“ A - l— Or to. ’ A .. - .' 3. H. >.:‘ \ '1‘»- _ _, .. .__ _ T“ .._ 1-- ’1 : ‘ " v5. — 1 1. . , J “*E‘Szm ' ‘-‘-"-"” ' - ".1 ... . , ~ “ e~ .. —~ fimw...‘ . -‘A J. -‘. :i“‘r"1‘i ' 1 ‘ W .- . ,7- - §—.._ -‘ - ‘ u— . .- .. . d... . - ‘ . . O .1. . ' "2:2,; 4“- ". - y y. .. ' '7'" ‘W—M W M m. 14(52): I'l'i. . I15“, 3? 1': I 2 fig 3%; - - I 2’. 1.— ‘=“ a 0D \.‘I Y I 93:“:- _::;: a“. . ' Q .. . «M , . v wm' ’1. ' ‘ . mm”. - , ‘ .' . _ -. . ... . . . . _ ' I. .3..." m 0.. . . ° 73. W “I .1 Jan”. ‘_'__ "—hz, .“T. . .‘4 , o..- ~¢4~ - mm... . o y... ‘41..-.— 111‘117911 IHHHWJIHMIU 11:11:, (11151.11, 3 I {113 :14 19 .11. I :41 5 “11’“ I: J‘m j“ ’1‘; I ’{I I“! i! “m! If“; {1:9 1111‘ 111;“! 251‘] 1! I. [III I}? 1%, £1131. ‘EFJW 1...»... ».m o. 0. nu :, *2. [-o a :r. ”3;:- -' - .. ’4’"? .O:IJ "mg—y .. .. , -aad'oc‘n on I.“ v _ . {7... ~ ' -n. w. , “‘"x‘ayé’ . - , -.-. _ m”.-. __ _ J" . .. _ .. «34;..2“ :21»? :3 . .- "' ‘ I“ —‘ "f7 .- ’l’n—po... ‘W .3 ”.1 4.. _N_: som‘ “A «to? a “ , '04-.” .- - N“ .1 " 4....“ ~ .-..~ ‘._ .1 ~—......._. «1'41 :4 . - .W~0‘< u .4. . N ' ‘ “3.3:. ~. g - «want-u ”v.5. _. “I... H. .l 74—... "‘ d- - a- .- “W 90' _. ~-' . ‘ o. ‘ 1:"; a: . u o . . 4a . fl. - V. . .,. «H .o . ’ “"_4A'-—. 0‘ .-.,. “;—rf~fio’o<¥.. 3.2.9.3.? 47...-.- :4 o.. J w.” . ..... . 0-”:(‘N a... 4' '3 - w J‘- w“.:o=.a. m. . g ..-.:__._ u . ,. ’ ~zn.-..w:"".:‘z:: "‘ ‘ . w—‘ o‘... w u " -‘ a... ,-.,. " _...: -2“ ”mg—.4 n“ ~— —..... 15 - «<- t”- «2:... I “113‘ I i 2W"? '. $1322": It 31 all: ’P‘H1 ”Ni!“ ‘31:; 1’3: n. 1;: r; Inzizi Pi :ig'hfd' :" ”Eh! “I . 415 “if“ 15“‘ I. £1,152 If]; [5 vi; 3-; . IMF-MW .5 ’13:“"113; ' II ‘ I . .I 1., . seam». 11!- ’ITJ'W‘“""7 ' l “= u‘ . --.'.I\‘~' I r, o ' ' n v . O ‘ «0'... I “J: «v a»... . - M. Maw-.1 m 333'. .- .4... m~ an.“ o.” ~ .8 a 1:1, ' v.4."- 1.331 . {It-f‘gg'équ“ pf, '1 £141 ’2 mi; “:1: '1‘??? HR? ' :If'o‘.‘ u'.‘ ‘ 1:" - ’ -- . .- . :.--':-: ._- ' ' '-. ' ;,1 'I - .gvggik'I}: ; r, :1 III: 1 ‘ . 291.333"; ‘ 3! £1125"; ' if 1:3‘.‘ . _ ' ' "z '3 - gIra‘Ifi‘fi-‘fi‘i § x. - ”‘ """ ignssiiégféifl I f‘ ' a :v '1' Ln‘: ' ' I ' ‘ . 11%.}; 113161411 ‘ :73“: WW" W15: 11 *2" , 11"“ SH1§1‘fi‘$'§ j; i 1:: [NM hi [If I) #:1113313 133.5“ 1115115111} 1 11111 H‘ I. ' i :51" I.-:‘. .‘Q‘ 4“ “Ray J: ‘- 1 ~63: : {LI-h ‘ 4; -"-' ."-. 33:. 3: 7‘ ' git: Jitiwgfiefihu ; “.‘l.“il"' .: u‘f'fi. . ,. 1-4: ‘. nix-7,“: 5.3:.-.” ‘ ”to 4 11w , .‘ MI“ Ii1 r “‘?‘:I' ‘~:“ *1“?! 1' I. 131 ' ' ' an: a . ' ‘22:? .o. -—u a -. . "O-VOC , “:y’rrz‘t... 4- a. n—qO-O-v' .. 4 \ ... c». .. ’ 07 §_-- .4 . 4 1. 0.1 4 ‘ - -4 " 4 ~ A or ... ,. _‘ t o .- .4."~" ‘ o .. ‘ ‘ 0 v 1 4.. J . ..o a n' ' ~—«o¢ . an. - o. x.'11-‘ I r F" 1': IHIIMH " 1’ 11} 11! .1?- "”711; -»~ -—v——.—... “gt. «7' " A. 7H,... v- mm'r M "’. v“ »v . _ 3" ‘ o 3"V ‘ m”. v—q' M c... ~43 “- -——-\_4—.~ 717:..- .Q‘% ‘w M _ ’::v:w _... don—Q- A“ anar- .- THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNSELOR RESPONSE TO MARRIED AND SINGLE BLACK FEMALE PARENTS IN TERMS OF ACCEPTANCE, EFFECTIVE PARENTING, AND THE NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELING presented by ERNEST MAURICE WADE has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PH.D. degreein COUNSELING, PER. SERV. 5 ED. PSY. (Legato ' / Major professor Date 3'21"” 0-7639 MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from LIBRARIES .A-qux-IIL. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 3': . 7". ‘9‘ "'3?” 5?“? 7‘ 3%: PT; A! ‘ '5: 1,, :3 i ._ A a "u Jeiufial’fifi‘az 3» ”I , 3"“ "IHSC? 3/" 7 ‘7 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNSELOR RESPONSE TO MARRIED AND SINGLE BLACK FEMALE PARENTS IN TERMS OF ACCEPTANCE, 'EFFECTIVE PARENTING, AND THE NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELINC BY Ernest Maurice Wade A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology 1978 Copyright by ERNEST MAURICE WADE March 23, 1978 ABSTRACT COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COUNSELOR RESPONSE TO MARRIED AND SINGLE BLACK FEMALE PARENTS IN TERMS OF ACCEPTANCE, EFFECTIVE PARENTING, AND THE NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELING BY Ernest Maurice Wade The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of family structure, black two-parent family, and black female-headed single-parent family on the perceptions of school counselors. The effects of family structure upon responses to audiotaped counseling simulations was examined. The issue of major concern in this study was whether counselors would respond differently to married black female parents than to single black female parents. The literature supports the proposition that negative views exist about black families. These views are particularly negative when referring to black female-headed single-parent families. This family group is viewed as being not only different but also deficit in nature. It is perceived by others, profes- sionals and the general community, as being pathological and incapable of producing effective children. The validity of this presumed different treatment Ernest Maurice Wade afforded black female single parents needed to be tested. It also needed to be tested in terms of school counselors' responses to this family group since increasing numbers of single parent family members were coming into contact with schools. In order to do this, four audio stimulus tapes, approximately 5-7 minutes in length, were developed. The tapes presented a black female parent discussing her situa- tion with a counselor. Two tapes were made of each situa- tion with the parents' marital status being manipulated; married in one instance, and single in the other, while the circumstances were kept constant. The sample consisted of 38 volunteer practicing school counselors as well as other individuals trained in counseling but who were functioning in other school capacities in the Milwaukee Public School System. The counselors were random- ly placed in two groups. Each group of counselors heard two audiotapes of approximately 5-7 minutes in length. The tapes, developed specifically for this study, involved a parent talking to a counselor. Each group of counselors heard one married black female parent and one black female single parent. Counselors in group I were told that the first parent was married and the second parent was a single parent. Counselors in Group II heard the same two parents; however, the marital status was manipulated and they were told that the first parent was single and the second parent was married. After hearing each tape the subjects were Ernest Maurice Wade asked to record their responses on the three evaluative in- struments. Measures of three independent variables were used in this study. The instruments used-~Acceptance, Effective Parenting, and Need for Further Counseling-~were developed. by the investigator for this study. The Acceptance and Effective Parenting Scales were instruments consisting of 15 statements each measuring counselor acceptance of the client and the counselor's assessment of the client's ability to engage in effective parenting respectively. In making their choices, the counselors utilized a Likert-type scale of 1-6 ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". The need for further counseling scale devised to determine the degree of assistance the helper believed the parent needed, if any, was a one choice scale. The options ranged from "no need" to "definite long term psychotherapy" on a seven-point Likert-type scale. It was hypothesized that counselors would assign higher acceptance scores to married black female parents than to single black female parents. A second hypothesis stated that the parenting skills of married black female parents are at a higher level than those of black female single parents. The third hypothesis predicted that the counselors would more frequently recommend black single parents for further counseling than they would recommend black married female parents. Ernest Maurice Wade A repeated measures analysis of variance techniques was used to analyze the data. The analysis of the data used to test the primary hypothesis yielded significant results at and beyond the .05 level of significance in all three. The counselors viewed the married black females as being signi- ficantly more acceptable as a person, significantly more effective as parents, and in need of significantly less addi- tional counseling than the black female single parents. Sub- sequent analysis of the data using age, sex, and years of counseling experience as independent variables reflected the repeated measures differences yielded in the analysis of the data supporting the primary hypothesis. The analysis of the data using counselor experience as the independent variable showed significant differences be- tween experienced and inexperienced counselors at the .05 level of significance on the acceptance measure and signifi- cant differences between the counselors' responses at the .001 level of significance on the need for further counsel- ing measure. Significant experience by repeated measure in- teraction effects at the .05 level were yielded on the effec- tive parenting measure. Interaction effects significant at the .001 level of significance were yielded on the need for further counseling measure. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many individuals contributed to the completing of this research effort. The writer wishes to recognize and express his appreciation to the following peeple: To Dr. Norman R. Stewart, committee chairman and major professor throughout my doctoral program, whose tire- less efforts on my behalf never ceased. His understanding, expertise and sense of humor served me well during the course of this study. To Dr. John Swietzer, committee member, for his valuable expertise in research design and statistics. To the participating school counselors of Milwaukee without whom this study would not have been possible. To Velma LaPoint, a special friend and colleague, goes a very special thank you for providing a constant stream of support, understanding and inspiration. It continues to sustain my efforts. To the "Angels" (Becky, Bridgette, Sandy) who demon- strated that a biological connection is not a prerequisite for the establishment of a father-daughter relationship based on a mutuality of respect and love. 11 To Karen and Michelle iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V LIST or FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION. Impact on Schools. Need for Study . Purpose. . . Thomas' Study. U1 ##MN I-' REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. Views of Black Families by Social Scientists . The Matriarchy . . Factors Influencing the Growth of Black Female Single Parent Families . . 11 Views of Black Female Single Parent Families . . . . . . . 12 Effects of Single Parent Status on Academic Achievement . . . . . . . . 12 Counselor Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Counselor Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 00'! SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES. . . . . . 24 Sample . . . . . . . . . . 26 Sample Selection Procedures. . . . . . . . 27 Construction of Stimulus Tapes . . . . . . 31 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 DEFINITION or TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 iv Chapter Page INSTRUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Acceptance Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Effective Parent Scale . . . . . . . 38 Need for Further Counseling Scale. . . . . 38 Reliability. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 39 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . 39 STATISTICAL DESIGN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O ACCEPTANCE SCALE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 EFFECTIVE PARENTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELING . . . . . . . . . 43 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Primary Hypothesis Test Results. . . . . . 47 Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Measure 1- -Acceptance. . . a . . . . . . 47 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . 48 Measure Z-Effective Parenting . . . . . 48 Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO Measure 3-Need for Further Counseling . 50 Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Measure 4-Acceptance - Age. . . . . . . 56 Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S7 Measure S-Effective Parenting - Age . . S7 Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S7 Measure 6-Need for Further Counseling . S7 Hypothesis 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Measure 7-Acceptance - Sex. . . . . . . 59 Hypothesis 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Measure 8-Bffective Parenting - Sex . . 60 Hypothesis 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Measure 9—Need for Further Counseling - Sex . . . . . . . . . . 62 Hypothesis 10.. . . . . . 62 Measure 10- -Acceptance - Counselor Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Hypothesis ll. . . . . . 6S Measure 11- Effective Parenting - Counselor Experience . . . . . . . . 6S Hypothesis 12. . . 68 Measure 12- Need for Further Counseling - Counseling Experience. . . . . . . . 68 V Chapter Page 4. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . 73 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Acceptance Scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Effective Parenting. . . . . . . . . . . 79 Need for Further Counseling. . . . . . . . . 81 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 83 Subject Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Dependent Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Limitations... . . . . . 89 Implications for Counseling Practice . . . . 91 Suggestions for Future Research. . . . . . . 93 CONCLUDING STATEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 APPENDICES Appendix A. INITIAL LETTER TO SUBJECTS. . . . . . . . . . . 97 B FOLLOW-UP LETTERS TO SUBJECTS . . . . . . . . . 98 C ACCEPTANCE SCALE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 D. EFFECTIVE PARENTING SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . 102 E NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELING SCALE . . . . . . . 105 F PERSONAL DATA FORM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 G SCRIPT OF TAPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 H. TEACHING 8 COUNSELING EXPERIENCE OF SUBJECTS. . 118 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 V1 Table 2. 10. ll. 12. LIST OF TABLES Employment Status of Subjects. Demographic Description of Subjects. Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Accep- tance Effective Parenting and Need for Further Counseling Measures for the Primary Groups of Counselors . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measures of Primary Counselor Groups. Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measures of Original Counselor Group . Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measures of Primary Counselor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Acceptance, Effective Parenting, and Need for Further Counseling Measures by the Sex of the Counselor. . . . Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Acceptance, Effective Parenting and Need for Further Counseling Measures by the Age of the Counselor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Acceptance, Effective Parenting and Need for Further Counseling Measures by Counselor Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measures by the Age of the Counselor. Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Age of the Counselor. Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Age of the Counselor. vii Page 30 30 46 48 49 51 53 54 SS 56 S8 59 Table Page 13. Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measure by the Sex of the Counselor . . . . . . 60 14. Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Sex of the Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 15. Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Sex of the Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 16. Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measure by the Experience of the Counselor. . . 64 17. Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Experience of the Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 18. Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Experience of the Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 19. Mean and Range Age, Teaching Experience and Counseling Experience of Counselors in the Primary Counselor Group . . . . . . . . . . 118 20. Mean and Range Age Teaching Experience and Counseling Experience of Counselors using Counselor Age as the Independent Variable . . . 119 21. Mean and Range Age Teaching Experience and Counseling Experience of Counselors Using the Sex of the Counselor as the Independent Variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 22. Mean and Range Teaching Experience and Counseling Experience of Counselors Using Counselor Experience as the Independent Variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Comparison of Mean Scores of Experienced and Inexperienced Counselors on Effective Parenting Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 2. Comparison of Mean Scores of Experienced and Inexperienced Counselors on Need for Further Counseling Measures . . . . . . . . . . 70 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE 'Introduction The number of female-headed single-parent families has increased dramatically during the last two decades. Black female single parents head an increasing number of these families. A black female single-parent family can be defined as a black female parent living alone with her chil- dren for one of the following reasons: (a) is single due to divorce, (b) has never been married, (c) is a widow, (d) is formally or informally separated, (e) is alone because the partner is absent from the home due to imprisonment or em- employment for unusually lengthy periods of time. Since 1955 female-headed single-parent families in— creased by 2.4 million families to 6.6 million in 1973 (U.S. Bureau of the Census). Black female single-parent families accounted for 1 million of 44% of this increase, raising their total to 1,822,000 black female-headed families in the 1973 U.S. Census. This total represents 27% of all single- parent families (U.S. Bureau of the Census). The percentage of female family heads 55 years of age and above decreased from 41% in 1960 to 32% in 1973. The 2 number of female family heads under 30 years of age in- creased from approximately 10% in 1960 to approximately 19% in 1973 (U.S. Bureau of the Census). An examination of these figures reveals that in 1973 49% of female family heads were between the ages of 30 and 54. It is within this age bracket that one is likely to find the largest concen- tration of families with school age children. In 1973 the number of black children under 18 years of age living only with their mother increased to 38%. This is the highest percentage ever recorded. The increase in the number of black female, single-parent families, as well as the increase in the number of children living in these family groups has had a tremendous impact on various institutions in, society. Staples (1974) speculates that by 1980 over 50% of all black families will be headed by black females. If time proves this speculation to be correct, then the impact on social, economic, and political institutions will be greatly increased. Impact on Schools One institution that will feel the impact of these families is the public school system. Due to the increase in single-parent families, schools are exposed to a greater number of these families than ever before. Zwack (1973) states that, because of the increasing number of children from single-parent families entering the public school, the stereotype of the nuclear family, as presented in most 3 children's literature and reinforced by classroom teachers, is becoming less relevant to the real life situation of many students. Need for Study Because of the prevailing negative societal atti- tudes, there have been discrepancies in the treatment afforded single-parent families as compared to two-parent families. The delivery of services to single-parent families from vari- ous institutions, including the public schools, has been lack- ing. The lack of supportive services, as well as the negative views of these family groups, is the result of their deviation from the two-parent societal norm. No empirical investigation exists on how school counselors might respond to family mem- bers in black female, single-parent families as opposed to two-parent families in the helping relationship. This study will concern itself with the black female, single-parent fam- ily unit, with the specific focus of counselor response to the black female as a single parent or married parent. As black female single-parent families increase in numbers, it is im- portant to examine school counselors' responses to them be- cause of the professional role in which the counselors inter- act with clients from these families. Empirical evidence is needed to determine if, and to what extent, counselor stereo- types influence their decisions in reference to single-parent family members. Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate whether family structure has any effect on how counselors view family members in the counseling relationships. Specifically, the study had a three-fold purpose. First, the study demonstrated that differing black client family structure effects the way in which counselors respond to selected married and single, female parents in terms of counselor acceptance. Second, it demonstrated that differing black client family structure effected the way in which counselors assess the client's effectiveness as a parent. The last purpose of the study was to demonstrate that differing black client family struc- ture effected the way in which counselors determine the client's need for further counseling. Thomas' Study The format for this investigation is based on a snmilar design used by Thomas (1967) in his study examining counselor responses to conforming and deviate vocational goals of female clients. Thomas used 62 male and female counselors as subjects and assessed their perceptions of female clients who purported to hold a traditionally masculine and feminine vocational goal in terms of acceptance, appro- priateness of vocational goal and need for further counseling. Each client was heard by one treatment group as holding a traditionally feminine vocational goal and by another treatment group as holding a traditionally masculine vocational goal. After hearing the tapes, the counselors performed four descriptive and evaluative tasks aimed at measuring counselor acceptance, appropriateness of the pur- ported vocational goal for the client, and the need for further counseling. The counselors also suggested two additional vocational goals which they felt the clients might consider. “ From his finding Thomas concluded that female coun- selors gave greater acceptance to all clients than did male counselors regardless of the purported vocational goal. Traditionally, feminine vocational goals were perceived as more appropriate than were traditionally masculine vocational goals. Significantly more masculine vocational goals were suggested for clients originally purported to hold masculine goals than for clients originally purported to hold femine goals. It was concluded that counselors were influenced by the cultural tradition when appraising vocational goals for female clients. This conclusion has a direct bearing on the theoretical foundation for this study. The notion that coun- selors are influenced by the cultural norm is a basis for this research. Review Of The Literature Views Of Black Families By Social Scientists Black families have historically been a source of great interest to social scientists and numerous other 6 researchers. (English, 1974; Jackson, 1974, 1973; Staples, 1974). This interest grew because of the view of some in- vestigators that black families were not only different, but deficit when compared with white families (Billingsley, 1968). This particular approach to studying black families has resulted in numerous controversial studies on various aspects surrounding black family life. On the one hand, black families are stereotyped as being a homogeneous group exhibiting a common disorganized way of life (Moynihan, 1965). However, there is an opposing view that depicts the black family as a very resilient, adaptive unit that has been able to survive in a society that has imposed tremendous pressures on it in the form of racism and discrimination (Billingsley, 1968; Hill, 1972; Staples, 1974). This familiar stereotype of black families hypothe- sizes that black women have inordinate power within black families. This power causes them to dominate their families, emasculate their husbands, and rear deviant children, parti- cularly the male children. This view, often called the matri- archal myth, is aimed at black women only and is applied to black families whether the husband is present or absent from the home. This myth, and its negative assumptions, takes on an even greater significance when one considers that Moynihan cited the increasing numbers of female single-parent families as one of the prime indicators of black family disorganiza- tion. 7 The Moynihan study came under intense criticism from many sources. (Billingsley, 1968; English, 1974, Hill, 1972; Jackson, 1972; Ladner, 1971, Mack, 1971; Pettigrew, 1974; Staples, 1971, 1974a, 1974b). Staples suggests that the study, with its incorrect analysis and faulty racist assump- tions, was deliberately released by the government at a time when black people were beginning to indict institutional racism and served to place blacks on the defensive by divert- ing their energies from this task to responding to Moynihan's charges. The study implies that black men are emasculated and passive in their homes. However, no empirical evidence exists showing that black men who leave their wives do so be- cause they were unable to play a dominant role (Ten-Houten, 1970). Browning and Toby (1967), in reviewing the study, state that there is no justification for describing black families as pathological on the grounds that there is no husband present in the home. Family units in which the hus- band is present may be unhappy and disorganized and family units in which the husband is absent may be happy and well- organized. One of the unfortunate consequences of the Moynihan study is that it served to stimulate similar analysis by other white students of the black family. Elikowitz, and Schoflander (1969) go considerably beyond the Moynihan picture of dis- integrating black family life by asserting, without quali- fication, that love, warmth, hygiene, education, and family stability are absent for most Negroes. They add that "booze, gambling, drugs, and prostitution are the inevitable result of the absence of a stable family institution". In referring to the "Negro ghetto non-family," they state: It is our own belief that there are practically no plusses in Negro ghetto culture. We see nothing but bitterness and despair, hopeless- ness, rootlessness, and all of the symptoms of social disintegration in the poor speech, poor hygiene, poor education, and the lack of security resulting from a non-family back- ground in which the stabilizing paternal factor is absent and where there is no stable insti- tution to substitute for the family. This view of black families, which perpetuates Moynihan's incorrect analysis, has been thoroughly discredited by more careful social analysis (Billingsley, 1969; English, 1974; Herzog, 1967; Hill, 1972; Staples, 1974a, 1974b). The basic weakness in the Moynihan study and similar analysis of black families is the one-sided presentation of the consequences of segregation and discrimination. The chief fault in Moynihan's analysis of family functioning in the black community lies in his reversal of the cause-and- effect relationship between the black family and society, and in ignoring the forces of institutionalized racism. Analysis of this kind, made from the narrow perspective of white liberal conformity, ignores the variety and complexity of black families while concentrating on their negative features. Moreover, the existence of a black subculture and the strengths of the black community and the black 9 family that have enabled black pepple to survive in a hostile environment for more than three hundred years is ignored. Billingsley (1968) states that the black family unit should not be viewed as a tangle of pathology but.as a viable, re- silient mechanism that has shown a remarkable ability to take the barest shred of Opportunity and turn it into a special capital of stability and achievement. The Matriarchy Black female family heads, burdened by the matriarchal myth, have been charged with rearing children who are incap- able of successful school achievement and subsequent vocation- al development. This parental incapability is viewed as pro- ducing negative effects on the healthy emotional and person- ality deve10pment of their children (Staples, 1974; Jackson, 1973). Long the dominant view in social science literature, this matriarchal concept has come under sharp scrutiny and strong challenge by a number of investigators (Jackson, 1972; Ladner, 1971; Mack, 1971; Rosenfield, G Rosenstein, 1973; Staples, 1971, 1974a, 1974b). Ten-Houten (1970) in respond- ing to this myth points out: The notion of the black female as matriarchial is a popular stereotype used to simplistically explain a variety of psychological and social phenomena from purported male emasculation to unequality of opportunity. However, the weight of existing evidence suggests that this stereotype of social psychological patterns of matriarchy and pathology peculiar to the black family is far from empirical fact. 10 A number of writers point to the fact that black female, single-parent families receive more criticism than white single-parent families (Ladner, 1974; Jackson, 1972; Staples, 1971; Billingsley, 1968). In responding to the charge that being reared in a single-parent family is a threat to the black male child's masculinity, Staples (1971) states that seldom is there a home where adult males are completely absent. Friends or relatives, even if they do not share a central family role, can provide models. The child can use them as a source of identification of masculine behavior. Men are not the only ones who can teach boys about masculinity. Sex roles can be learned by internalizing the culturally determined expecta- tions of these roles. Through the cultures' highly developed system of rewards for typical male behavior and punishment for signs of feminity, the black male child learns to identify with the culturally defined stereotype role of the male. Stereotypic views of black families, such as the matriarchal myth, have survived over the years and continue to be used to describe these families. This myth has been perpetuated by the failure of many writers to distinguish between the terms "strong" and "dominant". While black women have needed to be strong in order for black families to survive, they have not necessarily been dominant (Ladner, 1971). Unfortunately, examinations and analyses of black families by well-educated, well-meaning investigators are ll often based more on their own perspectives and prejudices than on the realities and complexities of life in the black community. The continuation of the white middle class out- sider perspective, born out of a combination of ignorance and arrogance, only obscures the realities of black families (Billingsley, 1968). Factors InfluencingThe Growth of Black Female Single Parent Families In 1973 black females headed 35 per cent of all black families (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1975). There are several reasons for the rise in the number of black female single- parent families. As is the case in the larger population, the increase in the rate of divorce and separation has had a i strong influence on the growth of black female single-parent families (Staples, 1974a). The more accepting attitude by some segments of the population to the idea of women bearing children outside of a legal marriage has facilitated an increase in the number of black women making this decision. On the very practical level, an important contributing fac- tor to the high number of black female single-parent fami- lies is the high black female-to-male ratio. The number of unmarried black females greatly exceeds the number of un- married black males. (Jackson, 1974; Staples, 1974). The high number of black male casualties in the Vietnam war along with the disproportionate number of black males in- carcerated in the nation's prisons contribute to the lack of available black males. 12 If Staples' (1974) prediction that by 1980 the majority of black families will be headed by a woman becomes a reality, then an accompanying change in society's attitudes towards single-parent families in general and black female single- parent families, in particular, is imperative. Views Of Black Female Single Parent Families Black female single-parent families are perceived and reacted to against a background of beliefs and assump- tions about prevailing family norms (Herzog & Sudia, 1973; Billingsley, 1968). The accepted norm is the monogamous two-parent, father-headed family. Any radical departure from this norm carries penalties, the majority of which are the result of this deviation. One of the penalties can be seen inthe prevailing notion in societyyto view the single- parent family as inherently pathological when comparing it to the two-parent family (Jackson, 1974; Schlessinger, 1971). A consequence of this view is the absence of mention of single-parent families in textbooks, college courses on family life-education,and in the formation of research questions about family life (Staples, 1974; Herzog & Sudia, 1973). Effects Of Single Parent Status On Academic Achievement A primary question raised in reference to single- parent families concerns the effect of this family structure upon the academic achievement of children. Our culture rewards the highly motivated individual who proves to be 13 capable in challenging situations. When individuals fail to achieve academically, society looks to pinpoint reasons for this failure. Single-parent family status, with its deviation from the two-parent family norm, has in many cases been blamed for any lack of academic achievement by its members. Developmentally, achievement-oriented behaviors can be traced to the development of a healthy mother-child relationship (e.g.,Bell, 1968; McCelland, 1961). The degree of attachment between the parents and their children acquaint the child with achievement-oriented situations when he/she begins school and work-world experiences. Frazier (1950) states that the school is the most important institution in the community that the child will interact with: "...in providing the knowledge and skills the public school operates on the assumption that it is possible to establish a certain routine and discipline among students...(which) ...is determined by the cultural background of the students." (p.275) The family serves as the first and most important institution that fosters discipline in its members. This discipline creates an atmosphere of learning that enables school officials (i.e. teachers and counselors) to better develop the child's interests and skills. Rao (1970) has suggested that a definition of achieve- ment must incorporate a comparative aspect. The child must be compared by some valid baseline. Achievement operates as 14 the motivation, interests, attitudes, and abilities of the student that affect the ways in which that achievement is attained. Skills that a child is proficient and interested in would seem to facilitate his academic achievement-oriented events. The question arises as to what aspects of the child's background seem most influential in fostering his academic achievement. Rockwell (1972) suggests that nine variables seem to affect the child's academic performance: 1. Marital status of parents 2. Education of mother 3. Education of father 4. Teacher predictions 5. Sex of child 6. Race of child 7. Intelligence 8. Degree of cultural handicap 9. Reading readiness. Several studies suggest that family relationships affect the child's academic achievement (Drew & Teahan, 1957; Kent & Davis, 1957; Rosen & D'Andrade, 1959). May (1970) suggests that poor family relationships affect the academic performance of the children. May categorizes families as Group I (inadequately performing children's families) and Group II (adequately performing) on the basis of interpersonal 15 interviews with various members of each family. Group II families tend to be more supportive of each other in decision- making situations than Group I families. Group I families seem to have more conflict and distant relations than Group II families. May concludes that academic achievement is best examined through inter-familial interactions. “ Kakkar (1970) found a decrease in the child's I.Q. and scholastic achievement (i.e., grades) with increased parental conflict and differences in attitude. Certain trends in the literature suggest that more conflict and tension exists in the parent-absent than in a parent-present situation. Studies that examine the effects of parental absence on the child's subsequent academic performance have been inconsistent in their conclusions as to the debilitating effects of the absence. For example, Mackie, Maxwell, and Rafferty (1967) found children from father-present homes had higher I.Q.