N H OHmom InmuCH OCM QHCmHoomoq mo Ho>oq .mmmooum mCHCCMHm orb Co OOCmCHmCH QCOHOIumo .HHH Houomm How mCOHuCnHHumHo mmcommom|u.oa.o mquB 105 vo.4 u CMHOOE muonm mCHCCMHm 304 OH.~ u CMHOOE QCOHm mCHCCMHm rmHm mm.4 n CMHOOE QCOHO Hobos Ammm.mv m Ammm.mv m Awmmv m Awmm.mmv o4 mMHsomm uuCoEo>40>CH m0 40>04 .m o4.4 n CMHOoE mCHCCM4m 304 mm.m n CMHpoE msoum mCHCCmHm CmHm no.4 u CmHUoE msoum Hobos Awmm.m4v v Awmm.mv N Awm4.mmv n Ammm.mvv H4 COHumuCom Imumou umumouo HO mHmmn 4mEH0m AoHou Hmcoo uuCoEm>40> a C0 can .ucofi >H0mH>O4V uCoE ICH mo 40>04 cmHm |o>HO>CH Coxoa |0>40>CH 4mEHOMCH uCoEo>40>CH Oz muCoocum uuCoEo>HO>CH mo 40>04 .v mm.4 u CCHooE QCOHm mCHCCCHQ 304 mm.m u CMHOoE msoum mCHCCCHQ anm oH.m u CcHooE maoum Houoa AmmH.vv 4 Ammo.4wv o4 Aon.mmv h Ammmv m %UH4HQHm ACOHumm AmOHCu ICOQmou mumEHum IHOHuHmm HCmeH muHuonmfiv oouuHEHmm mH COHum>0CCH OCm aEOCOHCm 40 common rmHC mHo>Hu840H 4 moECmmm #54 .COm Inom OOHCOmOH m “Ho>nombonn0mH>pm Co on mCOHuOCCm ICmoE m3044m pan .muooan .mHHMCOV "mHMCOO m0 apnea mommoooum m0 HOCMOHCCEEOO.CCM HOCHEHOHOC oEHum .0>Huooan hHCmHm HOHHQOU MO H®>O1H om HOCUOHHQ 106 The findings show that eighp or 33.33% significantly provided the aforementioned types of direct or indirect support of the planning functions. Of the remainder, fiye or 20.83% were unable to cite any examples which would indicate that the staff were encouraged to expand their experiences, and eleven or 45.83% were able to cite one or two examples. The institutions in the latter category most often mentioned attendance at conferences and regional meetings, and in-service training programs. Examples of other types of programs used by a number of participants to encourage staff growth in- cluded: week-end retreats; participation in research; rotating staff responsibilities for short durations; visitations to other institutions; including faculty and student representatives in staff meetings on a ro- tating basis; encouraging staff participation in insti- tutes and workshops; circulating relevant research findings; and encouraging the staff to periodically present position papers. The second and third items in this factor attempt- ed to define how plans were initiated, and how much con- trol was exerted by the status-leader. §£§_or 2_§ indicated that direction centered with the student per- sonnel director or higher. In five of these cases, the lack of staff, both in numbers and with professional training, were given as explanations. The fifth 107 participant indicated that much of the program initiation came from the president. Of the remaining participants, gig or 223 indicated they initiated program ideas but depended on staff acceptance before the program was de- veloped, and Eep_or 41.66% indicated that program initia- tion resulted from committee action. Egg or £4333 stated that program direction within the department was centralized. The "level of control" item indicates that, for the most part, the director encourages staff participa- tion in decision making (74.92%). The last two items in Factor III show the extent Of influence exerted by faculty and students on the pro- grams which were initiated by the participants during the past year. While the "Level Of Control" item indicates a high level of staff involvement in the planning process, students and faculty do not seem to be involved beyond an advisory role. The results show that gig or 251 in- volve students on a formal basis, and £225 or 16.66% involve faculty on a formal basis. It should be noted that practically all institutions reported formal student involvement on institution-wide committees. The Inventory included one additional scale, "Level Of Outside Influence," which was found to be unique to the other thirteen items. The uniqueness of 108 this item is partially due to the fact that it was the only scale on which the participants were asked to rate themselves. The participants were asked to rate on a four point scale the degree of autonomy they, and their staff, were permitted to innovate and define program direction. Fourteen or 58.33% rated themselves at the highest point on the autonomy scale, and another eighp. or 33.33% said they rated no less than three. The median for this variable was the highest in the inventory (3.64). The median difference between the high planning group and the low planning group was only .50, suggesting little relationship between planning practices and perceived autonomy. The reasons for the low discrimination on this scale are not clear, although three possibilities are suggested. First, the perceived high degree Of autonomy on the part of the low group could have been an attempt to correct perceived inadequate responses to earlier ques- tions. Secondly, autonomy may not be a contributing fac- tor to effective planning. (One of the participants who was rated high on the planning dimension, rated himself low on the autonomy scale. This participant later indi- cated that much of the planning initiation came from the president.) Finally, the perceived high degree of auton- omy on the part of the low planning group may be because the toleration level of superordinates has not been tested. 