THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS 0F
PROSE TEXT, LINEAR PROGRAMMED
INSTRUCTION AND BRANCHING
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION IN
TEACHING COUNSELING THEORIES

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
AVRAHAM SCHERMAN

1972 I

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE EFFECTIVENESS 0F PROSE TEXT, LINEAR PROGRAMMEDQ
INSTRUCTION AND BRANCHING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
IN TEACHING COUNSELING THEORIES ~

presented by
AV'RAHAM SQTERMAN

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph'DLdegree in Education

 

 

MM
ajor professor

Bob B. Winborn

Date April 28, 1972

 

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ABSTRACT

THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROSE TEXT,
LINEAR PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND
BRANCHING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
IN TEACHING COUNSELING
THEORIES

BY
Avraham Scherman

The purpose of this study was to assess the dif-
ferential effects which prose text, linear programmed
instruction and branching programmed instruction may have
on measures of retention of information, application of
information, time spent in study, and finally on motiva—
tion and attitudes of counselor trainees toward each of
the three types of instruction. It was suggested that
programmed instruction was a promising method of improving
instruction in a Counseling Theories Course at the gradu-
ate level and that a systematic investigation should be
made of this instructional procedure.

Ninety one master's degree candidates in counsel-
ing at Michigan State University, enrolled in a Counseling

Theories Course being taught at three locations (East

Avraham Scherman

Lansing, Grand Rapids and Pontiac), were randomly assigned
to one of the three instructional conditions: prose text,
linear programmed instruction and branching programmed in-
struction. Pre- and post-tests covering the content of
the entire course, post-tests that followed each instruc-
tional unit, and a questionnaire concerning attitudes and
motivation of students were administered to each of the
subjects.

No significant differences were found in terms of
overall treatment effect; however, a significant location
effect was found. In addition, a significant difference
between treatments over repeated measures was found. The
prose text group performed consistently lower than the
other two groups. Differences in attitudes were found
mainly between the sexes with regard to amount of time
needed for study, effectiveness of the course, references
included in the material, concentration, and interest and
stimulation.

The reported results could be attributed to a
number of possible contributory factors such as theory,
sampling, design and statistics, instrumentation and
treatments. Each of these factors were discussed and
their possible influence was presented.

Differences between sexes appeared to be one of

the primary variables that should be further investigated.

Avraham Scherman

Programmed instruction appeared to be a promising mode of
instruction and further research should be conducted to

identify its major effects in counselor training programs.

THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROSE TEXT,
LINEAR PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND
BRANCHING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
IN TEACHING COUNSELING
THEORIES

BY

Avraham Scherman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1972

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

With sincere appreciation I wish to thank Dr. Bob
B. Winborn for his perceptive guidance, counsel and unself-
ish willingness to assist. I am also most grateful to the
members of my Guidance Committee, Drs. Herbert M. Burks,
Jr., Norman R. Stewart and Stephen L. Yelon. Special
thanks are expressed to Dr. Richard G. Johnson who in—
structed two classes participating in the experiment, and
to Dr. Burks who, in addition to instructing a class, also
helped with the preparation and editing of the final
manuscript.

Next I would like to express my indebtedness to
Miss Judy A. Foren who assisted with the typing and print-
ing of the instructional units. Special appreciation is
also extended to Mr. Geoffrey G. Yager who helped in
analyzing the data and to Mrs. Margaret M. Yager for edit-
ing the manuscript.

To Marian, I wish to express my sincere gratitude

for her patience, encouragement and support.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0

LIST OF FIGURES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

THE PROBLEM, RATIONALE, AND RELATED

RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theory and Related Research . . . . . .
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

overView . O C C O I O 0 O O C C O O O 0
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . .

Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . .
Design and Statistical Analysis . . . .

summary 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . .

Retention and Application - Overall Gain

Retention and Application for
Repeated Measures . . . . . . . . . . .

Time Spent Studying and
Repeated Measures . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

vii

|._l

\DWNI"

10
12

12
l4
14
22
24
28
29
31

33

33

37

41

Chapter Page

Attitudes and Motivation Toward the
Different Treatments Employed . . . . . . . . 45

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

IV. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

sumary O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 53
DiSCuSSiOn O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 54
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

LIST OF REFERENCES 0 O I O O O O O C C O O O O O O I 67
APPENDICES O I O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 7 0
A. Prediction of Missing Scores . . . . . . . . . 70

B. Questionnaire for Assessment of Attitudes
and Motivation 0 I O O O O O O O O C O I O O O . 71

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table
2.1. Graphic representation of assigning
questions to the different measures . . . .
2.2. Graphic representation of the
research design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Cell means of retention and application

according to location and treatment
group . O. I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I ' O I

3.1.1. Variance and standard deviation of pre-
tests (covariates) and post-tests for
retention and application of information .

3.2. Regression analysis portion of the
design with two covariates . . . . . . . .
3.3. Multivariate test for treatments, loca-

tions and interaction effects . . . . . . .

3.4. Contrasts for location effects . . . . . .
3.5. Univariate tests for overall effects . . .
3.6. Multivariate tests for interaction and

treatment effects over repeated measures .

3.7. Multivariate test for overall interaction
and interaction within treatment effect . .

3.8. Univariate test for retention - application
and treatment interaction effects . . . . .

3.9. Cell means and standard deviations of
scores on immediate tests as an effect of
interaction between time of presentation
and treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 Univariate tests for overall effects on
t ime O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O

Page

27

30

34

34

35

36
37

38

39

40

4O

.42

44

Multivariate tests for interaction . . .

Chi Square Test of different treatment
effects on females (question 6) . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex differences across
all treatments (question 9) . . . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex difference in the
linear group (question 9) . . . . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex difference across
all treatments (question 14) . . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex differences in the
branching group (question 14) . . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex difference across
all treatments (question 18) . . . . . .

Chi Square Test on sex difference in the
branching group (question 19) . . . . . .

Chi Square Test of different treatment
effects (question 13) . . . . . . . . . .

Chi Square Test of sex differences across
all treatments (question 13) . . . . . .

vi

Page

44

46

46

47

48

48

49

50

50

51

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Graphic presentation of mean scores according
to treatments over repeated measures . . . . . .v 43

vii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM, RATIONALE, AND

RELATED RESEARCH

Need

 

Educational technology has grown in importance
during the past decade as psychologists and educators have
wrestled with the task of improving instruction and learn—
ing. Educational television, instructional games, differ-
ent types of audio-visual aids, teaching machines,
programmed instruction and computer assisted instruction
have, slowly but steadily, come to be perceived as impor-
tant elements in the design of instructional strategies
and programs. Multi-media instructional programs are to
be found with increasing frequency in elementary and
secondary schools, community colleges, and in under-
graduate programs of higher education. In graduate
courses, however, educational technology has not had the
same impact. The principal mode of instruction in graduate
classes continues to be the lecture-recitation method.

Counselor education, which is usually classified
as graduate study, has continued to be dominated by the

traditional methods of instruction. While there have been

some studies reporting the use of audio-visual aids, audio
and video tapes, micro-counseling, and simulation techni-
ques in counselor education (Landsman and Lane, 1963; Kagan
and Krathwohl, 1967; Dunlop, 1968; Poling, 1968; and Ivey,
Normington, Miller, Morril and Haase, 1968), many of the
dimensions of the educational technology currently avail-
able have yet to be investigated. One of these dimensions
is programmed instruction. As yet, there are no reports
of the experimental use of programmed instruction in
counselor education. There are no reports of the effec-
tiveness, efficiency, motivation and attitudes of students
or the cost of such a mode of instruction when compared to

traditional methods.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this study was to assess
the retention and application of information concerning
counseling theories learned by use of linear and branching
programmed instruction as Opposed to the same material
presented in prose text. Retention and application were
assessed both immediately after students completed their
study of individual instructional units and as an overall
gain upon completing the entire course.

An additional purpose was to investigate the amount
of time spent on learning for each of these forms of in-

struction. Finally, an attempt was made to assess

differences in motivation and attitudes of students toward
each of the three types of instruction.

The objective of this study was to determine if
any of these three types of instruction produced a signi-
ficant effect on the measures that were administered to
counseling trainees in the Michigan State University M.A.
Counselor Training Program during a course entitled "A

Seminar in Counseling Theories."

Theory and Related Research

 

The history of programmed instruction began with
the research of Pressey (1926, 1927, 1932). Initially,
he was interested in the scoring of tests and built a
machine that did not move to the next question until the
student correctly answered the question he was currently
studying. Thus, the student knew immediately whether he
was correct or not; he received immediate feedback.
Pressey found that students using this machine and getting
feedback actually learned the material on which they were
being tested. His machine scoring can be considered the
first teaching machine of our time. But Pressey had no
real influence on educational theory or practice at the
time he published his results. His work was ignored by
educational institutions for a number of years.

Programmed instruction did not reach general at-

tention and influence until the publication of Skinner's

article in 1954, "The Science of Learning and the Art of
Teaching." According to Skinner, a child performed learn-
ing tasks in order to escape aversive stimuli. He sugges-
ted that principles of learning theory should be employed
in teaching. Later, Skinner (1954, 1958) described a
machine in which the important features were immediate
reinforcement for the right anSwer and individually self-
paced learning. The material is presented in sequential
order, and the student responds overtly to the material.
There is an interaction between the student and the mate-
rial to be learned. On the basis of reinforcement theory,
the student is rewarded immediately on each correct re-
sponse. Such a program usually consists of small steps

or frames, each containing 20 ro 30 words. This is a
stimulus-response pattern with immediate feedback of re-
sults. Skinnerian programs are called linear programs
because of their step-by-step presentation. Skinner's
ideas were accepted by many people who were interested in
improving practical aspects of education.