‘s than children from father-absent homes. Mackie et a1. (1967) concluded that father-presence has a greater effect than the economic status of the family on the child's development. Kriesberg (1969) found husbandless mothers were more concerned about their children's academic performance. Landy et a1. (1969) found that father-absence (defined as a father who worked the night shift) seemed to affect the achievement scores of girls more so than that of boys. 16 It seems that a significant number of studies in this area focus on the effects of "broken homes" on the child's later behaviors or performance, such as College Entrance Examination Scores (e.g., Carlsmith, 1962; Rosen- berg, Landy, 8 Stutton-Smith, 1969). Rosenberg, Landy, and Sutton—Smith (1969) suggest the ACE College Entrance scores indicated that father-absent children had lower scores than the father-present children. This longitudinal study found no significant results for the length of separation, but the age at which the father left was found to be a significant factor, with younger (three to five years) children being more affected. . Carlsmith (1962) found that father-absent boys have different aptitude scores on the College Boards than father- present boys. The relevant literature seems to suggest that females are superior to males in verbal areas, whereas males tend to be superior to females in quantitative areas. Carl- smith's sample consisted of Harvard students from broken homes. The importance of this study suggests that the degree by absence (Rosenfeld G Rosenstein, 1973) may directly in- fluence approach to problem solving, but may not be reflected in any particular test. Several studies suggest that school achievement scores are much more closely related to race and income than to family status, especially in low income groups (Tabler et al., 1966; Coleman, 1966). Tabler, Hixon and Collins (1966) re-analyzed the Coleman (1966) data and found no 17 significant relation between children from father-absent homes and those from father-present homes when controlling for racial differences. Coleman (1966) suggests that the critical element is not the father's absence itself, but rather a complex interaction between inter- and intra- familial settings, economic, and community factors. There- fore, it seems unlikely that father's absence alone would result in poorer school adjustment if relevant variables (including types of fatherlessness and SES) were adequately controlled. In a related study, Siegmann (1966) examined father- absence effects for first-year law students on self-report measures of anti-social behaviors such as parental disobed- ience and property destruction. Vroegh (1973) and several other studies suggest that parental variables, such as father-absence and the lack of the father's participation in childrearing activities, seem to result in lower academic achievement in boys and girls (e.g., Anastasiow, 1965; Blanchard & Biller, 1971; Deutsch & Brown, 1964; Hetherington & Deur, 1971; Shaw & White, 1965). Vroegh (1973) concludes that in father-absent situations where the mother has more resources (i.e., higher income) she offers more opportunities to find a father "surrogate" for the child. In general, the effects of father-absence on the child's academic achievement must be examined more critically and with multiple measures to insure the reliability of the 18 relationship. As mentioned earlier, the crux of these effects cannot be examined without a thorough assessment of the general family climate. The absence of a father from the home is not in and of itself an indicator of low school achievement. Counselor Role , - The role of the school counselor has emerged gradually over a period of years prior to the development of a strong professional organization and its definition of the appro- priate counselor role (Wrenn 1957). A consequence of this situation has been that school counselors have accepted and perhaps even enjoyed duties that professional counselors would not accept. Tasks ranging from lunchroom monitor to disciplinarian to highly-skilled helper have fallen on the shoulders of the school counselor. This wide variance in the role a counselor must play is a reflection of the lack of counselor input into counselor role definition (Ohlsen, 1974.) In many settings counselors, often those lacking professional preparation, perceive the counselor as a special teacher with no real need for affiliation with professional counselors (Ohlsen, 1974). Professional counselors disagree, contending that although school counselors are educators, they perform specialized services that require knowledge and skills different from that of even a very good teacher (Ohlsen, 1974). For job satisfaction as well as for counseling effec- tiveness, counselors must be able to define and implement their own professional role (Hansen, 1968; Mendelson, 1967; and Ohlsen, 1967a). 19 Central to most tasks that counselors are called up- on to perform is the idea of providing services beneficial to the welfare of the student (Fullmer 8 Bernard, 1972). The counselor seeks to understand student concerns, to achieve better understanding of student differences and problems, and to encourage and maintain optimal conditions for pupil growth and development (Ohlsen, 1974). While most counselors are committed to the ideal of promoting these optimal conditions for student growth; they are often hindered by a lack of time to involve themselves in activities they deem most important. Tennyson (1958) found discrepancies between the percentage of time school counselors felt they should be spending on crucial activities. While in various settings counselors become in- volved in varied duties, there is general‘agreement that in most schools the counselors' primary functions should be counseling and consulting with students, and consulting with teachers, parents, and others in the community (Fullmer 8 Bernard, 1972). Consulting is a natural role for profession- al counselors because of their skills in facilitating commun- ication and their understanding of the dynamics of interper- sonal relations (Fullmer 6 Bernard, 1972). Counselor Bias Most counselor training programs adhere to the theo- retical concept of the equality and dignity of each individual (Shertzer 6 Stone, 1968). The client's race, religion, or sex should not influence, either positively or negatively, the 20 counselor's behaviors. However, on a practical level this concept is often threatened. Counselors, as members of the larger society, are influenced by the beliefs and stereo- types about individuals or groups existing in the larger society. The counselor is available to serve the best inter- ests of the client. However, counselor bias can prevent this from occurring. Counselor bias is defined as an opinion, either favorable or unfavorable, which is formed without ade- quate reasons and is based upon what the bias holder assumes to be appropriate for the individual or group in question (Schlossberg & Pietrofesa, 1973). In psychological research, classroom teaching, and counseling, evidence exists to suggest that the preconceptions of the helper may influence his/her behavior and increase the probability that the outcome will be in line with his/her expectations. Rosenthal (1968) demonstrated this to be true in his expectancy research with classroom teachers. Research has found that counselors reflect a sexist and racist bias in their counseling (Oliver, 1975). Pietrofesa and Schloss- berg (1970) found that both men and women practicum students showed negative bias toward a female client who was consider- ing a non-traditional occupational field. Thomas and Stewart (1971) found similar results in a study utilizing secondary school counselors. In both studies female counselors exhibited as much bias towards other females as did their male counter- parts. 21 Broverman (1972) studied whether or not clinical judgments about the characteristics of healthy individuals would differ as a function of the sex of the person judged and whether these differences in clinical judgments would cause sex role stereotyping. The results indicated that clinicians considered traits characterizing healthy adults as being more typical of men than of women, with female clinicians showing as much bias as men. Garfield, Pollack, and Weiss (1973) in their research demonstrated that counse- lors' preconceptions about their clients can influence their decisions. Utilizing female counselors, the investigators provided the two groups of counselors with identical descrip- tions of a hypothetical case involving a student presenting behavior problems. One group of counselors was told that the student was from a family in the high socio-economdc group while the other group was told that the student was from a family in the low socio-economic group. The counselors were asked to rate the severity of the problem, give a diagnosis, and to make management recommendations to the teacher and parents. Results indicated that social class is a significant factor in influencing expectations and behavior of those in the helping profession. A number of writers have expressed their concern about counselor bias towards black clients (Bell, 1971; Gunnings, 1971; Kirkland & Williams, 1971; Mitchell, 1971). Gunnings (1971) places the responsibility for counselor bias, when dealing with black clients, upon counselor training programs which fail to address themselves to the 22 real needs of counselors who will eventually work with black populations. Bell (1971) feels that the counselor,black or white,is likely to function as a culturally deprived person with black clients if he has come through a traditional coun- selor training prOgram. The problem of counselor bias towards black clients is not limited to white counselors, Bell (1971) states: Some white psychologists, although in a quandary with regard to how to equip themselves to work with blacks, learn to recognize the enormous gulf between themselves and their black clients. The black psychologist, with similar training ex- periences frequently deludes himself into think- ing that he can automatically make the transition from academic studies to working in the black community. Often not realizing the extent of his own cultural deprivation concerning his formerly familiar community, the freshly trained black psychologist naively goes about making the same errors with black clients as do his white colleagues. Black clients have expressed the view that counselors are biased in their attitudes and subsequent behaviors with black people (Gunnings, 1971; Gunnings & Simpkins, 1972; Russell, 1970; Williams, 1970). Black counselors, in particular, must examine their counseling behavior in relation to black clients in schools and/or clinical settings. With the increasing number of black female single-parent family members coming in contact with schools, and with the continuing growth in the number of these families, there is a definite need to assess counselor bias in relation to this particular group. 23 Summary This study is based on the specific need to assess counselor bias when dealing with black female single-parent families. Are counselors' decisions about black female single-parent families influenced by preconceived expecta-. tions held by the counselors? Does the "self-fullfilling prophecy" phenomenon play a part in counselor decisions when dealing with these families? The literature reviewed supports the notion that negative views exist about black families in general and black single-parent families, in particular. The review demonstrates that racial’and sex bias exists among counselors. The study is designed to test whether or not counselor bias exists in reference to black female single- parent families. The investigation is aimed at answering questions regarding whether or not the family structure, single- parent as opposed to two-parent, influenced counselor responses to these families in terms of counselor accep- tance, counselor assessment of the client's ability to engage in effective parenting, and the counselor's decision about the need for further counseling for the client. CHAPTER 2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES The experimental design is based on the major hypothe- sis that black school counselors will perceive black female single-parents differently from black female spouses from two-parent families in terms of acceptance, effectiveness as parents, and the need for further counseling. The counselors will perceive the black female single-parent as being less acceptable, less effective as a parent, and in need of more counseling than married black female parents. To test this hypothesis, the following design was used. The basic outline of the design will be presented initially, followed by a more detailed discussion of each section. 1. Four stimulus tapes were developed using doc- toral candidates roleplaying black female single and married parents. The investigator developed a basic script to serve as a guide in the making of the stimulus tapes. Several sessions were held with the role players rehearsing the scripts so that they might better integrate and adOpt the developed roles. 24 25 Practicing counselors in the inner city area of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, as well as those individuals trained in counseling but who were functioning in other school capacities in the Milwaukee school system, were used as subjects. The total number of 38 volunteer subjects were randomly assigned to two groups. Each group of subjects heard two tapes of approximately 5-7 minutes in length each. The tapes involved a black female parent discussing family difficulties she was experiencing. Each tape was preceded by a taped introduction of the client providing the listener with basic demographic information about the client. Each counselor heard two clients: a black female single parent and a married black female parent. The first group of subjects heard client "A: as a single parent and client "B" as a married parent. The second group then heard client "B" as a single parent and client "A" as a married parent. Following the playing of each taped vignette, the counselor performed three evaluative tasks: (a) Using a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from (1) "strongly disagree" to (6) "strongly 26 agree" the counselor assessed the degree to which he/she felt accepting of the parent. (b) Utilizing the same Likert-type scale, the counselor assessed the parent's effectiveness as a parent. (c) Utilizing a seven-point scale with a list of options ranging from "no need" to "definite long-term psychotherapy", the counselor selected the option he/she felt was best suited to the needs of the client. 5. Upon completion of all tapes and evaluation tasks, the counselors completed a task aimed at providing ancillary data. The purpose of col- lecting this data was to determine if there was any connection between the counselors' percep- tions of single and married female parents and the counselors' everyday interaction with chil- dren. Sample Black counselors from the Milwaukee Public School System, as well as those individuals trained in counseling but who were functioning in another school capacity, were used as subjects. The population consisted of all individuals 27 in the school system meeting these criteria. Each of these individuals was asked to participate, and a total of 38 volunteer subjects was obtained. This group was selected for several reasons. First, all met the certification requirements for counselors in the state of Wisconsin. This assured a minimum level pf training and eliminated individuals holding the title of counselor without training. Those individuals who were not currently functioning as counselors were eligible for certification as a Milwaukee public school counselor by virtue of their previous teaching experience and their completion of coun- selor training programs. Second, a wide range of experience was represented in the group making it possible to compare inexperienced and experienced counselors.. Lastly, the sub- jects were black and the clients portrayed in the role play situations were black, thus enabling the investigator to draw some conclusions about the assessment of black parents by black counselors. A thorough delineation of sample selection proce- dures and subject assignment follows in order to permit readers to judge how this population compares with populations to which they might wish to generalize (Cornfield and Tukey, 1956). Sample Selection Procedures_ Volunteers who participated in this research study, were obtained in a number of ways. Initially, the investi- gator contacted the chairman of the Counselor Education area 28 of the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee for information regarding graduates of the counselor training who were working in the Milwaukee area. The department was able to provide the investigator with the names of all graduates within the last ten years. A roster of counselors working in the school system was obtained from the school systems central administration office. With the assistance of a group of school counselors with whom the investigator is acquainted, a complete list of names of the black counselors in the system as well as the names of individuals trained in counseling but were functioning in another school capacity. A letter requesting participation in the study was sent to all potential participants (see Appendix A). The counselors were asked to return a form upon which they had indicated whether or not they would be able to participate. In all efforts to secure subjects, the study was called a research project focusing on the perceptions of black coun- selors. The only criteria for participation was that volun- teers be black and a certified counselor in a Milwaukee public school or be eligible for certification as a Mil- waukee public school counselor. Furthermore, the volunteers were informed of the approximate length of time required to complete the project. Thus, all subjects knew the general format of the study and the approximate time commitments necessary for the participation prior to their involvement in the experiment. 29 The initial letter elicited 28 volunteers for parti- cipation in the project. Several letters were returned be- cause the individuals had moved. Follow'up letters were sent to individuals who had not responded (Appendix B). Three counselors, working in the Milwaukee school system agreed to try and contact those individuals who had not res- ponded or who had not received initial letters because of address changes. At no time did these three counselors re- ceive any additional information about the project other than the need to involve certified counselors. Their efforts resulted in an additional 18 volunteers, bringing the total number of volunteers agreeing to participate to 46. However, 8 volunteers who had agreed to participate in the project did not show up when the study was carried out. A total of 38 counselors volunteered and participated as subjects. Twenty-nine of the subjects were functioning as counselors in the schools. Four subjects were functioning in school administration capacities and 5 subjects were teach- ing, while waiting for counseling assignments. All of the subjects had completed counselor training programs and were certified as counselors. Demographic information describing the participants is provided in Tables 1 and 2. 30 Table 1 Employment Status of Subjects Female . Male Counselors 22 - 57.9% 7 - 18.4% Administrators 2 - 5.3% 2 - 5.3% Teachers 5 - 13.2% 0 - 0.0% Table 2 Demographic Description of Subjects Female Counselors Male Married 27 . 6 Single 2 3 Mean-Age 34.7 53.3 Range-Age 24-48 27-43 Mean-Years Counseling Experience 2.9 3.8 Range Counseling-Experience 1-12 1-10 Mean-Years Teaching Experience 9.6 8.3 Range Teaching Experience 3-23 2-16 Bachelors 2 0 Masters (No credit beyond) 24 9 Both.women holding bachelor's degrees were fulltime counselors with temporary certification and were due to complete their requirements for the master's degree within weeks. 31 Construction of Stimulus Tapes In the development of the stimulus tapes, an intense attempt was made to obtain as much uniformity as was possible. The problems selected were problems that would occur with equal frequency in either a single-parent or two-parent . family». Care was taken not to select a problem that was unique to either family group. The investigator developed tapes of roleplayed counselor-client interactions. Rather than try and develop tapes using actual counselor-client situations, graduate students were selected who could play the client roles well and doctoral candidates played the role of counselor. The brevity of the tapes, approximately 5-7 minutes, was not conducive to the use of an actual client.. A prime concern in their development was finding a means of giving them enough power so that they might have the maximum impact on the counselors. This was accomplished by: (a) placing information about the parent, including her marital status, at the head of the top sheet of each of the three evaluative tasks, (b) including in the tapes several instances in which the parent mentions the fact that she is either "raising her child or children alone," or that she has "discussed her difficulties with her husband" and (c) having the counselor refer to the parents' marital status with questions such as "Have you discussed this with your husband?" or "Do you feel this is so because you are raising your child alone?" At no time in the tapes did the parents' mention any request for additional counseling. 