A COMPARISON OF RESPONSES MADE TO SELECTED PIECES OF LITERATURE BY HIGH SCORERS AND LOW SCORERS ON THE ENVEWQRY 0? fiELiEFS . Thesis {or Hm Deqme 0‘? 911; D. MICHIGAN SME‘E UNWERSLTY Margaret France-s Lorimer 1959 THIN. This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARISON OF RESPONSES MADE TO SELECTED PIECES OF LITERATURE BY HIGH SCORERS AND LON SCORERS ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS presented bg MARGARET FRANCES LORIMER has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for . Eh. D degree in__Teacher_Education GLILW Major professor Date January 22, 1959 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University aw“ A COMPARISON OF RESPONSES MADE TO SELECTED PIECES OF LITERATURE BY HIGH SCORERS AND LOW SCORERS ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS by MARGARET FRANCES LORIMER AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education Higher Education 1959 Approved Gail/Q. i. W ABSTRACT This study is concerned'with the responses to selected pieces of literature of two groups of college freshmen having widely different pat- terns of beliefs and attitudes. Twentybfour students who scored above average in aptitude and reading ability, but half of whom scored l3: and half of whom scored high_on an attitude measure, The Inventory of Beliefs, were asked to respond to seventeen literary selections appropriate for use in freshman humanities or English courses. Selections were chosen to evoke values and individual differences in attitudes toward 1) the in- tellectual as opposed to the practical, intuitive approach to problems, 2) the place of authority and conformity in social control, 3) responsi- bility of the individual for the welfare of other human beings, and h) acceptable standards of behavior. The responses were analyzed 1) to discover differences in meaning and in implications seen by the two groups, and 2) to find whether the re- sponses of each group clustered around certain attitudes and values which, if identifiable, would have implications for the planning and teaching of literature courses. The responses in general reflected a tendency among the low Scorers on the Inventory of Beliefs 1) to prefer the practical vocations to the ”intellectual" vocations, 2) to distrust the expert or the theorist who depends on knowledge rather than practical experience, 3) to lean heavily on authority and to identify with or sympathize with authority figures, h) to find in authority relief from anxiety and escape from decision mak— ing, 5) to conform to sanctions of their environment and to be over-con- scious of the pressures of society, and 6) to resent criticism of them- Y‘J selves, but to indulge in criticism of others, especialky those with dif— ferent living standards or standards of behavior. High Scorers tended 1) to put more faith in the expert and theorist and in education and knowledge, 2) to respect those engaged in the "intel- lectual” vocations, 3) to feel that authority'must be based on reason, h) to make Judgments by a hierarchy of values arranged after as careful an analysis as possible of every situation, 5) to welcome opportunities for decision making, 6) to hold little respect for anyone who identifies too easily with the crowd or'with any situation which denies independence of thought, and 7) to welcome criticism of themselves by which they might further gain insight into their behavior. The results showed further that teachers of literature are faced‘with individual differences quite apart from differences in.aptitude and readp ing ability. Low Scorers appeared to be more likely I) to misinterpret an author's purpose, 2) to note first in literature such evidence as would confirm.their prejudices, 3) to reject such selections as attacked them personally or increased their anxiety, and h) to miss many of the subtle overtones of literature. High Scorers appeared to be more likely 1) to examine materials crit- ically and objectively, 2) to project the vicarious experiences of lit- erature into everyday life, 3) to gain from literature some insight and understanding of themselves and the world, and h) to realise the potential of literature for educating both their minds and their emotions. A number of signs appeared in the responses to indicate that changes in attitudes are perhaps possible: in a period of seven months, greater changes in attitudes were made by Low Scorers than High Scorers; Low Scorers showed in their responses some consciousness of their prejudices, some insight into the reasons for prejudice, and some awareness of changes taking place within themselves. The study, besides identifying the tendencies of the two groups in response to literature, gave some encouragement that value-oriented teach- ing,involving skillfully'planned vicarious experiences, group exchange of views about values, and encouragement of independent judgment, might cause students to re-examine their values and consequently alter their attitudes. A|CCMP1RISON OF RESPONSES MADE TO SELECTED PIECES OF LITERATURE BY HIGH SCORERS AND LOW SCORERS ON THE INVENTORY OF BELIEFS by MARGARET FRANCES LORIMER A THESIS submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State university of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DCXJT OR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education Higher Education 1959 SilC'lfllll .1 ACKNOWLEDGMENT The writer wishes to express her sincere apprecia- tion to Dr. Paul L. Dressel for his guidance and help- ful criticism throughout the study and for his making available the facilities of the Office of Evaluation Services during the study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. The Rationale of the Study.. .......... 1 II. The Nature of Attitudes and Values.... 5 III. Identification of Students of Like values and Attitudes.................. 1h IV. Methods and Procedures of the Study... 23 V. Analyses of the Responses........,.... 3h VI. What the Responses Seem to Reflect.... 96 Bibliography................................112 ApmnthOOOOOOOO0..0.0.0....OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOll7 CHAPTER I THE RATIONALE OF THIS STUDY Since literature demands of the reader, or of the student, both intellectual and emotional responses, objectives for the teaching of it include both cognitive and affective goals. Dealing with the historical, the social, and the ethical, as well as the aesthetic, literature has what Rosenblatt calls a "multiplicity of powers. " It is these new powers which have given rise to the many approaches to the teaching of literature and which have aanewhat confused the planning and teaching of English courses. Out of the new possible approaches to literature, teachers have tended to emphasize those objectives which rest primarily in the cog- nitive areas of learning. A number of reasons may be found for this: the aim of education have given greater importance to the attaining of knowledge; information M literature is such more easily taught and measured by the traditional evaluation instruments than is critical thinking provoked by literature; beliefs, attitudes, and values have been considemd too private for the educator to tamper with and any attempt to affect attitudes has been branded as indoctrination, not teaching. Teachers, however, are beginning to realize that the cognitive and the affective areas cannot be so neatly divided. What knowledge a stu- dent acquires depends largely upon his attitudes. Although this is true in all subject areas to a certain extent, it is particularly true in literature where the author purposely conmmnicates with the reader by appealing both to his reason and to his sympathies through a medium which is highly personal and which asks the reader to identify either with the author himself or with one or more of the characters. The educational experience of literature then must be filtered through the attitudes and values which literature by its very nature embodies. What a student takes with him £595 a piece of literature depends as much upon what he brings with his to the reading as it does upon what the author says. Through the years a student has assimilated, in most cases quite unconsciously, a fund of concepts, values, and attitudes from which he has derived a standard for human behavior and set habits of response. These he cannot shut out from his reactions. His meanings are sure to be selected and abstracted on the basis of these pre-dispo- sitions. An example from the responses of students in the'writer's classes will illustrate the point. A class which had read The Scarlet Letter was asked to write what might be called an annotation of the book, a brief statement both critical and explanatory. Che whose background was dominated by parental and religious authority saw the story as "the normal outcome for people who break one of the commandments." A socially sensitive girl saw it as “an inhumane treatment of those who violate social law“ and therefore saw it as a condemnation of society, not hmn nature. A young man who had recently shared the experience of Dims- dale "pitied both Hester and Dimesdale because they had no family or friends to whom to go for sympathetic understanding and help.‘I A Roman Catholic boy said, 'The story illustrates what sin, not cmfessed, can do to the bum mind and soul.“ Among the currents written in a similar assignment following the reading of Othello were these: "A play of retribution in which every one gets what he deserves." "A study of racial differences and the in- evitable consequences of a marriage between the races." "A character study of a man (Othello) who was fundamentally insecure and therefore too unstable to handle a situation which required faith and objectivity." "The inevitable struggle between the nobler and the baser elements of society.” "An exposure of treachery which hides in the most loyal-ap- pearing maple." Obviously these pieces of literature were seen in the light of for- mer experiences and in terms of the need of the reader to find some sup- port for his values and concepts. A teacher of literature may well ask‘what makes a student choose one meaning over another, why some parts strike him more perceptibly than others, why certain misinterpretations are made, what in his eXperience caused him to identify in one way or another with certain characters or situations. In the answers to these questions lies a whole new area of individual differences, as yet largely unexplored. The writer's interest in the variety of responses made in litera- ture classes by college students, her belief that the effectiveness of literature lies in the students' crystallising their responses and examp ining them in the light of the responses of others in order to become conscious of how their values operate, and the hypothesis that such re- sponses take certain patterns'which might be predictable, thus giving the teacher some means of anticipating responses and planning both the course and the method of presentation on the basis of these anticipation§,sug- gested the study undertaken here. Consequently this study was designed to explore the nature of the responses of two groups of freshman college students, of widely differ— ent patterns of beliefs and attitudes, to selected pieces of literature. Responses of these groups would be analyzed to discover what difference in meaning-if anyb-the two groups abstracted.fromrths selections and what kind.of implications they saw in what they read, and to find whether the responses of each group clustered around certain attitudes and.values which if identifiable would have implications for the plan- ning and teaching of literature courses. CHAPTER II THE NATURE OF ATTITUDES AND VALUES While values and attitudes have always been assumed to be decisive factors in hmsn behavior, only recently have they become the focal point of stumt and research. Over the last three decades there has been a rapidly growing realization that the way groups or individuals feel about the various aspects of their world is probably more determinative of behavior than their cognitive understanding of the world. Moreover, the progress made in predicting behavior has encouraged considerable research in the area. Attitudes are generally considered to be a person’s inclination or readiness to react a certain way because of his prejudices, biases, pre- conceived notions, and convictions. Although in many cases the terms "attitude" and "value” are used either complementarily or synonomously, clear distinctions between the two are now insisted upon by many. Woodruff (70) , who has done considerable etuw of the roles of values in human behavior, thinks that the popular meaning of "attitude" has long obscured the meaning of I'value." He believes, contrary to the pop- ular opinion, that attitudes are momentary and temporary states of read- iness to act which receive their direction from an individual's value concepts. Value concepts decree then what an attitude will be. If value concepts remain unchanged, attitudes will appear to be unchange- able. Values are usually considered to be those things a person feels contribute to his well being. Out of the weighing process through which a person puts one status of well being up against another will emerge his attitudes. (b7 ) In such case, the attitudes expressed in response to pieces of lit- erature would reflect the value concepts which have been brought into play by the literary work and would indicate those things which students feel are important to their security and well being. For example, a student in his response to a literary work describ- ing a conflict between the wills of a parent and a young person would be stimulated to weigh the value of authority and protective interest, along with the value of freedom to do as one likes, the value of peer, parent, and society approval, the value of accepting the point of view of a rep- utable author, and perhaps other values as well. The weight of each value would depend upon his needs for protection because of lack of experience, his need for independence because of approaching maturity, his need for approval because of lack of recognition or status, and the need he feels for positive guidance from someone whom he respects, in this case a reputable author. From this intellectual and emotional weighing would surge the attitude toward the situation described in the literature. Attitudes and learning Considerable evidence exists that attitudes, and hence values, if one accepts Woodruff's thesis, play an important role in learning. In- dividuals are most receptive to the facts and points of view most nearly congruent to their beliefs and opinions. Levine and Murphy (38) found that an individual notes and remembers material which supports his social attitudes better than material which conflicts with these attitudes. The difference was not statistically significant during the learning period but became so during the latter part of the forgetting period. Postman, Bruner, and IcGinnies (hb) found that individual value preferences are significantly associated with recognition time for words presumably representing values. Edwards (20) in a study of the retention of affective experiences points out that those experiences which are consistent with and which harmonize with an existing frame of reference will tend to be learned and remembered better than experiences which