A WfiVi WY 9? THE mem 0? W MUS“: TEACHERS: M JAPAN M9 WE UNITED STATES Mk hr {in W 0! Fit. 3. WWQW WAT! UNWWITY Sanuke Min i957 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comparative Study of the Preparation of School Nusic Teachers in Japan and the United States presented by Setsuko Rita has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for F‘h.D. Music Education\/ degree in Major professor Date l‘idy 16, 1957 0-169 -.n II .V ' V r—w-v y-sv. M! i" grail. . _ ., ... .1, :l ,. ,.P..v lat. . “vb-L... .9 A COMPARAHVE STUDY OF m PREPARATION OF SCHWL WSIC TEACHERS IN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES Sotnkn nu ATHESIS Sudt’ad to the School of Graduate Stud.“ 01‘ lichigan State University of Agriculture Ind Amined Science in.part1a1 fulfill-ant of the requirements tbr the degree of 1130103 OF PHIIDSOPHI Dapartnont of lusio 195 7 LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT Purpose of .t_h_e_ Studz The study has been made to answer the following three questions: 1. 3. What are the differences and simih rities in the programs of music- teacher education in Japan and the United States? What historical, philosophical and social influences have created these differences and similarities? What is needed to improve the programs, and are there any means to meet these needs? Methods and Procedures To find the answers to the above questions, methods and procedures used were: 1. 3. 4. To establish a background, a survey of the development of school music education in each country was made. The study then proceeded to find out what historical and traditional factors have created significant features in music-teacher education in Japan and the United States. The actual conditions of training were studied at Michigan State University an! two other Michigan higher educational institutions. The curricuh of three Japanese and the three Michigan institutions were checked against the evaluation scheduh s of the Music Education curriculun prepared by the Music Educators National Conference and the National Association of Schoob of Music. for the purpose of ii .5. finding out the propriety of the emphasis received by each subject content area. One hundred and four Japanese high school music teachers were asked to evaluate their training and to express what they felt to be lacking in the training. A questionnaire was deve10ped for use with Japanese teachers, based on the MENU and NASH recommended curriculum. The results of the study were compared with a similar study‘made of three hundred and one American high school music teachers by Wilber John Peterson and contained in his Ed. D. dissertation, Training 3: Secondary Music Teachers in _t_h_e_ Underggduate Programs 9!- Colleges and Universities 3! Seventeen Western States. (University of Oregon, 1954) Findings Major features found out through the study were: 1. 2. The history of music-teacher education in the two countries showed that the programs and practices were the reflections of the philosOphy of education of each country. The pre-uar totalitarian Japanese government set up a centralized, uniform teacher-training program under the authority of the Ministry of Education, while states' rights in the United States promoted diversity and variation in teacher education. Though after World War II. the Japanese system was revised according to democratic principles in education, the‘power hf tradition is still a strong factor influencing music-teacher edUcatioh. In types of training schools, Japanese conservatory type schools have a unique system of certifying teachers by merely adding to iii ‘ ordinary Applied Music curricula the minimum credits in Professional Education required by the Teachers License Law. In the United States all prospective teachers are trained by the Music Education curriculum. 3. Concerning requirements for admission. baccalaureate degrees and certification of teachers. the American system. lacking national control, showed a lack of uniformity against the more ‘uniforn Japanese system. 4. Study of the curricula for prospective Japanese teachers showed lack of balance in subject content areas, and inadequate emphasis in each area. The Basic Music and Professional Educationiareasi. especially. were weaker than in the American schools. 5. The evaluation of their training programs. by the Japanese and American teachers. revealed various common problems. The gréatest need felt by these teachers was a more functional and practical trainix; program. Anong the probh ms peculiar to one country only. the sort urgent seemed to be how to secure qualified teaching personnel for the Japanese schools of music established after World War II. Scholasions The results of the study suggest the following: 1. Need for revision of the existing Japanese system of certifying nusic teachers by requiring a Music Education curriculum for all candidates. 2. Need for strengthening professional music organisations. especially in Japan. where the only existing organization (Zenkoku Daigaku Ongaku-Bu Kyogikai) should be developed to the ph ce where it is the recognized spokesman for the teaching profession. iv 3. Need for joint efforts of music specialists. educators, public school nnsic teachers and students-in-training to create a more functional . and practical Music Education curriculum in each country. 4. Need for international co-Operation of professional music organizations and of music educators for the betterment of music-teacher education everywhere. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writer wishes to take this opportunity to eXpress her indebtedness to Dr. William R. Sur, committee chairman and Dr. J. Murray Barbour. committee-nan. for their constructive criticism and suggestions. generously given throughout the study. Great is her gratitude to other committee-men, Dr. Roy Underwood. Dr. H. Owen Reed and Dr. Carl H. Gross. for their guidance. The writer is also ever grateful to Professor Sumiko Nozaki and the other members of the faculty of the Music Department, Kobe College. and to»Professor Takeshi Inoue of the College of Music. Tokyo Arts University, for their great assistance in obtaining material for the study, to Mrs. warren D. Pierce, for her correcting the writer's English. and to Dr. Alice Doll Nelson, for her continuous encouragement and careful proof-reading. Appreciation and thanks are due to the writer‘s many friends in Japan and the United States. especially, to Miss Toki Pujita, ex-head of the Music Department of Kobe College, Mrs. Junko Shinjo and Mrs. Sumi Suto, for their unfailing interest and devoted help. Finally, the writer thanks Mrs. Paul C. Morrison for her voluntary assistance in typing. vi LIST 01' cm I. II. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHARTS .......... INTRODUCTION .............. NeedfortheStudy ... ....... PurposeoftheStudy ........ . Scope and Limitations of the Study . . Organization of the Study . . . . . . . BRIEF HISTORY OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN JAPAN UPTOWORLDNARII Influences from Abroad . . . . Philosophy ........ . Methodolcagy ......... BduCational Organization . . . Curriculum TatbOOks . O 0 C O O O O O . “It‘s-dc “USic ACtiVities e e e AFTER MID MAR II (1945) . . . 0 Change in PhilosOphy of Music Education Change in Methodology Change in Educational Organization Curriculum.............. Textbooks C O O O O O O O O A Professional Organization and Its Influence Music Bducat ion vii O O 0 O O C O O C O O O O Q PAGE 13 15 17 19 20 25 29 31 33 34 III. IV. Outside Music Activities . . . . . . . . . . . Present Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC*TEACHBR EDUCATION IN‘JAPAN -- UP TO 1945 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Philosophy of Teacher Training . . . . . Types of Teacher Training Institutions . . . . Music Education‘intherNormal Schools . . . . The Initiation of Music Teacher Training . . . Establishment of Tokyo Academy of Music and Its DeveIOpment . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rise of Private Music Institutions . . . . . . Establishment of the Fourth Temporary Teachers Training Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes in the Curricula of the Tokyo Academy of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Certification of Music Teachers . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRESENT MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN . . . . Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Types of Training Institutions . . . . . . . Requirements for Admission . . . . . . . . . Degree Granted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. viii PAGE 35 36 38 41 41 42 45 49 50 51 51 54 57 57 59 63 66 68 69 CHAPTER PAGE ScopeandPrinciples ............ 69 Subject Content Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Evaluation of Subject Content Areas in Music of Three Japanese Institutions . . . . . . 73 Music Literature, History, and/or Appreciation.. 74 8‘5“ ““313 Q Q 0 o o o O s e o e O O o e O 76 Musical Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Professional Education . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Certification of Music Teachers . . . . . . . 90 Organization of the Zenkoku Ongaku-Bu Kyogikai . . 94 sm‘ry 00000000000000.0000 97 V. THE EVALUATION OF MUS IC-TEACHBR BDUCAT ION BY SECONDARY ‘ SCHOOLMUSICTBACHBRSD‘IJAPAN ......... 101 Purposes and the Scape of the Questionnaire . . 101 Areas Questioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Classification ............... 102 Types of Training of Respondents . . . . . . 102 General Remarks on Bvaluation.Charts . . . .. 104 Evaluation, Criticism and Suggestions Concerning: Music History and Literature . . . . . . .. 105 BasicMusic......i.‘......... 105 Musical Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Professional Education . . . . . . . .‘. . 121 Voluntary Comments and Criticism . . . . .. 123 my C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 124 CHAPTEE PAGE '1. BRIEF HISTORY OF MUSIC EDWATION IN THE ‘ Hum MSTATBS e e s e e e a e e e o e e e e e 126 DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION UP TO THE ‘TWENTIETHLCENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Before the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . 126 SingingSchools 126 The Educational System . . . . . . . . . . 126 Introduction of Public School Music; . . Lowell Mason and His Contribution . . . 127 After the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Change in School Organization, and the Expanding Curriculum . . . . . . . . . 128 Influence of General Music Activities on the DeveIOpment of Public School Music . .. 129 Contribution of Luther Whiting Mason . . . 129 Emerging Philosophy and Methodology of Music Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH 7 CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . 131 Changes in Philosophy of Music Education and Methodology 131 The Change of Educational Organization and Its Influence on School Music i. . . . . . . 132 Influence of Professional Music Teachers' . Organizations ............. 133 Growth of School Music Activities . . . . . 135 amen ' mos Materials and Equipment in Public School Music .. 136 Present Music Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Present Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 VII. DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 UP TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY . . . . . . . . . 148 Colonial Period (1620-1800) . . . . . . . . 148 The Nineteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Early Institutes for the Training of Music Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Normal School Training of Music Teachers . . 151 Music Education in Higher Educational IntitUt ions 0 O O O O O O C O O O O O O 152 THE‘TNENTIETH CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.' Development of Philosophy of the Preparation of Music Teachers -- Up to 1940 . . . . . . . 152 Musicheacher Education in Higher Educational Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Influences of Professional Music Teachers' Organiza- tions on the DevelOpment of Music-Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 SW eeeoeosoeeeeeeeeee 158 VIII. PRESENT MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. .160 Philosophy 0 e o e e e o e O O o e e e 0 0 160 Training Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Requirements for Admission . . . . . . . . 162 CHAPTER PAGE Degree Granted O O O O O O O 0 0 O O O O I 165 Curriculum ................. 167 Scape and Principles . . . . . . . . . . 167 Recommended Curriculum for the Training of the School Music Teacher . . . . . . . .. 169 The Music Education Curriculum of the Three Michigan Institutions . . . . . . . . 172 Evaluation of Subject Content Areas in Music .. 175 Music Literature, History, and [or Appreciation.l75 Basic Music . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 176 Musical Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Professional Education . . . . . . . . . 185 Certification of Music Teachers' . a . . . . . 192 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 II . EVALUATION OF COLLKEE TRAINING BY AMERICAN SBZUNDARY SCHOOL nimL MUSIC TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES.. 201 Purposes and Scepe of the Questionnaire . . . 201 Areas Questioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Classification . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 202 Teaching Assignments . . . . . . .. . . . . 202 Evaluation, Criticism, and Suggestions Concerning Music History and Literature . . . . . . 203 .'EasicMusic .............. 204 Musical Performance . . . . . . . . . . 208 Music Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 xii CEAPTBR 1 PAGE X. COMPARISON, CONCLUSION, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 216 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Historical Background . . . . . . . 216 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Present Preparation of Music Teachers . 219 Philosophy ............ 219 TVpes of Institutions . . . . . . 220 Requirements for Admission . . . . 221 Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Curriculum . . . . . . . . .-. . . 222 Certification of Music Teachers . . 227 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 APPmon 239 BIBLIonm' 259 xiii I. II. III, IV. V1. V1 I. VIII. XI. "11. XIII. Xxv, LIST OF CHARTS PAGE Types of Music Teacher Training Schools . . . . . . 61 Subject Content Areas in the Curricula of Three Japanese: lutitUtions o o O 0 O o o 0 0 o o o o o o O O 70 Music Area Content . . . . 72 Types and Basic Requirements for Teachers' Licenses: TeaChOIS' License Law, 1949 e o o o o o 92 Basic Requirements for Music . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Types of Training of ReSpondents . . . . . . . . . 103 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Music History and Literature . . . . . . . . .. 106 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Sight-Singing ................ 108 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Basic Musicr-Lnaquraining. . . . . . . . . . . . 109 ReSpondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Basic Music; Harmony Including Keyboard Harmony: . 110 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Basic Music; Counterpoint . . . . . . . . . . . 111 ReSpondents' Evaluation of “cilia; in Four Areas: Canposition, Orchestration, and Form . . ... . 113 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Musical Performance and Conducting . . . . . . 115 Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Musical Performance: Musical Ensemble (Choral) . . 117 xiv XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XXI. XXII. “111. Relationship between the Teaching Assignnents in Applied Music and the Preparatory Training for AppliedMusic Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Musical Performance; Applied Music (Major and Minor) ................ .... Respondents' Evaluation of Training in Four Areas: Music Education and Practice Teaching . . . . Subject Content Areas in the Three Michigan Institutions .. . .. .. ... ... .... (pinion of High School Music Teachers of the Value of Their Training inMusic History and Literature accordim to Three Classifications . . . . . . Opinion of High School Music Teachers of the Value of Their Training in Basic Music according to ThreeChssificationS..... ....... winion of High School Music Teachers of the Value of Their Training in Musical Performance accordirc to Three Classifications . . . . . . Opinion of High School Music Teachers of the Value of Their Training in Music Education according to Three Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . Subject Distribution in the Curricula of the Music- Teacher Training Schools in Japan and the United st‘te‘ ' O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I C C O 0 PAGE 119 120 122 174 205 206 210 213 223 CHAPTER I INTRGDUCT ION as :22 3.11:. .8514: In recent years, the problems of music education have in general become sol-emu similar in most countries. For the solution of the P10b1ens and the further development of music education on an inter- national basis, music educators felt the need for knowing more about what their colleagues in other countries are doing, and for exchang- 5-1’8 profitable ideas. To meet this need, UNESCO convened the Inter. lliltional Conference on "The Role of Music in the Education of Youth and Adults" in Brussels, Belgium, in 1953. There gathered delegates fro. almost forty countries. Mr. Arnold M. Walter, delegate of the United States, made a report on the conference in his address given at the MEN: Biennial Conference in Chicago in 1954 as follows: ”Each and every one was anxious to contribute his own knowledge, t° learn from the experience of others. There was no lack of inf orna- ti'e lectures, ingenious suggestions, valuable recommendations; yet met. was a marked reluctance on the part of lecturers to comment on “Willing beyond their own personal experience; an almost total absence of c(Ilnparative studies.“1 Mr. Walter, who also was President of the International Society of Music Education (ISME)*, 1953.55, again \ M 1. Music _i_n_ American Education, Ed” by Hazel Nohavec Morgan, “31¢ Educators National Caerence, Chicago, 1955, p. 45. B * ISME was established at the International Conference in rNiels, 1953. 2 stressed the importance of comparative studies in the same address, sayim, ”me Society must embark on camarative studies to select the best am! most ndaptable forms of organization, methods of instruction, and materials.” 1 It is obvious that much of the advancement in the field of education has come from comparative studies; the systematic examinations of diverse ideas,and practices, in order to discover significant resemblances and differences. As mentioned by Mr. Walter, some valuable studies have been made concerning music education in foreign countries, but more Valuable would be a systematic comparative study such as is presented in this study. However, to the writer's knowledge, no other such study has been attempted in the preparation of school music teachers, nor in any other field of music education. This fact shows the need for this study. 4% ose 2:. .t_h_e. see: The purpose of this study is, by comparing major phases of the Preparation of school music teachers in Japan and the United States, to fill! out: . Resemblances and differences of principles, systems, and problems in two countries. Factors which have created these features. Adaptable ideas-and practices for the improvement of music-teacher education in the two countries. “NH 0 .SOurces _o_§ the Data :93 Procedures Used The sources on which the data used in this study are based, and the procedures by which these data were obtained are as follows: 1. Morgan. 93. gi_t.. p. 46. 1. Visits and Conferences In order that the study might be based on actual conditions in the music-teacher training program, classes in various areas of music- teacher training were observed, and questions were asked of the heads arr! instructors of three institutions in the United States. In addition to Michigan State University where the study was made, Mestern Michigan University am Central Michigan College were visited in December, 1956, and Northern Michigan College in March, 1957. 2. erespondence To get the information on the music-teacher training situation in Japan, and to as]: various questions, correspondence was carried on with many colleges and universities in Japan. 3. Catalgues 31g Bulletins To know the curriculum, requirements for admission and graduation, degrees granted, and certification of music teachers, catalogues and bulletins of the six institutions used in the study were Studied in detail. 4° mstionnaires i. A questionnaire prepared on the basis of the curriculum recom- merrled by the MERE and the NASM was sent to 200 high school music teachers in Japan in order to find out the adequacy of their training they have received. Completed and returned were 104. b. Findings from Mr. Uilbur J. Peterson's questionnaire answered by 301 American high school music teachers were used to compare with the findings from the questionnaires answered by Japanese music teachers. 5. Bvaluatig §_1_15_e_t_ Mith the purpose of evaluating subject content areas in terms of actual practice, the rating sheets for evaluation prepared by the MRI: and the NASM were checked by three Japanese and three American trainim institutions. 6. Looks, Dissertations, Pamphlets, and Periodicals An extensive study of literature both on music education and general professional education in Japan and the United States were made in order to know the present, as well as past, philosophy and systems of music education in general, and of the preparation of school music teachers in particular. mg and Limitations gt; 1135 .5332! The study is limited to the institutions which offer four year deSaree curricula for the education of public school music teachers. “19 main emphasis is put on the preparation of secondary school teachers, because in Japan, a teaching certificate for music is conferred only “Don secondary teachers, though the holder of the certificate can teach music at elementary level, too. 1'01: the detailed study, three institutions in Japan and three in the United States have been selected as the institutions which are °°n8idered to offer typical training programs for music teachers. The? are Michigan State University, Western Michigan University, and Central nichigan College in the United States, and Kobe College, (hanks Gakugei University and Tokyo Gakugei University in Japan. The study is mainly concerned with those subjects which are in the musical field. Accordirgly, the area of general culture, the professional education area other than music education and student teaching, and other college courses are mentioned only seldom in this study. Organization 9_f_ the Study Chapter I is concerned with the introductory statement to the study. By the nature of the study, the body of the thesis is divided into two sections, Japanese and American. They may be group- ed as follows: Chapters II and VI deal with brief histories of music education in general in the twu countries. Chapters III and VII present the historical background and development of music- teacher education in each country. Chapters IV and VIII present the principles and systems of the education of music teachers in the two countries, and the analytical evaluation of the music education Curricula of three Japanese and three American institutions. Chapters 7 and IX are the evaluation of music-teacher training received by high school music teachers in Japan and the United States, by means 0" questionnaires. Chapter x compares the pertinent features of the Preparation of music teachers in the two countries, seeks the factors Which have created these features, and suggests ways and means where- b? the preparation of music teachers of the two countries may more llClequately meet present-day needs. CHAPTER II BRIEF 11le OF MUSIC mmxon IN JAPAN 1. n; 39 my LA! I! _ Influences {52: 252mg It is valuable to glance at the main points of the development 0f school music as a background for the education of music teachers in Japan. Mestern music in Japan goes back to the time when Francis Xavier, Spanish Catholic missionary first introduced Christianity to Japan (1549). He and his fellow missionaries taught the people hymns as well as the Gospel. Even special training in hymn siming was Given at a Christian school near Iyoto. This was the first time the Japanese people heard western music in any form. However, with the ban 0f Christianity (1614) by the Tokugawa goverr-emt whose policy was to Oeclude Japan from foreign influences, the voice of hymn singim died Buy until 1853 when Commodore Perry forced Japan to open her low closed door. Then followed the Meiji Restoration (1868) with thich JB-Dan entered an entirely new era. A strong national goverment was eC‘Iutblished and all phases of western culture were introduced to ‘Odernize Japan. In the field of music, there were two groups which, after the 1MD“: of more than two hundred years, brought western music again to J‘Dan. These were missionaries and military bands. Miss ionar ies Japanese ports were Opened to foreign trade in 1854; the first group of missionaries arrived in Japan about 1860. With the authorization of Christianity as a religion by the government in 1873, missionaries became active, increasing in their number. Protestant missionaries numbered 138 by 1883. Of them, at least seventy-five per cent came from the United States. These missionaries were the first group which contributed much to stimulate music education in the new Japan and they did it, as Francis Xavier had done centuries before, by teaching hymn-singing. As Christianity spread quickly, hymn books came to be in great demand. By 1874 six kinds had been published. Though there was little singing at public schools in the early period of the Meiji Era, hymns and some English songs were taught at mission schools. This was the first music lesson given at any school in Japan. Military 21513 The seconl group which has done much for the development of music education was military bands. When Commodore Perry landed at Uraga in 1853, the American sailors marched hp to Tokyo with a brass band. This was the first time Japanese people had heard this type of instrumental ensemble music. Since that time the number of visiting foreign fleets has increased and with this has come more Opportunities to hear band music. Inspired by these military bands the Japanese navy (1871) and the army (1872) organized their bands. These military bands aroused musical interest by giving band concerts for the public. Initiation 91 M Education The contribution of Shuji Izawa and Luther Whiting Mason were 8 significant in the initiation of music education in Japan. The interest and work of these educational leaders created an interesting relation- ship between the school music movement in the United States and Japan. Recognizing the necessity of encouraging the development of music education in Japan, the Ministry of Education created in October, 1879, an Institute for the Investigation of Music, and appointed Shuji Izawa (1850-1917) who had just returned fro: the United States, as its head. Though his main study was science he also studied music under Luther waiting Mason (1828—1896), the Director of Music in the primary schools of Boston, and became much interested in music education. In 1880, at Izawa's request, the Japanese government invited Mason to be his advisor. By the combined efforts of these two pioneers, music education was initiated in Japan. The institute for the Investigation of Music presented three primary objectives: "1. Encouragement of the creation of new Japanese music in western style. 2. Training of musicians and music teachers to create a vital force for the development of rational music. 3. Encouragement of music in schools.“1 Contribution _o_f_ M 19.3 9.9.9. EM Mhitig M Mason, during his three year stay in Japan, helped laws to realize these objectives. To encourage composition of western-style Iusic and to supply schools with materials for singing, he compiled 1. Home Ongaku Kyoiku Shi (History of Music Education in Japan), ill. by Nippon Kyoif'u W “W“? ion mantras). Chgaku Kyoiku Sho Shuppan Kyokai, Tokyo, 1938, p. 87. son books for kindergartens and primary schools, including songs written by both western and Japanese composers. These song books were so enthusiastically welcomed by music teachers that the first prinry so” book sold more than 8,000 copies within one year. This was really amasim at that tine. To encourage the teaching of music, Mason himself, taught simian at the primary school and the kindergarten attached to Tokyo Normal School. By 1882, because of the efforts of Izawa and Mason, at the Girls' High School attached to Tokyo Girls' Normal School, music had become a required subject, and music theory and instrmemtal instruction- mostly piano and organ—as well as singing were taught. Though music was still regarded as merely one of the fanale accomplishments, it was not long before most girls' high schools and many primary schools included it in their curricula even if it still was not requked by the Bducat ional Code in Japan. This was a great deal for have and Mason to have accomplished, but the work for which they are most noted, because it was most needed, no the trainiq of teachers who were to instruct Japan's children in the new music. This will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. Philosghz Followiu the MeUi Reformation (Refornation, 1868), the Ministry °f Education was created and was given authority over all the educational W cultural features of Japanese life. In 1872 the Ministry established an Educational Code which brought into being a national system of universal “station patterned after the French system of 1854, in its highly centralized 10 structure. In spite of frequent revisions in the details of this code, its basic pattern for education underwent no significant change until August, 1945. The Ministry of Education had among its many duties the control of philosophy, school organization, curricula, and textbooks. Though the Japanese school system was modeled on the French system in its philosophy the American ideas of Pestalozzianism dominated educational thought until the later 1880's. They were first introduced by Shuji Issue. and Hideo Takamine who became acquainted with the ideas durim their studies at the Bridgewater, Massachusetts, and the Oswego, New York Normal Schools, respectively. Accordingly, the harmonious development of individuals was stressed. "It is true that during these years education served primarily to satisfy the intellectual curiosity an! ambition of individuals. Benefits to the state were indirect and secondary.“ In 1889 Herbartianism was introduced to Japanese educators. Its primary aim, attaiment of virtue, and morality, appealed to Japanese educators as a reaction to Pestalozzianism, and set the direction for later educational philosOphy. By 1890, Japan had embarked on her own philosophy of education, find a growing nationalism, brought the concept that virtue and morality fire to be attained for the benefit of the state even more than for the benefit of the individual. 0- October 30, 1890 the Imperial aescript on Education was issued by Emperor Meiji, and the basic Philosophy and control of the people by education was firmly established. Betause of its importance, the rescript will be quoted fully: ".Eperial Rescript of Education ‘ 1. Robert S. Schwants, Japanese and Americans, Harpers and Brothers, New York, 1955, p. 129. 11 Know Ye, Our Subjects: Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply an! firmly implanted virtue; Our subjects ever united in loyality an! filial piety have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. his is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends be true; bear yourselves in modesty and modera- tion; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learnirg and cultivate arts, all! thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore, advance public good arr! promote con-on interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws; should emergency rise, offer yourselves courageously to the State; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects, but renter illustrious the best tradition of your fathers.