32 Several tapes were made, and initially the best six were selected to be presented to two doctoral candidates and a professor of counseling who served as raters. Their func- tion was to evaluate how well the tapes met the expressed purpose for their use. Consideration was given as to whether or not the tapes were powerful enough to stimulate any feel- ings they may have had about the family groups. Two crucial considerations were whether or not the tapes provided the listener with enough basic information about the parent, and whether or not the tapes were similar enough in terms of the parents' presenting their situation. As a result of the evaluation, two tapes meeting the criteria established were selected. Additional tapes were made and evaluated and subsequently the final two tapes were selected making a total of four tapes. The purpose of the screening of the tapes by the raters was to screen out any factors which might bias the listener reaction to them and subsequently bias the evaluative tasks to be carried out by the counselor. The final step in constructing the tapes was to record an introduction for each parent providing basic information. For example: "The case of Brenda. She is single and the mother of two children." Hypotheses The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of family structure on counselor perceptions of selected black female single and married parents. Three 33 questions of general interest were addressed in this study with relations to the perceptions of school counselors. They were: (a) Are black female single parents less acceptable, as clients, to the counselor than black female spouses from two-parent families? (b) Are counselors' perceptions of the parenting skills of black female parents from two-parent families different from their perceptions of the parenting skills of black female single parents? (c) Will counselors more frequently recommend black female single parents for additional counseling than they will female spouses from two- parent families? From the research questions for this study, the fol- lowing hypotheses were formulated. Principal Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Counselors will assign higher acceptance scores to married black female parents than to black female single parents. Hypothesis 2: Counselors will assess the parenting skills of married black female parents as being at a higher level than those of black female single parents. Hypothesis 3: Counselors will morefrequently recommend black female single parents for further counseling than they will married black female parents. 34 Supplemental Hypotheses Hypothesis 4: .There are no significant differences between younger and older counselors' level of acceptance of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 5: There are no significant differences between younger and older counselors' assessments of the parenting skills of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 6: There.are no significant differences between younger and older counselors' frequency of recom- mendations for further counseling for black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 7: There are no significant differences between male and female counselors' level of acceptance of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 8: There are no significant differences between male and female counselors' assessments of the parent- ing skills of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 9: There are no significant differences between male and female counselors' frequency of recommenda- tions for further counseling for black married and single female parents. 35 Hypothesis 10: There are no significant differences between inexperienced and experienced counselors' level of acceptance of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis ll: There are no significant differences between in- experienced and experienced counselors' assess- ments of the parenting skills of black married and single female parents. Hypothesis 12: There are no significant differences between inexperienced and experienced counselors' fre- quency of recommendations for further counseling for black married and single female parents. Definition of Terms The following key terms are used repeatedly through- out the study. In order to provide a common basis for under- standing, they are defined as follows: 1. Black female single-parent family - a black female parent who is single and alone with her children due to divorce, never having been married, widowhood, formal or informal separation or whose partner is absent from the home due to employment or imprisonment for unusually long period of time. 2. Two-parent Family - a family with a mother and father in the home with one or more of their own children. 36 3. CounSelor — an individual in the Milwaukee Public School system who is either a certified practicing counselor, or an individual trained in counseling but not practicing who is eligible for certification, in the Mil- waukee School System. 4. Counselor Acceptance - the possession of respect and positive warm regard for the client on an unconditional basis; a liking and willingness to counsel this person. 5.‘ Need for Further COunseling - a resolution by the counselor that the client requires additional counselor contact aimed at resolving the presented problem. 6. EffeCtive Parenting - the ability to nurture, to provide direction, and to make responsible decisions to the benefit of the family. 37 'InStrumentation Three paper-and-pencil instruments were developed by the investigator to measure: (a) the counselor's acceptance of the parent, (b) the counselor's assessment of the client's effectiveness as a parent, and (c) the counselor's determina- tion of the parent's need for further counseling. Acceptance Scale This scale (Appendix C) was developed to measure how accepting the counselors were of the parent. Acceptance for the purpose of this investigation is defined as the posses- sion of respect and positive warm regard for the client on an unconditional basis; a liking and willingness to counsel. The scale was developed to measure all dimensions of this defini- tion. An original pool of 30 items was initially developed. The items were given to several doctoral candidates in coun- selor education with experience in measurement. The items were rated on how well they measured the various aspects of acceptance. Three neutral items were included on the scale so the instrument actually had a total of 15 statements. However, the neutral items were not scored. For scoring pur- poses there were 12 statements measuring the counselor's acceptance or lack of acceptance of the parent. In making their choices, the counselors utilized a Likert-type scale of 1-6 ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". 38 EffectiVe Parent Scale The effective parenting scale was deve10ped to meas- ure the counselor's assessment of the client's effectiveness as a parent (Appendix D). Effective parenting, for the pur- poses of this investigation, is defined as the ability to nurture, to provide direction, and to make responsible de- cisions for the benefit of the family. This definition served as the criteria governing the development of the items for the scale. ~ An original pool of 30 items was given to several doctoral candidates in counselor education with experience in measurement. The items were evaluated on how well they meas- ured the various aspects of effective parenting. Only the 12 most discriminating items were kept. Three neutral items were added to the instrument but were not scored. This 15-item instrument was designed to measure the counselor's assessment of the client's effectiveness as a parent. In making their choices the counselors utilized a Likert-type scale of 1-6 ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Need For Further Counseling Scale The need for further counseling scale was devised to determine the degree of assistance the helper believed the parent needed, if any (see Appendix E). The options ranged from, "no need" to "definite long-term psychotherapy". The counselors, based on the information they received, selected 39 the degree of assistance they felt was most appropriate, con- sidering the needs of the parents, on a seven-point scale that ranged from "no need" to "definite long-term psychothera- py" . ‘ Reliability Item reliability coefficients for the three paper-and- pencil instruments used in the investigation were r = .85 for the acceptance scale married, r = .89 for the effective parenting scale married, r = .83 for the acceptance scale single, and r = .91 for the effective parenting scale single. The item reliability computed was the agreement among items across individuals. Reliability coefficients were not com- puted for the need for further counseling.scale since it was a single-item scale. Experimental Procedures Two experienced high school teachers assisted in the collection of the data with each being assigned to one group. A training session was conducted in which they were instructed in the handling of the taped materials and the evaluative materials. Each assistant had the Opportunity to review care- fully each of the five evaluative tasks and to understand com- pletely how responses were to be made. Neither the purpose of the research nor the research design was explained to them. All necessary instructions were contained on the tapes, so the assistants' primary responsibility was to distribute 40 materials and to operate the tape recorders. The investi- gator was not directly involved with the_groups, but was available so that the assistants could bring unusual ques- tions to him. Each counselor received a manila folder with two complete sets of the evaluative tasks, each marked for a specific task, and arranged in the order in which the client would be heard. Each set was put together in the following order: one acceptance task, one effective parenting task, and one need for further counseling task. During the actual experimental session a brief intro- duction of the project and a description of each task was played first. Following the playing of the introductory tape, the counselors were given time in which to look over the materials and to ask questions. Following this, the experimental tapes were played with the tape recorder stopped after each tape so the counselors could complete the three evaluative tasks. The final task for the counselors was the completion of a personal data form. At the end of the session, all materials were replaced in the manila folder and returned to the assistant. No major problems were encountered during the experimental session. The time allotted for the comple- tion of the various tasks was sufficient. Statistical Design The data was collected with the counselors randomly assigned to two treatment groups of 19 subjects each. The 41 original groups were analyzed and the data sub-divided three ways for various phases of the analyses. They were: (a) a .grouping of the counselors by the age of the counselor, (b) a grouping of the counselors by years of counseling experi- ence, and (c) a grouping of the counselors by the sex of the counselor. The counselors were by age using age 32 and be-' low and age 33 and above as cutoff ages. This was done be- cause it provided the investigator with compatible cell sizes. In establishing the cell sizes for the years of counseling experience, the investigator used two years and below as the criteria for the least experienced counselors, and 3 years and above for the more experienced counselors. This was done because the sample had a number of counselors with several years' experience as well as several counselors who were new to the profession. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure was used to analyze the data. An alpha level of .05 was established as the minimum requirement for accepting mean differences as being signifi- cant. Before the results were treated statistically, the data for each task were quantified. A description of the method of scoring each task and the statistical treatments applied to each task follows. 'ACCeptance Scale Utilizing a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from 42 "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree", the counselors rated the degree to which they felt accepting of the parent. In order to analyze the data, it was necessary to establish a procedure for quantifying the responses. The following procedure was used to quantify the responses. Responses were quantified by counting from 1 through 6 in the direction that would indicate the most accepting attitude and stopping at the choice the counselor had made. Thus, the statement, "I can accept this client as she is" with "strongly agree" circle would receive a score of 6, in- dicating the most accepting attitude on the part of the counselor. The 12 items were then summed to obtain a total score. The use of this procedure resulted in high scores having the most accepting attitude toward the parent and low scores for counselors having the least accepting attitude toward the parent. Effective Parenting Utilizing the same six-point Likert-type scale, the counselors rated the parent based on their assessment of the client's effectiveness as a parent. The same procedure for quantifying the responses was used for this scale as was used for the acceptance scale: high scores indicated that the counselor felt the parent could engage in effective parenting and low scores indicated that the counselor did not feel that the parent could engage in effective parenting. Again, a 43 total score for the scale was obtained by summing all responses. Need for Further Counseling Selecting one of several options, the counselors in- dicated whether or not they felt the parents required any additional counseling. They did so by selecting one of the options ranging from "no need" (1) to "definite long term psychotherapy" (7). These responses were quantified by using the number of the option selected: numbers 1 through 7. This procedure resulted in low scores indicating no need or little need for further counseling, and the higher scores indicating a definite need for longer more intense counseling. The various statistical analyses were calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer. The data collected were ana- lyzed using a one-way analysis of variance with three depen- dent variables. Summary This study assessed the effect of family structure on the perceptions of school counselors. Thirty-eight black counselors, all volunteers, responded to black single and married female parents. The research design develOped to test the hypothesis of the study has been presented. The process involved in the development of the stimulus materials and the evaluative tasks required of the counselors has been discussed in detail. A detailed presentation of the scoring 44 procedures and statistical treatment of the data has been made. The outcomes of the data analysis procedures are reported in chapter 3. CHAPTER 3 .RESULTS The results of this study were based upon measures of counselor acceptance, counselor assessment of the client's effectiveness as a parent, and the counselor's determination of the parents' need for further counseling. Scores were obtained using three paper-and-pencil measures to test for differences. A repeated measures one-way analysis of vari- ance was used. The results were analyzed initially to test the principal hypotheses. Subsequent analyses were performed by looking at the data by counselor experience, sex of the counselor, and age of the counselor. For all hypotheses the .05 probability of a Type 1 (Alpha) error, with appropriate degree of freedom, was used. The findings are presented in this chapter. Significant differences were found in the ways in which counselors perceived black married and single female parents. The mean scores for the counselors on the three measures testing the principal and supplemental hypotheses are presented in Table 3. 45 46 No. 34 me. :5 omd Siam om.NH medm 3.x 3.3. mad BNm 635m mmé SN :4 Next. no.2 Hmém med 3.: «mg. 3.3 NeN 3.8 poise: mm m mm 2 mm m mm m mm m mm m coasaemamoa N macho H macho N macho H macho N macho H macho ugowHu wgaucopma o>Nuoommm oocmunouu< mcwfiomgsou Honussm pom pooz mpoHomcsou mo macho sausage on» you monsmmoz mcwaomcsou pogupsm pow wooz use .wgwucopma o>wuoommm .oocmumooo< mo mgowumw>om photomuw was memo: HHou m oases 47 Primary Hypothesis Test Results The results for the counselors' responses can be observed in terms of the result means. An explanation is needed for the various terms and abbreviations used in the following ANOVA tables as well as related terms used in the body of the chapter. When "group" is used, it refers to the original randomly assigned grouping of participating counselors. Further reference to divisions of the counselors for additional analysis is indicated by the independent variable used such as sex, age, and counseling experience. Interaction, the combination of the variable in question and repeated measures, is indicated as follows: "RM X Sex". Hypothesis 1 Counselors will assign higher acceptance scores to married black female parents than to black female single parents. Measure 1 -- Acceptance. The data regarding the counselors' responses to the black married and single female parents in terms of acceptance were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. Analysis indicated that counselors were significantly more accepting of married black female parents than they were of single black female parents. No differences were found between the two groups of counsel- ors. There were no interaction effects significant at the .05 level of significance. The findings are presented in Table 4. 48 Table 4 Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measures of Original Counselor Groups -_‘ - Source g: MS E Between Subjects G l 62.64 .80 S:G 36 77.88 Within Subjects RM 1 1129.59 21.19*** RM:G 1 11.01 .20 RM - S:G 36 53.30 *** p< .001 The hypothesis was supported as the counselors assigned significantly higher acceptance scores to black married female parents than they did to black female single parents. Hypothesis 2 Counselors will assess the parenting skills of married black female parents as being at a higher level than those of single black female parents. Measure 2 -- Effective Parenting. The date regarding counselors' perceptions of the black married and single female parents' ability to engage in effective parenting were ana- lyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. Analy— sis indicated that counselors assigned significantly higher 49 effective parenting scores to married black female parents than they assigned to single black female parents. There were no significant group differences, and no interaction effects significant at the .05 level of significance. The findings are presented in Table 5. The data support the hypothesis, as the counselors assessed the parenting skills of the married black female parents at a significantly higher level than those of single black female parents. Table 5 Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measures of Original Counselor Group Source gf’ MS. E Between Subjects G 1 212.22 2.64 S:G 36 Within Subjects RM 1 4200.33 28.86*** RM:G 1 470.01 3.23 RM - S:G 36 145.53 75 an p < .001 SO Hypothesis 3 Counselors will assign higher need for further counseling scores to single black female parents than they will assign to normal black female parents. Measure 3 -- Need for Further Counseling. The data regarding the counselors' determination of the single and married black female parents' need for further counseling were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. The results indicate that there were no significant differ- ences between the two groups of counselors and no interaction effects significant at the .05 level of significance. There were statistically significant repeated measures differences in the counselors' determination of the need for further counseling for the married and single black female parents. The counselors determined that the single black female parents had a significantly greater need for further counsel- ing than did the married black female parents. The data supports the hypothesis. Findings are presented in Table 6. For the primary question of interest, the analysis of the data yielded statistically significant results at the .05 level of significance. Counselors found that single black female parents were significantly less acceptable, signifi- cantly less effective as parents, and in need of significantly more additional counseling than were married black female parents. 