conflict with the frame, and that those experiences which are in opposition to the frame will tend to be re-cast so that they may be more readily assimilated. Rosenblatt (56) suggests that a learner learns to by-pass his at- titudes and change only his articulate opinions if his values are in op-is position to what he is asked to learn. Since the learner is measured by ”right responses ," he tends to shut out his critical Judgment and to retain such responses as are likely to bring him approval on evaluation instruments. If what he learns as a "right response" happens to coin- cide with his values and previous attitudes, it is of course remembered longer. The studies reviewed here at first seem to imply. that only such pieces of literature as confirm one's prejudices are remembered and that the attempts to teach other kinds are wasted motion. However these studies also lead to the question of whether if we knew more about stu- dents' prejudices and pre-dispositions, we could not more directly in- volve students in an examination of them and make the examination such a memorable experience that students would modify their behavior in sub— sequent situations where their attitudes and beliefs were involved. Attitudes and Reading In the area of literature, attitudes are likely to contribute to unconscious misinterpretation or to limited interpretation. Reading is a highly cmplex process. In the area of literature it must go far be- yond obtaining the literal and sense meaning and supplement the meanings implied by the author's tone, mood, and intention with meanings that grow out of the purposes and experiences peculiar to the reader. is Richards says, drastic intellectual adjustments are enforced by the use of sym- bols, and the process of reading is largely the filling in of what is only in part presented. (51:95) In such high level reading, few mistakes in word recognition are made 3 vocabularies in most cases are adequate; where errors do occur is in misinterpretation or limited interpretation which becomes more like- ly and more insidious the higher the level of reading material. The num- ber of meanings is so great and the configurations they may take so man- ifold that it is easy for the reader to assume that he is exempt from error. (51:99) It is this failure of the student to consider the pos- sibility of error, plus the failure of the teacher to consider that all students who read the same things do not get the same meanings, that often lead to the failure of the humanities courses to challenge atti- tudes and values. Rosenblatt ( 56) gives mmerous examples of the effect of a reader’s pre-dispositions and pie-occupations on the configurations of meanings in a literary selection. "any of these illustrate how meanings can be skew- ed and how some rather amazing interpretations filter through. Hayakawa has aptly described what attitudes can do to meanings when he says that ‘fii’ § HQ 5—- I») attitudes are "heavy static" interfering with the reception of ideas.(30) Educational research further supports the importance of the role of attitudes in reading. Crossen (1h) investigating whether pupils who have the most favorable attitude toward a topic would read.materials about that topic with more accuracy and discrimination, found that an unfavorable attitude toward a topic of some personal or immediate con- cern tends to interfere with the critical reading of materials about the topic. Strang (62) in a series of case studies of the reading habits and responses of persons from 13-50 years of age from.all socio-economic groups hypothesised that people read with their experiences and emotions since in the majority of cases freely written responses were highly col- cred by a reader's prejudices and personal experiences. McKillop (h3)'who presented materials on highly controversial top- ics to high school students and followed this with three kinds of ques- tions-dstailsd questions, questions requiring inferences based on ex— perience and general information, and questions of svaluation-found that attitude is not an important factor if responses expected are simple, clearly stated facts, but that attitude does become an important factor when a reader is asked to evaluate the author and to bring his own value judgments into the response. This suggests that knowledge-oriented teaching and knowledge-oriented testing neither involve nor challenge values. Naples (65) in stuztring the social effects of reading on adults found that a reader's sympathies reflect the attitudes of the groups with which he is identified and his motives for reading, and that a reader's beliefs, loyalties, opinions, and prejudices may strengthen or 10 ‘weaken, even reverse, the flow of influence intended by the author. Sherif (58) found that the prestige of the author had much to do with a reader's critical response. Passages attributed to highly rated authors were considered good; those to less highly rated authors, bad. Actually'the passages he used were all written by the same author. Rich- ards (So) in an experiment in teaching criticism.of poetry to a class of Oxford University students found that when the names of the authors of the poems were removed, one of the strongest criteria of value was re- moved. Students who were asked to criticize poetry without the guidance of traditional author reputations were placed under considerable strain. These experiments point up that not only do attitudes interfere to the ex— tent that they cause misinterpretation or narrowness of interpretation, but also that they are the cause for literary works' being accepted. Best sellers no doubt owe much of their success to the fact that they are written by known authors and that they support cherished.values. The more people can identify with the protagonist, or with a given point of view, the more popular the book. Throughout history there is evidence that no matter'what their lit- erary value, books which have given support to popular attitudes have flourished because people could read into them the things they“wanted to believe despite the book's literary shortcomings. lachiavelli's The Prince, which was written when Italy was attempting to free herself from foreign aggression; The Wealth of Nations, which was written when England'was ready for expansion of her commercial and industrial economy; Paine's Common Sense, which helped trigger the American Revolution; Uncle Tom's Cabin, which helped trigger the Civil we; and Das Kapital which pointed up the dreadful conditions prevailing in European industry 11 -all are cases in points (16) There seems to be ample evidence that the intellectual adjustments which readers make when confronted with a piece of reading material are influenced by their pre-dispositions and pre-occupation; that the higher the level of the material, the more these influences affect the inter- pretation; and that the more penetrating the evaluation, the more it is found that attitude has affected meaning. Pro-dispositions and pre-occup pations are closely associated with beliefs, loyalties, opinions, and prejudices which are strong enough to make a reader overlook the specious reasoning of an author or even to reverse the flow of influence intended by the author. The Possibility of Changing Values and Attitudes A common assumption exists among colleges that there are values which need to be communicated through education and which can be commune icated. The objectives found in college catalogues and humanities course syllabi show considerable faith in the ability of college curricula and college experiences to affect values. . Numerous colleges have made some effort to see if this faith is justified. Their findings are available in status studies of student attitudes, evaluations of outcomes of general education courses, effects ' of various methods of teaching, and rather extensive institutional self studies. Jacob (32), however, concluded after surveying the studies made and the data accumulated on these campuses all over the country that college experiences barely touch "student standards of behavior, quality of judg- ment, sense of social responsibility, perspicacity of understanding, and guiding beliefs.“ Some educators have been quick to seize upon Jacob's statement as evidence for their hypothesis that values and attitudes cannot be changed in people of college age because values are too firmly established by that time. Jacob's conclusions also support the common belief that the university in its limited time cannot expect to compete with the impact of the rest of society and all that comes through mass media. His con- clusions also support those who believe that a change of values brought largely through reflection and critical thinking demands concentration and attention not characteristic of college students. Evidence in the studies carried on by the various colleges is not, however, all negative. Some rather striking evidence exists that at some institutions values do change when students come into contact with cer- tain curricula, usually these with a fair prOportion of liberal or gen- eral education courses; when students study with certain instructors, usually those with strong value commitments themselves; when subject matter is taught by certain methods ,usually student centered; and when students live in certain campus climates, usually stressing student in- itiative, world-mindedness, or dedication to humanitarian service. Jacob has documented these findings in his recent publication, Changing Values in College (32), which he calls only an exploratory stage in a study of values of college students. It is this evidence that values do change‘ in certain climates which so intrigues educators that numerous studies are currently being under- taken to define further the positive influences on values. Considerable evidence also appears in the studies of institutions that value changes are most likely to take place in students with cer- ‘ .mn 1 calls enrou ? ‘ 13 tain personality configurations. Personality then becomes what Jacob calls a "filter" which allows only certain elements of education to get through and to influence the student. Teachers who would be effective, it would follow, must deal with an individual difference distinct from intelligence, aptitude, and achievement, a difference which involves the results in the affective area as well as the cognitive area. Pf) 11: CHAPTER III IDENTIFICATION OF STUDENTS OF LIKE VALUES AND ATTITUDES In order to set up this study, it was necessary to find a reliable means of identifying students of like beliefs and values. This involved first the investigation of what had been done not only by psychologists and educators in defining and identifying patterns of personality, but also by social scientists in pointing out the implications of such per- sonality patterns. Defining and Identifying Personality Patterns In 1950 Adorno and others, believing that the political, economic, and social convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern which expresses the deep-lying trends in his personality, sought "to identify the pattern of beliefs of "potentially fascistic individuals." (1:1) Their major findings were 1) that individuals who show extreme susceptibility to fascist propaganda have a great deal in common, the same ideological trends orways of thinking about man and society; and 2) that personality, which they defined as the organisation of the ideo- logical forces within an individual, helps determine the reoponse to situations. (1:5) The 1'". Scale. During the process of the study, Adorno and others developed the F Scale, a list of statements with which fascistic persons might agree. Their choice of statements was based en certain personal- ity variables they believed present in a person receptive to anti-demo- cratic propaganda: conventionalism, superstition and stereotypy, power 15 and "toughness,” destructiveness and cynicism, projectivity, and sex. (1:228f) Their definitions of these variables in summary are: Conventionalism Rigid adherence to conventional, middle-class values. Authoritarian.submission submissive, uncritical attitude toward idealized mer- al authority. Dependence ea authority figures, as parents, older people, leaders, supernatural powers. Exaggerated, all-out emotional need to submit. Conscience about subservience to external authority. Evidence of masochism. Authoritarian aggression Dislike of seeing others get out from.under rigid re- Strainue Annoyance with atypical behavior: foreigners, soot- suiters, "individualists." Tendency to want to punish violators, often through scapegoats. Tendency to lash out at those things readily attack- able and not likely to strike back. Inability to build up consistent and enduring sets of values. ' Anti-intracgption Impatience with and opposition to the subjective and tender-minded. Fear of thinking about human phenomena because of pos- sible error. Resentment at any prying into feelings or thought. Desire to keep busy with practical things, effort to be cheerful, fear of examining inner thoughts. Dislike of human beings'being manipulated. S rstitien and stereot Over-simplification of explanatiens of human events. Bizarre ideas of why peeple behave as they do and why things happen as they do. Shift of responsibility for behavior to outside forces beyond their control. Belief that the capacity of an individual has little to dO'with what happens to him. Power and "toughness" Over-emphasis on the power motive in human relation- ships. Disposition to view all people as either strong or weak, leader or follower. Desire for power but fear of it. Desire to be aligned with power figures (desire to say one has been there or shaken hands, etc.) Belief in superior and inferior races, nationalities, families, etc. Prestige-consciousness. Destructiveness and cynicism Belief in all-out aggression. General contempt for mankind. Belief that it is human nature to exploit and.make war on one's neighbors. Sympathy'with political or religious persecution if it is profitable. . Projectiviqz Pro-occupation with evil forces of the world Readiness to think and believe in existence of plots and conspiracies. Fear of natural catastrophes. Projection of own authoritarianism.and aggression onto other people. Strong inclination to punish violators of sex mores. Suggestion that own sexual desires are suppressed or in danger of getting out of hand. In the time since the Adorno study on the "authoritarian personal- ity," numerous studies have accumulated and have supported the Adorne findings that an authoritarian syndrome does exist and is predictive of behavior in a wide variety of situations. Measures have since developed for’misanthropy, rigidity, dogmatism, religious orthodoxy, and others—- all of which correlate .50 or better'with the F Scale. All of these have sharpened the picture of authoritarianism as a personality trait (66:73-8h) and have pointed out that authoritarianism can be recognised as a problem.in other areas where fascism and ethnocentrism are not neces- sarily the main issue. Authoritarianism.and intolerance need net take exclusively the form of fascist authoritarianism or ethnic intolerance. (53:202-203) 17 The Inventory of Beliefs. In l9Sh the Inter—College Committee on Attitudes, Values, and Personal Adjustment of the Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General Education hypothesized