l m x. I H w i '. W M N ml THE CLENiCAL VALIDATEQN OF THE F‘UPELLARY’ RESPQNSE: THE EFFECT (3F CERQWAIYC AND ACRRM’ATEC STEMULE UPON PUPRL RE$PQN§WETY M‘L‘JW 1M 0’33 \M I _-cnoooo '—1 Timszs Ito? Hm Dogma 05 2331. D. WCEEGM STATE UREVERSFY Richard Louis Mifiler 1966 1““ LIBRA R y Michigan 'State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE CLINICAL VALIDATION OF THE PUPILLARY RESPONSE: THE EFFECT OF CHROMATIC AND ACHROMATIC STIMULI UPON PUPIL RESPONSIVITY presented by Richard Louis Miller has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree ianthng [if] f 7512/ Major professor DuffM’LP/ 3/745 0-169 gums LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE CLINICAL VALIDATION OF THE PUPILLARY RESPONSE: THE EFFECT OF CHROMATIC AND ACHROMATIC STIMULI UPON PUPIL RESPONSIVITY presented by Richard Louis Miller has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M degree inRSJLChQLQ gy BZ/fw 6/ Duffs/M/ 6/2/24: 0-169 ABSTRACT THE CLINICAL VALIDATION OF THE PUPILLARY RESPONSE: THE EFFECT OF CHROMATIC AND ACHROMATIC STIMULI UPON PUPIL RESPONSIVITY by Richard Louis Miller This investigation was an attempt to validate the pupillary response as an objective measure of the general- ized response by the organism to emotional excitation. Thirty male §s who were not color blind and who did not wear glasses were asked to look into the aperture of a specially constructed light-tight apparatus. Four experimental stimuli were projected onto a screen in the apparatus for five seconds each. While the gs viewed the stimuli a 16 mm. motion picture camera photographed their pupils at the rate of four frames per second. The projected stimuli consisted of three chromatic slides (red, blue, and green) and one achromatic (gray). The four slides were each homogeneous and all four were equated for brightness inten- sity. Independent judges had previously rated the chromatic stimuli as having more emotional elicitation value than the achromatic stimulus. Rankings by the experimental §s agreed with the judges ratings. Richard Louis Miller The experimental hypothesis predicted that pupils manifest more responsivity, as measured by change in pupil diameter, when exposed to chromatic (emotional) stimuli than when exposed to achromatic (neutral) stimuli. This hypothesis was supported. There was a significant effect of color upon pupil diameter (p. < .OOl) and the mean pupil response to each of the chromatic stimuli was significantly greater than the mean pupil response to the achromatic stimulus (p. < .01). The pupillary response was shown to be an initial contraction and return in response to all stimuli followed by a clear dilation in response to the chromatic stimuli and little response to the achromatic stimulus. . The results of the present investigation indicated that the pupillary response can be used as a measure of the generalized emotional response within the organism. Impli- cations of these results were discussed and suggestions were made for further research. Committee Chairman Date: 62/42/41:? IEIJQéL THE CLINICAL VALIDATION OF THE PUPILLARY RESPONSE: THE EFFECT OF CHROMATIC AND ACHROMATIC STIMULI UPON PUPIL RESPONSIVITY By Richard Louis Miller A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1966 When I look back I see a lifetime When I look forward I see a new world. Dedicated, With Love, To my wife, Louise, and my dear friends, Josephine Morse and Bill Kell ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The process of enabling a student to actualize some of his creative potentials is undoubtedly far from being a mean task. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Chairman, Dr. Bill L. Kell and my Committee, Drs. William Mueller, David Raskin, and Norman Abeles for their "enabling" both during and after this investigation. The technical aspects of this investigation called for expert counsel and this counsel was generously given by .Mr. William Hughes and Mr. Maurice Strahl. Mr. Hughes was formerly Flim Production Supervisor, Instructional Media Center, M.S.U., and is now with the Michigan Department of Health. Mr. Strahl is Chief Photographer, Michigan Tourist Council. Thanks to Ed Rubel for his consultation regarding statistical procedures. Thanks to Dr. Charles Hanley for being a professor's professor. Thanks to my friend and colleague Jim Guinan for being both. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . l Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 iv LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table Page 1. Summary of the analysis of variance for the rating of the emotionality of the experimental stimuli by A groups of judges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2. Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during 5 second exposures to each of the experimental stimuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9 3. Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during the first half of the 5 second exposure to each of the experimental stimuli . . . . . . 20 A. Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during the second half of the 5 second exposure to each of the experimental stimuli . . . . . . 21 Figure l. Pupil diameter over 5 second period in response to chromatic and achromatic stimuli O O O O O O I 0 O I O O O O O O 18 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 B. Order of targets for each §,. . . . . . . 41 C. Rating of emotionality of experimental stimuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3 D. Ranking of emotionality of experimental stimuli by experimental §S . . . . . . A5 E. Pupillary responses of 83 to experimental stimuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7 F. Ranking of S's actual pupil size in response to experimental stimuli . . . 52 vi INTRODUCTION Review of the Literature Throughout the history of psychology, there have been many attempts to develop an objective physiological measure of the internal affective state of the organism. One such measure that has come into consideration is pupil reactivity. Lowenstein and Loewenfeld (I962L drawing on 7,000 publications dealing with pupil innervation, have stated that: The pupillary sphincter muscle is activated by parasympathetic (cholenergic) nerve fibers from the ciliary ganglion, the dilator muscle by sympathetic (adrenergic) nerves from the superior cervical gang- lion. The iris is thus a representative of all smooth muscle structures reciprocally innervated by the auto- nomic nervous system . . . the iris is, thus, at all times under the influence of a labile dynamic equili- brium of its autonomic innervation whereby sympathetic parasympathetic and supranuclear mechanisms are simul- taneously active in varying degrees. 