109 Summary A factor analysis was used to resolve the rela- tionship between the fourteen Inventory items and the four dimensions which were non-empirically derived. A principle axis solution was used and rotated according to the varimax orthogonal method. The analysis essential- ly provided empirical support for retaining the first two dimensions, Structure of the Planning Process, and Application Of Research. The remaining two dimensions were collapsed into a third major factor which was labeled Level of Leadership and Interest-Group Influence on the Planning Process. In order to achieve a balanced sample, the popu- lation was stratified according to geographic region and student population size. Based on reported findings, the hypotheses that there were no differences among the re- sponses-according to geographic region or student popu- lation size were not rejected. Within the limits imposed by the small sample size, the findings would indicate that the relative prOportion of subjects who scored above and below the median did not differ according to geo- graphic region and student population size. A further analysis of sample characteristics was made to determine whether the field of training or the frequency of staff meetings contributed to the level of planning as measured by the Inventory. It was concluded 110 that training in student personnel administration did not contribute to higher total or factor scores on the plan- ning Inventory. Pertaining to the relationships between the frequency of staff meetings and total inventory and factor scores on the planning Inventory. Pertaining to the relationships between the frequency of staff meetings and total inventory and factor scores, differences were identified on one level only. The frequency of staff meetings was found to contribute to higher scores on the Structure of the Planning Process factor. A profile analysis provided an interpretation Of the results based on percentage distributions and scale medians. Generally, it was found that planning as an administrative tool lacked both sophistication and com- prehensiveness, and programs were seldom evaluated. While the majority of institutions were found to be developing or revitalizing programs, for the most part the accompanying planning behavior was found to be seg- mentalized. That is, there was little indication that Objectives and goals were integrated. The participants can be described as having a highly positive attitude toward the planning function; a great deal of latitude to innovate within their depart- ments; and a commitment Of participatory decision making. Faculty and students, however, were seldom involved be- yond an advisory role. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Problem The general purpose of this study was to investigate the structure Of the planning process in student personnel administration with specific emphasis on selected character- istics or conditions within the collegiate environment which determine the uniqueness of the planning style. Specifically, the following conditions within the environment were selected for investigation: 1. The organizational structure and level of formality of the planning processes in student personnel administration. 2. The extent to which research is used as an aid in planning. 3. The nature Of the influence exerted by chief stu- dent personnel Officeraupon the planning process. 4. The degree of influence exerted by interest-groups. This study is designed as the initial step which, hopefully, will culminate in an effective model which would be applicable to the planning needs in student personnel administration. 111 112 The significance of this study at this time is based on the following: 1. the limited related research into the administrative practices in student personnel indicate a level of sophistication which is not commensurate with either the societal or institutional complexities with which it must deal. the increasing scarcity of educational funds is causing a reassessment of priorities which can have deleterious affects on student personnel programs unless its relevance to changing educational needs can be documented. the increased demands by interest groups for more involvement in the planning process requires a sys- tem which can coordinate efforts, provide the necessary information to make competent decisions, and provide a means to experience accomplishment. higher education as a whole is being forced to change in style, content and orientation. If student personnel work is to remain a dynamic pro- fession geared toward meeting the whole of student needs, it must be involved in a planning process which can effect change -- rather than just reacting to change. Theory Since empirical research specifically designed to investigate the planning practices in student personnel administration is not available, related research per— taining to planning theory in other social organizations was investigated in an effort to arrive at some basic assumptions which would provide a framework for comparative purposes. The following eight assumptions pertaining to the areas of concern in this study were generated from the literature review. 113 Planning is the preparing of sets of decisions for guiding change and growth within the organization; it provides the basis for rational decision making. It involves a commitment, it is futuristic, and must include activities which are both creative and innovative. Organizational viability, and individual creativity and innovation are detrimentally affected to the extent that the hierarchy of planning decision levels is reversed. That is, financing and facility con- siderations must proceed goal, Objective and program determination. Effective planning is comprehensive. Comprehensive, in the sense that there is an integration of types of plans -- both by purpose and over time -- and planning agencies. To preserve Opportunities for creativity and innovation, integration should be achieved through a decentralized organizational structure in which the emphasis is on coordination, instead Of control. Organizational viability is dependent on the extent to which it harnesses change -- rather than being controlled by change. The initial step to accom— plishing this end is to clarify and define organi- zational goals and Operational Objectives which are based on the best assessment Of the present environ- ment and estimation of future needs. Effective planning must include not only the estab- lishment of goals and Objectives (the ends), but also a set of "Operating plans" which activate both peOple and processes, parallelled by a continuous program of evaluation, culminating in a reassessment of the original goals and objectives. Effective planning and the rationality of the decisions made are increased when those affected by the plans are involved. Involvement of interest—groups increases planning effectiveness When the leadership is process oriented, rather than either plan oriented, or committed to the existence of autonomous units. 114 8. As the rationality of the decisions made by the leader is increased with the eXposure of the prob- lem to, and feedback from, those affected by the decision, the leadership can affect the rationality of the group's decisions by systematically encour— aging participation in activities and providing experiences which would challenge present attitudes, and continue professional growth. Methodology The population in this study consisted of the chief student personnel administrators at 172 upper level public colleges and universities east Of the Mississippi River with a student enrollment of not less than 1,500, but not more than 15,000. The population was stratified first by geographic region (Middle East, New England, Great Lakes, and South East), and then by student population size (1,500 - 2,999; 3,000 - 8,999; 9,000 - 15,000). Two institutions were random- ly selected for study from each Of the student populations within each of the four regions for a total sample size of 24, or approximately 14 per cent of the total population. Using a structured interview, the subjects were asked to respond to predominantly Open—ended questions pertaining to the areas under study. Seven of the subjects were inter- viewed personally, and seventeen were interviewed over the telephone. The interviews were taped and the responses were quantified in a Student Personnel Planning Inventogy consisting 0f fourteen four-point scales divided between the four selected dimensions of planning. The dimensions were identified as: 115 "Organizational Structure of the Planning Process", "Re- search Application", "Role Of the Status-Leader" in the planning process, and the "Influence of Interest—Groups" on the planning process. Analysis of the Data Accepted theories Of planning and administration identified through a search of the literature were used to develop the Planning Inventory. However, the data were subjected to a factor analysis to resolve the aepriori determined relationships between the four dimensions and the fourteen scale items in the Inventory. With few excep- tions, the factor analysis generally provided empirical support for the dimension-item relationships originally determined. To test the sampling procedures used, the following null Hypotheses were formulated: 1. There are no significant differences among the responses given during the interview according to geographic regions. 2. There are no significant differences among the responses given during the interview according to student population size. Information questions regarding staff size, fre- quency of meetings and degrees earned preceded the formal interview. Additional null hypotheses were generated with regard to two Of these variables: 116 3. HO: High planning institutions and low planning institutions will show equal proportions in the field of study in which the status-leader received his last degree. H : A greater proportion Of the status-leaders in the high planning group will have received their degree in student personnel adminis- tration or a related field. 4. HO: High planning institutions and low planning institutions will show equal proportions based on the frequency of staff meetings. H1: A greater prOportion of the high planning institutions hold staff meetings no less than twice a month. Hypotheses I and II were statistically analyzed by extending the median test to a "k" sample situation using the chi square as the distribution of reference. Hypotheses III and IV were analyzed using the Fisher exact probability test. The data was further analyzed based on total group ratings on the fourteen scale items in two ways. First, a profile analysis was used to interpret frequency distribu— tions in an effort to arrive at a description of planning function as it presently exists in the institutions under study. Secondly, the median for the total inventory scores was determined and subsequently used to identify the high planning group and the low planning group. Conclusions Based on the data analysis, the following represent the major conclusions Of the study. 