ANTHROPOMETRIC. m‘x'smmnmc AND- HEALTH msrmzv commsows or HIGH AND LOW ACADEMlC ACHIEVE’MENTMOTIVATED ; _ EARLY ADOLESCENT BOYS ' . ‘ Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ROY ESTOM PETERSON 1969 — [Halfi -- “Q LIBRAR y Machigan St“: 1 Univcr'-;ity This is to certify that the thesis entitled ANTHROPOMETRIC, PHYSIOMETRIC AND HEALTH HISTORY COMPARISONS OF HIGH AND LOW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATED EARLY ADOLESCENT BOYS presented by 1 Roy Eston Peterson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor of Philosophy degree in Educgtion Major professor Date JUly 18L 1969 0-169 ABSTRACT ANTHROPOMETRIC, PHYSIOMETRIC AND HEALTH HISTORY COMPARISONS OF HIGH AND LOW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATED EARLY ADOLESCENT BOYS BY Roy Eston Peterson The purpose of this study was to compare and describe a sample i of high academic achievement motivated early adolescent boys to a sam- ple of low academic achievement-motivated boys on the basis of anthro- pometry, physiometry and health histories. Although similar studies had been conducted using adult samples, no information was available relative to the role of these physiological variables on achievement- motivation of children. The study seemed necessary, for if educators are to make knowledgeable decisions about children then information about a child's physical being should be included in the decision- making process. The research sample of this study was selected from the total seventh-grade boy population (four hundred eighty-eight) of two sub- urban school systems near Flint, Michigan. The sample of sixty-seven boys represented thirty-four of the highest and thirty-three of the lowest motivated boysgwho were: 1) in seventh grade, 2) twelve or thirteen years old, 3) Caucasian, and 4) from employed, intact families. Roy Eaton Peterson Motivation level was determined by scores on the Michigan State M—Scales (a standardized motivation measuring instrument) and cross-validated by teacher estimates of each boy's achievement motivation level. The M-Scale score separation between groups was nearly two standard deviations and the highest teacher estimate of a boy in the low group was at the fiftieth percentile along the motivation continuum; the lowest motivation estimate of a boy in the high group was the eighty- second percentile. Information necessary to compare the two sample groups on the basis of anthropometry, physiometry and health histories was collected primarily by the health science personnel of the Mott Children's Health Center in Flint. All boys were brought to the Center to receive their comprehensive physical and health evaluation. Routine and sophisti- cated measurements were taken according to standardized and documented procedures. Based on the data collected the following conclusions can be made about the anthropometric components of this sample of boys: 1. Boys with an elevated fat component of body build tended to be lower in motivation. 2. Boys with an elevated muscle rating tended to be higher in achievement motivation. 3. The linearity component of body build had no significant measured relationship with motivation. 4. Advanced skeletal age had no significant measured relation- ship with motivation. S. Roy Eston Peterson Neither height nor weight differences were measured between groups. The following conclusions about the physiometric variables of the study's sample of boys can be reached: 1. 0f the list of sensory-motor variables tested such as vision, hearing, strength, hand dominance, reaction time and eye-hand coordination, only the time taken to complete j a eye-hand coordination task proved to be different be- tween the two groups. The time taken to complete an eye-hand coordination task was significantly longer in the lower group (p<. .0005). Eye-hand coordination significantly correlated with eight of the ten variables which rejected the null hypotheses. The coordination difference between groups was surpassed by only one other variable: intelligence (p < .0005). Of the list of physical examination variables measured such as pubertal status, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, cardiac efficiency, and whether or not a health problem was present at the time of the physical, only the latter was statistically significant. Boys from the lower group had more untreated health problems present at the time of examination than upper-group boys. No differences existed between groups in variables observed during urinalysis, complete blood count and protein electro- phoresis. A __ “QM - _, ; nm“'é' 10. 11. Roy Eston Peterson Serum uric acid, cholesterol and glucose differences reported in adults did not appear in this sample of children. Serum uric acid (SUA), while having no significant relation- ship with motivation, seemed more a correlate of maturation, as pubertal status, height, bone age, grip strength, weight, humerus and hemoglobin measurements were all significantly correlated with SUA. An amino acid screening test yielded a difference (p 41.06) which may suggest individual amino acid correlations with motivation. Elevated blood chemicals, reported found in first-borne when studied as adults, were not found in first-born children of this study. Health history information leads to these conclusions about the boys in the research sample: 1. Mothers of boys in the higher group were significantly older when their boys were born. Boys in the higher motivated group were significantly larger at birth. There were significantly fewer complications associated with the birth of boys in the upper group. Boys reporting to their parents that a health problem affected their school work tended to be from the low motivated group. Frequency of serious illness, head injuries, asthma or aller- gies, and sick days from school was not significantly dif- ferent between the two groups. ~—--~..~.—.~”._E, r ____u._ _.-..., .. Roy Eston Peterson 6. Superficial examination of eating habits relative to meat, vegetables, fruit and milk revealed no significant difference between groups. The results of this research seem to indicate that there are significant physiometric, anthrOpometric and health history differences between high and low academic achievement motivated early adolescent boys. Information currently provided by this study and others is in- adequate to impute cause-effect relationships between the differen- tiating variables and achievement motivation. However, the present project does imply that physiological patterns of adults cannot be projected to children any more than adult educational patterns are completely applicable to children. ANTHROPOMETRIC, PHYSIOMETRIC AND HEALTH HISTORY COMPARISONS OF HIGH AND LOW ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATED EARLY ADOLESCENT BOYS BY Roy Eston Peterson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1969 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express sincere appreciation to Doctor Samuel Moore, chairman of the doctoral committee, for his insightful guidance and intellectual prods, and to Doctor William Farquhar, instigator and mentor of this thesis. The assistance of Doctor Clyde Campbell, Doctor Marvin Grandstaff and Doctor Colby Lewis will also be remembered for their service on the committee. Gratitude is extended to the Mott Foundation for a year of internship that proved to be professionally and personally stimu- lating. The Mott Children's Health Center, under the direction of Doctor Arthur L. Tuuri, is owed a debt of gratitude for the in- numberable ways in which it made this study possible. Doctor William Nicholls, head of pediatric medicine, Mr. Jaan Ploompuu, head of laboratory services, and Mrs. Dorothy Haley, head nurse, are repre- sentative of the professionals within their departments who provided this study the excellent service which was greatly appreciated. A number of other people and institutions should be formally recognized for their contributions to this project, among them are: the students, parents, teachers and administrative staffs of the Kearsley and Grand Blanc School Systems; Doctor David Limbach, the radiology department and the administration of Hurley Hospital; ii the industrial engineering departments of General Motors Institute and the University of Michigan; and to Mrs. LaReta Ewing who worked tirelessly during all phases of this project including the prepara- tion of the manuscript in its final form. Deepest appreciation is reserved for my wife, Susan, for her patience, support and encouragement; and for our son, Eric, who, during the doctoral pursuit, was deprived of a father too long. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES O O O I O O O O O O O O I C O D O O O O O O O O O 0 Vi CHAPTER I 0 TE PROBIEM . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C 1 Need for this Study Purpose of this Study Project Summary Hypotheses to be Tested Definitions Overview of the Dissertation II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Birth Order Birth Order and Intelligence Birth Order and the Need for Achievement Anthropometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Somatotyping and Achievement Motivation Maturation and Achievement Motivation Maturation and Intelligence Maturation and Behavior Physiometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Body Chemistry and Achievement Motivation Serum Uric Acid and Intelligence Serum Uric Acid and Achievement Motivation Other Biochemicals and Achievement Motivation Non-biochemical Physiometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Visual Acuity Blood Pressure Genetic Factors Neurologic Factors Health Histories and Achievement Motivation Summary Conclusions iv ‘3‘ ‘- W - TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page CHAPTER III. RESEARCH DESIGN O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O C C C 32 Population Instrument for Determining Motivation Level Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Word Rating List Human Trait Inventory F1 M-Scale Administration Test Results L'- Environmental Controls Intact Families Employed Families Age Control ; * Choosing the Two Research Groups “J M-Scale Scores Teacher Cross-Validation Hypotheses and Operational Definitions Data Collection Inviting the Research Sample Collecting Health Histories The Physical Examinations Summary IV . ANALYS IS OF RESULTS 0 O O I O O O O I C O C O O O I O C O 70 Statistical Methods Descriptive Data Energy Level Rating Intelligence Test Scores Family Size and Birth Order Anthropometric Measurement Analysis Physiometric Measurement Analysis Sensory-Motor Evaluations Physical Examination Biochemical Analysis Health History Measurement Analysis Perinatal Information Childhood Health Food Likes and Dislikes Discussion and Summary v. SUMY AND CONCLUSIONS 0 o o o a o o o o o o o o a o o o 103 Implications for Future Research V TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 APPENDIX(ES) A. Means and Standard Deviations of Each Research Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 B. Eigenvalues Derived from Factor Analysis . . . . . . . . 120 vi a. 5"“: “'4' .-" Table 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 LIST OF TABLES Correlation to Total Behavior Score and Subscales with Serum Uric Acid . . . . . . . . . Birth Order of Nursing Students in Relation to Blood Chemical Levels and Grade Point Average 0 O O O O O O I O O O O D O O O O O O O 0 Research Sample Selection from Total Tested Population of Seventh-Grade Boys . . . . . . Original POpulation of Seventh-Grade Boys. . . . Frequency Distribution of M-Scale Scores by Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M-Scale Reliability Coefficients by School . . . The Results of Research Controls on the Tested P0pu1ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M-Scale Scores and Description of High and Low Achievement Motivated Sample Groups. . . . . . Distribution of Teacher Estimates of Achievement Motivation Level of One hundred ten Students in Initial Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Teacher Estimates of Achievement Motivation of the 70 boys in the Research Sample . Deviation Chart of Physique. . . . Health History Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . Professional Staff Directly Involved in the Physiological Data Collection of Research Subjects . . . . . . vii Page 20 22 33 35 41 42 44 45 46 47 53 62 68 ‘IIEF Table 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4n.14 4w-15 (1.216 li.:l7 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Descriptive Data: Intelligence Test Scores . . . . . . Descriptive Data: Family Size and Birth Order . . . . Descriptive Data: Family Employment . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Anthropometric Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Intergroup Comparison of Individual Somatotype Ratings I O O O O I O C I O O I O O O O O O O O O O 0 A Comparison of Sensory-Motor Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Variables Correlating with Coordination . . . . . . . A Comparison of Physical Examination Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Complete Blood Count Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Urinalysis Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Protein Electrophoresis Mean Measurements of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Mean Serum Glucose, Cholesterol and Uric Acid Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Significant Correlates of Serum Uric Acid . . . . . . Significant Correlates Cholesterol and Blood Sugar . . A Comparison of Mean Vitamin A and Thyroxine MeaSurements and Amino Acid Ratios of the Two Research Groups . . . Significant Correlates of Thyroxine and Amino Acid . . A Comparison of Perinatal Information of the Two Research Groups 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 0 0 viii Page 74 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 83 85 86 87 88 89 89 91 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Page Table 4.18 Significant Correlates of the Perinatal Variables . . . 92 4.19 A Comparison of Childhood Health Information of the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.20 Significant Correlates of Reports of Health Related School Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.21 A Comparison of Food Likes and Dislikes Between the Two Research Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.22 An Intercorrelational Matrix of the Variables with Significantly Different Means Between the Study's Two Research Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 ix 1'1. "'7". 1'” _."