7p. 235 It follows from this that the pupil is almost in constant motion and that its activity is increased by sen- sory or emotional stimulation and by spontaneous thoughts and emotions. Even in a situation without light, the pupil may oscillate over a wide range (Lowenstein and Loewenfeld, 1962). A more recent publication is this area (Morgan,l965) corroborated these findings and stated that a sympathetic effect that may be seen during the experiencing of a strong emotion is that the pupils of the eyes dilate. More than thirty years ago Bender (1933) noted that It is known that the iris is controlled by two re- ciprocating muscle fibers, the circular sphincter with oculomotor innervation of the parasympathetic type and the radial dilatator muscle fibers innervated from the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic type. p. 16. Bender devised an experiment to investigate the effect of various emotional stimuli upon pupillary reflex activity. He found that emotional stimuli, namely a gunshot and pre- sentation of a white rat caused inhibition of response to light. He concluded that pupillary changes could be brought about psychically as well as reflexly and that mental or emotional states of the organism could thus effect the pupil. This study did not attract much attention, since the metho- dology was extremely primitive. However, Bender must be credited with the idea of using motion picture frames in order to obtain a measure of pupil dilation and contraction in an "emotional" situation. Although scientific methodology and scientific apparatusrmnmesince improved immensely, the literature con- cerning the nature of the pupillary response is a mass of confusion and contradiction. While textbooks continue to state that the pupil may be conditioned and that its response is affected by a variety of stimuli, scientific corroboration of these statements in greatly lacking. Some examiners have reported that they were able to condition the pupil (Cason, 1922; Hudgins, 1933; Baker, 1938; and Gerall and Woodward, 1958); however, replications as well as new and original attempts have yielded negative results (Steckle, 1936; Wedell, Taylor, and Skolnick, 19A0; Hilgard, Miller and Olson, 19u1; Hilgard, Dutton, and Helmick, 19u9; Young, 195“; Crasilneck and McCranie, 1956; and Young, 1958). Explanations of such conflicting results are not convincing, and they vary from procedural differences to hippus--a dis- turbance of the integration of sympathetic and parasympa- thetic actions (Crasilneck and McCranie, 1956). A recent attempt to study the relationship between pupil reactivity and the internal state of the organism has been made by Hess who has been attempting to measure pupil dilatation and contraction in response to such variables as interest (Hess and Polt, 1960), mental activity (Hess and Polt, 196A) and attitude (Hess, 1965). Considering, as did Bender, that the determination of pupil size is complexly related to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, Hess (Hess and Polt, 1960) began by investigating the effect of visual stimuli of various interest values upon pupil size in order to test the hypothesis that pupillary changes mediated by the sympathetic division, such as the changes we found in animals, could be used in human beings as both a quantitative and qualitative measure of greater or less interest value and pleasure value of visual stimuli. p. 239. The study involved photographing the S's eye with a 16 mm. camera while S viewed a series of test pictures and control pictures. Hess stated that "Brightness was kept 'relatively' (this author's quotes) constant in order to rule out any effect of changes in level of illumination on the size of the pupil." -He concluded that "these data show that there is a clear sexual dichotomy in regard to the interest value of the pictures." In a second study, (Hess and Polt, 1964) using a light controlled environment, Hess measured the pupil res- ponse of the §S while they were engaged in multiplication problems. He concluded that there is a correlation between pupil dilatation and problem difficulty. In a third study Hess (1965) investigated the re- lationship between attitude and pupil size. In this eXperi- ment the S peered into a box and looked at a screen onto which the stimulus was projected. A mirror below the S's line of sight reflected the image of his eye into a motion picture camera. Based on data obtained by using stimuli that were matched in brightness with control stimuli, Hess reported that his technique yielded "more accurate repre- sentations of an attitude than can be obtained with even a well-drawn questionnaire or some devious 'projective' tech- nique." In his most current study (Hess, Seltzer and Shlien, 1965) interestingly enough titled "A pilot study," Hess reported that a measurement in changes of pupil size permitted clear cut discrimination between heterosexual and homosexual subjects. The above described research certainly raises some thought provoking ideas concerning the emOtional nature of the pupillary response. However, close examination of the methodologies involved revealed that many objections could be raised with regard to their scientific validity. In addition, in writing all four studies Hess furnished very sparse de— tails, and his statistical analyses were questionable at best. Furthermore, replication of Hess's experiments by this ex- perimenter has been impossible. It would seem that a more rigorous investigation of the meaning of pupil response is needed if we are to know something of its usefulness as a measure of internal affective state. It is the purpose of the present investigation to validate the pupil response as being an objective measure of an internal affective state. In brief, this study is an attempt to measure pupil response to chromatic and achromatic stimuli. Scientific interest in color began in the latter part of the 17th century with the research of Newton on light and colors (Balaraman, 1962). It was during the 18th century that physicists postulated 3 primary colors which were all that were needed to reproduce all the known colors. The connection between