117 In an effort to achieve a balanced representation of the pOpulation identified for study, geographic re- gions and student enrollments were used as stratifica- tion variables. NO significant differences were Observed in the responses given during the interview based on either geographic region or student enroll- ment. Half of the participants had received their last degree in student personnel administration or related fields. No significant differences were Observed in the responses given during the interviews based on field Of study. Approximately one third Of the participants did not hold regular staff meetings. Frequency Of staff meetings was found to significantly contribute to higher scores on Factor I in the Inventory, "Structure of the Planning Process". However, significant relationships were not observed between the frequency of staff meetings variable and scores Obtained on the total Inventory, or on the remaining areas of inquiry pertaining to the role of research, the status—leader, and interest-groups in planning. The use of well defined goals as a guide to depart- mental decision making is not a common practice. Seventy-five per cent of the sample were either unable to clarify departmental ends, or were vague in their descriptions. Three-quarters of the institutions studied were engaged in instituting new programs or significantly revising present programs. However, only a limited number of programs described could be identified as a part of a continuous, integrated planning program. The planning function does not seem to be a significant part of the administrative process within the institu- tions studied. Furthermore, when the planning function was formalized, it tended to be limited to the initial planning and implementing stages. The formality of the planning function was at best unorganized in over sixty per cent Of the sample. Before concluding the findings pertaining to the role of long-range planning, two preliminary Observations are in order. First, this study found a greater prOportion of institution-wide involvement in long- range planning than previous studies have indicated. At least seventeen out of the twenty-four participating 118 institutions were planning from five to fifteen years into the future. Secondly, although the student personnel departments were represented on these institution-wide planning committees, there was little indication that -- at least for the student personnel departments -- the planning included anything more than facility, equipment and staff needs. Within the departments themselves, planning was found to be limited to immediate needs. Seventy—five per cent of the sample had not projected departmental goals, Ob- jectives and program needs beyond a two year period. Of this number, eighty-three per cent were not plan- ning into the future at all. 8. Program review and evaluation is the exception rather than the rule. When research was used as an aid in program determination, it tended to be limited to the use of available demographic data during the initial planning stages. 9. The participants can be characterized as having a positive attitude toward planning as an administrative tool (87 per cent); possessing a great deal of lati- tude to direct and innovate within their departments (87 per cent); and committed to participatory decision making (70 per cent). 10. While student personnel administrators are committed to participatory decision making, this commitment seems to pertain to staff involvement. Students were found to be formally involved in determining future student personnel program direction in twenty-five per cent of the bases. Faculty were formally involved in sixteen per cent of the cases. However, most of the institutions did state that students were involved, or in the process of being involved, on institution- wide committees. Discussion of Conclusions Nonparametric statistics were used to identify differ— ences in the data collected in relation to either geographic regions, student population, frequency of staff meetings, or field of study in which the status-leader received his last degree. 119 One of these variables, frequency of staff meetings, was found to contribute significantly to score differences. However, these differences were only at the "Structure Of the Planning Process" dimension. It was found that institu- tions with regularly scheduled staff meetings tended to be more formal in their planning practices than those institu- tions which did not schedule regular meetings. Although statistical differences were not identified with regard to geographic regions and fields Of study, certain characteristics were Observed which require further discussion if this study is to be complete. In the process of conducting the interviews, an additional limitation of the instrument used to quantify the data became apparent. Planners and non-planners were fairly evenly distributed between regions; however, there were differences in the planning concerns within regions and, to a limited extent, between regions which the instrument failed to identify. For example, extremes in program and planning scope were most evident in the New England region. The differences in this region were not only in total Inventory score, but in the problems concerning the staff. One of the highest rated institutions came from this region. This institution's concerns revolved around programs dealing with societal problems and providing services with the major Objective in mind being to increase the students' chances to achieve 120 academic success. On the other hand, another institution from this region also received a high rating on the items in the "Organizational Structure of the Planning Process" dimension; however, the goal in this case was to improve inter—staff and inter-institution communication. After accepting the position one year earlier, this participant found that the usual functions considered a part of student personnel, including the "housemothers" in the residence halls, had always operated independently of each other. Furthermore, communications pertaining to student behavior and university policy were either non—existent, or incon— sistent. Although the s0phistication level in this instance was clearly below the concerns reported by the first insti- tution, this participant's goals and Objectives were clear, pertinent and relevant. Broadly