that "attitudes toward spec- ific objects were conditioned by certain personality configurations which resulted from a particular course of development of some individ- uals' physical, mental, and emotional traits." (17:212) After an exploration of the work of Aderno and the work of other psychologists, the committee concerned itself with the implications of these studies for general.education. A list of attitudes of concern to general education was drawn up and a model organisation characterizing the personalities most adaptable to general education inferred. In order to identify these personalities, a series of cliches, pseudo- rational statements and inappropriate generalizations similar to those on the F Scale were collected, refined, and reduced to 120 items. The series of statements became ‘known as the Inventory of Beliefs. It was assumed that mature democratic individuals could not agree with the state- ments. The person who did agree with most of them was assumed to be im- mature, rigid in outlook, authoritarian in relationships with others, and compulsive in his actions. The person who disagreed with the cliches and generalizations was conceived to be adaptive, flexible, mature, and dem- ocratic in relations with others. ( 17 221) The conceptual framework of the Inventory of Beliefs as designed by the committee follows: Tn‘ n W V-.. FLA /I\ \(J in: 1. Ideas and Institutions 2. Social groups (ethno- centrism) 3. Individuals, inter- personal relations (sociocentriss) h. Self (egocentrism) 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.b 1.5 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.u 3.5 3.6 h.1 Philosophy 1.11 Religion 1.21 Arts 1.31 Sciences 1.h1 Politics, 1.51 economics Out-groups 2.11 (Negroes, Jews, other minorities) 2.12 In-groups 2.21 (Americanism) Family' 3.11 (Parents) School (Teachers) Church (Ministers) State (Pub- lic Officials) Business and Consumer rela- tions (Trades- men) Friends, peers, siblings 18 materialistic, manipu- lative, power, cynical Mystical, ritualistic, non-personal Romantic, anti-sensual, anti-intellectual, anti- cultural Application, limitation, anti-rational Dependence, adherence to out-moded ideas, dis- trust, denial of con- flicts. Personal characteristics (offensive, immature, threatening, intrusive, seclusive) Solutions (pseudo-demo- cratic: segregation, limited participation; anti-democratic: elim- ination, exclusion; in- soluble: fatalism, des- pair, cynicism.) uncritical acceptance of values, exclusive pride in.nemberships, blindness to or dismis- sal of shortcomings to 3.16 Irrational ac— ceptance of external authority, unwilling- ness to assume personal responsibility to others, blaming others for fail- ure (extra-punitive), resistance to departure from tradition, deperb sonalization of rela- tionships, sentiment- ality (momism, etc.) Self-concept, h.llPerception of external self-evalup atioa ' world as threatening, as manipulatabls, sub- mission and aggression, rigidity a nd copulsion, superstition and stereo- typy, destructiveness and cynicism, free-float- ing anxiety, preoccupa- 19 tion with health and sex; over-spiritualiza- tion, denial, and fear (self, others), deper- sonalized sexuality The Inventory was subjected to considerable research. It proved reliable and valid enough for purposes of group or individual measure- ment. (17:222) Data accumulated by the committee generally indicates the following behavior characteristics of high and low scorers: 1. 3. h. 9. 10. 11. High scorers (those who do not agree with the cliches and generalizations) tend to enroll in the areas of humanities, social science, and English. High scorers do better than low scorers on examinations in social science and English. A significantly larger number of low scorers withdraw from college by the end of the first year. High scorers are significantly higher in scores on the Kuder Preference Record in the artistic, musical, and soc- ial science categories and significantly lower in the com- putational and clerical categories. Low scorers are more likely associated with orthodox or fundamentalist religious groups. High scorers favor activities which reflect autonomous and independent behavior, abstract and analytical intellectual interests. Student leaders come from those who score above average of the student population at large. Northern students score higher than Southern, but Southern students of high academic aptitude are higher than similar Northern students. Older and.more mature students make better scores. Students in 13 colleges who»made the greatest gains in a year's time were low scorers who had carefully integrated programs of general education. The correlation between the Inventory and the American Council on Education Psychological Examination is low.. 20 Since the Cooperative Study was completed, Kelly (31;) found that students who consistently make better instructor grades than examination grades in the Basic College courses at Michigan State are more likely to be low scorers on the Inventory; that students who make better exam- ination grades than instructor grades tend to be high scorers. Egner and Obelsky (21) also found that those who scored high on the Inventory of Beliefs performed better in humanities and social science, while in mathematics and natural science their performance was superior. In biological science both low and high scorers did equally well. They concluded that the student most lilosly to succeed in courses which in- volve relatively high levels of flexibility of outlook is the non-stereo- type. The stereotypes manifest evidence of frustration culminating fre- quently in academic failure, once the threshold of. tolerance has been exceeded. Mayhew (110) found in experimental classes in Social Science that high scorers on the Inventory of Beliefs do well in classes employing non-directive, student-centered, permissive techniques, while low scor- ers find such classes disturbing and conducive either to hostility or to apathy. Stern (one of the men who worked on the COOperative Study which developed the Inventory of Beliefs), Stein, and Bloom in their work with personality assessment for the U. S. Air Force (61) developed a synthet- ic model of a person who could be characterized in terms of "depersonal- ized and codified social relationships, pervasive acceptance of author- ity as absolute, inhibition and denial of impulses, and rigid orderli- ness and conformity in behavior." (61: 189) This they called the S syn- drome (Stereotypy). The N syndrome (Non-stereotypy) described the op- 21 posits personality, marked by highly personalized and individualized soc- ial relationships, pervasive rejection of authority figures, spontaneous and acceptant impulse life, and non-conforming flexibility in behavior. Such persons, they believed, would place high value on "inter-personal relations, intellectual interests, self-expression in the arts, enjoy- ment of sentient experience, esthetic cultivation, and interest in social affairs." (61:193) (In an attempt to test the limits of a hypothetical personality type, thoy employed the Inventory of Beliefs. Students whom the Inventory'iden- tified as either having the S syndrome or its opposite were studied in detail. Steroopaths showed antipathy toward certain areas of general ed- ucation and were remarkably consistent in their interests, attitudes, and orientation toward life. At the conclusion, Stein, Stern, and Bloom stated, "The significance [Sf the result§7 for education seems to lie in further study of the re- lationships between the syndromes discussed here and the learning process." (61:22?) They further suggested the possibility of examining the implica- tions that personality characteristics have for admissions, classroom pro- cedures, curriculum.planning, and education objectives. Further Definitions and Implications Concurrent with the psychological and educational research, specu- lation concerning the rigid, inflexible personality was being made on a broader sociological, historical, and philOSOphical base by psychologists, social scientists, semanticists, and educators. Among these were Ries- man (52), Fromm (23,22), Hayakawa (29), Johnson (33), and others. 01 the whole such scholars, concerned*with the consequences to freedom and demo- cratic ideals which conformity and the shift of responsibility to author- ity outside oneself are likely to bring, suggest 1) that "other directed, ness" is a real threat to responsible behavior and consequently to the democratic processes, 2) that the more self-conscious man'becomes about approval of outside forces the more he relies on authority rather than knowledge and reason and the more he suppresses his own value judgments, 3) that the more one concerns himself with obedience, duty, and social adjustment, the less he develops axationalo for his own behavior, b) that the more man accepts institutionalized values the less distinctions, de- grees, and index numbers he applies to his classifications and the fewer the number of his courses of action, 5) that the more people lean on classifications and generalizations the less they depend on experience and observations and the less perceptive they become of the complexities of human relations, and 6) that an otherudirected society develops such anxiety that creativeness and imagination are threatened. .§E!EE§Z- Recent research and thinking in the area of attitudes and beliefs as reviewed in this chapter lead one to conclude: First, that enough evidence exists to support the hypothesis that a pattern of per- sonality variables or ideological forces does determine an individual's reaponses to situations and that psych010gists and educators have been able to identify with some perspicac by those individuals whose personal- ity pattern. or pattern of attitudes causes them to react favorably or unfavorably to such goals of behavior as might be the aim of general ed. ucation; and second, that characteristics assumed to be part of the pat- tern organisations most favorable or unfavorable to educational goals are further observed by scholars outside the field of e ducation as being fav- orable or unfavorable to freedom, rights, and responsibilities in a demo- cratic society. 23 CHAPTER IV METHODS AND PROCEDURES USED IN THE STUDY Choosing the Participants Since this stucbr was designed to compare the responses of two groups of students having different attitudes andbeliefs, it was necessary first to choose participants for the study on the basis of scores on an attitude measure. The Inventory of Beliefs for reasons outlined in the previous chapter seemed a valid and reliable measure. Also, involving as the study did rather high level comprehension and analysis of reading material, general qatitude and more specifically ver- bal aptitude figured as important variables. Since the Inventory of Be- liefs scores have a low correlation with aptitude test scores, it was likely that any group of Low Scorers—or High Scorers-03: the Inventory would vary widely in verbal abilities. In order to eliminate this var- iable, only those above a given cutting score on a reliable aptitude test could be invited to participate. As a mrther effort to eliminate this variable, a score on a reliable reading test seemed appropriate in order to eliminate amt student whose reading skills might hamper his re- Sponses. It was also necessary to eliminate the variable of age since research with the Inventory of Beliefs had indicated its significance in previous a"Ladies. In the fall of 1957, all entering freshmen at Michigan State Univer- ‘ity were given the widely used American Council on Education Psycholog- 2h ical Test, an aptitude test which yields a linguistic (verbal) score, a quantitative score, and a total score, and the MSU Reading Test which yields vocabulary, comprehension and total scores. Raw scores and derived scores for more than 3,000 entering freshmen were available. Also in the fall of 1957, h30 of the above freshmen were administer- ed the short form (60 items) of the Inventory of Beliefs. This sampling included those in certain alphabetical groupings. Scores on this Inven- tory were also available. The students were also presumably available since, at the time of the study, they were in the third term of their freshman year. On the first selection of participants for the study, the intention was to choose 20 High Scorers and 20 Low Scorers on the Inventory of Bel iefs, all of whom had comparatively high aptitude and reading scores and all of whom were 18—19 years of age. It was hoped that the partic- ipants could be chosen by the following criteria: Test Scores for the Low Scores for the High Group Group Inventory of Beliefs -l S. D. or below [1 S. D. or above ACE Linguistic Score r41 S. D. or above ['1 S. D. or above ACE Total Score #1 S. D. or above #1 S. D. or above MSU Reading Score [1 S. D. or above ‘ /-1 S. D. or above However, only 18 were found who could meet the above criteria for the Law Group, and of these only 10 were available for participation, Six having dropped from school and two having conflicting commitments. It was therefore necessary to choose the lowest 20 scorers on the Inven- tory of Beliefs who had ACE scores and Reading Scores above the 50th Percentile (based on the norms of freshmen who entered M50 in the fall or 1957.) The 20 students in the Low Group who finally participated in the study had the following raw scores in September: Low Group Inventory ACE ACE MSU Student of Beliefs Linguistic Total Reading 1 12 72 125 to 2 13 76 130 ’17 3 15 68 11h hS h 21 7h 13? 52 s 22 59 11b 51 6 22 68 119 S1 7 22 91 133 1:9 8 23 99 163 65 9 23 72 122 So 10 2h 69 111 is 11 25 70 131 L6 12 25 81 133 56 13 25 78 137 59 1h 26 92 lbs 5t 15 27 80 126 So 16 27 70 11h us 17 27 68 110 St 18 28 75 103 62 19 29 90 139 59 20 29 86 130 Sh The above group will henceforth be referred to as the Low 18's. The High Group was chosen on the same basis: the highest scorers .).. 