51 Table 6 Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measures of Original Counselor Groups Source if M_s_ 1: Between Subjects G 1 5.80 3.50 S:G 36 1.66 Within Subjects “ RM 1 82.12 63.68*** RM:G l 2.97 2.296 RM - S:G 36 1.29 *** p< .001 The original, randomly-assigned, two groups of counselors included young and old, experienced and inexper- ienced, as well as male and female counselors within each group. For the supplemental analysis of the data, these variables were isolated by age, sex, and counseling experi- ence and used as a basis for categorizing the counselors to see how these particular groups of counselors viewed married and single black female parents. The mean scores for the counselors on the three measures testing the supplemental hypotheses are presented in Tables 7 through 9. 52 Summary of Primary Hypotheses The findings related to the primary hypotheses support the following conclusions: 1. Single parents received significantly lower acceptance scores than did married parents. 2. The parenting skills of the single parents were assessed by the counselors as being at a significantly lower level than those of the married parents. 3. The counselors assessed the further counseling needs of the single parents as being signifi- cantly higher than those of the married parents. The subjects in this study appeared to have based their assessment of the two groups of parents more on their own predetermined views of these family groups than on the information presented on the tapes. In this respect, one of the goals of this study was reached. The counselors' nega- tive responses to the black female single parent family heads supported the body of literature upon which the study was built. Secondary Hypothesis Test Results Hyp0thesis 4 There are no significant differences between younger and older counselors' level of acceptance of married and single black female parents. ~ 53 oo. cod mm. :d 3.2 Noam 2.0 . ooém 25 3.3. :N 3.3 oamfim mo; :6 Nmé mmN Nag: 2.3 Neda 86m 8.x mméo 3.4V 3.3 mosses: mm 2 mm m mm m mm 2 mm x mm _m acaueemamoo N @2090 H macho N macho H macho N macho H macho ucowau unwaomcsou soaps?“ how wooz mgwugouem o>wuoommm oogmumoooa. mpoHomcsou onsom n N nacho mpoaomgsou ode: n H nacho sodomcsou men we xom 0:9 so mousmooz mcwfiomgsou honuusm you @002 one .mcwucopma o>wuoommm .oucmuaooo< mo mcoNumw>oa photomum was memo: Name A oases S4 mo. 86 NN. cod 3.: omém N9: 3.3” mmd 8.3. 3.x 3.3. ofimcflm 34 SN 2.4 8:... 3.: muém 8.3 3.3 $6 om.No Nmé $.mm $3.53,. W m Mm .2 mm x. mm .2 NW .2. mm m :oflmamflmoo N nzoyo H @3090 N @5099 H nacho N Queue H macho “cowau mzfiflomcsou ponuhsm how @002 mcwuaoumm o>~uuommm oucmunouu< muonmcsoo nowfio u N macho whofimmcsou ummaao> n N macho mkoaomcsou mo om< one kn mmpSmmoz mcwammcsoo Honuham you @002 van .mcfiuamumm o>wuuomwm .oucmumouu< mo m:0wumw>on chmuzmum can mama: Hamu m oHan SS om. vmé MK. HN.m med 24m 8.3 3.3 cN.m moém 3d cN.Nm ofimfim 34 SN 34 om.m 8.3 2.3 2.x 8.: cmé 3.3 3.x nmdm wafizmz mm .2 mm 2 mm 2 mm .4 mm .2 mm a 53233: N macho H @3090 N macho H macho N macho H @3090 ucowflu mafiammnsou Honuhsm How 6002‘ wcflucoumm o>muuommm oucmumouu< N macho mponmcsoo wmucoflnoaxm mmmq n H aaoyu mponmczou wmucmwuoaxm mac: n oucmwpomxm Hoaomczou xn mmASmmmz mcwflom:sou hmnunsm new @002 cam .mcflucohmm o>wuoommm .oucauaouu< mo mcoNumw>oa whmwcmum van mama: Hamu m oHan 56 Measure 4 -- Acceptance - Age. The data regarding the younger and older counselors' level of acceptance of the married and single black female parents were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. Analysis indicated that there were no significant differences between the younger and older group. There was a statistically significant repeated measures effect indicating that the counselors perceived married black female parents as being more acceptable than single black female parents. There were no interaction effects significant at the .05 level of significance. The findings support the hypothesis. Table 10 Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measures by the Age of the Counselor Source .9: ES 5 Between Subjects Age, (A) 1 68.00 .875 S:G 36 77.74 'Within Subjects RM 1 1129.59 21.26 RMzA l 16.70 .314 RM - SzA 36 53.14 *** p< .001 S7 Hypothesis 5 There are no significant differences between younger and older counselors' assessments of the parenting skills of married and single black female parents. Measure 5 -- Effective Parenting - Ag_. The data regarding the younger and older counselors' perceptions of married and single black female parents' ability to engage in effective parenting were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. Analysis indicated that there were no significant differences between the two groups. There was a statistically significant repeated measures effect indicating that the counselors perceived married black female parents as being more effective parents than single black female parents. There were no interaction effects between repeated measures and groups at the .05 level of significance. The findings are presented in Table 11. Hypothesis 6 There are no significant differences between the need for further counseling scores of married and single black female parents as assigned by younger and older counselors. Measure 6 -- Need for Further Counseling. The data regarding the younger and older counselors' determination of the married and single black female parents' need for further counseling were analyzed using a repeated measures 58 Table 11 Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Age of the Counselor =====i ' I Source df MS E Between Subjects Age, (A) 1 26.41 .309 S:G 36 85.47 Within Subjects RM 1 4200.33 26.67*** RM:A 1 40.30 .26 RM - S:A 36 157.47 *** p<: .001 analysis of variance. Analysis indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups of counselors in the ways in which they viewed the parents. There was a statistically significant repeated measures effect indicating that the group of counselors per- ceived married black female parents as needing less addi- tional counseling than single black female parents. There were no interaction effects between groups and measures at the .05 level of significance. The age of the counselor did not significantly affect the ways in which the counselors viewed these parents. The findings are presented in Table 12. 59 Table 12 Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Age of the Counselor L J _ - 4 — f _ I r Source if M§_ E Between Subjects A l .32 .18 S:G 36 1.81 Within Subjects RM 1 82.19 60.00*** RM:A 1 .11 .08 RM - S:A 36 1.37 *** p< .001 hypothesis 7 There are no significant differences between male and female counselors' level of acceptance of married and single black female parents. Measure 7 -- Acceptance - Sex. The data regarding the male and female counselors' level of acceptance of married and single black female parents were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. The results indi- cated that there were no significant differences between the two groups. There was a statistically significant repeated measures effect. The counselors were significantly more accepting of the married black female parents than they were 60 of the single black female parents. These results are reflections of the results of the original grouping of the counselors. There were no signifi- cant interaction effects at the .05 level of significance. The findings are presented in Table 13. Table 13 Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measure by the Sex of the Counselor Source d: ‘ MS E Between Groups Sex (S) l 2.24 .03 S:G 31 79.56 Within Subjects RM 1 1129.59 21.79*** RM:S 1 63.80 1.23 RM - 3:5 36 51.84 *** p< .001 Hypothesis 8 There are no significant differences between male and female counselors' assessments of the parenting skills of married and single black female parents. Measure 8 -- Effective Parenting - Sex. The data regarding the male and female counselors' level of acceptance of the married and single black female parents were analyzed 61 using a repeated measures analysis of variance. The results indicated that there were no significant differences between the groups of counselors. There was a statistically signi- ficant repeated measures effect. The counselors assessed the married black female parents as being significantly more effective parents than the single black female parents. There were no significant interaction effects at the .05 level of significance. These results indicate the sex of the counsel- or was not a significant factor in the counselor's perception of married and single black female parents. The findings are presented in Table 14. Table 14 Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Sex of the Counselor Source d: 2 MS E Between Groups Sex (S) ‘ 1 75.40 .897 S:G 36 84.10 Within Subjects RM 1 4200.33 27.40*** RM:S 1 190.72 1.24 RM - 5:5 36 153.29 *** p< .001 62 Hypothesis 9 There are no significant differences between the need for further counseling scores of married and single black female parents as assigned by male and female counselors. Measure 9 -- Need for Further Counseling- Sex. The data regarding the counselors' determination of the married and single black female parents' need for further counseling were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. The analysis indicated that there were no significant differ- ences between the groups. There was a statistically signifi- cant repeated measures effect indicating that the counselors received the parents differently in terms of their need for further counseling. The counselors, much like the original group of counselors, perceived the single black female as being in need of significantly more additional counseling than were married black female parents. The findings are presented in Table 15. Hypothesis 10 There are no significant differences between inex- perienced and experienced counselors' level of acceptance of married and single female parents. Measure 10 -- Acceptance - Counselor Experience. The data regarding the inexperienced and experienced counsel- ors' acceptance of the married and single black female parents were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. 63 Table 15 Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Sex of the Counselor Source df, Mg E Between Groups Sex (8) 1 1.66 ' .93 S:G 36 177 Within Subjects RM 1 82.12 63.57*** RM:S l 2.88 2.2 RM - 8:8 36 1.29 *** p< .001 There was a significant repeated measures difference indi- cating that both inexperienced and experienced counselors' accepted married and single black female parents differently. Married black female parents were perceived as being more acceptable than single black female parents. Analysis also indicated a statistically significant group difference suggesting that experienced counselors differed from inexperienced counselors in their level of acceptance of the married and single black female parents. Experienced counselors showed a greater differential between the mean acceptance scores given to married and single black female parents than did the inexperienced counselors. While 64 both groups of counselors viewed the married black female parents as being more acceptable, the less experienced counselors viewed the two groups of parents as being more similar in terms of acceptance, while the experienced coun- selors saw a greater discrepancy between the levels of acceptance of the two groups of parents. There were no interaction effects significant at the .05 level of signifi- cance. The findings are presented in Table 16. Table 16 Analysis of Variance for Acceptance Measure by the Experience of the Counselor Source .df ‘ MS _ _ 1? Between Subjects Experience 1 300.01 4.21* S:G 36 71.30 Within Subjects RM 1 1129.59 21.62*** RM:E l 48.96 .93 RM‘- S:E 36 52.25 * p<: .OS *** p< .001 65 Hypothesis ll There are no significant differences between inexperi- enced and experienced counselors' assessments of the parent- ing skills of black married and single female parents. Measure 11 -j Effective Parenting — Counselor Experi- gggg. The data regarding the inexperienced and experienced counselors' perceptions of the black married and single female parents' ability to engage in effective parenting were ana- lyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. Analysis indicated no significant differences between groups. There was a statistically significant repeated measures difference indicating that both inexperienced and experienced counselors perceived married and single black female parents differently. Married black female parents were perceived as more effective parents than single black female parents. Further analysis indicated a repeated measure by group interaction effect. There was a greater differential between the mean effective parenting scores given to married and single black female parents by more experienced counselors than there was between the mean scores given to these same parents by less experi- enced counselors. While both groups of counselors viewed the married black female parents as being the more effective parents, the less experienced counselors viewed the two groups of parents as being close together in their parenting skills, while the more experienced counselors saw a greater discrepancy 66 between the parenting skill levels of the two groups of parents. The findings are presented in Table 17 and Figure 1. Table 17 Analysis of Variance for Effective Parenting Measure by the Experience of the Counselor Source .9: MS 5 Between Subject Experience 1 11.07 .129 S:G 36 85.89 Within Subjects RM 1 4200.33 33.24*** RM:E 1 1160.64 9.19** RM - S:E 36 126.35 ** p< .005 *** p< .001 67 L I 55-——- fir 50-—— m —u (D p 1. 0 U m P CO . E. 1. 45-——» c o -T H N a. fi' 2 . «4 H p' 8 :1 40-—— m 4» c _. :6 0 Z —0 -r 35-—— J. ""1 1! 30———- Figure 1. More Less Experienced Experienced Comparison of mean scores of experienced and inexperienced counselors on effective parenting measures. 68 Hypothesis 12 There are no significant differences between the need for further counseling scores assigned to married and single black female parents by inexperienced and experienced coun- selors. Measure 12 -- Need for Further Counseling - Counseling Experience. The data regarding the counselors' determination of the married and single black female parents' need for further counseling were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance. There was a statistically significant group difference indicating that experienced counselors differ from inexperienced counselors in their perceptions of the black married and single female parents need for further counseling. The experienced counselors viewed the single black female parents as being in need of significantly more additional counseling than the married black female parents. Inexperienced counselors saw the single black female parents as being in need of more additional counseling than their married counterparts but saw the level of the need as being less than that of the experienced counselors. There was a statistically significant repeated measures difference indicating that inexperienced and experienced counselors both perceived the additional coun- seling needs of the married and single black female parents as being different. The single parents were viewed as need- ing significantly more additional counseling than the married parents. Further analysis indicated a repeated measures-by- experience interaction effect statistically significant at 69 .001 level. The experienced counselors saw greater differ- ences in the additional counseling needs of married and single black female parents with the single parents seen as requiring significantly more additional counseling. The inexperienced counselors, while seeing the single parents as requiring more additional counseling than the married parents, saw the two groups of parents as being more similar in their additional counseling needs than did the experi- enced counselors. The findings are presented in Table 18 and Figure 2. Table 18 Analysis of Variance for Need for Further Counseling Measure by the Experience of the Counselor Source é: E§ (E Between Subjects Experience (E) 1 24.33 21.28*** S:G 36 1.14 Within Subjects RM 1 82.12 77.15*** RM:E l 11.07 10.40*** RM - S:E 36 1.06 *** p< .001 7O J I S— . -i W -1 2 .4 o - U U) ... m D s: j, -H H ...—.4. Q 4 m dL f: 3 ‘f O _. U -‘r 3.. a) W .2 ...J. 4..) H and» :3 m _D H 4* o 3——— m d! 'U . O H o ... z d} C'- —0 Cd 0.) '1? 2 -‘P fit d» z_. Figure 2. More Less Experienced Experienced Comparison of mean scores of experienced and inexperienced counselors on need for further counseling measure. 71 The data from this study were analyzed using a re- peated measures one—way analysis of variance. The analysis yielded significant results at the .05 signigicance level. The one-way analysis of variance performed on these indepen- dent measures indicated that the counselors viewed the married black female parents as being significantly more acceptable, significantly more effective as parents, and in need of significantly less additional counseling than the single black femal- parents. Subsequent analysis of the data by the sex, age, and experience of the counselors reflected the significant re- peated measures differences yielded in the analysis of the data supporting the primary hypotheses. There were no sig- nificant group differences when the data were analyzed using sex and age as independent variables. However, the analysis of the data using counseling experience as the independent variable showed significant group differences at the .05 level on the acceptance measure and significant group dif- ferences at the .001 level on the need for further counsel- ing measure. This suggested that the counselors, experienced and inexperienced, differed in the way in which they viewed the married and single black female parents. The experienced counselors were significantly more accepting of the married black female parents than the single black female parents. The inexperienced counselors, while seeing differences in 72 the acceptability of the two groups of parents, did not report as great a difference as did the experienced counsel- ors. The experienced counselors viewed the single black female parents as being in need of significantly more addi- tional counseling than the married black female parents. Inexperienced counselors saw the single black female parent as being in need of more additional counseling than the married black female parents, but saw the level of the need as being less than that of the experienced counselors. There was a significant experience-by-repeated measures interaction at the .05 level of significance on the effec- tive parenting measure. On the need for further counseling measures the experience-by-repeated measures interaction was significant at the .001 level. CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of family structure, black two-parent family and black female-headed, single-parent family, on the percep- tions of school counselors. The issue of major concern in this study was whether counselors would respond differently to married black female parents than to single black female parents. The literature supports the proposition that nega- tive views exist about black families. These views are par- ticularly negative when referring to black female-headed, single-parent families. Black female-headed, single-parent families are viewed as being not only different but also deficit in nature. This family unit is perceived by others, professionals and the general community, as being pathologi- cal and incapable of producing effective children. The theoretical assumption of training programs is that clients are equally acceptable to counselors and that 73 74 they are accepted without reservation or preconditions. The client's race, religion, sex, or social class should not in- fluence, either positively or negatively, the counselors' behavior. However, on the practical level, this concept is often threatened and in many cases disregarded. The litera- ture suggests that counselors are victims of the same racist and sexist bias existing within the general society and they too are influenced by the existing beliefs and stereotypes. Frequently, these beliefs and stereotypes influence the coun- selors' behavior within the context of the client/counselor encounter . This study was aimed at determining whether or not counselors were biased against black female single-parents. Specifically, the objectives of this research were: 1. To assess whether differing black client family structure--female-headed, single-parent family and two-parent family--affected the way in which counselors responded to selected married and single black female parents in terms of counselor acceptance. To assess whether differing black client family structure--female-headed, single-parent family and two-parent family--affected the way in which counselors assessed the clients' effectiveness as parents. 