defined, five types of program orientations tended to evolve: (1) programs oriented toward increasing student self-reliance; (2) programs which were predominantly motivated toward facilitating the students' academic achieve- ment; (3) programs primarily concerned with extra-curricula services; (4) programs primarily service oriented; and (5) programs which tended to be static. The later orientation, while not restricted to any one region, was more Often found in the New England and South East Regions. The participants from the institutions which could be classified as static were most likely to 121 attribute program weaknesses to a high commuter population, or to the fact that this was their first year in the posi— tion. As real as the effects of these variables can be on the character of the student personnel program, it was decided not to place undue emphasis on them. This decision was based on the following findings. Of the two institutions achieving the highest total inventory rating, one had a commuter pOpulation of seventy per cent, and the participant from the other had been in his position only six months. The service orientation, including those with an em- phasis on extra-curricula life, were found to be the most prevelant. Programs with emphasis on facilitating student academic achievement were Observed in four institutions. One participant characterized his department's objectives as increasing student self-reliance. The latter two orien- tations tended to be more definite in verbalizing goals and Objectives, as well as being more formal in their planning structure. Programs with an extra-curricula service orientation were more prevelant in the South East, although not limited to this region. The emphasis in these institutions was on fraternity-sorority programs, student government activities, and, in general, student citizenship. Other than to point out that half the institutions in both the Great Lakes and Middle East regions were involved in, or planning, a major 122 reorganization, regional characteristics in these remaining areas were less clearly identified. Another Of the independent variables, the field Of study in which the participants received their last degree, also requires further discussion. Contingency Table 4.13 in Chapter IV shows that exactly half Of the participants received their last degree in fields not related to student personnel. Further examination of the data failed to iden- tify any regional or size tendency to employ those who were not professionally trained. Reasons why student personnel professionals have not been hired in such a significant proportion of the institutions may be as varied as the number of institutions involved. This issue, however, is not a major concern in this study, and with the exception of the following quote which may be of interest to personnel trainers, it will not be explored further. A chemistry professor recently appointed to the chief student personnel Officer position was asked by this researcher how he happened to be selected. He answered: The president's attitude is that student personnel administrators are trained to think in certain ways which are too restrictive. Present training is just outdated. we have to look at different ways to look at people. Student personnel has to pick people with foresight and rapport with faculty as well as with students. Because the gap Often existing between student personnel administrators and faculty is big, and since I was both a faculty member and a dean of the college of , the president saw these assets as the bridge not available to many student personnel- administrators. 123 The major purpose of this study was to arrive at a description of planning practices in student personnel administration with specific emphasis on the structure Of the planning process, the use of research in planning, and the role of the status—leader and interest groups in planning. With few exceptions, planning in student personnel administration tends to be either crisis-oriented, or maintenance oriented. In either case, programs which may evolve are the result of immediately evident needs, rather than as they may have congruence with present programs and overall departmental and institutional goals. As a result, planning was found to be segmentalized, rather than com- prehensive. When asked to explain how planning was accomplished, several participants stated that the staff were encouraged to bring ideas to staff meetings throughout the year, and, with staff consensus, the program could be implemented. Encouraging staff creativity is necessary to departmental growth. However, in the absence of knowledge of the overall department's direction, or evidence of the program's value, or the input costs -- both in time commitment and resources -- and the concomitant affect on present programs, this method of planning may ultimately only add to departmental confu- sion. These considerations are especially important, if, 124 as the participants state, the unavailability of funds has been detrimental to program development. If there is a strength related to the planning dimension in the institutions studied, it is that at least a third indicated they were involved in departmental reor- ganization. If this reorganization is to be effective, it should not stop with reassessing line-staff relationships or considering new programs; but continue into reassessing and evaluating the worth of present programs. This is one possible source of funds and additional staff time which should be a preliminary consideration. Documentation that a reorganization program incorporating the elements of planning theory prOposed in