TIIE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT
IN AMERICAN EDUCATION:
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Thesis for the meme 0f Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
STEVEN I. MILLER

1970

 

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THE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT
IN AMERICAN EDUCATION:
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

presented by

STEVEN I. MILLER

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ABSTRACT

  
  
  
   
  
 
  
 
 
  
  
  
  
   
  

THE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT
IN AMERICAN EDUCATION:
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

By

Steven I. Miller

The purpose of this study was to critically examine the I
'- assumptions underlying the Essentialist movement. This was done

‘ ‘I’. Jig the belief that an examination of Essentialism could shed addi -
“GT '7 I

. ' i‘tflépnal light concerning the origin of the movement, as well as its
- Q53 mpact on contemporary educational thought.

‘1 Nb I
lg 1. ., - Within this framework several additional themes were

- " Eexplored. These included the notion that Essentialism draws its I

filesophical presuppositions from classical idealism and realism;

l
l
I
|

‘ asides. that Essentialism was an outgrowth of larger social and
‘fivflme forces which in turn shaped much of the thinking of the
a. are of the Essentialist Committee; that the crux of Essential-

‘. pnal theory rests on its conception of the "social heritage";

_;_developme_nt and articulation of Essentialism was left,

 

 

 

 

 

Steven I . Miller

principally, to the work of one man, William Chandler Bagley; that
certain problems of an organizational nature confronted the Essen—
tialist Committee; and that some of the principles of the original

Essentialists are still present in contemporary American education.

Methodology

The methodology of this study consisted exclusively of
historical research. A11 writings available to the writer concerning
Essentialism were examined. In addition, original correspondence
concerning various aspects of Essentialism was obtained from the
files of Dr. William W. Brickman, editor of School and Society.
These documents were quoted with Dr. Brickman' s permission.

The writer also obtained further information on Essentialism from
the three surviving members of the original Essentialist Committee,
Louis Shores, F. Alden Shaw, and Walter Ryle.

In order to present a point -by -point analysis of Essentialist
beliefs, the writer used a system of comparison between the most
important Essentialist documents, ”An Essentialist Platform for the
Advancement of American Education" and "The Significance of the
Essentialist Movement in Educational Theory. " The approach used
in this analysis consisted of stating each major proposition as found

in the documents, and then analyzing the content of the proposition,

 

 

 

Steven I . Miller

citing reasons for its origin and commenting on the type of evidence

used to support the claim.

Conclusions

The study, being descriptive'in nature, was concerned

primarily with the examination of ideas as presented in a particular

body of educational thought. From a critical examination of these

ideas, the writer drew several conclusions differing somewhat from

previous writings on Essentialism. The conclusions were as follows:

1.

 

Essentialism, although tracing its origins in the philosophi —
cal presuppositions of idealism and realism, cannot be
thought of as a distinct system of philosophy. Rather,
Essentialism is primarily an educational movement dealing
in a concrete fashion with such issues as subject matter,
sequence of presentation, and transmission of the social
heritage.

The members of the Essentialist Committee were reacting,
in their writings, to the effects of the Depression of the
1930' s. As conservative educators, they were distressed
at the great social and economic crisis confronting the
nation. They were also deeply concerned with the rise of

totalitarian states in Germany, Italy, and Spain.

 

 

 

 

Steven 1. Miller

Given these factors, the Essentialist Committee
was reacting to Progressive education on the grounds that
it was not providing a bulwark against the rapid social
changes of the times. The issue, therefore, was not one in
which Essentialists and Progressives challenged one another
in terms of philosophical beliefs. Rather, it was a con-
frontation involving the most acceptable methods of perpetu—
ating the social heritage. The points of controversy involved
the actual types of teaching practices going on in the public
schools.
Essentialism had its greatest impact immediately after the
founding of the Essentialist Committee for the Advancement
of American Education. This impact lasted, in the writer' 3
opinion, for approximately two years after the founding
meeting.
The formulation of Essentialist ideas was primarily the
work of two men, William Chandler Bagley and Michael
John Demiashkevich. It was Bagley who was responsible
for the writing and publishing of the documents of the
Essentialist Committee.
It was found that the Essentialist Committee was a loosely

formed organization that was held together principally

 

 

Steven I. Miller

through the efforts of F. Alden Shaw and William Chandler
Bagley.

It is the writer! s contention that the Essentialist movement
gradually lost momentum after the death of one of its key
members, Michael John Demiashkevich. Demiashkevich

did not sign the original Essentialist Platform on ideological

 

grounds, therefore weakening the overall organizational
structure of the Committee.

The internal organization of the Committee was
likewise plagued by a lack of active interest on the part of
the other members. In addition, there was no viable
financial structure within the organization, causing its
quick demise due to a lack of sufficient and consistent pub—
licity.

The Essentialists failed to gain the support of a large seg-
ment of the population. The organization, consequently,
became a type of debating society given to intellectual
arguments between itself and the Progressives.

The claim that Essentialism is once more an important
educational theory in American education must be qualified
in some important ways. There has, to be sure, been a

recurrence of Essentialist thinking since the late 1950' s.

 

 

 

Steven I . Miller

However, it should be remembered that the original
Essentialist ideas were formulated in a specific social and
economic milieu. The social conditions are not the same
today. Consequently, one cannot draw too many parallels
between the two times. It is, therefore, somewhat pre-
sumptuous to say that Essentialism is the dominant form of
educational thought in American education today.

It is more accurate to contend that certain curricu-
lum changes (mostly in the natural and biological sciences)
have been implemented in the schools since the 1950' 5.
These curriculum changes do, in part, agree with some of
the thinking of the original Essentialists, but in rather a
broad context. That is, the original Essentialists would
have agreed that the sciences should be included in the cur-
riculum.

It was found that there is often a confusion of educational
Mwhen speaking of Essentialism. This confusion of
levels has, in turn, often resulted in a misinterpretation
of Essentialist ideas. It is the writer' s contention that the
original Essentialists were concerned with primary educa-
tion and, by implication, the effects this would have on

secondary education. Bagley' 3 primary concern was in

Steven 1. Miller

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   

seeing that the "essentials" were given to the children in

the primary grades as building stones for further‘work.

The Essentialists' criticisms were directed toward the

"activity movement" within the primary grades. This, to

them, was where the danger-was greatest.

Yet, writers on Essentialism--either in praising

t. or condemning the movement--often speak of Essentialist
thinking as being concerned primarily with secondary educa-
tion. This is not the case.

10. Lastly, it was found that there is a paucity of empirical
evidence to substantiate the claim that Essentialist ideas
are permeating the entire educational system. It would,

. likewise, be difficult to gather such information in a com-
pletely reliable fashion.

The final phase of the study was concerned with positinga

~11 her of recommendations. These recommendations dealt with

   

inane possible research problems that might prove to be fruitful for

‘
"lt .
.‘f “v

I"
“thriller exploration in this area.

I .fi

 

   
  
  
 
  
   
  
   
  
  
  

THE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT
IN AMERICAN EDUCATION:

,. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

By 7,,
of
(7V

Steven. I .‘ Miller

' .. it in h-L.
CD3 tram. Ir. , A TIIESIS "‘
A :1“
Submitted to
went!» '\.I Michigan State University '
y' ‘ in partial fulfillment of the requirements
‘ saute-rm .~ . . for the degree of

(greys "we
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
An can“. t‘. ‘ 5,, -. .

then onu- ga College of Education.

.1976

 

 

 

K

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

.In any type of writing effort there comes a time when
encouragement and support are deeply needed and sincerely appre —
ciated. This is the crucial time when one believes that the goal is
within sight, and yet wonders how long the effort must be pursued.

It was at this time that invaluable assistance was given by

. my chairman, Dr. Carl H. Gross. His insightful criticisms, con-
stant encouragement, and skillful direction were the determining
factors in obtaining the degree. Without his guidance, very little

progress could have been made.

A special thank you must be given to Dr. Edward Blackman.

His gentle direction and keen insight into human nature more than
.once assisted me. His spirit of tolerance and genuine humanism
will always be remembered.
An equal thank you must be given to Dr. Marvin Grandstaff,
who more than once gave_me encouragement, and who taught me that
~ the mind of a man is capable of reflecting and formulating more than

one or two points of view.

 

   
  
  
 
 
  
      
      
    

Additional regards arexinorder'for Dr. Sheldon. Lowry,
.. guided me through.the.-variegated realm of sociology.

I would alsolike to extend my great. appreciation and

l' . ,, . 11mm“ to my wife, Patricia. Her constant encouragement and
IT". [iifive-levolled many-seeminglyinsurmountable barriers. Her under-
flW-gand-patience, kindness and gentle direction made the entire

: k, ,task anenjoyable goal to be achieved.
I . . ‘ I, A special note of thanks must be extended to my mother,
VJ \

I". ', '- mfly’Miller. It was she -who constantly stressed the importance of

a goodeducation, andencouraged methrough many moments of

d

111

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  
 
 
  
  
 
  
  
 
  
 
  
  
  
  
 
 
  
  
  

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem
Need for the Study
Methodology

CHAPTER

THE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT .

' . Essentialism as Related to Idealism
._ z and Realism .
’ The Underlying Assumptions of Idealism

The Correspondence Theory of Knowledge .
it, ' . The Coherence Theory of Truth .
.3. The Social Background of Essentialism

' 7;: {in THE SPECIFIC IDEAS or ESSENTIALISM

1.»; . The Essentialist View of Society and the
' “ Social Heritage
Essentialism and the Realist Conception
of Society . . .
Essentialism and the Individual .
Essentialism and the Role of. the School .
. The Learner andCurriculum in Essentialist
. . ‘ Thinking .
Essentialist Views on the Teacher and
Learner.
. Summary

iv

. I. PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING

Basic Assumptions of Philosophical Realism .

Page

10

11
17
19
24
27
31

36

37
39
51
55
59

62.
71

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER

III. EXAMINATION OF THE PRIMARY SOURCES
OF ESSENTIALISM

Social Background

The Progressive Education Movement

The Progressive Curriculum .

Excesses of Progressivism as Perceived
by the Essentialists .

Statement of the Major Problems in
American Education .

The Weaknesses of Educational Theories

The Influence of Progressive Theories
on American Education .

The Problem and the Platform

.IV. PRIMARY SOURCES CONCERNING THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ESSENTIALIST
COMMITTEE

Background Information on the Original
Members of the Essentialist Committee
Organization of the Essentialist Committee
The Atlantic City Meeting .
The Diminishing Impact of Essentialists
Due to Organizational Changes and
Lack of Consistent Leadership .
Summary

V- THE NATURE OF ESSENTIALIST EDUCATION
IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS .

The Influence of Contemporary Essentialist
Thought .

Conclusions

Recommendations

Summary

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources
Secondary Sources

Page

73
73
78
83
87

94
100

104
110

121

122
130
141

144
158

159

161
179
187
191

192

192
196

 

 

INTRODUCTION

A significant event in the history of education occurred in
1938. On February 26, 1938, a group of prominent educators1
gathered in Atlantic City to discuss some of the major problems con-
fronting American education. The group came to be known as the
Essentialist Committee for the Advancement of American Education.
The term "Essentialist" was first coined by M. Demiashkevich, one
of the members of the Committee, and formulated more fully in a
volume written by him. 2

The Committee was formed to combat what it thought to be
the drastic inroads of the Progressive education movement. It was
specifically reacting to those phases of Progressive education which

seemed to be excess. These criticisms centered around the distor-

tionof the original Progressive movement into activities that

 

1The members of the committee were: William C. Bagley,

~M. Demiashkevich, Walter H. Ryle, M. L. Shane, F, Alden Shaw

(chairman and organizer), Louis Shores and Guy M. Whipple.

2M. Demiashkevich, An Introduction to the Philosophy of
Education (New York: American Book Company, 1935), p. 138.

permitted complete freedom for the student in choosing what
"problems" interested him; in the abandonment of traditional
subject matter; in the abandonment of grading and vigorous exami —
nations; and, especially, in the neglect of transmitting the social

I heritage of the country.

There was grave concern by the members of the Committee

that American education had reached an all—time low level. This

 

concern was exacerbated by the severity of the Depression and the

. rapid rise of totalitarian regimes throughout the Western world.
Comparisons were made by the Committee to illustrate that Ameri -
can school children compared very unfavorably to their European

counterparts. 1 Additional data were gathered to show that problems

-_____,

of American education had occurred because of the development of
the ”universal" school. 2 In addition, the Committee implied that
rising crime rates were at least one of the causal factors resulting
from the lowering of standards brought on by the Progressive move -

I ment and the universal school. 3 Much criticism was directed to the

 

1William C. Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the

Advancement of American Education, ” Educational Administration
0 and Supervision, XXIV (April, 1935), 2.42.

 

21bid., p. 243.

3William C. Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist
Movement in Educational Theory, " Classical Journal, XXXIV
(March, 1939), 332 -333.

 

 

— ~__.‘ Q...-

 

original "transfer experiments”1 which were in great part responsible

for the discrediting of traditional education.

Essentialism, as a definite philosophy of education, has its
roots both .in classical realism and idealism. It is not, however, a
system of philosophy as such, but rather it is concerned with the
need to preserve and transmit a definable body of knowledge based
on the social heritage and what it conceives of as certain principles
of truth. Kneller has stated2 that the Essentialist position is based
on (1) the necessity of viewing learning as hard work and application,
(2) realizing that the initiative lies with the teacher rather than the
pupil, (3) that the core of education is the absorption of prescribed
subject matter, and (4) the school should retain the traditional
methods of mental discipline. The main job of the school in this view
is the transmission of knowledge. That is the core of any and all

educational experiences.

Statement of the Problem

 

The history of education is primarily concerned with the

social, political, and economic forces that have given rise to

 

1William C. Bagley, Education and Emergent Man (New
York: Thomas Nelsonand Sons, 1934), pp. 82 -93.

 

2George F.’ Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of
Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964), p. 115.

 

V I

certain educational thoughts and practices. The history of any
educational movement is imbedded in a complex matrix of social

ideas that stem from a specific cultural milieu. As these educa-
tional ideas become institutionalized and transmitted through the
school, an interaction process is set upwhereby the school reflects
the culture and the culture defines and directs the educational
process.

Every educational movement is a vital factor in defining

 

the state of a particular culture at a given point in time. The
educational "movement" is a graphic representation of the way men
view their society and the world. It represents, in terms of the

J functionalist, the particular "state" of the sub -groups of a social

‘ system.
I The Essentialist movement in American education was (and
in some respects still is) a vital link in the history of education. It
represented the reiteration of certain principles of education that
have-a long tradition- -princip1es concerning the necessity of trans -
mitting the social heritage in order to preserve social stability

I and, in the case of the United States, the very foundations of politi-
cal (and economic) democracy.

The specific research problem will be concerned with the

 

following:

 

 

—.—_~_

 

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Showing the continuity of thought within the history of
education leading up to the actual formation of the Essen-
tislist Platform, that is, tracing and explaining the
philosophical assumptions upon which this movement rests;
Stating generalizations as to what social, educational and
political factors immediately preceded the movement, and
attempting to specify the causal links between the rise of
Essentialism and American society in the 1920' s and
1930's;

Examining critically the contents of the actual Essentialist
Platform and delineating what their position was, what
evidence they presented for it, and the types of reasoning
used to arrive at their conclusions;

Criticizing the strengths and weaknesses of the Essentialist
position; and

Attempting to substantiate, through historical research,

the hypothesis: Essentialism is a dominant philosophy in

 

 

contemporary American education.

 

Need for the Study

In order to view education as a total process, it is neces-

sary to know something of its history. Every new idea orinnovation

 

 

within-the field has, in some sense, an historical precedent. The
history of educational ideas is on -going and never static. All ideas,
philosophies, or movements within education are connected in some
logical fashion. Without the historical explication of these ideas,
however, the study of education becomes fragmented and distorted.
Historical continuity isineeded in order to lay claim to education as
a body of interrelated and continuous knowledge. Likewise, any
proposed innovations or conclusions drawn from empirical research
can only be implemented in a meaningful way if they are placed within
the complementary context of historical investigation. Fred N.
Kerlinger makes the point when he states:
Without good history and good historians, a discipline can lose
perspective, not to mention the serious consequences on the
intellectual development of the students of education of this
neglect, even derogation, in education of the philosophy and
history of education. Rigorous historiography is needed, just
as good scientific research is needed.

The present study will be an attempt to investigate the
origins and significance of one important movement within the
history of education. It is hoped that a type of integration of ideas,
causes and generalizations will result wherein one can see, within

a broader cultural context, the reasons why the Essentialist move-

ment developed.

 

1Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behalioral Research
(New York: - Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1965), p. 700.

 

0‘s-

The primary need for this study, however, is to demonstrate
that once a movement in education is begun, its effects are present

in some form for a long period. In addition, there is a need to show

 

that educational movements may be dormant for a while and then re —

appear when certain social and cultural factors emerge. This,

indeed, is the case for Essentialism: it has now, once again, taken

its place on the contemporary educational scene.

L__ --__._———

Methodology

The methodology used in the study will encompass the tools
of historiography and descriptive sociology. As Borg states,
"Historical research is the systematic and objective location, evalu-
ation, and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw
conclusions concerning past events. "1 The conventional methods of
historiography will be employed in this investigation. That is,

(1) the examination of primary and secondary sources, and (2) the
use of notation that follows a logically consistent order, and is con-
cerned with relating facts to generalization and causative factors
within the study.

The specific use of historical method is supported by Borg

when he states,

 

1Walter R. Borg, Educational Research: An Introduction

‘(New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1963), p. 188.

 

 

\v
"I’

~

The historical study of an educational idea or institution gives

us a perspective that can do much to help us understand our
present educational system, and this understanding in turn can
help to establish a sound basis for further progress and improve-.
ments. Historical research also can give us an insight into
human behavior that can be very valuable in arriving at practical
solutions for educational problems.

The writing will take place in a sequential pattern where information

will be gathered for a chapter, researched, ordered, written and

integrated with the next unit. The emphasis will always be on the

relation between ideas, rather than the exclusive reporting of facts.
Kerlinger summarizes the approach here when he states,
Obviously historical research is important in education. Out-
side of the intrinsic interest in history, it is necessary to know
and understand educational accomplishments and developments
of the past in order to gain a perspective of present and possibly
future directions.

The need for the study is both personal and social. On the
personal level, the writer is attempting to investigate an educational
topic that has been a source of interest and curiosity for a period of
time. This curiosity stems from prior investigations into the nature

of Essentialism. This initial inquiry brought to light the fact that

Essentialism is a little understood and frequently maligned theory

~ of education.

 

1Ibid.

2Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research, p. 698.

 

 

 

Further investigation revealed that only one major philosopher
of education (Theodore Brameld) has commented in depth on the
historical and philosophical origins of Essentialism. Yet, even in
this instance, there is not a detailed study of Essentialist writings
and related documents. Furthermore, it is the writer' s opinion that
Brameld has not presented a completely fair and balanced picture of
Essentialist thought.

In addition to having a keen personal interest in Essentialism,
the writer chose this topic for broader social reasons. It was felt
that this writing could bring additional data and clarity to the Essen-
tialist position. This would be accomplished by compiling all known
resources on Essentialism, and also documents that are not generally
quoted in writings on Essentialism. The principal social aim of the
study, however, was to present a critical analysis of the primary
documents of Essentialism. The analysis will attempt to better
clarify the exact nature of Essentialism, and present evidence to
show that Essentialism was formulated in a specific cultural context.
This cultural context involved the expansion of the universal school
and the social upheavals of the Depression of 1929.

The final aim was to support the hypothesis that Essential-
ism was again an important educational theory, especially in the

secondary schools.

CHAPTER I

PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING

THE ESSENTIALIST MOVEMENT

The basic purpose of this chapter will be to set forth the
philosophical assumptions underlying the Essentialist movement.
The first part of the presentation will deal with that portion of
Essentialism that is grounded in classical realism and idealism.
The final portion of. this chapter will be concerned with a brief

sketch of the correspondence and coherence theories of truth. The

latter portion follows logically from the former and is needed to

establish a context for the entire movement.

At this stage a fairly technical presentationis necessary.
It isnecessary. in that Essentialism is a complex doctrine and
its complexity can only be unravelled if it is seen in the light
of certain philosophical assumptions. For these assumptions
we must turnpto technical philosophy. This will have a tendency

to lead us into several areas of inquiry that may first appear to

be tangential to the primary discussion of an educational movement.

 

11

This form of presentation is an important prerequisite in understanding

the specifics of the movement as they. later came to be developed and

implemented .

Essentialism as Related to
Idealism and Realism

 

 

Essentialism has been succinctly defined by Theodore
Brameld in these words: "In briefest compass, it views the estab-
lished beliefs and institutions of our modern heritage as not only
real but true, and not only true but good. "1 He goes on to say that,
"Indeed, one of the basic characteristics of essentialism is a wide
eclecticism, typified by the presence within its camp of both pro-
fessed idealist and professed realist. "2 Although Brameld is not
sympathetic to Essentialism as such (we shall examine the reasons
in a later chapter), he does make the important observation that the
movement can be tracedto both realism and idealism, and that at
several points there is a synthesis of the two streams of thought.

At this point, let us look briefly at some of the proponents

of idealism. This will be done in an historical perspective with a

 

1Theodore Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural
Perspective (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1955),
p. 254.

 

2Ibid., p. 204.

 

 

12

summary of some of the main points of the system. As Brameld
indicates, 1 Essentialist doctrines have their base in classical
antiquity, but more directly in the world -view developed since the
Renaissance and encompassing the nineteenth century. The greatest
proponents of the idealist position could be generally listed as Rene
Descartes (1724 — 1804), Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) and George Hegel
(1770- 1831). Granted, many additional philosophers could be added
to the list, but the ones listed represent the idealist position in the
era that had the greatest influence on subsequent Essentialist ideas.
Descartes was primarily interested in establishing principles
for'defining the nature of reality. He thoroughly examined the pre-
vailing philosophical doctrines of his day and found them all lacking,
especially in clarifying the old problem of the relationship between the
knower and the object of knowledge. His problem was to solve this
riddle, which took the form of the mind -body dualism, by establishing
a method of knowing that assumes an almost mathematical perfection.
As Copleston says, "he aspired to establish the true philosophy
which would rest on pure reason and not on past tradition, and which

would be free from the limitations of time and space. ”2

 

11pm., pp. 208-212.

2Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Vol. 4:
Modern Philosophy: Descartes to Liebniz (New York: Doubleday
and Co. Inc., 1963), p. 160.

 

 

 

 

13

To arrive at this "true philosophy," Descartes began with
the method of doubt. I That is, he tried to deduce that knowledge
which was absolutely certain. He finally concluded that the only
thing of any real certainty was the fact of his own existence as
presented in his famous affirmation of ”cogito, ergo sum" —-"1 think,

therefore I am. ”

From this position he went on, through an elabo-
rate analysis, to show that his doubting implied a more perfect
Being who was beyond doubt, and that this Being must be God.

The point here is the formulation of one of the most impor-
tant bases of idealism--the idea of the primacy of the self. 2

Descartes' philosophy set some of the important foundations of

idealism in that it (1) postulated the reality of the self as a firsthand

immediate experience, and (2) that the self was conceived of as the

starting point in defining and translating experience. 3
Godfried Wilhelm von Liebniz' s complicated writings made
a further contribution to the philosophy of idealism. The principal

point of interest here is his concept of monadism.

 

11pm., pp. 100-104.

2J. Donald Butler, Idealism in Education (New York:
Harpervand Row, 1966), p. 6.

 

31bid., pp. 6—7.

 

 

14

To Liebniz, monads were the sample units that made up the
universe. They‘had these basic properties: (1) each was different
from the other, (2) each changed at a different rate, (3) each varied
,in the degree of complexity, (4) they were spiritual substances, and
(5) the highest monad was conceived of as God.

Again it should be stressed that Liebniz' s thinking provided
another link in the structure of idealist philosophy, and that this
philosophy was responsible in interpreting the world in a certain
manner. This interpretation provided one of the cornerstones of an
educational philosophy that was eventually translated into some of
the tenets of the Essentialist movement.

Returning to Liebniz and his contribution to idealism,
Butler states, "his monadology is idealistic in that the monads are
I conceived as points of mental force and not physical. His treatments
of human selves as spirits and God as a spirit without limits are
both important items in the metaphysics of Idealism. "1

Immanuel Kant has been considered one of the greatest
lights of philosophy and of idealism. His main focus was the exami -
nation of every conceivable function of the mind, and the part that
"a priori" judgments. played in analyzing the nature of reality. In

The Critique of Pure Reason, The Critique of Practical Reason and

 

 

1Ibid., p. 17.

 

15

The Critique of Judgment, he sets out to respectively analyze the

 

a priori statements that form our synthetic statements, our moral
judgments, and our aesthetic and teleological judgments. 1 Butler
adequately summarized Kant' 8 contributions to idealist philosophy
andlists them as (1) Kant' s belief in universal moral laws, (2) man' s
obligation to follow that moral law, (3) the belief in individual free-
dom, (4) his belief in the immortality of the soul, and (5) his belief
in the existence of God. 2

A synthesis, and yet a new conception of idealist thought,
was established by George Hegel. Hegel! s idealism was grand in
scope. He was interested in developing a purely deductive-.theory
of reality. In this regard, he postulated the idea of pure thought
existing even before the creation of the world. The idea is a dynamic
force that is manifestedin the world and is developed both in space
and time. "The Idea developing in space and nature . . . the Idea
developingin time is Spirit. "3 Reality then is a unity of thought for

Hegel. - It is the objectification ofthe Spirit or Mind within the world.

 

1Copleston, I Modern Philosophy: Descartes to Leibniz,

 

zButler, Idealism in Education, pp. 26 -27.

3G. W. F Hegel, Reason in History: A General Introduc-
tion to the Philosophy of History, translated and Introduction by
R. S. Hartman (New York: The Bobbs Merrill Co., 1953), p xii.

 

 

 

 

 

16

Hegel believed that all creation existed within the Idea but
in a form that had to be gradually worked out. This struggling was
necessary for the Idea to resolve itself and once more become united
with its source, the Infinite Mind. This constant struggle is known
to us as History. "History, thus, is the progressing self determina—
tion of the Idea, the progressingself —development of Spirit. "1

But in this struggle there emerges a regular pattern of
events. Hegel named this the dialectic. The dialectic follows in a
complementary and logical order. That is, there is a thesis or the
Idea, the antithesis or Nature, and a new synthesis or Mind. The
dialectic arises from the paradoxical nature of thought and the
inherent conflict it produces. Yet this conflict is necessary in the
steady unfoldment of History.

Within this brief scheme, it may be seen that Hegel' 3 con-
tribution to idealism lies in the notion of the Infinite Mind manifesting
itself in the world. 2 At bottom, the world itself is an idea; it exists
in the Mind of the creator. This is an important principle of idealism

and one that undergirds its entire system of metaphysics.

 

1Ibid., p. xvi.

2Butler, Idealism in Education, p. 34.

 

l
I

 

17

The Underlying Assumptions of Idealism

 

Within the idealist tradition are numerous philosophies and
points of view. The preceding brief sketch was only by way of intro-
duction, attempting to touch on merely some of the better known
names associated with idealism. One could speak of the idealism of
Plato, or Berkeley, or Spinoza or the more recent idealist philoso-
phers such as Bradley. The works of the Greek idealists, such as
Plato, were not included in the idealist tradition for two basic
reasons. First, there was not ample space to give a satisfactory
treatment of these ideas, and, secondly, the Essentialist tradition
relating to idealism is most generally found in the authors of the
Renaissance and, roughly, the following two centuries. Thus
Essentialist educators would look to writers such as Locke and Hegel,
rather than concentrate on the Greeks or Romans as the perennialist
would.