~. ' .l' i' CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM mmsh—iam The effectiveness of education will never be maximized until educators transcend the imaginary or real boundaries of the know- ledge body labelled "education" into other disciplines comprised of interests, skills and abilities pertinent to today's educational problems. This study is approached with the hope that its results will provide the practicing administrator with a perspective that will assist him in becoming a focal point for the interpretation and assimilation of multidisciplinary contributions toward the solu- tion of educational problems. Possibly this study will help con- struct a baseline, or anchor-point from which educators can weave an information net around the role of physiology in achievementw motivation concepts. This study is approached with a clear recognition of the dangers of imputing direct cause-effect relationships between the physical- being and the behavioral-being. It is prompted by the belief that mind and body are inseparable. If this inseparability holds true then it behooves educators to capitalize on the recent refinements and sophistication in measuring physical characteristics and to cor- relate these characteristics with behavior. Although the concept of this type of correlation is not new, advanced technology in the 2 biological and physical sciences dictates renewed study in this area. Some who have pursued the relationships between biochemistry and the learning processes may have been very optimistic when commenting upon the potential of capitalizing on the knowledge of the health sciences to further education. It is perfectly reasonable to suppose that we will be able to find specific biochemical boosters and biochemical inhi- F“ bitors for different kinds of memories and imagery, or for 1 different kinds of abilities or for different kinds of per- y sonality or temperament traits. . . . .The development of the mind of the child will come to rest in the knowledge and skills of the biochemist, and pharmacologist, and neurologist, and psychologist, and educator. Other educators are not as expansive, but certainly are as predictive. The Chairman of the Department of Communications at Michigan State University reports John E. Ivey, Jr., Dean of Michigan State University's College of Education, as saying that, although communication is cur- rently the critical link in the learning process, biochemistry will be the important factor in education's future. 2 Although biochemistry may hold a significant place in the future of education, to now very few definitive studies have been conducted. However, if this study can help bridge the real or imagined gap be- tween education and the health-sciences it will have performed a ser- vice. The emphasis of the study is not as much upon a prescription for the world as it is for a description of some conditions which exist in one small part of it. Though limited in its generalizeability, this study may have relevance to questions such as: 1David Krech, "Psychoneurobiochemeducation," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. L, No. 7, March (1969) 374. 2David K. Berlo, unpublished lecture to a Communications Research meeting on the Michigan State University campus in East Lansing, Michi- gan, November 18, 1968. 3 ' Are physical factors a component of the achievement moti- vation patterns of children? ° If physical factors are related to motivational patterns can educational experiences be constructed to compensate for physical abnormalities or deficiencies? ° If deficient physical patterning relative to achievement motivation is discovered, what administrative adjustments can be made? -- Such as: Dietary supplements? New kinds of school physical examinations? An augmented interdisciplinary approach to education? Purpose of this Study The specific problems which were explored in this study can be stated this way: How do early adolescent boys identified as having a high need for academic achievement compare physiologically to early adolescent boys with a lower need for achievement? What administra- tive implications can educators infer from the results? The purpose ()f this study was to compare high and low achievement motivated early suiclescent boys on a number of physiometric and anthrOpometric mea- surements. If educators are required to make decisions to improve tine learning of youngsters, then it is mandatory that educators obtain arui be able to use as much information as possible about the children for which they are responsible. Therefore, significant physical dif- ferences found between the high and low achievement motivated groups of this study should be analyzed for their educational implications. rm ‘ m”_ 4 The implications of this study do not emphasize generalizeability. They do, however, have primary application to the setting from which the subjects were drawn. It is necessary to summarize the project to organize and focus the remainder of this chapter as well as the literature review of Chapter II. Although a detailed design of the study is presented in Chapter III, the following synopsis is given now. Project Summary Purpose: This study was conducted to find if there were signi- ficant differences between high and low achievement moti- vated early adolescent boys in: l. Anthropometric measurements 2. Physiometric measurements 3. Health histories Procedure: 1. Administer M—Scales to the entire seventh-grade boy population (43%) of two suburban school districts. 2. Rank the boys from highest to lowest on their M—Scale scores. 3. Choose fifty-five boys on each extreme who meet these requirements: a. Caucasian b. Twelve-thirteen years old c. Come from employed, intact families 4. Have two teachers that each boy thinks know him best rate his motivation level. 5. Select thirty to thirty-five boys from each group of fifty-five boys that are the most extreme examples, i.e., for a boy to be chosen he must be among those representing at least the fifty-five highest or fifty- five lowest M-Scale scores, meet the necessary require- ments listed in Step three, have the teachers' evalua- tions of the boy's motivational level substantiate his f1 M-Scale ranking. 6. Administer physical examinations, collect health his- ; tories and anthropometric data from the sample of b approximately thirty-five high and thirty-five low achievement motivated boys. ,Hypotheses to be Tested 1 The hypotheses for this study were reached after a review of pertinent literature. Few studies found were aimed at discerning physical correlates of high or low achievement motivated behavior. No projects reviewed studied the possibility of physical correlates to the achievement motivated behavior of boys and girls younger than high school seniors. High school seniors for physiometric research purposes 2 Therefore, this question could are generally referred to as adults. be raised: Do the same physical differences found between high and low achievement motivated adults exist between high and low achieve- rnent motivated children? 1The hypotheses of this project are restated in a more complete and testable form in Chapter III, 2E. L. Reynolds and J. V. Wines, "Physical Changes Associated with Adolescence in Boys," American Journal 2:. Diseases in Children, Vol. LXXXII, (1951) 529-547. Based on the documentation supplied in Chapter II it was hypo- thesized that these physical differences would be found in children. Even though puberty and its resultant physical modifications may have accounted for some of the reported physical differences in adults, high and low achievement motivated boys will reflect similar correlations. I. There are significant anthropometric differences between high and low academic achievement motivated early adoles- cent boys. II. There are significant physiometric differences between high and low academic achievement motivated early adoles- cent boys. III. There are significant differences between the health his- tories of high and low academic achievement motivated early adolescent boys. Definitions 1 To clarify the above hypotheses the following terms are defined as they relate to the discussion, implementation and inter- pretation of this study. 1. Academic achievement motivation -- the level of intensity of the combination of forces which initiate, direct and sustain behavior toward a scholarly goal. 2 1A more complete list of operational definitions including speci- fic physical measurements is included in Chapter III, 42—43. 2W. W. Farquhar, A Comprehensive Study 2f_the Motivational Fac- tors Underlying Achievement gf_Eleventh Grade High School Students. Research Project No. 846, U. 8. Office of Education in c00peration with Michigan State University, 1959, 3. 2. Early adolescent -- a chronologically twelve- or thirteen- year-old child. 3. Physiological measurements -- measurements of the general physical characteristics of an organism for purposes of comparing or classifying. a. Anthropometric measurements -- measurements of the size, weight and proportions of the body. b. Physiometric measurements —- measurements of the phy- siologic functions of the body by serologic or other physiologic methods. 1 Overview of the Dissertation This study is presented in five sections. Chapter I is designed to provide a preview of the project, as well as to expose some of the biases and presuppositions undergirding the entire opus. The latter purpose would seem to be essential to help protect the reader against unnecessary (and unintended) subjective contamination. In Chapter II, relevant literature is reviewed. Literature related directly to this problem is Sparse. The literature review of Chapter II relates to concepts rather than documentation of pro- cedures of instrumentation. Cited support for physical examination procedures and instru- ments is discussed in Chapter III. Sources of support for the ideas in the study often are drawn from outside the field of education. The interpretation, however, is focused directly upon educational implications. 1Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (24th edition, 1965) 'W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. » >..v— ‘,<‘".fl Chapter III is the Operational blueprint of the study in which descriptions of the population, sample, operational measures, opera- tional definitions of specific variables, testable hypotheses and statistical design are found. And Chapter III gives documentation for the specific physical examination procedures followed and instru- mentation used in the study. The first three chapters serve a preparatory role to Chapter IV, Analysis of Results. Chapter IV is largely in tabular form, subdivided into three main sections, each corresponding to one of the three hypo- theses of the project. The acceptance or rejection of the null hypo- theses is stated in Chapter IV. In Chapter V conclusions are given and the implications of these results are discussed. CHAPTER II REVIEWING THE LITERATURE This chapter focuses on the purpose of the project and its re- lationship to previous literature. Because the chapter concentrates on the physiological concepts of academic achievement motivated beha- vior, very little effort is put into explaining specific physical ex- amination techniques. However, Chapter III legitimizes sample selection and physiometric measures of the study by citing relevant research. Chapter II is subdivided into three major sections that coin- cide with the hypotheses as stated previously: 1. The Relevance of Anthropometric Measurements to Achieve- ment Motivation 2. The Relevance of Physiometric Measurements to Achievement Motivation 3. The Relevance of Health Histories to Achievement Motivation There is a variable that seems to have pertinence to each of the subdivisions, therefore it seems necessary to discuss that variable, 'birth order, first. Birth order is reported to be an integral part ()f not only achievement motivation, but also intelligence, eminence sand biochemistry. With birth order seeming to be involved in more than one part of the study it is mandatory to review some of the rele- vant birth order research. ."-"" . -. «J-ryv a ‘53. t... 10 Birth Order W. D. Altus 1 extensively reviewed the literature relating birth order to achievement and the need for achievement. His twenty- nine citations imply the following conclusions: Birth Order and Intelligence 1. Birth order may be of significance when identifying very bright youngsters. The eldest are most likely to be bright. 2. The supportive data (to the above) are not conclusive nor definitive, but are consistent and compelling. 2 Birth Order and the Need for Achievement l. The order of birth is influential in the channeling of the power drives. 3 1W. D. Altus, "Birth Order and Its Sequelae," Science, Vol. CLI, 44-49 (January 7, 1966). 2L. M. Terman, Genetic Studies 2f_Genius, Vol. I (Stanford ‘University Press, Stanford, California) 121,(l923; J. M. Cattell, Scientific Monthly, Vol. V, 371 ( 1917); W. D. Altus, American Psychologist, Vol. XVII, 304 (1962). 3A. Adler, Children, Vol. III, 14 (1928). w I . " I p . «Jr-59‘. - :mtfl a! ' gears-1" 1.: t 11 2. First-horns tend to be more cooperative and curious. 1 These two personality traits seem to be components of the achievement motivation pattern. 2 Other often-cited birth order studies include the observations of Sampson and Bartlett as they state that first—born males have a higher need for achievement. Also Cobb and French and Schachter conclude that first-born males are more likely to obtain a college education. 3 There is not complete agreement on the role of ordinal position, however. Rosenfeld reports a dissenting opinion in his comparison of birth order to affiliation and achievement motives. He states that, 1D. A. Dean (unpublished thesis, State University of Iowa, 1947) 21; P. C. Capra and J. E. Dittes, "Birth Order as a Selective Factor among Volunteer Subjects," Journal 2; Abnormal Social Psychology, Vol. LXIV, 203 (April, 1962). 2B. G. Gough, "The Construction of a Personality Scale to Predict Academic Achievement," Journal pf Applied Psychology, Vol. XXXVII, 261—66 (October, 1953); G. G. Gebhart and D. T. Hoyt, "Personality Needs of Under- and Over-achieving Freshmen," Journal pf Applied Ps - chology, Vol. XLII, No. 2, 125-28 (1958); W. F. Brown, N. Abeles and I. Iscoe, "Motivational Differences Between High and Low Scholar- ship Students," Journal 2; Educational Psychology, Vol. IXV, 214-23 (April, 1954). 3E. E. Sampson and F. T. Hancock, "An Examination of the Rela- tionship Between Ordinal Position,Personality and Conformity," Journal 5;; Personality 22g Social Psychology, Vol. V, 398-407 (April, 1967); E. W. Bartlett and C. P. Smith, "Child-Rearing Practices, Birth Order and the Development of Achievement-Related Motives," Psychological Reports, Vol. XIX, 1207-1216 (December, 1966); S. Cobb and J. R. French, "Birth Order among Medical Students," Journal 2; Ehg American Medical Association, Vol. CLXLV, 312—313 (January 24, 1966); S. Schachter, "Birth Order Eminence and High Education," American Sociological Review, Vol. XXVIII, 757-68 (October, 1963). 12 at the best, the relationship between first-borne and achievement moti- vation is not clear, as his study indicates a negative correlation. 