emotion and color dates back to the beginning of man (Schactel, 1943; Birren, 1961; Birren, 1962; Frazer, 1963). Regarding the primitiveness of the re- lationship between color and affect, Birren (1952, 1959, 1963) has emphatically stated that man has strong emotional feel- ings about color to the extent that color and affect are inextricably related. Guilford (193A) has maintained the view that color preference in man is an innate biological given. He studied the color preferences of 1,279 college students (Walton, Guilford, and Guilford, 1933) and found persistent differences in affective values for colors in spite of fluctuations form year to year and in spite of sex differences. He concluded that in addition to environ- mental variables there must be deep underlying biological factors that influence color preference. Goldstein (1939) has pointed out that different attitudes towards the world are caused by different colors and that color stimuli in- fluence the speed and extent of volitional movements and the judgement about time intervals, weights, and distances. He has said that: It is probably not a false statement if we say that a specific color stimulation is accompanied by a specific response pattern of the entire organism. p. 26A. Luckiesh (1918) summing up the considerations at that time between color and emotionality concluded that "the eye is the normal gateway for the stimulus on its way to arousing a color sensation and finally an emotion." Experiments delving into the color-affect relationship also have a long history. The following is a review of some of the more sig- nificant research over the past 65 years. At the turn of the century Ellis (1900, 1906) studied the development of color perception and color preference in infants. He found that perception begins with bright colors and proceeds down the spectrum and that color preferred at one point in this early development will not necessarily be preferred at another. Holden (1900) reported that order of preference develops from the red towards the blue end of the spectrum, until at age eight blue becomes the most preferred color. Valentine (191A) reported that color preference at A months was different than at 8 months, but yellow was still most preferred. Staples (1932) criticized the methodology used in previous color preference studies involving infants and used looking time and grasping as measures of infants' preferences. She found that colors could be distinguished at 12 through 15 months. Haas (1963) used frustration and stress in an attempt to change color preference over time and found this could not be done. Studying the relationship between musical and verbal association of color and mood, Odbert, Karowski, and Eckerson (19A2) found that certain colors were more often chosen to go with certain groups of words describing mood. Clark (19A8) analyzed MMPI items and Rorschach protocols and found that the data were in accord with traditional Rorschach interpretations of color and affect. That is, maladjustment on the MMPI is correlated with high sum C. In 1952 Norman (Norman and Scott, 1952) surveyed the litera- ture on color and affect and noted that the relationship had been studied from many angles-—color preference, mood associations, personality traits, mental and emotional dis- orders--and that indeed a relationship did seem to exist. One year later a much stronger statement was made by Fortier (1953) who said that the experience of affect and color are quite comparable and thus one could examine affect by exam- ining the response to color. Wexner (195A) had her subjects match 8 colors with words previously judged to represent feelings or mood tones. Her results supported color-mood theories. Schaie (1961) had 20 professional judges rate the association between 11 adjective mood descriptions and 10 colors by means of a Q-Sort of 100 cards each containing a description and a color patch. His analysis confirmed previous findings of associative relations between color and mood tones. Schaie used this relationship as a rationale for the use of rea sponse‘u>color as a means of personality study for he felt he had demonstrated that color associations conform to con- sistent group stereotypes. He then devised the color Pyramid Test (Schaie and Haas, 196A) "as a technique for the study of the role of emotion and affect as part of the personality structure of normal and abnormal Ss." This test was thus based upon the empirical evidence demonstrating the "direct stimulus value of color upon feeling, moods, and affect as mediated by the biological aesthetic and symbolic functions of color." The argument over the affective nature of color and the Rorschach began with the publication of Rorschach's book (19A2) in which he posited the existence of "color shock" as proof of the internal relationship which must exist between color percept and the dynamics of affectivity. Since that time, there have been an almost overwhelming number of studies in this area (see selected bibliography). In general, the studies were poorly designed with regard to the variables being examined and, in many cases, each study had as its purpose the criticism of previous research. In view of this controversy, it is difficult to make a clear-cut statement regarding the nature of color shock. Baughman (1958) did a massive review of the literature regarding color and the Rorschach and, although he used this review to argue against the presence of color shock, he readily admitted that color affects SS in their perference for particular blots and in the content elicited by the blot (interestingly enough none of the studies did content analysis of the protocols). A recent investigation which had many implications for the Rorschach color shock controversy was the study by Drechsler (1960) who, attempting to demonstrate the affect— lO stimulating effects of color showed the SS rectangles of red, green, and gray on a screen and followed each with a word-association test. He criticized many prior attempts to test the validity of the color-affect relationship because they directly depended on the Rorschach cards and rarely removed the color variable from the specific content of the cards. In his experiment Drechsler gave a recall test for all words after all association tests and stimulus conditions had been completed. His main hypothesis that color stimuli would elicit more emotional responses than gray was upheld. Hypothesis