THESXS

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Alternation Behavior 1n.Mentaliy Retarded and

Normal Children
presented by

Robert Arthur Pierson

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhD degree in Guidance 8: Counseling

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J/Malor professor i}

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LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

ALTERNATION BEHAVIOR IN MENTALLY RETARDED

AND NORMAL CHILDREN

BY

ROBERT ARTHUR PIERS ON

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies
of Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Education

1960

/./ 'r /-7/ '/ /
Approved 1 or { ,/f «I {CLC

2

Robert Arthur Pierson

ABSTRACT

The present study was undertaken to explore the effects
of stimulus satiation and related phenomena in mentally retarded
and normal school age children. Three hundred sixty-five subjects
of both sexes, ranging in age from 6—0 to 21-3 made up the mentally
handicapped sample. There were 575 children in the normal sample.
Mean IQ ratings for the mentally retarded sample were 67. 42 and
69. 40 on the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children, respectively. In brief, all subjects were first presented
with an open alley figure shaped like a T on a plain half sheet of
paper. Subjects were then told to start at the bottom of the T and
draw a line with a pencil anywhere they wanted to go, as long as the
pencil was not lifted from the paper and the borders of the T were
not crossed. The direction first turned was noted. Normal children
of both sexes and at all age levels showed a definite preference for
turning right. For mentally retarded, the right preference appeared
to be a developmental phenomenon. That is, as age increased so did
the right preference. A theoretical explanation to account for this
finding was discussed.

After the T, all subjects were presented with an inverted
L on a clean half sheet of paper. For half the subjects the L was
pointing right and for the other half the L was pointing left. The

subjects were then forced either right or left for ten trials, no delay,

then were presented with another T after a specified delay. Once
again, the direction first turned was noted.

The following hypotheses were tested:

1. There is no difference in the alternation behavior (stimulus
satiation effects) at different age levels.

2. There is no difference between sexes as regards alter-
nation behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

3. There is no difference between normal and mentally
retarded children in alternation behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

4. The introduction of delay after stimulus exposure will not
result in less alternation behavior (dissipation of stimulus satiation
effects).

On the basis of the data, the lst hypothesis was rejected
as there were significant differences from chance in the alternation
behavior of younger and older mentally retarded females and in older
normal males. The 2nd hypothesis was also rejected as younger
mentally retarded females differed significantly from younger mentally
retarded males and older mentally retarded males. For the normal
sample, significant differences occurred between older males and
older females. The 3rd hypothesis was accepted as the data when
viewed in their totality showed no significant differences between
normal and mentally retarded children with respect to the effects of

stimulus satiation. The 4th hypothesis was rejected as dissipation

effects were evident whenever a significant amount of stimulus
satiation occurred.

Subsidiary findings with respect to avoidance and per:— .
severation were discussed as were the educational implications of

this study.

ALTERNATION BEHAVIOR IN MENTALLY RETARDED

AND NORMAL CHILDREN

By

ROBERT ARTHUR PIERSON

A THESIS

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies
of Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Education

1960

i; 7 c... i r
F '11] I)”: j
._...J Jr: 24 ,’ i' ' :\_

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. M.
Ray Denny who supervised this study and provided indispensable
assistance and help throughout the investigation. The author
also wishes to thank the other members of his committee for
providing valuable suggestions and especially Dr. B. Stefflre

for granting permission to carry out the present research.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION ............................................ 1
Early Formulations 1
Stimulus Satiation and Related Studies
Relation to Mental Retardation 8
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................ 13
SUBJECTS ................................................. 14
METHOD AND PROCEDURE ................................ 18
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ................................... 20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................. 23
Per Cent Turns Free Choice No Previous Trials 25
Alternation Data 0 Delay: Mentally Retarded Females
and Males 25
Alternation Data 0 Delay Mentally Retarded Males
vs. Females 29
Alternation Data ODelay: Normal Females and Males 29
Alternation Data 0 Delay: Normal Males vs. Females 32
Alternation Data 0 Delay: Mentally Retarded vs. Normal 34
Effects of Repeated Testing with Females 37
Effects of Repeated Testing with Males 40
Effects of Repeated Testing: Mentally Retarded Males
and Females and Normal Males and Females 40
Comparison of Treatments I and II: Mentally Retarded 43
Comparison of Treatments I and II: Normals 46
Avoidance 46
Perseveration 49
CONC LUS IONS ............................................. 51
IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION ............................ 54
SUMMARY ................................................. 56
APPENDICES .............................................. 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 61

.iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Mentally Handicapped Children with Respect to N, Sex,
Handedness, Per Cent Handedness, CA, Mean IQ and
Standard Deviation .................................... 15

2. Normal Children with Respect to N, Sex, Handedness,

Per Cent Handedness and CA .......... . ............... 17
3. Mentally Retarded: O, 24, 48, 72 Hour Delay Group ..... 21
4. Normal: 0, 24, 48, 72 Hour Delay Group .............. 22

5. Summary of Results at 0 Delay, All Subjects ............ 24

Figure

1A.