I The main emphasis here is to examine the common themes
of idealism and eventually relate these to the basic principles of the
Essentialist movement. But first it is necessary to state some
common idealist presuppositions. Thus idealism conceives the world
and man as primarily spiritual. Man is thought of as being a unique

spiritual animal.

i.-

18

The idealist theme of man as a unique spiritual animal is
best presented in a contemporary perspective by the idealist
Herman H. Horne. As he states it, "Idealism is the conclusion that
the universe is an expression of intelligence and will, that the endur-
ing substance of the ‘world is of the nature of mind, that the material
is explained by the mental. "1

The grounds advanced by Hornez for idealism may be looked
upon as an adequate formulation for the entire position. These
principles may be stated as: (1) The mind must be viewed as the
ultimate explanation of all. All our striving, working and thinking
has its source in the mind and is dependent upon mind. (2) Mind is
independent of matter. The mind has meaning; it experiences
pleasures and pain; the mind possesses ideas of what is good, beauti-
ful and true; and mind perceives color, tones, and so for the while
matter is not capable of this. (3) The origin of mind is another mind.
The position generally holds that matter, no matter in what form,
could not be the originator of mind. (4) It is not possible to have an

object without a subject. That is, there must be someone who is

 

1Herman H. Horne, "Philosophies of Education," An
Idealistic Philosophy of Education, the Forty -first Yearboofif the
National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Bloomington,
Illinois: School Publishing Co., 1942), p. 139.

 

 

2Ibid., pp. 141-152.

 

19

perceiving the object and this is a person with a mind. This is the
noted idealist position of ”esse est praecipi" --to be is to be per-
ceived. (5) Man is convinced that his personality is a reality. The
reality. of the personality is fundamental to any idealist position.
(6) Man has the conviction of his personal freedom, even though he
may deny. it at times. (7) Idealism supports the notion that man' 3
self is a permanent part of his being, that his self is immortal.
This is, then, the fundamental position of philosophical
idealism. This form of idealism has had a direct influence on the
Essentialist doctrines concerning subject matter, content, sequence,
the role of the teacher and the perpetuation of certain institutions.
But this emphasis on the ideal in Essentialist thinking has been
balanced by thinkers in the tradition of philosophical realism. Both
streams must be examined, therefore. There is throughout the
Essentialist movement an interplay between these two schools of
thought. We must now examine some of the assumptions of the

realist positionin traditional philosophy.

Basic Assumptions of Philosophical Realism

 

The realist differs basically. from the idealist in his con-
ception of reality. To the idealist reality is a spiritual or mind
substance. There are no objects in the world that have any reality

outside of a mind perceiving them. It is the mind that gives objects

20

(if indeed they do exist, and this cannot be known with any great
certainty) their appearance of extension, quality and space.

The realist takes a contrary position. Although there are
a variety of realist positions, most of them center around common
sense notions usually referred to as "naive realism." Hospers1
has summarized this position in five steps. He maintains realism
of this type believes: (1) in the existence of a world of physical
objects, (2) that statements about these objects can be made known
through the senses, (3) the objects of perception have an independent
status--they are there even if there is no one to perceive them,

(4) our senses can be counted upon as giving a fairly accurate descrip-
tion of the world, and (5) the sense -impressions we have are produced
by the objects themselves.

For the realist, then, there is a world that can be known to
man primarily through the data of his senses. Much of the history of
philosophy has been taken up with arguments as to the exact nature of
our sense-impressions and their role in producing reliable knowledge.
Our purpose, however, is to see how the divergent views of realism
andvidealism could both be incorporated into the educational ideals

of Essentialism.

 

1
John Hospers, An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis
(New York: Prentice -Hall, Inc. , 1967), p. 494.

 

21

It will be sufficient here to view briefly one of the chief
exponents of realism, namely, John Locke (1632 — 1704). Locke
maintained that there are physical objects existing independently in
the world. . However, the ways inwhichwe interpret them through
our senses are in many ways dissimilar to their actual form (what—
ever that form may be, since we have no way of knowing this with
any assurance). Locke distinguished two distinct aspects of our
sense -impressions. The first aspect he termed the "primary
qualities" of any object. These qualities were composed of those
elements that were capable of being measured, such as size, weight,
and shape. In addition to these, there were further qualities of an

' These qualities, such as

object which he labelled "secondary. '
color, taste, touch, and smell, were secondary in the sense of pro-
ducing the power of transmitting these ideas. The secondary qualities
are not inherent in the object itself, but only produce certain sensa—
tions on the mind. "The experiences produced in us by secondary
qualities, then, are qualities of an eye—ct only in a derived sense;
for the object does not really have them. . . ."1
Locke left some weakness in his position. For instance,

he could not arrive at a solution as to what kind of "substance" held

objects together, or how the mind transformed simple sense -data

 

1Ibid. , p. 497.

 

22

into complex ideas. Nevertheless, he set forth one of the best
positions for representative realism as a whole. As will be men—
tioned later, the impact of his philosophy was felt in the broader
areas of social philosophy, politics and economics.

The realist, therefore, has as his basic intellectual orienta-
tion the idea of a universe governed by laws which can be apprehended
through the senses. He further believes that objects can be perceived
independently of the mind. That is, sense -experiences of everyday
life are more than simply extensions of our minds. There are objects
in this world, in other words, that have their own reality.

Brameld nicely summarizes the position of realism as
derived by several philosophers:

Nature is primarily self-evident reality, a starting point in
philosophizing . . . the primary qualities of experience exist
in the physical world. . . . There is something, that produces
my sensations and perceptions . . . which cannot be known to
be mental in character. . . . Mind is like a mirror receiving
images from the physical world. . . . The mind of a child is
similar to a blank sheet of paper upon which the world proceeds
to write its impressions.

As a summary contrast to the realist position, Brameld

lists some of the basic principles of idealism. These he enumerates

as follows:

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspective,

p. 207.

Lair} .

23

Ultimate reality is of the same substance as ideas. . . . Behind
the phenomenal world is an infinite Spirit which is both sub —
structure and creator of the cosmos. . . . The existence of God
is made necessary by certain factors in selfhood. . . . The
self is the prime reality. . . . By examining his own ideas and
testing their consistency, man can achieve truth. . . . The self
reads meaning and unity into the objective world.

These positions have been summarized in order to show not only the

contrast, as such, in the ideas of realism and idealism, but also to

indicate that the essence of both stances is to be found in how they

approach epistemology, that is, the theory of knowledge. It is in the
epistemological sense of these two streams of philosophy that the

Essentialist movement draws its fundamental support. For the

 

Essentialist movement was primarily an educational defense of
certain practices and beliefs as found in the more traditional philo-
sophic outlooks. Since Essentialism is primarily an educational
theory, its main focus would, of course, be on the nature and mean—

ing of knowledge. Knowledge is directly. connected with the question

. of what is truth, and the search for truth is the focal concern of

epistemology. We must therefore examine some of the classical

theories of knowledge. These ways of knowing are the crux of the

 

Essentialist movement. It is here that the synthesis of realism and

 

idealism is attempted. Let us examine these methods of viewing the

world.

 

lIbid.

 

24

The Correspondence Theory of Knowledge

 

The correspondence theory of truth most nearly accords with
the realist position in philosophy. This theory maintains that truth, or
knowledge, has some correspondence with the world around us. For
instance, my belief that I.am writing on a table corresponds to the fact
that there is actually a table in front of me. As Brameld states it, "we
should note carefully that the correspondence theory of knowledge . . .
holds that, in general, what we know to be true is a product of an agree-
ment obtaining between the fact, relations, processes, and laws of the
objective world and our individual judgments about these phenomena. "1

It should be pointed out that the correspondence theory of truth
is not as simple as it appears on the surface. Indeed it is plagued by
numerous difficulties. These difficulties have fascinated philosophers
for generations. Basically, the correspondence theory suffers in its
attempt to interpret the nature of sense data, or perception. Conse-
quently several difficulties of a perplexing nature arise: ( 1) When one
speaks of comething‘ ”corresponding, " he is using language to convey the
idea. The language used is an assertion in terms of a proposition.
(Technically, a proposition is a sentence that purports to report a "state
of affairs" that exists. If in fact it does exist, the proposition is true;

if it does not, then the proposition is false.) Now the difficulty comes

 

.lIbid. , p. 225.

 

25

in talking about propositions as separate entities and divorcing their
expression from the entity expressing them. 1 (2) Or we may believe that
there is a "picture" in our head that corresponds to the object, and that
a true judgment is made because one image corresponds to the other. 2
But again we rely on words to express images, and words do not ade -
quately express images. There may be wide divergencies between two
people attempting to speak of a certain image. The technical point here
is that sense data may not convey an accurate picture of reality.

In the camp of the correspondence theory of truth are many
shades of realists; however, two stand out: the neo —realist and the
critical realist. The neo -realist is close to the behaviorist and
naturalist in assuming that our knowledge comes primarily through
sense data. The critical realist, on the other hand, is more in the
spirit of Locke, insofar as Locke was equally concerned with the pro-

cess by which primary and secondary qualities of objects are formed

into simple and complex ideas. For Locke, the formation of knowledge

was more than the simple process of data impinging on our senses.
Even though the connection between the realist position and
the correspondence theory of truth is a complex one, there are some

commonelements that give form to the position. And it is these

 

1A. C. Ewing, The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy,
Collier Books (New York: Collier Books, 1962), p. 60.

 

2Ibid., p. 61.

r.

26

common elements that are implied in the Essentialist educational theory.

Brameld states the common inferences running through the myriad

forms of the correspondence theory.

1.

The first inference is that realist psychologies and philosophies
are inclined to accept a more or less completely mechanistic
world, within which human beings exist and function. It is a
world governed by the cause -effect determinations of physical
and chemical processes and most accurately conveyed to the
mind through mathematically formulated laws.

The second inference is the basic assumption underlying the
correspondence theory—-name1y that the "stamping in" of
stimuli to responses to stimuli provides reliable knowledge.
The "mind" is exposed to this environment in much the same
way as a camera plate is exposed to light.

The third inference is that the correspondence theory of knowl-
edge is usually equally appropriate to the theories of the idealist
and realist. For both, the universe of antecedent order is the
source of all we know; both the realist and idealist assume a
pre -existent and cosmic source of truth with which it is the

business of the mind to correspond. 1

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspective,

 

pp. 225—226.

 

 

27

Although a link can be seen between the positions of idealism and realism,
it is necessary, nevertheless, to examine the complementary theory of
truth, the coherence theory. This is essential in that it has a somewhat
closer affinity with idealism; and, as has been pointed out, this philo-
sophical stance is equally important in understanding the foundations of

the Essentialist movement in American education.

The Coherence Theory of Truth

 

The coherence theory of truth views the nature of knowledge,
again, in somewhat of a different light. Whereas the correspondence
theory was concerned with relationships between judgments and objects,
coherence is based on the validity, or internal consistency, of proposi -
tions. This is basically a deductive approach to truth using such devices
as syllogistic reasoning. The principal aim of this theory is consistency
and validity. It is not so much concerned with objective fact. Implied
in this theory is the notion that all of nature is a coherent expression of
experience. Indeed, to give meaning to experience is to look for its
inherent consistency. Thus the philosopher Blanshard states,

Hence at any given time the degree of truth in our experience as a
whole is the degree of system it has achieved. The degree of truth
of a particular proposition is to be judged in the first instance by its
coherence with experience as a whole, ultimately by its coherence

with that further'whole, all comprehensive and fully articulated, in
which thought can come to rest. 1

 

1Brand Blanshard, "Coherence as the Nature of Truth, "in Read-

i s in the Theory of Knowledge, ed. by J. V. Canfield and F. H. Donnell,
Jr. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964), pp. 287 -288.

 

 

Q

 

28

By way of further example, the coherence theory is concerned
with the type of validity found in mathematical or syllogistic reason-
ing. Thus the mathematical expressions A = B and B = C, therefore
A = C, is a form of coherence that follows logically. If coherence is
tobe established, two criteria must be met. First, all facts that are
being dealt with must be included; and secondly, the ideas must be
ordered in a non -contradictory manner. 1

An important point of concern here is the relation of the
coherence theory to the epistemology of idealism, and, then by
implication, to the Essentialist movement. Kattsoff connects the
epistemological and ontological threads when he states,

Truth must be a property of our ideas, since all that we know

are these ideas and never any external, hypothetical thing -in-
itself. Since it is thinking that discovers the order, arrangement
and system in the reality that is given us and since thinking
results in ideas and the ideas cannot be compared to something
that is not ideas, truth lies in the coherence of these ideas.

Thus, in its fundamental approach, the coherence theory
of truthlies within the idealist framework. This is significant for
it provides an added link in the pattern of knowledge relating to the

Essentialist movement. That is, we can see a pattern emerging

(although eclectic) between idealism and the coherence theory of

 

1Louis 0. Kattsoff, Elements of Philosophy (New York:

The Ronald Press Company, 1953), p. 168.

 

2‘Ibid.

29

truth. And, as has been mentioned, there are points of contact
between the two. This gives the Essentialist movement a valid basis
for its own claims to existence.

Thus the central point of the theory of coherence is its
emphasis on the wholeness necessary in any systems of thought.
Ideas are not fragmented bits of knowledge. They are elements in a
broader pattern of understanding. One of the most perfect models of
the coherence theory is the type of a system constructed by Hegel
or‘Descartes. For Descartes, the most complete system of knowl-
edge was the type formed around deductive thinking, especially in
such disciplines as geometry. Within geometry, certain theorems
are put forth; from these theorems proofs are deduced, one follow—
ing from the others, until the problem is solved.

For Hegel, the universe had an internal logic or coherence
of its own. As Kneller says, ”for an absolute idealist like Hegel,
knowledge is valid to the extent that it forms a system. The more
comprehensive the system and the more consistent the ideas it
embraces, the more truth it may be said to possess. "1 The mental
substance that supports the universe expresses itself in terms of the
dialectic. . History, itself, is a form of unfolding logic that is the

grand example of the coherence theory of truth.

 

'lKneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, p. 35.

 

30

Yet, as with any system of knowledge, the coherence theory
has its weaknesses. In very brief fashion they may be listed as
follows: (1) If truth is defined according to coherence, there may
be the possibility of defining it in terms of itself. Truth must be
defined also in terms of something objective. 1 (2) It is assumed that
the "mind" is the ordering principle of truth, yet the perception of
stimuli may be the crucial ordering factor. (3) There may be a
complete system of coherent ideas. Yet the whole system might be
false, as in the coherence presented in such fables as Alice in

Wonderland. 2

 

Thus it can be seen that traditional systems of knowledge
have their strengths and weaknesses. The purpose here has been
to outline their main approaches in order to establish at least two
principal ways in which men View the universe. These methods have
direct educational value. For they View the nature of reality in a
specific context, and from this context are derived the social,
political, and economic ideas that in turn form the basis of educa -
tional philosophy. The next task will be to summarize, in a short
historical sketch, the social milieu in which both these philosophies

and their respective epistemological derivations were expressed.

 

1Ewing, The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy, p. 62.

 

2
Kattsoff, Elements of Philosophy, p. 169.

 

31

The Social Background of Essentialism

 

As opposed to such educational philosophies as perrenialism,
Essentialism has a relatively recent past. As Brameld summarizes
it,

Essentialism is above all a modern theory--a product of the
Renaissance centuries. In place of an ancient and medieval
absolutism symbolized by the unchallengeable, dogmatic
authority of the Church, modern essentialist philosophy aims

to provide a systemitized, unified conception of man and the
universe that will be as appropriate as possible to modern needs
and institutions.

This systematized conception of man and his place in the
universe was formalized during the Renaissance and the century
following. This was an age of both humanistic and scientific dis -
coveries. Within this period can be included such men as Copernicus
(1473 - 1543), who developed the heliocentric theory of the universe;
Kepler (1571 - 1630), dealing with the latent force of inertia and its
transformation into mechanical energy; Galileo (1564 -l641), who
viewed nature in terms of events capable of being deduced through
mathematics; and Newton (1642 - 1727), who revolutionized the theory
of the universe by conceiving it in strictly mechanistic terms.

Within the humanist tradition, but mirroring the profound

changes of the age, were men like Erasmus (1466- 1536), Comenius

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, p. 206.

 

32

(1592 - 1670) and Locke (1632- 1704). Erasmus was, perhaps, one
of the most noted intellectuals, especially in theological matters,

in the beginning of the sixteenth century. In terms of the new
humanism, he advocated the training of teachers in the psychological
understanding of the child, the development of new curriculums for
the changing times, and the fostering of an international outlook.
Comenius was one of the greatest of Renaissance educators. One of
his greatest contributions was the realization that knowledge can be
gained through the senses. Accordingly, he wrote textbooks using
illustrations and substituting the vernacular for the Latin, then still
predominantly in use. Locke' s significance as a social thinker was
in the political and educational developments stemming from his
philosophy. His theory of sense data as being the raw material for
ideas implied that knowledge was the product of man' s environment,
and that absolutist ideas of the universe were now outmoded. His
philosophy gave great impetus to the theory that knowledge was for
the growth of a well -rounded personality. He advocated education
based on the critical use of reason and observation, the teaching of
languages by conversation, stress on such subjects as the sciences,
geography, astronomy and mathematics, and the cultivation of the

manual arts. 1

 

1Robert Ulich, History of Educational Thought (New York:
American Book Co., 19457. p. 208.

 

33

These were times of great change in every facet of life.
The basis of a new social order was being laid, a social order which
was fOUnded upon empirical science and deductive mathematical
systems. These new attitudes filtered down to other areas of human
concern, especially politics and industry. Monarchical absolutism
was giving way to at least rudimentary forms of parliamentary
representation; the use of the vernacular‘was creating the concept
of a nation -state having fixed boundaries and a common culture; and,
finally, there arose the notion of a system of economics based on
discernable mathematical laws.
Brameld gives a good synopsis of the prevailing climate of
the time-when he says,
At the same time that the processes of nature were being sub-
jected to scientific explanation, thinkers were hard at work
exploring social and individual processes and attempting to
explain them by comparable principles. Thus, Adam Smith and
his associates sought to formulate economics and political laws
with the same finality and regularity that they ascribed to the
natural world. Hume and others prepared the ground for an
equally inclusive science of mental processes . . . a psychology
that would explain the phenomena of the mind in terms as
objective as those of modern chemistry or physics. 1
Thus both idealism and realism were transformed from

strictly metaphysical and epistemological outlooks to views which

encompassed social, political and economic phenomena.

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, p. 265.

 

34

We have been attempting to show that the foundations of any
particular "philosophy" of education have their deeper roots in more
classical philosophic points of view. The types of world view
exemplified in educational programs reflect a larger scope of expe -
riences. These experiences are codified and passed on in accordance
with how a group of people view reality. The point is that the outlook,
although reflecting particular social or economic positions, is based
in the first instance within philosophy. The principles of educational
psychology, for instance, are derivative, in most part, of a nineteenth
century mechanistic world view. Theories of "learning" have their
genesis in a form of sense—data impinging on the senses that may be
traced back to the philosophy of John Locke.

As will be pointed out shortly, the Essentialist movement,
or position, is an interplay of the world views embodied in the
classical idealist and realist positions. This point is worth repeat-
ing, for these two ways of knowing provide the cultural context for
Essentialism. I

Another-way of stating this is to view both a philosophic
tradition and an educational system as being products of a specific
cultural pattern. Brameld, in a recent volume, stresses this
emphasis by saying,

Thus culture is man' s all embracing achievement. More than
this, it is uniquely his achievement. For, while other animals

35

possess the instinctive ability to organize societies, no other
animal is capable of constructing culture. The age -old quest
of philosophers for a definition of man' s essence may thus be
answered now in a fresh and scientifically supportable way:
man is that species of animal alone capable of culture building.
The Essentialist movement, then, must be viewed in this
cultural context: the product of men' s thinking about reality and
truth from the Renaissance to the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Given this background, the next task will be to view
Essentialism interms of the individual, the school and society.
Again theseviews will be derivative, in some part, of those schools
of philosophy previously outlined. There will necessarily be empha-
sis once more on the nature of knowledge. For this concept forms
the core of the Essentialist position, and from it Essentialism draws
its views as to the formation of the nature, mind and character of
the individual.
The questionnow confronting us is the one posed. by Meno
to Socrates:
Can you tell me whether (excellence) can be taught or is acquired
by practice, not teaching; or if neither by practice nor by learn-

ing, whether it comes to men by nature or in some other way
(such as luck or divine gift).2

 

1Theodore Brameld, Education for the Emerging Age (New
York. Harper and Row, 1965), p. 114.

2W. R. M. Lamb, Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Enthydemus
(New York: G. P. Putman and Sons, 1924), p. 265.

 

 

CHAPTER II

THE SPECIFIC IDEAS OF ESSENTIALISM

The purpose of this chapter will be to provide a background
of Essentialist beliefs concerning three areas: (1) the nature of
society, (2) the nature of the individual, and (3) the Essentialist
position in relation to the school and society. The analysis will,
once again, follow the broad pattern outlined by Theodore Brameld,
but new elements will be added to the discussion and differing con-
clusions drawn where deemed necessary.

This part of the presentation follows logically from the
former. The contention was made that Essentialism is a broad and
eclectic point of view. It was further stated that, in order to under-
stand any educational movement in depth, it is necessary to look for
an explanation in philosophy. That is, one must look for primary
causes (in a philosophical sense) and further examine the historical
and cultural milieuin which it arose. Consequently, some exposi -

tion was given in regard to Essentialism' 3 common core in classical

36

37

idealism and realism. This was followed by an eXposition in which
Essentialism' s cultural context was set forth.

The task now will be to extend the philosophical and histori -
cal analysis of Essentialism into the realms of the state, individual
and school.

The Essentialist View of Society
and the Social Heritage

 

 

The educational Essentialist is foremost concerned with the
perpetuation of the social heritage. This in turn implies a certain
outlook about society in general. Brameld puts the position well
when he states:

A common character of the essentialist position may, however,
be adduced from the literature: since society is integral with
reality as a whole it is also integral with and subject to the same
spiritual or physical universalities as other aspects of reality
are--universalities of law, order, custom, which it is the
primary duty of education to disclose and perpetuate.

The key concept in the Essentialist' 3 view of society is
discernible uniformity--be it spiritual or physical. This, once
again, leads us into the idealist -realist philosophies.

To the idealist, society is a spiritual entity, the unfoldment

of a mental or spiritual plan. The idealist conception of society is

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec -
tive, p. 254.

 

38

almost one of ”natural law. "

This view holds that there are Spiritually
given "natural laws" that are universal and not subject to man' s
caprice. In other words, man' 3 social life is a microcosm of the
greater Infinite macrocosm. Men gather in groups and form societies,
according to this view, in order that there may be a collective
expression of the self. Society, in whatever form it takes, is the
manifestation of a "group -mind" that is in a particular stage of
evolution to the Infinite.

For the Essentialist with idealist leanings, society can be
understood in terms of certain universals that are applicable to all
men. The contemporary idealist Hocking expresses the theory in
these words:

. . the authority of society is derived. . . . Society can
expect every man to do his duty, on one condition: that it
speaks for a divine will, which expects every man to do his
duty. It is this being beyond society which provides the staying
power for a flagging conscience and a flagging love. . . . God
is the law of a normal social life.

At times, the Essentialist -idealist does not make references
to a transcendental Being. His position concerning society takes,

rather, a different course. This is usually an appeal to some type

of universal ethical norm. In this regard, Kant' s moral dictum is

 

1W. E. Hocking, Science and the Idea of God (North

Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), p. 83, quoted
in Theodore Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Per-
spective, p. 229.

 

 

39

often employed. As Bertrand Russell states it, "an act only has
moral merit (according to Kant) when it is performed because the
moral law enjoins it. "1 Kant' s influence, especially in the realm
of ethics, is still a potent force in the Essentialist' s conception of
the social order. The ultimate form of this position lies along the
grand lines set down by Hegel. In speaking of the nature of the
state, he says:
The definite content which receives this universal form and is
contained in the concrete actuality is the spirit of the people.
This spiritual content is something definite, firm, solid,
completely exempt from caprice, the particularities, the whims

of individuality, of chance. This spiritual content then con-
stitutes the essence of the individual as well as that of the people.

 

 

This manifestation of universal laws, having a spiritual origin, is
the fundamental concept in the thinking of Essentialists with idealist
tendencies. Let us now examine the Essentialist-realist position on
the nature of society.

Essentialism and the
Realist Conception of Society

 

 

The Essentialist with realist leanings views society in

rather different terms than his idealist counterpart. Although they

 

1Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New
York: Simon and Schuster, 1945), p. 645.

2G. W. F. Hegel, Reason in History, p. 52. (My empha-

 

 

sis.)

40

have fundamental differences, they do agree on the necessity of finding
some type of universals, universals that will give order and stability
to the social setting. Both are searching for lasting patterns that

will direct the course of human behavior, the idealist thinking this
direction is increased closeness and understanding of the Infinite,

the realist believing that increased order and rationality (in the
scientific sense) is the ultimate goal.

Those Essentialists with a realist background conceive of
the social order in Lockian terms, that being some type of "contract"
between citizens and rulers that forms the basis of the state, or
social order. The basis of the "contract" has three parts: (1) a
known body of law for the adjudication of disputes arising between the
citizens, (2) the guaranteed impartiality of those who judge, and (3) a
recognized power to enforce the decisions of the judge. I

The Essentialist —realist is searching for a society based on
predictable laws that are akin to the findings of natural science. The
task, for the Essentialist, is to find the causal link between the
individual and the society that he forms. The central question of the
Essentialist —realist is, "How can I discover through reason and the

methods of natural science the basis for the origin and perpetuation

 

1John Locke, Locke Selections, edited by Sterling P.
Lamprecht (New York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 1928), p. xxix.

 

41

of any given society?" Frederick Breed, a philosophical and
educational realist, sees the relationship of the school and society
in these terms:
Truth is defined as the body of knowledge of the highest
certainty. The teacher would become a knowledge specialist
for the state. The school would be enlisted in the service of the
state as an organ of social investigation and instruction. . . .
It would be conducted for the purpose of developing a keen social
intelligence, ability to think effectively about the problems of
society.

This attitude of scientific certainty (even in the social
sciences) is the major objective of the Essentialist -realist. For
him the school can mirror the society, and it is the function of the
school to change institutions. As Breed says, "the school also has
another function, that of contributing to the improvement of social
. institutions. "2 This type of improvement comes about through

attempting to look at society as a body of knowable generalizations.

These generalizations would consist of those facts that can be ascer-

 

tained about any particular society (and its corresponding system of
beliefs).
In the realist conception, therefore, the relation of school

and society becomes one of ”interaction. " The state and the school

 

1Frederick S. Breed, Education and the New Realism (New
York: The Macmillan Co., 1939). p. 184.

 

2Ibid., p. 185.