67 tions essentially true and appropriate. This one was offended by the author’s profane treatment of the Scriptures. The others thought that it was a good poem for people to read, that it made them analyze and think about their own actions and to recognize to some extent hypocrisy in themselves and others. A few doubted that it would have any marked effect on any reader. Responses of the Low IB's ranged fran "The author overstepped good taste-—shouldn't have dared to say these things" to a placid acceptance of the poem with "This might make some people think, but I don't care for it.” {g One Low IB accused the author of ”writing for money," and found the poem "undesirable, disturbing, and repulsive.” One feared that such a poem might be interpreted the wrong way. Two reasoned that they should not be shocked (but admitted they were) because no one should be shocked by the truth. One tried very hard to accept the poem as good, praised the effect of the Commandments through the ages, claimed a liberal point of view toward religious laws, but finally admitted that she was not quite sure what the author intended and that she did not appreciate the author' 3 approach. Only two of the Low IB's liked the poem, found it made them feel strongly the hypocrisy of man. (he said it was good for him; the other suggested that though the poem presented an interesting idea, it should not be discussed in a class because it might make people feel self-con- scious. Sm. The High IB's seemed more reach to accept novel approaches to ideas, to look for possible intellectual challenge in a poem, and to admit man's hypocrisy. The Low IB's in contrast were more shocked or 68 surprised by novel treatments of traditionally sacred material, fearful of the effects of the poem, not so much on themselves as on others, apprehensive of discussing such matters in a classroom, and extremely hesitant to admit man's hypocrisy. "The Luxury of Integrity" This essay is a cutting from an essay by the same name by Stuart Chase. The part used in this study takes for its main premise that in modern society so high a price has been placed on mass production, sales charts, being a good follow that one can no longer afford to be a good workrran, sell only what one believes in, support only those causes in which one really believes, or join such organizations as one finds to his own liking. Instead, he must make shoes that dissolve in the rain, lie blatantly and loudly about inferior products, support causes in which he has no faith, write ”thumping lies for a bag of gold," and back- slap and embrace strangers who are prospective customers. Integrity, he speculates, has become a luxury that not many can afford. Responses More likeness than difference appeared in the responses to this selection. Most thought it was to some extent a "true” or "fair" pic- ture of society. However, the Low IB's who had rejected the poem, "The latest Decalogue," which also pointed out man's hypocrisy, accepted this article and were perhaps more willing to condemn man than were the High IB's. One Lew 18 who saw the likeness between this essay and the poem uplained: '9. I don‘t object to this one because it tells the truth about man. The one about the Comandments did not. It Just tore down Bible 69 readings. Others implied this same reasoning. Since all the Low IB's accepted this essay as true to a certain ex- tent, and since all but one rejected the poem about the Commandments, it may be hypothesized that they rejected the lat’cr because it dealt with sacred material. It may also be possible that since it was written in the imperative mood, it was directed at them personally and caused a con- flict or anxiety which they found it easier to reject than to admit. The essay exposes what 9_t_h_e_r; men do. The Low IB's therefore found it easier to accept such condemnation of man since they were not personally involved. This trait-the tendency to condemn others, while not recognizing or con- demning the same behavior in themselvesm-is commonly found in the author- itarian personality. Some evidence of other traits associated with rigidity and authori- tarianism appeared in the responses of the Low IB's. One said he felt the problem on campus was not loss of integrity but indifference: 11. I don't look at all this as loss of integrity. On campus you say things to please the professors. That's just the way to get ahead. Instead of loss of integrity as a result, there is just a feeling of lethary. Cnly half believe the professors. Few ever get stirred up about ideas they meet. I suppose when you don't care you are not very honest either. A number of others mentioned the my students do not care about how many class cuts they take, whether they keep dormitory hours or go to dormitory meetings, all implying that if people were made to do what they were supposed to‘ do,this indifference would be replaced by responsi- bility and hence by integrity. Whether or not class attendance or atten- dance at dormitory meetings and such were worth while was not considered. Four Low IB's agreed that the essay pointed out some truth, but felt that they could not get too excited about it: 7O 10. There is plenty of evidence of lack of integrity around us, even right here on campus, in campus politics espec- ially. 'we also take the easiest courses for a degree. we are not really interested in quality in education any more than anything else. I don't think I am very much alarmed by any of this, though. It is easier not to be. 7. The author has some high standards which I like, but I don't feel like going out and changing the world. I'll take it the way it is. 6. I don't think I can get too excited about the "evil” this anther is talking about. What he calls loss of integrity is just part of the game of business. 1. I don't think it is wrong to make a person think he is great, so long as you are trying to sell him a car.... On campus, I think people are going off the deep end trying to put some quality into education. Maybe we don't want quality: Most students want to learn; that's 'why they are so critical of their instructors, but I don't think you ought to have to be so damn good to get an education these days. Comments of the High IB's were much alike. They agreed as did the Low IB's that the author was to some extent right, but their further comments in general supported these ideas: 1) The problem is not so much lack of honesty and integrity as it is people's unawareness of their double standards. 2) Some parallels exist between the business practices and pressures described.by'the author and practices and pressures on campus, but on the'whole one can.retain his integrity and honesty on a campus if he does not lose sight of his long-term goals. 3) The issues discussed are important ones and deserve some thought. L) The essay causes one to examine some things often accepted as worthy or sound, such as sales techniques, purposes of service clubs, "quality" in everything, including education. In this lies the value of the essay. §EEEEEZ° Although High.and Low IB's agreed that the criticism of modern life had some validity, the Low IB's were willing to accept this accusation of hypocrisy in man when presented in the essay, but not in 71 the poem. The difference seemed to be in its association in the poem with sacred material and in its imperative form. It was easier to accept condemnation of man when the selection talked about other men rather than themselves. Low IB's were also more likely than High IB's to blame the evils described by the author on laxity of authority and to suggest that it was easier to conform than to try to change the status quo. They re- fused to get excited about I'evil," though they disapproved of it. High IB's on the other hand considered the issues discussed impertant and de- serving of some further thought. "They Die" This selection is the description of one of the three categories of men Matthew Arnold describes in "Rugby Chapel." Men in this category strive blindly, accomplish nothing, eat, drink, chatter, love, hate, but in the end are easily forgotten. Taken by itself, this part of the poem is extremely pessimistic about man's purposes and accomplishments. Analysis of the responses shows little if any difference between the two groups. About the same number in each group agreed and disagreed with the author's point of view. There was a tendency for Law IB's to equivo- cate. Three Low IB's were so vague that they said nothing. Low IB's tended somewhat more to believe that men do accomplish something, thus resenting any attack on men. High IB's tended sanewhat more to face up to the criticism of man made by Arnold. There is no evidence, however, that pessimism or optimism about man's accomplishments is a trait of either group. Idealism and realism appear- ed in both groups and is apparently an individual difference not predict- able by the Inventory of Beliefs. GROUP D: SELECTIONS DEALIM‘: WITH CONFCRMITY "The Non-Conformist" This selection is a cutting from Emerson's essay, "Self Reliance." Emerson declares in a short paragraph that one who would be a man must be a non-conformist, that the degree to which a man can be guided by his own concept of his duty rather than by what others think determines his greatness. This selection, which is brief and pithy, stimulated all sorts of thinking and responses. Although the variety of comments was extensive, the attitudes and feelings arranged themselves rather obviously into clusters which can be demonstrated better on a check list than on a list of individual responses. Responses High IB's Low IB's Non-conformity as an ideal: It takes a great person to be a non-conformist. 3, 8, ll - I admire a non—conformist. l, h, S, 10, ll 12, 6, h I like to think I an a non-con- S, 6, 7, 9, 10, h fomist. ll Areas of conformity: I am more likely to conform in l, 2, 5, 7 12, 10, 8, 3, dress, manners, and in things I seen. I am less likely to conform in 3, 6, 8 7 ideas and in thinking. V H U 0‘ The important thing is not whether 1, 3, h, 5, 6 one conforms in dress and man- 7, 9 ners but whether he conforms to principles without thinking them through. Price of non-c onformity: It is best to hide your non-con- formity if you do not want to get hurt; sometimes you can rationalize it. Non-conformists are not likely to be hRPHYe ‘ Most people are afraid not to con- form, afraid to expose their doubts. It takes nerve to be a non-conformist. Conformity as an ideal: I am a conformist and I do not approve of non—conformity. I conform because it is easier. You would have to live by your— self to be a real non-conformist. There are good arguments for con- formity which thereon ignores. Trends toward confomity in modem society can be explained by: Merchandising Desire for hamony, convenience floral standards Group pressures and penalties Status among peers, acceptance 73 1! 2‘9 h, 6, 7 - "" 9, 6, u .. 11, 9, 6, 2 _. 7, S, 3 .. 12’ 9’ 5’ 29 1 .. 8, h __ 11, 10 2, 6 .. 2, 8, 12 .. 3, 12 ._ 3, h, 12 8’ 1 11 9, 8, u Non-conformity appears undoubtedly as a more attractive ideal for the High IB's than for the Low IB's. Both groups agreed that they were more likely to conform in dress and manners, and in things seen, but High IB's went further to say that the important thing is not whether or not one conforms in such things as dress, but whether or not one conforms in ideas and thinking without knowing why. 71: Some High IB's, being aware of the stigma placed on non-conformity, suggested that non-conformity should be concealed as private doubts and used when making judgments. The "obvious" non-conformist was no more attractive to them than to the Low IB's. High IB's were more likely to explain their conformity by their def- erence to others governed by etiquette, good sense, thoughtfulness, desire for harmony, and convenience; whereas Low IB's were more likely to explain theirs by fear of disapproval and loss of status among peers. Conformity, the Low IB's said, was easier. In the light of other responses, this un- doubtedly meant that it removed anxiety and insecurity, gave them a re- liable code of behavior on which they could comfortably lean and supplied the necessary authority for their behavior. SW31. Non-conformity was a more attractive ideal for High IB's since they believed that the danger in conformity was in accepting codes of behavior, ideas, and principles without knowing why. Low IB's found conformity a means to relieve variety and insecurity, and the behavior, principles, and ideas of others a sort of authority on which they could comfortably lean. 75 "Mr. B. Reads the Newspaner" A short selection from‘Babbitt by Sinclair Lewis was chosen to fol- low Emerson's "The Non-Conformist," chiefly to give contrast and to en- able one to see if those who had questioned the wisdom of Emerson's non- conformity would accept the kind of conformity which dominated the be- havior of Babbitt. The part chosen records the running commentary Babbitt makes as he reads the morning headlines, especially when his opinions are temporarily silenced by a news item which is so different that none of his cliches or sources for opinion supply him with a reaction. The largest part of each response was explication of Bebbitt's ac- tions such as "He isn't thinking for himself," or "He is letting organ- izations think for him," or simply "He is commenting on the headlines he is reading." Judgments given of Babbitt's actions show some differences, however, between the two groups of students. Responses High IB's l. A sad state for anyone, and a dangerous one for us as a nation. 2. A typical newspaper readeru-the kind too mamr editors like. 3. He is inconsistent, all crossed up. Pitiful. I Wouldn't want to be like him. , h. I know sane like him, but I can't stand to listen to them. 5. He's easily led by newspapers or groups. Pitiful. 6. Flattery would get his vote. People have a tendency to follow parties, clubs, etc. A shallow existence. 7. I can't ahire him! Ihere are his principles? 8. Organizations do this to people. He is an undesirable cit- izen, but he doesn't know it. 9. 10. 11. 12. 76 Pretty stupid. Easily influenced. Confused. No real interest except to be an echo. Pitiful, but typical. Hard to tolerate this kind of thinking. All people who use such cliches are insecure. He asserts himself by echoing accepted opinions. Low IB's 12. 10. 9. 5. h. 3. 2. Typical conformist, victim of all influential groups. I admire non-conformity, but I wouldn't have the nerve to be a non-conformist and would probably end up like Mr. B. without knaving it. I don't know whether he is typical of business men or not, but my own father isn't like this. Not the kind of conformist Iflmire though I did say I ad- mired conformists. This man even conform to the place of using slang. Not very intelligent. I can't admire this mn's conformity. He is all mixed up. But this is true of people who think they should conform. It is just what happens to me. This man likes an audience. I don't think he is a conform- istujust ignorant. What he discusses are private utters about which he can think as he pleases. We should not criticise him for what he thinks. He should think as he pleases, but should act with consideration for others. This sun is ripe for a dictatorship. Not 1w kind of con- formist. I did say I believed in conformity, but not this kind. Not my kind of conformist. He conforms in ideas. If he does, he should be quiet about it though. A typical picture of a husband and wife. Average husband. He conforms because of his wife. He really should have given her half the paper, though. He must be a non-conformist because he has opinions about everything. Conformists don't have opinions. At least, this man thinks and I admire him. This man doesn't recognise bias. He is all mixed up. He argues on both sides. People who conform get all mixed up; I ought to know: 77 1. Not my ldnd of conformist. You shouldn't believe any- thing you read. Bad business: I like to argue—just love it in fact. I read the headlines—don't waste aw time on the rest—so I can get m7 stuff to argue about. High IB's recognized more readin the weakness in Babbitt's be- havior and most of them comented on the implications of such behavior. The author's purpose, then, came more quickly into focus. They saw Babbitt as pitiful and confused, or as hard to tolerate. A number re- marked that he was typical of newspaper readers. Low IB's gave the impression of searching for an intelligent re- sponse. Five saw the contrast between him and the man described by Em- erson, but said Babbitt was not their kind of conformist—one because he hunted for excuses for what he believes, one because he might fall prey to a dictator, one because he didn't act very intelligently (he used slang), and one because he let conformity override his intelligence. Other Low IB's identified