Crowder (1959, 1960) developed what is termed
branching programmed instruction. He believed that people
in everyday life are confronted with situations in which
they have to make decisions. In these circumstances they
make mistakes. When a learner makes a mistake he should
be branched. The term "branched" means that the material

to be learned is explained to the learner in a new way or

he is directed to a remedial sub-routine. Thus, a branch-
ing frame usually has more material than a linear frame.
Answers to the frames determine how the student is branched
through the different parts of the program and how many
frames he will have to study.

What are some characteristics of programmed learn-
ing that seem to be common to all methods? Macdonald-Ross
(1969) in summarizing the research on programmed instruc-
tion in the 1960's listed several important characteristics
of programmed learning. First of all, programmed learning
requires clearly stated objectives. They are needed in
order to define precisely what is going to be taught (what
the student is supposed to know at the end of instruction)
and to make it possible to deve10p ways of measuring
whether learning has in fact taken place (criterion test).
The objectives (Macdonald-Ross, 1969) should be behavioral
objectives, written in observable and measurable terms.

Another characteristic is the feedback controls
made available in programmed instruction. The immediate
checking of the right answer serves as a reinforcer.
Anderson, Kulwavy and Andre (1971) in a recent article,
report a study of 356 subjects who completed a computer-
based instructional lesson which insured that the subject
responded before he received knowledge of the correct re-
sponse (KCR). Students who received KCR after every frame

performed better on the criterion test than students who

were tested on the same criterion without receiving KCR.
It was suggested that students attempting to read the KCR
before responding performed poorly on the criterion test.
An additional common characteristic of programmed
instruction is the fact that it is essentially an indivi-
dualized method of instruction. Each individual progresses
at his own pace in making responses and getting feedback,
or in the case of branching programs, follows a unique

path through the learning process according to his responses.

 

To this point the theory and assumptions underlying
linear and branching programmed instruction and the general
characteristics of these types of instruction have been
presented. Another vital question is: Do students learn
from programmed instruction2* Schranmt(1964) in his review
of the research on programmed instruction mentioned 36
experiments comparing different types of programs with
conventional classroom instruction. Sixteen of these ex-
periments were done in colleges, four in secondary schools,
five in primary schools, 10 with adults and one with re-
tarded children. Of the 36 experiments, 18 showed no
significant differences when the two groups were measured
on the same criterion test. Seventeen showed a significant
increase for classroom students working with programmed
instruction, and only one showed a favorable significant
increase for students taught in a conventional way. In

addition, a number of studies have shown that programmed

material is more effective or efficient for retention of
information, time spent on learning and application of
learned material than are prose text and c0nventional ways
of instruction (Pressey, 1963; Hough, 1962b).

Roe (1962) reported on research conducted with 189
freshman engineering students. The program consisted of
an introduction to certain probability concepts written in
linear and branching forms. Significant learning took
place with both programs. But when considering programs
separately, there were no significant differences between
any of the simple branching methods and the linear pro-
gram when measured by the amount of learning that took
place. However, it was determined that a logical sequenced
program resulted in more learning than did a random se-
quenced program.

On the other side, Shull (1969) in a recent study
reported a difference between branching and linear pro-
grammed instruction. One hundred and twenty students from
Ohio University, registered in Industrial Arts and Techno-
logy, were assigned to one of three groups: control,
linear and branching. The control group received only a
post-test. The linear group received the linear program-
med instruction and the post-test, and the branching group
received the branching programmed instruction and the post-
test. The findings indicated a significant difference at
the .05 level of significance in favor of the branching

group.

An additional issue relevant to the topic of this
study is the attitudes and motivation of students learning
a course through programmed instruction. Nauman (1962)
described the performance reactions of about 40 college
students who worked the first third of the Holland-Skinner
psychology program written in 1961. Seventy-five percent
of the students indicated that without a teaching machine
they Would have learned much less from the course. The
use of self-instructional programs was favored by 64 per-
cent of the group, and 59 percent of the group preferred
such a type of instruction. Other reactions of students
reported in this study include: (1) about one-fourth of
the students felt that at some point during the course they
were treated like experimental organisms. A small minority
felt that the use of teaching machines reflected adversely
upon their dignity as human beings. (2) About two-thirds
of the group stated that they thought the instructor was
trying to teach as much as possible within the limits of
basic reality consideration. (3) The final point was a
statement about the possible lack of opportunities to re-
flect on the material learned and to consider its implica-
tions.

Programmed instruction should not be judged solely
on how well students learn from this method when compared
to other types of instruction. Other variables are also

important and should therefore be taken into consideration.

 

For example, how much time does a student require to learn
a certain amount of information? Is programmed learning
more effective concerning retention and/or application of
information? Do students learning through programmed in-
struction differ in attitudes and motivation when compared
to students learning the same material through conventional
ways? How effective is programmed instruction in teaching'
the types of students who enroll in counselor education
programs?

In View of the above analysis, the present study
was designed to investigate linear and branching program-
med instruction as an approach to teaching counseling
theories. This experimental study investigated (a) reten-
tion of information, (b) application of information, (o)
time spent studying, and (d) motivation and attitudes

toward learning with each of the-methods used.

Hypotheses

 

To investigate the questions raised by the investi-
gator, the following hypotheses were developed.

1. Students receiving linear programmed instruction
and students receiving branching programmed in-
struction will score significantly higher than
students receiving prose text instruction on the

same objective post-test when compared with scores

 

10

on a parallel objective pre-test that assesses re-
tention and application of counseling theories
information.

2. Students receiving linear programmed instruction
and students receiving branching programmed in-
struction will score significantly higher on the
same immediate criterion tests concerning reten-
tion and application of counseling theories infor-

mation than students receiving prose text.

 

3. There will be no significant difference in time
spent in learning the same material taught by
means of linear programmed instruction, branching
programmed instruction and prose text instruction.

4. There will be no significant difference in motiva-
tion and attitudes of students taught counseling
theories by prose text, by linear programmed in-

struction or by branching programmed instruction.

Overview

In Chapter I the problem was introduced, theory and
related research were reviewed and hypotheses were stated.
In Chapter II the subjects, treatments, procedures, and
instruments will be described; the research design identi-
fied, and the hypotheses, statistical analysis and level

of significance presented. In Chapter III the results of

11

the data analysis will be reported. Chapter IV will con-
clude the study with a discussion of the results and some

suggestions for further research.

 

CHAPTER II

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

After reviewing the literature, stating the hypo-
theses and describing the purpose of the study as presented

in the previous chapter, an experimental study was planned

 

and conducted.

Subjects

Students enrolled during the Fall term of 1971 for
the late afternoon section of the Master's program in
Counseling at Michigan State University and in night classes
at two off-campus extension centers in Grand Rapids and
Pontiac, Michigan, served as treatment subjects for this
study. Of the 98 students initially available, 91 students
became subjects for the study. Seven students who failed
to take either (a) the pre-test, (b) the post-test, or (c)
two or more measures given immediately after studying an
instructional unit were excluded from the study. It was
assumed that predicting more than one score, or one of the
overall measures can introduce an uncontrolled error ef-

fect. The scores of seven students failing to take only

12

 

13

one test given after a unit were predicted using a multiple
regression computer program (Appendix A).

No descriptive information was available for three
subjects who dropped the program. Thus, the resulting group
of experimental subjects for which information was avail-
able consisted of 45 male and 43 female counselor trainees.
Thirty-four males and 35 females were specializing in a
school counselor program. Eleven males and eight females
were specializing in a rehabilitation counseling program.
The subjects ranged in age from 21 to 47 years, with a
median age of 26 years and a mean age of 28.6 years.
Sixty-one of them were married and 27 were single.

Twenty-five subjects received their bachelor's
degrees from Michigan State University, 39 received their
degrees from other colleges or universities in Michigan,
and 24 from colleges or universities outside the state.

The most common undergraduate major, with a variety of
major fields represented, was Secondary Education (28 SS).
Other areas strongly represented were Psychology (14 SS),
Elementary Education (12 S3) and Social Sciences (12 gs).
Less common majors were Art (5 gs), Business (2 SS),
Foreign Language (1 SS), and Speech Therapy (1 SS). Fifty-
seven subjects were currently employed as teachers, with a
mean experience of 4.73 years (25 SS had three years ex-

perience or less and 32 SS had four years or more of

 

 

14

experience). Thirteen gs were full-time students, and the
remaining 18 SS were employed in a number of different

occupations.

Instructors

 

Two faculty members of the department at Michigan
State University conducted the classes at the three sites.
Both held the rank of associate professor and both had

taught counselor education courses for several years.

Treatments

 

A course in Counseling Theories consisting of
eight units was designed by the investigator. Each unit
was written in three forms: prose text, linear programmed
instruction and branching programmed instruction. These
instructional units served as the three treatment condi-
tions.