42

complement one another in attempting to implement the scientific
outlook. Thus Breed maintains, "hypotheses are legitimate in the

classroom only if carefully labeled so as not to be confused with

verifiable results. "
John Wild, a contemporary realist, states clearly the
realist conception of the school and society. In searching for a

type of stable knowledge through which societies can .be understood,

he says ,

Such knowledge, especially that which treats of human nature,
can provide us with immutable and trustworthy principles for
the guidance of individual and social action. All men share
common traits which determine vague tendencies in every

child. The invariable, universal pattern of action, individual
as well as social, required for the completion of human nature
is called the moral law or natural law. By disciplined study of
human nature and the events of history, this knowledge may be
increased and clarified. Such knowledge is the only trustworthy
guide for human action.

 

The Essentialist, of either philosophical leaning, is vitally
concerned with establishing a solid foundation for the social heritage.
The social heritage consists of the cumulative experiences of the
race. It is a body of beliefs, attitudes, and institutions that have

been painfully worked out over the course of the last three centuries.

 

1Ibid., p. 186.

2John Wild, "Education and Human Society: A Realistic
View, " in Modern Philosophies and Education, the Fifty -fourth
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1955), p. 18.

 

43

Society, for the Essentialist, is an organism based on certain
established principles. These principles have endured the test of
time and have been given to us for preservation and application.

It is at this point that the extreme Essentialist runs into difficulty.
He does not allow for the factor of change. We shall speak of this
later.

The basic point, however, is that the Essentialists, even
those of liberal persuasion, place great store on the accumulated
knowledge of the social heritage. Kneller states it in this way:

Essentialism emphasizes the importance of race experience or
the social heritage over the experience of the individual. This
heritage summarizes the experiences of millions in attempting
to come to terms with their environment. The wisdom of the
many, tested by history, is more significant than the knowledge
of the individual and more significant than the totally untested
experience of the child.

An important concept in the Essentialist view of society has

been intimated by Kneller. It is the idea that the society is prior to

 

the individual. This of course ties in with the correspondence theory

 

of truth in acknowledging an antecedently existent world of reality.
The Essentialist views society as an integral whole. It is prior to
the individual in the sense that the individual "steps into” a culture
that has already been established. Although the individual may in

his lifetime contribute to the store of accumulated knowledge, his

 

1Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, p. 117.

 

44

contribution is not made in a vacuum; it does not just happen. He
will contribute to his culture only to the extent that he has learned
the lessons from the social heritage. In fact, the very "tools" that
he needs in order to function in the society have been given to him.
Forvinstance, the forms of reasoning and investigation employed in
mathematics. and science are themselves the products of long develop-
ment within the context of the social heritage. This extension of the
social heritage is likewise the basis for our concepts of freedom and
individual liberty. Kandel, a leading Essentialist, states:

A free society cannot divest itself of the obligation of handing

on to new generations those common traditions, loyalties and

interests which make community life possible, but it can and

should avoid that claim to omniscience and infallibility which

must in the long run spell stagnation and failure to permit

adaptation to changing conditions. 1

This function of passing on the social heritage is the key to

grasping the entire Essentialist movement. The search for uni -
versals, of some variety, is for the Essentialist of primary
importance. Without these verities the social order cannot maintain
itself. The knowledge, of which the social heritage is constituted,

must remain in basically the same form from generation to genera -

tion. As Kandel states, "the aims of education in the past were

 

1I. L. Kandel, Conflictinngheories of Education (New
York: The Macmillan Co., 1938), pp. 27-28.

 

45

social in intent and were directed to the promotion of the welfare of
societies. "1

It should be pointed out that when speaking of "universals, ”
as concerns the social heritage, this is not meant in the traditional
philosophical sense of immutable, God -given truths. Nor is the
perennialist position of truth as embodied in the "Great Books"
implied. Rather, the term "universal" is understood in a cultural
sense. It refers to the basic skills needed by any society to perpetu-
ate itself. It also refers to the political and economic ideas that
undergird our institutions.

It is important to note that the Essentialists, although being
labeled "conservative educators, " do not view the nature of society
as being static. The common term to describe the social order, in
its dynamic characteristics, was put forth by the principal founder
of the movement, William C. Bagley. He called the dynamics of

' This concept had a biological

society the "emergent evolution. '
origin and reflected the training of Bagley in the natural sciences.
For Bagley, the progress of man can be measured by both biological

and social evolution. In both forms man is emerging from a lower

state of perception to a higher one. In the process he, hopefully,

 

1Ibid., p. 2.

46

constructs systems of thought and tools for the handling of practical
problems. Man, in other words, builds culture piece by piece. It
is a laborious process and the accumulation of knowledge is very
slow. Yet, over time, ways of looking at the world become estab-
lished in systems of philosophy, and ways of manipulating the natural
environment become crystallized into systems of technology. This
process, in a sense, is evolution in a teleological form, from the
lower to the higher, from the less perfected to the more perfected.
However, as this process of emergent evolution continues, man, of
necessity, must look to what has gone before, and from his heritage
keep and perpetuate those elements that will help him continue to
progress. Thus, for Bagley, the continuance of the social heritage
becomes a very crucial matter. As he states,
Written records are especially precious elements of the cultural
heritage because it is in such records that the accumulated wisdom
of the race is preserved. They include: (1) the formulations
that crystallize the facts, principles, laws, postulates, and
hypotheses which make up the total complex called "knowledge, "
(2) descriptions and illustrations of skills and techniques,
(3) the dramatic story of man' s progress as this has been
reconstructed by historians and pre -historians . . . , (4) the
written records themselves, and (5) the records of personal
impressions, interpretations, reactions. . . .

Again, the central thesis of Essentialism depends on identi -

fying those elements of knowledge that are worth preserving.

 

1Bagley, Education and Emeigent Man, pp. 21 -22.

 

47

This brings us once more to the problem of "universals. " However,
since we are dealing with the §o_cia_l_heritage, these "universals"
must be understood in the sense of cultural products, rather than
philosophical entities.

Although Essentialists have not traditionally interpreted the
social heritage from a cultural point of view, this perspective will
now be adopted in order to better illuminate the core of the problem.
It should be noted that Brameld does analyze the Essentialist posi -
tion in critical terms from the standpoint of culture. 1 However,
his interpretation deals mainly with an historical presentation. He
does not view the Essentialist position from the perspective of
modern social science. The contention here is that such an analysis,
at least as concerns the nature of the social heritage, is needed to
place the Essentialist movement in another perspective.

The perspective taken will be one supporting the claims of
a viable social heritage. This is not to agree with that position
which holds that society is static and that institutions must not
undergo change. Rather, the thesis is made that there are elements
within any given culture ("universals, " if you will) that can be seen

as having acontinuous history, and that these cultural factors, in a

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, Chapter 9, pp. 261 -281.

 

48

broad sense, are necessary for the maintenance of the culture. In
other words, the position held is one of cultural universalism.
Cultural universalism holds that there are similarities in
values cutting across the differences between cultures. It is
opposed to the view (cultural relativism) which maintains that each
social act must be interpreted exclusively within the context of
culture. We are not adOpting an attitude of ”naive idealism" which
holds that there are lasting universal truths common to all cultures.
Rather, the position favored is one that attempts to examine relevant
psychological and sociological data. These data indicate a simi -
larity of patterns of behavior that transcend many cultures. In
other words, there appear to be cross -cultural "universals" which
constitute the essential elements of the social heritage. Kluckhohn
substantiates this point in saying:
Psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and anthropology in differ-
ent ways and on somewhat different evidence converge in
attesting to similar human needs and psychic mechanisms.
These, plus the rough regularities in the human situation regard-
less of culture, give rise to widespread moral principles which
are very much alike in concept--in "intent. " These considera-
tions make the position of radical cultural relativity untenable.
Indeed this view when pressed to its logical extreme soon
reached absurdity. If one is to evaluate an act or a moral
judgment entirely by its context, it is inescapable that no two
contents are literally identical. And yet the brute fact is that
the members of all societies create and are influenced by
principles of some generality, by moral abstractions. . Human

beings generalize as well as discriminate. The human parade
has many floats, but, when one strips off the cultural symbolism,

49

the ethical standards represented are akin. The ostensible
self -effacement of the Zuni and the exhibitionism of the
Kwakiutl affirm the same moral value: allegiance to the norms
of one' 3 culture. 1

In order not to lead us too far astray from. the Essentialist
movement, let us further substantiate this position of cultural
universalism. The educational Essentialist must, in today' 3 world
of rapidly expanding knowledge, look to the literature of the social
sciences. Since the Essentialist movement is educational in content,
and since it is based around the key concept of the social heritage,
it is necessary to present evidence for even the possibility of "a
social heritage" existing. This evidence is best found in the socio—
logical data concerning the similarities between cultures. Linton
further acknowledges the universality of cultural patterns in saying,

The first impression which one receives from the study of a
series of unrelated cultures is one of almost unlimited variety.
Since all the varied patterns function successfully as parts of
one culture or another, the stage is set for the development of
the concept of cultural relativity. The insistence on scientific
objectivity, which means the rigid exclusion of all ethical judg-
ments and the substitution of an attitude of, "Well, some do and
some don' t" contributes toward the same end. Actually, many
anthropologists have espoused this position and considerable
support can be found for it as long as investigation is limited to

the overt behavior patterns of various societies. However,
when these patterns are analyzed in terms of their functions

 

1Clyde Kluckhohn, "Ethical Relativity: Sic Et Non" (a

paper delivered at The Comparative Study of Values in Five Cultures

 

of the Laboratory of Social Relations, Harvard University, no date
given).

 

50

and interrelations, certain general principles emerge. Behind
the seemingly endless diversity of culture patterns there is a
fundamental uniformity. To discover what the common factors
are and to plan culture change in conformity with them is the
most important task of the social scientist.

 

 

It is vital for the Essentialist to demonstrate some evidence
for cultural universalism. This is for two reasons: (1) to indicate
that cultures transmit from one generation to another certain pat-
terns of beliefs and uniformities in behavior, and (2) to adopt a
broader point of view which shows that the social heritage is indeed
a cultural by -product, consequently, that it is capable of change.
Cultural universalism is in some ways akin to Bagley' s concept of
”emergent evolution. " Bagley’was attempting to show the inherent
need of all societies to accumulate skills and beliefs both to survive
and to progress. He was stressing the need to observe societies
(and their cultural matrix) as they move along a continuum. In this
movement some things are kept, others discarded. Those parts of
”knowledge" that are maintained constitute the ingredients of the
social heritage. Thus all societies follow similar patterns, and it
is these patterns which constitute cultural universalism. Let us
quote Kluckhohn, in summary, to lend further support to the Essen-

tialist position. He writes:

 

1Ralph Linton, "Universal Ethical Principles: An Anthro-
pological View, " in Moral Principles of Action: Man's Ethical
Imperative, ed. by Ruth Nada Anshen (New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1952), p. 646. (My emphasis. )

 

 

51

The basic similarities in human biology the world over are
vastly more massive than the variations. Equally, there are
certain necessities in social life for this kindof animal regard-
less of where that life is carried on or in what culture.
Cooperation to obtain subsistence and for other ends requires

a certain minimum of reciprocal behavior, of a standard sys -
tem of communication, and indeed of mutually accepted values.
The facts of human biology and of human group living supply,
therefore, certain invariant points of reference from which
cross -cultural comparison can start without begging questions
that are themselves at issue. As Wissler pointed out, the
broad outlines of the ground plan of all cultures is and has to
be about the same because men always and everywhere are
faced with certain unavoidable problems which arise out of the
situation ”given" by nature. Since most of the patterns of all
cultures crystallize around the same foci, there are significant
respects in which each culture is not wholly isolated, self—
contained, disparate but rather related to and comparable with
all other cultures.

With this cultural presentation of the nature of the social
heritage, it is now necessary to view the Essentialist position on the

nature of the individual.

Essentialism and the Individual

 

The Essentialist' s beliefs on the nature of the individual
may be based on three themes: (1) The individual is, above all, a
spiritual being that has the unique gift of reason (if the spiritual
side is not emphasized, then it is the exclusively rational part of

man); (2) the individual is to a great extent shaped by his social

 

1Clyde Kluckhohn, "Common Humanity and Diverse Cultures, "

in The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, ed. by Daniel Lerner
(New York: Meridian Books, 1959). p. 176.

 

52

heritage; and (3) in order to bring out his unique spiritual or rational
nature, the individual must be trained along certain lines. That is,
the curriculum in any formalized system of schooling must be ordered
and structured in such a way as to reveal the scope of the social
heritage. Let us examine these three positions.
To the Essentialist with an idealist background, the spiritual

growth of the individual is of primary importance. The individual
is viewed as a microcosm of the greater Infinite macrocosm. He
is, in other words, a small copy of the universe. According to this
view, the "self" becomes all important. It is the self that is the
core being of every person. Since this self is a miniature copy of
the Infinite, it is the teacher' 5 foremost duty to develop all the latent
potentialities of these "selves. " Brameld says of this position,

Man thinking, then, is but a simple expression of God thinking.

This is not to say, of course, that, as subjective idealism

holds, man himself is the source of reality, but that, although

he may first come in contact with God through intimate aware-

ness of his own spiritual self, that fact is that God' 3 self, as

universal is prior to and the cause of man' 8 self.

The Essentialist with realist tendencies does not, as has

been seen, posit a spiritual self as the ground of ultimate being.

His concern, rather, is with the unfolding of man' s rational powers.

Man' 3 nature is in direct proportion to the development of his

 

1Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, p. 219.

 

53

rational faculties; he knows himself and nature to the degree that his
mind can order and regulate nature. To the Essentialist-realist, the
mind is a storehouse for empirical truths. Its function is to receive
data through the senses, classify and sort this information, and,
finally, use it to understand the regularities of the physical universe.

The Essentialist -realist, however, does not see the indi -
vidual as only a perceiver and orderer of information. His
epistemological views extend into the realm of ethics. As Wild
says, man "has not been endowed with an exhaustive array of
inflexible instincts which automati cally propel him to the proper
acts . . . he has been given very flexible tendencies together-with
the power of cognition by which he may rationally understand his
essential needs. . . . "1 Thus, nature, in addition to holding the
secret of physical laws, is also capable of yielding ethical norms.
But these norms are established by man through reason, and not
necessarily ”given" to him by some higher self. Again, truth for
the Essentialist -realist lies in translating and ordering of sense -
data, and this, for him, is accomplished through the correspondence
theory.

No matter what side of Essentialism is emphasized, the

individual is seen as an expression of the‘social heritage. The

 

1Wild, "Education and Human Society: A Realistic View, "

54

social heritage is expressed through knowledge, and so what is

 

learned must have more than a purely instrumental value. Bagley
states, "knowledge, then, has values over and above those that we
have designated as instrumental. Knowledge may be background as
well as instrument; its value may be interpretive as well as utili -
tarian. "1
In the Essentialist view, the child must be exposed to the

social heritage along specific lines. The curriculum must reflect
those essentials of the social heritage that are permanent, enduring,
and stable. The Essentialist, Kandel, states:

Rather it is the function of education to enable the pupils,

through content selected for that purpose, to understand the

environment in which they live, to cultivate breadth of interest,

to gain the ability to find information for themselves, to develop

the capacity for judgment, to acquire an appreciation of

standards of right and wrong, to be stimulated to a readiness

to work and co -operate with others, and to be initiated into the
art of living.

 

The-views of Bagley follow Kandel closely. Bagley sees
the necessity for training along specific lines as the crucial deter-
minant in developing a sense of community. Let us also recall that
the Essentialist is concerned with the preservation of democracy.

He sees the stability of a democratic society as being dependent

 

1Bagley, Education and Emergent Man, p. 73.

 

2Kandel, Conflicti_1_1g Theories of Education, p. 127. (My
emphasis.)

 

55

upon the social heritage, and this social heritage as forming the
ideal of a homogenous community. Bagley emphasizes this position
in saying,

A most important function of formal education, especially in a
democracy, is to insure as high a level of common culture as
possible--meanings, understandings, standards, and aspirations
common to a large proportion of the democratic group--to the
end that the collective thinking and the collective decisions of
the group may be done and made on the highest plane possible.
This obviously calls for a goodly measure of common elements
in the school programs thrbughout the country, and particularly
in the programs of the universal school.

 

These ”common elements, " and those who are to teach
them, must now become our concern. We will next examine Essen-
tialist thinking on such matters as the nature of the curriculum as
an agent for transmitting the social heritage, the nature of the school

in society, and the training of teachers.

Essentialism and the Role of the School

 

Essentialism is, above all, an educational doctrine. Its
concern is with school curriculum, teacher training and the social
relationship between the school and society. Heavy emphasis is
usually placed by all Essentialists on the nature of the school in a
democratic society. For the Essentialist, those democratic insti -

tutions worthy of preservation are a direct result, or a product of,

 

1Bagley, Education and Emergent Man, p. 139. (My
emphasis.)

 

56

the social heritage. The social heritage both shapes and is the
basis for our democratic institutions.

The school, according to Essentialist thinking, is a neces -
sary adjunct to the wider sphere of the social heritage. The school
defines the boundaries of the social heritage, and, at the same time,
serves as the most fundamental transmitter of the culture. v It has a
unique relationship with the society, a relationship that is reciprocal.
As Kandel sees it,

. . the school as a social institution has the obligation of
selecting suchexperiences as will develop the individual into
a socially responsible and intelligent member of the community.
The school, in otherwords, is an institution established and
maintained by society to achieve certain ends, to transmit
certain values, and to give each individual his rightful share in
the great heritage of human experience. 1

It is believed by Essentialists that the school as a reflector
of society also has a parallel interest in changing that society when
change is indicated. The Essentialist views those principles of
learning within the social heritage as sufficient criteria for measur-
ing the amount and degree of social change. In other-words, if
education is guided along certain established principles, these

principles will be the mainspring for evaluating the society at a

given time and recommending changes if needed. How, then, is it

 

1I. L. Kandel, The Culture of Uncertainty (New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1943), pp. 108-109.

 

57

possible to measure whether the historic function between school

and society is being carried out? Bagley says,
Social evolutiOn . . . was defined as the accumulation and
refinement of learnings, and education was defined in its widest
sense as a primary factor in social evolution, while as an
organized social institution its chief responsibility. is to trans -
mit the spiritual heritage from generation to generation. It
follows from our fundamental postulates that, in the selection
of learnings to be perpetuated . . . the criteria of selection
should be the welfare and progress of society.

The fundamental criteria of the system' s effectiveness

are to be sought in those social statistics which inform us of
the welfare of society and whether it is progressing or standing
still or going backward.

Bagley goes on to list the criteria that can be used as a way
of measuring social change. He is saying that if these criteria are
negative, there is a fundamental disorderwithin the social system;
and this imbalance is, in part, the fault of education. It is worth
listing these criteria. Some of them are later used in the official
platform statements of the Essentialist Committee. The criteria
for social progress are:

1. The educational system should be devoted to preserving
social order and stability. Educators, consequently, must
. look to the statistics on crime. If the crime rate is soar-

ing, then there is social instability and the educational

system is to be blamed.

 

1Bagley, Education and Emggent Man, p. 119.

 

10.

58

Levels of health and longevity are important barometers of
social progress. Infant mortality should especially be low.
Again, it is the task of education to watch for the social
statistics.

An important step of social progress would be seen in the
decrease of corruption in public office, decrease in special
privileges for special classes, and a decrease in prejudicial
appeals.

Progress in social concerns would also be measured in
decreased rates of venereal disease, drunkedness, and
mental illness traced to alcohol.

A decrease in poverty and an advance in the standard of
living.

A decrease in the divorce rate.

The removal of slums and increased provisions for play-
grounds and parks.

Another index of social progress would be the increased
consumption of good literature and music, and decreased
exploitation by the mass media.

An increase of "creative" activity in all areas of life, such
as the arts and sciences.

A decrease in exploitation of the weak by the strong.

59

11. Decrease in birth -rates among those unable or unwilling to
supply adequate care for their young. Adequate amounts of
food, clothing and shelter.

12. An increase in the type of motivation to work for ends that
are not exclusively pecuniary.

Bagley believes that education must work to remedy what
he believes are the dominant social evils. And, again, he maintains
that it is only possible to do this through a specific form of educa-
tion based on the social heritage. The next step will be to examine
some Essentialist thinking on the nature of the learner and the
structure of the curriculum.

The Learner and Curriculum
in Essentialist Thinkig

 

 

It is the contention of most Essentialists that the curriculum
is the most important method of transmitting the social heritage.
Within the curriculum are the methods and principles of learning
that must be instilled in the child if the experiences of the race are
to be maintained. There is, according to the Essentialist, a con-
tinuity and structure to all knowledge. This structure is embodied
in certain subjects which must be given to the child if he is to fulfill

his role in a democratic society. Kandel states the idea in these terms:

 

1Bagley, Education and Emergent Man, pp. 120-122.

 

60

Since the environment carries in itself the stamp of the past and
the seeds of the future, the curriculum must inevitably include
that knowledge and information which will acquaint the pupil with
the social heritage, introduce him to the world about him, and
prepare him for the future. 1
In terms of specific educational practices, the Essentialist
educator will differ somewhat as to whether he has idealist or
realist inclinations. The Essentialist-idealist will stress learning
that is whole, not fragmented. He will be concerned with the inter-
relatedness of all knowledge, and the process by which all knowledge
reflects the workings of the mind in its search for the infinite. In
pedagogical method, there will be emphasis on the spoken and written
word. 2 To the Essentialist -idealist, there will be a need to stress
the logical structure of knowledge and the coherence theory of truth
in verifying that knowledge.
For the Essentialist -realist, knowledge will be equated with
science, for the most part. The emphasis will be on the ordering
of all sense -data into logical systems based on induction. He will

stress the empirical method in arriving at truth, and will be most

interested in imparting that knowledge embodied in the sciences

 

1Kandel, Conflicting Theories of Education, p. 99.

 

‘ 2VanCleve Morris, Philosophy and the American School
(Boston: Houghton -Mifflin Co. , 1961), p. 329.

 

61

and mathematics. The realist is interested in quantitative language,
in dealing with a curriculum that emphasizes things. 1 His concern
is to establish and transmit that knowledge which is capable of veri -
fication through the scientific method.

Although there are some differences between the two edu-
cational approaches, both the idealist and realist have several
meeting points in terms of curriculum: (1) Both favor "established"
subjects that have "content"; (2) they both believe subject matter
should progress from the simple to the complex in a logi cal order;
(3) both stress the need of the scientific method for the verification
of truth; (4) they both place emphasis on the written word; (5) they
visualize the learning process in terms of giving the child certain
"basics" of "stamping -in" knowledge; (6) both favor the written
examination methods of testing to see if knowledge has been grasped;
' and (7) both place emphasis on the correspondence theory of
knowing--that is, equating knowledge with an external reality,
whether that reality be physical or spiritual.

Bagley has summarized some important points of Essen-
tialist doctrine as they pertain to the curriculum. These he lists

as:

 

1Ibid., p. 333.

62

(1) Gripping and enduring interests frequently, and in respect
to the higher interests almost always grow out of initial
learning efforts that are not intrinsically appealing or
attractive.

(2) The control, direction and guidance of the immature by the
mature is inherent in the prolonged period of infancy. . . .

(3) . . . imposed discipline is a necessary means to this end.

(4) The freedom of the immature learner to choose what he
shall learn is not at all to be compared with his later free -
dom from want, fraud, fear, superstition, error and
oppression. . . .

(5) Essentialism provides a strong theory of’education. . .

Essentialist Views on the Teacher and Learner

 

For the Essentialist, the three areas of curriculum, teach-
er and the learner are intimately connected. All interact to produce
the fundamentals of Essentialist doctrine. Thus, although there are
definable bodies of knowledge constituting the social heritage, there
must be teachers trained along specific lines to impart this knowl-
edge. It also requires the holding of certain beliefs concerning the
child.

The teacher' 3 main function, in Essentialist thinking, is
twofold: (1) He must be the agent through which knowledge is given,
and (2) he must present the elements of the social heritage in such

fashion as to stimulate the child in pursuing knowledge that he may

 

1William C. Bagley, "Just What Is the Crux of the Conflict
between the Progressives and the Essentialists, " Education Admin-
istration and Supervision, XXVI (1940), 510-511.

 

 

63

not see as being immediately useful. Brickman, a writer with
Essentialist leanings, explains some of the qualifications of the
Essentialist teacher in these words:
Essentialism places the teacher at the center of the educational
universe. This teacher must have a liberal education, a
scholarly knowledge of the field of learning, a deep understand-
ing of the psychology of children and of the learning process,
an ability to impart facts and ideals to the younger generations,
an appreciation of the historical -philosophical foundations of
education, and a serious devotion to his work.

The Essentialist teacher, whether of idealist or realist
leanings, is concerned foremost with developing a curriculum based
on content and sequence. And, importantly, it is the content of the
subject matter that gives any course of study its structure, coherence
and correspondence. The Essentialist is opposed to the excessive
use of "self-directed" activity on the part of the learner. He feels
that intrinsic motivation is vital, but maintains the necessary
ingredients for this motivation stem from the knowledge of the
teacher and the content of the course. If the content is laborious,
it is the teacher' 3 function to see that it is made palatable without
deviating from the logical sequence of the subject matter. As

Bagley holds, "the essentialist would have the teachers responsible

for a systematic program of studies and activities to develop the

 

1William W. Brickman, "The Essentialist Spirit in Educa-
tion, " School and Society, LXXXVI, No. 2138 (October 11, 1958),
364.

 

64

recognized essentials. "1 He goes on to list the outcomes of learning
to which every Essentialist teacher should aspire as being: (1) habits
and skills, (2) knowledge: ideas, concepts, meanings, facts, prin-
ciples, (3) ideals and emotionalized standards, and (4) attitudes--
intellectual and emotional perspectives.
As the founder of the Essentialist movement and an edu-
cator for many years, Bagley lays heavy stress on the importance
of good teaching. He insists that the "teacher' 8 function [is] to
make the lessons of race experience vibrate withlife and meaning. "3
The-teacher, as a product of the social heritage himself, is obligated
to impart the lessons from it in clear and unambiguous terms. He
must stress, as always, the internal logic of all he teaches. This
stress on coherence and correspondence does not mean that subject
matter is only an artificial contrivance of educators. Kandel insists
that there is a deeper purpose inherent in organized subject matter:
» The attack on subject matter ignores the fact that subjects are not
something artificially created for use in schools but represent
crystallized bodies of experience and activities which the human

race has found to be of the greatest and most permanent signifi -
cance for its own survival as well as for its continued progress.

 

1Bagley, Education and Emeigent Man, p. 80.

 

2Ibid., pp. 76-77.
3 .
Ib1d., p. 188.

‘4Kandel, Conflicting Theories of Education, p. 96.

 

65

It should be remembered (as will be explained more fully
in the following chapter) that Essentialism was a movement founded
in direct opposition to the Progressive education movement. Essen-
tialism posited itself as a countermovement to the excesses of
Progressive education. Criticism was directed to the Progressive' s
misinterpretation of Dewey' s philosophy, especially in matters con-
cerning the nature of the curriculum. The Essentialists felt that
American education was being seriously undermined by Progressive
doctrines which stressed the "self-activity" of the learner. They
were opposed to receiving the teacher as merely a person whose
function was to encourage children to follow their own interest and
become-socially compatible. Thus they placed great stress on the
interrelationship of the teacher, the curriculum as embodied in the
social heritage, and the learner. Bagley defines this relationship
by relating the connection of subject matter and teacher responsi -
bility. He states,
There can be little question as to the essentials. It is by no
means a mere accident that the arts of recording, computing,
and measuring have been among the first concerns of organized
education. They are basic social arts. Every civilized society
has been founded upon these arts, and when these arts have been
lost, civilization has invariably and inevitably collapsed. Egypt,
Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia are strewn with the ruins of
civilizations that forgot how to read and write. Contemporary
civilization, for the first time in history, has attempted to

insure its continuance by making these arts in so far as possible
the prerogative of all.