10.

11.

12.

13.

LIST OF FIGURES

Percent right turn responses. No previous trials .......

Percent of alternation O delay. Mentally retarded S's . . .

Figure 2. Percent of alternation O delay. Mentally

retarded males and females .............. . ...........

Percent of alternation 0 delay. Normal S's ............

Percent of alternation, 0 delay. Normal males and

females ................ . .......... . ..... . . . . .......

Percent alternation 0 delay. Mentally retarded and

normal S's ...... . ......................... .....

Percent alternation treatments I and II. Mentally

retardeda’ndnormal females .........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Percent alternation Treatments I and II. Mentally

retardedandnormalmales.... ........

Percent alternation Treatments I and II. Mentally

retarded males andfemales .................. ........

Percent alternation Treatments I and 11. Normal males

andfemales

Percent alternation Treatments I and II compared.

MentallyretardedS's........................ ........

Percent alternation Treatments I and II compared.

Normals’s......OCCCOOOCIOOOIOOO ..... 00.000.000.00.
Percent avoidance. All trials ............. ......

Percent perseveration. All trials . . . . . . . ...... . ......

Page
26

27

30

31

33

35

38

41

42

44

45

47
48

50

INTRODUCTION

Early Formulations »

 

Ever since Tolman (25) in 1925 described the following
phenomenon in the behavior of rats, investigators have been concerned
with its explanation. "A simple T maze was used, and it was arranged
so that the animal could get back to the food box in identical fashion,
whether he chose the left or right angle of the T, either route met
with success . . . . There was a very pronounced tendency towards
continuous and regular alternation, left, right, left, right, or right,
left, right, left, it appeared in short, that even where either side was
equally satisfactory, there was in our rats a positive tendency left
over toward variation of response . . . . A positive tendency in and of
itself. "

Notably, the Hullians (21) have attempted an explanation of
this response variability (now termed spontaneous alternation) in terms
of the response, only, employing reactive inhibition or work decrement
as the explanatory concept. 1 Other investigators ( 8) have suggested

a theory of spontaneous alternation in terms of the stimulus, using the

 

In a response-type theory of explanation, the animal is
viewed as alternating responses instead of alleys, i. e. making a right
rutn because a left turn has already been made. Reactive inhibition
and work decrement when employed as explanatory concepts merely
state that the occurrence of a response reduces temporarily the
probability of its recurrence. The concept of reactive inhibition in
addition assigns an explicit role to the number of times the response
is made and the amount of work required by the response.

concept of stimulus satiation to account for a reduced tendency to
respond toward or visit a recently exposed stimulus.

In contrast to a response type theory of explan-
ation, a stimulus-theory explanation proposes that the animal alternates
from one arm of the maze (a set of stimuli.) to the other (a different
set of stimuli) because the less recently visited is less satiated and
thus has greater exploratory value. One of the first Systematic studies
designed to point out the inadequacies of a response-theory type of
explanation was made by Glanzer ( 8 ) who incorporated the ideas of
various investigators (Dennis, Heathers, Solomon) and formed the
construct of stimulus satiation. Following Hull's procedure he for-
mulated a theory to account for this and related phenomena in terms
of a postulate. His intent was to circumvent the difficulties in the
reactive inhibition explanation of spontaneous alternation and at the
same time come up with a theory that would lend itself to a number
of testable predictions.