“ As seen above, the development of moral character which was inextricably tied up with nationalism was the central aim of education. The same idea was reflected strongly in the philosophy of music education. In 1891 the Elementary Education Legislation defined the 3oils of music at elementary-level as follows: . "The aims of singing shall be to train ears and vocal organs in order to enable the pupils to sing simple songs; to foster aesthetic in 1. This is the official English translation, f ran Educationm, by Theodore Hsipen Chen, in Comparative §_t_u§1 ed. by Arthur Henry Moehlman and Joseph S. Roucek. The Dryden Press, New York, 1953, pages 575-576. 12 feelirg; and to develop moral character."1 One of these three aims "the development of moral character" was regarded as the most vital aim of music education and outlived several revisions of the Educational Code. hie same idea also dominated pre-war secondary school music education. During the 1920's the philosOphy of progressive education was introduced from the United States. Pragmatism and Dewey's idea of ”education in life for life"2 were widely accepted in elementary and secondary schools, although practice fell short of these ideas. The progressive Japanese educators tried out child-centered curricula and free teaching methods. This progressive idea affected music education. Music educators and poets worked together to make a new kind of song, "Dow" or children's songs,written in free verse and eXpressing a child's feelings in simple childlike words. The educators also encouraged children to compose their own songs. To some educators it seems that the "progressive" idea was carried to the extreme. By 1930 with the rise of militarism and ultra-nationalism a reaction had set in, which transformed schools into agencies for indoctrination of state ideals, and resulted in the introduction of the National School System, whose purpose was to increase Japanese obedience to the Imperial Rescript on Education, in Order to guard and maintain the prosperity of the Imperial Throne, and 1=0 eliminate the idea that the main object of education is to develop imividual itYe In the National School System, the purpose of the "Geino-ka" was 1. 332223 Ongaku Kyoiku-Shi, m. cit., pages 178-179. 2. Schwants, E. cit.,"p.126. 13 to ”develop artistic ability necessary for the national life, to cultivate national sentiments and practical character by developing the powers of invention, creation, and appreciation so as to contribute to the refinement and enrichment of the students life.“ As to the specific aims of music education, the Guidance of Instruction of Music says: ”Music in the 'Geino-ka' shall teach the students the ability to sing songs correctly, foster the ability to appreciate music, and promote national sent intent."2 The last aim, promotion of natioml sentiment was most emphasized. In fact, durirg the war time songs were skillfully utilized to provoke ultra-nationalism and militarism. From 1941 on, approved music texts, especially, those issued by the Ministry of Education, were entirely militaristic, glorifying war and battle. Methodology The influence of Pestalozzi and Herbart on Japanese philosophy of education waned after the publishing of the Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890, but their methodology continued to influence music education. Mason, teaching in Tokyo public schools, introduced Pestalozzian methods which included the use of objects and inductive reasoning based on class-room questions and answers. "In 1862 he wrote m _G_ui_dg" in which he explained these methods. This was translated into Japanese by Yaichi Uchida and became the basis of the authorized teaching procedure. Songs were taught mostly by rote-sing- ing for lower grades of elementary schools. In addition, Mason intro- 1. The Shoto—Ea Music (Elementary School Music) IV, Teachers' Manual, The Ministry 3 Education, May, 1943, p. 179. 2. 1235.. p. 11. 14 duced two systems of music reading, the Tonic Solfa system, and the Galim-Paris-Omeve number systems. To the latter, Izawa applied the Japanese number system, "hi, fu, mi, yo, i, mu and ma“, which was known as "hi—fu-mi“ system. This ”hi—fuomi" system was widely used in the elementary grades until the Taisho Era (1912). In the upper elementary and secondary schools, the Tonic Solfa system was adopted and gradually replaced the "hi-fu-mi” system. Mason also introduced charts as an application of object teach- in, iiich contained music notation, scales, interval exercises, and simple songs. Item Herbartian philosophy was introduced in 1889, Japanese educators became eager to adopt its five step-method: preparation, pre- sentation, association with previous knowledge, generalization, and applicatiom-to all subjects, regardless of the nature of subject matter. The music educators also followed these formal steps. Almost all school music textbooks published after 1890 until 1945 were based on the Herbartian idea carbine-d with the Pestalozzian inductive method. A typical lesson plan would be organized in this manner: 1. Preparatory exercise-ovocalization, singing of scales, intervals and rhytlm patterns. 2. Bresentation of a new son. 3. The singing of previously learned songs. 4. Review. Eerbart himself did not regard these steps as a fixed procedure *0 be followed in each lesson, but indicated that with changes in the subject matter the teaching process had to vary. Tet the Japanese music 15 educators who did not understand the real meaning of Herbartian methodology applied it mechanically. Even in the time of "Doyo" the teaching methods were still formalized. In the "Geino-ka" music lesson, the control of methods and materials became stricter. The main changes in methodology were: 1. Note-reading by Tonic Solfa and the letter system was begun at the third grade, according to the school music regulation. 2. hphasis was put on ear-training. Bar-training had been neglect- ed until about 1935, when Kokichi Oita, who studied in Germany, created a new ear-training method called ”Onkan-Kyoiku" Music Educat iontbased on the sense of sound, which aroused nation-wide interest in ear-training. It is different from other methods in the following manner. 1. Use of the letter system instead of the movable Do system. 2. Memorization of Triad chords before individual pitches. 3. Teaching of intervals and notes as absolute instead of relative. 0ita's experiment with this new method was so successful in develOping absolute pitch in school children that the navy and the army adapted it to train the ears of airmen and submarine crews during the War, and the Ministry of Education finally authorized it, in principle, for elemen- tary and secorxlary schools. Accordingly ear-training became almost the sole concern of music teachers, and in extreme cases music lessons turned into dry drills of ear-training, note-reading, and the singing 0f songs which were written to use the notes and intervals being studied. This system predominated school music durirg Morld War II. Educat ional Org anizat ion M Education 16 Elementary education was organized into four years of lower- elementary and two to four years of higher elementary instruction. Attendance at the lower elementary level was compulsory. In the curriculum, music was optional mostly because of the lack of teachers and materials. In 1907, the elementary educational system was revised drastically. In this new system the lower-elementary was extended from four to six years and continued to be compulsory. The higher-elementary was made an optional two-year course. The revision of 1907 brought a significant change in the history of music education in.Japan; thirty-five long years after the promulga- tion of the Educational Code, music, for the first time, became a required subject. The Ministry of Education issued a Guidance 2: Music Instruction as follows: ”In the lower-elementary, simple unison songs shall be given. In the higher-elementary, advanced unison songs shall be given. Simple part-songs may be given according to circumstances. Both texts and music shall be simple as well as aesthetic enough to make children's character pleasant and refined."1 This remained until the out:§reak of World war II in 1940. In the following year (1941) the Ministry of Education issued the National School Plan, converting the elementary schools into national schools, purging Japanese education of all individualism and foreign influences. In this plan music was included in the 'Geino-ka" 1. Honpo Ongaku Kyoiku Shi, 92. cit., p. 27. 17 (accuplishments coarse-ca combined course of music, drawing, calligraphy and handicraft). According to the W 9; 32.1%. Instruction for the national schools, the music curriculum was different fru the previous one in the following points: 1. At the lower-elementary level, simple rounds am! part songs were added according to circustances. 2. The instruction of instruments-piano, organ, xylophone, harmonica. brass and percussion instruments and stringed instruments was begun. 3. llusic appreciation was added. 4. Husic reading was required at the third year. 5. Bar-training was stressed to develop the auditory sense. Secoularz Educat ion In 1872 Education Code fostered three kinds of secondary schools; the boys' middle school (five years), the girls' high school (four or five years). and the technical schools (three years after f inishim the higher-elementary course). According to the Educat ional Code each prefecture (51 in all) had to have at least one boys' middle school anions girls' high school. Curriculum Music became a required subject in the secondary schools for both boys an! girls in 1901. In the boys' middle schools, music was required one hour a week through the first three years. The Guidance of the secondary school music says: ”The first year: Basic fundamentals and simple unison songs shall be given. The second year: Simple rounds shall be added. 18 The third year: Simple part songs shall be added.”1 However, there was a regulation that subjects of the accomplishments course might be either omitted or made voluntary, and music need not be taken by those to whom it offered Special difficulty. In fact at most boys’ middle schools music was still regarded an unimportant subject and only few schools included it in their curriculum. Later in 1931, singing was required at boys' middle schools, though it was not stressed. Music at girls' high schools was required through four years, two hours a week, except for the fourth year, then it could be one hour a week. According to the "Guidance": ”The first and second years: Basic fundamentals, note-reading exercise, and simple unison songs shall be given. The third year: the theory of scales and rounds and two-part sous shall be added. Instruct ion of instruments may be given. The fourth year: The rudiments of harmony and three-partosoms shall be added. he fifth year: optional."2 Girls' vocational schools followed the pattern of the girls' high schools. In contrast to the boys' middle schools, girls' schools encouraged music because music was thought indispensable to foster a graceful manhood. Therefore, the music texts for the secondary school were compiled mostly aiming at girls' schools. Iith the introduction of the national school system in 1941 music was included in the "Geino-ka",but the change of the school system did not affect the music curriculum as it did in the elementary education except for the emphasis on the materials which would indoctrinate 3%?!) Ongaku Kyoiku Six-i" $0 Cit., p. 279 2. i .530. 19 nationalism and militarism. However, as the war-time situation in Japan became more and more critical, school courses were shortened, and elementary school children in cities evacuated to the country, ihile the students at secondary and higher institutions spent their time more and more at munition factories and civil defense. Thus, music education came to a standstill in reality. Textbooks All textbooks including music textbooks were compiled or approved by the Ministry of Education. Songs other than those found in the text- books could be used occasionally only by permission of the reSpective governor of each prefecture. The compilation of the first Shogaku Shoka or Elementary School Songs was started by Izawa and Mason in 1881, and the third volume was completed in 1884. These three books introduced songs suitable for elementary school music, and were mainly translations from English and German songs. In 1910, the Ministry of Education compiled a newiligig Shggaku‘Shggg or Lower Elementary School Songs, which included songs and music by Japanese poets and composers in addition to western songs. By 1914 six volumes for each grade had been completed. The songs were selected with more attention to the educative than the musical point of view. In 1930, the Ministry of Education compiled Koto Shggaku Shoka or Higher Elementary School Songs for the older students who had been rather neglected. In addition to using these texts, the music teachers could with 20 freeda choose other songs which had been approved by the authorities. However, with the introduction of the National School Plan, the Ministry of Education issued new textbooks, six volumes of Shotoka M2 or km Elementary M, and one m M or M Elementary 5292, and teachers were required to teach these and given less freedom to use supplementary materials. The main features of these texts were: 1. Western songs except for those of Germany and Italy were eliminated. 2. lost of texts and music were written by the Japanese poets and composers assigned by the Ministry of Educat ion with the purpose of indoctrinating ultra-nationalism and militarism. The first official secondary school music textbook Chugahu flog; or W £933 £9553. was compiled by Tokyo Academy of Music in 1901, and established the standard of secondary school music. It contained famous songs both by western and Japanese composers. As girls' high schools were increased, more than 15 kinds of texts were published around 1905. Amorg them, Josh} 9351153 Kzokasho or £93.! 52.25. Textbooks, five volumes were most widely used. These were more than song books, for music theory and note-readim exercises were included with song material. These books were later revised as Sh___;___ewa L952} 29.55.52 Izokasho or M gigg' 59333 Textbooks and were used widely at girls' high schools. oursmr Egg-g agrrvrrms Rot only music education in schools but also a variety of music activitiesfroa other sources helped the development of western music in Japan. During the Meiji Era, Japan waged two wars, the Sino-Japanese (1894- 21 1895), and the RusSOanpanese (1904-1905), which gave impetus to the rise of military songs. These were taught in the schools. By that time both civil and military bands had been.developed enough to play outdoor concert programs, and played at such occasions as parties and field days. These military bands helped to diffuse military songs, and during the wars were sent to the fronts to stimulate the patriotism of soldiers. After the Russquapanese war, military songs declined suddenly and art songs soon replaced them. Many European, mostly German, art songs were translated into Japanese, while original Japanese art songs were also written. Orchestra and the Manufacturing of Musical Instruments One of the major works of Mason was to train some of the court musicians as well as the students of the "Institute for the Investigation of Music" to play string and wind instruments. The first performance of the orchestra by these musicians was given in February, 1887, at the commencement ceremonies of the Institute. The program included Beethoven's Symphony No.1. However, a full-fledged orchestra did not come into existence until 1914, when.Kosaku Yamada (1886) returned from.Germany after four years of study there, and organized the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra. This orchestra was discontinued after one year because of financial difficulty. In 1925, Yamada organized the Japan Symphony Association, which gave regular concerts affiliated with the Japan.Broadcasting Association. The next year the New Symphony Orchestra was organized under Hidemaro Konoe. for This orchestra gave concerts twice a month $111.59! each year eXCCPtAtWO summer 22 months. This continued until the outbreak of World war II. Stimulated by the increasing popularity of orchestra, by World War II, cities, theatres, commercial organizations, universities and colleges had established their own orchestras. The rise of orchestras also stimulated the production of musical instruments in.Japan. As early as 1887, Torakichi.Yamada succeeded in manufacturing reed organs. In 1897, Yamada established the Japan Musical Instrument Manufacturing Company, and started to produce not only organs, but pianos and other instruments. Today Yamada pianos and organs are the best known in Japan. Violins were produced chiefly by the Suzuki Violin Manufacturing Company which was established in 1887. Since 1918 instruments made in Japan including pianos, violins, reed organs, harmonicas, and brass instruments have been.eXported to England, Australia, America and the Philippines. Publication of Literature 93: Music At the turn of the century, music magazines began to be issued: O_ngaku-Sekai or Music World (1908-1923), 9352.1;an or Music Circles (1908-7) and Qggaku or M2235 (1910-1922). The last one, which was issued by the Tokyo Academy of Music did much to bring forth the theoretical, critical and historical studies of music, and encouraged compositions. Meanwhile, music theory and history books,such as Ernst Friedrich Richter's Lehrbuch der Harmonie (1912), were translated into.Japanese. In 1908, Elementary Harmony the first harmony textbook was written by a Japanese, Naoaki Fukui. Following this, in 1900, the first music dictionary was compiled by Tsunezo Yoshida. Since then a great many music books have been published. 23 Rise 2: Opera Opera was introduced by a group of foreign residents around Tokyo who presented Act I, from EEEEE by Gounod, in 1894. In 1902, Gluck's'nggg, the first Opera to be given by the Japanese people, was presented by the members of the Opera Society of Tokyo Academy of Music. In 1911, the Imperial Theatre (Tokyo) was opened to present both drama and operas. About the same time the Royal Theatre and Asakusa Opera Troupe were busy introducing light operas to the general public, but these were dissolved in the financial panic of 1920. In 1919, the Imperial Theatre presented the Russian Opera Troupe, and the Japanese audience saw for the first time the orthodox presenta- tion of such Operas as Cavalleria Rusticana, Aide, Carmen, La Traviata andIzgggg. Following the Russian Opera, the Capi Italian Opera Troupe introduced Italian operas. Kosaku Yamada organized the Japan Musical Drama Association in 1929 and presented the major operas. The perform- ance of Yamada's 323522225 °r.2&!§ in 1940 was an epoch making event at the first Japanese composer's opera in western style. Fujiwara Opera Troupe (1934) and some other Opera troupes were successively organized. Thus, Opera became very popular with the Japanese public. concerts In the early part of the Meiji Era, concerts were Sponsored mostly by the Japan Music Society'(188601894), and the Meiji.Music Society (1898-1910). The performers were military bands, court musicians and 24 and the members of the Tokyo Academy of Music. At the beginning of the Taisho Era, when World War I closed concert halls in EurOpe, noted artists went over to Japan, and Japanese audiences were able to hear excellent performances of western music. Between the two world wars the musical life in.Japan was enriched by the world famous artists, like Elman, Zimballst, Kreisler and Madam Schumann—Heink. Records and 3392 Records and radio are two other powerful factors which have done much to spread western.music and enrich school music activities. In 1893, the gramOphone was first imported to Japan from the United States. Around 1915 when.music appreciation became popular as a part of art education, the records of western music came into great demand. These records were produced chiefly by the.Japan Victor GramOphone Company and the Japan Columbia Gram0phone Company, both with American and British affiliations. Toward the end of 1920, jazz and popular music were intro- duced through records, and immediately spread all over the country. This type of music had a strong influence on the public. Along with the records came radio. The Japan Broadcasting Associa~ tion was organized in March, 1925, and established three radio stations, Tokyo, Ohsaka, and Nagoya. The broadcasts for school use were started on October 4, 1935, but music education programs were few at that time. However, radio, which stimulated school music, gave impetus to the rise of music contests. The first nation-wide music contest which covered piano, voice, strings and composition was Sponsored in 1932 by the newspaper,'liji Shiggo, and in 1957 was taken over by the newspaper, Maichi. Since that time, this contest has been held once a year and 25 was regarded as a chance for young musicians to start a musical career. At this same time, regional and local musical contests became popular among school children. Music. Activities Burg 3312.2 E 1; During werld war II, the Japan Musical Culture Association, which was established under the control of the military authority, supervised all musical activities. Only music which would stimulate the military spirit was permitted. The Japan Broadcasting Association encouraged the composition of new'military songs by prize contests. Westerntmusic other than that of Germany and Italy was prohibited. Most European artists left Japan at the outbreak of the war. The musical instrument factories were turned into munition factories. Many record shops were wiped out by air raids. The number were reduced to about 18 per cent of that of the pro-war period. In this way, Japanese musical circles were isolated from abroad, and music activities except military music became stagnant during the war. 11. 21.21 m as 3.2 Change in Philosophy gf Music Education Many factors enter into the development of a philoSOphy of education. It is obvious that the philosophy affecting music education after World War II had been much affected by social, political, economic, and cultural conditions throughout the nation. However, due to the limitation of this study, only the cultural and educational changes directly influencing the philos0phica1 basis of music education will be emphasized. Among other factors, the part played by the Civil Information and Education (618:8) section in the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SOAP) was a major 26 influence in creating of a new phi1050phy of education. The special responsibility of the Civil Information and Education section in SCAP was the re-orientation and re-education of the Japanese pe0p1e so as to be a democratic, cultured and peaceful nation. To accomplish this, great changes were made in the guiding principles of education. The basic concepts were defined in the Fundamental Law of Education of March 31, 1947, which replaced the Imperial Rescript on Education as the charter of education for a new-born.Japan. The preamble of the Law states: "Education should be looked upon as the pursuit of truth, as a preparation of life in a democratic nation, and as a training for the social and political reSponsibilities which freedom entails. Emphasis should be placed on the dignity and worth of the individual, on independent thought and initiative, and on developing a spirit of inquiry. The in- dependent character of international life should be stressed. The Spirit of justice, fair play, and respect for the rights of others, particularly minorities, and the necessity for friendship based upon mutual respect for peeple of all races and religions should be emphasized. Special emphasis should also be placed on the teaching of the sanctity of the pledged word in all human relations, whether between individuals or nations. Measures should be taken as rapidly as possible to achieve equality of educational opportunity for all regardless of sex or social position."1 The statement above indicates that the fundamental principles under- lying the Law'are progressive liberalism and humanistic democracy, 1. Education in the New J_pan Vol.11, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Civil Information and Education Section, Tokyo, May, 1948, p. 9. 27 providing for equal Opportunities in receiving education, and looking toward freedom and peace. The post-war music education in.Japan has also been re—oriented so as to assist in the democratic development Of the Japanese people. The Ministry of Education issued two courses of study in music to serve as instructional guides for teachers. One was for music in the elementary school and the other was for music in the secondary school. The new phiIOSOphy of music education is given in these courses of study as follows: "Music education shall aim at fostering aesthetic sentiments and rich human nature, developing well-rounded character, and enhancing culture desirable for a good citizen through musical experiences."1 It goes into further details: 1. To give musical experiences which will prepare the pupil for effective living in the democratic society. 2. To know and love music better through various musical experiences such as singing, playing instruments, appreciation, and creative work. 3. To cultivate musical skill in order to increase the ability of self-expression in music. 4. To develop musical creative power. 5. To cultivate a desirable habit of appreciating music by listening to good music. 6. To develOp the musical knowledge expected of a cultured citizen. 7. To give each individual Opportunities to'develop his musical capacity. l. The Course gf Study 13,1unior and Senior High School Music, ed. by the Ministry of Education, 1951, p. 9. 28 8. To offer music of high quality in order to make the individuals' life, as well as group living, richer, and his leisure time more fruitful. 9. To attain better understanding of the peoples of other countries with different languages, customs, and habits through learning their music."1 Music is nc»more a female accomplishment, but has come to be regarded as a vital factor in accomplishing the new educational ideal--the develop- ment of the individual and democracy. Change‘ig Methodology The change in philosophy has had a tremendous effect upon teaching methods in.post-war Japan. The most conspicuous effects is the change of attitude of the teacher toward his pupils. Rather than limit the pupil to prescribed instructional materials the teacher encourages the pupil to work on his own initiative. The role of the teacher is to guide the pupil and enable him through his studies to achieve a richer educational experience. Use of teacher-pupil planning, the problem method, project method, and discussion.method have become a part of Japanese education. The bio-psychological growth of the pupil has become a great concern in the process of teaching. The £93.92 gt; Elementary School Music, issued by the Ministry of Education states, "All musical learning should be arranged so as to conform to the stages of the physical and mental 2 growth of the child." Audio-visual aids have come to play a more important role than in l. The Course 2: Study in unior and Senior High School Music, &. Cit., p. 10 2. The Guide gf Elementary School Music, 92. cit., pages ll-l3. 29 the pre-war period. In addition to records, the radio has become a powerful educational tool. School broadcasting which was begun in 1935 was resumed on November 12, 1945. Since then radio has been utilized to a great extent. Various educational programs including music are broadcast by the classroom in 94 per cent of the elementary schools, 95 per cent of the junior high schools, and 98 per cent of the senior high schools. Television, which was introduced in 1954, is not yet widely used for educational purposes. At present, six stations of the Japan Broad- casting Corporation and two private stations are Operating. By the end of 1956 eight more stations are scheduled to be Opened. A series of educational music films are being produced. Tape recorders and other modern audio-visual materials are also widely used. The methodology of music education has been thus modernized and democratized. It is no longer controlled by the Minister of Education, and the teacher has a free choice of methods of teaching. However, in order to improve teaching methods, the Ministry of Education now sponsors experimental classes in.music. In these experimental classes, specific subjects are studied, and the results are demonstrated and reported to music educators. Change ingducational Organization School System The School Education.Law, which came into effect in.Marchgl948, established the 6-3-3 public school system. CO-education has been recognized at all levels, affording to girls opportunities to those available to boys. 30 The new system requires all children to attend elementary and junior high schools beginning at the age of six and continuing to fifteen years of age. No tuition is charged for compulsory education in national or local government schools. The privileges of universal education are also extended to handicapped children who may also receive nine years of training in schools for the blind, deaf, dumb, and mentally retarded. As a result of the extension of compulsory education, more than four times as many children are attending the new junior high schools as were able to get into pre-war middle schools. The three-year senior high schools are classified as "general” or "vocational”. To be eligible for graduation, the student must complete at least eighty-five credits during the three-year course. Out of eighty-five credits, thirty-eight credits of basic subjects are required and forty-seven credits are elective. In the vocational high schools, at least thirty credits of major subjects are needed in addition to the basic required subjects. The music high school and the high schools which have music as a major subject belong to the category of vocational schools. At present there are seventeen music high schools (1 government, 7 public, and 9 private schools). They are preparatory schools for music colleges. Administratigg The Board of Education Law'promulgated in July, 1948, established the basis for educational administration. This Law provided for the decentralization of educational administration and for the development of a democratic educational program. The authority over educational budgets, personnel, supervision and guidance of public schools includ- 31 ing high schools has been transferred from the Ministry of Education to local boards of education. Private schools of all levels are exempt from such administrative authority. The role of the Ministry of Education has thus been changed from a national administrative agency to one of giving advice to local boards of education on specific educational and technical questions. Curriculum The curriculum in the new educational system aims to "eliminate the Japanese traditional approach of organizing children's experiences around knowledge and skills which adults thought children should possess, and to center the program around the interests, needs, and aptitude of children. It reduced the number of courses, thus making it possible for students' energies to be more wisely and effectively eXpended." In the new curriculum of music, "singing" has been changed to "music" which includes singing, instrumental instruction, appreciation, and creative expression, and is a required subject (two hours a week) during ninesyears of compulsory education. The following are the activi- ties recommended in the courses of study for Music (elementary and secondary levels) 1. singing In the first and second grades, unison songs are taught by rote- singing. Note-reading begins in the third grade and by the end of the sixth grade, the pupil is expected to be able to read songs in the key of C, P, G, D, B-flat, A, and E-flat majors and in their relative minors. 1. Education in the New Japan, Vol. 1, 9p. cit., p. 184-185. 32 Simple rounds are given in the third grade and part-songs are gradually added in the upper grades. In the junior and senior high schools, songs in all major and minor keys are given in unison and part-songs. Chorus, especially mixed chorus, is encouraged in senior high schools. 2. Instrumental instruction During the first an! second grades, rhythm instruments are mostly used; in the third grade melodic instruments such as cornets, vertical flutes, am harmonicas are added. Instruction in keyboard instruments is also given in the upper grades, and brass bands and orchestras are encouraged especially in high schools. 