this study is possible, can be found in Appendix G. Participants were asked to submit documents pertaining to the planning function. Appendix G is a reprint of the only document received which attempted ixJencompasstotal departmental needs and direction. Its inclusion in this study is with the kind permission of the author, Dr. Champ R. Storch, Vice President for Student Affairs, Slippery Rock State College, Pennsylvania. It has been intimated that the "means—ends" rela— tionship in program planning was found to be inverted in the majority of the institutions studied. This inversion became more apparent with the responses to the range of planning questions. Those colleges which were involved in intermediate or long-range planning were most likely to 125 limit these activities to staff, facility, and budgetary needs. For example, one participant's response to the range of planning question centered on the new student union structure to be completed. Apparently, the institution had been looking forward to the addition of this facility for some time. When asked what purposes or programs had been projected for the use of the facility, the participant's answer was that such planning was hardly worthwhile, since there was no way to anticipate What the legislators would be willing to allocate funds for ahead of time. It can be assumed that this participant and his staff had a program direction in mind. The theoretical question highlighted by the above interchange which should concern student personnel administrators is: How Often are decisions regarding pro- gram continuation and implimentation based on assumed student and community needs, rather than on empirical knowledge? When new programs were added to the organizational structure, in more cases than not, it was without the benefit of appraisal and evaluative techniques. It must be noted that the participants -- regardless of the formality level of their organization's planning structure -- were well aware of this weakness in their programs. The problems facing the participants in this area include the unavaila- bility of appropriate evaluative instruments, the lack of staff time and funds to conduct effective evaluation programs, and the unavailability of technical advice. A few institu- 126 tions were found to have alleviated the problems by either adding a research position to the staff, or by taking advantage of institutional research facilities When avail- able. The difficulties faced by the practitioners in this area are real. As one participant stated: "It is easy for you people in the universities to talk about what should be done, since you do not have to face the problem." It is also in this area where the need for a reconciliation between theory and practice is most apparent. Further support for this contention is found in Rhatigan and Hoyt's1 study com- paring the perceptions of faculty—trainers "uniformly" gave high ratings to evaluation and research, the prac- titioners saw these functions as less important. If the faculty—trainers are sincere in their estimation of the role of research and evaluation in student personnel, it would seem that this concern would be reflected in the train— ing programs as well as in their own research. In summary, the findings in this study regarding planning practices concurs with the 1966 Housing, Education, and welfare report on Student Services Administration in Higher Education. This study began with the following state- ment in the Forward: 1James J. Rhatigan, and Hoyt, Donald P., "Student Personnel AdministratiOn: Faculty-Trainer Perception and the Reality of Practice", National Association of Student Person- nel Administrators, Vol. 7, No. 3, (January, 1970), pp. 160 - 161. 127 TOO Often new administrative structure has been imposed on an older plan of organization. Furthermore, when programs were added, there was little indication that the identified need was based on anything more than a reaction to an apparent crisis or a new-found interest on the part Of a staff member. While crises require some sort of action, and innovation should be encouraged, in the absence of: (a) knowledge of the effects of the new programs on total department resources and its pertinency with overall goals and Objectives, and (b) any intentions to formally evaluate the programs, the departments overall effectiveness and ability to communicate its purposes is seriously impeded. This type of uncoor— dinated approach to program development may well have been a contributor to Ross's2 findings in her study of adminis- tration, faculty, and student personnel workers' evaluation of the student personnel functions. Ross found marked discrepancies in the Opinion of all groups due to lack of knowledge regarding whether the activities were performed, how they were performed, and who performed them. In addi— tion to chiding student personnel workers for not under- standing their own areas of responsibility, Ross further 2Margaret A. Ross,. Administration, Faculty, and Student Personnel WOrkers' Evaluation of Student Personnel Functions., Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Columbus, Ohio: Ohio University, 1967. 