Examination of relevant literature indicated that the pupil is physiologically related to those areas of the nervous system which control emotion. A review of the em- pirical research regarding the color-affect relationship offered substantial avidence that color elicits an emotional response in the organism. The hypothesis of the present study was that pupils manifest more responsivity, as measured by change in pupil diameter, when exposed to chromatic (emotional) stimuli than when exposed to achromatic (neutral) stimuli. METHOD Subjects The subjects consisted of 30 male freshmen and sophomore college students selected from a basic psychology course at Michigan State University. Only Ss who were not color blind and who did not wear glasses were selected. Apparatus The apparatus (see Appendix A) was designed and constructed by E and an assistant following Hess (1965) and Hess, Seltzer and Shlien (1965). Certain modifications and improvements were made on the prototype. The final apparatus consisted of a rectangular plywood box 32" long, 18" wide, and 16" high. At one end was a viewing aperture. When S's head was in place, his right eye was directly in front of the aperture. On the opposite end of the apparatus was mounted a 6" x 8" rear projection screen on which a small cross was painted. The visual target was projected onto this screen by a 500 watt Kodak Carousel slide projector. The distance from the projector to the screen was 18 inches. Inside the apparatus a 9" x 20" silver-coated one- way vision mirror was placed at a A5O angle across the S's line of vision. This mirror reflected the image of the S's ll 12 eye directly into the lens of a 16 mm. Eclair 16 II motion picture camera which was mounted on the side of the apparatus. The camera was fitted with an Angenieux l2mm—120mm Zoom lens and a +2 diOpter close-up lens. The distance along the visual axis from the viewing aperature to the mirror was 9 inches. The illumination was furnished by the Carousel pro- jector and by light reflected off the aperture and furnished by 2 lamps set at a A5O angle behind S. The amount of light reaching the viewing aperture was A8 foot candles. Also within the apparatus, 20" from the aperture, was a plywood panel in which a A" x 5.3" rectangular hole had been cut. The panel was positioned so that when looking through the aperture only the surface of the 6" x 8" rear projection screen was visible. The interior of the apparatus from the aperture to the panel was painted flat black. The remainder of the in- terior was painted white enamel. Procedure The stimuli used in the present study consisted of A homogeneous targets projected onto the rear vision screen. Three of the targets were chromatic and one was achromatic. The chromatic targets were red, blue, and green and the achromatic target was a very light gray. The four targets were specially constructed by S (with the aid of a technical representative of the Eastman Kodak Company) so 13 that they were equal in brightness intensity. Equating for intensity was done by varying the density of the targets with the use of Wratten Neutral Density Filters. In order to obtain an independent measure of the differential emotional elicitation value of the chromatic and achromatic stimuli, the following procedure was used. Sixty-seven freshman and sophomore college students en- rolled in four separate sections of a basic psychology course were used as judges. These judges were not used again as experimental Ss. The judges were shown the ex- perimental targets for 5 seconds each and asked to rate the targets from 1 to 10 with regard to their ability to elicit an emotional reaction. A low score indicated low elicitation value and a high score high elicitation value. The targets were then compared with regard to their emotional elicitation values. Following the literature it was expected that the chromatics would have higher emotional value than the achromatic. The four targets were presented in random order to each of the 30 experimental Ss. The order of the tar- gets for each S is presented in Appendix B. The data were collected in the following way. Ss were seated before the apparatus and given the following instructions: Please place this eye patch over your left eye. Rest your forehead against the box and look into the hole with your right eye. Focus on the cross on the 1A screen in front of you. We are going to project a series of slides onto the screen which you are now looking at. Please try to keep your eye on the screen at all times and just react to whatever you see. We would like you to remain silent while reacting to the slides. After the slides were all presented the Ss were asked to rank the targets with regard to their ability to elicit an emotional reaction. The S and an assistant were present during the experiment. After S was given the instructions the slide projector was activated and a yellow target of equal inten- sity as the experimental targets was shown for 20 seconds, in order to orient the subject to the total experimental situation. After 19 seconds the 16 mm camera was turned on in order to photograph the last second of the orientation slide. Immediately after the orientation slide each target was presented for 5 seconds in the pre—programmed order for the particular S. The camera was set for A frames per second with the lens set at 120mm and f 2.8, and the film was Kodak TRX AA9. Thus, 20 photographs were collected of each S's pupil in response to each of the A targets. The time alloted to each target and the number of frames per second was determined both by a pilot study and by previously used techniques (Gerall, Sampson and Boslov, 1957; Gerall and Woodward, 1958; Lowenstein and Friedman, 19A2; Young, 1958). The 2,A00 photographs were measured by use of a Bausch and Lomb Fish Scale Projector. This apparatus pro- jected the images of the pupils, magnified 22 times, onto 15 a screen from which they were accurately measured with a millimeter ruler. Measures were not obtainable on one S as he closed his eye during the experiment. Thus, the analysis of the data was based on 2,320 photographs of 29 Ss. RESULTS An analysis of variance (Lindquist, 1956) was done on the ratings of the emotionality of the experimental stimuli by the A groups of judges. The analysis (see Table 1) indicated that the four experimental stimuli differed with regard to their perceived ability to elicit an emotional re- sponse (p. < .01). Table l.