3. Appreciation In the first and second grades, the cultivation of the sense of rhytln and of the knowledge of instruments is stressed. From the third grade up, music with more complicated rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic interests are added. The knowledge of music history and structure of music are given in addition to the listening activity. Records provide the usual classroom listening eXperience. However, radio, films and concert attendance are also utilized. In the appendixes of the 22535 3f m in 1951 the lists of music educational records are given. There are 212 for the elementary level and 165 for the high school level. 4. Creative empressiom The any}. 3; Elementary gem 5.5.11.2 states, "Creative expression covers not only composition, but also creative learning in the whole area of musical activities."1 At the elementary level, creative empressions 1. Cu t Elementary School Music, Q. 533... p. 243. 33 are combined with rhythmie.re5ponse such as free bodily expression, dancing, singing games, and rhythm bands. At the secondary school level, writing original melodies, harmonization of melodies and arrang- ing of music are encouraged. ‘ Though singing is the basic approach to musical learning, the other activities-instrumental instruction, appreciation, and creative expression are all interrelated with each other in the unit type of curriculum and are also integrated with other subjects. In the senior high school, music is included in the "Arts Course". Two credits of music, art or calligraphy each year are required. Every student is urged to take not less than two subjects in the "Arts Course." Textbooks It was necessary to revise textbooks to conform with the new principles of education. The textbook system, therefore, underwent basic changes in 1948. "Writing and production were no longer the prerogative of the Ministry of Education, but Opened to free competition. Since 1949, textbooks prepared by private groups have come into use. These, however, should maintain the standard indicated in the Courses _o_f_ £13591, and should be approved by the inspection.Commiteee of the Ministry of Education."1 At present there is a great number of these approved textbooks and the teacher may select from among them. Compared with pre-war textbooks, the present ones feature the following: 1. More songs from different countries. 2. Musical activities of the whole area of singing, instrumental instruction, 1. Education Reform in [apanz the Present Status and the Problems Involved, the Report of the Japanese Education.Council, January 1950, p. 36. 34 appreciation, and creative expression in addition to note reading. 3. Greater number of colorful pictures. 4. Greater variety of and greater number of materials. 5. More consideration given to the shape and the size of the book. _A_ Professional grganization and Its Influence 33 M Education It is a natural process that as teachers enlarge their experience, they come to face educational problems which they cannot solve alone. Around 1920, Japanese music teachers realized the need of an organiza- tion through which they might be able to improve their teaching technique,and find solutions to problems which arise in teaching music. Their desire was realized in the establishment in TOkyO of "Nippon Kyoikg Ongaku Kyokai" or Japan.Music Education Association in December, 1922. The Association began its activity by issuing a periodical, £22353 Qggaku or Music Education. In November, 1926, the National Conference of Music Education was held in Tokyo for three days sponsored by the Japan Music Education Association and the Imperial Education Association. More than 400 music teachers attended the conference to discuss and study ways to improve music education in Japan. From that time until its discontinuance during the last war, this Association,- the only music teachers' organization in.Japan.has been active and effective in stimulating music educators and in improving music education, with the COOperation of many influencial music educators. After World war 11, December, (1945), the Association was revived as the Japan Music Educators' Association an (official translation.) At the same time, it resumed the publication of Music Education (monthly). 35 The re-born Association is now making efforts to develOp new programs of school music, through its annual national and regional conferences. In addition to the above Association, there are now the followa ing voluntary organizations of music teachers: National Conference for Elementary School Music, National Conference for Junior High School Music, and National Conference for Senior High School Music. Outside M11535 Activities Music circles after World War II quickly restored their former activities in all fields. Here only the new features which had to do with the develOpment of music education outside of schools will be given. Role Played _bz the Civil Information and Education Centers Among factors which stimulated the resuscitation and enhancement of music interest in general, the role of the C.I.& E. is really inestimable. The C.I.& E. library, which has become "one of the hallmarks of American cultural work around the world."1 was first set up in TOkyo in November, 1945. This was soon utilized by students and the public who were eager to make up the cultural lag of wartime. Since 1947, C.I.& E. libraries have been.Opened in quick succession in Kyoto, Ohsaka, Kobe, and other major cities--a total of fourteen by 1954. The music sections of these libraries serve the cause of music in a variety of ways. They sponsor active participation in music through choral organizations and concerts. In addition, they present numerous public concerts by means of recordings, music lectures by noted Japanese and Americanumusic critics and educators. The libraries also introduce various books on music through giving book reviews. Stimulated by the C.I. & E. library, Japanese public libraries now present the same type of incentive in music programs. 1. Schwsnts,lgp. cit., p. 308. 36 ‘Together, radio and C.I. &.E. have created some far reaching influences outside of schools. The organization of the Workers' Music {Association is an example of one of the important influences. 1h: Organization 3}; 1.113 Horkers' 59335 Association Around 1950, interest in music became so strong among the working classes that they had their own choral groups. To have more varied .musical experiences, groups of laborers gradually formed an organization, 'Kinro Ongaku Kyokai", or "The Workers' Music Association". .At present in almost all cities, the workers have organized a branch of the Workers' Music Association which has extended its music offerings to'many types of employees as well as to high school and college students. The programs, exclusively for the members, cover choral activities, the instruction of music theory, instrumental lessons, live and recorded music appreciation concert-lectures. Each association also publishes a monthly periodical, m O_n_g__a_k_t_:_", or MM' Music; The content of these periodicals is determined by local organizations, and these publications cover a wide range of music subjects. Present Problems It is always true that reality does not keep pace with ideals. Music accomplishments of the past ten years lag far behind the ideals, and have brought several new'problems. The following are the most discussed: 1. Criticism 91213 Courses g_f_ §t_u_d_y The standards suggested in the courses of study ianusic are too high to be practical. The music teachers agree that it is almost impossible to cover four fields of musical activities in two hours a 37 a week. Therefore, there is a wide lag between the plans of the courses of study and what is being accomplished in the classroom. 2. Criticism‘gngextbooks To’get the approval from the Ministry of Education to publish text- books all materials in the textbooks are checked with the‘gggggg.gf it!!! in m. Accordingly, the W gf m exerts a control- ling influence. As a result, all textbooks are much alike, and are, in fact, little changed from the pre-war textbooks prepared by the Ministry of Education. Obviously this is not promoting the principle of democratic education. 3. Meakness'gf Instrumental Instruction The instrumental instruction area is far behind the ideal set by the m 3.3: £3291.- This is mainly due to lack of instructors and insufficient means of securing instruments. The new school system has greatly increased the number of junior high schools, and also the music curriculum has been expanded. This has caused a shortage of school music teachers who are able to meet the new requirements. In the instrumental field, eSpecially in wind instruments and percussions, the teacher shortage is most keenly felt. {Most music teachers have been trained to play only the keyboard instruments. Due to the present financial situation in‘Japan, neither schools nor parents can afford enough instruments for children; also, the pro- duction of instruments is not great enough to supply demands. Therefore, only large city schools can afford to organize bands and orchestras. 4. Problems Peculiar 2 Secondary M Education Financial weakness in Japan makes school music highly vulnerable. Buildings and equipments destroyed during World Mar II are still under construction. 38 Besides, the adoption of the new three-year compulsory attendance at junior schools require many new facilities of which those for the music course are only a part. Because senior high schools are often.preparatory schools for higher institutions, and competitive entrance examination for colleges and universities stresses mathematics, English, and science, musical activities of students, especially of boys, are greatly hampered. What to do with senior high school music is one of the biggest problems in the present music education in.Japan. 5. Universal Music Education Problem The influence of commercial music, particularly radio and television, is becoming detrimental to the cultural develOpment of the youth of Japan. It is an influence which music teachers must face. Summary The first interest in western.music was awakened among Japanese peOple by military bands and by the hymnpsinging of missionaries (approximately 1853-1880). Music education was started with the establishment of the Institute for the Investigation of Music in 1878. The contribution to Japanese music education by Shuji Izawa, head of the institution, and Luther Whiting Mason, his adviser, can be compared with that of Lowell Mason in the United States. By the joint efforts of these two pioneers, the creation of western-style Japanese music, the establishment of a school music curriculum, the compilation of textbooks, and the teaching of music in the schools, were all initiated. Prom then on Japanese music education did not undergo any fundamental change until 1945. The philOSOphy of education was set up by the Imperial Rescript on Education (1890) so firmly that it doninated educational thinking in all fields. The Ministry of Education had supreme authority in.education as as well as in general culture. It controlled school organization, methodology, and textbooks by the principle of the centralization of 39 education. Music education in Japan, which became a required subject in boys' middle schools and girls' high schools in 1901, and in elementary schools in l907, was also prescribed by the Ministry of Education. Curriculum and musical activities were limited to singing, note-reading, organ, piano and violin lessons. Methodology, which was mainly influenc- ed by the Eerbartian system, was formal. Though there was, around 1920, a temporary encouragement of children's free composition of songs, influenced by the art education movement of progressive educators, it was soon overwhelmed by a surging militarism and ultra-nationalism. with the end of World War II (1945), under the guicance of SOAP, a revolutionary change in education took place. The 6-3-3 co-educat ion system was adopted. A new democratic philosogahy of education was intro- duced, and education was set free from the control of the Ministry of Education, which was transformed into a supervisory agency. I'oa' music education in the public schools, the Ministry of Education issued the Courses _o_f_ .3329! in Music. for the elementary and secondary schools respectively, not as a rigid requirement, but as a guide for teachers. Compared with the pre-war, the present music curriculum is broad and comprehensive. Though singing is still the main approach to music teaching, the curriculum includes instrumental and rhythmic aperiences, music theory, creative work, and appreciation. Methods of teaching have become flexible to meet children's needs and desires. To help teachers achieve the newly set goals of music education, the Japan Music Educators' Association (established in 1922), with the co-operation of the National Institute for Elementary School Music, for Junior High School Music, and for Senior High Music, conducts 40 national and regional conferences, and issues a monthly magazine, Qggaku Kzoiku or Music Education. The music section of the C.I.& E. and the Workers' Music Associa- tion.have generated interest in music among all classes, and helped develop school music directly and indirectly. In general, the re-orientation of music education in Japan is fairly successful, and western music of all kinds is enjoying an unprecedented papularity. Music educators, however, face problems such as the need for revision of the Courses 2: Study and the textbooks, and for more adequate musical equipment; they face lack of emphasis upon music in the senior high school due to the need to prepare for college entrance examina- tions. Moreover, because the traditional Japanese music is losing its attraction, especially for young people, how to keep the traditional music, or how to utilize it to create a new Japanese music, is one of the critical problems imposed on the music educators in Japan today. CHAPTER III stanM 93 MUS Ic-rmcnm EDUCATION £13 IAPAN-_ Lo 1945 3 Philosophy of; Teacher Trainig It is necessary to understand the philosophy of teacher education which controls the changes in the preparation of music teachers. When the first normal school was established in 1872,how to teach and what to teach was the central concern in preparing teachers. As the influence of the Herbartian educational thought became powerful, moral education of teachers was stressed. By the Normal School Code of 1886, three virtues namely, obedience, friendship, and dignity were particular- ly emphasized, because they were thought indispensable to good teachers. A speech made by Yurei Mori, then Minister of Education, when he visited a normal school in Saitama Prefecture in 1885 says: "Because young normal students are not mature enough to have their own Opinion and judgement, it is important to foster the attitude of unquestioning obedience to commands. Co-operative friendship is vital to the development of civil- ization. Dignity is indiSpensable for the teacher who must know how to couand as well as obey.“ In order to achieve these virtues, militaristic training is the most effective means:1 Thus, the philosophy of teacher trainiig based on nationalism and militarism, which was later further consolidated by the Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890, was estab- lished and dominated the whole area of teacher training before World War II. 1. Historical Study__ of Elementary a_n_d Secondary Education _i_n _t___he Ea______rlz Period o__f_ Meiji Era., Tokyo Gakygei University, 1952, p. 108. 41 42 In the field of music-teacher training this was true. Up to 1945, emphasis was upon subject-matter, and the fostering of virtues based upon nationalism. 32222.2£ Teacher Training Institutions As the development of music teacher training is related, in one way or another, to that.of general teacher training, a brief history 'will be given until 1945, when all educational systems were changed. Before World war II, there were three types of teacher-training institutions. .E2552l Schools 1.‘§ighgg.§ggggl Schools In 1872, the Ministry of Education established the first teacher- training school, Tokyo Normal School for men only. A year later they added an elementary school for practice teaching. Two years later (1874), Tokyo‘Women's Normal School was established. These two normal schools werethm first institutions for teacher training in Japan. In 1886, the normal School Code was promulgated, setting up the funda- mental principles of teacher training in Japan. By this code, two types of normal schools, higher and ordinary, were established. Tokyo Normal School was designated as Tokyo Higher Normal School, and a little later (1890), Tokyo Wanen's Normal School, as Tokyo Higher Women's ‘ normal School. The higher normal schools offered a four-year course based on the completion of the ordinary nonmal and secondary schools. Their graduates were qualified to teach in ordinary normal and secondary schools. Before the war, eventually there were four higher normal schools for men (Tokyo, Hiroshima, lanazawa, and Okazaki), and three 43 higher normal schools for women (Tokyo, Nara, and Hiroshima). These three higher normal schools for women were the only higher educational institutions for women supported by the pre-war government in Japan. 2. 9521.351 Normal Schools The Eormal School Code of 1886 demanded each prefecture to establish at least one ordinary normal school to prepare men teachers for elementary teachim. In 1897, the Revised Normal School Code further demamied the establishent in each prefecture of an ordinary normal school to prepare women teachers. The ordinary normal school provided a f ive-year course for prospec- tive elementary school teachers. It enrolled students graduated from the higher elementary school. The graduates of the boys' middle school or the girls' high school were eligible for a one or two-year course known as the second section (post-secondary in curriculum). For practice teaching, each normal school had an attached kindergarten and elementary school. The normal school students (both higher and ordinary) were requested to live in dormitories to get a uniform discipline, and tuition, room and board were free except for an obligation to teach for ten years. 1933! £929.}. Schools Special normal schools for teachers for the youth school (part- time continuing education for those who had completed the elementary school). Universities, and golleges 2!: literature and gcience Youth normal schools, and universities and colleges had nothing to do with music education, in general music was entirely excluded from 44 university and college curricula. 4. mum-m These are schools for a three to five year course planned for Specialized subjects such as arts, music, foreign languages, and agriculture. Students were admitted upon graduation from the secondary schools and usually received teaching certificates in specified fields. Music schools belonged to the semmon-gakkos group and they alone trained teachers who specialized in music and met the requirements of the Semmon—Gakko'Code. £315 Education in the 195331. Schools Music education as a class-room subject was first included in a normal school, in the form of singim and organ lessons, in 1879, men Shuji Izawa, head of the Institute for the Investigation of Music, was appointed as principal of Tokyo Normal School of Men. Later in the same year, Tokyo Women's Normal School offered koto and kokyu (Japanese stringed instruents) in addition to singing and organ. With the promulgation of the Normal School Code (1886), "singing” was changed into "music”, and instrumental instruction (organ and piano mostly) were more stressed than before. After these normal schools became the higher normal schools, music was less stressed, and was included only two hours a week in the curriculum of women's higher normal school. In ordinary normal schools. 12 credits of music were required to be certified to teach music at the elementary level, though the graduates were not granted music teacher certificates. The basic music curriculum in the ordinary normal school was prescribed by the Ministry of Education in May, 1910, as follows: 45 l. The Preparatory Course: sight-reading exercise, and unison songs. 2. The First Year: music fundamentals, sight-reading exercise, unison songs. 3. The Second Year: organ (later, piano was added), in addition to the first year music subjects. 4. The Third Year: music theory including Japanese "gagaku” or court music mode, and "sokugaku" or secular music mode, singing (unison, round, and two-part some), teaching mekhdds of singim at elementary schools, and conducting. 5. The Fourth Year: exercises of transposition and modulation on the key- board instrument, basic harmony, unison, rounds, and two-specs, and three-part songs. _‘1‘_h_g Initiation _o_f; M Teacher Trainim' As mentioned in Chapter Two. an important responsibility of the Institute for the Investigation of Music was to prepare music teachers. According to the highly centralised educational system in Japan, the Institute was the only school officially permitted to prepare teachers for a license in music. Even though at a later time two private schools were officially permitted to join the institute in the certification of teachers, the Institute remained a dominating and vital factor in the training and licensiq of music teachers for the Japanese schools. Music teacher trainim in Japan was initiated when the Institute for the Investigation of Music admitted 22 students (9 boys and 13 girls) in 1880. Luther Whiting Mason, assisted by three or four court musicians whom he trained, was responsible for training these students. The curriculum offered by this Institute included singing, piano, organ, wind and stringed instruments, music fundamentals, and harmony. 46 In addition, koto and kokyu were also taught to prepare the students to be able to teach both western and Japanese music. The age range of these trainees was so wide (from 13 to 44) that, in February, l882, the Institute let the older students finish their study, but the younger students were required to complete a four-year course with the additional subjects of morals and music history. After Mason left Japan in 1882, Franz Bckert, who had been directing the Japanese Navy Band since 1879, succeeded him in 1883. He was primarily responsible for music theory and orchestra directing until he was appointed as the director of the Court Music Bureau in 1886. He was the first man to introduce German music to Japan. Since then, only German musicians were invited to teach at the Institute which became later named the Tokyo Academy of Nusic, and gifted graduates were sent by the Japanese govern- ment to Germany for further study. In this way, the tradition of German music was deeply planted into the new soil of the Orient. In 1883 a system to train the men students who were sent by local prefectures was adopted, and 22 of them were accepted by the Institution. In July, 1885, the first commencement was held for 23 students (three girls and twenty boys). Establishment _o_f. 12522 Academy _o_f_ M and _I_t_s_ Development In October, 1887, with the objective of preparing professional musicians and music teachers, The Institute for the Investigation of flusic, dlich had successfully pioneered in music education, was develop- ed into Tokyo Academy of Music. Entrance to the Academy was based on the completion of the higher elementary school or its equivalent, and both men and women were admitted to their training program. Shuji Izawa 47 directed the Academy successfully until 1893, when he was ordered by the government to develop educational work in Formosa. In 1889, a new regulation divided the Academy into two courses, special and normal. The Special Course was devoted to the training of professional musicians. The Normal Course was designed for the training of teachers. All students were required to pass a one-year preparatory course before being permitted to go into either the Special or Normal Course. For the graduates of the Special Course, a post-graduate course was provided. The curriculum was as follows: The Preparatory Course: ethics, singing, piano, music fundamentals, the technique of copying music scores, literature (Japanese and.Chinese), English gymnastics, and dance. The Nonmal‘Course: ethics, voice (advanced unison songs and part-songs), organ, violin, koto, music fundamentals, harmony, music history, literature, poetry writing, English, pedagogy, gymnastics, and dance. The Special Coursei ethics, voice (advanced unison songs, part-songs, art songs, and vocal methods), instrumental study (piano, organ, violin, viola, cello, double bass, flute, clarinet, horn, etc.), and harmony, foreign languages, pedagogy, gymnastics, and dance. In addition, counterpoint and composition were taught to the third-year students. Later in 1892, acoustics was added. No significant change was made in these curricula until 1940. In 1893, owing to the curtailment of the national budget, some schools were discontinued or combined with others. Tbkyo Academy of Music was combined with Tokyo Higher Normal School, as its attached music school. During the period when the Academy lost its independent status, the only significant development was in 1894, the opening of a 48 new teacher-training course to prepare elementary music teachers. At this time, the Academy stressed practical training of music teachers to such an extent that sometimes they even included a dramatization of teaching music as a part of graduation recitals. In April, 1899, by the joint efforts of the faculty and students, Tokyo Academy of Music again bacame an independent school under the direct control of the Ministry of Education, and the academic standards were raised to that of a music conservatory. The Academy also invited ex- cellent German musicians as instructors, such as Raphael von Koeber (piano and music aesthetics), Rudolf Dittrich (organ, violin, music theory, etc.), and August Junker (violin, chorus, and orchestra). The orchestra of TOkyo Academy of Music, under the direction of Junker, became well-known and well-liked; it was the only orchestra with complete symphonic instrumentation until the Japan Philharmonic Orchestra was organized in 1914. In 1900, the re-organization of courses in the Academy was carried out, resulting in the following changes: 1) The Regular Course (3 years), preceded by a one-year preparatory period, provided majors in voice, instruments (keyboard, woodwind and brass and percussion. Composition major, however, was not permitted until 1932. 2) The Post-Graduate Course (2 years) was established for the graduates of the Regular Course. 3) The Normal courses: a) Io—shu was a three year course for training secondary music teachers. This course was discontinued in 1927. 49 The Normal Courses in music followed the regulation of the Normal School Code. No tuition was charged to the students, but they were obligated to teach for two years. The curriculum was not expanded at this time except for the inclusion of aesthetics, music forms, biology, and psychology. In 1919 the entrance requirements for the Academy were raised am based on the completion of at least four years in secondary schools and became a semnon-gakko. The candidate had to pass the following kind of entrance examinations: 1. Singing a. a few numbers from Chorul_3u_ngen I by Wilmer. b. a few songs frua Shggaku Shoka—Shg (Elementary _§_o_gg m caapiled by the Institute for the Investigation of Music). Both a and b shall be chosen by the examiners at the time of examination. 2. Hearim-n-simple melodic dictation. 3. Instrument Performance. Piano--the first movement of one of sonatas by Haydn or Mozart included in Sonata Album L, (Peters Edition). 4. Music Fundamentals 5. Japanese l-iterature The standard is for the graduates of secondary schools. 6. English The standard is for the graduates of secondary schools.1 Music standards for the Preparatory Course leading to the Regular Course were somewhat more demanding than the above. _R_i_se_ _o_f_ Private M Institutions Arouml the turn of the century, private music schools with the purpose of giving professional music training after the pattern of 1. "Oman", (Music), Tokyo Academy of Music, February, 1834, p. 114. 50 Tokyo Academy of Music began to appear. Among them. Girls' Music School (1903), Tokyo Music Institution (1905), and Tokyo Music School (1907) were well known. Generally speaking, missionary-sponsored institutions of higher education for women encouraged music education more than similar public institutions, and some of then began to have special music courses to prepare professional musicians and teachers. Kobe College, mission-sponsored, and established in 1875, was the first women‘s college to have a Music Department established in 1906. Its organization was similar to that of the Tokyo Academy of Music, but a significant feature was that it offered a f ive-year Normal Course in addition to the Regular and PostaGraduate Courses. The contribution these private organizations have made to the development of music teacher training cannot be overestimated. During the first two decades of the 20th century, there were no major changes in training musicians and music educators. Establishment 3f $1.9M Tflorarz Teachers Traing‘ Institute In 1922,* the l’ourth Temporary Teachers Training Institut: (two year course) was attached to the Academy in order to alleviate the music teacher,‘ shortage in secondary schools, and accepted about 20 boy and girl students who were recommended from local secondary schools. This organization continued until 1932, distributing music teachers to local secondary schools. The graduates of this institution were enthusiastic about music education, and worked actively in their local communities. * The Ministry of Education established a temporary two year institu- tion in several fields to meet the demand for secondary school teachers. The fourth institution was allotted to the training of music teachers. .5 - a- 51 Change i." as. ”causal. 2!. us. 12:12 ......zAcade- si use In 1934, the following changes were made in the curricula of the Tokyo Academy of Music: Mimi instrumental lessons were added in the curriculum of the Ko-shu Normal Courses, and a year later a school brass ban! was organized. In 1936, influenced by the rise of nationalism, the Japanese Music Course was added, and became a Regular Course in 1944. In May 1940, the followirz subjects were added as electives: 1. The Preparatory Course--solo songs, organ stringed instruments, wind instruments, percussion, and harp. 2. The Regular Courseupercussion, harp, conducting, and Japanese 3. gziéraduate Course-u-Opera, music theory, conducting, music history, Japanese music. 4. The Ko-shu Normal Course-.stringed instruments, percussion, conductim, wind ensemble, Japanese music, English, French, and Italian. Just before the beginning of the war, the curriculum of the Academy was much expanded as seen above, but as the war became more intense year by year, the Academy was forced to shorten the school year, as were other universities and colleges including private music schools, even though in the regulation, the Ko-shu Normal School was four years. As a result music-teacher training was much hampered. Certification _o_f_ £u_s_i_c_ Teachers Before World War II, the system of licensirg teachers was dominated by the centralized educational system. This was especially true in the case of music teachers. From 1880, when the Educational Code first adopted the system of licensing teachers, to 1885, licenses for elementary and secondary school teachers were granted by the government to those who could pass specified scholastic and personality examinations. In addition, 52 normal school graduates were permitted to teach on the basis of their diplomas. From.1885, normal school graduates were given certificates as well as diplomas. A year later (1886), the revised Educational Code regulated the qualifications of teachers as follows: All teachers are required to have‘license issued by the Minister of Education or by the governor of a prefecture. This was the first timet:hat the principle of licensed teachers was adopted by all kinds of schools. In 1900, the Teachers' License Code was issued by the Ministry of Education. This Code says, As a rule, those who do not not have teacher's certificates cannot teach at schools. However, on Special occasions, if granted permission by the Minister of Education, persons can teach without holding certificates. The Teacher's License Code permitted the Minister of Education and the governor of a prefecture to license teachers with or without examina- tions, and established the basic system of licensing teachers which lasted until 1945. The.Minister of Education appointed the Committee for Teacher's License for the purpose of investigating all applications for certificates. The Committee was also in charge of examinations for certificates. Eventually there existed the following types of certificates for elementary and secondary school teachers: 1. Elementary School Certificates: a. A general classroom.teacher's license was given by the governor of a prefecture to the graduates of an ordinary normal school, or to those who passed the examination prepared by a prefecture. 