128 recommends that in addition to keeping up to date with changing needs, student personnel must find more effective means to accomplish its purposes. While discrepancies may exist between planning theory and practice, other conditions within the environ— ment seem to be most conducive to effective planning. Al— though the extent to which the status-leaders overtly encourage the staff to expand their experiences for the pur- poses Of increasing creativity and innovation are limited, the status-leaders' perceptions would indicate that the Opportunities for program creativity and innovation are available. Furthermore, the attitudes of the status-leaders toward the planning function, and their receptivity toward interest-group involvement in determining program direction were most appropriate. The findings indicate, however, that faculty and students were much less involved than were the staff. Many expressed the desire to expand student and faculty involvement. The felt need for expediency was among the reasons given for limited student and faculty in- volvement. Limitations The intention in this study was to provide an ini- tial inquiry into the planning phase of student personnel administration. Several techniques for collecting the desired information were considered, from an in-depth study of a few selected institutions, to the construction of a 129 questionnaire for wide distribution. The interview tech- nique was finally selected since it would provide both some control over the biases which normally affect self-evaluative instruments, as well as providing the opportunity for some representativeness. Any generalizations based on the findings must therefore take into account the limitations resulting from the sampling procedures and the sample size. Specifically, the sample consists of twenty-four public colleges and universities located east of the Mississippi River with a student population between 1,500 and 15,000. In addition, the interviews were limited to only one member in the institution. Implications for Further Research Any future planning model designed for application in student personnel administration should be based on the following considerations identified in this study: 1. Effective planning must be based on clarified goals and Objectives. For reasons not totally clear--but which probably includes both the rapidity with which change is presently taking place in the institutions of higher education, and, more impor- tant, the lack of administrative expertise -— defining goals beyond a short period is not a prevalent practice. 2. Knowledge of planning theory and its use in the administrative process is limited. The use of consultants may be necessary to effectively improve planning practices in many institutions. 130 3. Sophisticated planning models used in other social organizations rely heavily on research techniques. Recommending the adoption of similar models in student personnel administration should be based on the following considerations: a. the professional level of the staff b. the level of staff research competency available c. the availability of technical advice through institutional departments or consultants d. the paucity of applicable predictive and evaluative techniques available in the field 4. While the advice of faculty and students may be sought in the initial stages Of program development, these groups tend not to be formally involved. This particular characteristic is considered by many as an asset, since including these groups would slow the implementation process. However, in a climate where program determination is based on immediate needs, needs which for the most part are those Of faculty and students, the exclusion of faculty and students is inappropriate and should be discouraged. If this study provided some insight into the planning practices Of student personnel administrators, it also succeeded in raising more questions than were answered. NO formal attempt was made to explore the perceptions of other members in the college community. While this type Of in-depth study is recommended, one cautionary note requires mentioning. This researcher had the opportunity to talk with first level staff members on four occasions. Discrepancies in Opinion were evident. However, it was not clear whether these discrepancies were more due to differences between the status-leader's stated and actual practice, or to the inability 131 of the staff members to perceive the leader's intentions. This researcher's impression was that the latter was more often the case. The parameters of planning in student personnel administration require further identification. Further re- search is needed particularly in the areas of goal deter- mination and program evaluation to determine what levels Of accuracy and efficiency can be achieved. Studies similar to this one should be conducted on an expanded population. The instrument as constructed was found to meet the needs of this study with the exceptions of the revisions resulting from the factor analysis reported in Chapter IV. However, the extent to which the reported factors are invariant is still in question. Testing the instrument on organizations with more sophisticated planning practices and applying the instrument to a larger sample may resolve this issue. In sum, the major proportion Of the participants were involved in planning for staff and facilities, adding new programs, and/or reviewing old ones. 