7S 3. To assess whether differing black client family structure——fema1e-headed, single-parent family and two-parent family-«affected the way in which counselors determined the clients' need for further counseling. Design and Methodology The experimental design was based on the major hy- pothesis that black school counselors will perceive black female single parents differently from black female spouses of two-parent families in terms of acceptance, effectiveness as parents, and the need for further counseling. Four audio stimulus tapes, approximately 5-7 minutes in length, were developed, using doctoral‘candidates in coun- seling to roleplay married and single black female parents. The tapes presented a black female parent discussing her sit- uation with a counselor. Two tapes were made of each situa- tion, with the parents' marital status being manipulated—- married in one instance and single in the other-~while the circumstances were kept constant. Measures of three dependent variables were used in this study. These scales, Acceptance, Effective Parenting, and Need for Further Counseling, were developed by the inves- tigator for the purposes of this study. The Acceptance Scale was designed to measure the degree of acceptance of counselors toward the parent. The Effective Parenting Scale was designed 76 to measure the counselors' assessment of the client's abil- ity to function as an effective parent. The Need for Further Counseling Scale was designed to measure the degree of addi- tional counseling the parent needed as perceived by the counselor. The sample consisted of volunteer practicing school counselors in the inner city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The study also used individuals who were trained in counseling but who were functioning in other school capacities within the Milwaukee School System. The total sample consisted of 38 volunteers. The counselors were randomly assigned to two groups (Group I and Group 11). Each group of counselors heard two audio tapes developed for this study. Each group heard one married black female parent and one black female single parent. Counselors in Group I heard the first parent as being married, and the second parent as being a single parent. Counselors in Group II heard the same two parents; however, the marital status was manipulated and they heard the first parent as being single and the second parent as being married. After listening to each tape the subjects were asked to record their responses on the three evaluative instruments. Using the analysis of variance technique deve10ped by Hoyt (1974) item reliability, the rating of agiven test item across both groups and both tapes were calculated. The 77 item reliability coefficients for the three instruments used in the investigations were r = .85 for the Acceptance Scale married, r = .89 for the Effective Parenting Scale married, r = .83 for the Acceptance Scale single, and r = .91 for the Effective Parenting single. The Need for Further Counseling scale was a single item scale and consequently item reliabil- ity was not calculated. It was hypothesized that counselors would assign higher acceptance scores to married black female parents than to single black female parents. A second hypothesis stated that the parenting skills of married black female parents are at a higher level than those of black female single parents. The third hypothesis predicted that the counselors would more frequently recommend black single parents for further counsel- ing than they would recommend black married female parents. The data for the original groups of counselors were analyzed and the data subsequently subdivided three ways for various phases of the analysis. The data was divided using the sex of the counselor, the age of the counselor, and the years of counseling experience as independent measures. A repeated measures one-way analysis of variance technique was used to analyze the data. Subsequent analysis of the data using age, sex, and years of counseling experience as independent variables re- flected the repeated measures differences yielded in the 78 analysis of the data supporting the primary hypothesis. The analysis of the data using counselor experience as a variable showed significant group differences at the .05 level of significance on the acceptance measure and significant group differences at the .001 level of significance on the need for further counseling measure. Significant experience by re- peated measure interaction effects at the .05 level were yielded on the effective parenting measure. Interaction effects, significant at the .001 level of significance, were yielded on the need for further counseling measures. Results Acceptance Scores Acceptance scores represented the degree of accept- ance of the parent by the counselor. The scores were derived from rating the parent on the lZ-point Acceptance Scale. Using the rationale described in chapter 2, the scores were quantified. The higher the score the more acceptable the parent was to the counselor and the lower the score the less acceptable the parent was to the counselor. Counselors in the primary grouping of the counselors (Group I and Group II) gave significantly higher acceptance scores to the married black female parent than they gave to the single black female parent. The single black female parents were viewed as being significantly less acceptable 79 to the counselors, presumably, as a function of their single parent status. When divided by the sex, age, and years of counseling experience, all divisions, male and female, young and old, and experienced and inexperienced counselors viewed the married black female parents as significantly more accept- able than the black female single parent. There was a group difference significant at the .05 level on the acceptance measure using counselor experience as an independent level. Effective Parenting The determination of the client's effectiveness as a parent was based on the score derived from rating the parent on the lZ-point Effective Parent Scale. Using the scoring rationale described in chapter 2, the scores were quantified. High scores indicated that the counselor felt the parent could engage in effective parenting and low scores indicated that the counselor felt the parent could not engage in effec- tive parenting. The findings related to the effective par- enting measures were: 1. Both primary groups of counselors (Group I and Group II) gave significantly higher effective parenting scores to the married black female parents than they gave to single black female parents. 80 When divided by the sex and age of the counselor, both groups, male and female, as well as the younger and older counselors, gave significantly higher effective parenting scores to the married black female parents than they gave to single black female parents. ‘ When experience of the counselor was used as an independent variable, all counselors, inexperienced and experienced, saw statistically significant differences in the effective parenting skills of the two groups of parents. Significantly higher scores were given to married black female parents than were given to single black female parents. Using counselor experiences as the independent variable, experience by repeated measure effects were yielded. 0n the effective parenting mea- sure interaction effects significant at the .005 level of significance appeared. 0n the need for further counseling measure group differences significant at the .001 were yielded. Interaction effects significant at the .001 level of signifi- cance were yielded. The more experienced coun- selors saw a greater discrepancy between the effective parenting ability of the two groups 81 of parents. The inexperienced counselors viewed the married parents as significantly more effective parents than the single parents, but saw less of a difference in their effective parenting abilities than did the experienced counselors. Need for Further Counseling Need for further counseling scores represented the counselors' determination of additional counseling needed by the parent. The counselors did so by choosing one of seven options, ranging from "no need" (1) to "definite long- term psychotherapy" (7). The results were quantified using the number of the option selected: numbers (1) through (7). This resulted in low scores indicating no need or little need for further counseling and the higher scores indicating a need for longer, more intense counseling. The results related to the need for further counseling scores were: 1. The primary groups of counselors (Group I and Group II) both indicated through their scores that black female single parents were in need of significantly more additional counseling than were married black female parents. 2. When using the age and sex of the counselors as independent variables the results in both in- stances indicated significant repeated measures 82 differences in how these counselors, young and old, female and male, viewed these parents. There were no group differences. All counselors viewed the black female single parents as being in need of significantly more additional coun- seling than the black female married parents. In both instances the differences were signifi- cant at the .001 level. Division of the counselors using counseling experience as the independent variable resulted in significant group differences at the .001 level of significance. There was a repeated measure difference significant at the .001 level. There were statistically significant interaction effects between repeated measures and experience. Both the experienced and the inexperienced counselors saw differences between the additional counseling needs of the two groups of parents. The experienced counselors saw greater differences between the additional counseling needs of the married and single black female parents with the single parents seen as requiring signifi- cantly more additional counseling. The inex- perienced counselors saw the single parents as 83 requiring significantly more additional counsel- ing than the married parents but saw the two groups of parents as being closer in their addi- tional counseling needs. They saw relatively greater compatability between the two groups of parents in terms of their additional counseling needs than did the experienced counselors. Discussion and Implications The discussion and implications of this study must be interpreted in terms of the population, procedures, mate- rials, treatments, and measures included in this investiga- tion. The range of generalization in terms of these factors is to be determined by the reader. The rationale for the use of school counselors as subjects and Acceptance, Effective Parenting, and Need for Further Counseling as dependent vari— ables will be explained in the following sections. Subject Variable School counselors were chosen for this study because previous research suggested that there was frequently a con- tradiction between counseling theory and counseling practice. The transition from the classroom to the field often resulted in some discarding of important tenets of counseling theory. Significant differences were found in this study be- tween how counselors viewed black female married parents and black female single-parent family heads. Two areas of inter- 84 est in this study were differences in counselor responses attributable to the age and experience factors. Usually age and experience are highly correlated, with older counselors having the most experience and the younger counselors having the least amount of experience. This issue is not so clear- cut when viewing the demographic data on the subjects in this study. The average age for the older counselors was 15.6 years above that of the younger counselors. The average years of counseling experience was two years above that of the younger counselors and the average years of teaching ex- perience was 6.2 years above that of the younger counselors. Because of the pronounced difference between age of counselors and their years of experience as counselors and teachers, it is important to view each analysis carefully. When viewing the counselors using counselor experience as the independent variable this is particularly true. The demographic data are presented in Tables 19-22. The average age for the experienced counselor was 2.3 years above that of the inexperienced counselor. The average years of counseling experience was 3.2 years above that of the inexperienced counselors and the years of teaching experi- ence was 1.3 years less than that of the inexperienced coun- selors. Thus, though the inexperienced teachers had less counseling experience than the experienced counselors, they had very nearly as much exposure to children and their par- ents when one views their total school service tenure. The 85 demographic data refleCts the fact that there were a number of older individuals in the sample who entered the counseling profession at a later age. The demographic data are presented in Appendix G. Through random assignment to the primary groups of counselors, the subject differences should have been distri- buted across the groups. For future research, more clear-cut categories of counselor variables than experience and age should be established. Dependent Variables The three dependent variables acceptance, effective parenting and need for further counseling were chosen for use in this investigation. Each variable was chosen to try and elicit certain crucial information aimed at determining any differences between the two groups of parents. Acceptance was chosen as an independent variable since it serves as the basic condition of the counselor client relationship. A principle tenet in most counseling approaches is the ability to accept the individual without preconditions. The investigator decided that the use of this measure would serve to establish whether differences between married and single parents would show up at this very basic level. The effective parenting measure was chosen as it would give in- dications of the counselors' assessments of the behavioral potential of the parents in terms of their parenting abili- 86 ties. The literature supports the assumption that single parents are viewed as being unable to parent effectively. The use of this dependent variable was used so that it might test the existing attitudes relative to the parenting abili- ties of single parents. The need for further counseling variable was chosen because it serves as a sum total mechan— ism. Negative views held on variable one and two would be expected to be reflected on the need for further counseling measure. The scores on this variable demonstrated what the counselor saw as the necessary follow-up for the parents in terms of additional counseling. Given the design of the study, the counselors' per- ceptions of the two groups Of parents were based on their own preconceived perceptions of these particular family units rather than on responses of parents. This, of course, was what had been hypothesized. The idea of the nuclear, two-parent family being ideal and any form deviating from the model being less than ideal is prevalent within the general society. This conception appears to have been a major influence on the decisions made by the counselors. Coupled with the negative existing stereotypes associated with single-parent families in general, and black female- headed single parent families in particular, we can identify the basis for the counselors' decisions. This raises the question of what has the most impact 87 on the counselors' behavior, recent training or training supplemented by years of experience. From the data it appears that the more experienced the counselors were, the more they discriminated between the parents. The ability to discriminate is viewed as a positive attribute in coun- selors; however, this is when the discrimination is based on appropriate or complete information. The separation of parents into acceptable or unacceptable groups cannot be viewed positively within the context of this study. The inexperienced counselors saw the two groups of parents as being more similar. In terms of acceptance, counseling theory suggests that clients should be accepted uncondition- ally. The inexperienced counselor appeared to come closer to this theoretical approach than did the experienced coun- selors. The reason for the differences in the perceptions of the inexperienced and experienced counselors may be that as experienced counselors gained experience in the field and were thus removed from the impact of their training pro- grams, they reflected the negative views and stereotypes within the general society. The experienced counselors who were on the average 1.5 years removed from their training programs, more clearly reflected the theoretical orientation of their counselor training programs: that of accepting a client unconditionally. 