1 Because of the suspected but uncertain relationship between birth order and achievement motivation, those first-born children in the sample of this study will be noted and observed separately to guard against a source of research confusion. A number of studies have hypothesized that the reason for emi- nence, aptitude and achievement motivation differences between first- born children and later—born is basically because of differences in child-rearing practices. 2 Later in this chapter Gordon and Gordon 3 are reported to have found differences in blood chemistry as well. Similar biochemical differences between first- and later-borne were found to exist in a study by ggglj g; 31. 4 After discussing the reported differences in achievement moti- vation levels and blood chemistry between children of different or- dinal positions, a review of literature relative to each hypothesis may begin. 1H. M. Rosenfeld, "Relationships of Ordinal Position to Affilia- tion and Achievement Motives," Journal 2f Personality, Vol. XXXIV, 467-80 (December, 1966). 2Altus, 22.cit. (1966) 48; P. R. Sears, E. Maccoby, H. Levin, Patterns 33 Child Rearing (Row Peterson and Company, Evanston, Illi- nois, 1957) 418; J. L. Lasko, Genetic Psychology Monograph, Vol. XLIX, 97 (1954). 3B. E. Gordon and K. K. Gordon, "Birth Order, Achievement and Blood Chemistry Levels among College Students," Nursing Research, Vol. XVI, No. 3, 234-236 (Summer, 1967). 4S. V. Kasl, G. W. Brooks, S. Cobb, "Serum Urate Concentrations Vol. CLXLVIII, No. 7, 713-16 (November 14, 1966). 13 Anthropometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Somatotyping and Achievement Motivation A definitive study concerning the direct relationship between body build and the need for achievement (2 Ach) by Cortes and Gatti 1 found a positive and significant correlation between mesomorphy and g Ach while a negative and significant correlation between ectomorphy and B Ach also was observed in their sample. Because the somatotype technique used is the same as that used in the present research pro- ject, Cortes study is reviewed in more depth than others. The conclusions of this study are based on the results collected from two diverse experimental groups. One group was comprised of one hundred non-delinquent senior boys at a private high school (ninety- two percent later attended college). The other experimental group of one hundred consisted completely of convicted juvenile delinquents. All subjects were first somatotyped using Parnell's method. 2 Then their 2 Ach was measured by a technique widely used by McClelland and his associates. 3 This is a projective test similar to the The- xnatic Apperception Test in which a subject interprets a set of pictures. 1J. F. Cortes and F. M. Gatti, "Physique and Motivation," Journal 5g; Consulting Psychology, Vol. XXX, No. 5, 408—414 (October, 1966). 2R. W. Parnell, Behavior and Physigue, (E. Arnold Co., London, 1958). (Parnell's somatotyping method is used in this project and is explained in more detail in Chapter III, 50-52. 3J. W. Atkinson (Ed.) Motives $2_Fantasy Action and Society, (Van Nostrand, Princeton, New Jersey, 1958). 14 The verbal interpretation of the pictures was then scored for E Ach level by two scorers, both had worked with McClelland. The coeffi- cient of agreement on scores was +u95. Finally the somatotype ratings were compared with the results of the 2_Ach test. The experimental non-delinquent group reflected a significant, at the .01 level of probability, and positive association (+.35) be- tween mesomorphy and g Ach, as originally hypothesized. A significant F? and negative correlation (-.27) existed between ectomorphy and 2 Ach. L‘— 1.3: :‘a' In the sample of delinquents a correlation of +320 existed be- tween }; Ach and mesomorphy. Once again a negative correlation was # found between ectomorphy and E Ach. Both correlations are significant at the .05 level of confidence. With these results the authors went on to conclude: Obviously the relationship found is not one of cause and effect. The results allow us only to Speak only of an association between E Ach and physique, an association which is not due to chance but which cannot be called very strong for the positive correlations between the variables are not high, varying from.+.20 to +u54. We cannot determine which variable comes first, physique or E Ach, nor whether both variables are directly influ- enced by a third common factor. Walker, §£_§l9 2 have long equated the mesomorphic as an ener- getic individual. Cortes and Gatti hypothesize that a person posses- sing the mesomorphic traits of high energy, confidence and competition ‘would also possess the components of high E_Ach. 1Cortes and Gatti, 92, cit., 413. 2R. N. Walker, "Body Build and Behavior," Child DeveloPment, Vol. XXXIV, 1-23 (March, 1963). A‘s—m -$. -3! ‘I'I' 15 However, it seems reasonable to assume that physique, through the organs of the body, glandular secretions, and the particular chemotype, predisposes, together with many other variables, toward some types of moti- vation more than toward others. 1 Maturation and Achievement Motivation Besides somatotyping, the general area of anthrOpometric data relevant to maturation as measured by height, bone age and pubertal status could have pay-off as a research item. Research in this area has led some EurOpean schools to experiment with the use of a hand x-ray to determine bone age at school entry. 2 J. M. Tanner has suggested that some estimate of develOpmental age should be made. He suggested that it should be allowed for and that a series of edu- cational experiences should be provided for the late maturer. 3 What information has led some educators and child development people to these conclusions? Basically, information that could be classified in two ways: 1) the results of maturation on intelligence; 2) the results of maturation on behavior. Intelligence does not al— ways have a direct relationship to motivation. However, if the present study's definition of academic achievement motivation is ". . . . . the combination of forces that initiate, direct and sustain behavior 1Cortes and Gatti, 22, cit., 413. 2L. M. Bayer, "Children's Growth and Maturation as Factors in Education," Pediatric Digest, 59-66 (August, 1965). 3J. M. Tanner, Education and Physical Growth Implications pf the Study 2£_Children's Growth for Educational Theo£y_and Practice, (University Press, London, 1961). 16 toward a scholarly goal," then it could be contended that ability will be one component of sustaining behavior toward a scholarly goal. If inability prohibits success, goal-oriented behavior will be dif- ficult to sustain. Maturation and Intelligence Children who are physically advanced for their age score higher on mental tests than those less mature, but of the same chronological age. The difference is consistent at all ages that have been studied from six to twenty years. 1 Intel- ligence score differences between early and late maturing individuals seem to level out after age twenty. Maturation and Behavior The studies of Pressey and Pressey con- cerning interests and social attitudes of adolescents provide an ex- cellent example of the relation of biological and cultural factors. 2 They found that interests themselves are to a large extent culturally- determined, but the age at which an adolescent attains a state of maturity in them is dependent on his physiological development. Emo- tional age of the boys and girls measured by the Presseys' instrument 1F. Boas, "The Relationship between Physical and Mental Develop- ment," Science, Vol. XCIII, (April 11, 1941) 339—42; G. Binning, "Earlier Physical and Mental Maturity among Saskatoon Public School Children," Canadian Journal pf Public Health, Vol. XLIX, No. 1 (January, 1958) 9-17; B. 0. Ljung, "The Adolescent Spurt in Mental Growth," Stockholm Studies pp Educational Psychology, (Uppsala: Alm- quist and Wiksell, 1965); J. M. Tanner, Growth pp Adolescence, (Black- well Publications, Oxford, 1962) 309. S. L. Pressey and L. C. Pressey, "Development of the Interest- Attitude Tests," Journal pf Applied Psychology, Vol. XVII (1933), 1-16. ”M“— _ ,, _ 17 showed spurts at the same time as spurts in growth. Davidson and Gottlieb found the similar results with pre- and post-menarcheal girls of the same age and educational status. 1 The literature also suggests that there are other indices of a behavior differential depending on the onset of physical matura- tion. Latham found early-maturing boys more likely to become ath- letic achievement leaders. 2 In school, early-maturers appeared more confident and relaxed and were rated by adults as "more attrac- tive." 3 Aggression in the sense of the simple desire to dominate was higher in early-maturing boys. 4 In the same study Thematic Apperception Tests gave evidence that late-maturing boys harbor more feelings of insecurity, inadequacy and rejection. The irony of the findings is stated by Tanner. All the differences described above could well be ex- plained on the basis of the alleged behaviour and feelings of predominately mesomorphic persons (who are early-maturing as well) and predominately ecto- morphic ones (who are late-maturing as well). 1H. H. Davidson and L. S. Gottlieb, "The Emotional Maturity of Pre- and Post-Menarcheal Girls," Journal pf Genetic Psychology, Vol. XI (3rd Quarter, 1950)129-48. 2A. J. Latham, "The Relationship between Pubertal Status and Leadership in Junior High School Boys," Journal p£_Genetic Psychology, Vol. LXXVIII (2nd Quarter, 1951) 185-94. 3M. C. Jones and N. Bayley, "Physical Maturing among Boys as Related to Behavior," Journal p§_Educationa1 Psychology, Vol. XLI (March, 1950) 129-48. AP. H. Mussen, M. C. Jones, "Self-Conceptions, Motivations and Interpersonal Attitudes of Late- and Early-Maturing Boys," Child Development, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2 (June, 1957) 243-56. 5.1. M. Tanner, 22. cit. (1962) 221. l8 Physiometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Although a few investigators have studied the relationship be- tween physiology and achievement motivation in adults, no citation was found in the literature which addressed itself to this relation- ship as it might exist in children. Therefore, the review of litera- ture relative to the role of physiology in achievement motivation must be limited to studies of adults. Currently those relationships which do exist can only be estimated when discussing physiology's role in a child's achievement motivation level. This literature review does not provide documentation to enable estimation of this relationship in children, but it does report those physiometric measurement patterns that seem to indicate a relationship between body chemistry and func- tioning and achievement motivation levels of adults. Body Chemistry and Achievement Motivation The concept of relating body chemistry to achievement motivation is relatively new. Much of the original impetus came from the study of gout. Investigators were impressed by the frequency that gout was Inentioned as a disease encountered by persons of distinction and achieve- Inent. 1 Gout is often a physical manifestation of those who have a heightened level of uric acid in their blood. In 1955 Orowan pointed out.that significant levels of serum uric acid exist only in higher apes and man. 2 Because the most definitive results of the relation- ship of body chemistry and achievement motivation have been found in uric acid studies, this is where the review began. 1D. Stetten, Jr., "Gout," Perspectives lp Biology and Medicine, Vol. II (Winter, 1959) 185-96. 2E. Orowan, "Origin of Man," Nature, Vol. CLXXV, No. 4459 (April, 1955) 683-84. 19 Serum Uric Acid and Intelli ence Stetten and Heardon have studied the relationship of serum uric acid concentration and intelligence test scores of 817 U. 8. Army inductees. They found that a correla- tion of +.076, significant at the .015 level of confidence, existed between the inductees' scores on the Army Classification Battery and their serum uric acid concentrations. 1 These results were duplicated by Kasl 2 as he found a correlation of .097 between the Otis Self- Administering Test of Mental Ability scores of 138 high school boys and their serum uric acid levels. Of considerable interest also is the recent evaluation of the effect of glutamic acid in the improve- ment of human cognitive functioning. 3 Feedings of glutamic acid have been reported to result in increased drive and in positively affecting personality characteristics related to cognitive performance. Gluta- mine has been shown by recent work to be involved in the production of uric acid resulting from the biosynthesis of purines. Kasl's statement seems to implicate uric acid with the RNA-DNA (also involved in the above process) studies of intelligence, particularly in light of Gordon's statement: 1D. Stetten, Jr., and J. Z. Heardon, "Intellectual Level Mea- sured by Army Classification Battery and Serum Uric Acid Concentration," Science, Vol. CXXIX, No. 3365 (June, 1959), 1737. 2S. V. Kasl, G. W. Brooks, and S. Cobb, "Serum Urate Concentra- tions in Male High School Students," Journal pf the American Medical Association, Vol. CXCVIII, No. 7 (November 14, 1966), 713-16. 3W. Vogel, et al, "The Role of Glutamic Acid in Cognitive Be- haviors," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. LXV, No. 6 (January, l966),367-82 492. c_i_;_., Kasl, 399;, . 418. 9'“'v.r-“..“ ‘ mm" _“ .. ‘ - V ‘3’ a 20 Uric acid, a metabolite of nucleic acids, and thus of ribo- nucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has been found to be related positively to academic achievement. It probably functions as an endogenous cortical stimulant. Serum Uric Acid and Achievement Motivation Three studies at the University of Michigan have provided the following findings about serum uric acid (SUA). Brooks and Mueller 2 gave support to the theory that a tendency to gout is a tendency to the executive suite and that serum uric acid is related to behavioral characteristics that lead to outstanding per- formance. They reported the findings after rating fifty-one University of Michigan professors on seven behavior scales, then correlating their behavioral ratings with their SUA levels. TABLE 2.1 3 CORRELATION OF TOTAL BEHAVIOR SCORE AND SUBSCALES WITH SERUM URIC ACID (FIFTY-ONE COLLEGE PROFESSORS) Pearsonian Correlation Variable Coefficient Total behavior score 0.66* Drive .57* Achievement .54* Leadership .54* Pushing of self ,43* Range of activities .51* Attitude towards pressure .12 Emphasis on research 0.19 *Correlations significant at the 2<=.05 level or better {gp.,gig., Gordon (1967) 234. 2G. W. Brooks, E. Mueller, "Serum Urate Concentrations among Uni- CXCV, No. 6, (February 7, 1966) 415-518. 31bid, 417. 