His first postulate states: "Each moment an organism
perceives a stimulus--object or stimulus-~objects, A, there develops
a quantity of stimulus satiation to A. " Glanzer experimentally tested
two deductions from the postulate and contrasted his results to those
which would have been predicted from a response-type theory. The
first hypothesis which he tested stated: "Exchanging the stimulus-

object of a 2 alternative maze between trials would result in a repetition

rather than an alternation of turns. " He found that the animals did
alternate alleys (stimuli) rather than responses. A response-type
theory would have predicted the opposite. The second hypothesis
stated that an increase in the interval between trials would have
differential effects on spontaneous alternation depending on the place
of delay. Glanzer, for example, found that when animals were
detained in the end box of the alternative chosen in the first run of a
T maze, 96% of the group showed spontaneous alternation on the
following trial. A response-type theory would have regarded the
amount of alternation as a function of the time interval independent of
the stimulus complex during the delay interval. The verification of
the (hypotheses was accepted by Glanzer as evidence for an explanation
of spontaneous alternation in terms of the stimulus.

Berlyne ( 1 ), in a similar vein, has developed two pos-
tulates and three corollaries based primarily on Hull's postulate 8.
Berlyne's postulate I states, "When a novel stimulus affects an
organism's receptors, there will occur a drive-stimulus-producing
response. ” Berlyne termed this response, ”Curiosity. " Postulate II
states, "As a curiosity-arousing stimulus continues to affect an organism's
receptors. curiosity will diminish. " The corollaries present the
following ideas: (1) "An organism will'learn to respond to a curiosity
arousing stimulus with activity which will increase stimulation by it, ”

(2) after a time lapse. the activity, which Berlyne labels as exploration

will cease, and (3) "after a further lapse of time, if the curiosity-
arousing stimulus is again affecting the organism's receptors, there
will be a second spell of exploration, but this time there will be less
exploration than during the first spell; such spells of exploration will
reoccur at intervals. until exploration of the stimulus in question ceases
altogether. ”

Berlyne's experimental results were in the same direction
as the predictions following from his corollaries. That is, subjects
spent more time exploring a novel stimulus than they did exploring
stimuli previously explored and they spent less time exploring stimuli
the second time the stimuli were encountered. In an attempt at an
explanation of the alternation problem, Berlyne's results fit in nicely,
as the stimuli of the most recently visited T maze arm will have less
effect in arousing the drive-stimulus producing response, "curiosity, "
than the other arm. Hence, the animal alternates.

In an experiment designed to study the relationship between
exploratory behavior and the general activity level, Montgomery (14, 15. 16)
concluded that neither Hull's concepts nor any other fundamental theory
could explain the phenomena of exploratory behavior and spontaneous
alternation. Much the same as Berlyne, Montgomery decided the
phenomenon could best be explained by introducing a unique drive which
he termed "exploration. " Although he regarded the drive as being

primary, he felt it was relatively independent of the other primary

drives, even though it showed some tendency to decrease in strength
when another primary drive was heightened, as in the case of food or

water deprivation.

Stimulus Satiation and Related Studies

 

From the aforementioned investigations of stimulus satiation
and spontaneous alternation one can easily get the idea that the only
relevant issues with respect to this phenomena are those that deal
solely with explanatory concepts. However, within the framework
of stimulus satiation and spontaneous alternation, reference can also
be made to investigations that bear directly to certain aspects of the
learning process. Rothkopf and Zeaman, using rats (18), have
empirically demonstrated an alternation learning effect; that is, an
increase in alternation as a function of the opportunity to alternate.
More recently Denny ( 5 ), has demonstrated that avoidance learning
could be mediated by stimulus satiation effects. Learning via stimulus
satiationis being definedin this case as a learned preference for the
subject to visit the side that was less frequently visited in the past.

In a study designed to investigate the effect of new and
familiar stimuli, Berlyne ( Z ) reported on an experiment concerned
with attention to change. In this experiment, human subjects were first
habituated by key pressing responses, to a series of visual stimuli.

In the experimental phase the subjects had a choice of responding to

stimuli encountered in the habituation phase or others of a different
shape and color. Berlyne found that humans showed a tendency to
respond more frequently to the novel rather than to the familiar
stimuli.

The majority of studies investigating stimulus satiation
and spontaneous alternation as well as related aspects of this pheno-
menon have been based upon the study of infra-humans. In an attempt
to provide added insight into this phenomenon at the human level,
Denny and Allen ( 4 ) developed a technique somewhat similar to that
employed by Zeaman and House (27) in their study with rats. In brief
they presented human subjects with an inverted L about a quarter
inch in diameter on a clean, half sheet of paper for ten successive
trials (no delay between trials). For any one subject, the L was always
pointing in the same direction (right or left). The subject was instructed
to start at a dot near the base of the L and do anything he wanted to
do with a pencil, so long as the pencil was not lifted from the paper
nor the solid line crossed. When subject had traversed the path,
another was presented. Following the L's, either immediately or
after a specified delay. S was presented with a T and the direction
first turned was noted; same as L or opposite. Half of the subjects
were given an inverted L pointing to the left and half given one pointing
to the right. The results of the experiment showed a striking difference

between male and female subjects all of whom were college students.