66

Nor is it at all accidental that a knowledge of the world that
lies beyond one' s immediate experience has been among the
recognized essentials of universal education, and that at least a
speaking acquaintance with man' 5 past and especially with the
story of one' 3 country was early provided for in the universal
school. Widening the space horizon and extending the time
perspective are essential if the citizen is to be protected from
the fallacies of the local and the immediate.

Investigation, invention, and creative art have added to the
heritage and the list of recognized essentials has been extended
and will be further extended. Health instruction and the incul-
cation of health practices are now basic phases of the work of
the lower schools. The elements of natural science have their
placie. Neither the fine arts nor the industrial arts are neglect-
ed.

The Essentialist grants that the elements of the social heritage are

not easily grasped by all. He, therefore, believes that the individual

is in need of direction and guidance in order to learn the subject

matter. Again, the skill of the teacher is all -important in this

process. Kandel addresses himself to this point by saying,
Education in the school is not life but the acquisition of those
experiences and activities which society regards as essential
for its survival and whichgive meaning to life. Since not all
first hand experiences are desirable, the school and teacher
must select those that are valuable for the individual and for
society. 2

Even though the knowledge and techniques. of the teacher are

primary, the Essentialist feels there must be a corresponding effort

 

1Bagley, Education and Emergent Man, pp. 79-80.

 

2Kandel, Conflicting Theories of Education, p. 36.

 

67

on the part of the child to learn. This is often difficult, but there
must be some element of intrinsic motivation present. Bagley says,
"mastery, then, in any real sense of the term means for most
persons who achieve such a mastery persistent effort and sustained
concentration. "1 The doctrine of effort, then, becomes a central
Essentialist belief. This effort is basic to man as a rational

evolving being. It is this internal striving for sustained growth and
more and increasingly complex knowledge that gives man the principle
of effort. On this point most Essentialists would agree, in principle,
with Dewey' s theory of growth and development.

The Essentialists, it should be remembered, believe in the
organic evolution of man. They hold the belief that man progresses
as he interacts with his environment, and as he solves the human
problems the environment poses. This belief in man as a problem -
solving animal has, accordingly, many similar points with the Pro-
gressive-doctrine. The position differs only in prescribing unequal
weight to the influence of the social heritage. But in both positions

the role of ideas plays a prominent part, especially the use of ideas

 

as a problem -solving technique and as an important function of the

intellect. Breed, a leading Essentialist-realist, says,

 

1William C. Bagley, "An Essentialist Looks at the Foreign
Languages," Educational Administration and Supervision, XXV,
No. 4 (April, 1939), 243.

 

68

Ideas are true when they work, but when they work they do so
because they conform to a-definite order of things beyond them.
Ideas thus become a priceless source of guidance, a means of
adjustment or adaptation in agreement with the biological con-
ception of the relation between organism and environment.
Education, then, is not a process of reconstructing the universe,
but a process of teaching humans how to make their way in it.

It is guidance through discovery.

The emphasis on the important function of ideas is, of
course, founded on some notion as to the nature of intelligence. We
will conclude this chapter by presenting some ideas as to how the
Essentialist views intelligence. Bagley, as founder of the movement,
was concerned with placing the principles of Essentialism within
some understandable context. This context necessarily had to deal
with the concept of intelligence. He repudiates, first of all, those
notions of intelligence that are strictly deterministic in behavior,
that is, the view which treats of intelligence as a capacity that can
be definitely measured by the use of tests. 2 For an Essentialist
like Bagley, intelligence is a very complicated process. He criti -

cizes the "determinists" mostly, in the a prior assumptions they hold,

and in their tendency to generalize from. too few cases.

 

1Breed, Education and the New Realism, p. 88.

 

‘2William C. Bagley, Determinism in Education (Baltimore:
Warwick and York, Inc., 1925), pp. 11-20.

 

3Ibid., pp. 17-18.

69

Differences in native mentality, of course, are biologically
inevitable. It is not their existence but their meaning that we
are concerned with. What the determinist has forgotten is that
resemblances in ideas, ideals, aspiration and standards may
and do unite men by bonds that are vastly stronger than are the
differences in nativeendowment that would otherwise pull them

a a t 1

p r .

The Essentialist, then, does not hold a narrow view of
intelligence. Even though there may be innate differences, this does
not exclude the possibility of educating most people in the essentials
of the social heritage. The levels of abstraction may have to be
modified, but the permanent elements of knowledge of the culture can
still be given. Bagley has set forth some provisional conclusion con-
cerning the nature and rate of intelligence in society. Although these
ideas were formulated more than a quarter of a century ago, they
still retain certain characteristics that are held by even contemporary
Essentialists. These elements set forth by Bagley will be in summary
form, only to show the general nature of the position. They are:

1. An acceptance (provisionally) of the term "general intelli -
gence" to denote the most important function of the mind:
ability to control behavior in the light of experience.

2. General intelligence is a broad concept and may include

ability to draw abstract references, to apply general

principles, etc.

 

11pm., p. 31.

70

General intelligence is in part determined by environmental

 

 

circumstances, especially by systematic schooling.

The contribution of systematic schooling to general intelli -
gence probably equals the effects of innate ability and
environmental pressures together.

The effects of systematic schooling in intelligence varies,
but the greatest effect on intelligence comes from that
type of schooling which emphasizes systamatic and sus -
tained mental effort.

The importance of early discipline and systematic training
cannot be overlooked.

The level of general intelligence of a nation will be in some
part dependent on its freedom from war, revolution and
degeneration.

The "disciplinary" function of formal education probably
exercises an important influence in the type of ”transfer"
that takes place.

Democracy is dependent upon. a system of schooling that
emphasizes discipline --freedom has not been a gift, but

has had to be earned.

 

11pm.. pp. 157-160.

71

Summary

This chapter has attempted to show some of the specific
beliefs concerning Essentialist education. It was maintained that
the fundamentals of Essentialist doctrine center around the ideas on
(1) the nature of society, (2) the nature of the individual, and (3) the
relation between the school and society.

The overall attempt has been to show how all Essentialist
beliefs center about the origin and nature of the social
heritage. Accordingly, the social heritage was viewed in the context
of culture. It was shown that the teaching of the social heritage was
defensible on two points: (1) It is necessary for all cultures to
transmit the essentials from their past in order to insure a modicum
of social stability and to preserve those skills and techniques that are
indispensible for survival; and (2) an attempt was made to show that
all cultures display certain "universals" and that these "universals"
are the main constituents of the social heritage of those cultures.
Therefore, the Essentialists' insistence on perpetuating these
essentials is justifiable.

Finally, within this broader discussion of the nature of
society, the Essentialist position was shown concerning the role of

the teacher, the nature of the curriculum, how the learner is

72

influenced by the two, and the broad position of Essentialism
concerning the nature of intelligence.

Our next task will be to examine some of the background
of those men forming the Essentialist movement, and, then, to
carefully examine and criticize the primary documents of the

Essentialist Committee.

 

CHAPTER III

EXAMINATION OF THE

PRIMARY SOURCES OF ESSENTIALISM

Social Ba ckgiound

 

To understand the Essentialist movement and place it in its
proper perspective, it is necessary to briefly summarize the social
conditions brought on by the Great Depression. The Depression
occurred at the end of October, 1929. It brought forth such social
and economic upheaval that many previously held American ideals
concerning democracy had to be revamped or abandoned.

The years of the 1920' s had been ones of great national
prosperity. Business was expanding everywhere and people were
optimistic. The business expansion was most marked in the growth
of the stock market. In 1920 there were 26, 609 stockbrokers. By

the time of the Depression, this figure had jumped to 70, 950. 1

 

1Dixon Wecter, ”The Age of the Great Depression, 1929 -
1941, " in The Historians' History of the United States, ed. by
A. S. Berky and J. P. Shenton, II (New York: G. P. Putnam and
Sons, 1966), 1243.

 

73

74

People with small incomes, as well as the wealthy, were investing
heavily in the stock market. Unnoticed went the facts that small
banks were, even as early as 1920, closing at the rate of nearly two
a day, or that the output of goods was far below the potential pro-
duction. 1
Investment continued unabated through the 1920' 3. Another

fact ignored by many was that the average income of most American
families was still very meager. Yet, it was thisincome group,
temptedby the possibility of quick riches, that continued to invest
heavily in stocks of various kinds. On October 29, 192 9, over
16 million shares were traded and the bubble finally burst. As
Wecter describes it:

But now the luxuries and amusements, the bustling sense of

power-which cloaked life' s essential materialism . . . were

suddenly stripped away. This greatest of economic reverses

gave millions of citizens the jolt of taking a downward step in

the dark. . . . A nation used to regarding prosperity as a habit

found itself startled. . . . It made the situation no easier that

the adversary was invisible.

This invisible foe dealt a severe blow to all Americans. In

theaftermath of the fall, banks closed, railways collapsed, private

enterprises were ruined, farmers were hard hit, and virtually the

 

llbid” p. 1246.

2Ibid., p. 1250.

75

whole class of white collar workers were out of work. 1 The situation
grew worse the following year and the years afterward. There were
millions of people unemployed, actual starvation was imminent and

a growing sense of complete desperation and anxiety continued to grow.
The measures undertaken by Hoover were insufficient to stop the wide -
spread economic collapse.

But, despite these setbacks, there came the realization to
many Americans that the traditional ways of thinking and traditional
institutions, that had worked so admirably in the past, were no longer
sufficient. The entire philosophical position had to be re -evaluated.
Dulles speaks to this point:

There was forced upon a reluctant administration the unhappy
. realization that the powers of government had somehow to be
invoked to try to stem the tide of economic disaster. Confident
reliance upon a laissez faire philosophy and the spirit of rugged
individualism was no longer possible when forces seemingly
beyond men' 8 control threatened the paralysis of business,
trade and agriculture. . . .2
Old attitudes and ways of doing things no longer seemed

sufficient. New reforms, new outlooks were needed to keep the

country from plunging further into economic and social chaos. To

 

1Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, The Beards' New
Basic History of the United States (New York: Doubleday and Com -
pany, Inc., 1960). p. 420.

 

 

2Foster Rhea Dulles, The United States Since 1865 (Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1969), p. 341.

 

76

stem this tide, the Democrats offered what was to become known as
the New Deal.

The New Deal incorporated a series of radical measures to
deal with the ever -expanding crisis. These began in 1933 and were
continued throughout the Depression. The New Deal legislation fell
under these headings: (1) control over banking and currency; (2) the
extension of federal credit to individuals and businesses in trouble;
(3) relief programs directed towards farmers; (4) regulation and
stimulation of business enterprises; (5) systematizing the rights of
collective bargaining; and (6) the extension of social security to
needy groups. 1

These were emergency measures taken by the Federal
Government. The situation had grown so critical that only desperate
departures from the traditional were thought of as being capable of
helping. To this end, Roosevelt initiated several programs. Some
of them were the Civilian Conservation Corps, which eventually
employed over 3, 000, 000; The Federal Emergency Relief Adminis -
tration, providing direct assistance to the needy; and the WPA
(Works Progress Administration), which provided work for over

8, 000, 000 persons in a variety of public work projects.

 

1Beard and Beard, The Beards' New Basic History of the
United States, pp. 423-424.

 

 

2
Dulles, The United States since 1865, pp. 360—364.

 

77

Yet, even with all these measures, the Depression continued.
Another crisis struck the country in 1937. The American Year Book
reported: "A new depression overtook the country in September.
Unemployment increased with almost unprecedented swiftness. "1
The situation continued until the upsurge in production brought on by
World War II.

The point of relating all of this is to indicate the prevailing
social conditions in which Essentialism was founded. The Depres -

sion influenced, to a great extent, the writers of the Essentialist

 

Platform. They were men molded by their times. Their educational
ideas were influenced by and directed towards the conditions brought
on by the Depression. Their educational beliefs were primarily in
opposition to the extreme Progressives. And yet they were also
speaking out on the greater social conflicts created by the Depres -
sion. To them, the social upheaval being witnessed was an indication
that something was drastically wrong with the educational system.

In fact, they inferred that education under the Progressives was
creating an "effete" type of individual unfit to withstand the social
changes, and possibly the type of person capable of being swayed by

totalitarian propoganda.

 

1Beard and Beard, The Beard' 3 New Basic History of the
United States, p. 427.

 

 

78

Essentialism, then, has to be viewed in this broader social
context. To this end, it is necessary to understand, in its broad
outlines, the doctrines of Progressivism. For it is against some
specific doctrines of this movement that Essentialism was founded

as an alternate educational movement.

The Progressive Education Movement

 

The purpose of this section will be to present a brief
exposition of the Progressive movement in American education.
This is necessary in order to provide a perspective in which to place
the criticisms lodged by the Essentialists. Their criticisms, in the
main, were directed to the excesses in educational practices of the
Progressives.

The Progressive movement came about as the result of a
uniquely American philosophy called pragmatism. This philosophy,
although having its foundations in antiquity, became a distinctly
American world view through the writings of such men as Charles
Pierce, William James, and, of course, its chief exponent, John
Dewey. Pragmatism was based on the theory that change is one of

the fundamental principles of the universe. 1 It posited the individual

 

1Charles S. Brauner and Hobart W. Burns, Problems in
Education and Philosophy (New Jersey: Prentice -Hall, Inc. , 1965),
p. 62.

 

 

79

as an organism that is influenced by and influences the environment.
Man, in otherwords, is not limited by any a priori standards. He

is free to shape his own environment and develop his own criteria for
what is the good, beautiful and true. The common themes that run
through pragmatism are: ( 1) change as a reality; (2) the relativity

of values; (3) the social and biological nature of man; (4) the dedica-
tion to democracy as a way of life; (5) and the value of critical intel-
ligence in all aspects of life. 1

The crucial term in pragmatism is experience. Experience

 

is the all -encompassing stratum of life. It is the one thing that we

all have to deal with. It is the producer of our ideas and hence of

our conception of knowledge, value and aesthetics. There are several
dimensions to experience. Brameld deals with some of these when

he states that experience is dynamic, temporal, spatial and plural-

 

 

istic. 2 Experience is what constitutes truth for the pragmatist.

 

Therefore, man is responsible for the formation of his own
knowledge through the application of his reason to the experiences
produced by the environment. There is a complex interaction between

man and his environment. And from this interaction truth is

 

‘lKneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, p. 45.

 

2Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, p. 103.

 

80

ascertained. Yet truth, for the pragmatist, is not only correspondence
with an external reality. As Kneller points out,

Truth may not be something outside man awaiting his discovery,
as the realist would put it; but neither is it something willfully
manufactured. Truth is what man concludes after he has carefully
investigated the evidence. Because truth depends on the data
investigated and the methods used to investigate them, it is nec-
essarily revised and expanded as better methods are used and
more data discovered. Truth then is relative and changfieable.

 

From this general philosophical background of pragmatism,
let us examine how these ideas were translated into educational
practices. This transformation became the Progressive education
movement.

Progressive education claims to be exclusively concerned
with the‘welfare of the child. The child' 3 nature is considered open,
plastic and capable of receiving an infinite variety of influences from
the environment. Therefore one of the primary goals of education is
to closely observe and direct the child along those activities that are
most natural to him. To foster the natural sense of curiosity in a
child is held to be very crucial to that child' 3 development. As
Dewey states:

We thus reach a technical definition of education: It is that
reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to

the meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct
the course of subsequent experience. Theincrement of meaning

1Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, p. 48.
(My emphasis. )

 

81
corresponds to the increased perception of the connections and
continuities of the activities in which we are engaged. I

The child, then, learns and grows as his experiences, and
the specific activities connected with them, increase and mature.
The teacher' 3 principal function is to guide the child into those
activities which will insure the maximum possibilities for growth.
Kneller summarizes these basic postulates of Progressivism by
saying: (1) Education must be related to the interests of the child;
(2) learning should be based on problem solving, not forced memo-
rization and recitation; (3) education should be life itself rather than
a preparation for it; (4) the role of the teacher is to advise not to
direct; (5) the school should encourage c00peration rather than
competition; and (6) only a democratic system of government permits
true growth .

Dewey, as the principal exponent of the Progressive doc-
trine, was concerned with two concepts, growth and experience.
For him, the end product of any educational system had to be
measured in terms of the growth it promoted and the habits it

formed. Traditional education, in its negative aSpects, considered

‘

1John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1961). pp. 76-77.

 

2Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education,
pp. 96 -102.

82

the child as a miniature adult into which all sorts of information had
to be impressed. As Dewey stated, "the traditional scheme is, in
essence, one of imposition from above and from outside. It imposes
adult standards, subject matter, and methods upon thosewho are
only growing slowly to maturity. "1
This was the central criticism of the Progressive against

traditional education. They conceived of traditional methods as
stifling the unique potential of every child. To the Progressive
educator, the child must be viewed as the "whole child"; it is not
enough to only concentrate on the development of his mind. 2 This
was Dewey' s principal thesis: the direction of many and differing
activities all tending towards the growth of the child. Dewey says
on this point:

Education, therefore, must begin with a psychological insight

into the child' s capacities, interests and habits. It must be

controlled at every point by reference to these same considera-

tions. These powers, interests, and habits must be continually

interpreted --we must know what they mean. They muggt be
translated into terms of their social equivalents. . . .

 

1John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: The
Macmillan Co. , 1938). pp. 18-19.

 

2Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec -
tive, p. 131.

 

3John Dewey, "My Pedagogical Creed, " in Dewey on Edu-
cation, ed. by Martin S. Dworkin (New York: Teacher' s College,
Columbia University, 1959), p. 22.

 

83

Dewey was opting, then, for a psychological as well as
logical (i. e. , what he can "learn") interpretation of the child. He
was interested in the many and complex facets of the child, in how
the child would react to environmental pressures, in how he could use
his experiences to build knowledge. "Everything, " in Dewey' 8 words,
"depends on the quality of the experience. "1 If the child can be made
to follow his natural curiosity and allowed to develop and evaluate

his experiences, then growth can proceed.

The Progressive Curriculum

 

The heart of the controversy between Progressive and
Essentialist is in the nature and structure of the curriculum. To
be sure, there are basic philosophical differences, especially in
ontology, but the scope of the argument eventually centered along
curriculum differences. For the Progressive,

The well -constructed curriculum is not unlike a laboratory.

It is unceasingly experimental, and all its participants are,

in some fashion, staff -scientists. Hence, it is necessary to
avoid rigidity in school requirements, absolute boundaries,
mechanical standards, preconceived solutions. Just as the
experimental method is flexible, exploratory, tolerant of the
novel, curious to try the hitherto untried, so too is its educa-
tional symbol.

lDewey, Experience and Education, p. 27.

 

2Brameld, Philosophies of Education in Cultural Perspec-
tive, p. 142.

 

84

The Progressive curriculum is based on the notion of
flexibility and growth; in fact, the two terms are often held to be
synonymous. This flexibility is exemplified by the Progressive in
his ability to restructure traditional curricular patterns. Thus,
there is the use of such devices as the project method, correlation
of subject matter, the "core -curriculum, " and the "experience-
centered" curriculum. All of these have as their central purpose
the abolishment of rigid and traditional lines of curriculum con-
struction.

The assumptions behind the curricular changes were held
to be fundamental rather than merely structural. That is, the idea
was to provide the school as an environment that was a part of life
(in the sense of all experience being continuous), not an artificial
creation having no connection with the central purposes or directions
of life. Scheffler touches on this idea in saying,

Furthermore, the very division between the school, between
learning and living, is one which needs to be overcome. It is
based on the idea that the school can, in isolation, provide pure
knowledge during a specified interval so as to prepare the stu-
dent for alifetime of informed actiori. But this idea ignores
the fact that learmng 13 l1v1ng. . . .

It is this organic connection of all experiences to one

another that Dewey is talking about. The experiences that make a

1Israel Scheffler, "Educational Liberalism and Dewey' 3
Philosophy, " Dewey on Education, ed. by Reginald D. Archambault
(New York: Random House, 1966). p. 101.

 

85

difference to the child, in terms of growth, must be included within
the curriculum. The curriculum, then, since it is connected to the
greater-whole, must be seen in its influence in a democracy.

Dewey saw this new type of education as being, in essence,
the very foundation of democracy. He says, "a democracy is more
than a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated
living, of conjoint communicated experience. "1 Thus the Progres-
sive curriculum would provide the learners with experiences based
on community efforts, shared goals, the examination of facts through
use of the scientific method, and the free and open discussion of con-
troversial ideas.

Dewey was likewise concerned with the problem of social

 

control. Some control in a learning situation was, ideally, to be
imposed by the teacher. But discipline was to be provided by the
learners themselves, especially in keeping with the democratic
dictum of majority rule, but minority respect. Dewey conceived of
this democratic ideal in terms of rules. Rules are made by groups
of people-to define and, in some instances, limit behavior. Once
the rules have been agreed upon, they should be kept because they

have been agreed upon, and because they define a whole range of

 

1Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 87.

 

86

experiences common to the group. That is, rules define those

experiences that are conducive to growth. As Dewey states it:
Now, the general conclusion I would draw is that control of
individual actions is effected by the whole situation in which
individuals are involved, in which they share and of which they
are cooperative or interacting parts. For even in a competitive
game there is a certain kind of participation, of sharing in a
common experience.

Dewey, likewise, laid emphasis on the use of critical
intelligence as a form of control and as a form of common sense in
educational matters. The critical use of reason would, in turn,
develop certain habits which would tend towards growth. A habit is

defined by Dewey "as a form of executive skill, of efficiency in

doing . . . an ability to use natural conditions as a means to ends. "2

 

The development of proper habits was essential in Dewey' s scheme
of education. This was the essential "end" of education as Dewey
saw it. Habits developed by the learner and teacher, leading to
activities based on reason, were the aims of Progressive education.
A habit means:
formation of intellectual and emotional disposition as well as an
increase in ease, economy, and efficiency of action. Any habit

marks an inclination and active preference and choice for the
conditions involved in its exercise.

 

1Dewey, Experience and Education, p. 53.

 

ZDewey, Democracy and Education, p. 46. (My emphasis.)

 

3Ibid. , p. 48.

87

Habits, in turn, must be based on rational educational
planning. The Progressive scheme of education was not interested,
of course, in complete abandonment of discipline or direction.
Democracy could not exist in a chaotic social situation, whether it
be in the classroom or the country. Dewey stresses this in saying,
' 'it does not follow that all planning must be rejected. On the con-
trary, there is incumbent upon the educator the duty of instituting
a much more intelligent . . . kind of planning. "1 The teacher, con-
sequently, had a central role in the Progressive scheme of education.

These, in very abbreviated form, are some of the principal
assumptions of the Progressivists' position, especially in its
influence on education. The following section will deal with the con-

troversy between Progressives and Essentialists concerning educa -

ti on.

Excesses of Prggressivism as Perceived
by the Essentialists

 

 

The Essentialists took issue with Progressive doctrines

involving many points. But it should be noted here that the objections

 

Ere directed mainly to specific educational practices and not to a

 

gondemnation of the philosophical position as such. Confusion often

 

¥

1Dewey, Experience and Education, p. 58.

 

88

exists concerning this point. It should be remembered that

Essentialism is not a school of philosophy but rather a pedagogical

VieWpoint. It was founded to direct criticism against specific educa-

ti onal doctrines. Let us note what these points of contention were:

1.

The Essentialists insisted that, although the child should
be given the opportunity to follow his own inclinations, he
should also be regarded as an "immature” organism that
needs direction. The teacher, as a specialist, has to dis-
tinguish at some time what is essential knowledge and what
is not worth pursuing. The Essentialists placed heavy
emphasis on the role of the teacher as a trained profes -
sional.
The Essentialists agreed with the Progressives that growth
is of great importance to the child. . However, they insisted
that growthshould be directed to some goal or end. To say
that any given educational practice leads to "more growth"
still begs the question. It must somewhere be specified that
growth is directed to some end, some goal.

John Dewey himself recognized the misinterpreta -
tions given to some of his doctrines, and the misguided
zealousness of some teachers in trying to implement his

philosophical position. He says to this point:

89

There is a tendency in so -called advanced schools of educational
thought to say, in effect, let us surround pupils with certain
materials, tools, appliances, etc. , and then let pupils respond
to these things according to their own desires. Above all let us
not suggest any end or plan to the students; let us not suggest to
them what they shall do, for that is an unwarranted trespass
upon theirsacred intellectual individuality since the essence of
such individuality is to set up ends and aims.

Now such a method is really stupid. For it attempts the
impossible, whichis always stupid; and it misconceives the
conditions of independent thinking. . . . 1
3. The Essentialist holds that a child cannot always choose

those goals that are best suited for him. He may have

grandiose expectations or ambitions that he cannot possibly
fulfill. The teacher' 3 task is to direct him into those
activities that are, in some measure, parallel to his ability
to learn. This, of course, should take into consideration
such variables as socio -economic background and the unique
case of the "late -bloomer. " Yet the teacher, as a profes-
sional, has the right to direct this development.

4. The Essentialists believe that Progressive pedagogical
theory fails to adequately teach the vital elements of the

social heritage, and to teach this heritage in a systematic,

logical way. In the Essentialist Platform (p. 248), the

 

1John Dewey, "Individuality and Experience, " Journal of
Lhe Barnes Foundation, II (January, 1926), 1. Bagley used this
quotation to support the Essentialist position in his article in the
Classical Journal, March, 1939.

 

 

 

90

Committee stresses this point and again uses a quote from

Dewey:
Development . . . is a continuous process, and continuity sig-
nifies consecutiveness of action. Here was the strong point of
traditional education at its best. . . The subject-matter of the

classics and mathematics involved, of necessity, for those who

mastered it, a consecutive and orderly development along definite

lines. Here lies, perhaps, the greatest problem of the newer
efforts in education.

5. The Essentialist objects to the Progressive idea that the
school should be a replica of life. As Kneller points out,
"the school is an artificial learning situation. "2 That is the
purpose of theschool--to provide a situation where learning
can take place without the countless distracting stimuli of
the environment.

6. The Essentialist is opposed to the Progressive notion that
democracy is best represented in a school having no limits
imposed on behavior. Kneller indicates that this is contra-
dictory: the society itself places limits and restrictions on

certain forms of behavior. The school, then, is not imitat-

ing "life" if it does not set its own limits. 3

 

1John Dewey, "The Need of a Philosophy Of Education, H

Bic New Era, London (November, 1934), p. 214.

 

'2Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education,

 

p. 105.

3Ibid., pp. 105 -106.

91

7. In keeping with the theme of the social heritage, the

Essentialists insist on subject matter being taught instead

of vague "projects" that may only touch the periphery of

organized knowledge.

These are some of the objections to Progressivism that the
Essentialists have maintained as the center of their pedagogical
creed. Their criticism has been directed to the excesses of Pro-
gressivism as translated into educational objectives. The following
section will deal with the primary documents issued by the Essen-
tialists. These documents state the official position of Essentialism,
and recommend means to combat what they perceived as the most
formidable threats to American education.