21 Kasl, Brooks and Cobb 1 studied sixty-two high school boys inter- viewed and examined while in high school and again four years after high school graduation. The boys were divided into three groups: 1) those who completed college (CC); 2) those who attempted college but dropped out (AC); and 3) those who did not go to college. An evalua- tion of high school grades suggested that the AC group was more highly motivated, for they attempted college even though they had poor grades. The highest uric acid levels were found in this group; and within the group, those that attended college longest had the higher serum uric acid concentrations. In the study it was also found that first-borne had higher uric acid levels. Dunn, gg‘gl, 2 performed the initial work that spawned the pre- viously mentioned University of Michigan studies. Dunn found serum urate related to the type of work his subjects performed. Reasonably certain that factors of individual variability, age, disease and drug ingestion were not reaponsible, Dunn found that male executives had a higher serum uric acid level than craftsmen. An additional study compared one hundred thirty-eight high school boys and found: 1. Increasing Otis Test scores showed an increase in serum uric acid (SUA). 2. Straight 'A' students had the highest SUA. 3. Students with the most extracurricular activities had ele- vated SUA measurements. 193. cit., Kasl, 55.11; 2J. P. Dunn, G. W. Brooks, J. Mausner, G. Rodnan, S. Cobb, "Social Class Gradient of Serum Uric Acid Levels in Males," Journal 22 4. Students receiving the highest teacher rating on such traits as leadership, responsibility, and industry had higher SUA values. There was no association of serum urate levels among the subjects' parents relative to the level of education of the parents, father's oc- cupation, nor occupational preferences. Other Biochemicals and Achievement Motivation Other biochemicals besides serum uric acid have been correlated with a need for achieve- ment. R. E. Gordon, a University of Florida psychiatrist who is the most published researcher in this area of interest, has replicated the serum uric acid results of the three University of Michigan studies a number of times. 1 Gordon found the following relationships among forty-three nursing students of Wagner College. TABIE 2.2 2 BIRTH ORDER OF NURSING STUDENTS IN RELATION TO BLOOD CHEMICAL LEVELS AND GRADE ROINT AVERAGE Only First-born Middle Last Mean Scores Child Agith Sibligggr Aghild Child G. P. A. 3.0 2.6 2.5 2.4 Uric Acid Level 5.1 5.0 4.9 3.8 Cholesterol Level 220 200 200 180 Sugar Level 95 87 89 j 84 1R. E. Gordon, R. H. Lindeman, and K. K. Gordon, ”Some Psycholo- gical and Biochemical Correlates of College Achievement," Journal 2; American College Health Association, Vol. XV, (April, 1967) 326-31; R. E. Gordon and K. K. Gordon, "Birth Order, Achievement and Blood Chemistry Levels among College Nursing Students," Nursing Research, Vol. XVI, No. 3 (Summer, 1967) 234-36. 2;bid., 236. 23 Another Gordon study seems to indicate SUA as being more asso- ciated with motivation than ability. The conclusion was drawn when it was found that Wagner College freshmen and soPhomores with a Scho- lastic Aptitude Test score of 500 or less had higher SUA levels than their higher ability (SATI>500) classmates. Apparently, many lower ability students required high motivation just to compete in college. The SUA levels of high ability students with high GPA.were positively F1 correlated with their GPA. Correlations between serum uric acid and grade point averages were nearly as high as correlations between Scho- lastic Aptitude Test scores and grades. 1 5 Students with SAT2> 500 had a negative correlation between SUA and cholesterol. This finding suggests that high-ability students with inner drive may have been less pressured by academic duties. Low— ability students had a positive significant correlation between SUA and cholesterol. Presumably high-motivated, low-ability students were burdened by their studies and therefore had an elevated choles- terol. 2 This presumption is consonant with the findings of Brooks and Mueller as they found the same results in their sample of univer~ sity professors who felt "overburdened.” 3 Friedman and Rosenman studying blood and cardiovascular patterns found that their sample of men exhibiting a behavior characterized by intense ambition, com- petitive "drive," a constant preoccupation with occupational deadlines 1R. E. Gordon, "Serum Biochemicals and College Student Personality, Performance and Health," unpublished, written in 1968. 21bid., 3. 3gp.‘gi£., Brooks, Mueller, (1966). 24 and a sense of time urgency had a much higher serum cholesterol level than their more sedate sample groups. The "pressured" group also had a hastened clotting time and seven times the incidence of coronary artery disease and three times the incidence of arcus senilis ( a cir- cular opaqueness around the cornea). 1 Non-biochemical Physiometric Measurements and Achievement Motivation Visual Acuity Becker has reported that visually acute individuals (college students) tend to show motivational patterns that contrast those who are either near- or far-sighted. Normally-sighted persons, and those mildly near-sighted, tend to be achievement oriented and emotionally unattached. Those far- and near-sighted tended to be emotionally attached. 2 Another study seems to further differentiate normally-sighted persons and ametropes (near- or far-sighted persons) in regard to associated motives underlying or giving direction to achievement motivation. Normally-sighted persons seem to be motivated to achieve "via" independence 3 while ametropes seem to be motivated through their social and systematic needs. 4 1M Friedman and R. H. Rosenman, "Association of Specific Overt Behavior Pattern with Blood and Cardiovascular Findings, " Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. CLXIX, No. 12 (March 21,1959) 1286- 95. 26. Becker, "Visual Acuity, Birth Order, Achievement Versus Af- filiation, and other Edwards Personal Preference Schedule Scores," Journal 2; Psychosomatic Research, Vol. IX (December, 1965) 277-83. 3H. C. Gough, Manual for the California Psychological Inventory, (California PsychologistsfPress{California, 1957). 4G. Becker, "Visual Acuity and Motivational Patterns Underlying Achievement," Journal 2; Psychosomatic Research, Vol. X (December 1966) 275-79. 25 ‘glood Pressure Although blood pressure has long been associated with hypertense, hyper-reactive individuals, no proof is offered in the literature as to the relationship between blood pressure and achievement orientation. The only mention of blood pressure was in Heckhausen's book, The Anatomyw f Achievement Motivation. 1 Even here there is only a one-sentence statement that glibly refers to a systolic blood pressure difference between high and low achievement motivated persons. The statement offered no proof of the difference nor did the book's footnotes and bibliography. .genetic Factors A considerable amount of research has led to the conclusion that there are strong associations between heredity and ability. Using the same logic in explaining the relationship be- tween ability and motivation that was stated earlier in this chapter, one could impute a genetic influence on achievement motivation. How- ever, no studies have shown a direct relationship of heredity to achieve- ment motivation. The only project reporting a genetic influence on motivation studied the genetic factors in activity motivation. 2 Though there is little known at this time about the genetic influence on achievement motivation, the current state of the science of genetic investigation repressed this study from pursuing the possible genetic correlates of achievement motivation. Neurological Factors An hypothesis gaining favor in explaining the ”underachievement phenomenon" is that the achievement problems are an expression of a basic neurological defect. Many terms describe 1H. Heckenhausen, The Anatomy gf'Achievement Motivation,(Academic Press, New York, 1967) 215. 2S. Scarr, "Genetic Factors in Activity Motivation," Child 23- veloggggt, Vol. XXXVII, No. 3 (September, 1966) 663-73. / A. 26 describe this pattern. Among the most widely used are: 1) minimal brain dysfunction; 2) hyperkinetic syndrome; 3) dyslexia; 4) cere- bral dysfunction; and 5) minimal brain damage. The myriad labels are further confounded by even more definitions. 1 For example, Anderson describes the symptoms found in a group of thirty hyperkinetic children as follows: 1. Motor deve10pment tends to be slow in most of the children. F} 2. Muscle coordination is generally below average. F. 3. The majority are reading at least two years below expec- tation from their intelligence quotient test. Reversal b and mirroring is common in reading and writing. 4. Soft neurological signs are common. 5. A high percentage of abnormal brain waves. 6. Visual perceptual and visual motor difficulties. 2 Clements and Peters have named the syndrome minimal brain dys- function. The dominant symptoms are: 1. Specific learning deficits -- child cannot read at grade level, mild stress may bring out dyslexic type errors. 2. Perceptual motor deficits -- printing, writing and drawing poor and erratic performance when copying geometric figures. 3. General coordination deficits -- child awkward or clumsy. 4. Hyperkinesis -- child appears to be in constant motion. 1M5 Beekman, unpublished presentation to the Mott Special Edu- cation Colloquium at the Mott Children's Health Center, Flint, Michigan, April 14, 1969. 2W.'W. Anderson, "The Hyperkinetic Child: A Neurological Apprai- sal ," Neurology, Vol. XIII (November, 1963) 968-73. 27 U! . Impulsivity -- may occur in handling objects, talking, aggressive behavior. 6. Emotional lability -- high strung, irritable, aggressive behavior. 7. Short attention span or distractibility. 8. Equivocal neurological signs. 9. Abnormal or borderline abnormal EEG. 1 Most writers, independent of their orientation, suggest that the child's intellectual ability as measured by the WISC, or some other instrument not dependent upon the child's reading ability, pre- dicts a higher level of performance than found in grades or achieve- ment test scores. 2 Because of the discrepancy between ability as tested and achievement, these youngsters may show up in the low- achievement-motivated sample. Health Histories and Achievement Motivation There were no studies found in the literature that were addressed directly to the relationship that may exist between health history and achievement motivation. The longitudinal growth studies of children in Shaker Heights, Ohio, might be considered in this section. However, the study charted growth, as the result of health history, against achievement. Using a Wetzel Grid 3 the ten-year study found a direct 15. D. Clements and J. E. Peters, "Minimal Brain Dysfunctions in the School-Age Child," Archives‘gg General Psychiatry, Vol. VI (March, 1962) 185-97. 2R. P. Anderson, an unpublished paper, "The Basis of Underachieve- ment: Neurological or Psychological," 1967. ting Physical Fitness (N.E.A. Service, Chicago, 1941). 28 relationship between normal growth patterns and expected achievement. When a child's growth did not keep up with his peers his school achieve- ment tended to slow down as well. 1 Brooks and Mueller, 2 Real, 3 Dunn, 4 and Gordon 5 included certain aspects of health history in their studies. Among the fac- tors were: alcohol, coffee and cola consumption, smoking and sleeping habits, exercise and work hours; although these factors modified body chemistry, there was no reason to believe that the resulting biochemical change affected achievement motivation. Summary A search of relevant literature revealed no studies reported that directly compare any physiological differences which may exist between high and low achievement motivated boys. However, a number of pertinent facts have been uncovered. These facts prompt close ob- servation of certain components of this study and require research awareness of others. Birth Order and Achievement Motivation One of the most compelling conclusions of this chapter is that birth order has relevance to the attainment of scholastic eminence. Reasons stated for this imply that first-horns seem most likely to be bright. They also tend to have a higher need for achievement. Although most of the studies conclude that the tendency of first-borne 1H. H. Hopwood and S. S. Van Iden, "Scholastic Underachievement as Related to Sub-par physical Growth," Journal 2: School Health, Vol. XXXV, No. 8 (October, 1965) 337. . $92. cit., Brooks-Mueller. %92. £15., Kasl. ('93. $9., Dunn. 592,_c_i_t., Gordon, (1967). 29 to be brighter and more motivated is because of child-rearing practices, some researchers have found biochemical differences between first- and later-barns. There is, however, a reluctance to specify a cause and effect relationship of ordinal position and biochemical differences. Because of the relationships between birth order and intelli- gence, blood chemistry and motivation, first-born boys in the sample will be noted and appropriately observed. Anthropometry and Achievement Motivation Somatotyping has supplied the research result that mesomorphy is significantly related to achievement motivation. Ectomorphy is negatively correlated, significant at the .05 level of confidence. The study cited used the same somatotyping technique to be incorpor- ated in this study. Effects of maturation (as measured by bone age) on youngsters of the same chronological age indicates that the earlier maturing individual is more likely to score higher on intelligence tests than those less mature. Also early maturing boys were reported to have developed a more pronounced need to dominate and lead, while late- maturers harbored more feelings of insecurity, inadequacy and re— jection. Physiometry and Achievement Motivation The most consistent research finding relative to the role of biochemistry in achievement motives is that serum uric acid (SUA) seems associated with achievement. This association is reported in 30 two ways: 1) the positive correlation of heightened SUA levels and ability; and 2) the positive correlation of heightened SUA and achievement motivation. Of the two correlations the latter seems dominant. Cholesterol elevation has been reported in students with a higher motivation. Other physiometric differences that have been reported to exist between high and low achievement motivated individuals include visual acuity differences. Normally-sighted and mildly near-sighted college students tend to be more achievement oriented than far- and near- sighted students. Studies of the relationship of blood pressure, heredity and neurology have not clearly pointed up achievement-behavior differences. Health History and Achievement Motivation Of the three general areas of inquiry, the subject of health and motivation was least studied. However, a ten-year longitudinal growth study revealed an association between sub-par physical growth and underachievement. Beverage intake, exercise and work habits, smoking and sleeping habits have been charted and seem to have an effect on body chemistry, but achievement motivation is not consistently affected. Conclusion The overriding result of this literature review has focused the question: Do the same physical relationships that exist between high and low achievement motivated men exist between high and low achievement motivated boys? An automatic transference of these researched rela- tionships cannot be made from adult to child. The research attempted I‘IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllzl====::::::’l 31 to define if the same physical patterning relative to achievement- motivation is evident before the pubertal process is complete. With a backlog of physiological information eventually educators may be better able to make child-centered decisions based on more complete information about the child and his total development. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN The purpose of this study was to compare high and low achieve- ment motivated early adolescent boys on a number of physiometric, anthropometric, and health measurements. The content of Chapter III focuses on the means by which comparisons of the high and low achieve- ment motivated groups were made, as well as a description of the two groups of boys themselves. In the first section of the chapter a description of the tested population, the research sample, and the means by which the sample was derived are given. Then the hypotheses, originally stated in the first chapter, are elaborated upon. This elaboration is supported by an augmented list of operational definitions and measurements. Finally, the protocol followed in testing for physiological and health differences is presented. 32 It 33 The following table (Table 3.1) is offered to assist the reader in understanding the organization of the first section of the chapter. TABLE 3.1 RESEARCH SAMPLE SELECTION FROM TOTAL TESTED POPULATION 0F SEVENTH-GRADE BOYS TOTAL POPULATION 488 Seventh-Grade Boys l. Administered M-Scales to each d b k ' ENVIRONMENTALLY CONTROLLED POPULATION ' 430 Boys 1. From intact families 2. From employed families 3. Caucasian AGE CONTROLLED POPULATION 410 Boys 1. Not less than 12 years old 2. Not yet 14 years old 55 lowest M-Scale 55 highest M-Scale scorers scorers 35 lowest teacher I 35 highest teacher estimates of estimates of motiyation level ‘ motivation level _ ' I ' I L ..... I Research ______ 1 Sample 34 Population The population of this study was drawn from two suburban school districts within the metropolitan area of Flint, Michigan. At the time of the study the two districts reflected a strong middle class socio-economic base. The districts were basically "bedroom communi- ties" with a vast majority of their wage earners working in the Flint business and industrial complex. Neither school district had more than one-half percent non-white school population. The low percentage of non-white school population was important to the study because many of the normal values on which comparisons of the motivated and non- motivated groups were made were drawn primarily from Caucasian popu- lations. Of the two participating school districts, District A, which provided the majority of the test population, was more affluent. District A had two junior high schools listed in Table 3.2 as School I and School II. Of the two schools, the attendance area of School I seemed to have more expensive residential areas as indicated by larger lots, newer and larger dwellings and distance from industrial plants. Using the same criteria, the attendance area of School II seemed to represent a similar, if not slightly more expensive, housing pattern than that of School III, the only junior high school of District B. A total of four hundred eighty-eight seventh-grade boys consti- tuted the original tested population. The tested boys included all seventh-grade boys who were in school on the day of the test adminis- tration. 35 TABLE 3.2 ORIGINAL POPULATION OF SEVENTH-GRADE BOYS Schools Number of Boys Tested—' School District A: School I '194 School 11 118 School District B: School III 176 Total 488 The Instrument for Determining Motivation Level The instrument chosen to initially discriminate motivation level was the Michigan State M-Scales develOped in 1963 as an objective paper-pencil indicant of achievement motivation level.1 Essentially, the M-Scales of Project 846 represent an attempt to study the non-intellectual facets related to the extremes of academic achievement. 2 The Scales were based on the assumption that if a stu~ dent achieved higher or lower than one standard error of estimate from the regression prediction of his actual achievement, he was a discre- pant, or under- or over-achiever. It was further assumed that the major reason for a student being so far from his predicted achievement was academic motivation. 1W. W. Farquhar, A Comprehensive Study 2f_the Motivational Factors .Underlying Achievement 2f Eleventh Grade High School Students, Research Project 846, U. S. Office of Education in OOOperation with Michigan State University. 2W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, Motivational Factors 12f _§1uencing Academic Achievement 2£.Eleventh Grade Puerto Rican High School Students, Research Project No. 2603A and B, Office of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, December 1967, 5. 36 Louis J. Hofman 1 applied a multitrait-multimethod matrix to the study of the need for achievement construct. The tests examined were: 1) the McClelland and Atkinson TAT; 2) the French Test of Insight; 3) the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule; 4) a self-report measure of n-achievement and n-affiliation; and 5) the M-Scales. The test scores were obtained on a sample of eleventh and twelfth grade male students. The construct validity of these measures was assessed by: 1) com- paring the intercorrelations of the test scores within a matrix; 2) ex- amining the correlations of the n-achievement scores with intelligence and achievement scores; 3) a factor analysis of test scores. The multitrait-multimethod matrix yielded intercorrelations of n-achievement scales generally positive and significantly different from zero. The projective methods (Test of Insight and TAT) were less adequate than the objective methods of measurement. The correlations of Edwards Personal Preference Inventory, the Self-Report Inventory, and the M-Scales with Large-Thorndike intelli- gence scores were positive and significantly different from zero (r = .286, .167, and .388 reSpectively), while the Test of Insight and the TAT were not as related (r = .217 and .089 respectively). The correlations of the motivation scores with academic achieve- ment were similar. The EPPS, the Self-Report Inventory and the M—Scales ‘were positively and significantly related (r = .360, .301, and .356), ‘while the T01 and TAT correlations were lower (r = .200 and -.098). 1L. J. Hofman, "An Application of the Multitrait-Multimethod Mbtrix to the Study of the n-Achievement Construct" (an unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965). 'm .—... "1’ 37 The Hofman study indicated the respectability of the M-Scales as an instrument to be used as an initial screening device to locate a research sample of highly achievement motivated boys and a group less motivated. Three of the original four M-Scales were used to determine the academic achievement motivation level of the present study's popula- tion. The Preferred Job Characteristics Scale (PJCS) was deleted because of the lack of clear occupational goals found in most seventh- grade boys. Deletion of the PJCS dimished the necessary test admini- stration time as well. The one-hundred-fifty~four~item instrument given to the test pOpulatiOn was comprised of the following sections. The Generalized Situational thige Inyentory (GSCI). The GSCI was comprised of fifty-three test items chosen from the list of the original 200 GSCI items of the MrScales. For each forced-choice pair of responses (one indicating high and the other low academic motiva- tion) students were instructed to select the alternative with the highest preference. Examples: 1. I would prefer to: a. Be graded at the end of a course with the possi- bility of making an "A" or, b. Get a "C" at the beginning of a course along with everyone else. 2. I would prefer to: a. Inherit a great deal of money, or b. Earn a great deal of money.. 38 3. I would prefer to: a. Do a less recognized but complete job, or b. Do a recognized but incomplete job. Word RatinggList (WRL) Items fifty-four through one hundred twenty- one were develOped to measure the "looking glass self." The items were selected for this M-Sca1e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ n , m.sH .m. «H .m.sH .o.eH .w.MH .s.mH s.MH H.mH _a.NH _o.NH .s.NH _N.NH_ a.HH u .InmanwMIl , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ u souaH Hmuoeaom _ H H _ _ h H h H H N _ we _ o _ wm _ m _ as s tam _ m _ wN _ N _\mH _ H smamozommz sodomuuoo _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . a- _ m- _ MN- _ N- _ wH- _ H- M- w- . o _ w+ _ w+ _ km+_ w+ noHuuouuou usHu> use ONH _ ooH _ mm _ as _ am _ as as mm _ RN _ NN _ wH _ mH_ NH H.mzz Hum Hmuoav _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Ham pom :OHuowuuoo _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a _ o _ s _ m i m _ ms a Mm _ m _XMN _ N _ AH _ H “oumsHHmw as H.am _s. on .s.mm _w.sm _o.qm _N.mm s.am o.Hm _w.om _o.om _N.mN .s.wN_ a.aN .3 m.aN .m. mN .o wN _o.wN _s.NN _N.oN H 0N m.mN _w.sN _N.sN _o.mN .m.NN_ m.NN_ meoOHm "aHomnz N.oH _s. oH .N.oH _o.oH _w.a .m.m m.a H.m _w.w _s.w _s.m _N.m .m.a “seam H.mzov H.a .o. a .m.s .a.o .m.s .s.o N.o o.s _a.m _n.m _o.m _s.m _ m.m mauoaam "anon m.oN _o. as .m.ao _o.oo .m.ss _o.mo m.Hs 0.00 .m.wm _o.am _n.mm “o.sm_ m.Nm A.waHv uanuu _ F k r H H t H F H a .mo _ 0 _mW\\ _ m .ms q n _ m _MN _ N .mw _ H maazHemm ammmozonzm ONH H ooH _ mm _ we _ an _ as ea mm _ a _ NN . wH . sH _ NH _ “as Hsuoa owHHHmumam mHzEHMMDmEE SomzHMm QSH 31595an mauoHua A.m22o muHomame "use maaHmwmm mo Hesse onH¢H>mn m.m MAM AA - . V Isa PI PI Cat IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIlllllllllllllllllllesw— *——* 63 Upon receipt of the health history form from the parents, per- tinent information was categorized and recorded as follows: Birth weight The mother's recollection of birth weight of the boy recorded in ounces to the nearest ounce. Mother's Agg at Delivepy_ The age of the mother at the time the child was born was recorded in years. ngth Complications The mother's report of birth complications r recorded on a yes-no basis. It sne provided an explanation of the ' birth complications that left a doubt as to the seriousness of the complication, a staff pediatrician determined whether or not the com- E plication should be recorded. , The questions of whether or not the boy had any: 1) serious ill- nesses; 2) handicapping condition; 3) ever been "knocked out" or uncon- scious; 4) convulsions; or 5) allergies or asthma, were handled in the same way as the "birth complications" question. The answer was re- corded as discrete information with a pediatrician determining if, in fact, a response should be recorded as a yes or no. School Absences Because of Illness The parents were asked to esti- mate the number of school days that their boy had missed due to illness per year for the past two years. Their report was coded in four cate- gories: l = less than 5 sick days per school year, 2 = 5 to 10 sick days per school year, 3 = 11 to 15 days per school year, and 4 = more than 15 days absent from school per year because of illness. ngport of figslth-Related School Problem Problems of a health nature ‘that were brought to the attention of the parent by the boy as a school problem were recorded when reported by the parent, (e.g., a boy com- plains to his mother that he cannot see the blackboard, therefore cannot do his school work). 64 Energy Level towardgggpool Activitigg The parent was asked in an Open-ended question to describe the boy's energy level as it related to school work. These responses were categorized as describing above average, average, or below average school-directed energy levels. Two raters agreed on the categorization of responses in every case. Eating Habits Parents were asked to rate their boy's appetite relating to meats, vegetables, fruits, and milk. The parents' ratings were quantified by a four-point rating scale: 1 - likes all (kinds of meat, vegetables or fruits), or much milk; 2 = likes most; 3 . likes some; and 4 - dislikes all. Other Descriptive Measures A number of other variables were used to further describe the boys in the research sample. Although these measures are not used directly in testing the hypotheses, they should be clarified. gygg 'The boys' ages were recorded in months to the nearest month. Intelligence Quotient (1,9,) score An I.Q. score for each boy was obtained from the boy's cumulative record. If scores were not avail- able, a test was given preceding the physical examination. Therefore, all scores were from tests administered at some time during the present school year. The intelligence test used was the Large-Thorndike for Seventh-Graders. Siblings Each boy reported this information via a personal data questionnaire given at the time of M-Scale administration. The num- ber recorded represents the total number of children in the family. Oldest Child This variable was reported by the research subject when asked if he was the oldest child in the family. 65 Father's Werk The subject was asked what his father did for a living. His response was categorized by two raters as to whether the father's work was: 1) professional; 2) business; 3) skilled; 4) unskilled. Mother's Work Each subject was asked if his mother worked full-time. The response was recorded on a yes/no basis. Hyata Collection Process Inviting the Research Sagplg The parents of each of the seventy boys selected for the study received a letter from the president of the Mott Children's Health Center informing them that their son was one of seventy seventh-grade boys chosen to participate in a study designed to examine the relationship between health and school interest and performance. A permission slip authorizing the Health Center's pedia- tric staff to administer a comprehensive physical examination, including a blood and urine specimen, to the child, was enclosed with the letter as well as a self-addressed stamped envelope. Starting the day after the parents received the letter, a per- sonal phone call was placed to the parents of every child answering their questions about the project and soliciting their cooperation. It was explained to the parents that the complete physical examination would be provided at no cost to them and the results of the boy's exa- mination would be available to the family physician. Of the seventy boys invited, sixty-seven permission slips were received. One boy from the higher motivated group and two from the lower group declined parti- cipation. The parents of the three boys who did not wish to participate gave the following reasons: 66 1. "An examination of this type is against our religious beliefs." 