88 It can be argued, and not without some justification, that perhaps the differential responses of the counselors to the two groups of parents merely reflect an awareness of social reality that many black female single-parent family heads suffer from handicaps that prevent successful competi- tion in the labor market. Lack of education or training, irregular work histories, sex and racial discrimination in hiring, and difficulty in arranging for satisfactory child care are all barriers these parents must face. Since women usually keep the children following divorce or separation, the parent least able to support them is left with the major economic responsibilities. These concerns are real and valid, but in this study those variables that would indicate the economic situation of the family, such as the occupation of the female parent and the spouse in the case of the married parent or the occupation, level of education, and availabil- ity of child support or alimony were not available to the counselors. It was necessary for them to add their own pre- conceived ideas or notions they held about the two groups of parents to the information provided. They apparently added detracting ideas about black female single parents and attracting ideas about married black female parents. It could be argued that counselors assumed that the male spouse in the married family was supportive and contributing to the well-being of the family. This does not necessarily have 89 to be the case. The presence of a male spouse in a house in and of itself does not assure a harmonious family rela- tionship beneficial to all members. Limitations In conducting research the investigator is faced with certain limitations involving either design or the con- ditions under which the study was conducted. Specific limi- tations of this study will be discussed in this section. Since the investigator could not secure a random sample of the black counselors in the Milwaukee Public School System and because of the limited size of the sample, particularly the small number of male counselors, the results of this study cannot be generalized beyond this sample. Readers should be cautious in their attempts to make general- izations from this population to others. This study used a paper-and-pencil format. The meas- ures used were deve10ped specifically for the purposes of this study. Pilot-testing was not conducted to standardize the instruments due to time constraints. This lack of test- ing of the instruments is a limitation. Generalization from paper-and-pencil responses to actual interview behavior can- not be made. However, the findings here may provide a basis for hypotheses to be tested in research involving videotaped and face-to-face contact between counselor and client. 90 The use of audiotaped presentations was a limitation of this study. The description of a client from audiotaped stimulus material eliminates many of the crucial non-verbal cues to which a counselor typically responds in the normal interview situation. It is important and necessary that a counselor be attuned to these cues. Another limitation of this study was the fact that the counselors were unable to gain additional information about the client. A complete exploration of the problem is, of course, an important part of the counseling process. The counselors were disadvantaged in this respect since their inability to obtain additional information was an integral part of the study. The study used volunteers and this requires further comment. The study was described as a research project to document the perceptions of black counselors. Therefore, the volunteers may have been more amenable to participating in research projects than non-volunteers. Furthermore, the volunteers may have held biases toward black single parent family heads that non-volunteers did not hold. The small number of subjects used in the study is a limitation of this research. The investigator attempted to obtain 60 subjects, had 50 subjects confirmed, but only 38 subject participated. The lack of assessment of counselors' attitudes is a limitation of this study. Without this assessment, there 91 is no way of knowing whether or not the subjects were strongly biased against black female single parents. A rating scale could have been administered as a follow-up to the study to determine if their attitudes were generalized or just perti- nent to the clients used in the study. The study is confined to counselor attitudes toward the two groups of parents. Can we assume that the attitudes of the counselors mirror the attitudes of the general population? Without extensive research into the attitudes of the general population towards black female single-parentm families statements relative to these sttitudes can only be viewed as conjecture. Implications for Counseling Practice The literature suggested and this research supports the notion that black female-headed,single-parent families are the victims of stereotypes. These negative views of this family group can only be dispelled by the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of the lifestyle and experiences of black families in general and black female single parents in particular. Counselors cannot view the world of the black female single parent ”as if it were their own" if they are not aware of the many forces, including psychological and economic, impinging on the lives of these families. A primary step in enhancing the acquisition of this knowledge could be the hiring of black faculty members in 92 counselor training departments. This action could be supple- mented by the writing and views of black scholars. To acquire the understanding necessary for effective interaction with family members from different ethnic groups or social classes requires both theoretical and experiential exposure. Frequently, this exposure will bring the counselor into conflict with his own attitudes about such factors as race, religion, and family. The values the counselor attaches to these factors coupled with personal experiences and the objective with which the counselor can view these values limits the acceptance of differing values and characteristics in the client. Particular attention needs to be paid to the personal characteristics of potential traumas during the screening process. Early exposure to various and diverse populations and diverse populations and experiences is necessary so that coun- selor trainees and counselor educators may make appropriate assessments of the trainees' ability to function effectively in these varied situations. Structured practicum experiences can be used to expose counselor trainees to the experience of working with black single parents and their family members. The counselor's first experience with members of this family unit should not be in an actual crisis situation. The format of this research can be used to facilitate counselor trainees working with clients from diverse popula- tions. These populations could include not only married and 93 single female parents, but different ethnic groups as well as children. The development of such requisite counseling skills as acceptance, good listening, and empathy can be facilitated by the use of the format. Counselors working with clients having difficulty relating to or who are re- lating in inappropriate ways to men or women could utilize this format. In both group and individual settings the counselor could use this approach to follow corrective coun- seling encounters in order to measure significant changea‘Fhe clients could respond to audiotape, videotape and coached client presentations. Counselors can utilize the strategies employed here for in-service training for teachers and other school personnel to provide them with insight into their re- sponses to members of single-parent family groups, as well as with appropriate follow-up material aimed at facilitating their understanding of this particular family unit. Sgggestions for Future Research The original purpose of this research was to investi- gate counselor perceptions of married and single black female parents in terms of acceptance, ability to engage in effective parenting, and the need for further counseling. Strong and consistent contrasts were found which suggest that bias exists against black female single parent family heads. The follow- ing suggestions for future research are presented to provide 94 useful suggestions for obtaining additional empirical data regarding single parent families. 1. Research needs to be conducted in the area of the black male-headed, single-parent family. There is very little literature relating to this family unit. Research would provide evidence as to the existing views of this par- ticular unit. 2. Studies are needed to further assess the rela- tionship between the clients' family structure and counselor acceptance. Acceptance is a basic principle of the counsel- ing process and should be carried out regardless of the client. Any trait or situation associated with the client that is an obstacle to the counselor's acceptance of the client should be investigated. 3. A study in which black and white counselors evaluated black and white single and married parents is needed. Such a study would provide the opportunity for cross- cultural comparisons. 4. This study should be replicated using teachers and counselors as subjects. This would provide for compari- sons of counselors' and teachers' responses to black married and single female parents. 5. An investigation of the perceptions of black female single-parent family heads of the treatment afforded them and their children by school authorities is warranted. The results of such a study could provide direction to school 9S authorities in the development of policies and programs aimed at facilitating home and school relations. 6. Investigation is needed to try and determine what factors cause the bias reactions against black female single parents. Whether it is the sex of the family head, the race of the family head, or a combination should be determined. Concluding Statement This study was originally conceived because the area under investigation was one about which much conflicting literature had been published. The vast majority of the literature in the area of black female single parents was negative. It was decided to study whether or not school counselors held negative views of black female single parents as compared to married black female parents. This research has attempted to demonstrate that nega- tive views exist about, and are being perpetuated against, black female-headed,single parent families. The contrasts between the counselors' responses to the married and single black female parents were strong and consistent. The coun- selors viewed the married parents as being significantly more acceptable, as human beings, more effective as parents, and in need of significantly less additional counseling than single black female parents. 96 Before definite conclusions can be drawn about the results of the present study, replications must be carried out with similar samples of counselors. However, these pre- liminary findings, if supported by research with other groups, suggest that counselors are biased against black female single parents. The implication of tentative results of this study extend beyond inner city schools and families. The number of female-headed, single-parent families continues to increase as the number of divorces, separations and single women choos- ing to have children without marrying increases. The divorce and separation rate is increasing in the middle and upper- middle families. Consequently, the exposure of these families to school personnel in various capacities is increasing. If the results of the present study are supported by future research, counselor educators and school authorities must take heed and re-examine both the training process and the functioning of school counselors. Those deemed "helpers" cannot be a party to the perpetuation of ideas working to the detriment of those they should be helping. The investigator believes that attitudes of all school personnel--but most notably counselors-~toward single parent families warrants further investigation and vigorous, continued attention. APPENDIX A INITIAL LETTER TO SUBJECTS 97 Dear As you know, I am working towards my doctoral degree here at Michigan State University. I am now at the dis- sertation state. I have selected a dissertation topic requiring as participants, black school counselors at all school levels. The study will also use individuals trained in counseling who may not be currently functioning as a counselor. I have chosen to do the study in Milwaukee because I am familiar with the training the counselors received. I also feel that I can count on the assistance of the counselors. Now, a brief word about the study. The research project is aimed at documenting the perceptions of black counselors. You will be asked to respond to certain taped situations. The project will be conducted in a group setting at UWM. The study will require a maximum of 1.5 hours to complete. With good organization and cooperation it can be completed in 1 hour. The study will be conducted on Saturday afternoon, June 7th. I recognize that Saturday afternoons are at a premium for you. It was with this in mind that I limited the time to 1.5 hours or less. Should you consent to participate, you will receive final confirmation as to the time and location at UWM at a later date. Your responses will be kept completely confidential. At no time will you be asked to identify yourself by name. I anticipate your cooperation and look forward to seeing you again. Yours truly, APPENDIX B FOLLOW-UP LETTERS TO SUBJECTS 98 Dear This letter is a follow-up to the original letter you received asking for your assistance in the completion of my dissertation. I hope you have considered my request and will be able to work it into your schedule. The time for the conducting of the study has been set at 1200 noon on June 7 at UWM. We will be finished between 1:00 and 1:30 PM. We will be using two rooms on the first floor of Enduris Hall at UWM. Notices will be posted in the lobby. I would like to emphasize the importance and necessity of your participation. The data gathered as a result of this study will be important to you and the profession. Please indicate if you will be able to participate on the form enclosed and return it in the self-addressed envelope as soon as possible. Yours truly, APPENDIX C ACCEPTANCE SCALE -99 ACCEPTANCE l. I have negative feelings towards this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 2. I would like to help this Strongly Generally Somewhat Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 3. This parent makes me feel Strongly Generally Somewhat Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4. I am not sure how I feel about this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree 1 2 3 5. This parent has serious problems. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree 1 2 3 6. I would prefer referring this parent to another Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree 1 2 3 Somewhat Generally parent. Somewhat Generally good as a counselor. Somewhat Generally Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 counselor. Strongly Agree 6 100 7. I can accept this client as she is. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree 6 8. I would want to have minimal contact with this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 9. This parent shows a willingness to change. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 S 10. I have difficulty getting close to clients such Somewhat Generally Agree Agree Strongly Generally Somewhat Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 11. I can show warmth towards this client. Somewhat Generally Agree Agree Strongly Generally Somewhat Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 12. Counseling this type of parent disturbs me. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 ' 4 5 13. This parent can benefit from counseling. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 as this. Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 Strongly Agree 6 101 14. This parent is not the type of person I would seek out. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 15. I have no real feelings for or against this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 APPENDIX D EFFECTIVE PARENTING SCALE.. 102 EFFECTIVE PARENTING 1. This parent will be able to communicate effectively with her children. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. Providing warm emotional support for her family will be difficult for this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 3. This parent's personality has a negative effect on her children. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1- 2 3 4 '5 6 4. I am not sure of this parent's ability. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 5. This parent is a good model for her children. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 6. Educational achievement for her children is important to this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 103 7. Family crises will be difficult for this parent to handle. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 8. This parent can accept help when it is offered. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 9. This parent lacks the ability to provide guidance and direction for her children. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 - 3 4 5 6 10. This parent can adequately discipline her children. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 11. Making good decisions will be difficult for this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 12. This parent has the ability to manage her household effectively. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 13. This parent will be involved in her community. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 104 14. Maintaining relationships outside of her family will be difficult for this parent. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 15. This parent's children are a source of satisfaction. Strongly Generally Somewhat Somewhat Generally Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 APPENDIX E NEED FOR FURTHER COUNSELING SCALE '105 N E E D F O R F U R T H E R C O U N S E L I N G Based on the limited knowledge and bmpressions that you have about this client, indicate any recommendations you have for further counseling. MARK ONLY ONE BOX: NO NEED ..................... ( TALK WITH FRIENDS --------------------- ( TALK WITH PASTOR ..................... ( SEE COMPETENT COUNSELOR (l or 2 Visits) ------- ( FAMILY COUNSELING (Several Visits) ----------- ( PSYCHIATRIC ASSESSMENT ..................... ( DEFINITE LONG TERM PSYCHOTHERAPY ............. ( WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED, WAIT FOR THE NEXT TAPE APPENDIX F PERSONAL DATA 106 PERSONAL DATA 1. Male Female 2. Single Married Separated Divorced 3. Age 4. Children Yes No 5. Were You Raised in a Single Parent Family? Yes 6. Educational Experience: Total Years Experience in Classroom Teaching: Number of Years in Counseling: 7. Are You Certified As a Counselor in the State of Wisconsin? Yes No If not, Are You Eligible? Yes No 8. Please Indicate Degree Held and Place and Year Granted. Degree: Institution: Year Granted: NO APPENDIX G SCRIPT OF TAPES 107 Married - Discipline 1 This is the case of Brenda, the mother of a 12 year old son. Her husband works in a local department store. She is having difficulty in disciplining her son. P. I've been sort of strugging with him, trying to work it out but I just don't seem to be getting anywhere. It's getting to the point where I don't really know what I'm going to do. C. It seems that you're really upset about this situation. Why don't you tell me what's been happening. P. Well, he won't listen to me. You see, he's having prob- lems keeping his mouth shut in schooll But I'm not surprised because he has the same problem at home. His teacher has called me several times to tell me that he's acting up in school and getting smart with you in class. When he gets home, I get on him about it but he'll just mumble under his breath and go to his room. Then I'll tell him he can't go out but he'll go on out anyway. He acts like he thinks he's grown or something. I try to talk to him about these things but he gets smart and talks back to me. Now I don't stand for that talking back to me. Sometimes he talks back to me like I'm some kinds, some kinda kid, or somebody, and when he does I just let him have it. 108 Let him have it? Yeah, I pop him right up side his head and tell him he'd better watch his mouth and know who he's talking to or I'll wring his neck. But he'll just stand there staring at me with a smart look on his face. You know I'm kinda mad but then I get kinda sad, about everything and I try to explain to him how he should respect me but I don't seem to be able to get through. I mean it - it seems he just doesn't respect me and that really hurts. It seems as if this situation has become difficult to you. Does your husband help you in trying to discipline your son? Well, he speaks to him every so often-but he feels that handling the children is my responsibility. Do you think that because you handle the discipline all by yourself, do you think that this has anything to do with it? Well, I don't know, but you know I do all I can for him. I do know that something has got to be done about the situation. I mean you know, if he would just talk to me, then maybe I could deal with the situation better. But let's face it, he's got to keep himself out of trouble and he's got to do what I say around here you know. I can't spend all my energy trying to keep him in line. I'm trying to make it plain to him, you've gotta do what the people in school tell you to do without any 109 lip; and at home, I expect you to do what I say without any back talk. You think it does any good? Well it don't. Sometimes I feel like wearing his behind out, but that won't do any good because I've tried that before. He'll just stand there and refuse to cry. So, I gave up trying to whip him. This situation is very frustrating for you and also more difficult, because you have to handle it without any help from your husband. Yeah it's frustrating all right. You know, sometimes I feel like just giving up but then I know I can't do that. I do know that the school isn't going to keep putting up with his acting up the way he does. -I mean, to me he's my child, and I'm going to try and get him on the right track. But to the school, he's just another discipline problem. 