The focus of this part of the chapter‘will be to examine in
some detail the actual Platform of the Essentialist Committee. There
are two primary -source documents that will be used. They are
entitled "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement of American
Education, "1 and a second document bearing the title ”The Signifi -

2
cance of the Essentialist Movement in Educational Theory. " Both

¥

1Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement of
American Education, " pp. 241 -256.

ZBagley, ”The Significance of the Essentialist Movement in
Educational Theory, " pp. 326-344.

92

of these documents were under the authorship of William C. Bagley,
who can be thought of as the "father" of the movement. The first
document was the work of Bagley and the other members of the
Committee, although, as will be shown in another chapter, the final
copy of the document was drawn up by Bagley and reflected, mainly,
his own thinking. The second document was solely the work of
Bagley. In this document Bagley was trying to maintain the momen-
tum. created by the organization in their founding meeting at Atlantic
City in 1938.

The analysis will center around the specific hypotheses of
the Platform. The intent will be to view both documents as a whole.
Consequently, there will be shifting from one to the other, as this is
necessary to clarify the Essentialist position. There is a certain
logic and order to the documents, and it is this organization that will
be the center of attention. As the theses in the Platform unfold, com-
Inent will be made on how these relate to the overall doctrines of
Essentialism. The purpose, then, will be to examine the documents
as to logical presentation, the nature of the arguments, and the type

and amount of evidence marshalled in support of the assumptions.

The term. "Essentialist" was originally suggested by

M. Demiashkevich, one of the members of the Committee. 1

 

1Demiashkevich, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Edu -
cation, pp. 125, 138, 147, 438.

 

93

Thereafter, it became the official name of the organization. To
place Essentialism once again in perspective before we begin the
analysis of its specific ideas, it is well to remember Brickman' 3

words. He says:

Neither a philosophy nor a movement (in the political sense).
Essentialism represented a state of mind --one of healthy
skepticism, watchful waiting, and appreciation of the good
regardless of age or label.

It is an approach to set the schools on a straight path, to

maintain the proper balance between subject and method,
teacher and pupil, school and home, the old and the new.

The Committee itself viewed Essentialism as a set of
educational valies and ideals rather than a school of philosophy.
Their aim was to view American education during a certain period
of time --roughly from the turn of the century until the time they
Were writing. During this period, they believed American education
had suffered an enormous decline in prestige and effectiveness.
Their job, as they perceived it, was to analyze the social causes of
this decline and make recommendations for its alleviation. Bagley
maintained Essentialism was to be the Springboard from which to
Voice dissent "with the teachings of the school of educational theory

which has become increasingly dominant in the United States during

the past generation and which, in its well intended efforts to improve

‘—

1William W. Brickman, "A Call to Essentialists, " School

and Society, LXXIX, No. 2029 (March 20, 1954), 92.

 

94

American education, has, in effect, discredited and belittled the

significance of a mastery of what we commonly call subject

"1

matter. . . . The primary focus of attention, then, would be the

educational system.

Statement of the Major Problems
in American Education

 

 

The Essentialist Committee attempted to analyze the
difficulties of American education from several standpoints, i. e. ,
social, political and economic. However, the Committee's focus
came to rest upon one social policy that to them seemed to be the

heart of the problem: the creation of the universal school. This

 

was posited by them as being the central causal factor for the decline
of American education. As Bagley says, "this position was based
primarily upon certain incontestable weaknesses in American edu-
cation. These weaknesses were traced to the vast upward expansion
of the universal school. "2

The Essentialist Committee, having placed the main causal
factor of the decline of American education on the development of the
universal school, presented some evidence for their claim. The

evidence was based on these assumptions:

 

1Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 326.

21bid., p. 329.

95

1. Age for age, the average pupil of our elementary schools does
not meet the standards of achievement in the fundamentals of
education that are attained in the elementary schools of many
other countries. 1

The Committee felt that it was a significant fact that American

achievement tests given to primary school children of European

countries (and Canada) showed that these children scored signifi -
2

cantly higher than the American children.

2. Within the past decade the effectiveness of high school instruc-
tion has been weakened by increasing disabilities in so basic an
accomplishment as reading. It is scarcely too much to say,
indeed, that increasing proportions of pupils in the junior and
senior high school are essentially illiterate.

In this statement a reference is made to the quality of European

secondary education; but it is acknowledged that this form of educa -

tion is basically elitist and so, on that ground, cannot be compared
with American secondary education. No data are given to support

the contention that American junior high and high schools are pro-

ducing illiterates.

 

1Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement of
American Education, " p. 241.

2Data for these conclusions were drawn from a study by
The Scottish Council for Research in Education, published by the
University of London Press in 1934 under the title of "Achievement
Tests in the Primary Schools: A Comparative Study with American
Tests in Fife. "

3Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement of
American Education, " p. 242.

96

3. In other and not at all exclusively scholastic achievements,
American education is relatively ineffective. A recent study
suggests that juvenile delinquency may be correlated in many
cases with these reading disabilities. 1

The Committee makes clear that it does ilo_t draw a causal relation-

ship between crime and the type of education. But it does contend

that win the United States was there a correlation in the last one
hundred years between the rise of the universal school and delinquency.

The study cited to support this claim is not given in the Platform, but

is referred to in the other document on educational theory.

The Committee stated that although it recognized that the
universal school was the principal agent in changing the character

of American education, it did not oppose it per se, but only the

effects that were being manifested at present. They say, "the

Essentialists recognized that the expansion of the universal school

had to come about through the operation of fundamental social and

economic forces, chief among which, very obviously, had been the

3
marvelous technological developments. . . ." It was, however,

 

11bid., p. 243.

2Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 333. The study referred to is the
Uniform Crime Report, prepared by the Federal Bureau of Investi -
gation. Published by the Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C. , no date given.

 

3
Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 330.

97

the end results of this technological process that the Committee

was concerned with.
It is the Essentialist' s contention that, because the opening
of the upper grades and the high schools to unselected and
increasingly heterogeneous groups was inevitable, so a modi -
fication of the older standards was inevitable. Rigorous
requirements simply had to be relaxed, and they have been
progressively relaxed over a period of thirty years.

This relaxation of standards, according to the Committee,
was necessary in the given circumstances. There were factors
such as the rapid growth of population, the advancement of the
frontier, the arrival of millions of immigrants, social and political
clashes arising from the mixing of these diverse ethnic groups, the
increases in national wealth, the rapid growth of cities, the mobility
of the population, the profound changes brought about by the transition
from a rural to an industrial economy, and a host of others. 2

The Committee took into consideration all these complex
social and economic factors; but, in addition, they were looking for
further evidence to substantiate their claims. Accordingly, they

came up with additional factors indicative of the decline of American

education. These factors included the following:

 

llbid.

 

2Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 243.

98

One fairly trustworthy available measure is the per-capita
consumption of ”solid" literature as reflected in the statistics
of book publications exclusive of fiction. When'we make

these comparisons on the hypothesis that an educational system
plays a significant part in determining such consumption, we
find that we are far below practically all other literate
countries. . . .

This, of course, is one form of an educational index. How-
ever, the Committee did not give details as to which countries were
compared. More information could also have been given as to the
populations of the countries compared, their social, political and
economic systems, and the structure of their educational systems.
Too strong a correlation is implied in the Committee' 3 statement.
The amount of fiction consumed is not necessarily indicative of a
country having an inadequate educational system.

Another piece of evidence, of some questionable value, is
a comparison of American Nobel Prize winners. The Committee
maintained there were too few, and that this was further evidence

2
that something was drastically wrong with our education. It did
not mention advances in applied science or the number of patents
registered in any given year.

But the bulwark of the Committee' 3 assumptions centered

around the possible correlations of education and social decay.

 

1Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 332.

2Ibid.

 

99

Instances were cited of the large degree of political corruption, the
amount of juvenile delinquency and the rising divorce rate. 1 The
Committee' 5 tactic was to posit these conditions as being the result
of the excesses of Progressive education, and then let the Progres-
sives refute these allegations, if they could. Bagley states this
theme in saying,

. . I have maintained [that] the proponents and defenders of
relaxed standards and the lines of least resistence in education
should recognize their serious responsibility and assume the
burden of evidence in defense of their policies. I have raised
the question whether the educational theories which have
increasingly influenced and now dominate American schools are
not likely to compound rather than correct these unquestioned
weaknesses of our national life.

The Committee was vitally concerned with the possible
weakness to American life brought about by the wholesale acceptance
of the Progressive doctrines. These concerns were, of course,
exacerbated by the social turmoil created by the Depression. It was
this fear of social anarchy and the possible demise of traditional
democratic institutions that most concerned the Committee. This
attitude was brought out by the implied correlations between Pro-

gressive education and the increased crime rate. As the Committee

stated it:

 

1Ibid., p. 333.

21bid.

 

100

And it should be said that, in general, the states that have had
the most substantial . . . school systems have by far the lowest
ratios of serious crimes. In a notable degree, too, these same
states, many of which do not rate high in per capita wealth, are
those that have been the least dependent upon the federal govern-
ment for "relief" during the depression years.

Thus the Platform Committee stated its case concerning
the state of American education: it was, to them, in deplorable con-
dition. They agreed that this was the result of many social and
economic factors. However, they were in agreement that the main
causal factor was the upward expansion of the universal school with
its consequent lowering of standards. With the general outlines of

their case stated, the Committee next prepared to outline some of

the specific educational issues that were at the crux of the problem.

The Weaknesses of Educational Theories

 

The Essentialists believed that American education was
being drastically weakened through the adoption of certain educa-
tional theories. They maintained that the history of education has
been marked by two different educational theories. The emphasis
of the two theories can be noticed by the pairing of certain words:

"individual vs. society, " "freedom vs. discipline, " "interest vs.

 

1Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 243.

101

effort, " "play vs. work, " "immediate needs vs. remote goals, "
"psychological organization vs. logical organization, " and so forth. 1
The Committee goes on to make the point that this dichotomy
in educational philosophy was begun in ancient Greece by the sophists.
The dualism was further strengthened during the Renaissance and
propounded from then on by such men as Rousseau, Pestalozzi,
Froebel and Herbart, and in America by Horace Mann, Francis W.
' 2
Parker and John Dewey. The Committee states,
Under the necessity which confronted American education of
rationalizing the loosening of standards and the relaxation of
rigor if mass -education were to be expanded upward, the
theories which emphasized interest, freedom, immediate needs,
personal experience, psychological organization, and pupil-
initiative, and which in so doing tended to discredit and even
condemn their opposites --effort, discipline, remote goals,
race -experience, logical sequenceé and teacher -initiative--
naturally made a powerful appeal.
An important item to note is that the Committee was laying
the blame for the spread of misconstrued Progressivism on two
groups: professors of education and teachers in the primary schools.

Bagley says, "Over more than a generation these theories have

increasingly influenced the lower schools. "4 The Committee, at this

 

1Ibid., p. 244.
2 .
.Ibld., p. 245.

3Ibid.

 

4Ibid .

 

102

point, was trying to disprove the counterallegations leveled by the
Progressives that American children compared unfavorably with
their European counterparts because there still remained so much
of the Essentialists' doctrine in American education. Bagley main-
tained that this was potentially false. He says, "one would be rash
to assert that teachers use progressive practices exclusively or
consistently or efficiently, but it is equally rash to maintain that the
progressive educational theories have not significantly influenced
what we may without disrespect call the rank and file of American
teachers."1
Bagley goes on to show some evidence of the contention

that Progressive doctrines had greatly influenced American educa -
tion:

1. He cites a poll taken for the National Society for Study of

Education (No. 33, Part 2, The Activity Movement) as

 

showing a "very general sympathy" with the Progressive

tenets.

 

1Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 334.

2Ibid., p. 335.

103

2. He states a piece of his own research as indicating the use
of Progressive methods in the elementary school. 1

3. Reference is made to the large number of teachers -in-
training, and regular teachers who have been taught Pro-
gressive doctrines in summer sessions.

4. He maintains that the public press has upheld as being
models of the best education those schools which have
primarily espoused Progressive teachings. He cites as
an example the publicity given to the Progressive Lincoln
School at Columbus University, while its counterpart, the
Horace Mann School, dominated by Essentialist doctrine,
was seldom mentioned.

After stating its case for the dissemination of Progressive
theories through the primary schools, the Committee undertook to
list some additional specific grievances related to Progressivism

and the undermining of American education.

 

1William C. Bagley, "The Textbook and Methods of Teach-
ing, " The Textbook in American Education, Thirteenth Yearbook of
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Blooming-
ton,. Illinois: Public School Publishing Co. , 1931), pp. 7 -26.

 

2Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in Educational Theory, " p. 335.

3Ibid.

 

104

The Influence of Progressive Theories
on American Education

 

 

The Committee listed several major points in the second
portion of the Platform. They were:

1. "The complete abandonment in many school systems of
rigorous standards of scholastic achievement as a condition
of promotion from grade to grade, and the passing of all
pupils ' on schedule. ' "1
Although they acknowledged the many complicated psycho-

logical factors, their main concern was with the quality of student
that eventually ended up in the high schools: he could not handle the
work at that level. The responsibility for this situation was put on
the Progressives for their many curriculum changes based on
Thorndike' 3 transfer of trainingexperiments. 2 These experiments
were used as evidence to discredit the necessity of teaching any
formal subject matter. The limited findings of the experiments

were generalized for too much, according to the Essentialists, and

 

1Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 245.

2William C. Bagley, Education Values (New York: The
Macmillan Co. , 1922), pp. 180-194. (The early "transfer" experi -
ments are to be found in E. L. Thorndike and R. S. Woodsworth,
"The Influence of Improvement in One Mental Function upon the
Efficiency of Other Functions, " Psychological Review, VII (1901),
quotedin Bagley, Education Values, p. 183.)

 

 

 

105

were seized upon by the Progressives to substantiate their own
claims.
2. "The Disparagement of system and sequence in learning and

a dogmatic denial of any value in, even of any possibility of

learning through, the logical, chronological, and causal

relationships of learning materials. "1

The Essentialists were reacting against the idea that only
those problems are worth solving or knowing about that originate in
the interests of the student. It was their contention that all subject
matter has a logical order that can be presented in a chronological
fashion, always indicating the causal relationship between materials
that are being used. As Bagley says, "the planning of an assignment
becomes a matter of prime importance . . . learners should beleft
in no doubt regarding what they are to do. "2 He reiterates elsewhere
the necessity of teaching the liberal arts as a source of common

social heritage and as a guarantee of democratic principles. 3 The

 

1Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 245.

2
William C. Bagley and Marion E. MacDonald, Standard
Practices in Teaching, (New York: The Macmillan Co. , 1938),
pp. 38-39.

 

3William C. Bagley, An Introduction to Teaching (New
York: The Macmillan Co., 1927), pp. 71, 72, 98-100.

 

106

common purpose, however, in insisting on system, sequence, and
content was Bagley' s idea that the liberal arts were a way of
modifying human behavior. Education did, indeed, have a utilitarian
value. But that ”value" was in the degree that it influenced behavior
or conduct, the crucial point being that definite, organized knowledge
had to be given, and this knowledge, coupled with the experience of
the teacher, would determine the conduct of the learner.
3. The Committee referred to ”the wide vogue of the so -called
activity movement. "2
Again, the Committee was objecting to the excesses of
Progressive-doctrine wherein self -directed activity turned into
license. The Essentialist had no objection to the project method if
it was based on guided direction in which a topic was chosen, thought
about, researched, and based ultimately upon the logic of a particular
discipline, i. e. , geography or natural science.
4. ”The discrediting of the exact and exacting studies. "3
Here the Essentialists maintained that the-widening of the

universal school and the overgeneralizing of the ”transfer"

 

1William C. Bagley, Craftsmanship in Teachingg (New York:
The Macmillan Co., 1911). pp. 166-167, 171, 189.

 

2Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 246.

31bid., p. 247.

107

experiments caused the inherently difficult subjects of Latin,
geometry and algebra to be abandoned. They felt this trend would
have long range detrimental consequence. Not only would a valuable
portion of the social heritage be excluded, but adults would have no
adequate knowledge of language or mathematics to function effectively
in a rapidly changing society. Bagley, for instance, believed that
the "undeniable effect of the Progressive teachings is to belittle the
significance of organized knowledge, to subordinate the tested lessons
of race experience to the unpredictable-learning out -comes of per-
sonal and incidental experience, and, . . . to exalt and even enthrone
individual interests and desires above social needs. "1 That the
Progressives did carry the "activity method" too far was substan-
tiated by the fact that even John Dewey spoke out against its extremes.
5. "An increasingly heavy emphasis upon the ' social studies. "3
The Committee in this statement is reacting to the intro-

duction of the social sciences in the lower grades, the objection

 

1Bagley, "The Significance of the Essentialist Movement
in-Educational Theory, " p. 338.

2John Dewey, "Individuality and Experience, " Journal of
the Barnes Foundation, 11 (January, 1926), 1, quoted in Bagley,
"The Significance of the Essentialist Movement in Educational
Theory," p. 338.

 

 

3Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 248.

108

being that the generalizations of the social sciences are not in the
same class as those of the natural sciences. This is not to say that
they should not be taught. The Committee insisted on the usefulness
of these subjects as teaching students more about man and his environ-
ment. However, the objected to theirwholesale use as a substitution
for the teaching of other courses, especially science and mathematics.
They further objected to the Progressives' theory that democracy
could best be upheld through the teaching of the social sciences.

The Essentialists contended that the social sciences were as yet an
imperfect tool in predicting man' s actions; and, therefore, they

were not the complete answer in the educational development of the

 

child.

The last two propositions listed by the Committee were
directed toward developments in the lower schools.

6. "Using the lower schools to establish a new social order. "1

The Committee, although not stating it overtly, was con-
cerned with the problem of indoctrination in the lower schools. This
concern was expressed in the previous proposition dealing with the
introduction of the social sciences. The fear‘was that young minds

would be given a steady diet of propaganda instead of direction in

 

llbid.

109

learning the fundamentals. This concern was strengthened by the
social disruption caused by the Depression and in the alarming
growth of totalitarian states during the 1930' s. If the social heritage
was not preserved in formal schooling, the Essentialists reasoned,
there would always be the possibility that young minds could be
manipulated to accept only one point of view.
7. "The ' curriculum -revision' movement and its vagaries. "1

The Committee recorded that curriculum revision had been
going on in the lower schools for over twenty years. In fact, in
1933 there were over thirty thousand curricula on file at Columbia.
The Essentialists' prime source of complaint was that all this
experimenting was hurting the child. As mobility became an
increasingly dominant form of life in America, there was an
increased need for a body of knowledge that had a modicum of uni -
formity. The culture needed to share a common set of learning
experiences if cultural homogeneity was to be a fact. In addition,
the Essentialists said this constant curriculum revision had the
overall effect of weakening the content of the fundamental subjects.

Thus, the Essentialist Committee presented a series of

claims against American education. These charges were directed

 

1.Ibid., p. 249.

110

against the excesses of the Progressive movement and in the weaking
of traditional learning brought on by the widening of the universal
school and the consequent lowering of standards.

The final portion of the Platform presented some basic
hypotheses concerning Essentialists' beliefs and some recommenda-

tions to alleviate the problems. Let us look at these suggestions.

The Problem and the Platform

 

After presenting some of the background conditions of the
crisis in education, the Committee attempted to present their solu-
tions to the problem. Their primary concern at this time was with
the rapid social and economic changes taking place because of the
Depression. The Essentialists were concerned with the upholding
of certain democratic institutions and practices, namely those
guarantees set forth in the Bill of Rights. As they stated it,

Hence a primary function of American education will be to
safeguard and strengthen these ideals of American democracy,
with special emphasis upon freedom of speech, freedom of the
press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion.

These then are amcEg the first essentials in the platform
of the Essentialist.T

 

 

The Platform, after stating the above, goes into a fairly

long piece describing the possible dangers to American education

 

1Ibid. , p. 250. (My emphasis.)

111

brought on by the rise .of totalitarian states. The mood is one of
impending danger and a fear that democratic ideals are being seri -
ously weakened. The logic of the argument at this point in the
Platform runs something like this: Totalitarian regimes are
rapidly rising and posing a direct threat to the existing democra -
cies; the democracies have certain values (i. e. , the Bill of Rights)
to uphold; these values are perpetuated through the educational
system; therefore, it is of utmost importance that education be
given in the fundamentals of knowledge constituting the social heri -
tage.

The Platform then cites the French educational system as
being, admirably suited to this goal: the French maintain the same
rigorous standards in their educational system despite the vagaries
of government, and despite the many changes in the political struc-
ture. In other words, there is the "Culture Generale" (the social
heritage) that is the essence of French life and which is always given
through formal education.

The key. to the Committee' 3 argument is the word discipline.

 

They equate the need for discipline as a prerequisite for a strong
democracy. Without discipline, cherished values crumble, laxness
enters into every stage of life, and the country cultivates the seeds of

its own destruction. The Essentialists insisted that the terms

112

"democracy" and "freedom" were emotionally charged, and could
not be used with a high degree of clarity. Their principal objection,
however, was with the tendency of Progressives to equate freedom

with democracy. The Essentialists insisted that the term "freedom"

 

implied a degree of responsibility, also. And this responsibility had
to be exercised by the teacher in guiding the young. The Committee
stated its position like this:
Now, obviously, the freedom of the immature to choose what
they shall learn is of negligible consequence compared with
their later freedom from the want, fear, fraud, superstition
and error which may fetter the ignorant as cruelly as the chains
of the slave driver . . . and the price of this freedom is
systematic and sustained effort often devoted to the mastery of
materials the significance of which must at the time be taken
on faith. 1
The Essentialists were insisting on the close correlation
between education, the development of reasoning in a critical manner,
and the preservation of democratic institutions. To accomplish
these ends, education had to be based on a guided discipline, stress-
ing the essentials. Education had to develop (1) basic literacy,
(2) deve10ping and expanding ideas, (3) and knowledge of the way

collective thought and judgment operate in a democracy. 2 This

attitude was formally stated in the Platform as:

 

1Ibid., p. 251.

21bid., p. 252.

113

Amcmg the essentials of the Essentialist, then, is a recognition
of the right of the immature learner to guidance and direction
when these are needed either for his individual welfare, or for
the welfare and progress of the democratic group. The responsi -
bility of the mature for the instruction and cgrfrol of the immature
is the biological meaning of the extended period of human imma-
turity and necessary depanence. 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Committee quickly acknowledged the fact that discipline
could be carried to extremes. It was not for the use of any type of
coercion or control where an external agent is used in a punitive
manner. This resolution on the use of discipline was followed by
one of the most important doctrines of Essentialist thinking --the
social heritage. The Committee stated it like this:

An effective democracy demands a community of culture.
Educationally this means that each generation be placed in
possession of a common core of ideas, meanings, understand-
ings and ideals representing the most precious elements of the
human heritage.

The Committee followed this statement by indicating the
necessity for "essentials" in any culture. It was their firm belief,
as mentioned before, that the continuity and growth of a culture was
in proportion to the transmission of the social heritage. To sub-

stantiate their point, they quote the historian Beard when he says,

"while education constantly touches the practical affairs of the hour

 

1Ibid. (My emphasis. )

21bid.

 

114

and day, and responds to political and economic exigencies, it has
its own treasure heavy with the thought and sacrifice of the
centuries. "1

The next resolution followed and expanded the one on the
social heritage. This one advocated that "a specific program of
studies including these essentials should be the heart of a demo-
cratic system of education. "2 Again, the emphasis was laid upon
the responsibility of democratic governments to insist on the essen-
tials forming the major portion of the primary school program.
Mention was made that many foreign countries stress the importance
of the essentials in thelower grades. The Committee repeatedly
placed emphasis on the relationship between democracy and the
maintenance of a rigorous educational program. This program "of
the recognized essentials should be taught as such through a sys -
tematic program of studies and activities. "3 This, naturally,
brought into question the problem of school failures. The last

formal proposition of the Committee dealt with the issue in this way:

 

1Ibid., p. 253, quoting Charles A. Beard, The Unique
Function of Education in American Democracy (Washington: The
Educational Policies Commission of the National Educational Asso-
ciation, 1937), p. 71.

 

 

 

2Bagley, "An Essentialist Platform for the Advancement
of American Education, " p. 253.

3Iloid., p. 254.

115

Failure in school is unpleasant and the repetition of a grade is
costly and often not very effective. On the other hand, the lack
of a stimulus that will keep the learner to his task is a serious
injustice both to him and to the democratic group which, we
repeat, has a fundamental stake in his effective education.

The Committee followed this statement by a plea not to
stigmatize failure in such harsh terms. It acknowledged the problem

of different rates of learning by individuals, but insisted that nearly

 

all could be given the essentials. Their reasoning was premised on
the changing social conditions. They believed only a person grounded
in the essentials could effectively compete in a rapidly changing
society. Consequently, although somewould have to fail, they
reasoned this in the long run would be to their advantage.

The concluding remarks of the Platform center around the
economic and social conditions of the country. It is a restatement
of the opening sections of the document. The Committee was trying
to emphasize that the great social upheaval that had taken place since
1929 (and which was still in effect when the Committee wrote) had
produced such far -flung consequences on traditional American society
that. there was a danger of totalitarianism.

This is why the Committee continually makes reference to
the threats to democracy. They were indeed concerned with the

rapid rise to power of Hitler and Mussolini, the failure of the League

 

1Ibid.

 

116

of Nations, and the civil war raging in Spain. These situations,
coupled with the profound social changes wrought by the Depression
in America, were a cause of great concern for the Essentialists.

To compound the difficulties, they saw the extremes of
Progressivism in education as a direct threat to cherished demo-
cratic ideals. It was a time, they felt, for an increase in discipline
and effort. Yet, effort and discipline were inherent to a rigorous
and formal system of education. Thus, they assumed that some
Progressive doctrines were actually a national threat, rather than
merely an alternate form of educational philosophy.

It is the writer' 3 contention that the Essentialist Platform

 

was a response more to the trials and personal hardships engendered

 

by the Depression, and the resulting drastic social and economic

 

changes, than to the fear of the educational inroads made by the Pro-

 

gressive movement.

 

Thus, in the last portion of the Platform, the writers again
re -emphasize the social changes taking place. They lay heavy
emphasis on the economic transformation that is in progress, and,
by implication, are wary of some of the newer programs put into
effect, especially programs initiated by the Federal government and
having "socialistic" leanings. Thus they say, "in societies that have

lifted themselves abovethe plane of the brute and the savage, a most

117

powerful steadying and civilizing force has been the ideal of personal
economic responsibility for one' s own survival and for one' 3 old age
and the care of one' s dependents. "1

There is a tendency for the Committee to hearken back to
the principle of "rugged individualism. " They are suspicious of the
type of government that is responsible for the people's "social
security. " Social security, for instance, would be an acceptable
policy, but only "under the condition that each generation had been
rigorously disciplined in its responsibilities and made clearly aware
of the pitfalls that await the spendthrift and the idler. "2 The Essen-
tialists were visualizing a society that might come about through the
combination of a lax educational system and an emphasis on social
welfare by the government.

There was a genuinely felt danger by the writers of the
Platform. This is why they gave such weight to the problems of
education: Education had to be the stabilizing force within the society
whether or not the many social changes were right; education had to
serve as a counterbalance to excesses or fads. The Essentialists
stated, "a clear and primary duty of organized education at the

present time is to recognize the fundamental character of the changes

 

1Ibid., p. 255.

2Ibid. , p. 256.