1. Yoshitaro Demo and Mitsuaki.Maeda,_Explanation of the New Teachers' License Law, and Teachers' License Enforcement Laws, Gakugei Tosho Limiteko, Tokyo, 1954, p. 12. 53 b. A special teacher's license was given to the graduates of public institutions for the following subjects: arts, music, gymnastics, sewing, manual works, agriculture, and commerce; or to those who passed the examination in these Special fields. 2. Secondary School Certificates: on a. b. C. The certificates for secondary school teachers were granted the basis of individual subjects: To the graduates of a higher normal school. To the graduates of a semmon-gakko established by the government. To those who had teaching eXperience at secondary schools or higher institutions for more than five years and were recommended to the Minister of Education by their principals. To the graduates of government-supported colleges and universities. To the graduates of private semmon-gakko, colleges, and universities, recommended to the Minister of Education by the Committee of Teacher's Licenses. To those who passed the examination for certificates prepared by the Committee of Teacher's Licenses. Music Teacher's Licenses Music teachers were licensed by the regulation of the Teacher's License Code of 1900. 1. Elementary Music Teacher's Licenses were given: a. To the graduates of the Otsu-shu Normal Course of Tokyo Academy of Music (1900-1927). b. To those who passed the examination for a music license prepared by a prefecture. 2. Secondary Music Teacher's Licenses were given: a. To the graduates of the Ko—shu Normal Course (later in 1944 named the Normal Course), and the Regular Course of Tokyo Academy of Music. b. To those who taught music at secondary or music schools for more than five years, and were recommended to the Minister of Education by their principals. c. To the graduates of private music schools recommended to the Minister of Education as competent by Committee for Music Teacher's Licensing-only two private music schools were given the priviledge to train licensed music teachers, namely Musashino Music School (since 1942), and Kunitachi Music School (since 1941). 54 d. To those who passed the examination given by the Committee for Music Teacher's Licensing. The examination for the certificate of a music teacher was held in Tokyo at least once a year after a preliminary examination at local centers for the purpose of screening out those likely to have no chance of succeeding in the final examination. Summary The general develOpment of the music teacher education in Japan before 1945. The philOSOphy of teacher education was first based on the Herbartian.princip1es of fostering morals and virtues, and later, on the nationalism and militarism prescribed in the Imperial Rescript of Education, which dominated all fields of education in the pre-war Japan. There were three types of teacher training institutions: 1. Normal Schools, higher and ordinary normal schools, and youth normal schools, 2. colleges and universities, and 3. semmon—gakko (Special schools). Music-teacher training began in 1880 when the Institute for the Investigation of Music admitted 22 students. This Institute was develOped in 1887 into Tokyo Academy of Music which provided Normal and Regular Courses. Though the Academy temporarily became an attached music school of Tokyo Higher Normal School for Men (1893-1899), it was almost the only institution which licensed music teachers (both elementary and secondary), and it dominated Japanese music education. Its curriculum was gradually eXpanded to include 55 all the majors in music that were found in a European conservatory. However, the Academy was so selective, limiting the number of students. in.order to keep a high scholastic standard, that the increasing demand for music teachers, especially secondary teachers, could not be met. Therefore, the government established the so- called Pourth Temporary Teacher Training Institute in 1922 in Tokyo Academy of Music exclusively to license secondary music teachers. It was discontinued in 1932. By this time, private music schools had been established in Thkyo and other major cities. They also helped to alleviate the music teacher shortage, though not all were permitted to prepare licensed teachers. The system.of licensed teachers was regulated by the Teacher's License*Code (1900). which provided two ways to acquire a teacher's license, with or without examination. Music teacher licenses were granted without examination to the graduates of both Normal and Regular Courses of Tokyo Academy of Music, and to the graduates of two private music schools. Those who did not graduate from these three schools had to pass the examinations pre- pared by a prefecture (for elementary teachers), or by the Teacher's License Committee appointed by the Minister of Education (for secondary teachers): or on the basis of their teaching experience, they could receive the desired certificate upon recommendation to the Minister of Education by their principals. 56 In general the history of the preparation of music teachers is nothing but that of the Tokyo Academy of Music which almost entirely monopolised the privilege to train licensed music teachers until the outbreak of world War II. It is to be noted that no professional organization existed to improve music teacher education in the pre-war Japan. In conclusion, before 1945, applied music composition and musicology were the only areas of instruction of recognized professional standing in Japan. CHAPTER IV PRESENT MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN PHILOSOPHY In order to achieve the educational revolution discussed in Chapter Two, the Civil Information and Education Section of the SCAP realised the necessity of changing the guiding principles of teacher education in Japan. The report of the C. I. a E. Section in 1948 to scar says, "Fundamental to any improvement of education is improvement of teachers...The number alone of available teachers is not a satis- factory criteriom of shortage. Even more serious than the inadequate number of teachers, is their insufficient preparation and unsatisfactory quality. mm has happened to the standards of teaching profession duriq and (the) following the war years is a matter of grave concern."1 The Japanese Ministry of Education, acting on the recomendations of the C. I. a E. Section, carried out a drastic re-organizatiom of the program of teacher preparation along two basic lines: 1. According to the SAP direction of October 31, 1945, the Ministry of mucatiom started the elimination of nationalism and militarism by screeniu those teachers and other educational officials whose record shows them to have been pronounced exponents of ultra-nationalistic, 1. Education _i_n the 52! an, General Headquarters Supreme Commander for the Allied PowersT-Civil ormation and Education Section, Education Division, Tokyo, 1945, p. 285. (the) originally it was ”the” but assuing it to be a mistake "and" was substi- tuted. 57 58 militaristic or totalitarian ideas. They were forbidden to teach or engage in other employment connected with education. In 1946, the official purge disqualified the total of 120,699 Japanese teachers and administrators. 2. Many of the teachers, products of the old-style education, were not adequate to participate in the new program of education. The re-education or in-service orientation of the acceptable teachers was imperative. The methods used by the Ministry of Education for this purpose were short courses in local centers, vacation courses in normal schools with orientation in the new philosophy as their main purpose, conferences, workshops, and correspondence courses. Together with the purge of unqualified teachers and the re-orienta- tion of acceptable teachers, the Fundamental Law of Education set up a new system of training teachers who were to be leaders in a democracy of Japan. Accordim to the law, "Schools are established for the benefit of the nation as a whole, and the duty and obligation of the teacher should meet this purpose. "1 So the new aim of teacher education became to prepare teachers competent enough to assist their students to develop mentally and physically. To achieve this aim, two guiding principles were established in training teachers: 1. hphasis should be on a broad and rich cultural background. 2. Candidates should be provided sufficient techniques and knowledge of his professional field to be able to assist the cultural develOpment of his corn-unity as well as his students. The program of music-teacher education also underwent a striking l. a an's Problems, Public Information and Cultural Affairs Bureau. istry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo, 1953. 59 renovation in the effort to provide the candidate with general culture and techniques and knowledge in harmony with these objectives. The new Course of Study in Music for Junior and Senior Schools required the teacher, ”who is a respected person, to be provided not only with a broad backgroum of general culture, good techniques, and profound knowledge of music, but also with a far-sighted educational ideal. "1 1. To have enthusiasm strong enough to attract students to music. 2. To understand children's desires and needs. 3. To be a good leader. The reform of the principles of teacher education discussed above naturally necessitated fundamental changes in school organizations. curricula, and all practices of teacher training in post-war Japan. _rrggg 93 TRAINIIG INSTITUTIONS Reorganization _o_f_ Teacher Traing’ Institutions As one of the most urgent means it was felt that "endeavors should be made to increase the prOportion of teachers who have had university training."2 This was realized in the re-organiaation of the institutions for teacher preparation in compliance withthe provisions of the University Establishment Law and the Teacher's License Law issued in May, 1949. The basic idea was to prepare elementary and secondary teachers by providing a f our-year course of professional training as well as liberal education. Each prefectural goverment accordingly was required to establish at least one of either an independent teachers‘ college, generally named "gakugei" (science and arts) university, or a national university which has an education department. This necessitated: 1. MWMMJDJM and Senior Hg h School Music, The Ministry of Education, Tokyo, 1951, pgs. 62-63. 2. Education i_r_:_the Nsljapan, Vol. Ii, Q. cit., p. 9. 60 1. The modification of normal schools. The two kinds of normal schools 2. (high and ordinary) were abolished, and were re—organized into four- year national universities, or gakugei universities. The modification of colleges and universities. To be permitted to issue teachers' licenses, existing colleges and universities had to change their programs totmeet the requirements of the Teachers' License Law: Music colleges and independent music departments (conservatory type) were included in this group. As a result, the total, 655 schools including universities, colleges, semmon gakkos, and normal schools, were re-organized into a new system of four- year institutions through amalgamation and revision of programs. By May, 1952, 220 new colleges and universities with teacher train- ing facilities had been established in compliance with the University Establishment Law. Even with the reorganization of both normal schools and higher educational institutions to prepare more licensed teachers, it was extremely difficult, to meet the demand for about 30,000 new qualified teachers each year. In order to alleviate the situation, two plans of preparing authorized teachers for elementary and junior-high levels were adopted: a. Special two-year teachers' courses in colleges and universities. b. Junior colleges of two or three-year courses, authorized in April, 1950. As of May, 1952, there were 205 junior colleges which were allowed to prepare teachers. Of these, about one half are private. Present Types 2g'Music-Teacher Training Institutions ‘At present, music teachers are trained in three types of institutions: 61 ' l. Conservatory type schools. with no Music Education curricula, and yet authorized to issue teacher certificates, 2. Pour-year colleges and universities, with the Music Education curriculum, and 3. Junior colleges and two-year courses provided by colleges and universities with or without Music Education curricula. Type 3 is not, however, included in this study. CHART I shows the existim types of music- teacher training institutions. CHART I TYPES OF MUSIC TEACHER TRAINII'G SCHmLS .122 W 52. 2.5.1235. 1'2. Tot National Universities* 41 Universities 3 44 IGakugei Universities 7 Liberal Arts Colleges 2 9 Music Colleges 1 Music Colleges 3 4 including one Music Department Junior Colleges 0 Y Junior Colleges 6 6 Junior Music Colleges 1 Junior Music Colleges 4 5 Lotal _A a 49 18 67 * bong then, only one is a women's university: Ochano-mizu Women's University (f orner Tokyo Momen's Higher Normal School). 62 Chart I needs further explanation: 1. It should be noted that except for one music college, conservatory type schools do not have the Music Education curriculum. Their stress is primarily on the preparation of performers. However, students in these schools may obtain music-teacher certificates by fulfilling the credits in professional education required by the Teachers' License Law. In fact, about ninety per cent of the students in the College of Music, Tokyo Arts University, (Ponmer Tokyo Academy of Music) and the Music Department of Kobe College, two most highly reputed professional music institutions in.Japan, are the candidates for teacher certificates. Therefore, these schools may be said to function as music-teacher training schools even though they do not provide a Specific music education curriculum. This is a unique system of the preparation of music teachers in Japan. 2. Thirty-six out of forty-one national universities, and seven gakugei universities (equivalent to American teachers' colleges) were former- ly ordinary normal schools. These universities have been established without proper financial backing in the confusion of the post-war period. Consequently, some of the universities in local areas are so poorly equipped and staffed with inadequately prepared teachers that they send their good students to the College of Music, Tokyo Arts University for the last two years. As far as the Music Education program is concerned there is no significant difference between the national and gakugei universities. 63 In this study, three Japanese institutions, Kobe College (K.C., a wuen's college), Ohsaka Gakugei IUniversity (0.6.0.), and Tokyo Gakugei university'(TthU.) have been selected as the representative two types of the schools for music-teacher training in Japan. In conclusion, compared with the pre-war situation in which only three schools were authorized to train music teachers for licenses, the number of institutions has greatly increased, and approximately 1,500 new music teachers for elementary and secondary schools are being prepared yearly. Requirementslfgr Admission .22225 Requirements The admission of Music curricula in colleges and universities is based on the graduation from the senior high school or its equivalent, and is determined by: I. Entrance examinations on competitive basis. 2. Physical examination. 3. The reports concerning applicant's scholastic and character qualifi- cations presented by the principals of their high schools. Entrance Examinations Among the three requirements, entrance examinations are considered the most important. In fact, unless a candidate passes them satisfactori- ly, he cannot be admitted. Therefore, the entrance examinations will be described in some detail. They consist of two fields: A» Academic Subjects As a rule, the candidate may choose one out of each of the following five fields: 64 1. Japanese literature-~Chinese may be included. 2. Science-physics, chemistry, physiology, and geography. 3. Social science--social studies, Japanese history, world history, and cultural geography. 4. Mathematics-~general mathematics, analytical geometry I or II, and geometry. 5. Foreign languages-~one from English, German and French. Music colleges, as well as the Music Department of Kobe College, are less demanding academically, and generally require three fields only including Japanese literature, and one foreign language (usually English). 3. m Sub iects ‘All applicants will be tested in the following four fields: 1. Music fundamentals-harmony may be included for composition majors. 2. Hearing. 3. Sight-singing. 4. Applied music (major and minor) In these fields, the professional music institutions are more demand- ing than national and gakugei universities or private liberal arts colleges, and these schools are making efforts to raise their standards after the pattern given by the former. Though there is no set standard for entrance proficiency in.music, the following requirements made by Ohsaka Gakugei University in l957’may be said to be the average standard of entrance examinations in music. £9.15. m 1. Simple melodic dictation. 2. Harmonic dictation of eight measures. 3. Harmony; part writing for any given soprano and bass (for composition majors only). 65 Applied Music Voice 1. For Voice majors a. An Italian or a German Song group listed below: Italian sows: 3‘ bel RiOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO......R. Ront‘Vi sanOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIP. TOSti Stizsoso, mio Stizzoso........... Pergolesi German sons: Pulmsgl‘ubGOOOooooooooosooosoo SChubel‘t Gesanges......................... Mendelssohn Du bist wie eine Blume........... Schumam b. A song chosen by the candidate. Note: All songs should be sung in original languages. 2. For all candidates including Voice Majors E. lullner: Chorubungen I (sight-singing) Piano 1. For Piano majors a. The first movement from the following: Beethoven: Sonata 0p. 7 Beethoven: Sonata 0p. 10, Nr. 3 Beethoven: Sonata 0p. 14, Nr. 2 b. A piece selected by the candidate. 2. Per the candidates other than Piano majors The first movement from the following: Sonatas by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven included in Sonata Album I 8: II. (Peter Edition). Violin (majors) a. Major and minor scales b. Kayser: 0p. 20 (36 Vorbereitede Etudes zur Kreutrer) Cello (majors) a. G major scale (three octaves) b. Goltermam: Konsert Nr. 5 66 Contrabass (Majors) Simandle: 30 Etudes Woodwind, Brass, and Percussion (majors) a. An etude selected by the candidate. b. A piece selected by the candidate. Composition (Majors) Composition of a song for a given text, with piano accompaniment. In Tokyo>Gakugei University, the standards of entrance examinations are about the same as the above. Kobe College requires more advanced proficiency in music. For instance, in piano, in addition to the Sonata requirement it requires one from each of the following groups: 1. Bach: Three - part Invention, No. 12 Well—Tempered Clavichord Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 7 ” " Vol. II, No. 15 2. Chopin: Waltz 0p. 34, No. l Rachmaninoff: Prelude 0p. 23, No. 3 Debussy: Snow's Dancing from Children's Corner As in other fields of higher education in Japan, competition among music-teacher candidates is becoming more and more intense, because of limited school capacity, and efforts to raise the scholastic standard by schools. Some institutions which have high scholastic reputations refuse lowaability students regardless of their capacity. Although at local institutions about 83% of the applicants for music curricula are admitted, at the College of Music, Tokyo Arts University, only 22.4% of the applicants were admitted in 1956. The average percentage of students admitted to the music-teacher training schools will be approximately 50% of the applicants. Degree Granted Before World war II, degrees were not granted to music students. ' 67 even to the graduates of Tokyo Academy of Music. Baccalaureate degrees were restricted to the fields other than fine arts. In the new educational system, all the graduates of both tax-supported and private colleges and universities in all fields have become eligible for baccalaureate degrees. In March, 1953, for the first time in the history of music education in Japan, music students were graduated with bachelor's degrees. 22252 The degrees conferred on candidates for music teaching are either the Bachelor of Education or the Bachelor of Arts. 1. The Bachelor of Education This is granted to the graduates from the Music Education curriculum in the Education or Science and Arts departments of colleges and universities where more emphasis is given on professional education. 2. The Bachelor of Arts This is granted to the graduates from music colleges and music departments where more emphasis is given on the musical performance area. The degrees granted by the three Japanese schools are: KObe College: Bachelor of Arts Ohsaka Gakygei University: Bachelor of Education Tokyo Gakugei University: Bachelor of Education The curricula which lead to these degrees will clarify the differ- ences in emphasis in student training. Requirements 68 Accordirg to the University Establishment Law, the candidates for bachelor's degrees must meet the following requirements: 1. Residence Requirements a. The camidate for a bachelor's degree must attend college or university for more than four, but not for more than eight years. b. As a rule the candidate for a bachelor's degree must earn his last 36 semester hours of credit at the school in which he expects to receive a degree. 2. Credits Rguired The candidate for a bachelor's degree must earn at least 124 semester hours of credit including: a. General Culture, 36 1). Physical Education, 4 c. Professional Education, 14 d. Foreign Languages, 8 e. Music, requirements as established by each school. The requirement for professional education may vary if approved by the Ministry of Education. This will be dealt with in detail in the study of the curriculum in this chapter. CURRICULUM Democratization of education in post-war Japan has resulted in freedom in curriculum planning. Colleges and universities are permitted to plan their own curricula in compliance with the flexible provisions of the University Establishment Law and the Teacher's License Law of 1947. Therefore, at present the curricula for the preparation of music teachers vary according to the institutional pattern approved by each school. This pattern is to a great extent determined by financial 69 resources and faculty. 2288 There are two types of curricula for proSpective music teachers. Type A.1eads to the Bachelor of Arts, and Type B leads to the Bachelor of Education. Type A: Type B: This is similar to the EurOpean conservatory curricula. However, a teacher certificate can be conferred simply by adding to the regular curriculum the minimum credits in professional education required by the Teachers' License Law. Usually, except in these educational courses, little or no consideration is given to subject content areas for teaching music in the public schools. This will be seen in the evaluation of each area of subject content. This is somewhat similar to the curricula at teachers' colleges in the United States. In this type, more emphasis is put on the professional education area, and more consideration is given to all subject content areas in relation to teaching at schools. Scope and Principles Both types of curricula which lead to bachelor's degrees consist of three areas: 1. General Culture, 2. Specific Subject-matter (Music), and 3. Professional Education. Chart II shows the distribution of subject content areas in the three Japanese institutions. 7O 68.38 83.3. an 3.93.8 on as... Sloane... «898 33 an. 4.66.... .38.! can» 35o .83! one sooomo veal £303- 33 305 we coo nH .93... meanness owns: 23 you 3.30.3 ems canon—moo eta .« ans-endow... H3333..- no 3.. none .3398 was .335 no gnu... modem—6’8 2365.0 .33! nod—”mam no .303 non- 05 3 3.8.33. cog nap-on .3098 H33 26. ..n 10.x .34.»... .3 manta-memo 8 gen .3333 no ans-«hoax. you ammo: .3 ..n 83.3.. was o3 now some... so mossy-mono you moon one 3.3.6... .933 .3333: on .« .mmdaeI amino some you and»... no 5.393sz no swoon e3 gen .992. moan-339m m." ..n .3 meow» ea 360.8 85 a... .3uoono on» 39305-04 odes: one .3680 one .533: some» 5.803 sec .aoflssood 839: 3.80.8 case. a _ iii.» e w 8 .1 .... J1 ”ml... 13? o.» inlfi _filj so film .....QF 56% . c .E S _ Huwnuéw $qu new a we! we waa 3 . ....c. _ sum _ . .n A Humming fined .13 cm} was” m on“ N 6.x fl a «fin... a men... n sale a an... n a? A ans-c.3903 magnum—cu Pun—amuse: , .5695 o 3:. son-muommom Hmofi E v a hoop-E one; sound Egg IHWIIIIIog 82. g Hagan—S g3 30 _Mgoo “a aIOHaBHaQnH 34%.. ah. ha guano a :H a goo Banana HH go 71 Further explanation 3}; Q1313 _I_I_ General Culture Age; The licensed music teacher should have as his qualification a thorough knowledge of human culture. This area in the curriculum aims at fostering a broad point of view and high intellectuality so that the teacher can.contribute to the development of a democratic society not only as a teacher, but also as a good citizen. This area requires the following three groups plus physical education: SUbiCCt .§_e£o its. 1. Liberal Arts........................... 12 2. Social Science......................... 12 3. Natural Science........................ 12 4. Physical Education..................... 4 TOtalOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOO.0.... 40 In addition to the General Culture area above mentioned, foreign languages, at least eight credits, are required for all teacher candi- dates. All three Japanese schools emphasize more study of foreign languages than required by the Teachers' License Law. Their foreign language requirements are : Institutions Sen. Hrs. Kobe College English, 8 French, 4 and German 4 for voice majors French or German, 4 for other majors Ohsaka Gakugei University English, 8. Other languages, 8 Tokyo Gakugei University English, 8. French or German, 4 Music Area The purpose of this area is to give to the prospective teacher the detailed familiarity with the materials in music courses in the public 72 schools. At the same time, it aims to develop musicianship according to itdividual needs an! ability, providing a souls! foundation for further study. This area consists of Basic Music, Musical Performance, and Music History and / or Literature. The Ministry of Education suggests the follouilg plan in this area as a desirable standard: Sub ect fig. 323. 8““ m3i¢oeoooooooeoeooeooooooooooooe 8 lbsic Performance ‘0 voucoeeoooeoeeeeeeseooeoeeeeeeee 8 b. Choc“. (mludm COmUCtMooeoo 8 C. ‘C’batd Instttllent...uuu.... 10 d. Strirg, Hind, and Percussion (mlmm cmuCtin)oeoeeeoeos 4 M113“ HistorYeoooooooeeooeoooooooeoooee 2 Tuaooeeooooeososoooooooo 40 All three Japanese institutions, especially lobe College, emphasise subject-latter more than the plan suggested by the Ministry of Education. CHART III MUSIC AREA comm Musical Music History Schools Basic basic Performance and Literature Total . ‘ £5. 28 i 40-44 1‘ 82—1-83 Hr 0.6.0. 8 42 4 50 ...... J g Sugars. , T.G.U. v 12 26 2 * 44-52 > k W A 862:3:5. L I me details of the area will be given in the evaluation of subject content areas in this chapter. Prof egsional Education Arc-3 73 It is indispensable for a competent music teacher to have adequate knowledge of technique used in guiding the mental and physical develop- ment of youngsters, and to be able to face and solve various problems in the public schools. To accomplish this purpose, the Teachers' License Law requires the following program as the minimum as a rule: Subjects icy, Egg. Philosophy or History of Education................ 3 Psychology........................................ 3 “ethws CWISQOOOOOOOOOOI.00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 5 Praetice TeaChing...o........................n... 3 rmal...O0.........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 14 However, in the conservatory type curriculum, only seven to ten credits of professional education are offered. For instance, Kobe College requires only seven credits, and the College of Music of Tokyo Arts University, ten credits in this area. An evaluation of music curricula of the three Japanese institutions has been made as representing the two types of the curricula which award teachers' licenses. The evaluation was based on the "Schedule for the Evaluation of College Curriculum Instruction Patterns and Professional Laboratory Experience in Music Education" prepared by the MEM: and W. It should be pointed out that Type A curriculum is not the Music Education curriculum, but as it awards the teachers' license, it may be said to be a cmbination of applied music and music education. The Music Department of Kobe College (Type A) added the following remarks to the evaluation questionnaire: "We question the propriety of answering the questionnaire, for Kobe College has 52 Wsic Education curriculum as such. Since we have none, 74 We feel that Kobe College does not meet the basic premise of the questionnaire. We have _ng curriculum Specifically designed with the major purpose that of teaching elementary and secondary music teachers. Therefore, our answers are based on the assumption that the Music curricula we do have (Piano, Voice, Violin) are Music Education curricula (which they are not), and on that basis we have constructed our answers.” EVALUATION _o_P SUBIECT comm flag _I__1§ £11532 I. MUSIC LITERATURE, HISTORY, fl / 93 APPRECIATION L. Credit Hour Requirements K. C..........................Music. History. 8 Music Appreciation, 4 (in General Culture), and Literature of each major field, 2. Total, 14. 0.G.U................... Music History, 4. T. G.U.................. Music History, 2. 75 2. The Types of Content and Activity in these required courses: Extensive Limited None A. Listening opportunities provided K. C. * K. C.* T. G. U. h. Attention paid to 1. Lives of K. C. ** cmposersoeeoee00000000000000... To G. U. 2. Integration of the various arts K. C. 0.G.U. T.G.U, .C. 3. mient ““516000000000000000000 T.G.". 4. Comparison of various schools K. C. Of emposition..."”.....u... ToGeUe 5. Integrat ion of Music history K.C. with political and economic 0.G.U. history.oeoesooeeeooeseeeeo TOGOUQ T.G. U. 6. POIk wskOOOoooeooosoeoooo 0.G.U. K.C. 7. Contemporary music. . . . . . . . . 0.6. U. T.G.U.L 8. Familiarity with music litera- K.C. ture of different styles and 0.6. U. periwsooeoooeesooeeeoeeeesee TLGOUQ 9. Thorough familiarity with a K.C. 0.6. U. f" 13:89 “USicu works. 0 e o o s 1‘06er 10. “usic literature suitable for teaching to children in the T.G. U. 0.G.U. K.C. “h001‘0000000.000.000.00.... I: 0.G.U. ll. Vocal music literature.. . . . . . K.C. T.G.U, 12. Instrumental music and K.C. 0.G.U. instruments T.G.U. *At K.C., Music Literature is 80% listening including works of 18, 19, and 20th centuries, but in Music History, listening is limited. ** These three questions were not answered by 0.G.U. Note : l. The 76 table shows that all three Japanese institutions pay only a limited attention to both ancient and contemporary music. 2. K.C. provides the largest number of credits in this area. However, no emphasis is placed on music literature suitable for use in elementary and secondary schools. II. BASIC MUSIC A. Credit Hour Requirements 1. The total number of credit hours of course offerings in Basic Music K. C......................28 sem. hrs. (not integrated) ooGoUsosooooeeoooeeoeeeeo 8 SC“ 11:8. (partly integrated) T.Gsueeoooeeoooooooseooee 12.20 Sens 11:3. (act integrated) 2. The number of credit hours required in each separate area: b. C. h. i. j. Subjects Inst itut ions Sen. Hrs. Husic reading (sight singim) K.C. 2 0.G.U. combines this with chorus, and T.G.U., with singing. Ear-training and dictation K.C. 2 Fundamentals 0.G.U. 2 T.G.U. 2 Eurhythmics None Keyboard harmony No Special class at the three institutions Harmony K.C. 12 0.G.U. 4 T.G.U. 4 Form and analysis K.C. 2 0.G.U. 2 T.G. 0. 2 Arransins K.C. 2 Counterpoint K.C. 4 T.G.U. 2 Comp os it ion K.C. 4 T.G.U. 2 0.G.U. offers two credits for integrated course of counterpoint, orchestration, composition and conducting. B. Music Reading, Sight Singing, etc. 2. 3. 4. 