with the situation in a variety of ways: two identified with the confused mind of Babbitt and saw themselves also as caifused by their desire to conform. One said, “People who are con- formists get all mixed up." Another, "Just what happens to me." One identified with the home situation and thought it a typical breakfast scene where family members were unwilling to share the paper. Those who rejected Babbitt did so on the grounds that he was a show-off, or that he did not fit the stereotype of a business man, or that he used slang and cliches. Those who accepted him did so on the grounds that he "has opinions" and therefore thinks, or that he has opinions about things he has a right to think about and doesn't act with- out consideration of others. Low IB's tended to give stock responses: "You shouldn't believe what you read," or "Pe0ple who use slang and cliches aren't very intel- 78 ligent." They were often diverted by irrelevant associations: "He should have given his wife part of the paper," or "He isn't like In fath- er--a business man, too," or "I like to argue and I read the newspaper headlines to get stuff to argue about," or "He's a show-off who likes to have an audience.” Summagz. High IB's saw more readily the author's purpose, saw the implications of confomity. Since most had already expressed an admir- ation of non-confomity, especially in ideas, their responses quickly identified Babbitt as an undesirable conformist. The unwillingness of the Low IB's to be identified with the kind of conformist that Babbitt was was based in all but one case on rather sup- erficial reasons, habits which they had perhaps been taught were undesir- able. Low IB's tended to use stock responses or to be diverted by irrel- evant associations. In so doing they often missed the significance of the passage, at least as the author probably intended it. Those who identified with Babbitt again reflected their confusion and anxiety. "The Subversive" This selection was taken from Alan Valentine's "A Hodest Proposal for the Care and Use of Shibversives," a satire after the manner of Jon- athan Swift's "Modest Proposal." The cutting from Valentine's article suggests that America is slowly making progress to rid itself of any lack of unity of ideas and actions through educatim, advertising, and security investigations; that good citizens are realizing the unworthi- ness of any who question the will of the majority and any who harbor private doubts. Unfortunately, however, Valentine says, a few reaction- 79 aries who hide behind the guise of independent thought still are harbor- ed in the country's universities. The tongue-in-cheek attitude of the author was more often than not mistaken for a sober declaration for conformity. Five of the High IB's and all the Low IB's missed the satire completely. Those who missed con- demned the author as either subversive himself, anti-democratic, or sim- ply wrong. Those who recognized the satire grasped the author's inten- tion and enjoyed the subtlety of his approach. Low IB's were more con- f‘used by it than the High IB's. Like the High IB's they all disagreed with one or more of the statements, but several said they must have read it wrong; surely no reputable author would say these things. One said that this did not seem like the kind of thing that Americans should be reading. Mother suggested that the author ought to be investigated. Four admitted their total confusion about the author's motive and others indicated that with each selection dealing with conformity they were be-i caning more confused about their own beliefs. The term "subversive" brought no particular emotional reaction in either group. Some admitted they didn't really know what a "subversive" was, but thought it had something to do with government and implied un- dercover activities. "Security investigations“ meant little to them, suggesting that their age group was for the most part unaware and unin- volved in the McCarthy investigations. Their attention was focused in this selection on the desirability of unity of thought, the possibility that education might males people alike, and the advisability of having "perverse professors." All agreed that "unity of thought" was not good. All verbalised rather easily about the virtues of ”independent thought" and thought it 80 a necessary ingredient of democracy. The responses to the statements about education as a force for un- ity and "perverse professors" as forces for disunity follow: On Education High IB's 2. Education is not bringing about unity. 7. The author has suspected.something very possible: that educa- ::::.is making people conform. we need to think.more about' 9. Education especially is trying to keep Americans from the evils of conformity. 10. My education has encouraged me to think on my own. 11. He points out some things that are creeping in on us that we should‘watch. Low IB's 12. Education tends to teach everyone to believe the same things-just like that evolution ‘unit in Natural Science! 5. I cannot see that education...is leading us toward unity of thought, but maybe I just don't know. 3. Education does help us move toward unity of thought. I think it is good because there are some things all should believe. 2. I would agree; education is making people alike and that is good. Oh "Perverse Professors" High IB's h. Perverse professors are good for a university.... 6. The part about perverse professors is particularly good since it questions the popular practice of suspecting intellectuals. 8. I could tolerate a prof who disagreed with others, but no odd balls: 81 10. Professors with independent thought should definitely be employed. 12. Professors with ideas of their own are more helpful in teaching one to think...; the author assumes the students are intelligent enough to discern good and bad ideas. Col- lege students are different in this respect from the masses. Low IB's 12.."i’erverse professors” are necessary. I wish I had had one to take my side on that evolution question. ll. "Perverse professors" are part of the intellectual stimulus of the campus. 8. "Perverse professors" might be good if they let the students speak, too, but they probably wouldn't. 5. "Perverse professors" should not be hired. They might over- throw the U.S. government, but if you kept such professors quiet, you would be taking away freedom of speech. I just don't know. 3. I have never had a "perverse professor," but those who make you think are supposed to be good. I like to have an ans- war to things, though, to know what is good to believe or I get confused. I never could debate because after hear- ing both sides I was all mixed up. The responses to the idea that education encourages alikeness indi- cate that the two groups differ in their ideas of what education is try- ing to do. It is difficult to say whether their concepts of education are different or whether the low IB's are more willing to acquiesce to the suggestions of an author reputable enough to be used in university research, especially when the subject discussed is democracy and freedom. The responses to the idea that "perverse professors" should be har- bored on university campuses indicate some doubt among the Low 13’s as to the advisability of the practice or the ability of themselves to handle "perverseness" in a teacher. High IB's were much more sure of their con- victions on the subject. 82 Summary. Satire as an approach to an issue evaded all the Low IB's and almost half the High IB's. The failure to recognize the author's technique obscured the author's purpose. Although little evidence ap- peared that this failure confused the High IB's, it did deny them the enjoyment of the author's cleverness. The Low IB's responses reflected considerable confusion and frustration, caused both by this selection and others dealing with conformity. There is at least a hint, if not conclusive evidence, that Low IB's are more apt to acquiesce to statements in materials presented by the "right people" or by reputable institutions like a university. If this is true, their critical judgment is focused on the source rather than on the material itself and has implications for education of the Low IB's. "The Citizen" This selection is a complete poem by”W. H. Auden.entitled, "The Un- known Citizen." In.a sub-title the author indicates that the poem is an inscription for a monument erected.by the State to a citizen identified only by a serial number. The "eulogy" praises the man's adherence to the norm in behaviorupaying his bills on time, getting along with his employers, going to war when called upon, supporting his union, reacting as expected to advertising, holding proper opinions, rearing a normal- eized family, never interfering with the education of his children. The last couplet asks whether the man was happy and free, but answers that the question is absurd since he would have said so had he not been. 83 Responses High IB's 1. Not a good citizen...not independent...did not think... 2. 3. h. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. was not critical...does not assert himself. Sounds like a blob of nothing. Loses his identity com- pletely. A robot. Ho personality. Life looks orderly here, but how dull: He didn't believe in anything. He is like nothing...might as well not exist. He is tied to the opinions and dictates of others. If happy, his happiness is only on the surface. This is what conformity makes a person look like. This is the average side of everyone. I resent the author's push- ing me into a rejection of all the things this man did. This behavior slips up on Americans without their know- ing. It will neverhappen to me: Another writer off on conformity: They all miss the point. It is not conformity that is wrong but lack of principles. My kind of conformity is common sense, logic, not radical indifference. This man is of course foolish, but the author doesn't prove anything. A poem dedicated to a man who is a statistic, not a per- sonality. The author points up the admiration that we seem to hold for the standardized man. Good poem. Here is "normal” behavior. But surely no man exists like this. People surely have to have more to them than this, but you sometimes wonder. In answer to the author's question about happiness, this man is probably as happy as the non-conformist, but happiness is not the point. I have no pity for this man. The opportunity exists for him to be different. The question about happiness is difficult for anyone to answer, conformist or not. The poem is really not about happiness at all, but about whether this man would speak out if asked a question. The author is pulling nw leg. He implies that conform- ists think. _ The man in the poem is hiding his real self, surely. He cannot reveal his inner self. His "inside" might have shocked us. Inconspicuous behavior and wealth in material things are the values upon which we are asked to judge 8h man's happiness and freedom. Low IB's 12. 11. 10. 9. 7. 5. h. 3. We are in danger of being just like this man if we go too far in this conformity. No originality or individual- ity. I can't say why, but I don't admire this man. He seems a bit too secure and safe, takes no chances. He seems to be a good citizen, though. Here is a man with a good record. I don't admire him particularly, but I can't find am'thing wrong with him. He tries. I would accept him except for the line, “He holds the right opinions." Here is a good citizen. He could have been more inter- esting. He is a good worker, though, a good one to serve public causes. This man is too perfect. I would like to see some of the devil in him. The poet is too sold on this man's good points. This man did everything he should have, but I don't think he is my ideal. I don't really agree with conformity, but I can't afford to be a non-confomist. You have to be an individual and a person, but you can't be selfish and forget others. Here is the stereotype of the ideal man morally, socially, and politically. .He is happy-if there is no non—conform— ity lying smoldering inside of him. I have a feeling the author is playing cat and mouse with me. I almost got sucked into saying he is my ideal. I know better. A sound man. I approve of him. Good neighbor. Good cit- izen. (lily thing wrong with him is that he has no relig- ious beliefs. He is as happy and free as anyone. Silly questions on the end. Nothing to do with the citizen. If these are the criteria for a good citizen, he is one, but I don't think so. No will power, no courage, no in- dividualism. Another drop in the sea. I approve of the way this man lives. He is a good cit- izen; I'd like him for a neighbor, a friend, a husband, a voter. He is fairly intelligent, happy, and free. Surely this man disagreed in something. My values just don't happen to agree with his. 85 1. This guy is just an average Joe working to keep up the installments. Pretty much like. what I'm going to be despite nurself. I'll take his five kidsm-nct ready made of course--and he can have the rest. All of the High IB's rejected the desirability of this kind of life described in the poem and noted the citizen's lack of independence, per- sonality, and identity. Three resented somewhat the author's slyness in his satirical approach to the evils of conformity and threw up some resistance to propaganda techniques which attempted to sell them a bill of goods in a deceptive package. The end question about happiness and freedom was a disturbing one to some. Happiness they felt was either beyond anyone's reach or else depended upon factors not included in the poem, such as how much non- conformity was suppressed inside the man. This was aptly expressed by one who said, ”This man is hiding his real self. His 'inside' might shock us. Inconspicuous behavior and wealth in material things are the values upon which we are asked to judge this man's happiness and freedom." Among the Low IB's three flatly accepted the man as ideal. Three did not exactly admire him but found it hard to criticize him. Two re- jected him, not because of his conformity, but because he was too per- feet; they thought he must have done sanething wrong. One saw the meaning— lessness of the man's life but expected to be just like him. Only two rejected him for his lack of courage, power, individuality and original- ity. One laughed self-consciously when he almost got sucked in by the author's sober praise of the man. Only the highest of the Low IB's recognized the satire as a warning against conformity. Summary. High IB's were much more aware of the symptoms and con- sequent dullness of a life of conformity. Low IB's either approved of 86 the "citizen" or found him hard to criticize in most cases. The author's purpose in warning readers against the numbing effect of conformity was either missed or misinterpreted as an effort to depict the ideal man by those in the Law Group. Low IB students who discussed the issue of con- formity and non-conformity quite frankly in connection with the previous selections missed it or ignored it here. GROUP E: SELECTIONS DEALING WITH SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY "The Way Things Are" This poem is a short excerpt from Carl Sandburg 's The People Tag. The poet seems to suggest that people are what they are because of what they came out of, that they should "bow down" and accept what they are- until the last line when he reverses his stand with: [They should say] "It's good-0r should they?" Responses High IB's 1. People can be what they like with only a few limitations. 