118

that are already taking place, and to search diligently for means of
counter -ac‘ting their dangers. "1

The Committee, therefore, was reacting not only to Pro-
gressivism, but to the larger issues of the day. Progressivism,
however, became a twofold menace: (1) It was weakening and under-
mining the social fabric of American society at present; and (2) it
was perpetuating these practices which would continue to weaken
democratic institutions in the future. Thus the Progressive move —

ment was seen by the Essentialists as the causal factor (although not

 

openly admitted) to the continuing problems of the Depression

In other words, the members of the Platform Committee
were products of their age reacting to a definite social situation--
the Depression and its aftereffects. The problems of the period
were seen by the members in educational terms, because they were
educators. A relationship had to be found between the miseries of
the Depression and the educational system. This was found in the
expansion of the universal school and the lowering of standards. A
further link was established by inferring that the rise in crime,
divorce rate, and general moral decline was, in part, due to the
lessening disciplinary function of education. All these factors were

then implied as being related to the inroads of Progressive education.

 

llbid.

119

It was from the above assumptions that the official

Essentialist Platform was formulated. Whatever their motivations,

 

it'can be said that the Committee did have the welfare of American
education at heart. They perceived unbridled Progressivism as the
root -cause of the problems of American education, and sought to
remedy this through a system of education that stressed mathematics,
natural science, history, and certain of the social sciences. Bagley
attempted to place the entire controversy in perspective when he

said,

What I wish to say here is that no reasonable program for
American education could omit many of the policies and prac-
tices that the Progressives have emphasized. The Essentialist
certainly would endorse the functional approach to the problems
of teaching and learning; the effort always to build the lessons
of race -experience upon the individual, first -hand experience of
the learner; the condemnation always of stupid, parrot -like
learning; the importance in the earlier school years especially
of the procedures that are reflected in such concepts as the
project method and the activity program; and the efforts to make
school life a happy as well as a profitable series of learning
experiences. On the other hand, the Essentialists would hold
that out of the experience of the race have come certainlessons
so important to social welfare and social progress that it would
be the height of folly to leave their mastery to the whim or
caprice of either teacher or learner. They would hold that

"the freedom of the immature to choose what they shall learn

is of small consequence compared with their later freedom from
the want, fear, fraud, superstition, and error which may fetter
the ignorant as cruelly as the chains of the slave -driver . . .
and the price of this freedom is systematic and sustained effort
often devoted to the mastery of materials the significance of
which must at the time be taken on faith. "

 

1Bagley, "The. Significance of the Essentialist Movement in
Educational Theory, " pp. 340 -341.

120

This was, in substance, the educational position of the Essentialists.
The following chapter will be devoted to examining the principal
members of the Committee, how the Committee came into existence,
the internal organization of the Committee, and the philosophical

differences existing between the members.

CHAPTER IV

PRIMARY SOURCES CONCERNING THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE

ESSENTIALIST COMMITTEE

The purpose of this chapter will be to discuss three basic
points. (1) The background of the members of the Committee will
be discussed, devoting most of the writing to two key members,
William Chandler Bagley and Michael John Demiashkevi ch. Back -
ground discussion will also be provided on the remaining members
of the original Committee. It was, however, the work of Bagley and
Demiashkevich that provided the theoretical and philosophical aspects
of the Essentialist movement. Therefore, more emphasis will be
placed on thesetwo members.

(2) Background information will be provided as to the origin
of the actual Essentialist Committee. Although this aspect of Essen-

tialism has been aptly documented by Chambers, 1 the writer will

 

1Gurney Chambers, "The Educational Philosophy of Michael
John Demiashkevich" (unpublished Doctoral Thesis, George Peabody
College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, 1967).

121

122

attempt to shed additional light on the phase of the Committee! 3
organization. (3) Lastly, the writer will try to show, through
primary source documentation that, first, the Essentialist Corn -
mittee was founded on the strength of William Chandler Bagley and
Michael John Demiashkevich; second, that the greatest strength of
the movement occurred in the year following the original meeting in
Atlantic City; and, third, that the original ideals of the movement
were altered by a breakdown of organization as the months went by.
After reviewing additional sources on Essentialism, the writer feels
that the organizational aspect of the movement has not been empha-
sized sufficiently. 1

Backgound Information on the Original Members
of the Essentialist Committee

 

 

 

William Chandler Bagley

William Chandler Bagley (1874 - 1946) was the acknowledged
leader of the Essentialist movement. He attended public school in
Michigan and graduated from Michigan Agricultural College in 1895.

He taught briefly in a small school in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

 

1All documents quoted here have been examined independently
by the writer through the courtesy of Dr. William Bri ckman, Pro-
fessor of the History of Education and Comparative Education,
University of Pennsylvania. All documents are in Dr. Bri ckman' 3
files and have been quoted with his permission.

123

He studied psychology at the University of Chicago in 1896, and went
on to take his master! 3 degree in 1898 at the University of Wisconsin
under Joseph Jastrow.

Bagley was trained in the natural sciences and in experi -
mental and physiological psychology. Later he went to Cornell
University and there obtained his Ph. D. degree under the famous
psychologist Titchener in 1900. This orientation towards the natural
sciences was to remain with Bagley for the rest of his life. This
became evident much later in his disagreement with Demiashkevich
on the nature of man.

In 1909 Bagley went to the University of Illinois and became
the director of the School of Education. There he established a life-
long friendship with men like Boyd H. Bode and Guy Whipple, who
was later to serve on the Essentialist Committee. At Illinois,

Bagley' s long list of publications began with such books as Classroom

 

Management and Human Behavior: A First Book in Psychology

 

 

for Teachers. By 1914, Bagley was recognized as an outstanding

 

leader in American education. 1
Bagley worked for the Carnegie Foundation and was

appointed to Teachers College as a specialist in the preparation of

 

1I. L. Kandel, William Chandler Bagley: Stalwart Edu-

cator (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1961),
p. 13.

 

124

teachers. He was one of the first men to criticize the use of

intelligence tests in his book Determinism in Education (1925).

 

Bagley over the years became the most vocal opponent of
Progressive education. His criticisms were wide ranging. He
deplored the lack of drill and discipline in the schools and the poor

teaching of the social heritage. In his book Education and Emergent

 

l_\_/I_a_r_l_, Bagley laid the foundation for his philosophy of education. His
philosophy of education centered around the belief that man was an
evolutionary being. Bagley, however, defined evolution in broader
terms. For him, the most important form of evolutionwas what he
labeled "emergent evolution. " This type of evolution was basically
cultural. He maintained that man evolves only through previous
experience. He called this previous experience the social heritage
and divided it into two parts, (1) the material heritage and (2) the
spiritual heritage of tradition, custom, knowledge, and skill.

For the remainder of Bagley' s life this notion of the neces-
sity of transmitting the social heritage became his central concern.
This, in fact, became his philosophy of education. He united this
concept with the idea of discipline. His main objection to Progres -

sive education was that it followed the lines of least resistance.

 

1Ibid., p. 80

2Ibid., p. 84.

125

For Bagley, the social heritage could be learned only through a
form of rational discipline.

Bagley' 3 ideas on education became widely known when the
Essentialist Committee' 8 Platform was published. Here Bagley set
out his complete philosophy of education, which included the neces-
sityfor teaching the social heritage, the structure of the curriculum,
the weaknesses of Progressive education and the relationship between
the social heritage and democracy.

Bagley was the principal theorist behind the Essentialist
movement. The official documents of the Committee mirror,
primarily, his own views. He was the acknowledged leader of the
movement and remained its chief supporter until the time of his

death.

Michael John Demiashkevich

 

Demiashkevich, like Bagley, was one of the truly great
men of the Essentialist Committee. He was born in Russia in 1891
and received a rigorous classical education at the Imperial Historico-
Philological and Imperial Archaeological Institutes in Petrograd.
Demiashkevich taught in Russia from 1914 to 1923, when he came
to the United States.

Demiashkevich' s disagreement with the Bolshevik' 3 caused

him to leave his post at the Ministry of Education and flee to the

126

United States. 1 He enrolled at Teachers College, Columbia, and
there began work on his doctorate in 1923. Demiashkevich received
his degree in 1926 and spent the following two years working at the
International Institute of Teachers College and studying in Paris,
Munich, Berlin, London, and Grenoble. His overseas study pro-
duced two books and a number of articles on European education.

Demiashkevich then accepted a position at George Peabody
College for Teachers and remained there until his death ten years
later.

Demiashkevich was highly trained in philosophy, and if a
label could be attached to his thinking, one would have to call him
an Idealist. He viewed education as a science consisting of three
branches: the philosophical, the social, and the natural.2 The
school, he believed, was the one institution that could best transmit
the social heritage of a country; indeed, this was the school' 3
primary function.

For Demiashkevich, man was both a spiritual and physical
entity. He believed one of the most important functions of the school

was to transmit, by way of the social heritage, spiritual and moral

 

1Chambers, "The Educational Philosophy of Michael John
Demiashkevich," p. 9.

2Ibid., pp. 89-90.

127

values. A society, for Demiashkevich, was only as good as the
children it produced. Therefore, the logical starting point for the
transformation of charactershould be the school.

In his most famous work, An Introduction to the Philosophy

 

of Education, Demiashkevich set forth the proposition that the two

 

most important functions of the school were intellectual training and
character formation. 1 He believed in absolute moral values and

felt that it was the schools' task to teach these. Of all the members
of the Essentialist Committee, Demiashkevich was probably the most
brilliant. 2 He was a brilliant linguist, read some 22 languages, and
pursued a reading program that was both extensive and deep. Bagley
was the chairman of his doctoral committee, and between them some
of the ideas of Essentialism began to develop. Demiashkevich visited
frequently with Bagley and Isaac Kandel, andfrom these meetings
the plans for a group called the Essentialists emerged. Demiashke -
vich was responsible for drawing up the first Essentialist document,
called "Tentative Theses. " He was also the first to coin the term
"Essentialist. " After the founding meeting in Atlantic City,

Demiashkevich continued to support Essentialist ideas. He did not,

 

1Ibid., p. 98.

Correspondence with Louis Shores, December 9, 1969.

128

however, sign the Platform document, mainly because of
philosophical reasons, as will be seen later.

Demiashkevich, overburdened with teaching and depressed
at hearing of the atrocities to his family in Russia, committed

suicide in the late summer of 1938.

The Remaining Members

 

The other members of the Committee were F. Alden Shaw,
Louis Shores, Guy M. Whipple, Walter Ryle, and Milton L. Shane.

F. Alden Shaw was the headmaster of the pretigious Detroit
County Day School in Michigan. He was the official organizer of the
Essentialist Committee and served in the important capacity as
secretary to the organization. He was mainly responsible for encour-
aging Demiashkevich and Bagley to undertake the intellectual portion
of the movement. Shaw' s extensive correspondence with the other
members kept ideas flowing smoothly and contributed to the feeling
of solidarity within the organization. His own school was run along
Essentialist principles and continues to be run so today. 1

WaltervRyle was a distinguished educator who was an
historian and later became president of North East Missouri State

Teachers College. His intellectual career centered around the

 

1Personal interview with F. Alden Shaw, January 16, 1970.

129

teaching of the history of Missouri. He was likewise active in teacher
preparation programs, and the implementation of Essentialist ideas
within teacher training institutions.

Guy Whipple was a prominent educational psychologist who
taught at the University of Michigan, Cornell, and the Carnegie
Institute of Technology. He was the author of several books on
mental measurement, as well as being the editor of several Year-
books of the National Society for the Study of Education. 2

Louis Shores was a well -known figure in the field of library
science. He studied under Demiashkevich and later taught at Peabody
College. He did pioneering work in the area of encyclopedia design,
and was responsible for the publishing of sixteen books and over three
hundred articles. 3

M. L. Shane was a college professor and colleague of Shores
at Peabody College. He also studied under Demiashkevich. Shane
was at the founding meeting in Atlantic City but was not as influential
or well known nationally as the other members.

This has been a short summary of the men who composed

the original Essentialist Committee. Bagley and Demiashkevich,

 

1Correspondence with Walter Ryle, February 23, 1970.

2Who' 3 Who in America (Chicago: The A. Marguis Co. ,
1940-1941), XXI, p. 2734.

 

3Correspondence with Louis Shores, December 6, 1969.

130

of course, stand out, and it is to them that the credit must be given

for formalizing and systematizing the Essentialist position.

Organization of the Essentialist Committee

 

The Essentialist Committee was begun through the interest
of F. Alden Shaw, headmaster of the Detroit County Day School.
Shaw had written to Demiashkevich asking him if he would be interested
in forming some type of organization espousing Essentialist ideas. 1
On Demiashkevich' 5 advice, Shaw proceeded to write Bagley to
solicit advice and possible help. Shaw stated in his letter to Bagley,

In accordance with this suggestion I am writing to seek your

co -operation in this movement. Of course, I have no authority
to offer anybody any office until the association is formed, but

I heartily agree with Prof. Demiashkevi ch and I believe that

any association would feel honored to have you as its president.

I would appreciate very much if I may hear from you regard -

ing your views, for your language experience would be very
helpful in matters of this kind. 2

In reply to Shaw' 3 letter, Bagley indicated his interest in
such an organization. Bagley states,
I believe that a national organization of the type that you suggest
is greatly needed. The Progressive school of educational theory

is now supreme in our educational councils. Irrespective of the
merits of progressive education, it is not well for the country

 

1Chambers, "The Educational Philosophyof Michael John
Demiashkevich," p. 20.

2Letter to William C. Bagley from F. Alden Shaw, Novem-
ber 14, 1937. Carbon copy in Brickman file.

131

that its monopoly should be so nearly complete. As in
government, there should be organized criticism of the parts
in power.

Bagley, because of his advancing age, was not interested
in assuming the leadership and suggested a younger man be chosen.
Shaw proposed the formation of an "executive committee" to launch
the organization. Bagley wrote to Shaw,

Your suggestions of the advisability of an executive committee
to initiate the movement is excellent. Perhaps a beginning could
be made by an informal meeting at Atlantic City at the time of
the midwinter sessions.

Bagley' s enthusiasm for the meeting apparently increased.
He wrote to Shaw again, indicating that an organization could be
established at Atlantic City. He states,

I have noticed many indications that an increment clarifying the
situation in educational theory would be warmly welcomed by
the public -school workers. I hope that you will take the
initiative in calling the meeting. 4

Bagley went on to outline a list of possible members for
the Committee. He wanted to include men in specific subject -matter

fields. He was, however, wary of including two categories of

people: (1) men like Dr. Hutchins of Chicago, whom he labeled an

 

1Letter to F. Alden Shaw from Bagley, November 10, 1937.

2Chambers, "The Educational Philosophy of Michael John
Demiashkevich," p. 21.

3Letter to F. Alden Shaw from Bagley, November 18, 1937.

4Letter to F. Alden Shaw from Bagley, November 22, 1937.

132

"extremist, " in addition to men who were not acquainted with the
problems of the public schools; and (2) members whom he considered
in opposition to Progressivism whose criticisms were lodged in
economic or social doctrines. These persons, he felt, would detract
from the movement' 3 concern with educational problems. 1
Shaw, hoping to elicit the opinions of various men possibly

sympathetic to the Essentialist point of view, wrote to the realist
Frederick S. Breed for his comments. Breed was in favor of the
meeting but thought it should be a preliminary, exploring, and
clarifying session. Hewent on to say,

I think that one of the most important problems confronting

educators at the present time is to assess the value of the

progressive theory in comparison with alternative theories and

then attempt to organize a program that will not be subject to

the errors of omission and emphasis that characterize most of

these plans. A search for areas of agreement on the one hand

and points of irreconcilable disagreement, if any, on the other

hand is what we need, as I see it.

Shaw sent a letter to Demiashkevich listing some additional

members. Bagley replied to Shaw saying he was in agreement with

most of the names. . However, he again sent a cautionary note saying,

"I think some of these will not cause serious difficulty if the association

 

lIbid., p. 2.

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Frederick S. Breed,
December 9, 1937. Carbon copy in Brickman file addressed to
Bagley.

133

of the educational Progressive with social and economic radicalism
can be 'kept out of the picture. ' "1 Bagley wanted the focus of the
meeting to remain educational, if possible.

Bagley met with Demiashkevi oh and wrote to Shaw that they
had discussed the proposed meeting at Atlantic City in some depth.
Both Bagley and Demiashkevich were in agreement that some non-
professional groups should be represented. They suggested the
parents of children who had attended Progressive schools and schools

2
representing Essentialist ideas.

Interestingly, Bagley, in this letter, suggested the name
of Dr. Mary E. Townsend, who had recently completed a study of
the Russian educational system. He states about Dr. Townsend:

She has made a personal study of educational conditions in the
Soviet Union with the conclusions that are at variance with those
of the Progressives who are disposed to interpret the abandon-
ment of Progressivism in Russia not as recognition of an educa -
tion failure, but as a rejection of policies that in their judgment
encourage independent thinking.

Bagley probably thought some cross -cultural evidence

could strengthen the case against the Progressives.

 

f

1Letter to F. Alden Shaw from Bagley, January 3, 1938.
2Letter to F. Alden Shaw from Bagley, January 7, 1938.

3Ibid., p. 2.

134

Some tentative theses concerning the Essentialist position
were first of all drawn up by Shaw and given to Demiashkevi ch. 1
These proposals were formulated by Shaw using Demiashkevi ch' 3

book, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Not thinking

 

these proposals detailed enough, Demiashkevich drew up another set

A ch. ‘ p. O
" 5 I!

of statements which he labeled "The Tentative Theses. "2
Demiashkevich' s "Tentative Theses" are unique in their

scope and direction. The writer will attempt to present the general

content of the theses and indicate those sections that were similar

to the final draft of the Essentialist Platform. 3

 

Demiashkevich divided his paper into four main sections.
They were entitled: "Education for Citizenship, " "Character Build-
ing, " "Education for General Culture, ” and "Educational Experi -
mentation and Academic Freedom. "

In "Education for Citizenship",Demiashkevich argues that

the major responsibility of the school is the presentation of those

 

1Chambers, "The Educational Philosophy of Michael John
Demiashkevich, " p. 22.

2Ibid.

 

3Gurney Chambers includes a copy of the "Tentative Theses"
in the appendix of his work on Demiashkevich, but does not analyze
the contents of the "Theses. " The writer examined a copy of the
"Tentative Theses" that was sent to William C. Bagley on January 13,
1938, and is in the Brickman file.

135

ideals embodied in the Bill of Rights. He says, "This Association
believes that the understanding, love, and preservation of the Ameri -
can ideal and form of government is an essential objective of Ameri -
can education. "1 Because of his experiences in Russia after the
Revolution of 1917, Demiashkevich was strongly opposed to all E
totalitarian systems. He says in this regard, "The Essentialists ,
are opposed to the use of the schools for the promotion of totalitarian

forms of government, whether communist or fascist, under whatever

mgr—K
(
l

label or disguises. "2
To Demiashkevich some of the highest values were human
life and happiness. In the first article he states his opposition to
any system that sacrifices the individual to a particular doctrine.
One of the longest of the "Tentative Theses" is the second,
which he labeled "Character Building. " Here Demiashkevich states:
This Association considers it to be among the first and foremost
obligations of the school to assume its share of responsibility
with the home and church in assisting the young toward the

development of a sense of duty and the will to do good and to
oppose evil.

 

1"Tentative Theses," p. 1.

2Ibid.

3Ibid .

4Ibid., p. 2 (No. 2).

136

In this article, Demiashkevich states one of his central
beliefs: the existence of permanent, transcendental moral values. 1
He felt that no character building could take place if the school did
not teach moral values.

He then goes on to state another one of his basic ideas:

that the human personality is more than a physiological machine. 2

. jaguar“ .I;.m

He says to this point:

The significance of the human personality in social, political,
and economic matters can be solidly guaranteed, in the last
analyses, only through the recognition of man by fellow men
as a bearer of spiritual value--in articular of the ideal of the
good, the beautiful, and the true.

 

Demiashkevich continues this theme of humane character
building in his section called "Education for General Culture. " Here
he states the position that the Essentialists should advance the cause
of liberal education, over vocational education, in elementary and
secondary education. 4 Demiashkevich defined the purpose of liberal
education as "forearming the pupil with the knowledge of the mode of

thinking and living, of the ideals, aspirations, achievements, and

 

llbid., p. 2 (No. 3).

2Ibid., p. 3 (No. 4 and No. 5).

 

3Ibid., p. 3 (No. 6).

41bid., p. 4 (No. 8).

 

 

137

failures of mankind. "1 This idea of learning the lessons of the past
was a basic for the formation of the idea of a cultural heritage that
is one of the central concepts of Essentialism. Demiashkevich
believed the lessons of the social heritage were deposited in the
humanities and the natural -mathematical sciences.

Demiashkevich further stressed the necessity for reading

a ,_. -‘all£"¢lmfl

as an important function of the school. 3 One of his main points,

and one that was incorporated in the Essentialist Platform, was the

 

 

presentation of material in a sequential manner. . He says in this
regard:
It is the duty of the school to secure reasonable mastery of a
rich sequential or systematic curriculum on the part of the
pupil. This curriculum should show proper balance between
mental and manual training, and should include the irreducible
body of knowledge, skills, and attitudes essential to effective
participation in a democratic society.
Demiashkevich felt that the curriculum should be abstract.
He thought that if abstract thinking was not developed in the primary

and secondary grades, then the educational system would produce

citizens incapable of understanding their own political and economic

 

llbid., p. 4 (No. 10).

 

2lloid., p. 5 (No. 11).

 

3Ibid., p. 6 (No. 13).

4Ibid., p. 6 (No. 14).

138

system. 1 He visualized the best education as being one based on
strict intellectual discipline stressing exact information and critical
analyses of facts. 2 Demiashkevich concluded the theses by saying
that experimentation in education must be based on the experience of
the past, and that academic freedom must be guaranteed.

The "Tentative Theses" were important in that they formed
the early written basis for the Essentialist movement. The theses
were not officially adopted by the Committee, but they were circu-
lated to Shaw, Bagley, and Robert Hutchins of Chicago. While
Bagley and Shaw approved of the theses, Hutchins believed them to
be too general.

Bagley wrote to Demiashkevich after he finished reading the
theses. Bagley was in agreement with the theses, but did not agree
on two fundamental points. Here is an early indication of the philo-
sophical differences between Bagley and Demiashkevich. The dif-
ferences of opinion, Bagley wrote, were:

1. A31 have suggested in earlier letters, I do not believe it
wise to let the proposed organization be thought of as a

 

llbid., p. 7 (No. 17).
2Ibid., p. 8 (No. 18).
3Ibid., p. 8 (No. 19 and No. 20).

4Chambers, "The Educational PhiIOSOphy of Michael John
Demiashkevich, " p. 22.

139

"stand -pat" group in respect of social and economic
reforms. The first theses, in my judgment, might justify
such an implication.

2. I personally could not subscribe to a belief in transcendental
values if this implies personal values that transcend human
experience. Nor can I hold to a belief that ethical judgments
and moral conduct must necessarily depend upon the accep-
tance of supernatural forces.

4.5m I

In the last part of the letter Bagley agreed that the important If.
issues in the theses had to do with effort, discipline, sequence, and

. . . 2
system 1n the process and materials of education.

 

Shaw received a carbon of the letter from Bagley to Demiash-
kevich and tried to resolve some of the differences. In regard to
the first thesis, Shaw wanted to adopt a compromise statement. He
said:
I see no reason why a clause cannot be added to the final thesis,
stating that we always stand ready to adopt demonstrated truth,
or truth to be revealed, in any field, social, economic or edu-
cational. I do not feel that we should take the position that the
Progressives have not re -emphasized some neglected truths.
Shaw, likewise, attempted to resolve the issue about moral

values. . He says that Bagley' 3 position on the human basis of moral

values is substantiated in history. He cites the works of Marcus

 

1Letter to Demiashkevich from Bagley, February 1, 1938.
Carbon copy to F. Alden Shaw.

2Ibid., p. 2.

3Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, February 3, 1938.

‘2‘...“ ~" -L;__v_«_ .u' _.

 

 

 

 

140

Aurelius as an example. He then goes on to say that the discussion
of moral values is leading them into the field of theology--which is
not their basic purpose. "As you say, " Shaw concludes, "we have
so much in common that we can adjust our differences. "1
Shaw, somewhat concerned over this matter of differences,
further suggested that a statement might be drawn up in which the
members would say they agree to the general aims of the Essen-
tialists' theses. The statement, however, would be open enough so
that individual differences in philosophy would be acceptable. 2
Shaw then suggested that the Committee officially meet on
February 25, 1938, at 2:30 p.m. in the Seaside Hotel. He suggested
that each member read a ten -minute prepared text outlining his
thinking on the purposes that such an association should serve. 3 A
general discussion would then follow.
Shaw concluded on a rather serious note, showing his con-
cern over the proposed meeting. He said,
In closing I would like to express a deep sense of responsibility
I feel in all I am trying to do, and I will appreciate it very much,

Dr. Bagley, if you will continue to give me the benefit of your
opinions regarding all the above projected plans.

 

1Ibid.

 

2Ibid.

3Ibid., p. 2.

4lloid.

 

d'. h?" ‘- m
u. ‘. J'o': I a I,

141

The Atlantic City Meeting

 

The official meeting of what came to be known as the
Essentialist Committee for the Advancement of American Education
(ECAAE) was held on February 26, 1938, in Atlantic City, New
Jersey. The session was noteworthy in that a premature and
unauthorized release of the Essentialist Platform was seized upon
by the press. This incident launched a heated debate that was to
rage for months. Although the Committee met only two other times,
in 1939 and 1940, the furor caused by the meeting was to place the
Essentialists in the forefront of opposition to the Progressives.

The largest publicity given to the new group came about as
a result of an article in the New York Times. Louis Shores, one of
the members, was quoted as saying, "The progressives have turned
the American Education system to the ability of the lowest class of
morons. "2 John Dewey, who was attending the meeting at Atlantic
City, countered the charges of the Essentialists by saying,

The statements of the essentialist group are so general that
there is no way of telling what they regard as essentials. So

far-as it does not mean a return to the 3 R' s, the movement
is apparently an imitation of the fundamentalist movement,

 

1Chambers, "The Educational Philosophy of Michael John
Demiashkevich, " p. 29.

2"Study Row Stirred by Essentialists, " New York Times,
March 2, 1938, p. 8.

_1_~.. 1!

 

142

and may perhaps draw support from that quarter as well as
from reactionaries in politics and economics.

Kilpatrick, a leading Progressive, also countered with the

statement,

As far as the statement that American children do not show up

as well as foreign ones on standardized tests, in so far as it is
true, it is a criticism of the traditional methods which are still
largely in use in the schools of this country despite the advance
of progressivism. ,

(”PA-15"”. n...“

The debate continued in several newspapers. 3 The Hartford

(Conn.) Times presented the grievances of the Progressives, while

 

the Seattle (Wash.) Star explained the Essentialist position. The

 

Jackson (Miss.) News and the Wheeling (W. Va.) Intelligence sided

 

 

with the Essentialist also. The Tulsa (Okla.) Tribune took the posi -

 

tion that parents were not being informed fully as to the benefits of
Progressive education methods. The Philadelphia (Pa.) Bulletin
maintained that there was no statistical evidence to hold that the

fundamentals were being neglected. The Portland (Ore.) Oregonian

 

concluded that the debate-was beneficial in that the Essentialists
were at least forcing the American public to look more closely at

what was going on in the schools.