2. " just had a physical examination four days ago. 3_ " doesn't want to have a physical." Collecting Health Histories As permission slips were received by the Health Center, health history forms were sent to the parents for up”? them to fill out and mail to the Center or have their boy bring the form with him to the physical examination. The Physical Examination All physical examinations were completed ‘5 _... at the Mott Children's Health Center in Flint, Michigan. They were scheduled at 3:00 p.m. Even though the period from 1:00 p.m. (the end of the boys' lunch hour) to 3:30 p.m. (the time when blood and urine specimens were taken) could not be considered a true "fasting period" for purposes of laboratory evaluation, a somewhat controlled condition relative to the subjects' food intake existed as all boys were subject to a "closed-campus" lunch period in their schools. This condition may have closely simulated an actual physical state of a child in a school setting as compared to an evaluation of the youngster in an artificial clinical context. The subjects were scheduled into the Mott Children's Health Center in small groups of four to eight. This provided each boy with more indi- vidual testing than if all sixty-seven boys were scheduled simultaneously. {The collection of data during the physical examination was accomplished ‘by'setting up a number of stations for: vision testing; audiometric testing; anthropometric measurements; step test; laboratory specimen 67 collection; coordination; reaction—time; strength testing; and the physical examination itself. After each boy had visited all stations he was taken to Flint's municipal hospital where bone—age x-rays were taken. At no time were the health scientists aware of a boy's achieve- ment motivation estimate and subsequent grouping. The entire procedure was completed in two hours, so by 5:00 p.m. parents were able to take their children home. By the time all mea- surements were collected on a group of subjects a total of nineteen professionals became directly involved. 68 TABLE 3.11 PROFESSIONAL STAFF DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS Staff Data Collected 4 Pediatricians Physical examinations, Harvard Step Test, blood pressure W 4 Nurses Vision and hearing tests, Harvard ' 1 Step Test, general assistance ' 4 Laboratory technologists Blood and urine sample, collection . and analysis 1 1 Pre-med student AnthrOpometric measurements L 2 Nurse aides General assistance 1 Administrator Reaction-time, coordination and strength tests 1 Secretary Recording and tabulating data 1 X-ray technician* Take and Develop bone-age x-rays 1 Radiologist* Interpret bone-age x-rays 19 Professional Staff Members *Hurley HOSpital Staff Additional laboratory service was provided by Bio-Science Laboratories in Van Nuys, California. 69 Mei The research sample of this study was selected from the total seventh-grade boy population (four hundred eighty-eight) of two sub- urban school systems near Flint, Michigan. The sample of sixty-seven boys represented thirty-four of the highest and thirty-three of the lowest motivated boys who were: 1) in the seventh grade; 2) twelve F1 or thirteen years old; 3) Caucasian; and 4) from employed, intact families. Motivation level was determined by scores on the Michigan 5 State M-Scales (a standarized motivation measuring instrument) and cross-validated by teacher estimates of each boy's achievement moti- i vation level. The MrScale score separation between groups was nearly two standard deviations and the highest teacher estimate of a boy in the low group was at the fiftieth percentile along the motivation con- tinuum; the lowest motivation estimate of a boy in the high group was the eighty-second percentile. Information necessary to compare the two sample groups on the basis of anthropometry, physiometry and health histories was col- lected primarily by the health science personnel of the Mott Children's Health Center in Flint. All boys were brought to the Center to recieve their comprehensive physical and health evaluation. Routine and sophis- ticated measurements were taken according to standardized and documented procedures. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS QT: RESULTS Introduction _ P Chapter IV contains the results of the tests run on the two '. groups of boys and other information collected from them and their families. First, information that further describes the boys is =fl presented. Information such as the work of each boy's father, the E9 number of siblings in the family and the ordinal position of the boy is found in the beginning section. The data in the section are used in the description of the group's familial and environmental back- ground rather than in the physiologically-oriented hypotheses. Within the second section the results of the anthropometric measurements are analyzed. Physiometric data are analyzed in the third section of the chapter. Fourth, the health histories of the two groups of boys are examined in light of the information collected. Finally, the results are reviewed in the discussion section. Statistical Methods Factor Analysis Using the tool of factor analysis, the sixty-four variables identified in Chapter III were arrayed. It was postulated that by the use of factor analysis the number of variables could be collapsed. Two advantages would accrue from such a procedure. One, 20 ~'-m . H _ W .i'k‘.‘ ‘ 1* 71 the tests would be lengthened and thus the reliability increased. Two, the total number of subsequent contrasts would be reduced so that the Alpha level (Type I error - rejecting a null hypothesis when it should be accepted) would have been better controlled. The factor analysis proved unsatisfactory. That is, the intercorrelational ma- trix revealed values of such low magnitude that one could only con- clude that the measures were independent of each other. Inherent in the use of factor analysis as it related to this study was the problem of there being nearly as many variables studied as there were research variables. Another problem stemmed from the fact that the variables were diverse, ranging from environmental and familial conditions to heredity (as measured to a certain extent by anthropometry) and to physiometric data. This diversity may have accounted for the independency of the variables. The lack of correlation decreased the utility of factor analysis and was discovered to be an inadequate statistical tool for reducing the number of variables obtained during data collection. Use of factor analysis was abandoned because it did not sufficiently account for the variance among factors studied. Speci- fically, the rotation analysis of sixteen factors accounted for seventy- four percent of the total variance. After the second rotation, suc- cessive rotations accounted for only two and one-half percent to five percent of the total variance. The possibility of using I.Q. as a covariant was discarded while analyzing output generated by the factor analysis program. The primary reason for not pursuing I.Q. as a covariant was that I.Q. scores did JI'.\ ' J 72 not correlate significantly with any health, anthrOpometric or physio- metric variable except coordination, where a low negative correlation (-.38) existed. In other words, children scoring higher on the intel- ligence test tended to complete the coordination test in less time. The means and standard deviations of each variable are found in the appendix (p. 117). The eigenvalues, twenty of which were greater than 1.00, generated by the factor analysis program are also in the r appendix (p. 120). Analysis of Variance The primary smmimfical method used was a one- way analysis of variance. Results reflect differences between group means of the sixty-four variables accounted for in this study. A level i of confidence of .05 was set based on reported results of comparable studies. 1 Descriptive Data In Chapter III there was an elaboration upon how the research sample was selected, what variables were controlled, and what measures lwere taken to assure that the high and low groups were in fact dif- ferent on motivational levels. This portion of Chapter IV further «defines the two research groups in terms of other variables which may Imave had relevance to the study's three main hypotheses. The addi- t:iona1 description attempts to pinpoint the kinds of variance that ccnild be injected into the research by the family and environmental factors which have been charted in this study. 13ee Chapter II, 13, 19-21. 73 ‘Energy Level Rating To get a third perspective on the subjects' academic achieve- ment motivation (the other two measurements were the M-Scales and teacher estimates) the boys' parents were asked to rate their sons' energy levels as it related to school activities. The parent ratings substantiated the previous groupings. The school-related energy r1 levels of the boys were rated above average, average and below average, , by their parents. Of the parents of the boys in the higher motivated group, thirty- two rated their sons above average and two boys received average ratings B from their parents. Lower-motivated boys' parents reported their sons' school-directed energy to be above average once; average six times and below average twenty-six times. A chi-square contingency table on these frequencies yielded significance at less than .0005. Intelligence Test Scores The two research groups did score quite differently on the Lorge- Thorndike Test. Even though there was a large overlap in the range of scores of the two groups, the difference in mean group scores was over twenty points (high.p_Ach group mean = 118.47, low p_Ach group mean = 97.52). Using a one-way analysis of variance it was found that the approximate significance probability of the statistic was less than .0005. With such a large difference between the groups on I.Q. scores the idea of using intelligence as a covariant was considered. How- ever, an intercorrelation matrix, generated by a factor analysis 74 program illustrated that I.Q. scores were only significantly correlated with eye-hand coordination, delivery age and birth weight (r's = .38, .32 and .25 respectively). DESCRIPTIVE DATA: TABLE 4.1 (LORGE-THORNDIKE) I.Q. TEST SCORES Therefore, the idea was abandoned. ===_.—==— —--- :. Group Range Mean SD F. Statistic Significance ” Probability -, f Low Group 69 - 128 97.52 13.24 48.44 .0005 f High Group 84 - 133 118.47 11.37 _ Total Sample 69 - 133 108.14 16.15 ' Family Size and Birth Order fl Boys comprising the lower 2 Ach group came from slightly larger families than the higher group. However, the size difference is not significant at the .05 level, neither is the number of boys who were first-born in the lower group (eight) as compared to the upper group (fifteen). TABLE 4.2 DESCRIPTIVE DATA: FAMILY SIZE AND BIRTH ORDER DIFFERENCES Group Vlst-Born Range of Siblings Mean SD F Significafife Child* per Family Probability Law Group 8 l - 10 4.21 1.82 2.80 .10 High Group 15 l - 8 3.56 1.35 *The difference between the two groups is the .05 level of confidence. not significant at f J 75 Family Employment Employment patterns of the two group's fathers reflect some dif- ferences. Fathers of the lower group had their modal frequency of em— ployment in the l"unskilled" category; while the upper group had more fathers in the "professional" category. Approximately the same number of mothers were employed full-time in each group. TABLE 4 . 3 ‘I DESCRIPTIVE DATA: FAMILY EMPLOYMENT E '— Father'stGrk Working Group Professional Business Skilled Unskilled Mother E; Low Group 4 9 7 13 10 ' High Group 11 9 7 7 9 Total Sample 15 18 14 20 19 W Analyzing AnthrOpometric Measurements Null Hypothesis 1: At the .05 level of confidence there will be no significant difference found in anthrOpometry between high and low academic achievement motivated groups of early adolescent boys as indicated by average anthrOpometric measurements. The procedure established in Chapter III was followed to obtain nine direct anthropometric measurements, a bone-age estimation and .a derived somatotype score for each youngster. Of the nine anthropo- 'metric.measurements muscle and bone measurements could not be compared idirectly group-to-group because these two measures are affected by the amount of fat present. Therefore a correction factor had to be applied. 76 Weight, height, body fat and bone-age measurements were compared directly using a one-way analysis of variance. The results are incor- porated in Table 4.4 TABLE 4.4 A COMPARISON OF ANTHROPOMETRIC MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS Body Fat (mms.) T. F m o 1 an m A A :3 «4 0A 01 0) a: D: H U) u'o u 0 e. m ~H £?£: a .c g .:.c o o o u D so mac 0 m H o s e “2. as l: s a 88 o 8v :sv a. a m av Low Group 106.6 61.1 13.9 11.5 12.3 151.2 High Group 104.9 61.8 11.7 8.0 8.5 146.8 —————————— p———J>——-——r————q)————p—————r———— Total Sample 105.7 61.5 12.7 9.7 10.35 149.0 Significance Level .77 .33 .21 .06 .113 .250 Null Hypothesis Accept Accept Accept Accept Accept Accept m Muscle and bone measurements were interpreted by the somatotype procedures of Parnell as outlined in Chapter III. Chi-square analysis ‘was applied to the derived somatotype as was prescribed in Parnell. Three two-by-two tables were constructed to determine the indi- ‘vidual relationships between fat, muscularity and linearity ratings. None was significant. Finally, a two-by-three table was constructed 1R. W. Parnell, Behavior and Physique (Edward Arnold,LTD., London, England, 1958) 112. 77 to measure the frequency that the fat was the largest somatotype rating. The same thing was done with muscularity and linearity. That table did yield significant difference at the .05 level of confidence. The difference seemed to stem from a combination of a more frequent occurrence of fat in the low group and muscle in the high group. TABLE 4.5 AN INTERGROUP COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL SOMATOTYPE RATINGS F>LL>F Low Group 15 17 High Group 8 25 Accept null hypothesis F>MM>F Low Group 12 21 High Group 5 27 Accept null hypothesis L>MM>L Low Group 15 l 15 High Group 11 I 19 Accept null hypothesis F >- both M >both L >both M.and L, F and L F and L Low Group I 14 J 5 J 14 J High Group] 5 T 12 I 11 ] Reject null hypothesis Derived¢j(2 = 3.64 :7(2 = 3.84 (.05, 1 df) Derived/x2 = 3.62 ‘SKZ = 3.84 (.05, 1 df) Derived/X2 = 1.09 ‘{X2 = 3.84 (.05, 1 df) Derived’7<2 = 7.14 ‘9(21 = 5.99 (.05, 2 df) 78 Analyzipg Physiometric Measurements Null Hypothesis II: At the .05 level of confidence there will be no significant difference found in physiometry between high and low academic achievement motivated groups of early adolescent boys as indicated by average physiometric measurements. The analysis of results of this section is commented upon in three sections: 1) the analysis of sensory-motor evaluations; 2) the analysis of physical examination measures; and 3) the analysis of biochemical comparisons. All differences between group means were tested at the .05 level of confidence using a one-way analysis of variance. Sensory-Motor Evaluations Chapter III indicated that visual and audiometric testing, strength, hand dominance, reaction time, and eye-hand coordination comprised the list of sensory-motor variables that were observed. One of the variables was dropped. Audiometric evaluations of all subjects yielded a "dead variable." There was so little variability present that audiometric screening was deleted as a research variable. Eye-hand coordination was the only variable in this sub-group of physiometric measurements in which there was a significant differ- «ence in means between research groups. All other variables were 1Two boys had less than perfect hearing, one boy from each group. However, this measurement while no longer being a research variable, at least helped to describe the research sample. ul'nw'm'J.