--Summary of the analysis of variance for the rating of the emotionality of the experimeptal stimuli by A groups of judges. Sumfiof Mean df Squares Squares F P Judges 3 3,259.69 1,086.56 9.89 .01 Color 3 21,857.69 7,285.90 66.33 .01 Color x Judges 9 988.56 109.8A Total 15 26,105.9A "The analysis was done on the groups of judges since the data on the ratings by the individual judges was lost. Scheffe's test for multiple comparisons (Edwards, 1960, p. 15A) indicated that the responses to the three chromatic stimuli were each significantly larger than the response to the achromatic stimulus (A > 2310, p. < .01). 16 17 The mean rating of emotionality (1 being low, 10 being high) for each stimulus was: red = 8.36; green = 6.A0; blue = 6.25; gray = 2.28 (see Appendix C). The rankings of the emotionality of the A stimuli by the 30 experimental Ss were analyzed by the analysis of variance for ranked data (Winer, 1962, p. 136) and again the stimuli were found to be different (xganks = 55.80; p. < .001). The mean ranking of each stimulus was: red = 3.53; blue = 2.70; green = 2.70; gray = 1.10. Observation of the data (see Appendix D) revealed that the neutral stimulus was ranked lowest with regard to emotional value by 28 of the 30 S8. A coefficient of concordance (Winer, 1962, p. 137) com- puted on the ranked data indicated that there was significant agreement among the Ss in their ranking of the emotionality of the experimental stimuli (W = .618, p. < .01). Figure 1 contains a graphic representation of the pupillary response (measured change in pupil diameter) to the A experimental stimuli. The eXperimental hypothesis predicted that pupils would manifest more responsivity, as measured by change in pupil diameter when exposed to chro- matic stimuli than when exposed to achromatic stimuli. The data, as represented in Figure 1, seem to support this hypothesis. Following the initial pupillary contraction and return which was evoked by all stimuli, the response to the chromatics was a dilation, whereas there was little re- sponse to the achromatic. 18 mpcoomm z\H CH mCOpr>pomno om ma ma AH ma ma 3H ma NH HA. OH m m A o m a m m H P . p A . . p p b A . p r A b p b . P - IIIO/ \P 1 N. a . m llllllllll >050 s‘. \ \Xl.’ 1/1 s , J) llllll III COP—0 z/ . 03m \ I, / 3m . m you \\w x. / a *1 \ x I \ 171 z , \ x/ 4 1mm.m o // I. . mm . m 1H>.m I r>~.m .zm.m .om.m .Hasefipm cameomsom one unm.m oHmeomno Op uncommon Ca ooaooo ocooom m m mo>o nonmemac HHQ3m||.H mpsmfim SJGAGWIIIIW U: 8218 Itdna 19 In order to test whether or not the above described differences were significant, an analysis of variance of pupil diameter was performed. The analysis (Lindquist, 1956, p. 237) revealed that there was a significant effect of color upon pupil diameter (see Table 2). Table 2.--Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during 5 second exposures to each of the experimental stimuli. Sum of Mean Source df Squares Squares F P Color 3 157.A7 .52.A9 8.59 .001 Color x Subjects 8A 513.5A 6.11 Intervals 19 253.87 13.36 7.22 .001 Intervals x Subjects 532 982.89 1.85 Subjects 28 29,110.93 1,039.68 2,5A0.76 .001 Color x Intervals 57 119.37 2.09 5.11 .001 Color x Intervals x Subjects 1,596 653.12 .A092 Total 2,319 31,791.19 Furthermore, there was a significant effect over time; there ‘ was an interaction between the stimuli and time; and the dif- ferences among Ss accounted for a very large portion of the total variance. Since gray was treated the same as the other three stimuli in the analysis of variance, a separate statis- tical analysis was performed in order to ascertain whether there was more as well as differential pupil reactivity to the chromatic stimuli than to the achromatic stimulus. 2O Scheffe's test for multiple comparisons of the mean pupil diameter for each stimuli (Edwards, 1960, p. 15A) indicated that the pupillary response to both red (A 111) and blue (A = 152) was significantly larger than the response to gray (A > 7A, p. < .01) and that green approached being sig- nificantly larger than gray. There were no differences among the chromatic stimuli. The mean pupillary diameters for the A experimental stimuli were: Blue = 5.81mm; Red = 5.78mm; Green = 5.69mm; and Gray = 5.59mm. Since the graphic representation of the data sug- gested that there were two distinct pupillary responses to the stimuli, two additional analyses of variance of pupillary diameter were performed. The first analysis concerned itself with the pupillary reaction during the first 2.5 seconds that each stimulus was presented (see Table 3). There were Table 3.--Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during the first half of the 5 second exposure to each of the experimental stimuli. Sum of Mean Source df Squares Squares F P Color 3 A8.92 16.31 3.61 .05 Color x Subjects 8A 379.AO A.52 Intervals 9 83.35 9.26 7.07 .001 Intervals x Subjects 252 331.17 1.31 Subjects 28 1A,A37.51 515.63 1,127.80 .001 Color x Intervals 27 20.A7 .7581 1.66 .05 Color x Inter- vals x Subjects 756 3A5.71 .A572 Total 1,159 15,6A6.53 21 significant main effects of color, trials, and subjects and a significant interaction between color and time. The vari- ability among subjects accounted for the greatest part of the variance. Scheffe's test on the mean pupil diameter in reSponse to each of the A stimuli revealed no significant differences. The mean pupil diameter for each stimulus during the first 2.5 second period was: blue = 5.73mm; red = 5.67mm; green = 5.58mm; gray = 5.58mm. Thus, although there was a significant differential effect of color on pupil size during the first 2.5 seconds of stimulus pre- sentation, the differences among the colors were not speci- fiable. Table A below contains the analysis of variance of the pupil diameter during the second half of the 5 second presentation of the experimental stimuli. Table A.