The units were developed in stages. First, the
tOpics of the units were identified and an outline of each
unit was developed. Review of available literature was
conducted and the prose text instructional materials were
written. Professors and students in the department read
the units and their comments were incorporated in the re-
visions. The units were then administered to two students
with similar academic status to the students to be used

in the study. Attention was given to time necessary for

15

completion of reading assignments and clarity of the in-
formation provided. A post-unit measure followed in which
attention was given to clarity of questions and analysis
of items students marked wrong. Then a final form of the
unit was prepared. On the basis of the prose text units,
the linear and branching programmed instruction units were
develOped. These were also tested with students and re—
vised.
The content of this course was presented in the

following order:

Unit I : From a General Concept of Theory to Counsel-

ing Theories.
Unit II : Review of Counseling Theories, Learning

and Classical Conditioning.

Unit III : Operant Conditioning.

Unit IV : Social Learning.

Unit V : Joseph Wolpe — Reciprocal Inhibition.

Unit VI : John D. Krumboltz - Behavioral Counseling.

Unit VII : Ayllon & Azrin - The Token Economy
Unit VIII: How the Systems Approach and Learning Princi-
ples Integrate into Behavioral Counseling.
The differences between the three treatments, con-
cerning directions given to students prior to beginning
work on a unit, and the presentation of the same material

in the three different ways are illustrated by the

16

following examples taken from instructional units developed

for this investigation.

Treatment N - Prose Text

 

DIRECTIONS

1. Read carefully the following material.

2. You are allowed to take notes for future use.

3. When you feel you know the material, hand it back
to the instructor.

4. You will be asked to answer 20 multiple choice
questions on this material.

 

Unit V: JOSEPH WOLPE - RECIPROCAL INHIBITION

 

Wolpe was educated in South Africa, where he re- .
ceived his M.D. from the University of Witwatersrand,
Johanesbourg in 1948. He served at this university as
a lecturer in the years 1949-1959, except for the
years 1956-1957 when he was at Stanford. From 1960 to
1965 he was a professor of clinical and research psy-
chiatry at the University of Virginia, and since 1965
he has been professor of psychiatry at the School of
Medicine at Temple University.

Dissatisfaction with psychoanalytic methods of
treating anxiety led Wolpe to search for more effec-
tive ways to deal with it. He turned to the experi-
mental works of Pavlov, Jones, Watson and Masserman on
developing experimental neuroses in animals. In the
years 1947 and 1948, Wolpe carried out experiments
that produced anxiety in cats. Anxiety, as demonstra-
ted in the experiments, is not a product of damage or
disruption in the nervous system due to a conflict,
but a product of learning. Cats were conditioned to
approach food at the sound of a buzzer. After the re-
sponse to the buzzer-conditioned stimulus was stable,
a change occurred. After the buzzer sounded, the
animal moved toward the food, but before the food was
reached a shock was delivered to the cat. Shocks
were repeated until the cat ceased to respond to the.
buzzer. As a consequence of this treatment the cats
were resistant to being put into the experimental cage.
They showed signs of anxiety when being in the cage,
and they refused to eat anywhere in the cage even
after two or three days of starvation.

Wolpe found that he could eliminate these anxiety
reactions by feeding the cats in places that were not
similar to those that produced the shock and anxiety.

17

Then, as the animal appeared to be less anxious, Wolpe
gradually approximated the original situation until at
the end the cat could eat in the cage without any dis-
turbance. These experiments are reported in Wolpe's
presentation of a systematic application of learning
theory in his book Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibi-
tion (1958).

 

Treatment L - Linear Programmed Instruction

 

DIRECTIONS

1. Read carefully the following material.
2. Use the card provided to expose only one frame at
a time. Answer what you are asked before looking
at the correct answer which appears at the begin-
ning of the next frame. .r
. When provided with , insert the correct word. 4
4. When provided with , (true/false), choose

one correct answer from the two, and insert it in

the provided blank.
5. When a multiple choice question appears, decide

which is the correct answer. (might be more than

one)
6. When you finish, turn your material in to the

instructor.
7. You will be asked to answer 20 multiple choice

questions on this material.
8. You-may take notes for future use.

 

 

Unit V: JOSEPH WOLPE - RECIPROCAL INHIBITION

Wolpe was educated in South Africa, where he re-
ceived his M.D. from the University of Witwatersrand,
Johanesbourg in 1948. He served at this university as
a lecturer in the years 1949-1959, except for the years
1956-1957 when he was at Stanford. From 1960 to 1965
he was a professor of clinical and research psychiatry
at the University of Virginia, and since 1965 he has
been professor of psychiatry at the School of Medicine
at Temple University.

Dissatisfaction with psychoanalytic methods of
treating anxiety led Wolpe to search for more effec-
tive ways to deal with it. He turned to the experi-
mental works of Pavlov, Jones, Watson and Masserman on
developing experimental neuroses in animals. In the
years 1947 and 1948, Wolpe carried out experiments
that produced anxiety in cats. Anxiety, as demonstra-
ted in the experiments, is not a product of damage or
disruption in the nervous system due to a conflict,

 

18

but a product of learning. Cats were conditioned to
approach food at the sound of a buzzer. After the re—
sponse to the buzzer-conditioned stimulus was stabIe,'
a change occurred. After the buzzer sounded, the.
animal moved toward the food, but before the food was
reached a shock was delivered to the cat. Shocks were
repeated until the cat ceased to respond to the buzzer.
As a consequence of this treatment the cats were re-
sistant to being put into the experimental cage. They
showed signs of anxiety when being in the cage, and
they refused to eat anywhere in the cage even after
two or three days of starvation.

Wolpe found that he could eliminate these anxiety
reactions by feeding the cats in places that were not
similar to those that produced the shock and anxiety.
Then, as the animal appeared to be less anxious, Wolpe
gradually approximated the original situation until at
the end the cat could eat in the cage without any dis-
turbance. These experiments are reported in Wolpe's
presentation of a systematic application of learning
theory in his book Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibi-
tion (1958).

 

 

works of Pavlov, Jones, Watson and
Masserman on developing neuroses in animals and
with the psychoanalytic methods of treating anxiety led
Wolpe to search for more effective ways to deal with
fears and phobias.

 

 

experimentaI, dissatisfaction

According to the experiments, anxiety is a product of

 

 

learning

Wolpe found that he could eliminate anxiety reactions
in cats by feeding them in places which were

(similar to/different from) those that produced the
shock and anxiety.

 

 

different from

Then, as the animal was less anxious, Wolpe
the original situation until at the end the
cat could eat in the cage without disturbance.

 

 

 

gradually approximated

19

Treatment B - BranchinggProgrammed Instruction

 

DIRECTIONS

1. Read carefully the following material.

2. Use the card provided to expose only one frame.
Answer what you are asked before looking at the
correct answer. According to your answer go to
the frame which you are directed to.

3. When provided with , insert the correct word.

4. When provided with , (true/false), choose
one correct answer from the two, and insert it in
the provided blank.

5. When a multiple choice appears, decide which is
the correct answer.

6. When you finish, turn your material in to the in-
structor.

7. You will be asked to answer 20 multiple choice
questions on this material.

8. You may take notes for future use.

 

Unit V: JOSEPH WOLPE - RECIPROCAL INHIBITION

Wolpe was educated in South Africa, where he re-
ceived his M.D. from the University of Witwatersrand,
Johanesbourg in 1948. He served at this university as
a lecturer in the years 1949-1959, except for the years
1956-1957 when he was at Stanford. From 1960 to 1965
he was a professor of clinical and research psychiatry
at the University of Virginia, and since 1965 he has
been professor of psychiatry at the School of Medicine
at Temple University.

Dissatisfaction with psychoanalytic methods of
treating anxiety led Wolpe to search for more effec-
tive ways to deal with it. He turned to the experi-
mental works of Pavlov, Jones, Watson and Masserman
on developing experimental neuroses in animals. In
the years 1947 and 1948, Wolpe carried out experiments
that produced anxiety in cats. Anxiety, as demonstra-
ted in the experiments, is not a product of damage or
disruption in the nervous system due to a conflict,
but a product of learning. Cats were conditioned to
approach food at the sound of a buzzer. After the re-
sponse to the buzzer-conditioned stimulus was stable,
a change occurred. After the buzzer sounded, the
animal moved toward the food, but before the food was
reached a shock was delivered to the cat. Shocks were
repeated until the cat ceased to respond to the buzzer.
As a consequence of this treatment the cats were re-
sistant to being put into the experimental cage. They
showed signs of anxiety when being in the cage, and
they refused to eat anywhere in the cage even after
two or three days of starvation.

20

Wolpe found that he could eliminate these anxiety
reaCtions by feeding the cats in places that were not
similar to those that produced the shock and anxiety.
Then, as the animal appeared to be less anxious, Wolpe
gradually approximated the original situation until at
the end the cat could eat in the cage without any dis-
turbance. These experiments are reported in Wolpe's
presentation of a systematic application of learning
theOry in his book Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibi-~
tion (1958).

(GO TO FRAME 2)
FRAME 2

Which of the following led Wolpe to develop his method?

a) dissatisfaction with psychoanalytic methods of
treating anxiety.

b) discovering that anxiety is a product of damage
in the nervous system.

c) influence of Skinner and Azrin.

d) experiments on developing experimental neuroses
in animals.

 

If your answer is a, d (GO TO FRAME 3)
If your answer is b, 0 (GO TO FRAME 4)
If your answer is b, d (GO TO FRAME 5)
FRAME 3

You said that dissatisfaction with psychoanalyt c
methods of treating anxiety and experiments on ;2xelop-
ing experimental neuroses in animals influenced ttlpe
in developing his method. You-are.rightl Good .: rt!