‘ .-' -- . v.5: - ‘ r I 79 accepted as stated in null hypothesis II. Specific means and their levels of significant difference are found in Table 4.6. TABLE 4.6 A COMPARISON OF SENSORY-MOTOR MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS mm 0 A A a m 'o o w .c o m-H . 0 vs a a'o u n n u m o . m -a e m-H u did) u u) a one :_ o. u o :nvo o a o a o o ' ~ 9 o o o n u o e.o.4 vo.H.H .4 u u 8 333’. 3.833 :13“ 58:2 SOH (9 e554\/ nac2~l (5:035 u:::~’ =>\’~’ Low Group 17.21 62.26 49.21 3.03 .33 Li High Group 16.74 55.65 52.15 2.61 .53 Total Group 16.97 58.90 50.70 2.82 .43 —————————— ---- --—-—~— b-—-—-—-— L-—-—-—-— T"""" Significance Level .18 .0005 .24 .40 .11 Null Hypothesis Accept Reject Accept Accept Accept —M Eye-hand coordination was significantly (CK.= .05) and positively correlated with reaction time, amount of fat, a health condition pre- sent, and health related school problems. Significant negative cor- relations existed between coordination and muscle, mother's age at delivery of the boy and I.Q. score. relations and a brief explanation are provided in Table 4.7. A summary of these preceeding cor- 80 TABLE 4.7 VARIABLES CORRELATING WITH COORDINATION Significant Correlates of Coordination* +.3O Reaction Time +.32 Health Problem -.27 Muscle +.27 Fat -.26 Delivery Age -.38 I.Q. Score +.31 Health Related School problems Correlation Explanation Slow coordination time is associated with slow reaction time. Slow coordination time is associated with the presence of a health problem. Slow coordination time is negatively associated with elevated muscle component ratings. Slow coordination time is associated with ele- vated fat component ratings. Slow coordination time is associated with the younger age of the mother. Slow coordination time is negatively associated with higher I.Q. scores. Slow coordination time is associated with boys who complain that their schoolwork is affected by their health. *for 66 degrees of freedom r = .25 is significant at .05 r = .33 is significant at .01 W'- Measurements of the Physical Examination The pediatric staff of the Mott Children's Health Center re- corded five variables during the physical examination: 1) pubertal status; 2) systolic blood pressure; 3) diastolic blood pressure; 4) cardiac efficiency as measured by the step test; and 5) whether or not a health problem was present at the time of the examination. Only the occurrence of health problems differentiated the two groups at the .05 level of confidence. All other variables within this subset of physiometric measurements accepted hypothesis II as stated. Table 4.8 illustrates the specific means and acceptance levels of the variables measured during the physical examination. TABLE 4.8 A COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL EXAMINATION MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS fl 0 m E‘H o u u o :3 :3 H a) m an .000 m to 00:: o o o u u a o .4 o u -H u m :h o m a: H94 H94 o no) u m F: o s: .:.o u 0- :4: 0'0 4.113 :4 union :1 OH HO 000 0.0 u-a o .o m m o m 0 0'0 m u n 3.: a“ Mr! HH “‘3 (D (D a: cute also card n:c>e4 'Low Group 2.60 117.33 70.73 83.80 .45 High Group 2.32 117.82 69.71 85.65 .20 - ————————— r ----- b————b———-h———-L———— {Total Sample 2.46 117.58 70.21 84.49 .33 Significance Level .25 .87 .64 .50 .03 ‘Null Hypothesis Accept Accept Accept Accept Reject 82 Health problems were positively and significantly correlated (CX.= .05) with vision problems, gamma globulin amounts, diastolic blood pressure, coordination and reaction time, bone age and femur measurements. A significant, negative correlation was noted between health problems and muscle rating. Results of Biochemical Analysis Laboratory procedures outlined in Chapter III were applied to urine and blood specimens of each research subject. The results are analyzed in this section. Complete Blood Count A complete blood count (CBC) was administered primarily to rule out pathological conditions as being a major source of biochemical variance. No pathology was found. In the CBC process nine variables were observed and recorded. Their analysis is found in Table 4.9. No significant differences were measured. 83 uaooo4 ueooom umooo¢ umooo< unooo< uaooom uaooo< uaooo< uaooo¢ mfimocuoamm Haoz Ho. mm. he. mm. Hm. mm. 55.. mm. on. Ho>oA oonoonHame no.m Hw.nm ca. 0H.N oo.¢m wH.N mq.mamn Hm.wm Hm.~H oaefimm Houoa mm.m NH.wm Hm. «N.N mm.qn No.N mm.mnam mm.wm cm.~a moouu swam Nm.m wq.nm NH. mH.N mw.dm mm.N H¢.H¢wm om.wm mo.NH Queue 304 W T H H O H o 0 M H 8 H S o m s o 1 e a o H s 1 a 1 u S s e u T.n I. m s m o 0 d 0 I. u D. .1 u 3 8 m 0 n a u. d u n s S .4 a 3 S no d ,A o u. o .L / O / T. S 3 o I d 0 we 8 o T.o a A l H o m l 1 noq S 3 3 I. A O I. 0 I. a s T. 3 C. o 3 m u Z s a a P l 7.. s s am 78 7.. HeHoaoaoHHHe HHoo oooHn 33m mmbomu mom4mwmm 03H mmH mo mHszMMDm~ ° '3 a r s .. *3 ‘9’.“ 5 5 3° 5 3 a 5 5'? > '3 s: an: I ;§ z: 9403:: Inns :z:= Total Protein(grams/100 ml) 7.161 7.144 7.152 .84 Accept Albumin(grams/100 ml) 4.15 4.13 4.114 .68 .Accept Alphal (grams/ 100 m1) .2079 .1929 .2003 .14 Accept Alphaz (grams/100 m1) .8888 .8880 .8884 .96 Accept Beta (grams/100 ml) .8667 .8868 .8769 .28 Accept Gamma (grams/100 ml) 1.044 1.042 1.043 .94 Accept Serum Glucose, Cholesterol and Uric Acid. The documentation cited in Chapter II relative to these three variables indicated that the concentration differred significantly in the serum analysis of high and low motivated groups of adults. This was not the case in the present research sample. q‘fl-nu-z. 86 TABLE 4.12 A COMPARISON OF MEAN SERUM GLUCOSE, CHOLESTEROL AND URIC ACID MEASUREMENTS BETWEEN THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS Serum Glucose Cholesterol Uric Acid Egoups (mg1100 mllgg (mg/100 ml) (mg/100 ml) Low Group 99.64 204.15 40.97 r13 r. High Group 102.01 200.03 39.53 , ——————————— L———————L——————————————— Total Sample 100.84 202.06 40.24 i Significance Level .34 .59 .51 ;; Null Hypothesis Accept Accept Accept m The correlations of glucose, cholesterol and uric acid values in this research sample differ from those reported in the literature. Besides being correlated with.§_Achievement, serum uric acid (SUA) in adults is reported to be positively related to serum glucose, cho- lesterol, weight, intelligence and birth order. The only correlation common to this study is weight. The correlations significant to SUA in the present study seem to be a factor of maturation such as: puber- tal status, bone age, height, weight, calf, humerus, grip strength, and hemoglobin. _-‘——— , “WWW g- 87 TABLE 4.13 SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES OF SERUM URIC ACID orre ation ar a e +.54 Pubertal Status +346 Height +.40 Bone Age +u38 Grip Strength +.34 Weight +.27 Humerus +.26 Hemoglobin +.25 Calf +.25 Bands (a type of White Blood Cell) r of .25 = significance at .05 level of confidence r of .33 = significance at .01 level of confidence Fewer claims have been made in the literature of the relation- ship of glucose and cholesterol levels in the blood to achievement motivation. Neither serum variable related closely with motivation in this sample. Specific correlations of each are reported in Table 4.14. '.E' J " raw ‘1 -_9 m7.- "' 88 TABLE 4.14 SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES OF CHOLESTEROL AND BLOOD SUGAR u: Cholesterol Correlates +.53 Vitamin A -.32 Bands (a type of White Blood Cell) -.27 Diastolic Blood Pressure +.26 Total Protein Blood Sugar Correlates +340 Vitamin A +.36 Hemoglobin r of .25 = significance at .05 level of confidence r of .33 significance at .01 level of confidence In this study none of the variables significantly correlated with serum uric acid, glucose or cholesterol rejected null hypothe- sis II when subjected to a two-group, one-way analysis of variance. Other Biochemical Variables Vitamin A and thyroxine levels in serum were analyzed and the amino acid ratio was calculated from the urine specimen. The literature did not report these variables as having been studied for relationships to achievement motivation. Of the three variables, only thyroxine was measured to have a difference at the .05 level of confidence. rm, c4-—.:'_=-4IW}!!-I H4..- .‘ -‘ 89 TABLE 4.15 .A COMPARISON OF MEAN VITAMIN.A AND THYROXINE MEASUREMENTS AND AMINO ACID RATIOS OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS Vitamin A. Thyroxine Amino Acid Ratio Groups (meg/100 m1) (meg/100 ml) Amino Acid:Creatinine Law Group 45.45 4.31 .544 High Group 42.41 4.69 .600 Total Sample 43.91 4.50 .572 Significance Level .36 .045 .06 Null Hypothesis Accept Reject Accept The significant correlations of thyroxine and amino acid did not coincide nor did any of their correlates yield a significant difference between groups when their group means were analyzed. TABLE 4.16 SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES 0F THYROXINE AND AMINO ACID Thyroxine Correlates Amino Acid Correlates +.32 Total Protein +.31 Specific Gravity of Urine +332 Albumin +.28 pH.of Urine +u26 Segs (Types of white -.27 Vitamin A -.26 Bands blood cells) -.26 Hematocrit -.26 Pubertal Status +325 Triceps r of .25 8 significance at the .05 leVel of confidence r of .33 B siggificance at the .01 level of confidence / I A. 90 Analyzing Health History Measurements Null Hypothesis II: At the .05 level of confidence, there will be no significant difference found in health histories between high and low academic achievement motivated groups of early adolescent boys as indicated by average health history measure- ments. Results of this section of Chapter IV are subdivided into three section: 1) the analysis of perinatal information; 2) the analysis of childhood health problems; and 3) the analysis of eating habits. Differences between group means were tested at the .05 level of con- fidence using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). £3g1gg£gl_Health Information Variables examined in this subset of health history information include: the age of the mother when she gave birth to the boy in our sample, an examination of the occurrence of birth complications, and the weight of the baby at birth. The variables were established to primarily indicate some of the physical factors surrounding the birth of each research subject. Factors other than direct physical factors could be speculated by using some of the information provided in this section in conjunction with the descriptive data on family size and birth order. The information supplied in Table 4.17 permits certainty, at the .05 level of confidence, in making these statements about the research sample: IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIlIllllllllllI---=!!==r=:m 91 l. The mothers of boys in the higher motivated group tended to be older. 2. Boys in the higher motivated group were larger babies at birth. 3. There were fewer birth complications associated with the deliveries of boys from the higher group. TABLE 4.17 A COMPARISON OF PERINATAL INFORMATION OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS Birth Mother's Age Birth Complications at Delivery Weight (0 = no complications) Group (years) (ounces) (1 = complications) Low Group 25.21 115.59 .2424 High Group 28.32 125.00 .0588 —————————— j—-————-——~—--d———_—-————— Total Sample 26.79 120.36 .1493 Significance Level .017 .032 .035 Null Hypothesis Reject Reject Reject The older delivery ages of mothers in the upper group is some- what underemphasized because there are more first-born boys in the higher motivated group. The same underemphasis is present in the birth weight analysis because usually first-born babies are smaller at birth than successive siblings. Significant correlations of the perinatal variables include three measures that have ANOVA differences between groups: 1) I.Q., 2) coordination time, and 3) muscularity. Specific correlates of perinatal variabels are listed in Table 4.18. TABLE 4.18 SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES OF THE PERINATAL VARIABLES Mother's Age at Delivery Birth Weight Birth Complications -.47 Oldest Sibling +.33 MMscularity +.32 I.Q. -.28 Slow Coordination Time +.40 Humerus - s 29 Birth com- plications +.27 Calf +.25 I.Q. +.42 Slow Coordi- nation time +.33 Head Injuries +u30 Basos (White Blood Cells) r of .25 = significanc e at the .05 level of confidence r of .33 = significance at the .01 level of confidence Childhood Health Information Variables in this section represent health conditions in childhood from twenty weeks to the time of the study's physical examination . Serious illness, head injuries, aller- gic conditions, number of sick days taken from school, and the fre- quency that a school problem was mentioned by the boy as having a health base were the facto rs observed. 0f the five variables, only the last one analyzed was found to be different from one group to the other. And the possibility that there was either malingering involved in the boy's reporting of a health-based school problem, or some ego- protecting rationalizations on the part of the mothers cast some doubt on the validity of that variable. 93 TABLE 4.19 A COMPARISON OF CHILDHOOD HEALTH INFORMATION OF THE TWO RESEARCH GROUPS J _T_ “a o o o m 'u 8 o a a a m >. 0 a >5“ «UH I I a u'u m «.0 u m'o >. r4 0 c> c: c: m >. In a a u«: . . . >.o<:-d-o a:cm - Qfifl 6 >5 u Q'UHI a co :mo pun 0030 a non .c:.-40 o. o o >. u >. u >. uwvmpcp; u 0 >5 5 -H a 'U a o .3 .4 o a 3:" a?" :3" 3'“"' 35" (D canard SSFIFI 1¢4oa oaaxouaaa oo.H 4m~.- ma. no. ma. ans. HH.- mno. . . . . . . . uaoaumoaaaaoo canon oo.a me. no. Ho. AH.- 4mm. umo. . . . . . . . . . . .uemaos.auuan co.“ o~.- Ho. Ann. o~.- one. . . . . . .unoumum auaaoua auauom oo.a 6H.- 4mN. sun. “Ho. . . . . .auopaaun as «we 6.66:062 oo.a aan. mH.- Hoe. . . aoaaoum Hooaum uuuuaoe guano: oo.a awn.- nooo. . . . . . . . . gain aoauueaouoou oo.