--Summary of the analysis of variance of pupillary diameter during the second half of the 5 second exposure to each of the experimental stimuli. Sum of Mean Source df Squares Squares F P Color 3 108.55 36.18 22.75 .001 Color x Subjects 8A 13A.1A 1.59 Intervals 9 170.52 18.95 7.32 .001 Intervals x Subjects 252 651.72 2.59 Subjects 28 1A,673.A2 52A.05 1,288.85 .001 Color x Intervals 27 98.90 3.66 9.00 .001 Color x Inter— vals x Subjects 756 307.A1 .A066 Total 1,159 16,1AA.66 22 As in the two previous analyses of variance, the results suggested by Figure 1 were corroborated in that there were main effects of color and trials and an inter- action between the two. Scheffe's test indicated that the mean pupil response to each of the chromatics (Red, A = 128; Blue, A = 133; Green, A = A6) was significantly greater than the mean pupil response to the achromatic (A > 19.3, p. < .01). The means were: Blue = 5.90mm, Red = 5.89mm; Green = 5.85mm; and Gray = 5.6lmm. The S's mean pupil response to the experimental stimuli was ranked (see Appendix F) and an analysis of variance revealed the differences among the rankings to be 2 significant (xranks = 33.13, p. < .001). A coefficient of concordance computed on the mean pupil response of each S to each stimulus indicated that Ss agreed in their dif— ferential responses to the A stimuli (W = .3808, p. < .01). In conclusion, the statistical analyses corrobor— ate the results suggested by the graphic representation of the data and support the eXperimental hypothesis. There was significantly more pupil reaction (change in pupil diameter) in response to the red and blue stimuli than there was to the gray stimulus (p. < .01). The pupillary response to the green stimulus was larger than the response to the gray stimulus but this difference was only signifi- cant (p. < .01) during the second half of the 5 second period of presentation of stimuli. DISCUSSION A survey of the literature revealed many experi- ments attempting to demonstrate that chromatic stimuli elicit more emotional response than do achromatic stimuli (Wexner, 195A; Drechsler, 1960; Schaie, 1961). The rela- tionship between color and affect has been studied from many different angles and it certainly does seem to exist (Norman and Scott, 1952). The present results strongly support these previous findings ans both the ratings by independent judges and the rankings by Ss themselves re- vealed the chromatics to have more emotional elicitation value than the achromatic. This finding further supports the use of chromatic targets as emotional stimuli and achro- matic targets as neutral stimuli. It must be remembered that these ratings and rankings of emotionality were based on viewing the actual stimuli and not merely on associations to the words representing the stimuli (red, blue, green, and gray). This fact is important because the gray stimulus used in this study is probably best described as a "light neutral gray" and is certainly not a color that would readily elicit such responses as might the word gray, i.e. "bad weather" or "depression." Naturally, this leaves open the question of what the responses might be to varying saturations of achromatic stimuli. 23 2A The major purpose of this study was to validate the pupil response as being an objective measure of the generalized response by the organism to stimulation of an emotional nature. The results would seem to fulfill this goal. There was a significantly larger pupillary response to all three emotional (chromatic) stimuli than there was to the neutral (achromatic) stimulus. This finding is in direct support of Bender's (1933) statement that pupillary changes could be brought about psychically as well as re- flexly. Although the answer to whether or not there is contraction to emotionally negative stimuli is by no means resolved we are able to offer no evidence in support of Hess's (1965) contention that "constriction is as character- istic in the case of certain aversive stimuli as dilation is in the case of interesting or pleasant pictures." If this were the case, then the pupil response to emotional stimuli would have been greater contraction as well as greater dilation since the stimuli might certainly have had negative as well as positive meaning for the Ss. Red could stand for "hell" and "fire" as well as "warmth" and "love." Instead, there was greater pupillary response to the emotional stimuli but it was solely manifested in dila- tion. The data did reveal that there were two distinct pupillary responses to the experimental stimuli. Initially, there was a pupillary contraction and return very similar 25 to that described by Lowenstein and Friedman (19A2) as being the normal reflex to light. Lowenstein and Friedman (19A2) have demonstrated that the complete reflex takes approxi- mately 2.5 seconds and our finding supports this. Although other investigators have also reported pupillary contraction in response to visual stimuli (Backer & Ogle, 196A; Shakhno- vich, 1965) in the present investigation this initial pupil- lary contraction was a result of the light of the stimulus following the dark period resulting from the projector switching from one stimulus to the next. Backer and Ogle (196A) noted pupillary contraction upon presentation of visual stimuli and since they found this to be unexplain- able, they called it a "transient pupillary constriction." Shakhnovich (1965) reported pupillary contraction in re— sponse to red and blue stimuli. He hypothesized that this was an orienting pupillary constrictive reaction to the form or the color in order to create the best optical con- dition for perception of the stimulus. During the first 25 second period of pupillary contraction and return the Ss in the present investigation did react differentially to the A eXperimental stimuli, however, these differences were not specifiable in terms of which stimulus evoked the largest pupillary response, the smallest pupillary response, etc. The differential pupil responsivity during this period may be a function of an emotional response beginning to "compete" with the reflex to light particularly toward the end of the 2.5 second period. 