5. Emphasis on instruction in music reading in required courses. Use of a basic system of music reading which could be used in SChOOJ. teaChj-ng “scooooooooooe Direct correlation between these sight reading activities and music reading methods as taught in music education course............o................. Individual music reading earper ience. Use of elementary and secondary school song materials.............. hphasis received by: a. Compoum rhythms............. b. Minor “weooeeoeeeoesoeeeeeoo 6. Part SingiWOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO d. Bass ClefoooOOOOOO00000000000. e. Alto ClefCOOOOOOOO0.0.0.000... f. Tenor c1ef.................... Note: 1. In this area, T.G.U. seems the strongest. 77 Extensive Limited None K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. T.G.U. 0.G.U. T.G.U. 0.G.U. K.C. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. 0.G.U. T.GLU. K.CL KOCO 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. T.G.U. Q.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. __ OoGer K.C. T.G.Us _ 0060“. Race T.G.U 0.G.U. K.C. T.G.U 2. It is interesting to notice that though 0.G.U. gives only a limited training in sight-singing, they make the extensive use of school song materials. 3. Apparently K.C. pays no attention to the applicability of materials for public schools. C. Ear Training and Dictation 1. Emphasis received by this area in required courses................. 2. Mediums ‘. PianOOOOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOOO b. Band and orchestra (live or recorded).......... c. Choral ensemble (live or recorded).......... 3. Oral dictation.................. 4. Use of the materials listed here a. Familiar music.............. b. Abstract examples evolved to illustrate a point.......... D. Eurhythmics Emphasis received by this area in required courSeS........... E. Keyboard Harmony 1. Emphasis received by this area in required courses.....o........o.o 2. Experience with simple accompani- ments to songs found in typical school song books................ 3. Experience with simple modulation 4. Attention given to the development of ability to play "by eat"....... F. Harmony (Part writing) 1. Emphasis given to written harmony in required courSCC........ooo.u 2. Emphasis received by: a. Abstract voicing of chords with emphasis on rules for chord progressions..................o b. Writing and arranging for abhool Vocal groupseooeeeeeeooeooooeee c. writing and arranging for school instrumental groups............. G. Form and Analysis 1. Emphasis received by this area in reauired courses ........ ----L‘A- 78 ‘Extensive Limited None K.C. T.G.U. 0.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. TSG.§; K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.Uj T.G.U. Inc, 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.UJ K.C. 0.G.U. TJG.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.CL 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. ' K.C. 0.G.U. T.G. 0.G. T.G. 0.6.3 K.C. 'r r: n n G-U 79 Note : 1. Among the three institutions, T.G.U. pays the most extensive atten- tion to the application of the acquired knowledge in Basic Music for public school teaching, while, in general, K.C. gives no specific consideration of the needs of the candidates for teachers' certificates. 0.G.U. seems the weakest in the music theoretical field. 2. As the medium of ear-training, all three institutions use piano only. 3. The training in keyboard harmony in Japanese music-teacher training institutions is either limited or none. K.C. provides no training as such. The answers in "Harmony" show that the harmony study in Japanese schools consists mostly of part-writirg, and their approach to this area is not creative. This also might be said of basic music in K.C. an! 0.9. U. 80 III. MUSICAL PERFORMAICE A. Credit Hour Requirements Schools Total Conduct ing Ensemble Maj or Minor ” i ‘ . K.C. 40744 4 8-12 22 6 I 0.G.U. 42 10 16 16 i T.G.U. 26 8 1o ' 8 s i i f iano Voice Note: 1. (EU requires two minors in applied music (8 credits each). 2. OSU includes Conducting in the fourth year theory course. 3. ICU has no major or minor in applied music. All students are required to take both piano and voice during four years. Students can take more in these subjects as electives, however. Conducting is included in chorus. 8. Conduct ‘ ' Extensive Limited I{None 1. Experience with laboratory groups . ; K.C.: a. Instrumental groups.......... I 0.G.U. T.G.U. . I ooGeUe ; b. Choral groups ' K.C_. *i T.G.U. ' : K.C. i 2. Use of music that is suitable for use i 1’ 0.G.U. E in school and community teaching..... T.G.U. 3. mperience included in the reading of: % K 5 a. Choral scores.................... .0.G.U. ‘ '1‘. . H‘ b. In5trumental scores.eesooeeeeooee l? L__ Note: hcept for "Choral Conducting" in K.C., this area seems not to receive an adequate attention in the schools studied in general. 81 C. E 31.9.9. gt; Ensemble mperience _i_n_ the Curriculum 1. Choral Ensembles, including mixed, girls' and men's choruses, and small ensembles. K.C. a. Girls' chorus, required for all students for four years, eight credits. b. Thirty-voice girls' chorus, elective, two credits. 0.G.U. Mixed chorus, required for all students for four years, eight credits. T.G.U. ' a. Mixed chorus, required for all students for four years, eight credits. b. Girls' chorus, required for girl students for four years (no credit is indicated). 2. Instrumental Ensembles, including band, orchestra (full and string), and small ensembles. K.C. String ensemble, required for string majors. 0.G.U. Orchestra, required for all students, two credits. T.G.U. No instrumental ensemble is provided. Note: Barn eXperience is not available in any one of three institutions. Neither Kobe College nor Tokyo Gakugei University has an orchestra. D. Functional Piano Facility 1. The following functional piano abilities are required for all 2. Type of instruction: Note : students by Tokyo Gakugei University: A. sight. I). 82 To read songs of the type found in a community song book at To harmonize at sight, improvising a simple piano accompani- ment, using I, IV, and V chords and simple modulations, for songs such as those used in school music classes. Co at sight. Kobe College offers little trainirg in this area. To read simple vocal accompaniments fairly fluently at sight. To read piano music typically used for school rhythmic activity private lessons in all three institutions. Ohsaka Gakugei University required only the ability to play simple vocal accompaniments. E. Major Performance Area 6. 7. The development of skill. . . . . . . . Instruct ion prior to college entrance: . a. VOiCCQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... b. Instrment............... Entrance proficiency audition specific level of performance for graduationCOOOOOOOOOOOOCO Recital performance...... .. . Required Rec omended Not 1 emphasized K.C. 03G: U. T.G.U, K. C. 0.5. U. T.G.U. K.C. DOG. U. T.G. U. 0.6. u. K. C. T.GLU. 0.9. U. T.G. U. K.C. K.C. 0.6. U. T.G. U. Required length of studyuntil graduation by all three institutions. Means used to determine the required proficiency: 83 K.C.....................Jury and performance at a recital. 0.G.U...................Jury. proof of years of study. and transcript of credits in the performance areas T.G.U.................. Jury and proof of years of study. Note: 1. At all three institutions, the instruction prior to college entrance is required for voice and instrumental majors. 2. Competitive entrance examinations are required by the three institutions for the major performance area. 3. Though Kobe College does not set up a specific level of performance for graduation, all students are required to meet high standard graduation recitals. F. Requirements in the Minor Performance Areas Kobe College 1. Voice class, for instrumental majors for three years, six credits. 2. Organ or piano, for voice and string majors for two to four years. Ohsaka Gakugei University 1. Voice (class and private), for all students for four years, eight credits. 2. Stringed instruments, for all students for four years, eight credits. 3. wind and percussion instruments, for all students, two credits. Tokyo Gakggei University Violin, cornet, clarinet, flute, oboe, and bassoon, one year each, (credit number was not supplied) in addition to piano and voice. Note: In Kobe College and Tokyo Gakugei University, especially in the former, minor performance areas are limited. 84 IV. PROPBSS IONAL BDLCAT ION (MUS 1C EDUCAT ION METHODS , MATER IALS , OBSERVAT ION, AND STUDENT TEACH INS) l. chpe and Philosgphy‘gf Music Education Curriculum Attention given: C h. To the value of music as a part of the overall elementary and secondary school curriculmn................... To ways by which music can be made to contribute to general eduCation To relationships between music and other school subject areas and means of integrating them................ Tb the place of music in certain types of curriculum organization such as the core curriculum, unified studies, fused courses, etc........ To the relationship of the Special music teacher to the elementary classroom teacher who does the music teaching for her own group To the organization of the ele— mentary school music program where the teaching of the classroom music is done by a special teacher (Platoon system)................... To the relationship of the music specialist to a school as consultant, resource person, special teacher, etc. To the adjustment in the use of graded materials and activities necessary in school situations where there are several grades in the Cl‘serOOI.....OOOOOIOOQOOOOIQOOOO To the relationship of classroom teachers and administrators to the problem of scheduling instrumental classes and special groups in the elementary school................ To the scheduling of general vocal and instrumental classes and special groups in junior and senior high To guidance in the music program To test and measurements and their proper interpretation and use in school music teaching............ To the importance of a balanced music curriculum in scno°1OOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOO To Child growth and development...... Extensive Limited FNone 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. K.C. K.C. ToGo Us K.C. 0.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. K.C. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. 0.G.U. K.C. K.C. T.G.U. 0.G.U. 0.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. TOGO U. K.C. 0.G.U. K.C. T.G.U. 0.6. u. K.C. TOGO U. 0o P. q. r. Tb pupil-teacher planning in music teaching.......................... To individual differences and their relation to music teaching......... To the various philosophies existing regarding the relationship of the school music program to the musical literacy of the children in school To the business aspects of music education (budget, care and storage of materials and equipment, etc.) 2. Content 25. Music Education Curriculum Elementary Classroom Music: 3. b. C. Elementary school classroom singing activities, unison and part. . . . . . . . Listening (apprec iat ion) act iv it ie 3 “fin“ aeti'ities................ Varied Activities Suitable for Different School Levels: b. c. The use of recreational music instrum- ents (rhythm instruments, autoharp, melody instruments, etc.)............ The develOpment of readiness for reading the musical score at any SChOO1 leveICOOO......OOOOOOOOOOOOOC The planning of reading activities 85 that are apprOpriate and interesting to the group concerned.............. The various systems of teaching music reading in schools............ The use of a variety of creative activities in the school music class The organization and development of small ensemble activities in school music, vocal and instrumental...... 1 Extensive Limited None 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. T.G.U. 0.G.U. KOEO 0.G.U. _L T.G.U. K.c 0.G.U. T.G.y K.C 0.G.U. TOGO" Note: Some of the above questions were not answered by 0.G.U and T.G.U. Instrumental Music No organization for the teaching of instrumental classes is included in the curricula of the three Japanese institutions. IIunior and; Senior fig h Music Only Tokyo Gakugei University emphasizes the junior high school music curriculum. not include them in our methods class, the graduates are teaching successfully by experience." The other schools put little or no emphasis on secoxulary school music curricula or on activities. 0.G.U. says, "Though we do 3..Music Education Materials and Equipment as j. k. 1. II. no 0. Po 1 86 TSEOwn to Students Used by Students in Me thOds c1 0 Used by Students in Lab. Exper. The several series of graded music books commonly used in schools..................... K.C. T.G. U. K.C. 0.G.U. Books, records, and rhythm instruments for rhythmic activity at all levels...... K.C. T.G.U. Books, records, films, etc., for teaching music literature at all levels................ Records for teaching songs 0.G.U. Song materials suitable to junior high school voices 0.G.U. K.C. Instruction books for begin- ning string, wind, and per- cussion classes............ Instruction books for begin- ning piano classes......... Materials for recreational singing in classroom and in large gtOlJPS......o..oo..o Recreational or supplementary instruments for classroom use (autoharp, song bells,etc. J? Instruments for use in study of methods of teaching be- ginning instrumental classes Choral music for school treble and male groups.............. K.C. Choral music for school mixed voice groups, both beginning and experienced............ Music for small ensemble, vocal and instrumental..... Music for beginning and experienced school orchestra Music for beginning and experienced school band.... ‘Audio-visual equipment and materials for use in teaching “Si-COOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO.... 0.6. U. 0.G.U. q. General professional litera- ture in the field of music educatiODOOOOOOOOO0.00.0.0... K.C. T.G.U. Note: 1. 87 The schools omitted on the table do not use these materials and equipment in music methods classes or in laboratory experiences. All three Japanese institutions fail to provide students with opportunities to get acquainted with the materials for teaching instrumental classes, and consider them not essential. They believe only materials for teaching songs are necessary. Ohsaka.Gakugei University which did not answer (f) through (0) in this section says, "It is hard to check here, because these materials are owned by the school, and sometimes are shown to, or used by the students, but not regularly in classes or in laboratory eXperiences." The three institutions consider books, records, and rhythm instru- ments for teaching music in the schools as essential equipment. They also consider the acquaintance with general professional literature in the field of music education as essential. 88 4. Observation 9_f_ Elementary and Secondary School Music Activities Qpportunities provided: Yes No a. A variety of types of general elementary 0.6. U. classroom music activities.............. TBG.U. K.C. b. General elementary school class activities 0.G.U. aside from music........................ T.G.U. Lg. K. O c. Beginning string classes................ 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. d. Beginning wind and percussion classes. . . . 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. e. Junior or senior high school general music 0.6. U. ClaSSCSoooaaoaooooeaaoooooooooooooooooooa T.G.U. K.C. f. Choral and glee club classes..... . ... .... 0.G.U. T.G.U. g. A variety of secondary classes aside from 0.G.U. music................................... T.G.U. K.C. K.C. L h. School orchestra and band classes. . . . . . . 0.G.U. T.G.U. ’ K.C. 5.. Performances by these groups. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64}. T.G.U. j. Observation of and participation in other school and professional activities and 0.G.U. K.C. services (health, library, attendance, T.G.U. assemblies, PTA, etc.).................. Note: 1. It is to be noticed that no Opportunity is provided by Kobe College and Tokyo Gakugei University for the observation of any instru- mental cluses. 2. Observation of music class activities is begun in the senior year in all three institutions. Ines 9; Observation Provided: K.C.: Students visit junior and senior high schools attached to the college. 0.G.U.: While students do practice teaching in the elementary and secondary schools attached to the university and co-Operating schools, they visit classes, music and general. T.G.U.: Students observe classes in elementary and secondary schools attached to the university. 89 5. Student Teaching' _i__n Music Experiences Provided: { Yes No T.G. U. a. A general elementary music class. . . . . . 0.G.U. LC. K.C. b. A beginning string class.............. 0.G.U. T.G. U. K.C. c. A beginning wind and/or percussion 0.G.U. Class...00.000.00.000...00.000.00.00 T.G.U. K.C. d. A junior high school or upper grade 0.6. U. general NUSic c1ass................ T.G.U. K.C. e. A secondary school choral class. . . . 0.G.U. T.G.U. K.C. f. An instrumental ensemble (band, 0.G.U. orchestra) T.G.U. Note: No eXperience in teaching instrumental classes is provided by the Hours K. C. OOGOUOOOOOOOOOOOOOC T.G.Useeoaeoeoeeo. Required: ...............Blementary school, none. three inst itut ions. Junior and senior high schools, not more than one week or so per student ( l sem. hr.) Elementary school Junior and senior high schools Total, five weeks (4 sem. hrs.) Actually one to two hours a week per student. The students observe music classes for the rest of the time. Elementary school Junior and senior high schools Total, forty-five days (4 sem. hrs.) No further information is given. Number _o_f_ Students Assigned _t_o_ Any One Teacher for Any One Music Class KO C‘OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 20-25 OOGOUOOOOOCOOOOO....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...... 10 T.G.U....OOOOOOOOOOOOOO.......OOOOOOOOOOOOO 7-10 Note: Usually one or two students teach each class in turn, while the rest of the assigned students observe the class. 90 Note.gg the Music Education Area 1. The conservatory approach to education in.music in certain Japanese schools limits the effectiveness of these institutions in the training of school music teachers. In all three schools, instrumental music is neglected in methods classes or in student teaching, although the Course of Study in Music indicates the importance of instrumental instruction in the public schools. In general, the emphasis on practice teaching is primarily on secondary schools, and on choral teaching exclusively, though Ohsaka Gakugei University provides some Opportunities to observe school orchestra and band classes. A recent trend in the preparation of music teachers in Japan is to de-emphasize music education courses, especially practice teaching, and encourage more study in major performance areas. For instance, in 1956, Kobe College reduced the credit requirement for professional education from 10 (methods course, 2, practice teaching, 2, and other education courses, 6). to 7 (methods course, 2, practice teaching, 1, and other education courses, 4). Ohsaka Gakugei University also reduced it, in 1955, from 21 (including methods course, 3, and practice teaching, 7), to l4fifiethods course, 3, practice teaching, 4, and other education courses, 7). Certification 2: Music Teachers Qualifying for Certification In keeping with the new educational philosophy based on democracy, the system of the certification of teachers was decentralized by the Teachers' License Committee set up fir each prefecture to issue certifi— 91 icates on the basis of the reports regarding a student's personality, scholarly attainments, and physical condition as presented by the president of his institution. The system of licensing by examination was abolished after the ‘war. Instead, school teachers should be trained for at least two years at tax-supported or private colleges or universities, and obtain teachers' licenses by means of: 1. Taking a special curriculum designed for teacher training in each field. 2.‘Taking the required number of credits in the professional education required by the Teachers' License Law, in addition to an ordinary academic curriculum. 32292 In the present system, there are two grades of teachers' licenses, Grade I and Grade II, for elementary, junior high, and senior high school teachers, respectively. Chart IV shows the types and basic requirements for teacher certificates set up by the aforesaid law. Licenses for specific subjects like music are given for secondary teachers only. There exists, therefore, no licenses such as elementary music-teacher certificates in Japan. However, those who hold the music- teacher's license for secondary schools may teach music in elementary schools. As shown in the CHART IV, Grade I for the senior high school is granted to those who hold master's degrees, or to those who have completed more than one year of advanced study. Therefore, no music-teacher candi- dates, in.the four-year course of higher educational institutions are ‘qualified for Grade I for senior high schools. Existing certificates for music teachers accordingly are: 92 CHART IV TYPES AND BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR TEACHERS' LICENSES TEACHERS' License LAW, 1949 . ’ _ 1 1 Mes 3 Basic Requirements H I i Bachelor's degree . Elementary L ‘ 1 T ; Two years training with minimum of 62 credits, 3; II 5 inciudigg physical education; 2 credits. ‘ a _ Junior High If I 3 Bachelor's degree . ; J1 Two years training with minimum of 62 credits, '3 ;__II includigg physical education, 2 credits. ) Y 7 - é f: I .155 l. Master's degree r; .,- 3 3 2. At least one year of advanced study beyond {5' SSenior High 3 i the bachelor's degree. 3 4 :. 3 3, f II 3 Bachelor's degree i! 5- ~: Note: As a rule, in addition to the basic requirements, the teacher candidate must have six months practice teaching eXperience. These basic requirements are the same in all accredited colleges and universities in Japan. 93 1. Junior high school music, Grade I and Grade II. 2. Senior high school music, Grade II only. Though minors are not required by the law, in the Music Education curriculum, one minor other than music may be obtained by fulfilling the minimum requirements in the subject-matter area and methods courses. Credit Requirements In order to produce a well-rounded teacher as well as a well-trained specialist, the Teachers' License Law requires the following minimum credits in each of the following areas: General Culture £133 The requirements are the same as described in the study of the curriculum. Lectures on.music (such as music appreciation) may be included in this area. (e.g. Kobe College) M Requirements for, M The CHART V shows the minimum credits in music required by the law. CHART V BASIC mummsnrrs FOR MUSIC Subjects A E Voice, mlMi$Conducti1 8 6 Instrument, includingionducti t 6 8 usic History and Music Theory 2 2 E Total 16 16 Note: Students may choose A or 8 plan. The curricula of the three Japanese institutions, eSpecially of Kobe College, show that they emphasize this area more than the basic requirements. 94 Professional Education Area The requirements in this area are presented in the study of the curriculum. For music teacher certificates half of the total credits (14, as a rule) of this area may be taken from subjects concerning music education. At present, the requirements for Professional Education are becoming more flexible as shown in the two types of curricula for prospective music teachers. Eight years have elapsed since the new system of the certification of music teachers was established by the Teachers' License Law of 1949. Now, there is a strong desire among educators to shift the two-year course, which was temporarily provided in the four—year institution to meet elementary and junior high school teacher shortages, to the f our- year course as soon as the situation permits. ORGANIZATION 9; ms 213me OMAKU-gfl KYOG IKAI Before 1945, there were only three institutions which were authorized to license music teachers in Japan. However, two of them were given permission as qualified schools during World War II (1941 arrl 1942, respectively), when most of the classes were closed. Therefore, actually the Tokyo Academy of Music was the only one institution which trained licensed music teachers. Naturally, there existed no organizations of music-teacher training schools in pre-war Japan such as the National Association of Schools of Music and the Music Educators National Conference. After the war, a great number of institutions for music teachers came into being upon introduction of the new education system with the aim of preparing teachers to meet the new program in the public schools. 95 However, the schools which were promoted to college level from ordinary normal schools did not have a specific Music Education curriculum before the war. These sbhools, together with other institutions, felt a keen need for an organization in order to solve common problems and to improve their training programs. In 1953, this need brought about the establishment of the Zenkoku D‘s-calm Ongaku-Bu Kyogikai or the National Conference of Schools of “usic, a voluntary national organization of schools concerned with music- teacher training. In 1956, 61 schools, including 10 junior colleges which ‘te qualified to issue music-teachers' licenses, were associated with this or g anizat ion. LC t ivit ies The organization holds both regional (usually one day) and national ( “anally two days) conferences in Tokyo. So far, only two national conferences (1953 and 1955) were held. The conferences consist mainly of the discussion of problems in music-teacher education, and some of the resolutions adepted there were presented to the Ministry of Education to be approved. The following are the main topics discussed at the 8evaond national conference: 1. More flexibility in the Music Education curriculum should be acknow- ledged by the Teachers' License Law. 2. More stress on music should be required for the entrance examinations to national or gakugei universities. 3. The inadequacy of the training of elementary school music teachers was pointed out against the present tendency of emphasizing secondary school music in the curriculum. 96 4. The importance of pre-college music training was highly stressed in order to raise the standards of university music education. 5. The need for the standard Music Education curriculum was one of the most highly discussed tOpics. 6. How to deal with ”instrumental music" in the Music Education curriculum was also extensively discussed. The need for more qualified and better trained faculty, and the better- ment of equipment, was felt by many schools. Especially the first need was felt as the most urgent. The report of the second national confer- ence says, "The greatest problem in the music-teacher training schools is how to obtain the instructors who can teach music materials and methods courses efficiently. Here, we come across another big problem, namely, how to train university instructors, who are able to train public school music teachers."‘1 These are all problems most of the Japanese schools have in common concerning the preparation of music teachers. However, because of its Short history, the Zenkoku Daigaku OngakuaBu Kyogikai is not yet power- ful enough to solve these problems. Even so, the establishment of this Organization is a very significant event for the improvement of music- teacher education, and for the recognition of Music Education as a respectable professional study in colleges and universities in Japan. l. 3115 Second National Conference Report, Zenkoku Daigaku Ongaku-Bu Kyogikai, November, 1955, p. 9. 97 Summary It was realized by both the Japanese government and SCAP right after the war that the extent to which the potentialities of the new school system were realized and the direction taken by the educational program.would in a large measure be determined by the education of teachers. Consequently, preparation of teachers has undergone a revolutionary change since the end of World war II, 1945. Its basic concepts, administration, curricula, and the certification of teachers have been thoroughly revised to conform with Japan's new role in the democratic society of nations. The Minister of Education has defined the reSponsibility of the teachers to help his students grow mentally and physically. The new training program aims to provide the prospective teacher with a broad and rich cultural background, and sufficient techniques and knowledge of his profession. Accordingly the present philosophy of music-teacher education aims at preparing educators as well as musicians. Preceding the establishment of a new program for teacher education, the Ministry of Education purged militaristic and ultra-nationalistic teachers, and re-educated acceptable teachers to meet their new respon- sibility. In 1949, the University Establishment Law and the Teachers' License Law were enacted to re-organize teacher training schools. By these laws, music-teacher training institutions were increased from three schools before 1945, to 67, including 10 junior colleges. These Schools may be grouped into two categories; 1. conservatory type, per- ‘litted to issue teacher certificates without providing the Music Education ‘lericulum, but by fulfilling the credits in professional education 98 required by the Teachers' License Law, and 2. colleges and universities with the.Music Education curriculum. In this study, three schools, Kobe College (a women's college), Ohsaka Gakugei University, and Tokyo Gakugei University have been chosen as representing two types of the institutions for music-teacher training, and a study has been.made concerning their requirements for admission, degrees granted, curricula, and certification of music teachers. In.Japan, all candidates for music schools are admitted by competi- tive entrance examinations only, on the basis of completion of high school. The examinations are given in both academic subjects and music fields. The degrees granted to prospective music teachers are either the Bachelor of Arts or the Bachelor of Education according to the types of curricula. The University Establishment Law requires a certain amount of residence on the campus in which the candidate expects to receive his degree, and the minimum 124 semester hours of credit. Though the minimum requirements in each area of study are regulated by the University Establishment Law, much more freedom has been given to each school in curriculum planning. The basic pattern of the curriculum covers General Culture, Music, and Professional Education. However, in this study, the areas were distributed into four by dividing Music into Basic Music and Musical Performance according to the subject distribution pattern set up by the MENC and the NASH. There are two types of music curricula for the candidates for music 'teachers in Japan. Type A which leads to the Bachelor of Arts is not, in 99 fact, the Music Education curriculum, but it functions to license music teachers by simply adding a limited amount of credits in professional education. Naturally, little or no consideration is usually given to subject content for teaching music in the public schools. Type B which leads to the Bachelor of Educat ion is the Music Education curriculum. The evaluation of the curricula of the three schools made by using the evaluation sheets prepared by the MEM: and the NASM shows the differences in the two types of curricula. Kobe College (Type A) puts the most emphasis on the music subject area, and the least on professional education, while Tokyo Gakugei University (Type B) em- phasizes professional education most extensively amongthe three institutions. Ohsaka Gakugei University seems to be between the two types. In general, the preparation for instrumental teaching, and practice teaching do not receive adequate emphasis. Professionalizap tion of subject content areas, especially in Basic Music, is still'far from ¢calvesirable standard. The certification of music teachers has been decentralized, authorizing local educational agencies to issue teacher certificates. The candidate is required to have at least two-year's education beyond the high school. There are two grades of certificates for elementary and secondary schools reSpectively. For music teachers who have completed a f our-year course at colleges and universities of both types, Grade I for junior high schools, and Grade II for senior high schools are granted. To Obtain Grade I, for senior high schools, the candidate must hold the 100 Master's degree or must have more than one year advanced study beyond the Bachelor's degree. However, as a graduate school for music students has not yet been established in Japan, Grade I, for senior high school music, is not available at present. Due to a great increase of music-teacher training schools, the need for a professional organization was felt among music educators. In 1953, the Zenkoku Ongaku-Bu Kyogikai, or the National Conference of Schools of Music, was established. At its national conferences, various important problems now facing schools of music were brought up for discussion. Though the conference is not powerful enough to solve these problems through this organization, Japanese music educators are now working toward improved professional standards which will insure recognition and respectability for their profession. CHAPTERV THE EVALUATION OF MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION BY SEDNDARY SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHERS IN JAPAN Purposes and the scope gfi the Questionnaire Ianay, 1956, questionnaires were sent to 200 music teachers in Japanese secondary schools selected at random in order to: 1. Evaluate the usefulness of their preparatory training in their present work. 2. Gather criticism and recommendations suggestifls Possible improvement in the preparation of music teachers. The questionnaire was not sent to elementary music teachers, because most of them had not received professional music training, and did not hold music-teacher's licenses, though a small number of elementary teachers hold secondary music-teacher licenses. Areas Questioned 1. Music History and Literature 2. Basic Music a. Music-reading and sight-singing b. Bar-training c. Harmony, including keyboard harmony d. Counterpoint e. Composition, including orchestration and form 3. Musical Performance a. Conducting 101 102 b. Applied Music 1. Major Performance Area 2. Minor Performance Area c. Music Ensemble 1. Choral Ensemble 2. Instrumental Ensemble d. Functional Piano 4. Professional Education -- Music Education and Student Teaching Classification The teachers were asked to evaluate the training they had received in the above areas by rating them as "very useful", "useful" and "of little use" in relation to the work they were then doing. Attempts were also made to find any significant difference of opinion according to: l. TYpes of training 2. The enrollment of the schools in which they were teaching 3. The length of their teaching eXperience 4. Teaching assignments in applied music In the second section of the questionnaire, teachers were asked to give suggestions for and criticism of the preparation of music teachers. Completed and returned questionnaires numbered 104, or 52%. es of Train' of Respondents .....