Male students at zero delay showed a substantial tendency to go the

 

opposite way they were forced (67%). This opposite effect held up

in the males for 48 hours (60%). then dissipated. That is, the
responses at the 72 and 96 hour intervals were at the 50% level.

In other words, the effect of being forced one way and responding by
going the other held up for 48 hours or for three responses. On the
other hand, females tended to show a perseveration effect at 0 delay,
they responded by going the same way they were forced (65%). By
24 hours this effect was no longer present.

Wingfield (26) in 1938, made an attempt to investigate
the alternation phenomena in human subjects by using a square plank
maze with a perpendicular divider connected to one end. His subjects
were eight boys and seven girls who ranged in age from 3-0 to 6-8.
All subjects had average intelligence. In this experiment, subject
would simply walk down the center of the plank, come to the choice
point and either turn right or left and then continue to a goal, where
he or she was rewarded withsome candy. In all there were six
blocks of trials (two a day with about an hour's spacing). Since
Wingfield reported only 30% alternation with his subjects, he con-
cluded that "it is evident that alternation does not occur in children
as it does in the rat. ” It is interesting to note that seven of his
subjects perseverated for all trials, five of whom were females. This

last finding is not inconsistent with the results of Denny and Allen.

Relation to Mental Retardation

 

Just as psychoanalytic theory has been advanced by the
study of the abnormal. it would appear that we might better understand
certain facets of behavior, particularly those dealing with learning in
youngsters of average intelligence by studying those who are intel-
lectually inferior. Since one of the problems the present research is
designed to investigate makes a comparison of mentally handicapped
and normal children on a similar task, we might look at some relevant
studies. That research on learning has been sorely neglected in this
area of mentally retarded is attested to by McPherson's (13) survey
of learning studies up to 1948. Her survey indicated only 14 published
papers concerned with experimental studies of learning in mental
defectives to that time. The implications for such research have been
aptly stated by her. in that she emphasizes the need for extensive
laboratory work in learning and other aspects of behavior.

One of the first systematic studies in this area was published
by McCulloch, 92:1. (12) and dealt with work learning in the mental
defective. These experimentors analyzed the performance of mental
defectives on a word learning task presented by a tape recorder. They
compared a group with a mean MA of9-0 with another whose mean
MA was 6-0. In brief, they found that the group with the mean MA of
9-0 excelled on total score, grasp score (equated with one trial learning),

and gain score (repetitive learning). However when the two groups

were compared with respect to a ratio of grasp to gain, there were
no significant differences between them.

Sloan and Berg (20) replicated the study of McCollough f:_t_a_1.
(12) and came up with essentially the same results. However, they also
included an investigation of maze learning (standard stylus maze) and
reported no significant relationship between maze learning and MA.
The subjects in this experiment were 17 males and 15 males between
10 and 30 years of age. The mean MA and IQ ratings for the group
were 8-2 and 57. 0 respectively.

In a study comparing the performance of mentally retarded
and normal children. Bernice Eisman (7 ) compared superior,
average and mentally retarded adolescents with respect to learning
on a seven card paired associate problem. She also tested for stimulus
generalization, and retention over a one week and one month period of
time. Her results indicated that there were no significant differences
among the three intelligence levels with respect to any of the afore-
mentioned measures of performance. As a possible explanation of the
fact that no differences occurred, she posited that the task was relatively
simple. This type of explanation holds up when viewing the results of
other investigators (17). It should also be noted that her groups were
formed on the basis of group intelligence tests which tend to penalize
those youngsters with poor reading ability. Hence some of her subjects

may have been educationally rather than mentally retarded; All in all

10
from Eisman's study we get the idea that mentally handicapped children
compare favorably in pictorial paired association learning tasks with
youngsters of average and superior intelligence.