(GO TO FRAME 6)

 

FRAME 4

No one of your choices is correct! Read the info mation
again'carefully.
(GO TO FRAME l)

 

FRAME 5

You were right in saying that experiments like those
of Pavlov, Jones, Watson and Masserman, on developing
experimental neuroses in animals influenced Wolpe. But-
your second choice was incorrect; neuroses are not a

 

21

product of a damage in the nervous system, but rather
a product of learning. Why don't you try to identify

the correct answer?
(GO TO FRAME 2)

 

FRAME 6
According to the experiments,anxiety is a product of

damage in the nervous system
' (GO TO FRAME 7)
learning
(Go TO FRAME 8)

 

FRAME 7

No, anxiety is not a product of damage in the nervous
system. It is a product of learning.
(GO TO FRAME 9)

 

FRAME 8

Correct! Anxiety is a product of learning!
(GO TO FRAME 9)

 

FRAME 9

Wolpe found that he could eliminate anxiety reactions
produced in cats by feeding them in places
to those that produced the shock and anxiety. .Then

as the animal was less anxious Wolpe
the original situation.

 

 

similar, counter conditioned (GO TO FRAME 10)

different, gradually approximated (GO TO FRAME 11)

 

FRAME 10

You are not clear about the process. Read the follow-
ing:

Wolpe found that he could eliminate these anxiety
reactions by feeding the cats in places that were not
similar to those that produced the shock and anxiety.
Then as the animal appeared to be less anxious, Wolpe
gradually approximated the original situation until at
the end the cat could eat in the cage without any dis-
turbance.

(GO TO FRAME 9)

 

22

FRAME 11

You were right! Feeding the cats in a different place
and then gradually approximating the original situation
is the way to eliminate anxiety reactions.

(GO TO FRAME 12)

 

Procedures

 

Within each of the three classes each individual
student was randomly assigned to one of the three experi-
mental treatments. Thus, in each class there were students
representing each of the treatment groups which were part
of the experiment.

In the first class meeting the following instruc-

tions were distributed to the students:

Education 882

SEMINAR IN COUNSELING THEORIES
Fall 1971

I. Course Description. An introduction to counseling
theories, with emphasis on approaches derived from
principles of learning.

 

II. Text. Patterson, C. H., Theories of counseling and
psychotherapy. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

 

 

III. Purposes.

A. One of the principal aims is to describe and ex-
plain the theoretical basis of the M.A. training
program for counselors at Michigan State Univer-
sity. First, a general concept of theory will
be presented, and the relationship of this gen-
eral concept to theories of counseling will be
explained. General concepts of learning will
then be presented, and theories or programs of
research which utilize these concepts will be
described.. In the final unit the learning con-
cepts and the related theories will be integrated,

23

and their relationship to the M.S.U. program
will be explained.

B. A second purpose is to acquaint students with
major theoretical approaches to counseling which
are not closely tied to principles of learning.

C. A third purpose is to evaluate and improve the
instructional methodology through which counsel—
ing theory is presented in the M.S.U. program.
Your cooperation in this endeavor is earnestly
requested and will be much appreciated.

IV. Procedures. Except for the first and last sessions,
each class meeting will consist of two segments. In
segment 1, the first part of each meeting, you will
receive a written unit dealing with an aspect of
counseling theory. Although the format of your unit
will differ from that presented to some of your
classmates, the content will be the same for every-
one. You will be asked to learn this material in
.accordance with the directions provided. You will
have a maximum of 75 minutes in which to complete'
this task. However, you may stop prior to the time
limit if you are confident that you have learned the
material. You may take notes on the material for
future use if you wish. When you have completed the
.unit, or at the expiration of 75 minutes, you will
be asked to take a short objective test.' The test
will be scored immediately, and you will receive
feedback on your performance.

In segment 2, the concluding portion of each
meeting, you will engage in a class discussion on a
theory not covered by the written units. You will
be asked to complete outside readings in preparation
for each of these discussions.

 

It is important to note that only the written
instructional units were included in the experimental
study. The class discussions mentioned in the above para-
graph were not a variable to be studied in this experiment.

After a short discussion on the content of the
course description a pre-test consisting of 160 objective
questions was administered. This concluded the first class

meeting.

24

In the next eight weekly meetings the subjects
were each given an instructional unit corresponding to
the experimental group to which they had been assigned.

The unit was in one of three forms: prose text, linear
programmed instruction or branching programmed instruction.
The subjects were told that they had 75 minutes to work on
the unit, that note-taking was permitted and that they
could stop at any time they felt they had learned the
material. When they finished, the subjects were required
to report the amount of time spent in studying the unit
and were requested to return their units to the instructor.
Each subject was then given a short objective test on the
material presented in the unit just studied. Immediate
feedback was provided and subjects of all three treatment
groups were given the prose text form of the instructional
unit and the test to take home for further study.

In the last weekly meeting (tenth meeting) the sub-
jects were asked to evaluate the course through a ques-
tionnaire (Appendix B). Then, a post-test consisting of
160 questions (a parallel form of the pre-test) was ad-

ministered.

Instruments

 

The instruments for assessing the retention of
factual information and the application of this informa-

tion to new situations were developed in the following

25

manner. A multiple-choice test consisting of 30 retention
questions and 30 application questions was develOped for
each of five instructional units. The same procedure was
used for the other three instructional units except that
the content of these units was such that only 45—55 ques-
tions could be written.

The following are examples of questions designed
to measure retention:

1. The first step in shaping is to

a) stop every reinforcing activity in order to
raise motivation of client.

b) increase reinforcement of every activity.

c) wait and reinforce only the desired be-
havior.

d) reinforce an existing response which has
some relation to the target behavior.

2. Krumboltz developed what is termed
a) systematic counseling.
b) psychological counseling.
c) counseling and therapy.
d) behavioral counseling.
3. A discriminative stimulus (SD) is a(an)
a) unconditioned stimulus.
b) stimulus that sets the occasion for making
a response.
c) stimulus that leads to nonreinforcement.
d) none of the above.

4. According to Wolpe, while taking the history

of the client special attention is given to

a) early childhood experiences.

b) events that can serve as reinforcers during
treatment.

c) precipitating events that appeared to aggra-
vate the symptoms.

d) personality develOpment of the client.

The following are examples of questions designed

to measure application:

26

l. A client centered researcher will probably

concentrate on

a) activities measured in audible or observable
terms.

b) attitudes, views and values of the client.

c) bodily reactions to different situations
the client encounters.

d) systematic desensitization and its effects
on phobias.

2. Many couples are facing problems in their mar-
riage. A program has been devised to acquaint
seniors in a high school with financial, social,
sexual, and individual problems faced by couples
in marriage. The counseling goal is probably
a) altering maladaptive behaviors.

b) learning the decision making process.
c) socio-emotional counseling.
d) preventive counseling.

 

3. A football player found that every time he
wore red sweat socks, his team would win.
This is an example of
a) Premack's Principle.

b) classical conditioning.
c) fading.
d) superstitious behavior.

4. A student was told that if he would work on'
his math during study, he could use his free
time period for gym. This is an example of
a) time out.

b) Premack's Principle.

c) classical conditioning.
d) superstitious behavior.»

For the units for which 60 questions were devised,
30 retention and 30 application questions were randomly
divided into three equal groups. In the units for which
fewer than 60 questions were constructed, the procedure
was as follows for both retention and application: (a) 10
questions were randomly selected to form one group. (b)
From the remaining questions, 10 additional questions were

selected and formed a second group. (c) The remaining

27

questions were part of the third group. To make this
group consist of 10 questions, the 20 questions from the
other two groups served as a pool of questions from which
the missing ones were selected. Thus, it was possible for
a questions to appear in two groups. Three groups of ques-
tions resulted which are represented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Graphic representation of assigning questions
to the different measures.

 

I

 

 

 

 

group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
retention ‘ 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
A application 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
retention 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
B application 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
C retention 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

application 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

 

Group A consisted of 160 questions, 80 retention
and 80 application, covering all the eight units. The
questions were randomly ordered. This group served as the
pre-test. The same procedure was used with group B, but
these questions served as the post-test.

The questions in group C were divided into eight
groups of 20 questions. Each group of questions measured

retention and application for one instructional unit.

28

The 20 retention and application questions in each group
were randomly ordered. These eight groups of questions
served as immediate measures of each of the units pre-
sented in the weekly meetings.

A questionnaire was developed in order to assess
attitudes and motivation of the subjects (Appendix B).

The attitudinal questions concerned the amount of time to
complete the reading of a unit, the material presented in
a unit, references included in the material, general feel-
ings about the course, and comparison of this type of in-
struction with the traditional lecture type course. Other
questions were asked about attitudes toward repetition
within units and about feelings as to the efficiency of
the course.

Motivational questions were asked about the sub-
ject (Counseling Theories), the degree to which instruc-
tion stimulated outside class thinking, the willingness of
students to take another course in this area and overall

stimulation from the course.

Testable Hypotheses

 

In order to assess the difference between the
three treatments employed as represented by the measures
used, and on the basis of the hypotheses developed and
described in Chapter I, the following testable hypotheses

were formulated:

 

1° M‘I'l = MTZ = MT3

There will be no difference in post-test
scores between the three treatment groups when the
pre-test scores are serving as covariates.
2. There will be no interaction between time of
testing and the factors of location and experimen-
tal treatments.
3. There will be no interaction between the im-
mediate scores of retention and application and
the factors of location and treatments.
4. There will be no interaction between repeated
measures (including time, retention scores and ap-
plication scores) and the factors of location and
experimental treatment.