___i£EL__. Chart VI classified according to the pre-war and the post-war educational systems shows the types of training the respondents had received. The following points should be noticed: 1. Both in the pre-war and the post-war systems, the highest percent- -age of teachers were trained in ordinary normal schools and science and arts or in education departments of national universities and colleges which were promoted from ordinary normal schools after World war II. CHART VI TYPES OF TRAINING OF RESPONDENTS 103 ** Five of twelve obtained teachers' licenses by examination. * One is a graduate of a two—year course. it ~ " Pre-War No. Post-War No.4 I ‘ Education or Science , Ordinary Normal Schools 26 & Arts Dept. of 15* 3 National Univs. or . Colleges College of Music at , Tokyo Academy of Music 20 Tokyo Arts Univ. 2 l Private Music Schools 15 Private Music Colleges 1?. ‘ i Others 12** Junior Music Colleges 7} ‘ q i Total 73 31 E TOtal. O O I O O O I 104 The remaining seven teachers, graduated from fields other than music at higher educational institutions and did not have professional training to be music teachers. 104 2. In the post-war section the number of teachers who received only junior music college training is greater than the number of graduates of the College of Music of Tokyo Arts University. General Remarks on Evaluation Charts The following should be noticed in regard to the evaluation charts: 1. The charts show the degree of usefulness of four areas of training received by the reSpondents, according to school size and to teaching eXperience. 2. The charts eliminate the data of teaching assignments in applied music, because in Japan, music teachers at secondary schools are responsible for the general music class, and are required to teach both vocal and instrumental areas. Actually none of the respond- ents is an exclusively instrumental teacher. 3. The length of teaching experience exactly corresponds with the types of training the respondents had received, shown in Chart VI that is, those whose teaching experience is over five years were trained by the pre-war system, and those whose teaching experience is less than five years were trained by the post-war system.* *The first music teacher candidates prepared by the new school 5YEstem.graduated in March, 1952. 105 Evaluation, Criticism and Suggestions Concernigg Music_flistory and .Literatugg Of the respondents, ninety-one, or 87.5%, judged their training in music history and literature as satisfactory, and only 5.8% felt it useless. This judgement was not affected by school enrollment or by teaching experience. Most of the teachers polled did not offer any supplementary opinion. Only 20 of the reSpondents made suggestions or criticisms. 1. Fifteen teachers suggested more stress on music literature, and less on mere historical facts. 2. Five teachers criticized this area as not functional enough to be of much help in teaching music appreciation. They felt the need for more concrete material. 3. Three felt the need for more knowledge of contemporary music. Evaluation, Criticism, and Suggestions Concerning Basic Musig l. Music-Reading and Sig‘ ant-m .As shown in Chart VII regardless of school enrollment or teaching experience, the majority of teachers, 64 (61.5%), evaluated their training in this field as "Very Useful", and 32 (30.8%), ”Useful". Of the teachers who did not answer five said they had not received Special training in sight-singing. Eleven felt the need for a change of approach to music-reading. These suggested that materials used in training should be of practical help in their teaching. The remaining teachers did not give any criticism or suggestions. 2~ 32-min ' 106 l."ll.lll ‘nlll .1 Basia; H33 . 0.03 a: Has a. EN 0:1»...94 : We. - 2...; was: 3 3&1 an cum fl he n .m.wml d 23 . fl ......Ilwulon can. 83 . mam $3 .2 a in H aim m as a ham 2 -W , «Q i as n 3 N was 3 Es a 5...!»ch ....3 ._ I am elf 00: N 0' & o flamerom no 62 mom-fl mm. «W ones & Inflow H825 Mum mmcdfiflmxlm 3 egg 333 .8 Ban .m 062 mm." l” he a. .. Em o and. .3 .. «:3 Hum 35ng ~88. _ a.» a. o o as: a are N , 3.“ a sass . men an as a as M on mm mm Am «NJI. 8 . Emm mw «.3 o ...n N 8mm 2 mg 5 83 cuts [ml I am null Us. In am: a ..I. a .m ndoomom e on .35.: oz on: 050.3 no Hana: Haas: g amend—“ohms Hoonom Ragga A8mom so fig .4 "Mags 5: Huang 0H9! .H mg mpg IH 333 ha 3H9fl ERIN—Iowa Eng J 107 E-Trainis In this area, 53 (51%) of the respondents evaluated it as "Useful”, while 31 (29.8%) Judged it as "Very Useful”. Altogether 84 (80.8%) of the teachers thought their ear-training was adequate. 'nxis evaluation was not affected by school enrollment. but the majority of those who had taught fron five to ten years (62%) were most apt to evaluate their trainin as "Useful”. Anong ten teachers who were classified as "No Answer”, f ive who had been trained by the post-war systen indicated that they had no received ear-training in their preparatory program. The nain criticism given by twelve teachers was the lack of nusical value in the naterials used for their ear-training, and the ineffective- ness in ear-training instruction. There was no doubt that they considered it highly essential both in the training progran and in teaching. Three teachers suggested more stress on harmonic ear-trainitg. 3. Baum, including Keyboard Harmogz Chart X shows that the majority of the respondents judged their training in harnony as satisfactory, 42 (40.4%), as :‘Very Useful”. an! 51 (49%), as "Useful", and this was not affected by school enrollment or teachim experience. he najority of the teachers, (45), felt the necessity of more functional study of harnony. lost of then criticized their training as a ”non stay on paper” with little or no relation to real nusic. ‘nlirty-nins stressed the need for ability to harnonize a simple Ielody at sight on the piano. 4. Counterpoint As shown in Chart 11. this area was regarded by all to be the 3inst useful course of Basic “usic. Out of the 104 total respondents. 108 . 033 m9 H6 5 4 04 a ”.8 Mn _ m4.» 5 W 853.4%; duos ... w. 9% am ,y. 13 m o o m.NN N .. N23 tell.» 3. 55 :3 A 3N dml o N o o n4: NH exam wfl show 2 u m QM. mm! o o N.N a QR 4: mmwm NN . 2a.» 3 .35 ., fill ..Iozlr all! .Ioz , In. .3 u L. . udoonom Ho .02 .3334 oz “1 on: 5&3 no H33: firms-ammo”, pg mg w magma god» .8 963 .m c.8a 3% 1.6 N o; .n 2me To e. W o o o c on?! men an #2 a tN N N. mam fl N Nam n o o oenn . kill ||.Iozl .0 J02 .oz Raconom Ho .02 Rhesus? mum. saw 33de W m Hammb d]? a g a agmlamam and Sada-OHM? gag demon no a .d .93; OH; .HH a mpg 3H a; ho land—34>” .mazgzcmmmm HHHD ago 109 Mloqooa flea .r or“ S . o.m mm 9% mm 9mm .3 3mm...“ .IQNN a was, r . .3 N Jam 3 EN e W231 WméN wm 3. N , ~22 a 9%.. 3 . N5 m w :4...» gum “4% [fl N.N a o.“ 4. :35 NN «.mfllfi. 28» 2.35 [a 4m... u 6.. N on . N 6: .u .oz 385m mm .mm 3.54 fl Male 333 mm data 3:: Hum ”sung am 38." :4: o.m old o& mm 9% mm o.mlN an Beoeamnom Hanna as e. H o o New N 3.“ a W 3m N I18 .33 _ “.2 an N.NH m 1m N a 0.3 o." {.3 won." «madam cam a” we m M o.NH H w 9% «a 31$ d." 83 Move NNlmI l .8. Film L B a .m all al. I 8:3 o oz 8-34 oz 3: 3.53 No 38: dots fl neg-dog. €38 923% A083 no Gama .4 3545.. a 5H9! 0H3 .HH mg mpg 2H SZHB ho ZOHB<§>N .magzgmmm NH 930 110 N.N N N.N H 1;. Nm ...3 m _ saunas N.N..N _ o o N.NN N Way NN N.N: MN .lwl'hon 5.: .3: .. to N N.N N wag NN 3N N 28» oN . m N.» W 3 N 1.9 N.N. Nfif oIN :3. o. N. 8...5...|.. 0 WOW“ R ouOIm‘ R eal , ”emu-4 m "mm 333 o N825 N N88: and» mag glam-Na. Hangs 83043.. no mg .m N «A N N N.» N , 0.3 N“ ,. tolllllalflllll, 338 on N33 e. N.NN N W N.NN N 3N N NW3 M 8m .38.. N.N N t. N.m N fig NN m.2 NN [News . 8: ...m N as N N.Nm on N.Nn 4N 83 .85 .NII ..F L .9 N .... rl ....N .554 oz on: 0.303 we as: dawn: “MM N.N—gonna .noonom hag A958 :0 mg .4 H293 Gama 35393 Hag Non—Ma 934m .HH mg 55m IH Ema .mc 293.4335 59282895“ N H30 o.8N :3 N3: mN “ «.mN NN “Aflfl ma N5 42‘ 3558.3 NSoN m 3% N1 NJNIN m . N.N: «N Naww NN T3 N :3 85 ...N N.NN NM 3: n NAM N flfim 0N «.3 n and» 3 n m N.N: 4.3 «.mN . M cam N N.N: «N o.mN N 2.5 ON .56 . . I cum ,. . o R ouOIZ M .0! 50053 Ho .0: ”mu-lad m”. m “mm 33.3on as: _. dawn Dunc o> 030.“th mane-on. @0353 2:03 :0 numdm .m c.8N ..wm H NAN. m4 N.mN NN «:3 m4“ N.mN 0N . Baounaom N309. o N o o N.N; n . 9% n M N.NN N 8:825 . .NN an F 3N N _ .mN 0N WAN NN H. N.NN w NNN .. 8.. cm w m N.NN N N.Nm fl Nam 0N N.NN S 83 mayo d! w % . M. II B a. lull Mn In n oz away. no .02 .853 oz 8: 333 .mw N35. ..Nmfifl film» Nan-fiche N033 . Nam—.395. .888. .3 an; .4. Eggs. ,3; Es ..u . mg ~58 3H 2% ho flogdabfl Nazazommflfl n 930 C-I.- 112 46 (44.3%) evaluated it as "Useful" and 27 (25.9%), as "Of Little Use". "No Answers"numbered 15 (14.4%). Among these. eight had not studied counterpoint. The largest group of those trained by the post-war system evaluated it as "Of little Use". and only two of them felt it "Very Useful." The majority of the reSpondents did not show enough interest in this subject to make further comment.~ Seven said that they did not find any significant use for counterpoint in their teaching. 5. Composition, including Orchestration and Form Chart XII shows the highest percentage of the respondents, 46 (44.3%) judged their training of this area as "Useful”. and 30 (28.8%). as "Very Useful". This indicates that the majority thought it adequate. According to the chart. teachers trained after the war felt those courses much less satisfactory than pre-war trained teachers. 0f 16 "No Answers". four had not taken composition, and eight had not taken orchestration and form. Forty—three teachers felt the need for a more functional technique in their teaching of creative work. Among these. 27 mentioned the need of training in arranging music for band and orchestra. To summarize the suggestions for and criticism of their training in basic music implied the need for reorganization of materials and methods in terms of practical application. In.Japan, traditional approach to the teaching of music theory was observed. and one teacher claimed the importance of correlated or integrated theory study. 113 m. .8H :2 w 3% to» man «a We: , o 3.32. £33. I L. i. I IIIL. "an“ a “.2 a. m.- a. ”.3 a . 9% m 38» .2 55 3: WK 9% «.3 n find : 3W 2 «.2 m .3 2 .. m a i 0.3 o N.N a ~55 a ndn via .5: S .36 m II .mm M .I .H4 W JHozw + n .mzfl . magnum o .0: .3334 m ”w 339.3 mum. goo: goo: Halal» 9333mm Hancock Managua mamas: no mama .m c.8H 3H 4 in «w an 3 Kim L3 . 331 on .. 2.8.. can .3. .99 . .. W6 a. «:3 a «:2 a Wmm ~ 93 n 8.. .535 a. an a: a as 4 E m 93 a QTOS mam 3 32 o ofi H. 19 3+ 9% mm o8a .38 hlIIaF ml ....I h. ..F null... .Pl A. , 38.3 0 oz ...-34 on 3p .33 no 9%.: 1%.: Nu...» fiiflflam €28 9503 A958 no an; .d 2mg! .onagmgomo alga—Lungs 5H9! OHmdm .HH mg mg 2H SHE-Ha ho IOHH<§>H .8323 H .5330 114 Evaluation, Criticism, and Suggestions Concernigg Musical Performance 1. Conducting Few of the teachers who were polled in this area had received training in instrumental conducting. Therefore Chart XIII should be understood as concerned with choral conducting only. Forty-seven (45.2%) teachers who evaluated it "Useful", the great majority believed it effective in their teaching, regard- less of school enrollment or teaching experience. Bight teachers among fourteen who did not answer indicated that they had received no training in this area. Five of them were trained before the war. and the remaining three were trained after the war. The majority (about one-fourth) of the reSpondents stressed the fundamental importance of conducting in teaching and recommended more thorough training. Eleven pointed out the necessity of wider variety of materials. 115 s [Beaumnoa Halos . m.2 i 04 2 a. ..R . . mm m .2 w awn : lama a... ...8.le. gigs...” . Q.» ~ whom o w am e . bwm . 24m S .. W and A ....N a n. fillfi [walllls 8 Jill . -..... 5.. imzfi . L123. mm mm .3 m a 2.; hi2... . gum”. $294.. “gamma «lava no mg .m a .2 9m mun h. an S 383 on .33. o o «.3 H o .NI: n g .33: «.5 a. 3. n a .m as j. 8 0.3” N Woo." o h. a On coca .33 I”! m... L Jam a HM .354 oz 0.: 0.30.3 «o 2.0: > ago-Hagan Hoonum mad mach 2H SHE ho IE<§>H 593382 923% Agom :0 Bug .4 .mozadflm Aden—”mi . HHHH Baa 116 2. Musical Ensembles a. Instrumental Ensemble In.Japan, instrumental ensemble was much less stressed than choral ensemble in the preparatory program of music teachers both before and after World War II. The poll showed that only eleven teachers had had eXperience in instrumental ensembles; the rest felt there was too little Opportunity for training in this area. The necessity of instrumental ensemble training was especially stressed by the majority of the teachers (67). Band and orchestra are desired in the Course of Study for Music. and the demand for them is intense yet mainly because of lack of instructors and economic conditions there are actually few such activities in public schools. The kinds of instrumental ensembles and number of partici- pants were: Chamber Music............1 Brass Band...............3 0rchestra............... 7 Total.............ll b. Choral ensemble Choral ensemble was required in all teacher training programs as shown in Chart XIV. In public schools, singing is still/iroie of teaching assignments in applied music. Chart XIV shows that the greatest group of the teachers, 60 (57.T%) evaluated choral ensemble "Very Useful" and 30 (29.8%). "Useful”. The majority, therefore, found it satisfactory. This Opinion was not affected by school enrollment or teaching experience. 117 9m 3 m.~ n 3% #1 , Sh mm a. Bulfilmmuom H33 ocm q :00 N N OH OoHM m uhd0H OH :15. an: ._ tn 4 o 0 3n 3 «.3 fl ......» 3 u w 0.0 n a...“ a jjlflfiao “ .8 R .3 0°: 0 no.5: m on: 33.3 mm m Hanna Mun—Hon: & g ”made-Ion. a; gag :0 fig on . ta 2 . «J n tum an o o o o Em m Ham." 0 qu N ~13 «H . new : hdH H O.” H 4m k. .m. a an... .3334 on on: 3.5.3 «o H.625 gag Agom no Rama .4 A383 Emu—mm: 3..nt .ugm 3H9! .HHH mad mag 2H 82% mo Iadagh .maazommmm DHN go 118 Forty-five teachers pointed out the need for materials adapted to highpschool work to supplement the large choral work used in their training. 3. gpplied M“S§2?'M312£ and Minor and functional Piano Facility .As seen in.Chart XV, the majority of the teachers are piano majors. The next largest number of teachers are voice majors, and the chart shows the relationship between the teaching assignments and the prepara- tory training in applied music. Chart.xv shows that this area was regarded most satisfactory by the great majority of the teachers, 103 (99.1%), regardless of school enrollment or teaching experience. In Spite of the above figure, the greatest concern indicated by more than half of the respondents (76) was the lack of training and skill in orchestral and band instruments. Eleven suggested the need for a shift of emphasis from Specialization to generalization in the performance areas. Functional piano facility was highly recommended by 47 teachers. The ability to improvise, to play at sight, and to transpose a simple piano accompaniment was felt to be more important than the technique needed to play elaborate piano music. The essential points of agreement in applied music area are: 1. The need for broader and more generalized training in applied music. 2. Workable technique in piano. CHART XV 119 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TEACHII‘G ASSIGMXENI‘S IN APPLIED MUSIC AND THE PREPARATORY TRAINEE FOR APPLIED MUSIC TBACHIPG ‘ TEACHII‘G ASSIGNMENTS IN APPLIED MUSIC Assignments No. Per cent Voice and Piano 46 44.3 Voice 41 39.4 Voice and more than , one instrument 1? 16.3 ' Total I 104 100.0 ; PREPARATORY TRAINII‘G FOR APPLIED MUSIC TEACIIIIG I J 1 Major E Minor 1 No. Per cent i ; Piano Voice ‘ 62 59.6 Piano or 1 0 a 20 19.9 ‘ Organ , J ; Piano or q 9 8.7 Voice ‘ Organ fl ‘ 1 l i Voice and more ; _ 7 Piano 5 than one instru- g 5 ¢ 4.8 .4 ment , ‘ 3 Voice . 0 if 4 3.9 55 4 More than one 3 ‘1 i ‘: Piano 1 instrument ; 3 1 2.9 i String? 1 0 1 g 1.0 ‘ I?“ i! 1 éTotal 1 104 g 100.0 120 o «6 a ., 3H mm W Maw 8 388.83g ~38... , lllllllllllllr o «A a 7% «H . 9mm 3 a...” 3 5.5 :3 o o o w clan m «.8 8 as...» S u m o o o nan .2 1mm on ...-o» 2 .85 . ...... ....l ...l kl 4mm .m .3. ...-84 oz «mummies o 38: my Haws. g «analog. 3235.5 guess zo mama .m o «.0 H J, lamp 358%; Haas o o o . 9m... 8. 4 .5... -s , o m.~ H o.n~ «N ...-84 .i [Ill-Ill, o o o 0.9” 83 .56 4F L .m. all lhOlIfld OI I'D Qflfifls MO 2005 $530.3" H038 Flag A958 no mg .4 Aug: d 8533 0H9” has ”mg.“ SHE! HHH a E 2H 3333. MG Iaagbfl 59233893 HDH ago 121 Evaluation, Criticism and Suggestions Concerning Professional Education (Music Education.Methods, Materials, Observation, and Student Teaching) As shown ianhart XVII, 76 teachers (73%) judged this area to be either "Very Useful” or "Useful”, though there is no striking difference between the number of teachers making the two ratings. School enroll- ment did not affect their Opinion, but among the teachers who found it "Useful", the percentage of those whose teaching eXperience was between five and ten years is almost twice that of those whose teaching was more than ten years. The criticism and suggestions made by 73 teachers may be summarized as follows: 1. More familiarity with materials suitable for public school use is needed. (40) 2. There is need for knowledge and technique practical enough to successfully solve teaching problems. (14 of 36 comments in this section felt the need for knowledge of handling boys' voices.) 3. Band and orchestral organization should be taught. (28) 4. Student teaching should be reorganized to provide teaching experience in all grades of public schools. (24) 5. More college professors who understand the problems of public school teaching are needed. (7) One said that"music professors were not music educators, but performers." 6. Subjects taught include the use of school equipment and audio- visual materials, and also school administration. (5) 063 8a.. men «a M W .. a. as a ... H mm m ”V. «j ..m 2 a. a: lsllmm a am e em a 1 3m a .3. was] *3 13 o W: m c «.2. «a . #9 Mun—r .3 w an a .... u a... i u .3 _ a a... 238.9 mm .qz. 85< M... _M ....m 5.3 Is . dc...” m 3:: H...» g «fly—llama 030203 330.3% no won-m .m o.8H :3 4 man «a 1N ....9 3 1” flfl mm m 3 ~ 0 o W 9% n Fem... n .3: a 3': 3w an 04 n M «.3 s Q”? m 4.11% 93 w wqwnr m o.fi e. «.3 mm ....nwlummll I'd-8431 Mwofim legwmm ”$3..” flmwfiflmowro mass .92 lemulomm M ago-no.3 H038 923% Amazon 20 nmmdm .4 area M93033 d onsdoBm OHM—i >H mad mag 3H a: ho zaa<§>mahgz§ HE 930 123 Voluntary Comments and Criticism Ninety-one teachers expressed further opinions of the preparation of music teachers which may be summarized as follows: 1. More stress should be put on well-rounded functional musicianship, essential to public school music teachers. 2. To build up a strong background of a music teacher, general culture was felt important. The need of psychology, to understand children, and of foreign languages, to broaden culture, was frequently mentioned. 3. Knowledge of and experience in sister arts, eSpecially, painting,was desired by many teachers. 4. The need for the courses which put greater emphasis on the value of moral and spiritual aspects was pointed out by about one-third of the reSpondents. 5. The need for more Opportunities to do further study in music education and to develop their musicianship was suggested by about one-quarter of the teachers. 6. To meet the shortage of music teachers, the need for increase and enlargement of music-teacher training institutions was strongly demanded by the majority. One teacher stated that in his prefecture, about one-third of the music teachers did not hold certificates. Six teachers suggested the revival of the system of teaching certification by examination. 7. Sixteen teachers wished the requirement of at least fourfyears of training at a college for a licensed music teacher. 8. The most frequent and strongly felt comment by the respondents (91) was the need for a change in the philOSOphy of music-teacher train- ing. They criticized the present trend to regard music teachers 124 as inferior to performers, and the predominant training principle which puts more emphasis on producing performers than music teachers. The respondents also believed it necessary that music teachers and candidates themselves should recognize the value and importance of their work. This opinion represents a new trend of the philosophy of teacher training, which recognizes music education as equal to music performance, composi- tion, and musicology. Summarz A questionnaire designed to evaluate the preparatory training of music teachers was sent to 200 secondary school music teachers, out of whan 104 reSporxied. The questionnaire offered the teachers the Opportunity to rate Music History and Literature, Basic Music, Musical Performance, and Professional Music as "Very Useful", "Useful", or "of Little Use", and the answers were interpreted in terms of school enrollment and teaching eXperience. Its purpose was to find any significant difference of opinion. Attempts were also made to find the difference of opinion between pre-and post- war trained teachers. However, because the result correSponded with their teaching experience, this classification was eliminated. In the second section, the teachers were asked to give comments which might lead to the improvement of the training program. Generally speaking, the majority felt their training adequate in the four fields covered by the questionnaire. Neither school enrollment, teaching experience nor the date of their training (pre-or post-war) affected the substantial agreement of the teachers questioned, as to the value of their training or their basic problems. Therefore, it is 125 presumed that there is no significant difference in the content of training between the old and new systems. The comment made by the great majority of teachers reflected the general desire to re-organize their preparatory program so as to make it more practical. This Opinion held true in each of four areas of instruction. The keenest need appeared for more training in the use of instruments other than keyboard instruments, and Opportunities for experience in instrumental ensembles. Of the voluntary Opinions eXpressed, the most important seemed to be that music education should be of equal importance to other fields of music. Music teachers should be trained to teach as thoroughly as perfonmers are trained to perform. Materials and courses should be required in terms of teaching needs. CHAPTER VI BRIEF HISTORY OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES The history of American public school music may be divided into two sections, "Up to the Tuventieth Century" and ”In the Nentieth Century." DEVELOPMENT 9;; MUSIC EDUCATION gr; _1;_o THE mammn can-rum: 21%.: 3.1.1: 2222 £25 §§£gigg Schools In the colonial period, music activity was largely confined to psalm singing in churches. With the purpose of improving the psalnody, instruction books appeared early int he eighteenth century. For the same purpose, singing schools were established by itinerant singing masters throughout New England and the other colonies. Teaching choral music and the ability to read music, these singing masters laid the cornerstone of music education in the United States. The Educational SHELL-m Organization and Curriculum Early American colonists established schools patterned after the European system. Soon, however, the rising democracy gave impetus to the idea of universal education. From this time on, the American educators made efforts to fashion a new system of education to support democracy, and helped the establishment of the system of ungraded district schools, which were set up by the community, especially in New England. It is important to know that ”the district schools separated the schools from 126 127 municipal administration am! laid the basis of some 100,000 school districts scattered throughout forty-eight states."1 This system develOped in comection with the widely scattered pOpulation and the growth of local goverrnent. These district schools existed until some time in the second half of the nineteenth century. Music was not included in their curriculum, and only the three R's were emphasized. Introduction of £12135 £9931 £1535 Lowell 59:93 35 ES Contribution The outgrowth of the singing school was the introduction Of music, by Lowell Mason (1792-1872). into the curriculum of the grammar schools* of Boston in 1858. Convinced of the practicability of teaching singing by the Pestalozzian principles, Mason formulated teaching methods in his "Manual of Instruction" (1854) as follows: "1. To teach sounds before signs-u-to make the child sing before he learns the written notes or their names. 2. To lead him to Observe, by hearing and imitating sounds, their resemblances, their agreeable and disagreeable effect, instead of eXplaining these things to him--in short, to make him active instead of passive in learning. 3. To teach but one thing at a time--rhythm, melody, expression being taught and practiced separately before the child is called to the difficult task of attending to all at once. 4. To make him practice each step of these divisions, until he is a master of it, before passing to the next. 1. Arthur Henry Moehlman, "Education '_.1_n the United States of America,” marative Education Bd. , by Arthur Henry Moehlman and Joseph S. Roucek, The Dryden Press, New York, 1953, p. 43. *The grammar school corresponded tot he present-day junior high school. 128 5. To give the principles and theory after practice, and as an induction from it. 6. To analyze and practice the elements of articulate sound in order to apply them to music. 7. To have the names of the notes correspond to those used in instrumental musico”1 This was the first formulation of methodology in music education in the United States. However, the music education thus initiated was limited to the grammar school, and it was not until 1872 that public school music was included in all grades. §pread of Public School Music Mason’s work began in Boston, but soon spread into New York and Cincinnati, and then into many places. In 1842, the New York State Legislature permitted music teaching in the schools, and in 1898, under the supervision of Frank Damrosch, music was definitely included in the curriculum of the New York School System. In Cincinnati, music was introduced into the school system in 1842, and took the leadership in music education in the West. Generally speaking in this period, public school music was, in fact, "a transplanted singing school."1, using similar materials to those used in the singing school. Ohms _13 School Organization, and _t_h_e_ m Curriculum It was in the period immediately following the Civil War that 1. Edward Bailey Birge, Historz_ of Music Education at Public Schools in the United States, Oliver Ditson Company, Philadelphia, 1937, p. 38. 2. Ibid, p. 76. 129 because of the develOpment of the educational system and the expansion of the curriculum, music was accepted in all public schools. By this time, America had succeeded in establishing a one-track, free, and tex- supported education, and the ungraded district school had been replaced by the graded school. However, a graded elementary school of eight years was not introduced until late in the nineteenth century. It was established after the Civil War, partly as a result of Pestalozzian influence, and since then has become a major factor in general education. The whole education was then organized into the 8-4 system. With the increasing number of the school children, and the increasing length of their attendance, the curriculum was also enriched. Not only the three R's, but also the arts, music, physical education, geography and nature study were included. Influence of General Music Activities 22 the Development of Public School sass After 1848, an influx of EurOpean musicians had done much to dissemin- ate musical culture by touring many cities. Musical interest thus stimulated resulted in the rise of musical societies-~such as the ApollO»Club of _Chicago.and the Oratorio Society of New York--loca1 concerts, conventions, the formation of symphony orchestras-~such as the Boston Symphony Orchestra-- the develOpment of music in the colleges, and the establishment of conserva- tories and schools of music. The band, which appeared after the Civil war, also contributed to the promotion Of music culture in the United States. Contribution gt; Luther Whiting m , Luther whiting Mason (1829-1896) who did pioneering work in Japan, 130 also originated elementary school music in America by organizing primary music instruction in Boston (1864). Like Lowell Mason, under the influence of Pestalozzian philOSOphy, he compiled "The National Music Course", a series of music readers. This became the prototype of many methods which followed it, and its influence was international. His approach to teach- ing singing was an application of the method of James Currie of Scotland, and main stress was put on rote-singing rather than music reading.* Bmergigg Philosophy and Methodolggy‘gf Music Education While the followers of L. W. Mason believed in teaching as many songs as possible, affected by Herbartianism the new trend in educational philosophy began to appear at the end Of the nineteenth century, stressing the importance of music reading skill in order to sing songs well. To provide materials for drills in music-reading, a large number of music readers were published. As a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, the paramount concern of music teachers became how to teach music-reading rather than how to enhance the musical growth of children. In this way, music in school, especially in upper grades, became "a slough of deSpond,"1 and due to the lack of good methodology, and of materials excellent enough to inspire children's interest, school music brought little of significance to the life of either children or community. According to Birge,"the solution. of the reading problem, the discovery of the child voice, and the individual dinging child were the three outstanding achievements of the period."2 and ‘ yet there was no definite principle accepted for teaching in the schools, and vocal and instrumental develOpments, if any, were Sporadic and isolated 1. Peter w. Dykema and Karl w. Gehrkens, The Teachigg and Administration '25 High School Music, C. C. Birchard and Company, Boston, 1941, p. 2. 