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"An Initial Inquiry into the Applica- bility of a General Administrative Science to University Counseling Services and Student Af- fairs." (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University, 1965.) APPENDICES APPENDIX A IDENTIFICATION OF POPULATION STRATIFIED BY GEOGRAPHIC REGION AND BY STUDENT ENROLLMENT Student Enrollments Regions 1,500-2,999 3,000-8,999 9,000-15,000 States Total NO. Total No. Total No. State- of insti- of insti- of Insti- Region tutions tutions tutions Totals New England Connecticut Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire Rhode Island Vermont NWI—‘N H NI—‘l—‘m NNMKDNUI Totals 8 10 5 23 Middle East Delaware 1 Maryland 1 2 New Jersey 5 1 New York 12 1 Pennsylvania 4 10 Totals 5 29 3 37 Fed 900me South East Alabama 5 Flordia Georgia 8 Kentucky Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee Virginia West Virginia Totals Great Lakes Illinois Indiana Michigan Ohio Wisconsin Totals GRAND TOTAL 11 4:. l—‘NNNl—‘l—‘N cowwepmwwwwas 0000qule oasnwbkl DFHKJ 72 u N H Noommoo 40 172 uh wcnknuhawrd moo GDH\OFM>OJb wed mLuFJOHHth 141 APPENDIX B MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY am uwsmo - MICHIGAN 43323 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION - DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION EEICKSON HALL January 15, 1970 Dear The Department of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University is undertaking a study of administrative practices in student personnel administration. The timeliness of this study is evidenced by the present pressures on higher education from varied sources to reassess its procedures, programs and/or purposes. The nature of student personnel administration is such that it is often the heart of much of the recent controversy; its future viability is dependent on the effectiveness with which it can meet and anticipate these crises, and this requires new insights into the administrative practices and techniques used. A sampling of 24 colleges and universities in the country have been selected for study. A thirty to forty minute openended telephone interview will be conducted to obtain the necessary information. We recognise the added advantages in visiting each of the campuses, however, the cost is prehibitive. Furthermore, the information is not personal, and the interview is structured in such a way that with your cooperation and understanding this technique should be quite satisfactory. The information received will be analyzed for trends and discrepancies in administrative practices. Since the success of this study depends on your frankness, please be assured that the data obtained will be reported in statistical and abstract £orm.on1y. Your name and the name of your insti- tution will be kept strictly confidential. It was agreed that the best way to establish a time for the interview which would be both convenient to you and not require an excess number of telephone cells was to give you a date and time when the person-to-person call would be placed. 1! the time assigned is inconvenient,‘would you please advise your secretary of a more appropriate time and date. Mr. Larry Sartor, who is conducting the interviews for the Department will call you on ,, Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. If you are interested, we would be happy to forward a summary of the findings to you. Sincerely yours, Laurine Fitzgerald Professor, Administration and Higher Education 142 1. APPENDIX C STRUCTURED INTERVIEW STUDENT PERSONNEL PLANNING Organizational Structure of the Planning Process A. All student personnel departments have certain functions for which they are responsible (hous- ing, admissions, activities, etc.). Often the responsibilities within these functions are carried out by specialized personnel (director of Housing, Director of Admissions, etc.). Would you describe any general over-all goals and Ob- jectives you might have which would provide direction to your different function directors? At what levels does planning take place in order to achieve your goals and objectives? (Does it tend to be centralized, or decentralized?) Would you describe any new programs within your department which have been either implemented this year, or are still in the planning stages? How formal is the planning structure of the pro- gram(s) you previously mentioned? (Committee, chairman, coordination, etc.) What procedures were employed in carrying out the program(s)? (Forecasting techniques, fol- low-through, evaluation, etc.) To what extent are you involved in long-range planning? What kinds of things are planned? Are you able, as yet, to make a judgment as to the implications of these new programs on de- partment growth, and in the college as a whole? Research Application A. DO you use research specifically as an aid in planning? 143 144 Would you describe the kinds and types Of research you use? In the actual planning process, for what purposes is this research actually used? (Determine pre- sent state of affairs, decisions regarding alter- natives, program development and evaluation) Role of Status-leader A. To what degree do you emphasize planning for future program needs? What priority do you think formal planning should have in your total program development? (How much time is spent in planning activities?) In the pre-planning stages, did you initiate any activities or attempt to encourage any experi- ences among your staff which would facilitate the planning process? (In-service training, cam- pus visitations, research, etc.) How would you rate the degree of autonomy you and your staff are permitted in making decisions regarding prOgram direction or innovation? Using a four point scale, let one represent limited autonomy, and four represent a high degree Of autonomy. Generally speaking, where did the first thrust for initiating the programs you mentioned occur? Would you describe your role in the development process of the programs you have mentioned? (What was your role on the committee? What was the nature of the functions you performed? Who determined goals and objectives?) Influence of Interest Groups A. Generally, how are the staff, students and facul- ty involved in program planning and development? TO what extent were they involved, and what do they do? 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