26 The second response to the stimuli was dilation. During thisZLESsecond period not only did Ss respond dif— ferentially to the stimuli but there were also clearly specifiable differences between the emotional stimuli and the neutral stimulus. Each of the three emotional stimuli elicited a pupillary response larger than that elicited by the neutral stimulus. No statement could be made as to which was the "most powerful" elicitor of pupillary response. This second, differential pupillary dilation response to emotional and neutral stimuli would seem to verify the notion that pupil reactivity can be used as a sensitive and accurate measure of the organism's generalized response to emotional excitation. Furthermore, this differential dila- tion response suggests that Shakhnovich's explanation of pupillary reaction to red and blue stimuli needs elaboration and/or modification. The fact that there was a change in light intensity when the projector changed stimuli is an aspect of the pre- sent methodology that definitely needs improvement. This contraction at the onset of each stimulus does not allow clear statements to be made about the latency of the emotion- al aspect of the response. Outside of this one factor the apparatus used in this investigation was a vast improvement over that used in the past. It is quite possible that the crude apparatus used by many investigators has led to the many conflicting findings. Certainly the days of observing 27 pupils through a telescope and verbally reporting changes are over. The results of the present investigation would seem to validate the pupillary response as an objective measure of the generalized response by the organism and such validation has far reaching implications for many areas of psychological research. If proper norms were es- tablished, the pupil response could be used in place of paper and pencil tests and verbal reports both of which are subject to various types of errors. An atlas of pupil— lary reactions to various stimuli by various categories of Ss could be made up, thus allowing immediate comparison of a particular S with many classifications of Ss. Such an atlas might contain pupillary reactions to vocational as well as psychodiagnostic tests. The present results may be interpreted as supporting the notion that chromatic com- ponents of the Rorschach elicit more emotional response than achromatic components. Further support for the color shock theory might be gained by comparing the differential pupillary responses to each card and also by comparing the responses to the standard cards with an identical set con- taining no color. One aspect of the controversy over whether or not psychotherapists respond to "non—verbal cues" may be at least partially resolved by a determination of whether trained therapists are better than non-therapists at attending to changes in pupil size. 28 Since an obvious explanation for the greater pupil response to the chromatic stimuli is learned emotional associations, it would seem indicated to use the same stimuli and test S5 of various deve10pmental levels begin- ning with pre-verbal Ss. This might yield information re- garding when in development emotional associations are learned in connection with various stimuli and also if and when language is necessary to mediate emotional associations. Such research might also shed some light on Guilford's (193A) statement that in addition to environmental variables there must be deep underlying biological factors influencing re- actions to color. A recent investigation by Guinan (1966) indicated that there was greater pupillary response to emotional as compared to neutral words. The present investigation re- vealed that certain chromatic stimuli elicit a measurable emotional response from the organism. In order to test the effect chroma may have upon other stimuli words found by Guinan (1966) be to neutral could be printed in chromatic and achromatic colors. Thus, the pupillary responses to neutral words printed in red, blue and gray could be com- pared. This could also be repeated with many other stimuli in the environment, thus possibly separating the response to a stimuli based on its chromaticity from responses based on other factors. 29 With a more sophisticated apparatus than that used in the present study many areas of the therapeutic relation— ship could be examined. Oftentimes a therapist finds him- self assuming that he is meeting with resistance on a par- ticular topic while the client insists the tOpic is simply not meaningful. Utilizing video tape, an analysis could be made of the pupillary reaction during the interview and thus, an objective assessment could be made to determine whether or not the client's behavior was a manifestation of resistance or whether the topic of discussion was just not meanginful. This same technique could be used to specify meaningful areas to therapy for after each interview the video tape could be analyzed in order to ascertain the topics or behavior which elicited emotional responses from the client. For example, after looking at the pupillographic records of clients with "mother problems" one could make a prediction based on pupil response for any given client as to whether or not he or she had "mother problems." This same methodology could be extended to any and all content of therapy. Furthermore, the pupil response could be used as a measure of progress in therapy for as the client learns how to cope with tOpics and situations which were previously highly emotionally charged, his pupil reactivity to these situations should have less magnitude. If a client states that he is much more able to handle a particular situation 30 than his pupillary response should be significantly less than when he was not able to handle the situation. In short, desensitization should lead to less pupillary re- sponse. Measured pupillary reaction could also be used in therapy follow-up studies for if the therapy is success- ful, the response to various tOpics and situations should be more similar to the response immediately following ter— mination than during the initial therapeutic sessions. These implications certainly warrant a replica- tion of the present investigation with correction of the apparatus, a longer exposure to the experimental stimuli, a larger sample size including females and an analysis of possible personality differences between Ss manifesting differential magnitude of pupillary response. SUMMARY This investigation was an attempt to validate the pupillary response as an objective measure of the generalized response by the organism to emotional excitation. Thirty male Ss who were not color blind and who ‘did not wear glasses were asked to look into the aperture of a specially constructed light-tight apparatus. Four experi- mental stimuli were projected onto a screen in the apparatus for five seconds each. While the Ss viewed the stimuli a 16mm motion picture camera photographed their pupils at the rate of four frames per second. The projected stimuli con- sisted of three chromatic slides (red, blue, and green) and one achromatic (gray). The four slides were each homogeneous and all four were equated for brightness intensity. Indepen— dent judges had previously rated the chromatic stimuli as having more emotional elicitation value than the achromatic