2. Birge, 92' cit., p. 143. 131 rather than a part of a wideSpread movement or a well-organized plan. mg DEVELOPMENT 93 MUSI_C_ EDUCATION _I_N ’IHE TWENTIETH CENTURY ' Changes _i__n Philosophy _o_f_" Music Education and Methodolgz At the turn of the nineteenth century, changes in the philosophy of music education began to appear, affected by the following two factors: 1. The culmination of Herbartian influence in education which put emphasis on formal procedures in teaching. 2. The rise of the child study movement initiated by G. Stanley Hall. John Dewey, the outstanding leader of modern progressive education, greatly furthered the new movement in education. The basic principles of education which he advocated were: ‘1. Education is life and not merely a preparation for life. 2. Education is growth and as long as growth continues education continues. 3. Education is a continuous reconstruction of accumulated experience. 4. Education is a social process, and to make this possible the school must be a democratic community.“1 The prOgressive music educators like Satis Coleman disclaimed the old philosOphy of music education which put Special emphasis on the mastery of musical notation and sight—reading. The need for real musical experi- ence for children was intensely felt by many music teachers. In 1915, at the request of the Music Supervisors' Conference, Karl Gehrkens stated, "The ultimate aim of music teaching in the public schools is to cause children to know, to love, and to appreciate music in as many forms as possible, and thus to bring added joy into their lives and added culture and refinement into their natures." l. Adolph E. Meyer, The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century,M Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1951, p. 45. Musig EduCQtorsllournal, The MENC, April—May, 1950, p. 24. 132 In 1919, at the meeting of the same association, Osbourne McConathy in his presidential address stated, "Every child should be educated in music according to his natural capacities, at public eXpense, and his studies should function in the musical life of the community." Affected by the change in philOSOphy music teachers replaced long drills and monotonous instruction by music which had true value, which was within the child's comprehension, yet was able to contribute to his musical growth. A striking achievement in philOSOphy and methodology in the twentieth century is the democratization in music education, "Music for every child, and every child for music.” This idea has also aroused the attention to the importance of music education for exceptional children, including the physically handicapped, the mentally retarded, as well as the gifted child. The Chagge‘gf Educational Organization and its Influence on School Music In the two decades of the twentieth century, school music made big strides, accelerated by social, economic, political, cultural, and educational factors. Though by the nature Of this study, only cultural and educational influences will be emphasized, the national prosperity in this period, brought about by the tremendous progress of mass industry, should be pointed out, because it enabled parents to provide their children with greater educational Opportunities. ‘To meet the increasing desire for universal education, the public schools were re-organized with forty-eight state school systems with a total of more than three thousand county educational organizations. 1. Music Educatorsllournal. (April-May, 1950) 22. cit., p. 24. 133 Each of the state school systems was put under the authority of the state legislatures. The federal Office of Education is an advisory organization except for direct control of schools in territories under federal jurisdiction. The school organization was changed to the 6-3-3 or variations of it by introducing the junior high school. The desire for the junior high school had been expressed by the end of the nineteenth century, and had been realized by the end Of World War I. The introduction of the junior high school has played a significant role in the develOpment of school music, eSpecially in the progress of instrumental instruction. Influence of Professional Music Teachers' Organizations Among contributors to the develOpment of American public school music in the twentieth century, organizations of professional music educators should be highly acknowledged. Among these organizations, the Music Teachers National.Association, the National Association of Schools of Music, and the Music Educators National Conference have pioneered the united, organized endeavors for the improvement of music education. The main concern of the first two organizations is in music education at college level. Their influences will be discussed in the following chapter, Development of the Preparation of Music Teachers. The Music Supervisors National Conference was formed in 1907, and changed its name to the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) in 1934. It is now a department of the National Education Association, and has six divisions scattered over the United States. The membership (approximately 25,000) is Of individuals of all educational levels. The aims and programs Of the MENC are given in IMusic_in American Education” ,3 I 134 (Music Education Source Book Number TwODpublished by the MENC, as follows: "It is the recognized Spokesman for music education in the United States. Its activities and publications have been chiefly reSponsible for the establishment of music education as a profession, and for the promotion and guidance of music instruction in the schools as an integral part of general education. ”The planned program of the MENC is to: Insure a useful and broad program Of music education in the schools. Serve music educators through a permanent organization with professional, publication, and business headquarters offices. Correlate and provide a clearinghouse for all school music activities and interests. Give prestige and influence to the music education profession as an important segment of the general education profession. Serve as the Official public relations medium for the music education profession. Correlate school music activities of the United States and in other parts of the world."1 In its national and divisional conventions, the MENC includes discussions, demonstrations, and work shOps dealing with various practices of school music. The MENC has published numerous books and pamphlets dealing with Specific areas of music. Among them, the Music Educators Journal is one of the most valuable guides to music educators. In fact, all the progress of musical activities in the schools which will be described later in this chapter has been accelerated by the efforts of the MENC. It has also contributed much to create the recognition of music education as a profession equal to other fields of music. 1. Music in American Education, Op. cit., p. 324. 135 Growth of School Music Activities ————-m-— A new feature in the twentieth school music is the development of instrumental instruction in the schools. The growth Of democracy in music education which aimed to provide every child with musical oppor- tunities aroused the desire among music educators to»present the child with a wide range of music activities. Th5 Violin~Class Movement The need for variety of music studies promoted the development of instrumental instruction in the schools, first in the form of the violin class. It was started in the intermediate grades in Boston areas (1906). During the next decade, the movement Spread all over the country, and became a pioneer of the class instruction of all musical instruments. The School Orchestra and gand Movements With the initiation of the violinpclass movement, the way was prepared for the organization of school orchestras. By the end of the first decade of the new century, the secondary school orchestra had rapidly developed, though it took some fifteen years before it won a.place in the school curriculum. In 1922, at the MENC conference in Nashville, Tennessee, the appear- ance of a high school orchestra from Richmond, Indiana, under the direction of‘Joseph B. Maddy, set a new standard of performance for the high school orchestra in the United States. Unfortunately at present only a very small percentage of the schools maintains a school orchestra. The tremendous rise of the school band is largely responsible for the failure of the orchestra tolmaintain its position in the curriculum. The trend at this time is 136 toward increased emphasis on the stringed instruments and the organiza- tion Of more school orchestras. The school band began about 1910. However, the real acceleration came after World War I, when many returning bandmasters became instru- mental teachers in the schools. John Philip Sousa stimulated the band ' movement also. The tours of Sousa's band throughout the country had much to do with raising the standard of the performance in school and community bands. The Piano Class Movement In 1913, a few schools in Cincinnati started an eXperimental work in the class method of piano instruction. The success of this movement has led to the eXpansion of keyboard instruction in the following ways. according to the definitions given in "Music in American Education." 1. Keyboard mperience This is "to enrich and intensify other music learnings in the general classroom music program......It provides an excellent means Of teaching pitch, rhythm, and music reading. It provides a firm foundation upon which to develOp special skills under the vocal and instrumental Specialist.....Keyboard experience can function at all levels." 2. Classroom Piano This is "to give all children an Opportunity to learn some of the basic fundamentals of piano playing and to aid in the further development of the objectives of the general music program with a broad background of musicianship. These classes should be taught by a Specialist in group piano instruction.” 137 3. Elective Piano Classes "These classes are designed for Specific training in pianistic skills to develOp ability to perform in a musically satisfying ‘ manner.” They are mainly for high school levels'.1 a The class piano movement is at present contributing much to the basic music training of pupils in the elementary and secondary schools. Improvement _o_f_‘Choral Instruction f The rapid.development of instrumental music in the:schools, as above mentioned, was a great stimulus to vocal directors, especially in the high schools. Around 1930, at the music education conferences in Chicago and Detroit, groups of high school students showed the possibilities of adolescent chOral performance and thus established higher standards in all forms of choral singing. This increased interest in shbnal music has had to the introduction of the voice class in a few American schools. (‘6 Toward the end of the nineteenth century, another new trend in music education, interest in music appreciation, began to appear. In this early stage, the music appreciation course was not satisfactorily taught because of the lack of suitable materials, and of the teachers' inexperience in a method of conducting lessons. Only W.S.B. Matthews' “How to Understand Music" (1888) was a widely used source boOk to the teachers. The most direct influence on the develOpment of music appreciation was the discovery of the educational potentiality of the phonograph. l. Music-in American Education,.Qp. Cit., p. 189-190. 138 In 1911,. the Victor Company set up the educational department, and recorded the world's famous music in suitable forms for school use. By 1930, the phonograph had been in general use in the schools. Today, among other audio-visual materials, the-phonograph still is an integral part of the music appreciation movement. D. Growth of _t_r_1_g Contest and Festival Movement An outgrowth of the encouragement of music appreciation in the schools was the music memory contest. The first widely used competition in the American schools was held in 1916. Since this time on, contests in all fields of music have become pOpular in order to develop students' interest in music. However, today there is a strong tendency to minimize the competitive feature of contests and festivals. Materials and Equipment _i_n Public School Music A. Textbooks Generally speaking, before the twentieth century, "song materials consisted almost exclusively of hymns, harmonized f olksongs, and uninspir— ing partsongs by lesser composers. Songs and compositions by important contemporary American composers were not found in the early chorus books."l Because of the new progressive philOSOphy of education which claimed the importance of child study, the need for the innovation of music textbooks was felt among music educators. The Modern Music Series, by Eleanor Smith was published in 1898 to ) meet this need. It not only had the songs of high quality, but also awakened an interest in the new idea of teaching music-reading through l. Dykema and scum, 92. _C_i_t_., p. 2. 139 learning songs. This series set up a new standard of textbooks, and soon.many graded song series, like Matthews' Songs of All Lands, and the Laurel Music Books, were successively published during the period, 1895 - 1910. According to Birge, "this great outpouring of children's songs, in respect to their character and quality might apprOpriately be called the Renaissance of school music."1 Textbooks have been further improving to meet desires and needs of children. The following are the most widely used music series in the United States today: The American Singer (American Book Co., N.Y.) Our Singing World (8.61m 8: Co., Boston) A Singing School (C.C. Birchard 8: Co., Boston) New Music Horizons (Silver Burdett Co., N.Y.) ‘AEQéQAVisuaIAMATERialS During the last three decades, the educational value of audio- visual materials has been generally accepted by music educators. Radio, television, films, and filmstrips, for example, are now being used as an aid. Radio and Television an: The recognition of radio as a potential force in music education became definite when, in 1926, Walter Damrosh conducted a series of weekly symphonic broadcasts with explanations, on the National Broad- casting Company networks. The broadcasting lasted fourteen years and played an important part in the curriculum Of approximately 70,000 schools. By 1930, the United States Office of Education had become active in radio education, including music, and'worked with commercial and educational . 1. Birge, Op, cit., p. 160. 140 stations to improve educational programs. The Committee on Audio-Visual Education of the MENC also has been working to introduce better use of radio in terms Of music education. Today, over 2500 commercial stations, in addition to more than 600 educational stations, are broadcasting educational music programs. Stations Operated by state universities are most apt to carry a regular series of music lessons, both choral and instrumental. Radio programs for music education are generally designed for in-school listening. As a rule, well-prepared manuals are issued to the teachers as a guide to classroom correlation. On the other hand, Opportunities for pupil broad- casting are becoming more frequent. Television Since the Philadelphia Public School System began an experimental in—school telecast in 1948, television has become a factor in music education.h;lped by a cooperative arrangement with schools and local T.V. stations. The Joint Committee of Educational Television was established in 1950, and urged the Federal Communications Commission to Open channels for noncommercial educational use. This resulted in the establishment of TV stations owned by colleges and universities. By 1955, 465 TV stations, including twelve educational stations, had been telecasting programs which were planned to assist music education directly or indirectly. Though television is not yet widely utilized for classroom use its future use,eSpecially in instrumental instruction, is bound to increase because it has both audio and visual advantages. Egg and Filmstrips Films 141 The utilization of films in the teaching of school music is a rather recent develOpment. However, its invaluable potential as an audio-visual aid in music education has been recognized. During the past few years there has been an increase in the number of films on music and musicians. Today, the SUpply of educational films is constantly increasing, and covers all fields of music education: knowledge and instruction of instruments, study of basic music, music history and appreciation, science of music, etc. The Committee on Audio-Visual Education of the MENC has been assisting in the production of good music films such as the Schumann Story, with the cooperation of the Teaching Film.Custodian, a nongprofit educational service established by the motion picture industry. The committee has recently lists of musical films and helpful suggestions. These films may be purchased from the producer or rented from agencies such as local and state libraries, state audio-visual departments or state universities. Filmstr ip_s The definition Of filmstrips is given in "Music in American Education” as follows: “ A film strip is a short length of film, lO-lOO frames of a number of positives in black and white or color, each different but usually having some continuity......They are easily projected horizontally or vertically by means of a film strip projector. They may be with or with- out sound. Some projectors have record-playing equipment attached. Film strips may be shown simultaneously with sound on tapes or recordings." Because of inexpensiveness and ease of carrying and operating, film. strips are being widely accepted for school use. 1. Music in American Education, 92. cit., p. 220. 142 Rtesent Music _ngiculm A striking feature of the music curriculum in present-day United States is a great variety of subject areas, so that each child may participate according to his ability. The curriculum is no longer primarily vocal as in the last century, although singing still is fundamental. The new curriculum includes singing, rhythmic activity, listening, playing, and creative activities as musical eXperience. A new trend in public school music curriculum is seen in the emphasis on the correlation of music with other school subjects or activities. For instance, Spanish songs will be integrated with the study of the geography of Spain. Thus music tends to become a part of the total educational program. The following music curriculum sets the standard suggested by the Music Education Research Council, and accepted and revised by the MENC. Grades One, Two and Three Minimum time 20 minutes daily 1. Singing a. Learning songs by imitation. b. Matching tones. c. Playing singing games. d. Singing of rounds and descants. (Grades 11 & III.) e. Using song books to introduce music-reading. (Grades II .9: III.) 2. Rhythmic a. Making free rhythmic activities. b. Playing simple, directed folk dances and games. c. Responding to note groups heard. (Grades II & III.) 3. Listeria} a. Distinguishing simple elements in music such as mood, rhythm, ’ instruments, themes. b. Recognizing the use of music by different groups and peOples. (Grades II & III). 143 4. Playing a. Learning to use rhythm instruments, adding simple melody instruments in.Crades II & III. 5. Creative a. Giving Opportunities for original resoonses in rhythms, songs, playing, listening. Grades Four, Five, and Six minimum time, 25 to 30 minutes daily Laser 3.. Learning songs by imitation. b. Continuing the reading program by means of song books. c. Singing rounds, descants. d. Singing two-and three-part songs. e. Large and small ensemble eXperience. 2. Rhythmic a. Playing directed folk and square dances. b. Playing rhythmic accompaniments to familiar songs, using folk or standard rhythmic instruments. 3. Listening a. Distinguishing simple elements in music such as mood, rhythm, instruments, theme, form. b. Music of various peOples, Operas of interest to children. 4. Playing a. Class instruction in piano. b. Rhythm instruments and Simple melody instruments. c. Class instruction on orchestral and band instruments. d. Large and small ensemble eXperience (Grade VI). 5. Creative a. Continuing Opportunities for original reSponses in rhythms, songs, playing, listening. b. Encouraging the composition of original melodies, rhythmic accompani- ments to songs, simple harmonies to familiar songs. 1. 2. 144 Junior High School Grades (VII, VIII,IX) General Music Course Open to all students regardless of previous musical experience. A course offering a variety of musical activities, such as playing, singing, listening, reading music, creative activity, etc. Vocal Music Boys' and girls‘ glee clubs, chorus or choir, small vocal ensembles, assembly singing for all students. Instrumental Musig Orchestra, band, small instrumental ensembles; class instrumental instruction in wind, string and keyboard, for beginners and more advanced students; credit for private lessons available in.Grade IX. Special Electives i9 Music In some junior high schools special elective classes are offered in music appreciation and in music theory, eSpecially in.Grade IX. Relating and coordinating out-of school influences (radio, television, motion picture, church and home) in all possible ways with those of the classroom. Senior High School Grades (II, III, XII) Vocal Music Boys' and girls' glee clubs, chorus, choir, small vocal ensembles, voice classes, applied music credit for private lessons. Some of the large choral groups selective and others Open for election by any interested student, unless the school is too small to allow for more than one group. General Music Open to all students, regardless of previous musical experience. A course similar to that described under Junior High School, but adjusted in its content to senior high school interests and needs. InStrumental Music Orchestra, band small ensembles; class instrumental instruction in wind, string, percussion and keyboard for beginning and advanced students; 4. 145 dance band. Orchestra and band should be divided into beginning and advanced sections, or first and second groups if the enroll- ment warrants such division; applied music credit for private lessons. Elective Course Offerfl' s Music theory, music appreciation, music history. Many high schools find it feasible to offer several years of instruction in each of these fields.1 Present Problems While there has been a tremendous expansion Of the school music program in the United States during the twentieth century, some of the problems facing school music are: 1. 2. 3. 6. The curricula of the elementary and the secondary schools are over- crowded. They tend to limit possible expansion of the program of music education. The aim of music education to provide Opportunities for all the children is far from realized. Only about 14 to 17% of the students in secondary schools are touched by the music program. Mays and means of recovering interest in the school orchestra and the study of stringed instruments. How to secure a prOper balance between education and entertainment in the field of music education. How can the school meet the harmful influences of commercial motion pictures, phonograph recordings, radio and television? The reduction of the number of daily periods in the secondary school schedule to six has limited the opportunities for music study Open to pupils. A need to define what constitutes a reasonable teaching load in vocal or instrumental music teaching. _‘1 1. Music in American Ecuation, 92. cit., pp. 294-296. 146 Summary American School music was a natural outgrowth of the singing schools of the colonial days. School music was introduced into the schools of Boston in 1837 by Lowell Mason. Luther Whiting Mason introduced the first music into the primary schools of Boston in 1864. Lowell and Luther Mason based their music teaching on the song approach in accordance with their belief in Pestalozzian principles of education. After the Civil war, the school organization was changed from ungraded schools to the graded 8 - 4 system, and music as well as some other subjects was added to the traditional school offering of reading, writing and arithmetic. The development throughout the United States of symphony orchestras, the increase in the number of concerts, and the establishment of conserva- tories and schools of music--a11 stimulated the interest in school music. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Herbartian principles in education replaced Pestalozzianism. The Herbartian influence on music education resulted in the change of emphasis from the teaching of songs to the teaching of music-reading. Generally speaking, during the nineteenth century, there were no definite principles accepted by all music teachers, and the music program was mainly vocal. At the turn of the century, two factors, namely, the culmination of Herbartianism, and rise of the child study movement caused a swing in educational philosOphy in music from a formal approach, with emphasis on.music-reading drills, to a psychological approach, with emphasis on musical experience. 147 The re-organization of school system to the 6-3-3 also brought changes and development of music activities. The introduction of the junior high school brought about a significant change in music education, and offered more musical opportunities to children. Organizations of professional music teachers also stimulated and helped the development of music in America. Among others, the MENC has been most influencial on school music by publishing books and pamphlets, and by holding regional and national conferences. The music curriculum in the United States has been enriched and expanded by a variety of musical experiences including instrumental music. The use of audio-visual materials has pointed toward a new world to be emplored by music educators. In spite of the rapid development of school music during this century, American music educations are facing problems resulting from a greatly increased school papulation, an overcrowded curriculum, and the harmful effects of commercially produced music. CHAPTER VII DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC-TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES The lack of uniformity which is characteristic of American education is also~discernible in the preparation of music teachers. This is due not only to the decentralized nature of the American school system and the variety of regional cultures, but also to the historical evolution of teacher training. It is necessary, therefore, to understand the history of the preparation of music teachers in order to understand the present situation. _Ug 39 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY £0LON1AL PBRICD (16 20—1800) During this period, no organized education was given to possible teachers beyond their mastery of the subject-matter which they would teach. "In fact, emphasis on subject-matter was to remain the principal staple of teacher training down to the eve of the Second World War."1 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Early Institutes for the Training 35 Music Teacher The Establishment of the Boston Academy 2f Music Early in the nineteenth century, the masters of singing schools in the East felt the need of trained singing teachers. When Lowell Mason l..nohn S. Brubacher, History 2: the Problems of Education, McGraw5 Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, p. 506. 148 149 came to Boston to develop school music, he recognized the improvement of the teaching of singing as fundamental. In 1833, Mason helped the music masters to organize the Boston Academy of Music, which became the first school of music pedagogy in the United States. The purposes of the Academy were: 1. To teach the art of singing. 2. To teach the rudiments of thorough-bass and harmony. 3. To eXpound the methods of teaching singing schools and conducting choral music. 4. To promote the instruction of music in the public schools.1 The Convention Movement Recognizing the values of the conventions which had been held by groups of singing schools and societies with the purpose of improving singing teaching, Mason made the Boston Academy of Music the center of the convention movement. In 1836, at a convention held at the Academy, there were lectures and discussions concerning music and music pedagogy. The movement culminated in the organization of the National Music Convention under the leadership of Mason in 1840. This convention served as "a national school of music pedagogy, harmony, conducting, and voice culture, and thousands of young people in all parts of the country received training in these fundamentals at the conventions."2 The influence of conventions lasted until about 1870. ‘325 Normal Musical Institute The role played by the normal institutes should not be overlooked. The first normal institute was established with the help of Lowell Mason in 1851, in New York. It was a three-month training institute of music 1. Birge,.Qp. cit., p. 26. 2. Ibid,, p. 29. 150 teachers. Soon, this type of musical institute became popular. They were usually for a term of a few weeks, mostly in the summer so that not only prospective teachers but also those who were already teachers could attend. Their content was like European conservatories. They offered voice, piano, theory, and methods courses. William Arms Fischer evaluates them as follows: "Those normal institutes were popular and beneficial, and supplied a real need in our musical evolution."1 Summer Music Schools The normal music institutes led to the rise of summer schools of the same nature. In 1884, the first summer school was held in Lexington, Massachusetts. Then in 1886, the National Summer School was offered in Boston with leading music educators such as Luther Whiting Mason and Leonard B. Marshall on its staff. Music publishers such as Silver Burdett and Company and the American Book Company also conducted summer music schools. In these summer schools, "the leading music supervisors of the country exemplified the methods of song leading, and the treatment of children's voices. One of the most potent forces of the summer school was chorus singing. One of the valuable features of the summer schools was the Opportunity of meeting other music teachers from all parts of the land, and talking over their common interests."2 In this way, the above-mentioned institutes served both pre- and in-service training of music teachers. l. Hilliam A. Fischer, Music Festival in the United States, The American Choral and Festival Alliance, Inc., 1934, p. 187. 2. Birge, Op: cit., p. 132-133. 151 Normal School Training 2: Music Teachers Though all the institutes above mentioned contributed to the advance- ment of music—teacher training,there was an increasing demand for better trained music teachers, after the Civil war because of the eXpansion of the school system and inclusion of music in the curriculum of all grades of public schools. To meet this demand, normal schools began to offer courses in public school music. The develOpment of normal schools was rather slow after the establish- ment of the first private normal school in Concord, Vermont, in 1823, and of the first state normal school in.Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. These early normal schools were actually secondary schools, admitting students on the basis of the completion of the elementary grades. The curriculum was usually one year in length, and included very little of what is now considered professional education. After the Civil War, however, both public and private normal schools Sprang up, and by the 1890's they had become the nation's chief source of trained teachers, mostly elementary. At the same time, the movement to raise the standard of normal schools began to appear among educators. This was the situation when the training of music teacners was taken over by the normal school. By the end of the nineteenth century, nearly all the state normal schools were offering training courses for public school music teaching. At this stage, the training of music teachers was integrated into the American educational system. However, emphasis was still on subject- matter and music pedagogy. Through the nineteenth century, there was not yet any generally accepted philosophy of the preparation of music teachers. 