110 Married - Time for Myself 2 This is the case of Harriet, the mother of two children, 4 and 6. Her husband works as a salesman in a department store. P. Well, I'm just feeling that I'm wasting away. You know what I mean. It ain't nothing happening to me. Oh, let me put it this way. I'm always doing things for some- body else. You know friends, family, everybody. But it seems I don't have time to do the things I really want to do. You know, things for me. C. It seems like you're saying you give all to your husband and children, and you don't get enough back. P. Well, year that's it. I mean I know I have a responsi- bility to my husband and children, but you know I keep telling myself that I just can't live for them. That I've got to get out and do things for myself. Now don't get me wrong, I'm not saying I don't enjoy my family because I do. I just feel I need to get out, to get away from them sometimes. I want to enjoy myself, be by myself and I don't see anything wrong with that. C. Do you feel guilty about wanting to be away from your husband and children. P. Well it sure does bother me. I mean I have mixed feelings about even talking about this, because everyone keeps telling me about my responsibility to my family. I know 111 what my responsibilities are. But on the other hand, it seems that someone ought to have some responsibility to me. Have you discussed these feelings with your husband? Yes, I have. He understands how I feel and has tried to help me work it out. I mean without him I don't know what I'd do. He comes home and takes me to lunch every so often. He's even invited people over after the kids are asleep. He's babysat, he's been really helpful. But you know I still feel the same way. 112 Single - Discipline 1 This is the case of Brenda. She is single and the mother of a 12 year old son. P. I've been sort of struggling with him trying to work it out but I just don't seem to be getting anywhere. It's gett ing to the point where I don't really know what I'm going to do. It 5 Why Well prob surp teac eems that you're really upset about this situation. don't you tell me what's been happening. , he won't listen to me. You see, he's having lems keeping his mouth shut in school. But I'm not rised because he has the same problem at home. His her has called me several times to tell me that he's acting up in school and getting smart with her in class. When mumb tell acts talk back me. some have he gets home, I get on him about it but he'll just le under his breath and go to his room. Then I'll him he can't go out but he'll go on out anyway. He like he thinks he's grown or something. I try to to him about these things but he gets smart and talks to me. Now I don't stand for that talking back to Sometimes he talks back to me like I'm some kinda, kid, or somebody, and when he does, I just let him it! Let him have it? 113 Yeah. I pop him right up side his head and tell him he'd better watch his mouth and know who he's talking to or I'll wring his neck. But he'll just stand there staring at me with a smart look on his face. You know I'm kinda mad but then I get kinda sad about everything and I try to explain to him how he should respect me but I don't seem to be able to get through. I mean it seems he just doesn't respect me and that really hurts. I guess it's difficult for you to handl this all alone? It's getting that way. I mean I do all I can for him. All by myself and then he acts up this way. I don't understand it. I swear, I don't understand. Do you think it's the fact that you're rearing him alone. Do you think that has anything to do with it? Well, I don't know, but you know I do all I can for him. I do know that something has got to be done about the situation. I mean you know if he would just talk to me maybe I could deal with the situation better. Let's face it, he's got to keep himself out of trouble, and he's got to do what I say around here. You know I can't spend all my energy trying to keep him in line. I try to make it plain to him you got to do what people in school tell you to do without any lip and at home I ex- pect you to do what I say without any back talk. You think it does any good, well it don't. Sometimes, I 114 feel like wearing his behind out, but that won't do any good because I've tried that before and he'll just stand there and refuse to cry. So I gave up trying to whip him. This situation is really frustrating for you and it's even more difficult because you have to deal with it alone. Yeah, it's frustrating alright. You know sometimes I feel just like giving up. But then I know I can't do that. I do know that the school isn't going to keep putting up with his acting up the way he does. I mean to me he's my child, and I'm going to try and get him on the right track but to the school,.he's just another discipline problem and they'll get rid of him if he doesn't straighten up. 115 Single - Time for Myself 2 This is the case of Harriet. She is single and the mother of two children age 4 and 6. P. Well, I'm just feeling that I'm wasting away, you know what I mean? I mean ain't nothing happening to me. Oh, let me put it this way. I'm always doing things for somebody else you know what I mean? Things for family, friends and everybody. But it seems I don't have any time to do the things that I really want to do. You know things for me. I mean I have needs, too. You feel you don't have enough time for yourself as a single parent. Well, yeah. That's it. I mean I know I have a respon- sibility to my children but you know I keep telling my- self that I can't just live for them. I've got to get out and do things for myself. This situation is frustrating for you, and also more difficult because you have to deal with it without a husband in the home to help you. It's frustrating, alright, just let me give you an example. Let's say I want to get away for a few hours. Just to be alone. Maybe to go for a walk or maybe to a movie. First, I have to check about the children, and if no one can watch them, then I can't go. But the children can go out and play and enjoy themselves when- 116 ever they want. But me, I hardly ever get to do the things that I like. If I want to go some place, I have to check this and that and do so many things that I say it's just not worth all of the trouble and end up not going at all. It's more difficult for you because as a single parent you don't have a husband to share the load. It's difficult but I still got to find a way to deal with it. I mean I'm sure they are other women who feel like I feel. I really don't thing I'm asking too much. I'm just asking for a little time for myself. It doesn't mean that I don't enjoy my children, all it means is that I want some time alone, away from everyone. Now don't get me wrong. I'm not saying I don't enjoy my chidren, because I do. But I still feel that I just need to get out and get away from them sometimes. I want to enjoy myself, be by myself and I don't think there's anything wrong with that. Since you"re rearing the/your children alone do you feel guilty about wanting to be away from your children? Well, it sure does bother me. I mean, I have mixed feel- ings about even talking about this because everyone keeps telling me about my responsibility to the children. I know what my responsibilities are but on the other hand it seems like someone ought to have some responsibility to me, too. 117 Have you discussed your feelings about this to anyone? Yes, I've talked it over with my mother. She feels that my responsibility is to my children. But she does what she can do to help. I mean, she'll come over and keep the kids sometimes so I can get away at times. I mean she really tries to help. Lord, if she didn't help, I con't know what I'd do. But you know even with her help I still feel the same. APPENDIX H TEACHING AND COUNSELING EXPERIENCE OF SUBJECTS moouw Honmcsoo wumENum may cw muoNomssoo mo mosowummxm mcwammssou new mosowuomxm msflnomoa .mmd omsom com com: ma mqmda mHuz m.m mm u v m.N m u a N.em me u em HH do mauz ¢.oa ha I e m.m NH n H m.mm me u mm H mo .3 . 1 1 Amy lluuzem z wozem z mozam mozmHmmmxm oszoama .«wumHMMMMMMIMZHAMWZEOU woe 119 m.NH mm I o.v NH I o.mv mv I mm H.m AH I N o.~ N I H 0.5N mm I «N E m02 unwocmmmccH man mm 004 uonmcsoo magma muonmcsoo mo mocmflummxm onwammcaoo can mocmwummxm magnomma mm< mwcmm can cum: ON mqmdfi man HG? GAO 120 o.m mm I m m.~ «H I H n.qm av I «N _ mqazmm m.m «H I N m.m OH I a m.mm mv I hm IIJHdsM. g1 mwzdmI 2, Honda 2 Mazda mozmHmmmxm azamomma mozmHmmmxm wqummzaoo Imo< ”HQMHHMKV ucmncmmmwcH 0:» mm Hoammcsoo mnu mo xmm may mafia: mHonmczou mo mocmwuwmxm wcwammcsou can mocmwummxm mcwnomma .mwd mmcmm can cmmz AN manda 121 . vmocmw o m S I m >4 .2 I m can 3 I mm Juan; . 600:0. m 3 mm I m m4 N I a 5mm am I om dug [21 . umzfi a} muzdm z muzsm Igém qummzaoo dog manmwum> ucmucmmmwcH may mm.mo:mwummxm “Gammcsou mafia: muonmnsou mo mocmflummxm mcwammcnoo new .moamwummxm magnomms .mmd mmcmm van 2mm: NN mqmda REFERENCES REFERENCES Anastasion, N. J. Success in school and boys sec role patterns. Child Development, 1965, £6, 1053-1066. Bell, R. The culturally deprived psychologist. The Counseling_Psychologist, 1971, a, 104-107. Biller, H. Father absence and the personality deve10pment of the male child. Developmental Psychology, 1970, g, 181-201. Billingsley, A. Black families in white America. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. Bringham, J. C. Ethnic Stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 16, 15-38. Carlsmith, L. Effect of early father absence on scholastic aptitude. Harvard Educational Review, 1964, éfi, 3-21. Children out of school in America. Cambridge, Mass.: Children's’DefEnse Fund, 1974. Coleman, J. S. et a1. Equality of Educational Opportunity, Washington, D.C.: National Center for Educational Statistics, 1966. Deutsch, M. Minority group and class status as related to social and personality factors in scholastic achieve- ment. Mono raphs in Social and Applied Anthropologz, 1960, g, l-JZT Drew, E. M. and Teahan, J.E. Parental attitudes and academic achievement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1957, 1;, 328-331. English, R. Beyond pathological research and theoretical perspectives on black families. In L. Gary (Ed), Social Research and the Black Community: Selected Issues and Priorities. Washington, D.C.: Howard Uni- versity, 1974. Etzkowitz, H. G Schaflander, G. Ghetto Crisis. Boston: Little Brown 6 Company, 1969. 122 123 Frazier, E. F. Problems and needs of Negro children and youth resulting from family disorganization. Reprinted from the Journal of Negro Education, Summer 1950, 19,’ 269-277. '_' Fullmer, D. W. 8 Bernard, H. W. The School Counselor Consultant. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972. Garfield, J. C., Pollack, B. A. 8 Weiss, S. L. Effects of the childs social class upon school counselors' decision- making. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1973, 20, 166-68. "’ Gunnings, T. Preparing the new counselor: The Counseling Psychologist, 1971, g (4), 199-101. Gunnings, T. S. 8 Simpkins, G. A systemic approach to counseling disadvantaged youth. Journal of Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance. Hansen, C. Job satisfaction and job activities of school counselors. Personnel 8 Guidance Journal, 1967, 45, (4), 790-794. Herzog, E., G Sudia C. Fatherless Homes: A Review of Research. Children, 1968, 40. 177-182. Herzog, E. 8 Sudia C. Families without fathers. Childhood Education, 1972, 4g, 175-181. Hess, R. D., Shipmen, V. C., Brophy, J.E., & Bear, R. M. The Cognitive Environments of Urban Preschool Children. Graduate school of Education, University of Chicago, November, 1968. Hetherington, E. M. 8 Deur, J. L. The effects of father absence on child development. YoungChildren, 1971, 36, 233-248. Hill, R. The Strengths of Black Families. New York: Emerson Hall, 197Z. Jackson, J. But where are the men? The Black Counselor, 1971, g, (4), 30-41. Kakkar, S. B. Family conflicts and scholastic achievement. Indian Journal of Psychology, 1970, 45 (2), 154-164. 124 Kent, N. 6 Davis, D. R. Discipline in the home and intellec- tual development. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1957, 25, 27-33. Kriesberg, L. Rearing children for educational achievement in fatherless families. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 1967, 29, 288-301. Ladner, J. Black women in poverty. Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1974, fig (2), 41151. Landy, F., Rosenberg, B. G. G Sutton-Smith, B. The effect of limited father absence on cognitive development. Child Development, 1969, fig, 941-944. Mack, D. Where the black matriarchy theorists went wrong. Psychology Today. January 1971, pp. 24, 86-87. May, J. R. An exploration of family systems in relation to childrens school performance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 31, (S-B), 2997-2998. Mendelson, R. L. The elementary school counselor: descrip- tion of professional preparation, actual work experiences and personnel qualifications (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1967). Mitchell, H. Counseling black students: a model in response to the need for relevant counselor training programs. The CounselingPsychologist, 1971, g (4), 117-122. Moynihan, D. P. The Negro family - the case for national action. Office of Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., 1975. Ohlsen, M. C. Guidance Services in the Modern School. New York: Harcourt, Brace, JOvanovich, 1974. Oliver, L. Counseling implications of recent research on women. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1975, 5;, 430-437. Pettigrew, L. E. Women liberation & black women. Paper presented at the Convention of the National Association of Black Psychologists, Detroit, August 1975. 125 Rao, D. G. A study of some factors related to scholastic achievement. Indian Journal of Psychology, 1970, 45, (2), 99-120. ' '_‘ Rockwell, R. E. An investigation of the relationship of nine non-intervention variables to the school success or failure of culturally disadvantaged children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972 (Dec) 33 (6-A) 2793. Rosben, B. D. & Andrade, R. The psychological origins of achievement motivation. Sociometry 1959, $3: 185-218. Rosenfield, J. & Rosenstein, E. Towards a conceptual framework for the study of parent-absent families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1973, 3S (1), 131-138. '_— Rosenthal, R. 5 Jacobson, L. P malion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupils Intellectual Develop- ment. New York: Holt,fiRifiehart and Wlnston, 196B. Russell, R. L. The black counselor. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1973, 58, 144, 149. Santrock, J. W. Paternal absence sex typing and identifi- cation.‘ Developmental Psychology, 1970, a, (2), 264-272. Schlesinger, B. The One Parent Family. Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1970. Schlossberg, N. A framework for counseling women. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1972, 51, 137-143. Schlossberg, N. 6 Pietrofesa, J. Perspectives on counseling bias: implications for counselor education. The Counseling PsycholOgist, 1973, 4, 44-54. Shaw, M. C. 8 White, D. L. The relationship between child- parent identification and academic under achievement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1975, El, 10-13. Shertzer, B. 8 Stone, S. Fundamentals of Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973. Siegmann, A. W. Father absence during early childhood and anti—social behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1966, 11, (1), 71-74. 126 Smith, M. L. Influence of client sex and ethnic group on counselor judgments. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1974, 21 (6), 516-521. Staples, R. Towards a sociology of the black family: a theoretical and methodological assessment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1971, §§, 119-138. Staples, R. The black family in evolutionary perspective. The Black Scholar, 1974, 5, (9), 2-9(b). Staples, R. The Black Family Revisited: A Review and Preview. Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1974, 20 (2), 65-78(a). '_— Sutton-Smith, B., Rosenberg, B. G. & Landy, F. Father absence effects in families of different sibling com- position. Child Development, 1968, §§, 1213-1221. Tabler, K.A., Hixon, E. E. 8 Collins, E. F. Elementary and secondary student characteristics. Analytic Note, 81, March 1968, Washington, D.C., National Center for Educational Statistics. TenHouten, W. The black family: myth and reality. Psychiatry, 1970, fig, (2), 145-173. Tennyson, W. W. Time, the counselor's dilemma. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1958, 51, 129-135. Thomas, A., 8 Sillen, S. Racism and Psychiatry. New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1972. Thomas, A. H. Counselor responses to divergent vocational courses of a female client in terms of acceptance, appropriateness and need for further counseling. (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967). Thomas, A. H., 5 Stewart, N. R. Counselor response to female clients with deviate and conforming career goals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1971, 18, 352-357. Vroegh, K. Relationship of sex of teacher and father presence- absence to academic achievement. Proceedin s of the 81$t Annual Convention of the American Psychological Associa- fion, Montreal Canada. Williams, R. L. & Kirkland, J. The white counselor and the black client. The Counseling Psychologist. 1971, 2, (4), 114-116. 127 Wrenn, C. G. Status and role of the school counselor. Personnel and Guidance Journal. 36, 175-183 November. Zwack, J. M. Stereotypic family in childrens literature. Reading Teacher, 1973, 26, 389-91. U. S. Bureau of the Census. The Social and Economic Status of the Black Population, 1973. (CurrentiPopulation reports, series P-23, No. 48). Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1974(a). U. S. Bureau of the Census. Female Family Heads. (Current Population Reports, series P-23, No. 50). Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1974(b). U. 5. Bureau of the Census. Household and Family Character- istics: March 1974. (Current Population reports, series 0. . ashington, D.C.: U. S. Government g Office, 1975. ' , Printin MIC T Jfi/fiflfilfifijflflfilfllflflmfystflflmfliflfim'ES 2