2. Everyone is partly what he came from, but he doesn't have to accept it. 3. You cannot blame an individual for what his group or his ancestors are. 14. The past is never so important as the present. 5. The future is ours to do with as we please. Ambition is more important than "breaks." . 6. I would always have to question things as they are—relig- ion, society, race relations, and all that. 7. It is hard to make a million anymore, but opportunities to do well are unlimited for everyone who sets his mind to it. 87 8. To bow down because of what you are is specious reason- ing. 9. One need not accept the religious faith, the politics, or the attitudes of his parents. One must decide for himself what he will believe, what his way of life will be. 10. I cannot agree with this at all. To accept something is not necessarily to bow down. 11. The important thing is to set your goals high. Your past or your background should not affect your ambitions. 12. This is not reasonable logic. The past is not so im- portant as the present. Low IB's 12. A person is more of a person if he rises to his full sta- ture despite reputation, social class, race, even education. 11. Background should not limit you, but it does limit other people's attitudes toward you. That is what is hard about it. 10. A take-me-as-I-am attitude is a good way for people to shirk responsibility for improving themselves. 9. I think most people try to hide their paste and their back- grounds. me should compensate for his past by being as good as possible. If you can keep your past a secret, your chances are better. 8. I got to college by aw ambition. I like to think u fut- ure is in my hands, but I have so many times been one step away from something I wanted and have been knocked down that I don't know what I think. It is a good theory, but it is subject to sane qualifications. 7. People should want more than just a job and money; they should want to improve themselves and others. Their chan- ces may be somewhat limited by what they are. 6. One's background should not enter into his plans or ambi- tions. Do what you want to do. The slq is the limit. 5. I am not happy with what I came from. I want to be more than mr father or my father's family, and I think I can be. 1:. If people have any gumption or wish to get ahead, they should try to develop, not bow down and give up. 88 3. No one needs to be like his parents unless he wants to. 2. If a person has a chance to better himself, he should take it, but he is going to get stepped on. Raising standards and gaining social acceptance is a long, hard fight. He ought to try if he can get away with it. 1. You are what you make yourself. Color, background, where you were born makes no difference..., but I don't really believe this. I say this and think I believe it, but I know fate has a lot to do with it. All the students in both groups rejected the idea of "bowing down" to arm past or any background, either hereditary or environmental unless they wished. There was almost universal agreement-«fiber expressed or implied—that the future was theirs to make of what they will, that am- bition, personal drive, and "the breaks" they make for themselves are the things that will determine the future. If any differences between the two groups appeared, it was that the Low IB's had more misgivings about whether they could actually overcome their limitations. Although all Low IB's expressed some faith that they could, one said, "Raising one '3 standards and gaining social acceptance is a long, hard fight." Another said, "One should try to raise himself if he can get away with it." Another declared flatly, "Never bow down}. The past is dead!" but when he thought a moment he said, ”Fate has a lot to do with it--or rather with what has happened to me. I'm a mixed up kid; I never achieve any of w ambitions; I always have to change them to save face." Summary . Both groups rejected determinism and showed a strong faith in themselves and in the future. Ambition and personal drive, they felt, were their greatest assets. The Low IB's expressed some misgivings about how far they could go, but were only slightly less confident in their ability to determine their future. 89 “Boxed Down" This selection taken from Edwin Markham's "The Man with the Hoe" questions whether any man was intended to be as this man, “brother to the ox," with a face reflecting only emptiness; it further asks how the fu- ture will reckon both with the man and with the master, lord, or ruler who "shaped him to the thing he is." Responses did not reflect differences between the two groups. As in the response to the poem ”The Way Things Are," students declared their be- lief that what a man becomes in these times is largely up to him. Ambi- tion and personal drive make the difference between the successful and the unsuccessful. In general, they believed the poem to be out of date, at least in this country, and rejected the idea that rulers were in any way responsible for the man's state. Typical camnents were: The difference between this man and those who have domin- ion over land and sea is that he stood and looked, and they got busy and accomplished things.... Man is master of his own destiny. I doubt if his. condition can be blamed on anyone but him- self in a society offering education, unlimited opportun- ity, free enterprise, and broad freedoms. In modern times, the poem does not arouse any feeling of conscience about the man. Everyone today can rise if he wishes to. The world of work is man's proving ground. This man has not proved himself. He reflects what he is. Summary. ReSponses to this poem further illustrate that both groups reject determinism and have a deep faith in the efficacy of the individ- ual. Ambition and drive are qualities camnon to both groups. 90 "The Squatters" This selection is taken from John Steinbeck's grapes of Wrath. The particular paragraphs chosen give a picture of homeless families of the dust bowl days, hungry and desperate trying to find food in California. They plant secret gardens on other people's land and are thrown off, con- demned as "outlanders," "foreigners," and even “rattlesnakes." A number of issues arise in these few paragraphs. To whom does the land really belong? Is not everyone a squatter? 'Who deserves the land, the man who loves it or the man who owns but exploits it? Are the ones who "have" in this country unnecessarily prejudiced and severe with those who "have not"? Does everyone have a right to eat and to survive no mat- ter what his circumstances? Is the owners' fear of dispossession un- founded? Steinbeck's works are so packed with social issues and probing ques- tions that responses are necessarily diffused and inconclusive. It seems to be his purpose to bring just this kind of response, to prod man's con— science, to confuse him, to disturb his faith in man-given rights such as property, security, and status, and to make readers conscious of the con- stant social evolution.. Responses to this selection by students are as diffused as Steinbeck ‘would have liked them to be, but for purposes of analysis, responses were examined,for'evidence of 1) an unwillingness to let any humanitarian in- stincts interfere with their system.of free enterprise, 2) a disdain for the unfortunate, strangers, or "foreigners.” The following responses reflect the thinking of students concerning the first of these-humanitarianism in relation to business relations: 91 High IB's 1. 3. 5. 6. Materialism has made us forget our feeling for fellow man and has led us to irrational thinking. We need to examine our faith in materialism. Everyone seems to fear everyone else. Fear leads the own- are to forget the humanitarian. No one has a right to take what does not belong to, him, but the issue is selfishness and human rights. All this reflects a lack of organization. Humanitarian solutions can be found. You can't condemn owners because they have to look out for their own interests, but a little forethought on every- one ' s part would have avoided the whole situation. You have to plan humanitarianisn. This situation is typical of Americans. They let things get out of hand before they move. They like to see things work themselves out. We are famous for poor management of social ' affairs. It is time we faced up to this responsibility. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. Man lacks humanity, but he does have a responsibility for his brother. ' Man is essentially selfish and his fear that he will lose his possessions destroys his humanitarianism. How much sympathy one should give depends on circumstances. Same as above. Tendency of American people is to see evil but do nothing about it until it is imbedded. They enjoy being dramatic about mopping up evil. If Americans claim to be humane, they must not continue to make their humanitarianism fit into their materialism. Typically American. When interests are chiefly material- istic, pe0p1e don't feel much brotherhood. Low IB’s 11. 9. Everyone surely has a right to food. A lot depends on how necessary the land was to the owners. Society is selfish in holding on to what they don't need, but to divide it equally is socialism. Such problems are just too big to handle. Hunger is no excuse for trespassing. The government should either provide or ship them elsewhere. 92 8. No man-even a starving one--has a right to infringe on property, but I condemn anyone who mistreats the unfor- tunate. 7. No one can afford to give and give. Owners might have turned the situation to their advantage, though. They should have appealed to the government to arrange some- thing that would have been advantageous to them. 6. I have only enough humanitarian instinct to make my con- science hurt, but I would demand the removal of the squat- ters because I'd be afraid to give an inch for fear I 'would lose everything. I'm no Dr. Schweitzer. 5. Ownership laws should not supersede laws of brotherhood and charity, but they do and I would expect everyone to respect property rights. h. No.matter what property rights are involved, pe0ple have to eat. 3. As an owner I would have been bothered, but I don't know that I would have done any differently. Brotherhood should be more important than property, but it usually isn't. 2. One is tempted to say owners should share and squatters should work harder, but the so In tion is bigger than that; there must be a sound business way to handle this situation. These responses reflect considerable awareness on the part of both groups of the conflict between one's humanitarian instincts and the free enterprise system in which everyone must take care of his own in- terests. They are both aware of the factors‘which.militate against hump anitarianismp-fear of loss of security and status--ahd show a self-con- sciousness in the presence of the issue. High 13' s, however, tend to see the resolution of the conflict through humanitarian means as evidenced to some degree in each of the reaponses. At least four advocated some social engineering to avoid the inevitable results when social problems are allowed to grow and to become imbedded in American society. Low IB's chose to resolve the conflict by such authority as is avail- 93 able. They focused their attention on what the laws governing property rights say in regard to the situation. All but one of those who chose to comment on this issue looked to authority to dictate justice and to alleviate the uneasiness-even embarrassment--caused by the situation. The Low IB's were somewhat more concrete in their thinking, considering first what they would do in the situation, but there is conspicuous lack of analysis of the cause and.means by which such problems might be avoid- ed. Only one attempted a solution at all. Two looked to the government to step in and either provide for the emergency or ship the squatters on to someone else. Responses which reflect the attitudes toward the unfortunate, strang- ers, or "foreigners" follow: High IB's l. I would like to do something for the squatters.... Respon- sibility for the poor is an obligation, probably best dealt with from the top (government), but we should all have enough interest to see that the government undertakes it. 3. I feel sorry for the Okies. They should have tried harder, but they have little imagination and are probably poor man- agers. h. Here is evidence of the prejudice that exists against those who must struggle to make a living. It is not fair. 5. I can't help feeling sorry for the migrants. It makes me sick that people can be treated this way. Undoubtedly lack of ambition and circumstances contributed, but such treatment is never justified. 6. The Okies are in a bad way. my sympathy'is with them. Actually what divides the two groups is nothing that could not be changed in a short time. 7. I have sympathy for the Okies. A chance is what they need- ed. Generally society has a reaponsibility for caring for such people. 9h 12. Here Californians are sparring against what they call "foreigners." Such people to them are poor, do not meet the standards of living and are therefore not Americans. This is typical of the way we point out slums and bad districts as being papulated by "foreign- ers," not Americans. Low IB's 12. My sympathies are with the squatters. lO. Squatters are not spongersand thieves; they want work. 9. I should be very angry if anyone trespassed on m land, especially if the trespassers were poor, ragged people. 8. I can demn anyone who mistreats the unfortunate. Only chance separates the haves from the have-note. 6. I'd probably feel that the squatters were pretty shift- less and sniffling over their circumstances. I'd prob- ably leave them for the government to take care of. I'd probably be more likely to help people if I thought they'd amount to something. People who don't care ag- gravate me. I 'd be willing to help someone who had a bad break, but I would hesitate to help the perennially poor. 1;. These people are probably lazy and don't make the most of what they have, but they have to eat. 3. I am sympathetic with the "foreigners." They were Amer- icans, but treated as "outsiders." 2. My sympathy is with the squatters. The new squatters should do the same as the first ones—work hard, better themselves, and get position and wealth. 1. I'm really prejudiced against squatters. They are fil- thy, slovenly, sneaky. I don't like them: Migrant workers: Better if they had never landed from where they came from. If they call thmselves Americans, it is their own fault they are as they are. In these responses there is no evidence of either lack of sympathy with the squatters or ethnocentrism expressed among the High IB's. There is some evidence that Low IB's hold some disdain for the downtrodden. One, the lowest of the Low IB's, launches a real attack on them. Three 95 others share the same attitude, but express it with less belligerence. It is highly possible that the interview situation into which these students were placed made further invective seem inappropriate. It should be noted too that Steinbeck sets out to wring sympatmt out of the most hard-hearted and undoubtedly is successful even with some of the most ethnocentric of the Low IB's. Summing. Low IB's show some tendency to be ethnocentric, to reject the downtrodden, the poor, and the unfortunate and to doubt that they are real Americans. 