5' I31:1‘12253

There will be no significant difference in
motivation and attitudes, as measured by a ques-

tionnaire at the end of the three treatments.

Design and Statistical Analysis

 

The design, using the notation of Campbell and
Stanley (1966), can be graphically represented as shown
in Table 2.2.

The statistical analysis for overall gain in the

course (post-test versus pre-test) was a multivariate

30

Table 2.2. Graphic representation of the research design.

_ j -
f —_ ‘

 

 

 

Group Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 .......... Time 9 Time10

 

O X 02 0.0.0.0... x1808

12 0post

 

 

 

L R Opre X2101 XZZOZ I O C O O O O O O O XZBOB Opost
B R Opre X3101 X3202 O O O O O O C O O O X3808 Opost
Key: R - random assignment of subjects to groups.
Oi - measure.
Opre — pre-test (covering the entire course).
Opost - post—test (covering the entire course).
Xij - treatments.

i=l=treatment l

i=2=treatment 2

prose text.

linear programmed instruc-
tion.

i=3=treatment 3 branching programmed in-

struction.

j=unit number
example: X2101 means - linear programmed instruction for
unit I followed by a measure on

unit I (objective test).

analysis of covariance in which pre-test scores served as
covariates. Time, and immediate retention and application
were analyzed using a multivariate repeated measures Finn
program. Attitudes and motivation were analyzed using
Chi-Square tests. The five possible answers for each

question on the questionnaire were ordered so that a weight

 

31

of one was given for the most negative attitude or motiva-
tion and a weight of five was given for the most positive
one. Each question was tested separately on differences
between treatments, between sexes, within each treatment

and within sexes.

Summary

Counselor trainees enrolled at Michigan State
University in East Lansing (afternoon), Grand Rapids and
Pontiac were randomly assigned to one of three instructional
conditions:

1. Prose text instructional material.

2. Linear programmed instruction.

3. Branching programmed instruction.

Pre- and post-tests on the content of eight in-
structional units in counseling theories, short post-tests
following each unit, and a questionnaire dealing with at-
titudes and motivation were administered to each of the
subjects.

Five hypotheses were stated in testable form con-
cerning overall gain from instruction, time spent by
students to study the units, immediate gain, attitudes of
students and motivation of students. A repeated measures
design including pre- and post-testing was adopted and

the dependent variables were tested by multivariate and

32

univariate analysis of covariance and by multivariate and
univariate repeated measures analysis. Attitudes and moti-

vation were analyzed using Chi-Square tests.

 

CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The Control Data 3600 computer system at the Com-
puter Center at Michigan State University was utilized in
calculating the statistical analyses. For each set of
data reported, the program used to analyze the data will
be described. The level of significance for all the tests

was .05.

Retention and Application - Overall Gain

 

Cell means, variances and standard deviations for
pre- and post-testing of retention and application of the
information provided in the course entitled "Seminar in
Counseling Theories” are reported in Tables 3.1 and 3.1.1.

Inspecting Tables 3.1 and 3.1.1, it appears that
there is a difference in performance of the treatment
groups on pre-tests in the different locations. The vari-
ance of the pre-tests and the variance of the post-tests
are similar. Thus, a multivariate analysis of covariance
was used to equalize initial differences and to detect any

differences across treatments and/or locations.

33

Table 3.1.

ing to location and treatment group.

Cell means of retention and application accord-

 

r
_’

 

 

 

 

 

 

East Lansing Grand Rapids Pontiac

group location (n=24) (n=35) (n=32)
pre post pre post pre post
N* ret. 26.25 70.50 25.75 63.17 34.55 66.55
(“‘31) app. 27.50 69.87 30.83 66.50 34.55 65.45
L* ret. 32.50 69.25 30.36 66.14 31.73 62.64
(n=33) app. 37.00 72.00 33.21 69.71 36.82 64.82
3* ret. 34.50 70.12 29.67 68.33 34.10 63.90
(”‘27) app. 34.62 72.37 37.67 69.67 36.90 65.80

*N=prose-text instruction. L=1inear programmed

instruction. B=branching programmed instruction.

Table 3.1.1. Variance and standard deviation of pre-tests
(covariates) and post-tests for retention

and application of information.

 

 

 

variable variance standard deviation
retention; pre-test 71.16 8.44
application; post-test 74.40 8.63
retention; pre-test 47.31 6.87
application; post-test 38.10 6.17

 

The initial step in the analysis was to check and
determine if the covariate employed was in fact signifi-

cantly related to the set of dependent variables. The

35

Chi Square Test for the hypothesis of no association be-
tween dependent variables (retention and application
scores), and the independent variables (prose-text mate-
rial, linear programmed instruction and branching program—
med instruction) equalled 9.2783. With four degrees of
freedom, the probability level was less than .0546 that
the relationship which was found could occur by chance
alone. This probability was quite low. It was decided
that it was a sufficiently improbable occurrence to war-
rant the employment of the covariate in the further
analysis. This decision did, however, cause a loss of
two degrees of freedom to the researcher.

Table 3.2 contains the correlation coefficients
between the covariate and the dependent variable.

Table 3.2. Regression analysis portion of the design with
two covariates.

 

I
t

 

multiple corr. P less

 

variable with covariates F than
retention post-test .2780 3.3505 .0401
application post-test .3248 4.7161 .0116

 

There appears to be a significant correlation be-
tween post-test retention and application scores and the
covariates (pre-tests). Thus, it was approPriate to con-

duct a multivariate analysis of covariance test for

 

36

treatments, locations and interaction between treatments
and locations effects. Table 3.3 gives the results of
such a test.

Table 3.3. Multivariate test for treatments, locations
and interaction effects.

*—
I _ 4

 

 

ce multivariate degrees of P less
sour F value freedom than
location 4.9286 4,158 .0010
treatment .4660 4,158 .7606
interaction' .4463 8,158 .8915

 

It is clear from Table 3.3 that there were no
interaction effects (p<.8915). Thus, the main model did
fit the data collected in this experiment. The next
logical step in the analysis was to investigate the main
effects for treatments and locations. Table 3.3 shows
that there was no significant treatment effect (p<.7606),
but there was a location effect (p<.0010).

In an attempt to identify the location differences,
contrasts for location effects were performed. The resultS*
of the contrasts are reported in Table 3.4.

It is clear from Table 3.4 that the groups at East
Lansing and Grand Rapids performed better than the group

at Pontiac.

 

37

Table 3.4. Contrasts for location effects.

 

;—

 

 

Least . 1 Least
square Standard square Standard
Contrast estimate error of estimate error of
' of estimate of estimate
retention application
East Lansing -
Pontiac 7.09 1.83 6.54 1.61
Grand Rapids -
Pontiac 3.48 1.70 4.48 1.51

 

Retention and Application for
Repeated Measures

 

 

An orthonormalized K matrix was used to transform
the 16 original (raw) scores to 16 new variables which re-
flect the design for the repeated measures. In this case,
the design for repeated measures involved eight testing
times and two types of tests (retention and application).
Thus, the K matrix was employed to change the original
scores into 16 new scores which reflect various contrasts
within the 2x8 design over repeated measures.

With the transformed data, univariate tests for
the grand mean effects of the design over repeated measures
were conducted.‘ The transformed variable called "grand
mean effect" served to indicate if there were any overall
effects across all the repeated measures. Table 3.5 re-

ports the univariate tests for the grand mean effects.

38

Table 3.5. Univariate tests for overall effects.

j
—7

effects between degrees

 

 

across all mean of Univgriate Ptiiis
measures squares‘ freedom
treatment 73.4787 2,82 12.1236 .0001
location 12.6278 2,82 2.0835 .1311
interaction 2.2648 4,82 0.3737 .8268
From Table 3.5 it is clear that there was no inter— M4;

action across all the measures (p<.8268). Given this
result, it was decided to determine whether any location
or treatment effects were present in the data. While
there was no significant location effect (p<.1311), there
was a significant treatment effect (p<.0001).

Since the study did not have equal cell sizes and
since interaction between treatment and repeated measures
was found significant, it will not be necessary to further
examine the location repeated measures interaction. Loca-
tion. was a minor factor in this study, since the experi-
menter was primarily interested in the treatment effect.

The univariate tests revealed a significant treat-
ment effect. It was appropriate to determine whether this
effect was significant using multivariate tests. Table 3.6
reports the results of multivariate tests for interaction

and treatment effects.

 

39

Table 3.6. Multivariate tests for interaction and treat-
ment effects over repeated measures.

 

multivariate degrees of P less
source F value freedom than
treatment 1.6419 30,136 .0300
interaction 1.0130 60,268 .4576

 

The multivariate test showed no interaction effect
(p<.4576), but there was a clear treatment effect (p<.0300).
The next step was to locate where the cause of this effect
lay. Three causes may result in a significant treatment
effect:

a) Interaction between retention and application
and time of presentation with the treatments.

b) Interaction between the retention and applica-
tion dimensions and the treatments.

c) Interaction between time of presentation and
treatments.

The first analysis performed was the test of inter-
action between retention and application and time of pre-
sentation with the treatments. The results of these tests
are reported in Table 3.7.-

From Table 3.7 it is clear that there was no
interaction effect (p<.2651), and there was no interaction

within the treatments (p<.2780). Thus, this possibility

40

Table 3.7. Multivariate test for overall interaction and
interaction within treatment effect.