 

1Ibid.

2lloid.

 

3Editorial Comment, "The Press Views Education, " The
School Executive, LVII, No. 9 (May, 1938), 416-417.

 

143

The Phi Delta Kappan presented a harsh editorial criticizing

 

the Essentialists. The editorial pointed out that the Progressives
had capitalized on education a few years earlier, and that now it was
time for the Essentialists to make themselves heard:
Now come the Essentialists capitalizing again on the present
wave of conservatism and public distrust of anything new in the
way of social, political, or economic policy and again putting
millions of teachers and thousands of school systems on the
defensive against an implied charge that they all went "haywire"
during the '20' s and "cheated" The American School Child. 1
The publicity was a concern to Bagley, especially. He had
hoped for a quiet discussion of the issues, and was optimistic that
John Dewey in his speech at Atlantic City would point out the mis -
interpretations given to his philosophy. In a letter to Dorothy

Thompson, a reporter for the New York Herald Tribune who had

 

written an article in support of the Essentialists, Bagley stated,

I had stipulated that all publicity should be withheld pending

the lecture by John Dewey on Tuesday evening, which had been
announced as a reinterpretation in part of his educational theory.
Because Dr. Dewey has frequently criticized many opinions and
practices of his Progressive followers, it was my hope that a
more systematic restatement of his position would make further
controversy unnecessary.

 

1Editorial Comment, Phi Delta Kappan, XX, No. 7 (March,
1938), 209.

 

2Letter from Bagley to Miss Dorothy Thompson, March 11,
1938. Carbon copy in Brickman file.

144

Bagley went on, in this letter, to expound many principles

that were later to appear in the official version of the Essentialist

Platform . 1

The Diminishing Impact of Essentialists
Due to Organizational Changes and
Lack of Consistent Leadership

The months following the organizational meeting at Atlantic
City were filled with enthusiasm for the Essentialists. But the initial
publicity began to wear off and more pressing problems of an organi -
zational nature came to the fore.
Shaw wrote to Bagley concerning the good publicity the
Essentialists had received in the Detroit Free Press. At the end
of the letter he mentions-that he distributed the "Theses" to some
people in Detroit for their comment. He replied to this:
They seem to feel that the presentation is too academic to
kindle the fires of enthusiasm. On the other hand, Dr. Demiash'—
kevich is very much disturbed that we have not re -drafted the
original and have the same signed by the advisory council.
Personally, I do not attach so much importance to this phase,
but if we are to keep harmony in the ranks it might be advisable
to do this. I don' t share his dread of newspaper publicity. 2
Shaw still assumed the responsibility of holding the organi -

zation together. In a letter to Demiashkevich, Shaw mentions the

 

1Ibid., pp. 2-4.

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, March 16, 1938.
Carbon copy in Brickman file. (My emphasis. )

145

necessity of printing material outlining the Essentialist position as
well as beginning work on a year book. 1 Shaw was also concerned
with financing the operation. He stated in this regard:
The next problem that is beginning to rise is the one connected
with finance. To date I have from my own pocket advanced what-
ever has been necessary and I was very glad to do this for the
sake of the objective, but as our influence becomes more widely
extended our correspondence will, of course, necessarily
increase and I shall need some help of a clerical nature. 2
In April, Bagley submitted the official Essentialist docu-
ment, "Platform for the Advancement of American Education, " to
Shaw for comment. Shaw was in general agreement with the docu-
ment. He criticized Bagley, however, in terms of social philosophy.
On page 17, you lay aside the mantle of educator and become
prophet, a forecaster of the social order.

It seems to me to be taking too large a change to say that
"inevitably the crisis of a new social and economic order will
be reached, " because so many people have said the same thing
in the past, and the crisis was avoided by some new discovery
or invention or situation. Thomas Jefferson was sure that it
would take 500 years to settle the Mississippi Valley.

Bagley received Shaw' 5 criticism of the document and sent

out a general letter to all members of the Essentialist Committee.

He had previously sent a copy of the Platform to all of the members

on April 16, 1938.

 

1Letter to Michael Demiashkevich from Shaw, March 21,
1938. Carbon copy in Brickman file.

2Ibid .

 

3Letter to William C. Bagley from Shaw, April 22, 1939.

'Fl

146

This letter is crucial in that it presents Bagley as the figure
who takes sole responsibility of developing the Platform. Whereas
Shaw was concerned with the structural side of the organization,
Bagley was more interested in the actual educational philosophy.

At this point, Bagley mentions Shaw' 5 criticisms of the
Platform, but defends his Position.

The paragraphs referred to represent, in my judgment, a
position that should be taken if we are to spike the guns of

those who denounce us as reactionaries and as unyielding sup-
porters of the status quo. It seemed to me that, with the
developments now so clearly in sight, our indicated duty is to
accept them and, in granting their value, point out as I attempted
to do their very real dangers, and the need of directing educa-
tion toward a counteraction of these dangers.

 

In this somewhat confusing statement, Bagley was trying
to clarify his position as to the direction of the present social order.
He felt that the social and economic upheaval the country had experi -
enced since the Depression was producing consequences detrimental
to education and democracy. His position held that it was necessary
to point out the dangers of present social legislation and educational
philosophy, and submit educational alternatives to the impending

crises.

 

1Letter to the Essentialist Committee from Bagley, April 26,
1938.

147

At the same time, Bagley did not want to alienate the
economic and social liberals. 1 He wanted, in other words, to
criticize the system but within reason. . He goes on to say, "by far
our greatest asset so far has been the endorsement of Dorothy
Thompson, and primarily because she is known as a liberal. I am
personally aligned with that group. "2

Following this, Demiashkevich replied to the proposals of
the Platform. Demiashkevich' s criticisms were stranger than
Shaw' 8. There were some fundamental philosophical points in the
Platform that Demiashkevich could not agree with. This disagree -
ment, in the writer' 8 opinion, was a serious factor in the organiza-
tional weakness of the Essentialist Committee.

Demiashkevich says in the beginning of the letter,

I sincerely regret to be unable to subscribe to the Platform
1.3.3232 in its present form and to bother you with several sug -
gestions of changes. I know you will not hold this against me
and therefore I shall frankly and freely glut before you my doubts
regardlng a few pomts of the Platform.

Demiashkevich went on to state that the movement would

only gain strength if the Platform appealed to parents and

 

1Ibid., p. 2.

2mid.

 

3Letter to William C. Bagley from Demiashkevich, April 30,
1938.

148

public-spirited citizens. 1 He also suggested that Bagley alter a
section comparing American and European secondary education.
The purpose here was "to forestall all suspicion or accusation that
we are unfriendly to an upward development of mass education. . . "
Demiashkevich also objected to the reference to Dewey as "the
present great leader" of the Progressive movement. He felt that
only future historians would be justified in giving this label to Dewey. 3
Demiashkevich' s most pressing criticisms, however, were
centered around three main points:

1. First, the Platform makes no mention of our conception of
man as something other than a mere behavioristic-
materialistic physiological machine.

2. Second, the Platform has no mention of the Essentialists'
sympathetic attitude toward religion as a great character-
building social institution. .

3. Third, the statement relative to the economic crisis appears
to me as possibly permitting of an interpretation that the
Essentialists are ready to submit to, if not to welcome, an
oncoming socialistic revolution.

This statement of Bagley' 3 "relative to the economic crisis"

was a major concern to Demiashkevi ch and Shaw. Demiashkevich

was opposed to Roosevelt' s policies. He thought them to be the

 

lIbid.

 

2Ibid.

3Ibid .

4Ibid.

 

 

 

149

harbingers of a noxious type of socialism. He equated some of these
reforms with the "bolshevistic machinations" that he had experienced
in Russia. Demiashkevich was genuinely concerned with the possi -
bility of the New Deal creating the conditions for violent revolution.
So concerned was he with Bagley' 5 statement concerning the inevi -
tability of social conditions that he wrote,

Hence, I cannot, in all honesty with myself, sign anything--

even though I certainly can' t stop the oncoming revolution if

one is coming upon us --that might give an impression, however

remote . . . that the Essentialist submissively await, if not

welcome an oncoming socialistic revolution, 1’ 2

The criticisms of the Platform continued, but not as strongly

as Demiashkevich' 3. Guy M. Whipple, another member of the

original Committee, was in favor of accepting the document as it

stood. The changes he suggested were mostly editorial and were in

 

1Ibid., p. 3.

2In the final copy of the Platform, Bagley made this state-
ment (Section 8) in regard to the coming social changes: "It is the
indicated and imminent task of the present dominant generation to
solve this problem (unemployment) under-whatever expert guidance
at the hands of the economist and the social engineer it may find and
accept. The student of education must co -operate with all other
citizens in this task."

Thus Bagley' 3 position was not basically changed in regard
to Shaw' s and Demiashkevich' s criticism. Bagley was a "liberal"
in the sense that he saw no other'way out of the crises of the Depres-
sion than some form of drastic social change, i. e. , at that time the
changes instituted in the New Deal by Roosevelt.

150

opposition to the general philosophical position of the document.
Whipple concluded by saying, "I think the platform, as I said before,
is not only sound but exceedingly timely, and I hope that it will be
given a publicity extending beyond the distribution of the periodical
in which it is to appear. "1
Bagley had hoped for unanimous consent from the members

before publishing the Platform. He did not receive this consent and
decided to publish using only his name. On May 2, 1938, he sent
out a letter to the Essentialist Committee in which he stated,

To date I have received exactly a fifty -percent response to my

communication of April 16th. I cannot publish the theses as a

pronouncement of the Committee without unanimous consent.

On the other hand I am committed to some form of early pub-
lication. I shall, therefore, publish the theses as an independent

article with an explanatory note. . . .

The explanatory note stated that the first two sections of the
Platform were prepared at Atlantic City, and that he, Bagley, was
publishing these as well as a concluding section in order to clarify
some of the erroneous publicity given to the Committee. He goes on
to say, "I do this in order to set forth my own position. . . . This

article is in no sense a pronouncement of the Essentialist Committee. "3

 

1Letter to William C. Bagley from Whipple, May 2, 1938.

2Letter to the Essentialist Committee from Bagley, May 2,
1938.

3Ibid.

 

151

This step to publish the theses independently is a significant
milestone in the organizational structure of the Essentialist Committee.
It appears that the burden to carry on the work was once again placed
on Bagley' s shoulders. Demiashkevich would not sign the document
and the other members, while supporting Bagley, left the responsi -
bility to him. He became the official spokesman, once again.

This situation was organizationally weakening to the Essen-
tialists because it left the burden of articulating their position to only
one man, a men who at that time was reaching the age of retirement.
It also appears at this time that the hoped -for public support for
Essentialism was not forthcoming.

Shaw seems to have sensed some difficulty. He wrote to
Bagley attempting to find out what direction the Committee should
now take. Shaw compared the Essentialists' plight to that of the
"founding fathers" during the Constitutional Convention. 1 That is,
it was now time for the Essentialists to set aside their differences
in philosophy and take a united stand. The emphasis, Shaw thought,
should be on common educational problems. He states, "We must
leave unsettled questions on which we disagree. "2 In the next

paragraph he reiterates his point, saying "it is for this reason,

 

1Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, May 9, 1938.

2Ibid.

152

Dr. Bagley, that I think we ought to restrict our platform to
educational practice. "1

Shaw also reversed his position concerning the existence
of moral values. Earlier he had tried to reconcile the differences
between Bagley and Demiashkevich on this point. Now he stated,
"Personally, I feel very strongly in agreement with Dr. Demiash-
kevich' 3 paragraph in the original theses regarding the ultimate
objective in ethical values. "2

In the concluding paragraph of this letter, Shaw said that
the Essentialists must include liberals, conservatives, and
Catholics within the organization. He concludes by saying, "With-
out the help of all these elements we will not, as I see it, make any
progress."3

The Committee received a setback when Michael Demiash-
kevich committed suicide. Although he did not sign the Platform,
he was one of the men who originally thought of the idea for a formal
organization. He was, likewise, the formulator of the "Tentative

Theses" which became the-working document at the founding meeting.

 

llbid.

 

21bid., p. 2.

3Ibid.

 

 

 

 

deli-lists;

alllli
ill ill-Ill I 1"
1.1.11, II?"
I
. .
'IIWII (11

 

 

15-34

Bagley, in a letter to Shaw, was grieved at Demiashkevich' 3 death
and agreed with Shaw that a resolution citing Demiashkevich' 3
contributions be drawn up.

After Demiashkevich' 3 death, Shaw continued to support the
work of the Committee, trying to keep it intact and suggesting new
members. He recommended that Frederick Breed of Chicago be
added to the advisory board along with a Mr. Tietz, who was principal
of the Dewitt Clinton High School in New York City. 2 The preceding
month, Guy Whipple wrote to Bagley about the possibility of con-
sidering an official yearbook stating the Essentialist position.

The Essentialists (particularly Bagley and Shaw) were con-
cerned at this time over the publication of a book by Professor J.
Wayne Wrightstone of the Ohio State University Bureau of Educational
Research. (The book was published by Teachers College, Columbus

University.) The study was reported in the New York Times under

 

the title "Progressive Study Held Best in Tests. " Wrightstone, the
article stated, "found that the experimental school pupils were

generally superior in the academic skills of reading, writing, and

 

1Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, September 28, 1938.

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, November 2, 1938.
Carbon copy in Brickman file.

3Letter from Guy Whipple to Bagley, October 4, 1938.

154

arithmetic, thereby meeting the chief objectives of the traditional
educators. "1
Bagley was distressed over how much publicity the Pro-
gressives were receiving from the article about Wrightstone.
Bagley had one of Thorndike' s associates, Dr. Irving Lorge, review
the design of Wrightstone' 3 study. It was Bagley' s contention that
the experimental design was faulty, and, therefore, conclusions
drawn by Wrightstone were not warranted. In writing to Shaw,
Bagley said,
If the comparisons are valid they are not sufficient to confirm
the chief contentions of the Progressives, for there is no
evidence (and I think no claim) that Progressive principles
were carried out with rigorous consistency in the "experimental"
schools. 2
Bagley hOped that the publicity the Progressives were

receiving could be countered by a book that was being published by

Frederick S. Breed. This book became the well known Education

 

and the New Realism. Bagley read the manuscript for Breed and

 

made some comments on it. Breed was convinced that philosophical
realism was the best challenge to the inroads of the Progressives.

Breed said,

 

1"Progressive Study Held Best in Tests, ” New York Times,
Monday, October 24, 1938, p. 18.

 

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, November 9, 1938.

155

The truth of the situation is that since about 1910, when
pragmatism reached the peak of its prominence, realism has
given the pragmatists their most severe headache and stolen
the show in philosophy. It is one of my most cherished hopes
that I may be able to make the general outline of the realistic
position a bit clearer to educators and leave them with the
impression that herein is found a much needed corrective for
the excesses of Deweyism. 1

The debate between the Progressives and Essentialists
continued, but the Essentialists as an organized group with a strong
front began to diminish. Shaw, writing at the beginning of 1939 to
Bagley, was trying to organize another meeting. He was concerned
over the lack of response:

I have been giving some thought lately to the matter of our
Cleveland meeting, but I did not hear from a single one of the
advisory board in response to the revised program which I sub -

mitted. Since there is only about a month left in which to make
plans, I am somewhat concerned regarding this situation. 2

 

 

On January 18, Bagley replied to Shaw that he was in favor
of the meeting at Cleveland, but that he favored an informal meeting.
On January 30, Shaw replied, in a letter to Bagley, that he was con-
fused about the organizational structure of the upcoming meeting:

I amsomewhat vague still regarding the different functions for
which the advisory board and the Committee were appointed.

 

1Letter from Frederick S. Breed to Bagley, November 23,
1938.

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, January 16, 1939.
Carbon copy in Brickman file. (My emphasis.)

3Letter from William C. Bagley to Shaw, January 18, 1939.

156

I assume the advisory board serves the purpose of a steering
Committee, and if this is the case, then I suppose that there
should be a preliminary meeting of the board before the
Committee as a whole meets.
Shaw, in a letter to Bagley, later outlined a tentative list
of topics to be discussed at the Cleveland meeting.
In August of 1939, Bagley wrote to Shaw saying that he was
surprised and pleased that over 1500 copies of the Platform had been
sold. Bagley also mentioned the fact that he was retiring because of

age from Teachers College and would assume the editorship of

School and Society. 3 Thus Bagley, the cornerstone of the Essen-

 

tialist Committee, was reaching the age where leadership would have
to be taken over by a younger 'man.

It is the writer' s contention that this type of leadership was
not forthcoming, and as a consequence, the impact of Essentialism
was lessened. Likewise, as the second world war grew closer, the
initial impact created by the Essentialists was diminishing. The
principles that they advocated would not gain full recognition again

until the middle 1950' s.

 

1Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, January 30, 1939.
Carbon copy in Brickman file.

2Letter from F. Alden Shaw to Bagley, February 17, 1939.
Carbon copy in Brickman file.

3
Letter from William C. Bagley to Shaw, August 10, 1939.
Carbon copy in Bri ckman file.

157

The feeling of diminishing influence of Essentialist thought
was conveyed to Bagley by Shaw. Bagley replied in an encouraging

note:

I do not think that you need to feel at all depressed over your
services to Essentialism. Beyond doubt, you started the live-
liest controversy that the educational world has experienced
during the past twenty years. Interest in it has not as yet
abated, although little gets into print because of the pressure
of war activities.

A final instance of organizational problems and lack of
publicity for the Essentialists can be cited in a letter from Bagley
to Shaw in October, 1942.

Bagley felt that no formal meetings of the Essentialist
Committee should be called at the annual meeting of the American
Association of School Administrators meeting in St. Louis. He
stated:

I am just now inclined to the belief that anything beyond an
informal meeting of our committee would be inadvisable. The
attendance, I think, will be light, and the programs will be
crowded. It is true that the Essentialists' position has been
pretty emphatically confirmed by the experiences of the war,

and I hope that fact will be recognized, but I think that a dinner
meeting, or even a luncheon meeting, would not be wise.

 

1Letter from William C. Bagley to Shaw, January 22, 1942.

2
Letter from William C. Bagley to Shaw, October 28, 1942.

158

Summary

The writer in this chapter attempted to show the background
circumstances leading up to the formation of the Essentialist Com-
mittee. The purpose was not to cover What has been already written
concerning the first meeting, but to illustrate, through primary
sources, some new aspects concerning Essentialism. These aspects
had to do with (1) the philosophical differences encountered in the
Committee between Shaw, Demiashkevich, and Bagley, (2) the analysis
of the "Tentative Theses" presented by Demiashkevich in order to
show more clearly the difference between this document and the final
Platform, (3) giving some of the newspaper reactions to the Essen-
tialists, and (4) setting forth the hypothesis that the original Com-
mittee suffered from organizational difficulties, and that these

problems resulted in weakening of the Committee' 3 original impact.

CHAPTER V

THE NATURE OF ESSENTIALIST EDUCATION

IN THE LAST TWENTY YEARS

The purpose of this chapter is to examine evidence as to
the present status of Essentialism. The hypothesis being forwarded
is that Essentialism--or more accurately, those who think according
to Essentialist principles--is today, again, a recurring mode of
educational thought. The writer, however, disagrees with the idea,
recently presented, that Essentialism is once again the principal
philosophy of American education. 1 There is some evidence (as
will be shown) that various curricular changes have taken place since
the period of the middle 1950' 3. These changes have emphasized,
for the most part, the study of the natural and biological sciences at
the secondary level. But this is not to say that all of American edu-

cation has been markedly influenced by Essentialist thinking.

 

-1Gurney Chambers, "Educational Essentialism Thirty
Years After, " School and Society, XCVII, No. 2314 (January, 1969),
14-16.

 

159

160

It is more accurate to state that certain educational
organizations have been founded whose main concern has been to
see that more subject matter (in terms of mathematics and natural
science) be included in the curriculum. There is no large body of
evidence, however, to warrant the conclusion that many schools
across the land are adopting Essentialist ideas. One must also be
wary of making too many causal connections between the Platform
of the Essentialist Committee and present educational practices.

As has been pointed out, the Committee was a product of its times,
and was shaped by certain social and economic ideas. It should
likewise be remembered that one man, Bagley, was responsible for
much of the thinking that resulting in the drafting of the Platform.

With these reservations in mind, it is possible, neverthe-
less, to look at some recent events in educational thinking that have
some basic similarities with the Essentialist ideas of the 1930' s.

The second portion of the chapter will deal with general
conclusions and specific recommendations. The aim will be to view
and explain the Essentialist movement from the perspective of
history, that is, to present some notion as to why educational theories
arise, persist, are often linguistically disguised, and then re -appear
after a period of time. In addition, an attempt will be made to pre-
dict the future of Essentialism, especially in relation to its educa-

tional fruitfulness.

161

The Influence of
Contemporary Essentialist Thougl_lt

 

 

To begin with, a brief summary will be made, once again,
of the major Essentialist beliefs. Wingo summarizes the most
important Essentialist propositions thus:

1. From the standpoint of the individual, the purpose of education
is intellectual and moral discipline and these two are intimately
related. From the standpoint of society, the purpose is to
transmit the essential portion of the total heritage to all who
come to school.

2. The curriculum of the school is an ordered series of subject

matters, intellectual skills, and essential values that are to be
transmitted to all who come to school.

3. Teaching is, in essence, transmitting. The art of teaching is
the art of transmitting effectively and efficiently. The teacher
is the active agent in the transmitting process.

4. The role of the school in society is one of preserving and trans-
mitting the essential core of culture. As an institution the school
has no call for reforming or altering the historic character of
society, except as it may contribute incidentally to the ordered
evolutionary process of change.

These basic propositions of Essentialism have emerged
once again on the educational scene. The cause of this renaissance
has been the criticism leveled against weaknesses of American

secondary education. This criticism reached its peak in the late

1950' s, after the launching of the Russian "Sputnik. " This event

 

1G. Max Wingo, The Philosophy of American Education
(Ann Arbor, Michigan: D. C. Heath and Co., 1965), p. 92.

162

convinced many educators that there were grave deficiencies in a
system of education that was not producing a sufficient number and
quality of technically trained individuals.

Much of the criticism was again directed against the compre-
hensive high school. Once again, the debate that had raged during
the first three decades of the century was opened. Namely, what
effects did the expansion of secondary education have on the quality
of education? In a sense, this concern with universal education was
misplaced. The comprehensive high school was a firmly established
American institution serving a vast variety of interests and concerns.
It came about, as the Essentialists acknowledged, because of social
and economic changes taking place at the turn of the century. The
high school population was no longer homogeneous, and this called
for new thinking along the lines of curriculum and purpose. James
Bryant Conant has pointed out how the role of the Progressives was,
in a sense, necessary for the transformation of the high school. He
says,

Confronted with a heterogeneous high school population destined
to enter all sorts of occupations, high school teachers and
administrators and professors of education needed some justi -
fication for a complete overhauling of a high school curriculum
originally designed for a homogeneous student body. The pro-

gressives with their emphasis on the child, on learning by doing,
on democracy and on citizenship, and with their attack on the

163
arguments used to support a classical curriculum, were bringing
up just the sort of ne_w ideas that were sorely needed.

The Essentialists, however, thought that this process of
opening up the high school was creating an adverse effect in terms
of standards. The Committee believed that excesses in Progressive
thinking were reducing secondary education to an increasingly weak-
ened state. The schools, in other words, were obliged to reorganize
their thinking relating to the large influx of students; but in doing
this re -eva1uating, there should not be a shirking of the responsi -
bility of teaching subject matter.

The debate between the Essentialist and Progressive points
of view ebbed somewhat during the war years. A compromise of
sorts was effected whereby the comprehensive school was to serve
the expanded ambitions of the Progressives and the more traditional
outlook of the Essentialists. The function of the high school was only
seriously reconsidered after the surprising Russian technological
achievements of the late 1950's.

The overall response was one of concern and alarm. It was
believed that greater national interests were at stake. We would now

have to compete in an increasingly technological world. Consequently,

 

1James Bryant Conant, The Revolutionary Transformation
of the American High School (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 1959), pp. 15 -16.

 

 

 

-llltlllll 1' flu!

164

the products of the schools would have to be trained in those basic
skills needed as a foundation for more complex types of learning.
The educational system would likewise have to insist on quality
training in the various vocational areas. Thus the national spotlight
was turned on secondary education.

The result of these concerns was a new preoccupation of
educators with reviewing the programs of the high schools. The
most influential body concerned with the problems of general edu-

cation was created in the summer of 1956 and was called The Council

 

for Basic Education. James Koerner, writing of the founding of this

 

body, says its purpose "was established in the conviction that public
education over the last half-century had too often become flaccid,
anti -intellectual, and purposeless. "1

The CBE was deeply concerned with the lask of sharply
defined goals and curricula for secondary education, and for all
public education. The CBE believed that "traditional education had
been displaced by a philosophy and methodology sharply in conflict
with what it superseded--a 'new' education that offered mostly a
pious but fuzzy altruism. . . ."2 To counter these weaknesses, the

CBE proposed and supported certain measures, namely,

 

1James D. Koerner, "Basic Education, " Education, LXXIX,
No. 6 (February, 1959), 372.

2Ibid.

 

 

165

1. That all students receive an adequate education in the basic
intellectual disciplines, especially English, mathematics,
science, history and foreign languages.

2. That the greatest of opportunities be given to those who are
capable of rapid intellectual achievement, in order to pro-
gress without a waste of time.

3. That clear standards of student accomplishment be used as

a prerequisite for promotion to higher educational levels.

That teachers be thoroughly trained in, the subjects they teach.

5. That vocational training he placed in a' proper perspective
in terms of the main purpose, intellectual discipline.

6. That school administrators not be diverted from assigning
peripheral functions to the school which would detract from
intellectual discipline. 1

65

The Council, then, was committed to a View of education that was

in many ways similar to Essentialism. It is the writer' 3 contention

 

that the reforms in secondary education, beginning in the 1950's and
continuing to the present, are restatements of the original Essential-
ist propositions even though social and economic conditions have
changed.

Much of contemporary educational reform, especially on
the high school level, follows the ideas of the Essentialists. There
is a striking similarity, for instance, between the proposals of the
Council for Basic Education and the Essentialist Platform. Bestor,
in writing of the founding of the Council for Basic Education, says
that the Council maintains "that only by the maintenance of high

academic standards can the ideal of democratic education be

 

11bid., p. 373.

166

realized--the ideal of offering to all children of all the people of the
United States not merely an opportunity to attend school, but the
privilege of receiving there the soundest education that is afforded
any place in the world. "1 This statement is very similar to the
philosophy of the Essentialists.
Other similarities may be found in these educational areas:
Both insist on the importance of vigorous intellectual training through
language, mathematics, sciences, and history; both uphold the
principle of universal education and tax -supported public schools;
both schools of thought insist on the importance of teaching the social
heritage; and each maintains that the school' 3 central function is
teaching certain skills, not directly advocating social change. The
statement of Bestor, writing on the relationship of education and
society, adequately summarizes the similarities between contempo-
rary educational thought and the Essentialist doctrine. He says,
In the last analysis, there are three areas of such great concern
both to young people and to society that every organized com -
'munity provides some form of deliberate, self -conscious train-
ing for them. First of all, in even the most primitive society
there is training for the practical tasks on which the-livelihood
of all depends. In the second place, every society provides
elaborate means for indoctrinating its young members in the
mores of the society, for transmitting to them its cultural
traits and its ethical system. In the third place (though perhaps
only in societies that we can call civilized), deliberate training

is provided in the use of the intellectual tools that the civiliza-
tion has developed: reading, writing, and arithmetic, at the

 

11bid., p. 372.