96 CHAPTER v1 WHAT THE RESPONSES SEEM TO REFLECT Taken as a whole, the responses of the Low and High IB's to the read- ing selectionsdiffer markedly, but beyond this the responses reflect cer- tain group characteristics which may be generalized as follows: 1. Low IB's tended to distrust the "intellectual" and to prefer the more ”practical" man. They tended to believe that artists, sculptors, and writers, as well as students who were especially studious, were queer, esoteric, and likely to be unsuccessful. They rejected them for friends, family members, or spouses, and in some cases found them impossible to tolerate. Although some showed respect for them despite their character- istics and thought that they made some contribution to the world, the Low IB's indicated some self-consciousness in their presence and a die- like of being identified with them, especially socially. On the contrary, High IB's showed more respect for "intellectuals” and felt they were no different basically from others. The worthy con- tribution of these people to the world and man was often pointed out, and an objection was made to all such people's being stereotyped and lab- eled with the characteristics of a few undesirable ones. .This 'view' they believed to be narrow, ignorant, and cruel. They objected to the insin- uations that people who pursued "intellectual" rather than "practical" vocations were selfish, self-centered, ignorant of important things. High IB's predicted greater success for the "intellectual" student and found college a favorable atmosphere for his development. Lew IB's agreed that the more practical vocations were more satis- 97 fying, but High IB's thought that the anti-intellectual attitudes of par- ents and others concerning choice of vocation and valuesusuch as the val- us of achieving popularity, participating in activities, and achieving monetary success-all jeopardized the future of students. Although Low IB's often shared the views of High IB's, some of their statements, such as those showing some respect for the intellectual in response to one piece of literature, were often directly contradictory to their responses to another piece. Such contradictions did not appear among High 13 responses. This contradiction among Low IB's perhaps sug- gests an ambiguity in attitudes. Having certain characteristics of "in- tellectuab"themse1ves-high aptitudes and canparative success in academic pursuits—Low IB's cannot reject the "intellectual," but neither can they accept him. Society holds some scorn for the intellectual; society in- stead respects the practical, normal man. To be an "intellectual" is to espouse a position anxious, insecure pe0p1e find intolerable in our mod- ern day society. Since Low IB's made little objection to the stereotyping of all "in- tellectuals" in the poem "Bohemia" or to stereotyping all studious stu- dents in "Appearances Count,“ or even to stereotyping all paperback books in "Freedom to Read," it may be assumed that the stereotypes accepted generally by the public are accepted by them. Since stereotypes of the ”intellectual" are unfavorable, this attitude of the public increases the anxiety of Low IB's and causes considerable ambiguity in their on attitudes. The chart on the next page shows the most common responses and in- dicates which of the students held each of the views. Since the responses were free and not directed by the interviewer, a statistical analysis 98 ._...i ATTITUDES Temp INTELLECTUALISM High IB‘s ' Low IB's 123h5678910111212111098765h321 X x X X x x x A. Believes artists are queer, esoteric, and useless. Rejects them as friends, family members, or spouses. X X x x Finds them hard to tolerate. x x Attaches lack of dignity, low morals, and lack of x godliness to them. B. Shows respect for "intellectuals." x x x x x x x x x x x x Feels they are no different basically from others. x x x x x x Feels they contribute much to the world. x x x x x x x x x Accepts them as friends, family members or spouses , x x x X X Objects to stereotyping such people. x x x x x X X A. Prefers to plaCe faith in experience rather than x in education. Rejects or fears the expert in positions of re- x X X X X sponsibility. Defends the opinions of common people against the X X X expertness of the educated. B. Places faith in the expert, the educated man. x x x x x x x x x x x x Deplores the ignorance of the masses. x x A. Accepts the View that the "intellectual" knows very little. B. Disagrees with suggestions that "intellectuals" are ignorant, selfish, self—centered, etc. Sees such views as narrow, ignorant, cruel A. Has misgivings about the eventual success of x x x x x an "intellectual" young person B. Predicts greater success for the "intellectual." x x x x x x A. Accepts the common attitude that practical vo— cations and a practical education are best. B. Believes that anti-intellectual attitudes of x x x x x 'x x x x x 1 parents and friends jeopardize futures of , students. 99 seems inappropriate. The chart shows first the clusters of responses, but also shows the lack of ambiguity in responses of the High IB's and the tendency of the Low IB's to contradict themselves. When Low IB's have responses in both the A and B categories, they are vacillating from one point of view to another. 2. Low IB's leaned heavily on authority in whatever form it was sug- gested in the content of the literary selections. They tended to accept authority without question, giving little thought to its reasonableness or to its implications. They seemed to find relief from anxiety'and an escape from facing crises by’a reliance on controls outside themselves. For example, Low IB's leaned heavily on the authority of censorship, not only to tell them what was good to read, but to protect themselves and more particularly the masses from harmful ideas. If the question arose of how censorship was to be enforced, they tended.to say "by law" 'without wrestling with the question of who should do the censoring, on 'what standards censorship should be based, or how effective censorship would.be. Considerable fear of the consequences of removing controls and censid- :erable distrust of the Judgment of the public—~or even of their own judg- ment-awere expressed. Someone should be responsible for controls, they believed, but the someone was a hypothetical force remotely associated with lav, power invested somewhere, and custom. Low IB's also leaned heavily on the authority of parents. Parents know best, they repeatedly stated. Rules laid down by parents seemed to bring relief from.the anxiety caused by decisions young people must make 100 about their activities and behavior. 'Whether the rules were based on.a reasonable premise or not seemed not to matter. For example, Low IB's accepted readily the father's authoritarian statements in "Father Knows Best," said he was right despite any question that might arise about the rationale of his declarations. The Low IB's went further to say that juvenile delinquency and.youth problems would be eliminated in the main by obedience to parents. As at other times during the interview, their tendency was to over-simplify problems, offer a solution, and dismiss the issue. In numerous places among the readings they found occasion to say that they expected to be told what to do-—as members of a family, as freshmen enrolling in college, as citizens facing a social problem like that which grew out of the migrations from the Dust Bowl in "Squatters." Where parents, teachers, enrollment officers, or law did not serve as controls, custom and social sanction would (as will be discussed later in conjunction'with "conformity"). Acceptance of authority was a means of relieving anxiety, of simplifying decisions, and of enforcing order where otherwise chaos might deve10p. High IB's showed considerably different attitudes toward authority; Satisfactony‘controls to them, though involving law, social sanction, and invested power, must be based primarily on reason and on a hierarchy of values arranged after as careful an analysis as possible of each giv- en situation. High IB's recognized the unreasonableness and impractica- bility of censorship and expressed considerably more faith in the intel- ligence and judgment not only of themselves but of all peOple. It was the obligation of society, they believed, to improve and refine this judg- ment through continuous education. 101 High IB's refused to commit themselves either to the rightness or wrongness of the father in "Father Knows Best," preferring rather to ana- 'lyze the situation objectively with as little emotion as possible. They attempted to shut out their own prejudices when dealing with the problem, and were considerably more aware of and cautious about the consequences of passing judgment when they got too emotionally involved. They were much more sensitive to the values of reason and more cognizant of the ideal of harmony in human relations. High IB's when confronted with the possibility of being told what to take in college, chose to accept the authority implied by a prescribed curriculum because they saw it as a positive good, reasonable and advan- tageous. There was little indication that such guidance was a relief from an anxiety aroused by too much freedom, as eXpressed by the Low IB's. High IB's at the same time they were choosing to accept the authority of prescription were insisting on opportunities to accelerate, to ”try” some electives, to make some mistakes, and in general to launch out on their own. Prescription was considered in comparison with other values and chosen 235: some others. Prescription to the High IB was helpful advice; to the Low IE it was a source of relief from responsibility, from tension, from fear of mistakes, and from decision making. To the High 18 prescription was a needed support for inner direction; to the Low IE it was direction from without which relieved any need for inner direction. When confronted with the problem of the squatters who, in their des- peration for food and shelter, were infringing on prOperty rights, Low IB's tended to dismiss the problem with a reference to what the law said, to assume that a hypothetical authority vaguely assumed to be the govern- ment had ways or would find a way of dealing with such peOple. The Low 1C2 IB's expressed some feeling of conscience about the situation, but felt that authority should step in. High IB's were much more likely to ques- tion what man's individual role was in such circumstances than to assume that in authority or law or government lay the solution. The chart on the next page shows the responses of the two groups. 3. Low IB's tended to confonm to the sanctions found within their environment and to approve of characters in literature who do. Their conformity is closely related to their reliance on authority and their over-consciousness of the pressures of society. To accept authority and to allow oneself to be directed by controls outside himself is to relieve the anxiety caused by decision making and the uncomfortableness of resisting pressures of society. The acceptance of authority is there- fore the greater value. To nearly all of the students in both groups-~all of high aptitude- non-conformity was somewhat an ideal, but to the Low IB's being differ~ ent took too much courage, caused too much anxiety, and offered too few rewards for them to try to grasp the ideal. They expressed fear of loss of status among peers, fear of being "labeled" as different, and fear of making themselves conspicuous. Most Low IB's thought confonmists were happier, and happiness-an important ingredient of which was freedom from anxiety-seemed an adequate goal for most of them. They gave their ap- proval to the "normal man," and although some admitted his life was rath- er dull, it offered.more of what they considered important: security, comfortableness, and relief from anxiety. High IB's with fewer reservations held non-conformity as an ideal, welcomed opportunities for decisions, often remarked how stimulating 33 l N K K N x humanoooc ea cadooa :fi spasm ooaono comm case M N K K N x economcwn oboe ow :owpcopoaa .wcfifia :owmwo x N H .N H K N x x H new mo puma a on ands commcm .oanmcofiawoso copwo one .N N x H x x x K mowpahonpse h§_oom: mnpmoempw snooze K H K K K. N H on oopmoouo on ands ofldoom .m space M H N x N N x x H x tempo won vane mofiewaonps< .Hw>o acme x N x x x x x x x cocoovoad on op coca cflooca .oep new meow cocspon waaeuaswcapmae mo caresses“ .oanafldsw Qua canoe; omomo H x K x N x x x N x N N x :03 hummmoooc n“ avwaonpo< .< H N m a m e a m a ca HH NH NH Ha 0H m m a o m a m m a ”.mH use m.mH swam MBHmoxeea amazoe mmmmeHeee decision making is, rejected the ”normal man" because he was not critical and lacked identity from the crowd, and rejected any situationnwhich de- nied one independence of thought. They did not identify and in most cases had little sympathy with the conformist, such as Babbitt or the "normal man" in "The Citizen." Low IB's tended to identify with these characters and to defend their actions. -The chart on the next page shows the distribution or responses con- cerning conformity. h. Low IB's resented criticism of themselves, but indulged in crit~ icizing others, especially society in general. Any selection of litera- ture which tended to suggest a derogation of them personally or of their group was rejected immediately. This was particularly true of the crit- icism leveled at the reader in "The Latest Decalogue." It was likewise evident when the Low IB's identified with a character who was in any way belittled, as Bernard in "Appearances Count." High IB's tended to look more squarely and objectively at derogation leveled at them and to admit their vulnerability to such attack. In fact, most of them rather appreciated the insight they gained into their own behavior. Typical responses were "How true!“ and "That's mel” The increased anxiety incited by any derogation caused in the Low IB's an emotional response which blocked any rational response. For this reason they tended to overlook the implications of the literary work. They did not see "The Latest Decalogue" as a mirror held up to man, es- pecially the man who thinks he keeps the Commandments. When the literary selection criticized those with whom they did not identify, or society in general, Low IB's found an outlet for their ten- 105 .pnmsozp mo cocoon oases“ p3moo>nm x x x x x x x x x x xi memos“ ca mewsuomsoo eopoohom .3353 83$ .23 lawns you we on chanson :Hsa x x K x N K K N x x x x uses: ea on: cue 03¢ oopoohom . .cofipmosco Ho pace on a x a 3 museum? medias 232a. .mcoflewo x x x x x. H x x x x x loo ends on access ceasefire .Hmoofi x N N x N x N x x x x a x no we hpwauomcoolcoc mac: .m .owaasoo some ooe xoop x x x x N quads cop huwauomsoolco: endow news zaoeuocz one oxHH “muogpo pmoa oxwa x x x x wcacp 2H :owpoaMmHuam peach .ocoaw 930 x weanocsua Mo neon oomnopqu .noxmpnws mo omsmoon nsosowam x N x loco weave mo poem nommmAme .huwshohnoolcoc hfl oomseo N x x x x mpoaxcm op mpfinuomcoo eoaaemcad .pooaoumflo we no N x x IHoan wcwop mo amen pommcadxm .mmccd macaw on; x x x x x Imam mo mmoa mo seem commendxw .4 2 m o N m m 0H Ha mfi NH HH OH m x a o m a m N H m.mH sop m.mH zmfl: HEHmmthoo Dmdgce mMCbeHhhd 106 sion in a like condemnation. The target of criticism-the man who lowers his standards in order to gain materially, or even to exist as the case 'with the squatters, or the man who eddies about accomplishing nothing- offered a scapegoat, someone on whom to blame their own insecurity. Such attitudes and behavior among other men makes society too difficult a force for anyone to battle. 