~ mooo. . . .aouoom uaouuoso ooaowaaaouau .d I OH H a S 3 OT. \1 S A 2 W a u. .1. .1. mm a a 0 an HT. 8 0 3 In J 1 a I u. o 03 03 J 1 a 3 d3 3 T. I. o J .43 Qu T T. O I“. U. .4 A O D. 1...... 8.... B a x I. u. a .l 1. a... V0.1. a. I. a M I u at. (1...... T. u a a H H 8 .43 1.0 a . n. x o a u. a n. .. 0 fl. 0. W T. O O .AO u 3. .l a 3 u a a s m u. mgm £0ng 03H. mLQDBm NEH zmgum mg “EB—MEG MAEUHHHZUHm 38H: §§> 3:. ho N532: AdzOHngy—OUME 24. «N t: flmda. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to compare and describe a sample of high academic achievement motivated early adolescent boys to a sam- ple of low academic achievement-motivated boys on the basis of anthro- pometry, physiometry and health histories. Although similar studies had been conducted using adult samples, no information was available relative to the role of these physiological variables on achievement- motivation of children. The study seemed necessary, for if educators are to make knowledgeable decisions about children then information about a child's physical being should be included in the decision- making process. The research sample of this study was selected from the total seventh-grade boy population (four hundred eighty-eight) of two sub- urban school systems near Flint, Michigan. The sample of sixty-seven boys represented thirty-four of the highest and thirty—three of the lowest motivated boys who were: 1) in seventh grade, 2) twelve or thirteen years old, 3) Caucasian, and 4) from employed, intact families. Motivation level was determined by scores on the Michigan State M—Scales (a standardized motivation measuring instrument) and cross-validated by teacher estimates of each boy's achievement motivation level. The MrScale score separation between groups was nearly two standard 103 ‘“ 104 deviations and the highest teacher estimate of a boy in the low group was at the fiftieth percentile along the motivation continuum; the lowest motivation estimate of a boy in the high group was the eighty- second percentile. Information necessary to compare the two sample groups on the basis of anthrOpometry, physiometry and health histories was collected primarily by the health science personnel of the Mott Children's Health Center in Flint. All boys were brought to the Center to receive their :3 comprehensive physical and health evaluation. Routine and sophisti- cated measurements were taken according to standardized and documented procedures. ‘IIEF Based on the data collected the following conclusions can be made about the anthrOpometric components of this sample of boys: 1. Boys with an elevated fat component of body build tended to be lower in motivation. 2. Boys with an elevated muscle rating tended to be higher in achievement motivation. 3. The linearity component of body build had no significant measured relationship with motivation. 4. Advanced skeletal age had no significant measured relation- ship with motivation. 5. Neither height nor wuight differences were measured between groups. The following conclusions about the physiometric variables of the study's sample of boys can be reached: 105 Of the list of sensory-motor variables tested such as vision, hearing, strength, hand dominance, reaction time and eye-hand coordination, only the time taken to complete a eye-hand coordination task proved to be different be- tween the two groups. The time taken to complete an eye-hand coordination task was significantly longer in the lower group (p¢:.0005). r3 Eye-hand coordination significantly correlated with eight ’ of the ten variables which rejected the null hypotheses. The coordination difference between groups was surpassed g by only one other variable: intelligence (p 4 .0005). b Of the list of physical examination variables measured such as pubertal status, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, cardiac efficiency, and whether or not a health problem was present at the time of the physical, only the latter was statistically significant. Boys from the lower group had more untreated health problems present at the time of examination than upper—group boys. No differences existed between groups in variables observed during urinalysis, complete blood count and protein electro- phoresis. Serum uric acid, cho!~sterol and glucose differences reported in adults did not appear in this sample of children. Serum uric acid (SUA), while having no significant relation- ship with motivation, seemed more a correlate of maturation, as pubertal status, height, bone age, grip strength, weight, . 2..."in ’1 -_._a-_».;,..p . 106 humerus and hemoglobin measurements were all significantly correlated with SUA. 10. An amino acid screening test yielded a difference (p <1.06) which may suggest individual amino acid correlations with motivation. ll. Elevated blood chemicals, reported found in first-borns when studied as adults, were not found in first-born children of this study. Health history information leads to these conclusions about the boys in the research sample: 1. Mothers of boys in the higher group were significantly older when their boys were born. 2. Boys in the higher motivated group were significantly larger at birth. 3. There were significantly fewer complications associated with the birth of boys in the upper group. 4. Boys reporting to their parents that a health problem affected their school work tended to be from the low motivated group. 5. Frequency of serious illness, head injuries, asthma or aller- gies, and sick days from school was not significantly dif- ferent between the two groups. 6. Superficial examination of eating habits relative to meat, vegetables, fruit and milk revealed no significant difference between groups. ' --v- 'V' “or""vr. Hr “ 107 The results of this research seem to indicate that there are significant physiometric, anthrOpometric and health history differences between high and low academic achievement motivated early adolescent boys. Information currently provided by this study and others is in- adequate to impute cause-effect relationships between the differen- tiating variables and achievement motivation. However, the present project does imply that physiological patterns of adults cannot be projected to children any more than adult educational patterns are completely applicable to children. Implications for Future Research 0n the basis of the experiences, results and conclusions of this study, the following research recommendations are made: 1. A follow-up study should be completed on this group of boys. The implication of this study is that a number of physiolo- gical differences relative to body build, blood chemistry and birth order as recorded in adults, are not present in children. Therefore, a study completed on these boys in five years, when the boys are high school seniors, should shed light on the effect of puberty as it relates to the physical factors of motivation. A study of this type would seem to be of interest to both the medical and educative communities. 2. There were inherent problems (as well as opportunities) in using twelve- and thirteen-year-olds as this study's research sample. Among the greater problems was the confounding fac- tor of puberty. One of the purposes of the study was to see if differences in the physiology of adults were present in early adolescents, but twelve- and thirteen-year-olds exhibit 108 traits of prepubescence to adulthood. Therefore, this study should be replicated using a younger research sam- ple. Eventually, when information such as this can be applied, it may be more useful with younger children than with junior high school students. This study was an initial attempt to secure physical and health information so it eventually could be used to improve educational chances of children. The focus was on one portion of the entire process of education: achievement motivation. To pinpoint pertinent informa- tion to be realistically useable to educators many further studies must be conducted. Replication of this study with other pOpulations, particularly lower socio- economic populations, may be productive. It is this seg- ment of the pOpulation that may have the largest between- group discrepancies because of poor health habits and nu- trition, inadequate prenatal and perinatal information, and lack of trained personnel to break the cycle of human failure that exists. To replicate a study of this type it would be helpful to control more adequatelv for socio-economic variables. an important section 1f a child's make-up, his psycholo- gical state, was largely ignored. Although the variables such as health problems present were measured as a re- flection of health, it may be equally a reflection of . “1:254:27 ‘ ,“rhzma; .77-xv " ~ 109 the type of home conditions that exist. However, the environmental factors relative to these children were not adequately surveyed either. Specific amino acid analysis may have some research poten- tial because of the difference (P‘< .06) that existed be- tween groups on a total amino acid screening test. The difference in thyroxine levels of high and low achieve- r ment motivated boys may dictate the need for further study I of thyroxine's relationship to achievement motivated be- '.‘.-I - . . havior. Replication of the thyroxine level differences with a larger and different sample would be a logical first W.” "' step toward clarification of this relationship. Later, a study of the effects of thyroxine level modification may have research potential. An eye-hand coordination measuring instrument such as the one used in this project should be studied for its use as a device for measuring academic achievement motivation of younger children. The between-group difference (p<< .0005) and the number of significant correlations with other dif- ferentiating variables suggests the possibility of this type of test's utility in determining achievement motivation. Nutrition should be studied as a part of the physiological information gathering process as it relates to children. We know that specific foods do affect the biochemical states of an individual, however, this study did not elaborate upon the nutritional component. A nutritional study would seem to be more cause-than effect-oriented. 110 A.pg§£ Egg observation of this study shows that the results may not be singularily conclusive, nor will they set the educational com- munity afire with an immediate burning interest in pursuing the bio- chemical and health correlates of educational facets other than achievement motivation. Yet the educational and health science trends of working with the whole child seem indicative of a constant move- ment toward a melding of disciplines. The process may yield a new 9! member of the educational team, cognizant of a child's develOpment from the perspectives of both health and education. With this kind of increased SOphistication in dealing with the total child, results ‘21 p of this study, its predecessors and those following may be translated into useful educational action for tomorrow's children. ‘3. - .iw—M- - I BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, A., Children, Vol. III (1928) 14. Altus, W. 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Vogel, W., 25.31,, "The Role of Glutamic Acid in Cognitive Behaviors," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. LXV, No. 6 (January, 1966) 367-382. Walker, R. N., "Body Build and Behavior," Child Development, Vol. XXXIV, No. 64 (1963) 1-23. Wetzel, N. C., Instruction Manual 32 the Use gfug Grid for Eyaluating Physical Fitness, N.E.A. Service,Chicago, 1941. APPENDIX A I MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF EACH RESEARCH VARIABLE - - 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 117 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF EACH RESEARCH VARIABLE Variable Age (months) Intelligence Quotient Number of Children in Family First-Born * Father's Work DWNH professional business skilled unskilled Mother Works * Age of Mother at Delivery (yrs.) Birth Weight (023.) Birth Complication * Serious Illness* Head Injury * Asthma/allergy * Sick Days from School brawl—I less than 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 more than 15 Reported Health-Related School Problem * Meat DWNI-I likes all likes most likes some dislikes all Haas. 156.6119 108.1493 3.8806 0.3433 2.5970 0.2985 26.7910 120.3657 .1493 .2537 .1343 .2090 1.7313 .1791 1.6716 Standard Deviation 4.5085 16.0329 1.6071 .4748 1.1598 .4576 5.3379 17.8978 .3563 .4351 .3410 .4066 .8908 .3834 .6554 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Variable Vegetables (same breakdown as meat) Fruit (same breakdown as meat) Milk (same breakdown as meat) Weight (pounds) Height (inches) Biceps (cms.) Calf (cms.) Humerus (cms.) Femur (cms.) Triceps Fat (mms.) Subscapular Fat (mms.) Suprailiac Fat (mms.) Bone Age (months) Fat Rating Muscle Rating Linearity Rating Reaction Time (seconds) Coordination (seconds) Pubertal Status Systolic Blood Pressure Diastolic Blood Pressure Step Test Index Health Condition Present * Blood Sugar 118 11229. 2.2836 1.6119 1.2836 105.7164 61.4552 26.1343 32.4851 6.2194 9.2642 12.7836 9.7239 10.3582 14.8955 3.0075 3.8358 3.6194 16.9701 58.9037 2.4627 117.5821 70.2090 84.4925 .3284 100.8418 Standard Deviation .8068 .7321 .6648 23.1850 2.9984 2.9833 2.9687 .3743 .5922 7.1436 7.8161 9.8715 1.5174 1.5561 .7983 1.3959 1.4657 6.0996 .9824 11.5644 8.7903 14.0185 .4696 10.0080 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 119 Variable Cholesterol Vitamin A. Thyroxine Uric Acid Total Protein Albumin Alphal Globulin Alphaz Globulin Beta Globulin Gamma Globulin Amino Acid Ratio Hemoglobin Hematocrit White Blood Count Bands (%) Segs (Z) Eos (%) Baso (Z) Lymph (Z) Mono (%) pH in Urine Specific Gravity Vision Problem * Total Grip Strength (kilograms) Grip Dominance (kilograms) * 1 = yes, 0 =no 14211. 202.0597 43.9104 45.0000 40.2388 71.5224 4.1385 0.2003 0.8884 0.8769 1.0431 0.5722 12.7179 38.3134 7913.4328 2.1791 54.5970 2.1940 0.1642 37.8060 3.6716 6.0597 1.0234 0.4328 50.7015 2.8209 Standard Deviation 31.2218 13.5148 7.6607 8.7077 3.3563 .2231 .0404 .0690 .0751 .0806 .1248 .9257 2.6385 1642.7267 2.2389 8.2028 2.1665 .4762 8.0932 2.3011 .9285 .0035 .4955 9.9761 1.9694 APPEND IX B E IGE NVALUES DERIVED FROM FACT OR ANALYS IS 120 EIGENVALUES DERIVED FROM FACTOR ANALYSIS Eigenvalues 1. 9.4777 2. 5.2676 3. 4.3028 4. 3.6973 5. 3.3888 6. 3.0036 7. 2.4878 8. 2.3843 9. 2.2651 10. 1.9992 11. 1.9370 12. 1.6905 13. 1.5894 14. 1.5208 15. 1.3498 16. 1.2848 17. 1.2209 18. 1.1480 19. 1.0870 20. 1.0233 21 0.9629 22 0.9204 23. 0.7988 24. 0.7761 25. 0.7092 Eigenvalues 26. 0.6520 27. 0.6258 28. 0.6116 29. 0.5509 30. 0.4965 31. 0.4680 32. 0.4344 33. 0.4120 34. 0.3830 35. 0.3781 36. 0.3106 37. 0.2896 38. 0.2807 39. 0.2434 40. 0.2263 41. 0.9148 42. 0.1676 43. 0.1434 44. 0.1355 45. 0.1170 46. 0.1110 47. 0.0831 48. 0.0717 49. 0.0696 50. 0.0546 Eigenvalues 51. 0.0440 52. 0.0346 53. 0.0284 54. 0.0222 55. 0.0180 56. 0.0155 57. 0.0122 58. 0.0080 59. 0.0066 60. 0.0038 61. 0.0015 62. 0.0010 63. 0.0003 64. 0.0000 Hg .‘n w, .7- m 2'!