 

 

 

multivariate degrees of P less
source F value freedom than
Interaction
within 1.2038 14,152 .2780
treatment
Interaction 1.1642 28,275 .2651

 

may be excluded as a cause of the treatment repeated mea-
sures interaction effect.

The next analysis performed was a univariate test
of retention-application and treatment interaction effects.
The results of this test are reported in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8. Univariate test for retention - application
and treatment interaction effects.

 

 

 

r univariate degrees of P less
sou ce- F freedom than
ret. - appl. 0.9865 2,82 .3773

 

Table 3.8 shows that there was no significant dif-
ference between retention-application over repeated measures
and treatment interaction effects. Thus, by eliminating
the other two potential causes for the treatment effect

over repeated measures, the cause of the effect may be

41

expected to be found in the interaction between time of
presentation and treatments.

The next logical step was to examine the mean
performance and standard deviation of each treatment over
repeated measures. This information is reported in Table
3.9, and is presented graphically in Figure 1.

From Figure 1 it is clear that the prose text
group consistently performed lower than the other two
groups. There was, however, an interaction between the
linear and branching programmed instruction. When Table
3.9 is studied, it can be seen that students instructed
by means of branching programmed instruction performed
better than students who learned from linear programmed

instruction in six out of the eight repeated measures.

Time Spent Studying and Repeated Measures

Again, an orthonormal K matrix was employed to
transform the original variables (the amount of time spent
to study each unit) to a new set of variables which re—
flected the design over repeated measures. The design
over repeated measures in this case is an eight-level,
one-way design.

With the transformed data, univariate tests for
the grand mean effects on time over repeated measures were

conducted. Table 3.10 reports the results of these tests.

42

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so mm mummu oumapmafifl co monoom mo mQOHDMH>oU uncommon can mammE aaoo .m.m magma

43

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44

Table 3.10. Univariate tests for overall effects on time.

 

V f “

 

 

 

 

effects across between mean degrees univariate P less

 

all measures squares of freedom F than
location 1860.8358 2,82 15.6162 .0001
treatment 1328.3119 2,82 2.4230 .0950
interaction 570.6397 4,82 1.0409 .3913

 

Table 3.10 shows no interaction effect (p<.3913).
Thus, the main class model did fit the collected data.
Considering main effects, there was no treatment effect
(p<.0950), but there was a location effect (p<.0001).

The next step was to conduct a multivariate test
for interaction in order to see if the data fit the main
class model on a multivariate level. The results are re-

ported in Table 3.11.

Table 3.11. Multivariate tests for interaction.

 

 

multivariate degrees of p less
source F value freedom than
interaction 1.8949 28,275 .0054

 

From Table 3.11 it is clear that there was time,
location and experimental-treatment interaction. The test

shows interaction on a multivariate level which indicated

 

45

that there was an influence of several factors at the same
time. Thus, the main class model did not fit in this case,
and no further tests could be conducted.

Attitudes and Motivation Toward.the‘
Different Treatments Employed

 

 

Attitudes and motivation were tested using Chi
Square Tests. Each question on the questionnaire was
tested separately, and the five possible answers for each
question were ordered so that a value of one was given for
the most negative attitude or motivation and a value of
five for the most positive one. Only significant results
at the .05 level of confidence will be reported.

Question 6 was concerned with the amount of time
to complete the assignment in class. It was considered an
attitudinal question. Reactions of females to the three
treatment conditions are reported in Table 3.12.

The only difference found was for females. The
calculated X2=15.680 exceeds the table values of 05X§=15.51;
thus there was a significant difference. When Table 3.12
is inspected, it seems that the majority of females felt
they had enough time to complete the linear program. How-
ever, 14.28 percent of the females in the prose-text and

23 percent in the branching program felt they did not have

enough~time.

46

Table 3.12. Chi Square Test of different treatment effects
on females (question 6).

 

 

 

l 2 3 4 5
group N* 1 l 0 6 6
(n=l4) (7.14%) (7.14%) (0.00%) (42.86%) (42.86%)
group L* 0 0 4 8 3
(n=15) (0.00%) (0.00%) (26.67%) (53.33%) (20.00%)
group B* 0 3 0 4 6
(n=13) (0.00%) (23.08%) (0.00%) (30.77%) (46.15%)

 

*N = prose-text instruction; L = linear programmed
instruction; B = branching programmed instruction.

Were references included in the material distract-
ing? Tables 3.13 and 3.14 report reactions to this ques-
tion. The results of the two tests will be interpreted
together.

Table 3.13. Chi Square Test on sex differences across all
treatments (question 9).

 

 

 

l 2 3 4 5
males 2 6 6 21 4
(n=39) (5.13%) (15.38%) (15.38%) (53.85%) (10.26%)
females 3 3 21 15 0

(n=42) (7.14%) (7.14%) (50.00%) (35.71%) (0.00%)

 

47

Table 3.14. Chi Square Test on sex difference in the
linear group (question 9).

 

1 2 3 4 5
males 1 2 0 7 2
(n=12) (8.33%) (16.67%) (0.00%) (58.33%) (16.67%)
females 0 0 7 8 0
(n=15) (0.00%) (0.00%) (46.67%) (53.33%) (0.00%)

 

Taking all treatments into consideration from Table
3.13, it was clear that while females were neutral toward
this question (50.00%), males were more positive toward
references included in materials (64.11%). This was a
significant difference, since the calculated X2=14.442 ex-
ceeds the .05x2=9.49. Table 3.14 attributes this differ-
ence to attitudes of the linear programmed instruction
group (X2=ll.888>9.49).

Question 14 asked the subjects to react to the
following statement: "I frequently found my mind wondering
while completing class assignments." Results of testing
this question are reported in Table 3.15 and 3.16.

There was a significant difference between males
and females (X2=10.798>9.49) across all treatments. Table
3.15 shows that while males were mostly positive (64.11%),

females varied in their attitudes from negative (50.00%)

to positive (33.33%). From Table 3.16 it is clear that

48

Table 3.15. Chi Square Text on sex difference across all
treatments (question 14).

 

 

 

l 2 3 4 5
males 2 5 7 21 4
(n—39) (5.13%) (12.82%) (17.95%) (53.85%) (10.26%)
females 4 l7 7 13 l
(n=42) (9.52%) (40.48%) (16.67%) (30.95%) (2.38%)

 

Table 3.16. Chi Square Test on sex differences in the
branching group (question 14).

 

 

 

1 2 3 4 5
males 1 0 l 10 l
(n=13) (7.69%) (0.00%) (7.69%) (76.92%) (7.69%)
females 0 7 3 3 0
(n=13) (0.00%) (53.85%) (23.08%) (23.08%) (0.00%)

 

this difference was due to the attitudes toward the branch-
ing programmed instruction in which males clearly appeared
to have a positive attitude (84.61%), while females had a
more negative attitude (53.85%). The differences were
significant (X2=l3.769>9.49).

Table 3.17 reports attitudes toward efficiency of

self instruction as used in this course.

49

Table 3.17. Chi Square Test on sex difference across all
treatments (question 18).

 

I

 

1 2 3 4 5
males 0 4 4 21 10
(n=39) (0.00%) (10.26%) (10.26%) (53.85%) (25.64%)
females 2 10 10 13 7
(n=42) (4.76%) (23.81%) (23.81%) (30.95%) (16.67%)

 

What were the attitudes toward efficiency of self
instruction as used in this course? Although the results
were only close to being significant (X2=9.459<9.49), it
is important to report these results. There was no dif-
ference between treatments, but there was a difference
between sexes. Again, males were more positive (79.49%),
while females varied in their opinions.

Table 3.18 reports the differences between sexes
in the branching group concerning interest and stimulation
the course elicited.

Interest and stimulation in the branching group as
compared to other courses were clearly positive (38.46%
and 46.15%) in the case of the males. The females, how-
ever, varied in their Opinion. This was considered a
motivational question and, again, was significant

(x2=11.200>9.49).

50

Table 3.18. Chi Square Test on sex difference in the
branching group (question 19).

 

l 2 3 4 5
males 0 0 2 . 5 6
(n=13) (0.00%) (0.00%) (15.38%) (38.46%) (46.15%)
females 0 5 3 5 0
(n=13) (0.00%) (38.46%) (23.08%) (38.46%) (0.00%)

 

Question 13 was a general question that took into
consideration treatments as well as the discussion part of
the course. Table 3.19 and Table 3.20 report the results
of testing reactions to this question.

Table 3.19. Chi Square Test of different treatment effects
(question 13).

 

l 2 3 4 5
groupN* l 2 l4 7 4
(n=28) (3.57%) (7.14%) (50.00%) (25.00%) (14.29%)
group L* 0 3 4 l9 1
(n=27) (0.00%) (11.11%) (14.81%) (70.37%) (3.70%)
group B* 0 l 9 15 l
(n=26) (0.00%) (3.85%) (34.62%) (57.69%) (3.85%)

 

*N = prose-text instruction; L = linear programmed
instruction; B = branching programmed instruction.

51

Table 3.20. Chi Square Test of sex differences across all
treatments (question 13).

 

 

1 2 3 4 5
males 0 2 7 26 4
(n=39) (0.00%) (5.13%) (17.95%) (66.67%) (10.26%)
females 1 4 20 15 2
(n=42) (2.38%) (9.52%) (47.62%) (35.71%) (4.76%)

There was a clear indication of a neutral response
from the prose text group, while the linear and branching

2=16.667>15.51). This

groups were positive (Table 3.19, X
is the result of the difference in the reactions of males
and females. Males were more positive (76.93%); females
were neutral (47.62%) and only slightly tending toward

positive reactions (40.47%).. This difference between

sexes was significant at the .05 level (X2=ll.200>9.49).