167

lowest level; logic, history, mathematics, science, art,
philosophy, and the like, at higher levels. Until recent times,
such training, in contradistinction to training of the first two
kinds, has been provided only for a minority. Today universal
literacy, the simplest index to the prevalence of at least rudi -
mentary intellectual training, has become the accepted ideal of
virtually every society and the actual achievement of most.

Each of these three kinds of training is closely related to

one or another institution or group of institutions in society.
This relationship can be labeled "traditional, " but the fact that
it became traditional is simply a consequence of the fact that
it is in logic, and has proved to be in experience, a functional
relationship.

Like Essentialism, much of contemporary educational
reform has centered around establishing some basic minimum
requirements in order to insure that individuals are prepared to
meet the demands of their society. The debate rages as to what
areas of study are the most relevant. New curricular patterns have
developed, but at the base of these changes there is the implication
that some "basics" are needed by all; some fundamental material
must be given if only to maintain the most necessary and elementary
functions of society. As one writer maintains: "The so-called
' subjects' are not just irrational structures transmitted by tradition.

They rest on principles of organization which have their own ample

2
justification. "

 

lArthur Bestor, "Education and Its Proper Relationship to
the Forces of American Society, " Daedalus, LXXXVIII, No. 1
(1959), 76-77.

2John Macdonald, Mind, School and Civilization (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1952), p. 86.

 

168

Reforms in education, following Essentialist principles,
were instituted in the 1950' s and 1960' 8. One of the most significant
was the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), which instituted
significant reforms in high school physics. These programs were
followed by others in biology, earth sciences, and the social
sciences.

The interest in general education was to a great degree

initiated by the Harvard Report on General Education in a Free

 

Society. The report tried to placein perspective the nature of
general education. It stressed the need to look at education as a
complex process within both the American and broader Western
heritage. It emphasized the need of reconciling two distinct edu-
cation heritages: the pragmatic outlook and the more traditional
approach to education. The writers, speaking to this point, said,
"the true task of education is therefore so to reconcile the sense of
pattern and direction deriving from the heritage with the sense of
experiment and innovation deriving from science that they may exist
fruitfully together, as in varying degrees they have never ceased to

do throughout Western history. "2

 

1Joseph F. Kauffman, Education (Washington, D.C.:
Potomac Books, Inc., 1966), p. 42.

 

2
Harvard University, Committee on the Objectives of
General Education in a Free Society, General Education in a Free
Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945), p. 50.

 

169

The emphasis of much of the reform interest in high school
education in one way or another concerned the place of the social
heritage. This, again, was one of the important principles of Essen-
tialist thinking. The function of the social heritage and its place in a
scheme of general education is stated in the Harvard Report:

Noris the sense of heritage less important, though it may be
less obvious, a part of education for modern democratic life.
To the degree that the implications of democracy are drawn
forth and expounded, to that degree the long standing impulse
of education toward shaping students to a received ideal is
still pursued.

Here, then, in so far as our culture is adequately reflected
in current ideas in education, one point about it is clear: it
depends in part on an inherited view of man and societywhich
it is the function, though not the only function, of education to
pass on. 1

This "inherited view of man and society" in turn determines
the subject matter of the schools. Through the experiences derived
from the social heritage, one can isolate certain skills, certainways
of looking at the world which to some measure are indispensible.
These skills must be taught, for the individual without them cannot
function properly in a democratic society. These skills are needed
not only to handle elementary tasks; but they are essential as stepping-

stones to more complicated tasks. Clifton Fadiman illustrates this

relationship of basic education:

 

11b1d., pp. 44 -45.

170

Basic education concerns itself with those matters which, once
learned, enable the student tolearn all the other matters,
whether trivial or complex- . . . In other words, both logic
and experience suggest that certain subjects have'generative
power and others do not. . . . .

Among these subjects are thosethat deal withlanguage,
whether or not one' s own; forms, figures and numbers; the
laws of nature; the past; and the shape and behavior of our com -
mon home, the earth.

Essentialism has maintained that certain subject matter must be
taught. This is part of the social heritage and-without it a man can-
not be considered. educated. This is not to say that one of the "essen-
tials" cannot be expanded upon or taught from a different point of
view. What is being argued is that the substance of the subject must
be taught somewhere. For instance, mathematics has taken many
unique directions in the last ten years. We now have the "new math"
differing in many aspects from what was formerly taught. Yet,
mathematics is a vital part of the social heritage and must be taught
to the populace as a whole. This is all Essentialism is saying: Give
those essentials common to the social heritage to every school age
child. Arthur Bestor summarizes the Essentialist position very

succinctly. He states,

The disciplines represent the various ways man has discovered
for achieving intellectual mastery and hence practical power

 

1Clifton Fadiman, "The Case for Basic Education, " in

The Case for'Basic Education, ed. by James D. Koerner (Boston:
Little, Brown and Company, 1959), p. 6.

 

171

over the various problems that confront him. He lives in a
world of quantity and relationship, and he has put four thousand
years of ingenuity into creating the mathematical tools by which
he handles quantity and relationship. He knows that the wisdom
of mankind has been set down in a multitude of languages, and
he has cultivated the linguistic disciplines. . . . He realizes
that his present is influenced by his past, and he has therefore
devised . . . the historical techniques which provide the maxi -
mum of reliable knowledge concerning this aspect of his environ-
ment. . . . There is nothing arbitrary or fortuitous in any of
this. The older disciplines have emerged, and newer ones are
emerging, as responses to man' s imperious need for that wide
ranging yet accurate comprehension whi ch means power--
power over himself and over all things else. 1

 

 

 

A crucial point is made in the above passage. This con-
cerns the status of "newer" fields of inquiry. The criticism is often
launched against Essentialism that it is a static and conservative
mode of education. This is a justifiable criticism if the "essentials"
are thought of as omniscient, discrete, and exclusive areas of knowl-
edge. They are often interpreted thus, and indeed a static and rigid
educational philosophy comes about.

Essentialism, however, as has often been emphasized, is
not a formal philosophy of education. Rather, it is a point of view--
a point of view which holds that there are some elements of learning
necessary to carry on life in a complex and technological age. These
"learnings" are concerned with computation, language, science and

the ebb and flow of history.

 

1Arthur Bestor, The Restoration of Learning (New York:
Alfred A. KnOpf, 1956), p. 35. (My emphasis.)

 

172

Now, Essentialism does not deny the validity or usefulness
of any new field of inquiry. Toado this would indeed be conservative
in a reactionary sense. What Essentialism does maintain is this:

(1) that before inquiry is made into a new discipline, some assurance
be given that the student can read, write, compute, and has some
knowledge of the physical and historical world. For instance, one
should be able to compute accurately and read and write well if he is
to study, say, economics; (2) that knowledge be thought of in some
chronological fashion--from the less to the more complex; and ( 3) that
the methodology of any field of inquiry be mastered.

Confusion often results from discussions of Essentialism
because distinctions are not made in regard to leiel and t_y_p_eg of
learning. As. te level, Essentialism is concerned with education
from the primary grades through high school. A great deal of
emphasis, however, is placed on the primary. level as the startigg

point for all subsequent learning. As for the types of education,

 

Essentialism stresses the "basics" above other forms of learning.
This means two things: that Essentialism places the highest value
(and it is a value judgment) on the subject -matter areas; and,

secondly, it holds that other subject matter, especially of the type
given in some comprehensive high schools, i. e. , driver education,

home economics, "life -adjustment" classes, be given a secondary

173

place in the curriculum. Vocational education is included within the
Essentialist point of view if it is based upon some of the "essential"
learnings, at least to a point. That is, automobile mechanics should
be based on some prior knowledge of mathematics and the principles
of physics.

The contemporary Essentialist position, in relation to high
school education, is similar to the one formulated by James B.

Conant in his study, The American High School Today. Conant' s

 

aim was to evaluate the role of the comprehensive high school in
American education. Using a sample of fifty -eight comprehensive
high schools, he drew up a check list which included everything from
general education to student morale. 1 It is not proposed to go into
the study in detail. It should also be mentioned that Conant' 8 study
may be criticized on several grounds. For instance, his sample was
probably not large enough; his method for gathering data was exclu-
sively the interview technique; there seems to be a tendency to inter-
view more administrators than teachers or students; and Conant fails
to mention the unique needs and problems in educating minority and

underprivileged groups.

 

1James B. Conant, The American High_School Today (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959), p. 19.

 

174

Conant, however, does make some general proposals that
are in keeping with Essentialist thinking. These proposals are
significant in that they have been implemented in much of American
secondary education. Furthermore, Conant found that many high
schools were already offering the type of education he proposed.

The recommendations that Conant made at the conclusion of the

study follow Essentialist principles. Only the most relevant will be
summarized here. They are: (1) Every student should have an
individualized program and not be labeled strictly as "vocational, "
"general" or "academic"; (2) to graduate, every student must have
completed four years of English, three or four years of social studies
(including two years of history), one year of mathematics and one
year of science; (3) ability grouping should be done by subject matter;
(4) English composition should occupy about one -half of the total time
given to the study of English during the four years; and (4) diversified
programs should be given to those desiring a marketable skill upon
graduation.

Conant's study, although having some shortcomings, gives

credence to the position that Essentialist ideas are present and

 

1Ibid., p. 40.

2Ibid. , pp. 44-55. Conant makes additional recommenda-
tions. Like the Essentialists, he stresses the importance of
accelerated programs for the gifted.

175

growing in much of American high school education. This point is
validated by the additional interest generated since 1957 on the
problems of what to teach and how to construct a curriculum to meet
the full needs of both the individual and the society. These studies
include the Rockefeller'Panel, 1 the Educational Policies Commis -
sion Reports, 2 the White House Conference (1955), 3 Jerome Bruner' 3
work, 4 and the National Education Association report.
Most reforms on the secondary level have been in the area

of the physical sciences and mathematics, although an increasing
number can be cited in the social sciences. Many of the reforms
have come about as the result of the work of specially appointed
commissions. To mention a few whose work has been significant

in this connection: Secondary School Curriculum Committee of the

 

1The Rockefeller Panel, Prospects for America (New York:

Doubleday and Co. ,. Inc. , 1961).

 

2Educational Policies Commission, The Education for All
American Youth (1952) and The Central Purpose of American Edu-
cation (1961) (Washington, D. C. : National Education Association).

 

 

 

3Lowel Keith, Contemporary Curriculum in the Elementary
School (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), pp. 100-101.

 

4Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1960).

 

5National Education Association, Project on the Instruc-
tional Program of the Public Schools: Deciding What to Teach (Wash-
ington, DEC. : National Education Association, 1963). Above
reference cited in Keith, Blake, Tiedt volume.

 

 

176

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, The School Mathematics
Study Group, Stanford University, The University of Illinois Com-
mittee on School Mathematics, The Biological Sciences Curriculum
Study, The Chemical Education Materials Study, The Physical
Science Study Committee, and a host of others. 1 All of these com -
mittees have, in one form or another, reiterated Essentialist
thinking on the nature of the curriculum.

Within this framework, contemporary Essentialism is
vitally concerned with the issue of standards. Standards, here,
implies a wider commitment. It is not only standards in terms of
artificial requirements, but standards in relation to quality of work.

In the original Essentialist Platform this issue was dealt with. The

 

Committee stated that high standards had to be maintained in order
to insure the best education possible. Their Committee's statement
was strongly worded, and was in opposition to the Progressive
practice of ungraded classes and, in some cases, automatic advance-
ment regardless of the level of competence.

Contemporary educational thought, emphasizing Essential-
ist thinking, still holds that the objectives of a course of study be

clearly stated. In addition, it believes the same concrete standards

 

1Harold R. Douglas, Trends and Issues in Secondary Edu-
cation (Washington, D. C. : The Center for Applied Research in
Education, Inc., 1962), pp. 33-34.

 

177

of performance he established and enforced. However, the emphasis
on standards has been broadened to include the concept of excellence.
That is, any course of study, barring the most superficial, and one
that has stated goals and some type of methodology, can be taught
from the point of excellence. As John Gardner says,
There may be excellence or shoddiness in every line of human
endeavor. We must learn to honor excellence (indeed, to demand
it) in every socially accepted human activity, however humble
the activity, and to scorn shoddiness, however exalted the
activity.
Modern forms of Essentialism, then, are concerned with both basic
material and the preservation of high standards. Like the original
Essentialists, contemporary thinkers believe that there is an intimate
connection between a firm foundation in the social heritage, the main-
tenance of reasonable standards, and the training for good citizenship.
There may not be, of course, any causal relationship between these
factors: too rigid a training may produce automatons. It is a matter
of balance --a balance which provides adequate skills and the ability
to understand the past and look at the future in terms of the past.
And to insure both of these functions, standards of performance and

individual initiative should be encouraged. To quote Gardner again

on this point:

 

1Ibid., pp. 61-62.

178

Every democracy must encourage high individual performance.
If it does not, then it closes itself off from the mainsprings of
its dynamism and talent and imagination, and the traditional
democratic invitation to the individual to realize his full poten-
tialities becomes meaningless. . . . When it does not do so,
the consequences are all too familiar: the deterioration of
standards, the debasement of taste, shoddy education, vulgar
art, cheap politics and the tyranny of the lowest common
denominator.

 

To summarize, the purpose of the first part of this chapter
has been to present some evidence and points of view holding that
the basic principles of Essentialism are still being practiced in
American education today.

A crucial point to include is that American public education,
because it adheres to Essentialist practices, is not conservative nor
reactionary. And the tendency for it r_lo_t_ to become reactionary has,
in the writer' 3 opinion, been the chief function of Progressivism.
Progressivism has served as a type of counterbalance. It has rightly
placed emphasis on the needs of the young child, and on the necessity
of forming judgments and evaluating knowledge in relation to the
canons of scientific method.

Today there is a balance of sorts. Contemporary Essen-
tialism has re -emphasized the necessity of placing subject matter
within the schools. The forms of teaching this subject matter, its

expansion into daily life, its flexibility in methods of investigation,

 

llbid.

179

and the willingness to adapt to changing social conditions have, in

great part, been functions of the Progressive school of thought.

The next task will be to formulate general conclusions and

recommendations concerning E ssentialism.

Conclusions

 

In studying the Essentialist movement, several observa —

tions have come to mind. These will be commented on in the follow -

ing:

Essentialism was never conceived of as a philosophy of edu-
cation. It was, more accurately, an educational point of
view. Although it is possible to argue that Essentialism
has its roots in classical realism and idealism, a distinc-
tion must be made. It would be more accurate to say that
different men writing or holding Essentialist views had their
backgrounds in either the idealist or realist camps.

One cannot make a positive case for an Essentialist
metaphysics or epistemology as some writers have attempted.
Again, Essentialism can be "fitted" within either the realist
or idealist conceptions of being and truth. . If Essentialism
is to be presented as an alternative educational system, it

must, of course, have some grounding in philosophy in order

180

to give it coherence and meaning. The point is that the
tendency to strictly apply traditional philosophic schools

of thought should be done with qualification.

Essentialism should be viewed as a specific historical
phenomenon arising in response to changing social and
economic conditions. There is, perhaps, too much of a
tendency to view Essentialism in a wide historical perspec -
tive. Theodore Brameld, for example, often uses historical
comparisons and analogy to demonstrate Essentialism' s
early beginnings. Like the philosophical presuppositions,
the historical viewpoint is crucial. But this should not
obscure the fact that Essentialism is a recent educational
development. Its ideas are rooted in contemporary social
and economic facts --the social facts being the changing
function of the secondary school and the rapid growth of
universal education. The economic facts giving rise to
Essentialist ideas are the rapid industrial growth beginning
in the twentieth century, the inflow of immigrants, the iso-
lationism resulting after World War One, and, of course,
the economic upheaval of the great Depression.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the men who drew up

the Essentialist Platform were a product of their times.

 

181

Most of these men knew America even before the turn of the
century. They remembered the stability and uniformity of
American education before the World War. Between the war
and the Depression of 192 9, America went through profound
social and economic changes. These changes affected those
men most closely associated with Essentialism.

This is not to argue for any form of economic
determinism. It is only to say that in a time of rapid social
change some type of stability is usually looked for. For the
Essentialists, this stability was represented in an educa-
tional system based on the teaching of "essential" subjects
and the social heritage. In this era of fundamental change,
the Essentialists saw the excesses of Progressivism as a
poor alternative. For them, the Progressive doctrine as
interpreted in the primary and secondary schools was
tantamount to chaos. They were genuinely concerned that
the excesses of Progressivism would produce a citizenry
lacking in basic skill. And if, they reasoned, the citizenry
was functionally illiterate, the very foundations of democracy
would disintegrate.

This concern of the Essentialists was primarily educational.
It was not, strictly speaking, a battle of opposing philosophi -

cal viewpoints. That is, Bagley was not opposed to Dewey

 

 

I III' ill I] l l I lull: '5'. I
I'll.
I." l l ll. 1'] II I

182

on metaphysical grounds, for instance. Rather the opposition
was one of educational interpretation and practice. The
Essentialist wanted the curriculum to remain subject -oriented
so that the child could acquire the elements of writing,
reading, computing and the social heritage. They did not

see the child as a self -directed, problem -solving entity.

The teacher' 3 role was to give direction and encouragement,
but likewise to teach subject matter.

The Essentialists were opposed to those teachers
who misinterpreted Dewey and permitted a completely
unstructured situation where no learning could take place.
They believed the individual was entitled to the elements of
the social heritage. Once these elements were given, a
foundation would be established in which the investigation of
other problems could be carried on following the individual' 8
inclinations.

It is interesting to note that the debate between the Essen-
tialists and Progressives at times reached ethereal heights
completely divorced from reality. The debate became
academic at times, with both sides discussing rather abstract
philosophical issues. A notable criticism may be lodged

against the type and quantity of evidence used.

 

l llllllllllllll‘.‘

183

The Essentialist relied heavily on the writings of
Bagley. Bagley, in citing the inroads of Progressivism,
used such evidence as the publicity given to the Progressive
school rather than the Essentialist school at Columbia
University. . He also made reference to the number of dif-
ferent curricula on file at Columbia. No mention was made,
however, as to the implementation of these curricula. A
further reference was made to the number of teachers
trained in summer programs in the Progressive way of
thinking. It was believed that this training (although the
content of the training was not mentioned) was fully imple -
mented by each teacher. Bagley also inferred that the lax
methods fostered by Progressive ideas were factors in con-
sidering the rising crime and divorce rates.

The Progressives, for their part, quickly asso-
ciated the Essentialist with all types of rigid and formal
systems of education. The Essentialists were viewed as
authoritarian schoolrnasters who favored the trivium and
quadrivium. Much of what was undesirable in classical

education was quickly associated with the Essentialists.

 

1The specifics of these allegations have been reviewed and
commented upon in Chapter III.

184

Little notice was taken of the fact that Bagley was in many
ways sympathetic to Progressive ideas, and, likewise,
quite moderate in his views and criticism. Kandel, also,
was in accord with some points of Progressive thinking.

It is the writer' 3 contention that both sides over-

 

stated their case. In many ways it was an issue that became

 

isolated on the intellectual level. Both sides debated it in
the scholarly journals, but neither conducted any systematic
investigation into the facts. No attempt was made to actually
assess the influence on American education made by either
position. No data, other than some tangential reports, were
ever compiled.

Therefore, it is reasonable to say that in terms of
its impact on day -to -day educational practices, Essentialism
could not be adequately assessed at the time of its formulation
in 1938. It was basically a point of view of what education
should be, not a direct implementation of a program of action.
Yet, both sides treated the debate as if there was a great
internal struggle taking place within American primary and
secondary education.

One writer, writing at the height of the debate,

attempted to place it in perspective. John A. Sexson states:

185

No sane, intelligent progressive advocated any neglect of the
"essentials" or the "fundamentals. " There was a lunatic fringe
of radicals who did so advocate, but the whole movement should
not be condemned because of the ballyhoo of its would -be friends
or the gross misrepresentation of a sensation -seeking press.

6. Reference is sometimes made to the fact that the Essen-
tialists oppose the teaching of the social sciences. The

Essentialist Platform commented on this problem. It stated .

 

that the findings of the social sciences were not as reliable
as those of the physical sciences. The social sciences have
made significant strides since the 1920's and 1930's. Yet
they should not be taught, even today, in isolation. And,
indeed, they are not: The social sciences have developed
their ownmethodologies and special areas of inquiry. Their
methods of research are becomingincreasingly sophisticated,
and the conclusions drawn are usually not generalized out of
the parameters of the problem.

Essentialism, in its contemporary form, ,realizes
this and-encourages the study of the‘social sciences. The
original Essentialist position was objecting to the fact that
the social sciences were often the exclusive areas of study,

often to the‘exclusion of the basic subjects. They were also

 

 

1John A. Sexson, "Editorial Comment," Phi Delta Kappan,
XX, No. 7 (March, 1938), 209. ‘

186

objecting to the weight given the conclusions in the social
sciences. They felt these "findings" were subject to many
errors and should not be implemented on a wide scale. The
Essentialists were concerned with the possibility of "social
engineering" leading to totalitarianism that could eventually
be possible through misinterpretation of social science data.
Likewise, one of their central concerns in this area was the
tolerance and support given to the social sciences by the
Progressive movement.

Whether it be a discussion of Essentialist thinking on the
teaching of the social sciences or of Essentialist ideas on
the social heritage, one crucial fact is overlooked. That

fact has to do with the level of education under-discussion.

 

Essentialist writing often does not make this distinction
clear, and so confusion arises about whether one is talking
of primary, secondary, or university schooling. In Essen-
tialist writings, the levels are often mixed. At one time

it is the primary level that is implied, at another the
secondary level. The critics of Essentialism often assume
that it is only the secondary level that Essentialism speaks

about.

187

It is this writer' 3 hypothesis that Essentialism
is not itself clear as to what level of education it is talking

about. The Essentialist Platform discusses the effects on

 

American education resulting from the "universal school, "
which, presumably, refers to the changes brought about in
secondary education. 1 Yet at other times reference is
definitely made to experiences in the primary school. It
has been assumed in this paper that Essentialist thinking

refers to both levels of education, stressing, however, that

 

when "essentials" are mentioned, this is in reference to
primary grade experiences as building a foundation for later
work in subject matter areas. The teaching of the lessons of
the "social heritage, " on the other hand, usually refers to
learning at the secondary level. This is using the term
"social heritage" in its more narrow sense as the teaching

of American history, government, and political institutions.

Recommendations

 

[It is often difficult in a descriptive study to advance mean-

ingful recommendations for the future. As in all historical research,

 

1In this paper, I am using "secondary" and "high school"
interchangeably. I am aware of the European use of secondary school.
In American educational writing both terms are used.

188

one approaches a given issue with the aim of examining the facts,
deliberating upon them, and, hopefully, bringing to light some
evidence that was not previously recognized. It is hoped that this
aim was at least partially achieved, especially in the critical exami -
nation of the primary documents of the Essentialist movement and
additional clarification in the Essentialist -Progressive debate.

The following recommendations will be summary statements
concerning the future of Essentialism and some additional directions
for future research.

1. It is hypothesized that educational movements are prone to
some type of cyclical pattern. Essentialism, for instance,
after thirty years is once again a dominant form of educa-
tional thought. Ideas are often profounded and then remain
dormant for some time. Their resurgence comes about by
some event of social, political, or economic importance.
For Essentialism, this event was the launching of Sputnik
and the subsequent reappraisal of American education.

This pattern may also be seen in such movements

as perennialism. Under Robert Hutchins there has been a

revival of the ideas inherent in ancient learning. It is

believed these bodies of knowledge contain certain age -old

truths that are unique to the human race and should, therefore,

189

be perpetuated through the school system. In a similar
vein, Progressive ideas, ideas mentioned by John Dewey
many decades previously, are being reinterpreted and sup-
plemented. Theodore Brameld, for instance, built his
philos0phy of reconstructionism on Progressive ideas.
More recent educational commentators, such as Paul Good-
man, Jerome Bruner, and Jean Piaget, are incorporating
the ideas of Progressive education in relation to the teaching
of small children. Some of these writers, in turn, draw on
the ideas of such early educationalists as Herbart, Froebel,
and Pestalozzi.

A crucial area of the history of education might be
research into the durability, reoccurrence, and transforma-
tion of key educational ideas. Hypotheses could be advanced
as to the cultural factors that influence certain educational
ideas or philosophies of education. For example, an inter-
esting cross -cultural perspective is the transformation of
the Russian educational system from 1920 to 1935. After
the Revolution of 1917, the Russians adopted almost whole -
sale Progressive education. However, a critical point was
reached where the chaos engendered by this system had to

be stopped. The transformation to the opposite side of the

190

continuum was effected. Traditional and authoritarian
methods of schooling, with a strong nationalistic flavor,
became the vogue.

A further interesting area of research, in relation to the
Essentialist movement, would be in trying to estimate the
gc_t_u_a_limplementation of Essentialist ideas from, say, 1932
to 1939. The problem would be to determine what schools
(if any) consciously adopted Essentialist ideas. Or, con-
versely, estimate the number of schools which completely
reorganized their curricula along Progressive lines.
Essentialism could be taught more fruitfully in philosophy
of education courses if it was approached from a cultural
point of View. This would be in line with Brameld' 3 analysis
where the historical and philosophical origins are given.
These origins are then looked at from the standpoint of
culture, i. e. , what were the cultural forces that gave rise
to this view of the world and learning.

It would also be of interest to know how the ideas of Essen-
tialism have influenced those men advocating varieties of
Essentialism today. That is, a survey could be taken to
see how many of these men were acquainted with the writ-

ings of the Essentialists, and how this has influenced their

 

lull III III {II
.II \ II All [1" ll .l

191

educational outlooks. This could be extended also to schools
and colleges of education. At the present, William Brick-

man, editor of School and Society, is probably the best known

 

advocate of the original Essentialist ideas.

It would also be of interest to know the degree of
dissemination there is at present of the original writings
of Bagley, Kandel, and the other members of the Committee.
These are some possible directions for future research

concerning the Essentialist movement.

Summary

 

The purpose of this chapter has been to substantiate the
claim that Essentialism is still a viable and dominant educational
position. Evidence supporting this hypothesis was given in the form
of opinions of prominent educators and the coming into existence of
several significant curricular reform bodies espousing Essentialist
ideas.

The last portion of the chapter was concerned with clarifying
some of the issues within Essentialism and directions for future

research.

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192

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"Michael John Demiashkevi ch and the Essentialist Com -
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. "The Essentialist Spirit in Education. " School and
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Dewey, John. "Individuality and Experience. " Journal of the
Barnes Foundation, II (January, 1926), 1-10.

 

 

. "The Need of a Philosophy of Education. " The New Era,
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202

Editorial Comment. "The Press Views Education." The School
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New York Times. "Progressive Study Held Best in Tests. "
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"Study Row Stirred by Essentialists. " March 2, 1938.

Quest -Hall, Alfred L. "Three Educational Theories: Traditionalism,
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Sexson, John A. "Editorial Comment. " The Phi Delta Kappan,
XX (March, 1938), 209-210.

 

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