stimulus. Rankings by the experimental Ss agreed with the judges ratings. The experimental hypothesis predicted that pupils manifest more responsivity, as measured by change in pupil diameter, when exposed to chromatic (emotional) stimuli than when exposed to achromatic (neutral) stimuli. This hypothe- sis was supported. There was a significant effect of color 31 32 upon pupil diameter (p. < .001) and the mean pupil response to each of the chromatic stimuli was significantly greater than the mean pupil response to the achromatic stimulus (p. < .01). The pupillary response was shown to be an initial contraction and return in response to all stimuli followed by a clear dilation in response to the chromatic stimuli and little response to the achromatic stimulus. The results of the present investigation indicated that the pupillary response can be used as a measure of the generalized emotional response within the organism. Impli- cations of these results were discussed and suggestions were made for further research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Backer, W. D. and Ogle K. N. Pupillary response to fusional eye movements. Amer. J. Opthal, 196A, SS, 7A3-765. Baker, L. E. The pupillary response conditioned to sublimi- nal auditory stimuli. Psychol. Monogr., 1938, SS, 3, 1-320 Balaraman, S. 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Psychol., 195A, SS, A32-A35. Winer, B. J. Statistical principles in experimental design. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962, New York. Young, F. A. An attempt to obtain pupillary conditioning with infrared photography, J. exp. Psychol., 195A, 5g, 62-68. Studies of pupillary conditioning, J. exp. P§ychol., 1958, SS, 97-110. Classical conditioning of autonomic functions in Prokasy, William F. (Ed.). Classical conditioning: A Symposium. Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 1965. Young, F. A., and Biersdorf, W. F. An apparatus for taking rapid photographs of the pupil in visual darkness. Amer. J. Psychol., 1952, SS, 617-618. Young, F. A., and Biersdorf, W. R. Pupillary contraction and dilation in light and darkness. J. comp. physiol. Psychol., 195A, 31, 26A-268. APPENDIX A EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS A0 APPENDIX A Experimental Apparatus 3 W S 3 w d o (.1. o 0 d o d \ \\ a ” ‘ -—-——-- ’ ’ JL Rear Vision Screene"'T 119$ ne-way mirror 16 mm. Camera -.JL Aperture APPENDIX B RANDOMIZED ORDER OF PRESENTATION OF TARGETS A2 APPENDIX B Randomized Order of Presentation of Targets Subject 1 2 3 A 1 Blue Red Gray Green 2 Green Blue Red Gray 3 Red Gray Blue Green A Green Blue Gray Red 5 Gray Blue Red Green 6 Green Blue Gray Red 7 Blue Green Red Gray 8 Green Red Blue Gray 9 Blue Gray Green Red 10 Blue Green Red Gray 11 Blue Gray Red Green 12 Red Gray Green Blue 13 Gray Red Blue Green 1A Green Blue Gray Red 15 Gray Green Blue Red 16 Blue Gray Green Red 17 Red Green Gray Blue 18 Red Blue Gray Green 19 Red Green Blue Gray 20 Gray Blue Red Green 21 Gray Green Blue Red 22 Green Blue Gray Red 23 Blue Green Gray Red 2A Gray Green Red Blue 25 Gray Green Red Blue 26 Gray Green Red Blue 27 Blue Green Gray Red 28 Red Gray Blue Green 29 Green Blue Gray Red 30 Blue Gray Green Red APPENDIX C RATING OF EMOTIONALITY OF EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI BY A GROUPS OF JUDGES Red Green Blue Gray AA APPENDIX C Rating of Emotionality of Experimental Stimuli by A Groups of Judges Group I II III IV N = 18 N = 17 N = 1A N = 18 EX EX EX EX r 1A6 1A8 117 1A9 8.36 121 106 81 121 6.A0 118 132 77 92 6.25 51 39 18 A5 2.28 N = number of judges in group. EX = total rating of emotionality by judges in the group. X = mean rating of emotionality across all judges. APPENDIX D RANKING OF EMOTIONALITY OF EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI BY EXPERIMENTAL SS m m H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Hana m H H m m m H m m H m H m m H H H m m m m m m m H m m m m m msHm H m m m m m m m m m H m m H m m m m m m H m m m m m m m H m cmopc H H m H H H m H H m m m H m m m m H H H m H H H m H H H m H com ”% om mm mm um mm mm Hm mm mm Hm om mH mH NH mH mH :H MH NH HH 0H m m m m m H m N H HHSEHpm mpoownsm mm Hopcoeroaxm an HHssHpm HmpcoEHHooxm mo mpHHMCOHpoEm mo wcchmm Q XHszmm¢ APPENDIX E PUPILLARY RESPONSES OF SS TO EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI A8 .m.m an mOH>HO cam O cum oNHm HHQSQ Hmzpom :Hmpno 09* HH (OH OH ,mH OH OH HH MH MH MH NH NH MH MH NH NH MH HH OH OH OH HH HH OH OH OH O m m N N O O O OH OH OH OH OH O NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH MH MH NH HH HH NH NH NH HH MH NH NH O O N O O O m H H O O O m m m m O O O O HH HH HH HH HH HH HH NH NH MH MH MH HH HH MH MH NH NH NH MH HH HH OH HH HH HH HH OH HH HH OH NH HH m m m m OH O OH OH OH HH mH HH OH OH HH MH NH NH MH ,NH MH HH OH OH OH OH OH NH NH NH NH MH MH HH OH OH OH MH HH NH HH HH O NH HH HH NH N O o O O N o O O O N N O O O O O N O N OH OH NH OH NH NH NH NH OH OH OH ON OH OH NH NH OH OH OH OH HH MH MH HH HH MMH MH MH HH MH mH NH NH MH MH NH MH MH NH NH HH NH NH OH OH HH NH HH HH HH NH NH HH HH HH OH O OH HH HH O O O m H H H m H H H m m m m m m m H H HH HH OH _OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH HH OH OH HH HH NH NH MH NH HH NH NH NH NH NH HH NH NH HH NH HH NH NH NH NH MH OH O O OH HH NH HH OH OH HH HH OH HH NH NH N N N w m m m m m O OH O OH HH m m HH m m O OH OH OH OH HH mH HH HH HH MH MH MH NH MH NH HH NH NH NH HH O OH O m m m m m m m N m w m m m m m m O OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH ON OH HN HN HN ON OH ON OH NH NH HH OH OH HH HH MH HH HH HH OH HH NH HH m O OH NH HH HH MH HH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH OH MH HH HH HH MH OH OH OH O m N N O N N O O N O O O m O O O N O O m m m m m m O O m O O O O O m m m O OH OH MH MH HH MH MH MH HH HH MH MH MH mH MH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH O N N N N O N O N N O O O m H O O O O O MH NH MH NH NH NH NH MH MH MH HH HH MH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH MH MH MH NH NH NH MH NH NH HH OH NH HH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH O m N N m m m m w m m m N N N N N O N N ON OH OH NH OH OH .HH MH NH HH OH O m N O O (IN m N. H mCO Hpm>hmm DO 03Hm* m xHszmm¢ HNm-‘J'anb-mm NNNNNNNNN Mdmkofiwmo r-Ir-lr-it—lr-ir-IHN Or-iN r—it-ir-i HNMJmmfi-wm muoonnsm A9 NH NH NH NH OH HH OH OH HH HH NH NH NH HH HH HH NH OH NH HH OH OH OH OH OH O OH. 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