152 522.15 Education )3 £325; Educational Institutions Although music was introduced into some of the Eastern colleges and universities late in the eighteenth century, it was confined to musical societies, clubs, and other extra-curricular music activities such as singing at Commencement. In 1835, (berlin College offered the first professorship in music in the United States, "the Professorship of Sacred Music". which culminated in the organization of a conservatory in 1865. In 1837, the Harvard Musical Association was organized. From this time on until 1870, there existed a period of ”tentative efforts to make music function in the organization of the college."1 Immediately after 1870, there came attempts to recognize music as part of the curriculum in the higher educational institutions. Especially during the period, 1870 - 1890, many music departments and conservatories were established. The first bachelor degree in music was conferred by Boston University in 1876. These higher institutions patterned their music programs after EurOpean conservatories, with emphasis on voice, instrumental perfor- mance, and theoretical lectures. It was not until the turn of the century that they began to show any interest in preparim music teachers. THE TWENTIBTH CENTURY Develggggnt 3f PhilosOphy pf 3315 Preparation at Music Teachersnyp _tg 1940 Contributing to the early development of teacher training in America were European influences. Pestalozzi's work in teacher-training 1. Vincent Jones. Music Education _i_n the. College, C. C. Birchard 8: Co., Boston, 1949. 153 led to the establishment of a normal school in Oswego, New York, which soon became a mecca of normal education. The influence of Pestalozzi lasted until about 1890, when Herbartianism replaced it. Then, normal schools,reorganizing their program, stressed a more scientific approach to teacher education. Under Herbartian influence, more and more normal schools’established practice schools to apply and test new pedagogical theories and practices. However, ”the fact remained that the emphasis of the Herbartians.......was nearly always on knowledge and information."1 Early in the twentieth century, the eXpansion of the school system, enrichment of curriculum, and changing social situation made it inevit- able that the principles of teacher education would be changed. The movement was initiated by the progressive educators led bnyohn Dewey, and resulted in a new trend in the professional study of teaching. This will be described later. One of the striking features of the new philosophy of teacher education early in the twentieth century was the recognition of the importance of adolescent education created by the introduction of junior high schools. In 1907, the Committee of Seventeen appointed by the Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Association recommended the enlargement of the teacher-training program to include: 1. History of general education. 2. Educational psychology with enphasis on adolescence. 3. The principles of education, including the study of educational aims, values, and processes. Courses in general methods are included under this heading. 1. Meyer, 92., cit., p. 22 154 4. Organization and management of schools and the school system. 5. School hygiene.1 In addition to the above, the opportunity for observation am practice teaching was recommended. By 1910, teacher-training institutions usually included professional education courses in their curricula. Emphasis, however, was still on the mastery of subject-matter, and no major changes in philosophy were made until about .1938. “usic-Teacher Education in Higher Educational Institutions Transformation 2; Normal Schools 33 Teachers Colleges As implied in the previous chapter, toward the end of the nineteenth century, normal schools began to adjust to meet needs created by the expanding school system and by changing conditions of national life. Their attempts took the form of requiring graduation from high school for entrance, and of lengthening the period of training to two years. In 1890, the state of New York reorganized a normal school at Albany into the New York State Normal College. Following this, some nornal schools lengthened their training period to three, and some to four years. Thus, the transition from secondary to collegiate status evolved, and culminated in the establishment of teachers colleges encouraged and assisted by the National Education Association. After 1920 the transformation moved rapidly, and today the normal school has \ —; A‘ 1. See the National Education Association, I[oint Recounemationg _o_f_ the Committee 33: Seventeen, Washington, D. C., The Association Press, p. p. 467-468. 155 almost becae a thing of the past. the teachers college differed from the old normal school in the followin points: 1. The assumption of the degree-granting power. 2. The trainim of both elementary and secondary teachers. 3. the four-year curriculum beyond graduation from high school. Collgges, Universities, 22d Conservatories Early in the twentieth century, liberal arts colleges, universities, and conservatories began to show their interest in the education of music teachers by offering courses in music pedagogy, and by developing teacher- training departments. Among them, Teachers College of Columbia University and the University of Missouri were the forerunners, (1903). In general, eastern universities were slow to provide music-teacher education. At this time, ”probably the most influential work in teacher preparation was done in the summer sessions at Cornell University under the direction of Dr. Hollis Damn. Teachers from all parts of the country and fru Canada attended the specialized courses in large nunbers, returning to their respective communities to spread further the cause of music in our public school system.“- Accordixg to the "Report of the United States Bureau of Educat ion,” in 1921, there were already 36 higher institutions offering diplomas or certification in public school music.2 Since then, the growth of the music education curriculum at higher educatin institutions has been very rapid and significant. 1. Jones, &. cit., p. 10 2. Osbourne he‘s—nathy, Karl W. Gehkens, and Edward B. Birge, Present Status _o_f_ Music Instruction _i_n Colleges _a__ng Hg h Schools, Report 0 the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., 1921, p. 6. 156 Influences‘gf Professional Music Teachers' Organizations 22 the Development ‘gg'flugig-Teacher Education Professional organizations began with the music convention movement described earlier. Music teachers felt the need to strengthen the con- vention movement and their desire led to the establishment of professional organizations. Among them, the following are the most influential: The Music Teachers National Association The MTNA was organized in Boston in 1876. "It has exerted considerable influence in music teaching through its permanent committee organizations. The proceeding* furnish invaluable records of the musical development in the country."1 At present, the Association issues the American Music Teacher five times annually. The Music Section of the National Education Association In the first decade of the twentieth century, the Music Section of the NBA (founded in 1857 as the National Teachers Association) was active in fostering and strengthening the new standard of teaching. At the meeting at Minneapolis in 1902, the leading music educators "read papers dealing with the unsatisfactory status of music in the public schools owing to poor preparation on the part of supervisors and grade teachers. 2 In 1905, the Committee of Five on the training of the supervisor recommended ”literary qualifications equal at least to that of a high school graduate, and musical qualifications to include proficiency on some instrument and the ability to sing, and in addition, a practical 1. Music in American Education, 92, cit., p. 119. * Preceedings were issued annually since 1906. 2. Birge, 92. cit., p. 239. 157 knowledge of theory, history of music, conducting, and a bibliography of school music books, including courses of study." These recommendations suggested postive standards if training schools were to be officially approved by the most influential body of educators in the United States. The Music Educators National Conference Conscious of the power in united effort, and as a result of many conferences of music teachers (started in 1905), the Music Supervisors National Conference was organized in 1907. The name was changed to the Music Educators National Conference in 1934. Because of the size of the membership, and the wide scape of its aims and programs, as described in Chapter VI, it is now an internationally known organization cooperating with UNESCO in terms of world understanding through music. The Conference maintains close relationship with other professional groups such as the AMTNA, the NBA, and the NASM, in develOping music education. The contrip bbtions of the MENU are summarized in Music in American Education as follows: "Its influence has been notable in setting instruction patterns, raising the standards for music instruction, establishing adequate equipment standards, defining methods of credit for music study, advanc- ing instrument study, correlating school and college programs,zind promoting interest in community music as well as international relations and understanding through music."2 In 1946, the student membership was established in order "to make more meaningful various courses in education and music education."3 1. Birge, Q2: cit., p. 240. 2. Music in American Education 92, cit., p. 119. 3. Music Educators Journal, April-May, 1956, p. 52. 1588 Student members receive almost the same priviledges as those of full members. There were 8,556 student members in March, 1956. The National Association o£_Schools'2£‘Mg§ig The NASM was founded in 1924 with "the purpose of securing a better understanding between such schools; of establishing a more uniform method of granting credit; and of setting minimum standards of the granting of degrees and other credentials."1 It had a membership of 193 schools in 1955. Though advisory in nature, the NASM has served as a unifying force :throughout the United States since its establishment, and has defined principles, aims, and standards that accredited music srhools are expected to have. Its c00peration with the MENC in setting up the program of the education of music teachers should be highly esteemed. Summary The first organized attempt to prepare music teachers was made by the establishment of the Boston Academy of Music in 1835 under the leader- ship of Lowell Mason. The Academy became the center of the «.2 8H .. u as a as: .2 0.3 mm 9% an 33: deems-snammH «.mm omH ~.H m a.n a o.mH «H 0.0m Ho n.m~ an co: none: «.2 8H n .. o.H H as a 9% «m can on a; a.o~ Hm I u H.n H a.» o h.oa mm o.om H: OOOH nose sqIHHon .3. u 6: u .oz a .B In 6F u .2 n .B neon-oasis hence ass: on in 33.3 no Haas Hana-as meadsmp monaduHhHmm¢Ao mmmma as mzuamoood Expadmmyuu and HmDamHm OHm=§ 2H aaHszmH mnmma mo Mae‘s Huh ho mmmmo «.3 8H n n or. a. o..«« m« 0.2. 2. 0H3: HSeSahBH «.mn o«H .. .. . m6 3 e..H« o« 0.2. .8 o3 88: «.9 8H o.H H o... a o.n« n« 92. «a. ma . 8; a.e« H» «.H H m.« .« o.H« ”H «.3. Ho 82 .86 aelHHoEm .m .m u .6: u 6: u ,6: n .B u 6: suspecting 3F gods: or. :33 no Hang TE monadloHmmjo may 9.. Danna—£894 OHM; ondm 2H gag ENE. .mo M33» HP mo mammoé Rama: A8mom mch he chsz0 NN ego 207 schools.“1 2. Nearly half of the teachers felt the need for more training in practical arranging of music to be used in their high school ensembles. One teacher commented, ”Colleges have forgotten that we are going to teach and are not going to become professional musicians and strangers."2 3. Thirty-five teachers pointed out "the lack of effectiveness in teaching sight-singing, and ear-training, although they considered these to be highly essential."3 Their major complaint was that nearly all of this presentation is directed fras the piano keyboard, while in practice, high school teachers deal with vocal and instrumental groups.”4 “pparently they wanted ear-training through some other mediums‘as well J as piano. 4. More emphasis on keyboard harmony was desired by about 30 teachers. Creative activity in the classes of harmony, counterpoint. and orchestration was also suggested. 5. Another suggestion was more flexibility in the program of Basic Music so that some qualified students could take advanced theory courses. Mr. Peterson st-arised that "all criticism of training in Basic uusic implied the need for reorganization of the classes offered in terms of practical application to meet the needs of public school music teachers."5 1. Peterson, 0p. cit., p. 92 2. Ibid.. p. '55 ...... 3. Ibid., p. 93 4. Ibid., p. 93 5. W" p. 93 208 Evaluation, Criticism, and Suggestions Concernigg Musical Performance In Mr. Peterson's questionnaire, the musical performance area was handled as a whole, including applied music, large and small ensembles, and conductim. According to the opinion of the respondents, this area is the most essential of all training programs. The overwhelmim majority of the . teachers, 98.3 per cent (90.? per cent, "Essential", and 7.6 per cent, ”Useful") believed their training in musical performance satisfactory, regardless of school enrollment, teaching assigments, or eXperience. About half of the respondents (15) gave the following Comments on their training in this area: 1. One-third of the cements, ”forming the greatest single criticism. concerned the need for a broader, more generalized program in musical performance.”1 Their criticism lay in the specialization in a single performance area at the expense of wider training in minor performiu areas. 2. lore Opportunity should be given to learn the adninistration and organization of performiq groups. 3. More taming in conducting with live performim groups rather than conducting technique alone should be provided in the trainiq program. 4. The lack of enhasis upon small ensemble experience, both vocal and instrumental, was pointed out by 35 teachers. 5. Eighteen teachers stressed the need for more emphasis onzpiano study for all teacher candidates. 1. Pet¢:‘°‘p as $2.. D. 1030 209 6. Some teachers suggested more training in percussion instruments. 7. Eleven teachers felt that "in general, the performance area was over- emphasized in colleges and universities in relation to the importance of other phases of their training, and public school teachers lose sight of their purposes as educators."1 According to Mr. Peterson,” as all comments and suggestions were voluntary and as they represented only half of the teachers polled, it is impossible to test the significance of their replies statisticilly. They are valuable, but not conclusive,"2 Nevertheless, it is evident that "there is room for improvement in curriculum planning in this area by the institution of higher learning,"3 A summary of the teachers' opinions by Mr. Peterson is; "Most of these suggestions point to shifting the emphasis from specialization to generalization in the performance area while still retainirg adegree of excellence in the individual's major performance field of interest. This criticism involves the practices of colleges and universities in conforming to a traditional, out-moded curriculum rather than develqiq a functional program which truly meets the needs of students who are to become public school music teachers."4 1. Peterson, &. 353., p. 107. 2. V. J. Peterson, "The Place of the Performance Area in Training High School Music Teachers". Ilournal 3: Research _i_n_ Music Bducation,Vol. IV, Sprmutass, No. 1. p. 56. " " a 3. Ibid., p. 56 4. Peterson, 'Trainigg of Secondary Music Teachers g Undergraduate Prggrams gt; Colleges _agg Universities 2-10 :3 .a ..fld .mm .828: Mo.8H Hon «6 H _ «.H a or. m« e..o« Q.« . 9.38.9 W. N HH< do H33. «.«n o«H «.o H M «.H « «6 OH «.«e SH 88203. _. m =me 0A :23 em «.3 «m I I H.H H as. e «.H« n. 88E , I endow 0H 3 m Iona «.«m «« I I I «3 H He. a. «.H« H« countess ., flHdOH m g DDQH «.«m mHH «.o H «.H « o.« HH «.5 SH 325 H83 e5 gfigflflH 58 0.94. 8 I I I I in n odm 8 3mm: Hmoob «.8 8H I I o.« « o.« « . o.«« «a 32.: 33.555 «.«« o«H «.o H as H o.H «H «.8 8H 84 .53 «:2 8H I I o.« « o.« « o.m« m« ««« I 84 «.8 Ha I I «.H H «.« e «.8 «« o8H .33 I ago-Hana .m .m r u .9 a 6: ml .0? n .B u . elongate... «So. _ Hsoa 33.5 @7333 «o H885 get-mm mloH940Hh§o any 2 338004 Hog; flaw; 3H gag BEE. ho flab HE. ho mum—qua .833 may no aogmo a 930 211 Evaluation, Criticism, 93 Sgggestions Comcernig lusichucation The majority of the respondents rated this area "Essential" (134 or 44.5%). or ”Useful” (117, or 38.9%). Thus a total of 25l teachers (83.4%) considered their training in music education adequate. School enrollment, teaching assigInIents, and teaching experience did not affect the above result. Of the total respondents, 173 (57%) made a great variety of comments and suggestions concerning their training in the area of music education. Their main opinions were: 1. Not less than 105 teachers said that ”the classes they had received in music education placed too much emphasis upon theory ratherzthan presenting possible solutions to the real problems confronting teachers in the schools."1 2. Pifteen respondents cemented that colleges and universities assigned music education classes to faculty members who were not adequately prepared to teach prospective teachers. 3. Another fifteen teachers criticized music education classes as ”not keeping up to date."2 and suggested the necessity of the revision of textbooks. Several of them said, "Students should be made more conscious of the contribution f end in current publications in music education, and the research of the Nusic Educators National Conference in this f ield. "3 4. Pounteen teachers desired more emphasis on instrumental music in music education classes. 1. Peterson, 2- 53.3., p. 110. 2. Ibid. p. 110. 3. Ibid. pa 1110 5. 6. 9. 212 Forty-one teachers suggested the possibility of improving music education classes "by placing greater emphasis upon.high school music literature and other naterials to be used, and upon actual teaching methods."1 Over 50 teachers felt the need for including classes designed to study a variety of problems such as administration and organization of musical activity groups, instrtmnental repair, public relations, counseling, and the study of the construction, treatnent, and equipping of nusic buildings and reels. The need for more emphasis upon practice teaching, and especially upon observation of typical school situations was felt by 26 teachers. "Concerning music education and professional education in general. there was a feeling that much of the content found in classes in these areas and reserved for graduate study should be included in undergraduate classes."2 ' . ' Several teachers felt the need for a balanced emphasis on all phases of the program of nusic-teacher training, and suggested the possible solution of extending the period of undergraduate training to five years to meet this need. As a summarizing statement, Hr. Peterson says, ”The most pertinent reflection on the weakness of classes in music education was the ob- servation.by teachers that they had to learn to teach after they were on the Job. 'I learned nore about teaching during my first year of experience than 1 did in all four years of college training.‘ was a repeatedistatenent."3 1. Peterson, 92, cit., p. 112. 2. Ibid.. p. 112. 3. Ibid,, p. 113. 213 .8H .a :3 am £8.33 0.02 Hon «.6 H fiH m 03H .3 man SH men 42 33089 m .34 no H309 H w hon 8H .. n fiH a o.mH ”H H 92 3 «.2 «m oSosooanm W nude» 0H :23 one! «.3 8 «.H H «.H H 4.2 HH n man mu exam .3 oaofloaua and.» 0H 3 m non?N adn & .. u «a w H.mH mH M mes .3 .12 on .Sofioefi .... endow m 3 math «.3 EH - .. 0.... n ...: 8 M Hem B as 3 3...: H3.» 2a m gdgnflH 53 0.3 3 as H fio H H.mH «.H men an 93 an 3.3. Hoses. «.2 8H . - o.H H o.HH HH m 98 on 93 cm one: HSnIohEH an 8Hu . - 3 H as: S on: 4m 3m 3 8; to; Q? 83 o.H H o.H H 0:: 4H r och NM 9% «m as u 8: 3w 8 a .. n, «.H H H6H nH M 3% Hm .33 on o8H .88 W SIHHoEu .m... u .m. ..ola n .3. . u .02 u 6: consoodfiso [I Hate m1§|< on :38: «mm 3.53 mag Eta H383.» mona. H 'U m c C +49 Q‘. *1 0." e f E C x w c {-11 ‘r—I :3 1. How much emphasis does counterpoint receive in required courses? 2, How much emphasis in the course work in this area is placed on the study of contrapuntal music suitable for use with school groups: a. Vocal groups b. Instrumental groups J, COMPOSITION (Whether taught as part of a correlated theory course or as a separate course) 1" How much emphasis does instruction in composition receive in required courses? 2. How much espo331s is placed on creative writing as a part of all the regular coarse work in Basic Music? 3. How much encouragement is given to music education students to experim ment in writing music for typical school groups? , ENTRANCE TESTS Is it possible by means of entrance achievement tests for a student to be placed according to his background and ability in each of the areas of Basic Music? Add information regarding ary other special phases of teaching in this area III MUSICAL PERFORMANCE A. CREDIT HOUR REQUIREMENTS 1, Indicate the total number of credit hours in Musical Performance required in the music education curriculum . (These are quarter hours semester hours ) 2. Indicate the number of credit hours required in each separate area: a. Conducting b. Music Ensembles; Large and Small 0. Piano d. Major Performance Area e. Minor Performance Areas f, Other areas ‘J‘ Does a student take entering proficiency examinations in all areas in which he has had previous experience? B, CONDUCTING Is a specific course in conducting required of all music education students? Check the appropriate answer to indicate the emphasis given in the required courses to each of the following areas: Extensive Limited None B. CONDUCTING (Cont’d) 1. How much training in instrumental conducting is required? 2. How much training in choral conducting is required? 3. Indicate the amount of conducting experience with laboratory groups: a. Instrumental groups b. Choral groups u. How much use is made in conducting classes of music that is suitable for use in school and community teaching? 5. Indicate amount of experience included in the reading of: a. Choral scores b. Instrumental scores C. MUSIC ENSEMBLES, LARGE AND SMALL 1. Is credit towards a degree in Music Education given for participation in ensembles? . If so, indicate the amount and explain the basis for giving the credit 2. Check the appropriate column to provide a description of the place of ensemble experience in the Music REQUIRED Education curriculum: OF vo Q) A h H m H") (U Q 3 9 o :3 g s: o o o > m L. a '0 n.2n : a s m 4: o E? o a m . a c m u wows-2:: 2 E E) In 0 0 r4 OQ’CUg-Q “WV #4 > o - m a E $4IH o m E E H m +=+>:. : m 0 CL 0 m 2: : H h 6.4!ch am a: p {2.4 0 5 r4 m o C @0099. HCO 0 o.:z a:<>:z '4 is >- <3 Chorus - Mixed Voices . Chorus - Girls‘ Voices . Chorus - Men's Voices Q-OU‘ID . Other large Vocal Ensembles (indicate type) e. Small Vocal Ensembles (Indicate type f. Band, Marching g. Band, Concert h. Orchestra, Full 252. ll 2. Check the appropriate column to provide a description of the place of ensemble experience in the Music Education curriculum: REQUIRED 0F '6 CD A $4 r-i w H ”.1 a! is as 8 o c) a) :> U154 S—u ’U a m s e :3 m 4.: ON) ‘1) F4 to a a a a m c bO-H O a) :n m m E hhfihfle if m a g a: 0 yo H 5.2: s .*:v Ear-«Ho mg E H 1.0-Du La 5 m o a o o z . H h 941035.51 4- :9 <1) Saar—«0E Hint? Q (DOQCLD H: O ‘1) 04sz2 (D i. Orchestra, String J. Other large instrumental ensembles (Indicate Type) k. Small instrumental ensembles (Indicate Type) Add other information regarding ensemble experiences available or required in the Music Education currirulum D. FUNCTIONAL PIANO FACILITY Re uired ir d 1. Check the appropriate column to indicate the functional gor- Rqufne piano requirements for Music Education majors: ' ' m '.-T 4: m e o a a E“ B .3 H w n a O °UJUJJJ fl! rat-nun 0‘: [210°C 0433 afiWH o a u m g g:: Sqmg a: m o z . H a $4130 paid.) 45:6 r-(UL‘OC :gfi r—ICO‘D Kilt/)6 <2wa Ability to sight read songs of the type found in a community song book Ability to harmonize at sight. improvising a simple piano accompaniment, using I, IV, and V chords and simple modu- lations, for songs such as those used in school music classes Ability to sight read simple vocal accompaniments fairly fluently Ability to sight read simple instrumental accompaniments fairly fluently . Ability to sight read piano music typically used for school rhythmic activity Ability to play a three or four staff choral score (where piano reduction is omitted) with reasonable facility 2J§3 12 D. FUNCTIONAL PIANO FACILITY (Cont'd) 2. Is any attempt made to develop the skills listed above through definite instruction? If so, check type of instruction. Class Private 3. Is experience in playing standard repertoire suited in advancement to the student's ability, a part of the piano instruction? a. Is emphasis placed on memorization of such repertoire with inexperienced pianists? b. With advanced pianists? E. MAJOR PERFORMANCE AREA Check the answer which indicates the emphasis placed on the major performance area. - Not emphasized Required Recommended 1. How much emphasis is placed on the development of skill in a major performance area (voice or instrument) for every music education student? 2. How much emphasis is placed on instruction in the major performance area prior to college entrance: a. If the major performance area is voice? b. If the major performance area is an instrument? 3. Indicate the attention paid to an entrance proficiency audition in the major performance area u. Is a specific level of performance in the major area required for graduation? ) 5. If a student has reached the level of advancement required in his major performance area for graduation does he still continue his study in this area? If so, for how long? . 6. How much emphasis is placed on recital performances for music education students in their major performance areas? Is a solo recital permitted if the student is capable? . 7. Check means used to determine that the student has reached the required proficiency: a. Audition or jury b. Proof of years of study c. Transcript cf credits in the performance area d. Performance at a recital e. Other means asfif F. MINOR PERFORMANCE AREAS 1. Check the appropriate column to indicate the pp- guirements in the minor performance areas in the Music Education curriculum: MINOR PERFO CE AREA Required Study: Required of: Private 1 semester All Mus. Ed. Majors Inst. majors Genera1(Voca1 & Inst.) Vocal majors . Voice Violin Viola Cello String bass Cornet Trombone Horn Clarinet Flute Oboe Bassoon Snare drum Organ . String class Brass class Woodwind class Percussion class 0 d-m H.n tso b B H'Kc¢r*:raahbm 9.0 a'm 2. List here information regarding other requirements in the minor performance areas 3. Is opportunity provided for ensemble experiences in which students may participate using their minor performance instruments? Is this experience required? If so, for how long? IV PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION A. MUSIC EDUCATION METHODS, MATERIALS, OBSERVATION, AND STUDENT TEACHING Are Music Education courses accepted as part of the basic requirement of professional education? Do the faculties in music education and professional education attempt to integrate their courses and avoid duplication such as may be found in "Elementary Education" and "Elementary Music Education," etc.? 1555 l# 1. SCOPE AND PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM To what extent do the music education courses give attention to the following subjects? Check the appropriate answer. a. To the value of music as a part of the overall elementary and secondary school curriculum Comprehensively Slightly Not at all b. To ways by which music can be made to contribute to general education c. To relationships between music and other school subject areas and means of integrating them d. To the place of music in certain types of curriculum organization such as the core curriculum, unified studies, fused courses, etc. e. The relationship of the special music teacher to the elementary classroom teacher who does the music teaching for her own group f. To the organization of the elementary school music program where the teaching of the classroom music is done by a special teacher. (Platoon system) g. The relationship of the music specialist to a school as consultant, resource person, special teacher, etc. h. To the adjustment in the use of graded materials and activities necessary in school situations where there are several grades in the classroom i. To the relationship of classroom teachers and administrators to the problem of scheduling instrumental classes in the elementary school j. To the scheduling of general, vocal and instrumental classes and special groups in junior and senior high k. To guidance in the music program 1. To tests and measurements and their proper interpretation and use in school music teaching m. To the importance of a balanced music curriculum in school n. To child growth and development 0. To pupil-teacher planning in music teaching p. To individual differences and their relation to music teaching q. To the various philosophies existing regarding the relationship of the school music program to the musical literacy of the children in the school r. To the business aspects of music education (budget, ordering music, reports, care and storage of materials and equipment, planning music rooms, management of public performance, etc.) 8. To the Music Educators Code of Ethics CONTENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM To what extent do your methods courses in music education attempt to develop understanding of the following curriculum areas in school music? ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM MUSIC a. Elementary school classroom singing activities, unison and part b. Elementary school classroom music listening (appreciation) activities? 0. Elementary school classroom rhythmic activities? VARIED ACTIVITIES SUITABLE FOR DIFFERENT SCHOOL LEVELS a. The use of recreational music instruments in the school music class- room? (rhythm instruments, autoharp, melody instruments, etc.) b. The development of readiness for reading the musical score at any school level. c. The planning of reading activities that are appropriate and interesting to the group concerned To the various systems of teaching music reading in schools - movable l‘do", numbers, etc. The use of a variety of creative activities in the school music class The organization and development of small ensemble activities in school music, vocal and instrumental INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC a. b. c. d. e. The The The The The 251 15 Pa H o p v! a .4 H s 2 w m .9 .u h .c a Q m a «a +3 o H o c) m: z organization and teaching of organization organization organization organization and and and and teaching of teaching of teaching of teaching of beyond the beginning level The organization and The organization and development The organization and JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC a. b. c. beginning string classes beginning woodwind classes beginning brass classes ‘ beginning percussion classes instrumental classes for students development teaching of of school orchestras of school bands piano classes The Junior High School (or upper grade) music curriculum The many varied areas or activity in the general music class (or required music course) in junior or senior high schoOl The organization and development of junior high school choral group and glee clubs , _hL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL MUSIC ' a. The organization and development of senior high school choral groups, glee clubs, and voice classes b. The organization and teaching of music literature (history appreciation; activities and classes in the secondary school c. The organization and teaching of theory (music fundamentals, basic musicianship) activities and classes in the secondary schools 3. MUSIC EDUCATION MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT To what extent does the music education curriculum provide for directed study and use of school music teaching materials and equipment of the following types by the students in their methods classes and in their laboratory activities? Check the appropriate columns. a. The several different series of graded music books commonly used in schools o s '5 3 33 v! m H a E... ”2‘3 5 4a:n4::u 8.” m . s o G n.un 4a bansssss 3:33;: 11 rm +>r1+oin'u:a g ”0%.: m '8 £3 >zaatu+= 0:: a a “89234. S «34:13:: a *4 ” ”ass.ss .gg 13:283ng (3‘4 0 Yes No 25’7 16 5: *1 m 43 m C u m a) so '6 Us) 3 a3 0: .p.4 '6 0 mo 0 -9 Pan m at! fig 0 13.: 49 o a>+> o .2 m 0 2:!) 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