5. Both groups believed that ambition, personal drive, and the Oppor- tunities that they make for themselves are important determinants of suc- cess; however the Low IB's were somewhat more conscious of the factors which they must overcome to attain success. 6. Low IB's tended to reject the down-trodden, the poor, and the un- fortunate. This attitude was consistent with their feeling about those who did not conform or behave according to their stadards. 7. Responses of individual students within the two groups showed considerable variation within the group, but on the whole the responses supported the theory that the higher the score the less likely a stu- dent is to be rigid and authoritarian. Considerably more variation, for example,appeared in the lowest two or three of the High IB's than among the highest ones. Scorers who fell into the Middle Group-—drop— ped from the study-~shifted their vieWpoints frequently from rigid to flexible, from authoritarian to democratic attitudes. 107 Summagy. The responses in general reflect a tendency among the Low IB's l) to prefer the practical vacations to the "intellectual" vocations, 2) to distrust the expert or the theorist who depends upon knowledge rather than practical experience, - 3) to lean heavily upon authority and to identify with or sympathize with authority figures, h) to find in authority a relief from anxiety and an escape from de- cision making, 5) to conform to the sanctimisin their environment and to be over- conscious of the pressures of society, 6) to resent criticism of themselves, but to indulge in criticism of others, especially those with different standards from their m. ' High 13's in contrast tended l) to put more faith in the expert and theorist, in education and knowledge, 2) to respect those engaged in the "intellectual" vocations, 3) to feel that authority must be based on reason, h) to make judgments by a hierarchy of values arranged after as careful an analysis as possible of every situation, 5) to welcome opportunities for decision making, 6) to hold little reSpect for anyone who identifies too easily with the crowd or with any situation which denies independence of thought, 7) to welcome criticism of themselves by which they might gain fur— ther insight into their own behavior. 'Considerable variation in the reSponses appeared, but in general students in the two groups followed the theoretical pattern of rigidity, authoritarianism, and anxiety on one hand—and flexibility, maturity, and democratic attitudes on the other. 108 The results showed further that teachers of literature are faced with individual differences quite apart from differences in aptitude and reading ability. High Scorers appeared to be more likely l) to examine materials critically and objectively, 2) to project the vicarious experiences of literature into everya day life, 3) to gain from literature some insight and understanding of them- selves and the world, h) to realize the potential of literature for educating both their minds and their emotions. Low Scorers appeared to be more likely 1) to misinterpret an author's purpose, as in the case of satire, 2) to note first in literature such evidence aS‘WOUId confirm their prejudices, as in the case of attacks on anti-intellectualism, 3) to reject such selections as attacked them personally or in- creased their anxiety, h) to miss many of the subtle overtones of literature. Implications Results of such a study immediately raise an important question: If a teacher is aware of such possible differences in students and if he knows how students with given scores are likely to reSpond to literature, should he simply prepare to accept an inevitable misinterpretation, ex- tremely narrow interpretation, or rejection of literature by such stu- dents, or should he expect that some changes might be made? A number of signs appear in this research to indicate that change is not impossible. First, of the hO students chosen at the beginning of the study on the basis of either comparatively High Scores or com- paratively Low Scores in September, 16 moved by May into a Middle Group. The Low Scorers who moved up made an average increase of 8.6 points on 109 a 60-item form of the Inventory. High Scorers who moved into the Middle Group averaged only 14.5 points lowerthan they did in September. Some of this change, perhaps most of it, resulted from the regression effect noted in all such re-testing. Some of the Low Scorers, however, improv- ed so much as to suggest actual changes in the person. Of the remaining 12 in the Low Group nine increased their scores an av- erage of five points. Two others last only one and two points; a third lost 11 points. Of the remaining 12 in the High Group, nim increased their scores an average of four points; one did not change, one regressed four points, and one who made an extremely high score in September re- gressed 10 points. If all the changes of each group are totaled, High Scorers increased a total of 37 points and decreased a total of 50 points, leaving a total of -13, or an average change of -O.6 points per person. Low Scorers in- creased a total of 113 points, decreased 1h, leaving a total of #99, or an average of {5.0 per person. The experiences of low-scoring students between September and Hay may have had a positive effect on their attitudes. Most of them, though they had been in college nearly three terms and had taken among other things mo Basic Courses in General Education, had yet to take two Basic Courses which should have great impact on attitudes measured on the In- ventory-oSoc ial Science and Humanities. Since attitudes are markedly influenced by the home, perhaps the new environment rather than specific courses is a more powerful influence for change. From this evidence we hypothesize, though we cannot prove, that Low Scorers do change. Their score gain is considerably more than that of the High Scorers and can hardly be at tributed only to the normal varia- 110 tion expected upon re-testing. Whether the change is at the unreasoning affective level or whether it results from increased verbal facility and sophistication we do not know. A second encouraging sign was the number of times that low-scoring students showed a consciousness of their prejudices, some insight into the reasons for prejudice, and some awareness of change within themselves. These were difficult to record since mam times they were indicated by a sudden break-off in a statement, a self-conscious smile, or a reversal in statement. Particularly noticeable was the number of times students admitted that they Just didn't know or understand art and music and poet- ry and therefore were probably unfair in their prejudice against people who created it. Low Scorers also indicated repeatedly that they were mixed up and confused, implying that they had done some recent thinking about, for example, the purposes of being in college, the conseouences of easy conformity, the place of force or authority in human relations. This evidence again suggests that college does make a difference with some pe0ple. One student said, "To tell the truth, I did believe in censorship when I came to college, but I'm beginning to see the damage it can cause. Things are happening to me in college." Another one after having missed the satire in Auden's description of the ideal citizen stopped short and said, "This author is playing cat and mouse with me. I really get suck- ed in by these, don't I?" Others cited instances when some of the issues had been discussed in a class and said, "I'm not sure what I think nonr." Occasionally one would say, "I'm contradicting mself; I'd better back up and think this through." One Low IB at the end of her experience with this study said, 111 “I'm.g1ad you asked me [to participate in this study7. I've learned a lot about nwself." From this evidence, one may gather that some experience in wrestling with issues involved might cause considerable change in the Low IB's. It must be kept in mind, however, that all of these students were high in aptitude and reading ability and that they had considerable motivation to do well in college. Low IB's with below average aptitude, reading ability, and motivation might offer a considerably more complex problem. If some change seems possible, further research needs to be done in actual classroom situations where students have an opportunity to come to grips with the kind of subject matter which causes students to examine their values. Because literature has the potential for placing students vicariously in all kinds of situations where value choices are being made and hierarchies of values examined, classes in this subject area offer innumerable possibilities for'experimentation. 'With the wide range of good literature available, nothing would need to be sacrificed in quality or range in order to do this. Experimentation, however, would require a flexible, democratic in- structor, dedicated to value-oriented teaching and to evaluation which involves not only inferences based on general information but value judg- ments based on critical reading and.critical thinking-4both by the group and by the individual. If value systems of individuals were brought into play with value systems of others, students might tgkg_something more away from literature than they brought. It is conceivable that what a student considered important to his well being might be modified by skill- fully planned vicarious experiences, group exchange of views, and encour- agement of independent judgment. 3. h. S. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1h. 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY Adorno, T.‘W.; Frenkel-Brunswick, E.; Levinson, D. J.; and Sanford, R. N. The Authoritarian Personality. Harpers, 1950. Allport, Gordon'W. "Attitudes," pp. 798-8hh, A Handbook of Social Psychology, Carl A. Murchison, Ed. Clark U. Press, Worcester, 1935. Alpert, Harvey. Relation of Empathy to Reading_§gmprehension. Unpub- lished doctoral dissertation. University of Florida, Gainesville, 1955. American Council on Education. Committee on Measurement and Evalua- tion. Instructor's Manual for the Inventory of Beliefs. American Council on Education, 1935. Brown, Rager. "Rigidity and Authoritarianism," Journal of Abnormal and Social Ps chol , h8: h69-h76; 1953. Butz, Otto. The Unsilent Generation. Rinehart, 1958. 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"Effect of Stereotyped Attitudes on Learning," Journal of Educational Psychology, hB: 207-212; 1957. Fromm, Eric. Escape from Freedom. Rinehart, 191:1 yuan for Himself. Rinehart, l9h7. Gaier, E. L. "Selected Personality Variables and the Learning Process," Afisychological Monographs, No. 3h9, Vol. 66, no. 12; 1952. Gillespie, James M. and Allport, G. W. Youth's Outlook on the Future. Doubleday, Garden City, 1955. Gray, W. S. and Rogers,Bernice. Maturity in Reading.~ University of Chicago Press, 1956. ”Reading and Factors Influencing Reading Efficiency," pp. 136:216 in Reading in General Education, W. S. Gray, Ed. American Council on Education, 19hO. Gustad, John'W. "Changes in Social Attitudes and Behavior: A Review of the Literature," Educational and Psychologigal Measurement, 11: 87-102; 1951. Hayakawa, S. I. ‘Eanguggg_in Thought and Action. Harcourt, Brace, l9h9. 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Stern, George, G; Stein, Morris I; and Bloom, Benjamin 3. Methods in Personality_Assessment. The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 19§6. Strang, Ruth. Exploration in Reading Patterns. University of Chicago Press, 19h2. Thorndike, Rebert L. "Reading as Reasoning: A Study of Mistakes in Paragraph Reading," Journal of Educational Psychology, 3h: 193-205; 1917. Vergara, Allys Dwyer. ‘gritical Soggy of a Grogp of Colle e women's Responses to Poetry. Eureau of Publications, Teachers soilege, Col- umbia University, 19b6, 'Waples, Douglas; Berelson, Bernard; and Bradshaw, Franklyn R. What Reading Does to People, A Summary of Evidence on the Social Effects of Reading and a Statement of Problems for Research. University of Chicago Press, 19h0. 116 66. Webster, Harold; Sanford, Nevitt; and Freedman, Mervin.. "A New Instru— ment for Studying Authoritarianism.in Personality," Journal of Ps cholo , hO: 73-8h; 1955. 67.'Wbodruff, Asahel D. "The Concept-Value Theory of Human Behavior," gournal of General Psychology, ho: 1h1-lSh; 19h9. 68. "Personal Values and Direction of Behavior," School Review, 50: 32-h2; l9h2. 69. _f_ "The Roles of Value in Human Behavior,” Journal of Social Psychology,,36: 97-107; 1952. 70. and DiVesta, F. J. "The Relationship between Val- ues, Concepts, and Attitudes," Educational and Psychological Meas- urement, 8: 6h5—660. 117 APPENDIX Sources of Selections Arnold, Matthew. "Rugby Chapel," Poetry and Prose, edited by John Bryson, Harvard Press, l9Sh, pp. 196-201. Selection: Lines 60-72. Auden,‘l. H. "The Unknown Citizen," Another Time, Faber and Faber, London, 19h0, pp. 96-97. Selection: Entire poem. Brackenridge, Henry H. ‘Mgdern Chivalgy, edited by C. M. Newlin, American Book Company, 1937. Selection: vol I, Chap. h, p. 19, lines 5-18. Cather,‘Willa. "The Sculptor's Funeral," Youth and the Bright Meduog, Alfred A. Knopf, 1920, pp. 2583272. Selection: 262-266, condensed. Chase, Stuart. "The Luxury of Integrity," Harper's Haga- zine, 161: 336-3hh; August, 1930. SElection: Entire article, condensed. Clough, Arthur Hugh. "The Latest Decalogue," Poems, Hac- millan, 1913, p. 18h. Selection: Entire poem. Enerson, Ralph Waldo. "Self Reliance," Re resentative Sel- ections, edited by Frederic Carpenter, 1955, pp. 39-115. Selection: p. 92, paragraph 2, line 1, and p. 9h, para- graph . "The Freedom to Read," A statement by the American Library Association and the American Book Publishers Council, re- printed in Patterns for Living, 0. J. Campbell, J. Van Gundy, and C. Shrodes, eds., Hacmillan, 1955, pp. S6h-568. Selection: Paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 7. "Learning and the Community," Bulletin, St. John's College, Annapolis, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 29-§0. ' Selection: p. 29, lines 6-16, and p. 30, lines 1-2. Lelia, Sinclair. Babbitt, Harcourt Brace, 1922. Selection: p. 20, paragraph 6 and succeeding h paragraphs. Markham, Edwin. "The Man with the Hoe," Mannwithythe Hoe and and Other Poems, Doubleday, Doran, 1899, pp. 1-2. Selection: Lines 1-1h, h2-h9. 118 Miller, Arthur. Death of a salesman, Viking Press, l9h9. Selection: pp. 32-33. * Parker Dorot . "Bohemia," Best of Dorothy Parker, Methuen, London, 19 . Selection: Entire poem. Sandburg, Carl. The People Yes. Harcourt, Brace, 1936. Selection: p. 187, lines 2-6. Steinbeck, John. grapes of‘Wrath, Viking Press, 1939. Selection: Chapter 19, pp. §i§—322, condensed. Valentine, Alan. "A Modest Proposal for the Care and Use of Subversives," The American Scholar, Spring, 195h, pp. 137- 1h5. Selection: Paragraph h. Wells, H. 0. Ann Veronigg, Peter Smith, New York, 1932. Selection: pp. 28-29, condensed. soc-u uss om JUL 25 1960 ,5. v ‘bv W 'I.. n '1'.‘ RIES ”'TlT/ilLfiITILfljfitlfi’WW1"’