Summary

A significant correlation was found between the
covariates and the dependent variables, thus supporting
the use of ANCOVA to test the overall gain in the course.
No evidence of significant differences between treatments
were found, but subjects in all threatments performed better

on the post-test. A significant location effect, however,

52

was found: the groups at East Lansing and Grand Rapids
performed better than the group at Pontiac.

When repeated measures were considered, a signifi-
cant difference was found that indicated a consistently
better performance of the linear and branching groups over
the prose text group. An interaction was found between
linear and branching groups, with the branching group
scoring higher on six of eight measures administered. No
significant difference was found in the time spent by each
group in studying the material.

Attitudes and motivations were tested using Chi
Square tests. Few significant effects were found. Most
of the differences were between sexes, males being more
positive toward written material while the females were
neutral or negative. A discussion of these results will

be presented in the next chapter.’

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Summary

The purpose of this study was to assess the dif-
ferential effect which prose text, linear programmed
instruction and branching programmed instruction may have
on measures of retention of information, application of
information, time spent in study, and finally on motiva-
tion and attitudes of counselor trainees toward each of
the three types of instruction. It was suggested that
programmed instruction might be a promising way of im-
proving instruction in a Counseling Theories Course at
the graduate level and that a systematic investigation
should be made of this instructional procedure.

Ninety-one master's degree candidates in counseling
at Michigan State University enrolled in a Counseling
Theories course being taught at three locations (East Lan-
sing, Grand Rapids and Pontiac), were randomly assigned to
one of the three instructional conditions:

a) Prose text instructional material.

b) Linear programmed instruction.

c) Branching programmed instruction.

53

54

Pre- and post-tests covering the content of the en—
tire course, post-tests that followed each instructional
unit, and a questionnaire concerning attitudes and motiva-
tion of students were administered to each of the subjects.

Five hypotheses were stated in testable form.

These hypotheses were constructed to examine the following
variables of interest: overall gain, time, immediate gain,
attitudes and motivation. A repeated measures design in-
cluding pre- and post—testing was utilized. The dependent
variables were tested in the following way: pre- and
post-tests by means of a univariate and multivariate analy-
sis of covariance, repeated measures (immediate gain) by a
univariate and multivariate repeated measures analysis
using a Finn multivariate program, and the motivation and
attitudes of students to the course by a series of chi

square tests.

Discussion

 

The results of the present study can be summarized
as follows:

a) No overall significant difference was found
between the treatment groups. A location effect, however,
was found. Students taking the course at the Pontiac site
scores significantly lower on the post-test than did stu—

dents at East Lansing or Grand Rapids.

55

b) A significant difference between treatments
over repeated measures was found. The prose text group
consistently scored significantly lower than the other two
groups on the repeated measures administered. There was
also an interaction between the linear and the branching
groups. Thus, no cofiplusion can be drawn about differ-
ences between those two groups. The branching group, how-
ever, performed better than the linear group on six of the
eight measures administered.

c) No significant difference was found between the
treatment groups for time spent in study of instructional
units over repeated measures.

d) There was a significant difference between
treatments among females when they were asked whether there
was enough time for study. All the subjects in the linear
group reported they had enough time, while 14.28 percent
in the prose text group and 23.08 percent in the branching
group reported they did not have enough time for study.

Across all treatments males appeared to consider
the self instructional material presented in the course
to be effective, while females varied in their reactions.
Differences were also found between sexes in the linear
and branching groups. In the linear group males were
positive toward the references included in the material.
Females, on the other hand, were only neutral or tended

toward a positive attitude. In the branching group males

56

did not find it difficult to concentrate while completing
class assignments, and they thought the material was
stimulating and interesting. Females reported that con-
centration was difficult, and they varied in their
opinions about interest and stimulation produced by the
material.

The course as a whole, including self instructional
material as well as the discussion format, evoked different
reactions from the sexes. Males were again positive, while
females were more neutral and only slightly tended toward
positive reactions.

The reported results may be attributed to a number
of possible contributory factors: theory, sampling, de-~
sign and statistics, instrumentation and treatments. Each

of these factors will be considered below.

Theory

The literature concerning programmed instruction
suggests that programmed instruction has the potential to
be more effective than other traditional ways of instruc-
tion (prose text or lecture). This hypothesis was not
supported by this study when only the overall gains be-
tween pre-tests and post-tests are considered. However,
certain procedures used in conducting the investigation
might account for lack of overall differences between

treatments.

57

The potential power of the linear and branching
programmed instructional units may have been reduced since
all subjects involved in the study were given c0pies of
the prose text instructional units after each class to
take home with them for review purposes. The students
felt they needed some material to take home in order to be
able to prepare for the final exam. The instructors and
the investigator, as well as the chairman of the guidance
committee, wanted to avoid feelings of antagonism toward
the material which might influence performance and intro-
duce an uncontrolled variable. Thus, it was decided to
give each student at the end of each session the prose text
unit. This procedure started at the second meeting of the
classes.

The possible interaction caused by students having
the same material for review may have equalized treatment
differences. This possibility is supported by the finding
of significant differences (programmed instruction groups
scored higher) when immediate gains following instruction
were tested by repeated measures. If the opportunity for
review of materials had not been provided,significant dif-
ferences in overall gains might have been obtained.

While overall gains were not obtained, the program-
med instruction (linear and branching) was more effective
than the prose text on short term measures (repeated mea-

sures). Students' success on an individual instructional

58

unit can be used, therefore, as a reinforcer and a motiva-
tional factor in programmed instruction. This is in
accordance with Skinner's and Crowder's point of view that
immediate knowledge of correct responses is a reinforcing
event.

Little has been reported in the literature about
sex difference. It seems from the results of this study
that the sexes differ in their attitudes toward prose
text and programmed instruction. It is probable that this
difference is a significant factor in affecting performance,

and it should be further explored.

Sampling

 

A question of interest in the interpretation of
the results is whether the subjects in this study differ
systematically from subjects in other studies when compar-
ing their characteristics. It is known that Michigan
State University had no special criteria beyond under-
graduate grade point average for selecting counseling.
candidates for the counselor training program. Although
no direct comparison can be made because not every study
reports sampling characteristics, a comparison with an
earlier class of counselor trainees at Michigan State
University reported by Rowe (1971) revealed that the sub—
jects in this study were older by three years when means

were compared (25.6 versus 28.6). Another distinctive

59

characteristic was that 57 out of 91 subjects of
this study were currently employed as teachers whose
average experience was 4.73 years. Although there are no
data with which to compare these facts, it seemed to the
experimenter to be a common characteristic of a beginning
class in the Michigan State University Counselor Training
Program. Because of these reasons, generalizations from
this study should be made either to differences in sexes
among counselor trainees who have been accepted to this
particular program, or to counselor trainees having the
same characteristics as those described in Chapter II.

The location effect found when overall gains were
examined raised the following question: did the groups
at East Lansing and Grand Rapids perform better than the
group at Pontiac on the measures administered because this
group was distinctive in some characteristics when com-
pared to the two other groups? Investigation of this
problem did indeed reveal some differences. The mean age
of the Pontiac group was 30.03 years when compared to the
mean age of 28.6 years for the entire experimental pOpula-
tion. An additional distinctive characteristic is that
26 out of 31 subjects (83.9%) in Pontiac were currently
employed as teachers, while in the total experimental
group the corresponding numbers were 57 out of 91 subjects
(62.6%). Finally, this location difference might be at-

tributed to differential influence of instructors. The

60

two groups at East Lansing and Grand Rapids were taught by
one of the instructors, while the group at Pontiac was
taught by the other. From written comments found on the
questionnaires filled out by subjects at Pontiac, it can

be concluded that they felt they would have benefited more
by having the instructor lecture or use other instructional
methods without the restrictions imposed by using only the
instructional units and procedures developed for this in-
vestigation.

Two other sampling variables which might have
contributed to the outcomes of this study involve (l) the
expectations of students who enter counselor training
programs, and (2) graduate students' acceptance of educa-
tional technology (programmed instruction) as a viable
means of instruction. As no data were collected for the
investigation of these variables, logic is the only tool
for use in discussing their possible influence.

Blocher (1967) reported that a mantle of mysticism
lies over the development of counseling as a professional
field. He suggested that Messianic figures in counseling
translate "deeply moving personal experience into universal
terms" which attract a group of disciples. These disciples
generalize the experiences of such a leader into the "most
widely applicable terms." Students who may expect deeply
moving or conversion-like experiences from their counselor

training programs could reject or find programmed

61

instruction to have negative connotations for learning.
Expectations for a highly personal experience might cause
programmed learning to be perceived as mechanical, cold,
and manipulative. Also supporting this possibility is
the current popularity of the view of those who blame
technology for creating a dehumanized, mechanistic world.
As pointed out in the introduction to this study,
no research concerning use of programmed learning has
been reported in the literature of counselor education.
Little use has been made of educational technology in
graduate courses. It is conceivable that being unfamiliar
with this method of instruction had a negative influence

on the subjects of this study.

Design and Statistical Analysis

 

The concern here is whether the results of this
study were caused by inadequacies in research design or
statistical analysis. There are at least two considera-
tions that should be discussed.

First, seven subjects were eliminated from the
study, and the scores of seven others were predicted. It
could be that the seven who did not attend two or more
class meetings and were eliminated have certain attitudes
toward this type of instruction. Had they been part of
the study, they might have influenced the results in a

certain direction. The scores-of seven subjects predicted

62

by a regression equation are only approximations of their
missing scores.

Second, in interpreting the chi-square tests, one
should take into consideration that all the tests were
performed on the same sample and thus violate the require-
ment of independence. It was possible that by chance
alone some of the chi-square tests showed statistical
significance, while in reality they may not be significant.

These two considerations, however, do not seem
powerful enough to influence the results of the treatments
main effects. Thus, it is concluded that the design and
the statistical analysis were adequate. But, if possible,
it is desirable to avoid these factors or control them in

research conducted in the future.

Instruments

 

The measures used in this study were devised by
the experimenter. Thus, there were no reports on reliabi-
lity and validity of the instruments. However, the ques-
tions included in the instruments were reviewed by the
instructors and other professors in the department and
were.found adequate. For this reason we might say that
there was content validity in the instruments. In class-
room situations this is often the only type of validity

available.

63

Lack of reliability may very well account for an
unexplained variance or an error variable.- If this in
fact happened, it might have reduced the possibility of

finding significant results.

Treatments

 

Was there an adequate presentation of the treat—
ments? Were there uncontrolled variables that might have
affected the treatment conditions? These questions will
be considered under this rubric.

The treatments were administered at the end of a
three-hour period, and only in the late afternoon or even—
ing hours. The students were tired at that hour and tried
to finish as quickly as possible and go home. For these
reasons, it might be that real effects of the treatments
were not reflected in the scores obtained.

An additional factor that should be discussed is
the format and printing of the material. Because of bud-
get considerations, the format was that of a handout and
not a formal programmed instruction book. Factors related
to attractiveness of material, prestige, influence of a
book and readability may have been introduced.

The format of the branching programmed instruction
made it difficult to locate the correct frames in some
instances. Also, it was possible for students to see the

correct answers to several frames before attempting to

64

answer questions. Another factor which could not be con-
trolled due to pressures of time was printing and grammati-
cal errors.

It seems possible that problems associated with
the format, time, and editing may have affected the results
of this study. Therefore, an attempt to control these
variables should be made in studies conducted in the

future.

Conclusions

 

The purpose of this study was to assess the dif-
ferential effects of prose text, linear programmed
instruction and branching programmed instruction on overall
gain, immediate gain, time spent in study, and finally on
motivation and attitudes. The results provided information
on new aspects of using programmed instruction with
counselor trainees which should be investigated in the
future.

The conclusion to be drawn from this study is that
these three types of instruction have an effect on immedi-‘
ate scores over repeated measures. The scores of SS
receiving the prose text were, on all the repeated measures,
lower than the other two groups (linear and branching pro-
grammed instruction). However, no conclusions can be

drawn on differential effects of linear and branching

I.IEI.III|II «III. ‘III'. .I

 

65

programmed instruction although the branching group per-
formed better On six out of the eight measures administered.

Differences in attitudes and motivation across
treatments were found among females. Only females re-
ceiving the linear programmed instruction felt they had
enough time to complete their class assignment. A few in
the other two treatments felt that they did not have
enough time. Across all treatments males appeared to
consider self instructional material, as presented in the
course, effective, while females varied in their reactions.

Differences between sexes were found in the linear
and branching groups. In the linear group, males were
more positive toward the references included in the
material. Females were mostly neutral, with a trend to-
ward a positive attitude. In the branching group, males
were able to concentrate while completing class assignments
and thought the material was stimulating and interesting.
Females reported that their minds wandered while complet-
ing class assignments and varied in their Opinions about
the amount of interest and stimulation produced by the
material.

In general, males appeared to be more positive
toward programmed instruction, while females tended to be
somewhat hostile toward this type of instruction. The
question to be investigated seems to be: Do males really

benefit more from programmed instruction than females?

66

In view of problems encountered during the investi—
gation, the following recommendations are suggested:

a) An effort should be made to have equal cell
sizes in the design. This precaution will enable flexi--
bility in analysis and interpretation.

b) The time of administering the treatments should
be changed to morning or early afternoon so that the fatigue
factor might be better controlled.

c) The effects of pre-test and knowledge of re-
sults on pre-test on final performance should be explored.

d) Varying the sex of the instructor might have_
an effect on performance or attitudes. This variable
should also be further explored.

e) The immediate treatment effects should be in-
vestigated as potential possible reinforcers and incentives
for segments of a larger course.

In conclusion, the results of the present study
indicated new aspects of using prose text,1inear and
branching programmed instruction in a course. Differences
between sexes appeared to be one of the primary variables
that should be further investigated. Programmed instruc-
tion appeared to be a promising mode of instruction, and
further research should be conducted to identify its

major effects.

L IST OF REFERENCES

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Blocher, D. H. What can counseling offer clients? Im-
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Journal of Programmed Instruction, 1962, i, 9-18.

Patterson, C. H. Theories of counseling andppsychotherapy.
New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Pressey, S. L. A simple apparatus which gives tests and
scores--and teaches. School Sociology, 1926, 23,
373-376.

 

69

Pressey, S. L. A machine for automatic teaching of drill
material. School Sociolpgy, 1927, 25, 549-552.

 

Pressey, S. L. A third and fourth contribution towards
the coming "industrial revolution" in education.
School Sociology, 1932, 33, 668-672.

 

Pressey, S. L. A puncture of the huge "programming boom?"
Tucson, Ariz. (undated--probably written in 1963,
ditto). In W. Schramm (ed.), The research on pro-
grammed instruction, 1964, 35, 87.

 

 

Roe, A. A comparison of branching methods for programmed
learning. Journal of Educational Research, 1962,
§§, 407-416.

 

Rowe, W. The effect of short-term group counseling and
cognitiVe learning.on.a.measure of self-actualization-
of counselors in trainipg.. Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971.

 

 

 

Rowntree, D. Basically branching:e a handbook for program-
mers. London: Macdonald & Co., 1966.

Schramm, W._ The research on programmed instruction.r
U. S. Office of Education Bull, 1964, 35.

 

Shull, H. I. Programmed instruction: a comparison of
learning and retention of information learned
through the use of small step (linear) programmed
instruction and large step (branching) programmed
instruction. (An unpublished dissertation.)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30,
5266a.

 

Skinner, B. F. The science of learning and the art of
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Skinner, B. F. Teaching machines. Science, 1958, 128,
969-977.

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ford: Stanford University Press, 1958.

 

APPENDIX A

PREDICTION OF MISSING SCORES

PREDICTION OF MISSING SCORES

Several scores on the weekly instruments on reten-
tion, application and time spent on study were not avail-
able for reasons of illness or absence from class. For
these students who missed only one session it was felt
that rather than discard data, a prediction could be made
on the missing scores based on the remaining scores that
the students attained in the other sessions. It was
decided that the best prediction method available would
be a multiple regression analysis (Graybill, 1961). Thus,
in each case of missing data, the regression equation
weighted each of the obtained scores to predict the
absent scores. These predicted scores were employed in

the further analysis.

70

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES
AND MOTIVATION

Counseling Systems Research
and Training Project

Michigan State University

College of Education

COURSE EVALUATION

Counseling Theories
ED 882

Dear Student:

We are gathering data of student opinions and impressions
of the Counseling Theories course, in order to improve the
organization and teaching of the present materials.

Please react to the following statements to the best of
your knowledge and judgment. Your reactions will help us
design a better and more effective learning experience
for future students. In your answers refer only to the
written material presented to you throughout the course.

22 not put down your names. Just answer by circling the
letter corresponding to your chosen answers.

Thank you for your cooperation.

Counseling Research Project

71

72

Where did you take the course?
a. East Lansing

b. Grand Rapids

0. Oakland

Your group was:

a. N

b. L

c. B

What is your sex?

a. Male
b. Female

The units were too long and presented too much

material!

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

The self tests at the end of each unit were very

helpful.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

There was always enough time for me to complete read-

ing the assignment in class.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

10.

11.

73

I find the subject of Counseling Theories very inter-

esting.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

I frequently found myself thinking about material
presented, outside of class.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

strongly agree
agree

neutral

disagree

strongly disagree

.Frequent references included in the material were

very distracting.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

strongly agree
agree

neutral

disagree

strongly disagree

Circle each of the words that tell how you generally
feel about the subject of Counseling Theories as
presented in the written units:

interesting boring worthless
dull useful cool

fun useless square
too hard too easy groovy
exciting very important up tight

The course was better organized than a traditional
lecture-type course.

strongly agree
agree

neutral

disagree

strongly disagree

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

74

If it was an elective course, I would not take the
course again.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

Overall, taking everything into consideration, I
would rate this course as:

a. excellent

b. good
c. fair
d. poor

e. very poor

I frequently found my mind wondering while completing
class assignments.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

I was stimulated by this course and would like to
take another course in Counseling Theories and/or
develop my knowledge by self reading.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

Getting immediate results of the tests was an effec-
tive way to point out what parts of the material
should be read again carefully.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

17.

18.

19.

75

The repetition within units and between units was
very objectionable.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

0. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

Self instruction as used in this course results in
less efficient use of students time.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

This has been one of the most interesting and stimulat-
ing courses I've had in college.

a. strongly agree

b. agree

c. neutral

d. disagree

e. strongly disagree

Thank you for your cooperation!