Operating from a physiological frame of reference, Spitz
and Blackman (22) recently investigated the role of neural satiation in mental
defectives. They compared high grade adolescent mental defectives
with a group of normal adolescents and found that the mentally defectives
were significantly more limited in their capacity to satiate. Satiation
being defined as an electro-chemical process occurring the the brain
that tends to come to a state of equilibrium. Mention was also made
that the retardates showed greater perceptual rigidity as measured
by the modified Rubin-Vase-Profile reversible figures test. The
authors suggested that a common factor, possibly ”brain modifiability”
underlay both production of visual figure after effects and facility in
reversing the figure and ground of a nonfixated reversible figure.

In still another study designed to ascertain the generality
of the inferred satiation process, Spitz and Blackman (23) using the
Mueller-Lyer Illusion found no differences between satiated retardates
and normals on illusion scores. The investigators made mention of
the fact that satiated retardates performed more like normals than
they did like the nonsatiating retarded. On the basis of their results,
the authors point out that mentally retarded children might well profit

educationally by being separated into distinct groups on the basis of

11

performance in various perceptual tasks. This certainly points up
the fact of individual differences and gives credence to the need for
a careful evaluation of our present techniques with respect to teaching
the mentally retarded.

In a similar vein, it has long been accepted that the
mentally retarded youngster is more rigid than the normal. Stevenson
and Zigler (24) have presented a succinct summarization for this
generalization:

Feebleminded individuals have been characterized as
being rigid in numerous studies in which feebleminded children
and adults and normal children have been compared. The
tasks employed have been primarily of the "satiation" and
"switching" types. In the former, S's are instructed to per-
form a task and are allowed to repeat the task until they be-
come satiated and no longer want to continue it. They are then
instructed to perform a highly similar task and again allowed
to perform until satiated. Feebleminded S's have been found
to spend significantly more time on each task than normal S's.
This lack of influence of initial satiation on the performance
of subsequent tasks has been interpreted as indicating a
greater rigidity in the personality structure of feeblemindedS's.
In the ”switching" tasks the S, after acquiring one response,
is forced to switch from this response to a new response
involving identical or highly similar stimuli. The smaller
amount of transfer from the first to the second task shown by
feebleminded S's has been interpreted as indicating greater
rigidity.

Plenderleith (l7)in a recent study designed to get at some
of the salient aspects of ”switching tasks, " compared 30 normal with
30 feebleminded subjects in a discrimination learning situation. Her
results indicated that there were no differences between the groups in

learning the original discrimination problems, nor were there any

12
significant differences in remembering them. She did point out
however, that feebleminded subjects who underwent discrimination
reversal training six weeks after the original discrimination learning,
learned the reversal problem less easily than did the others. However,
both normal and feebleminded subjects showed a large degree of
positive transfer from the discrimination problems to the discrimination
reversal problems.

A series of systematic, experimental tasks carried out
by Stevenson and Zigler (24) at the University of Texas. confirmed
the findings of Plenderleith. Perhaps the results of these two investi-
gations are at odds with the recent work of Zeaman and House (11)
who found chimpanzees learned discrimination problems faster than
human subjects whose intellect was in the imbecile range. However,
Plenderleith and Stevenson were working with subjects whose IQ's
were above 40 and for the most part somewhat ”brighter" than the
subjects used by Zeaman and House.

As there is a paucity of experimental knowledge of the
behavior of mentally retarded children as compared with normals,
the present investigation was undertaken to gain insight into the
phenomenon of stimulus satiation and spontaneous alternation in

mental defectives as well as in normals.

l3

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Although it was expected on the basis of the perseverative
character of much of the retarded childrens' behavior that they would
be more resistant to the effects of satiation very little basis existed
for making hypotheses about the developmental aspects of this problem
and about the present experimental situation. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are more in the nature of inquiries and have been stated
in the null form.

1. There is no difference in the alternation behavior (stimulus
satiation effects) at different age levels.

2. There is no difference between sexes as regards alternation
behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

3. There is no difference between normal and mentally retarded
children in alternation behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

4. The introduction of delay after stimulus exposure will not
result in less alternation behavior (dissipation of stimulus satiation

effects).

14

SUBJECTS

The subjects used in this experiment were 940 school
children ranging in age from 6-0 to 21-3. Of the 940, 360 were
enrolled in the Type A Program for the Mentally Handicapped in the
Lansing. Michigan,Public Schools. Five other mentally handicapped
youngsters were included in the sample but they were not yet in the
Type A Program. The remaining 575 children were students in the
Holt, Michigan,Public Schools.

Intellectual evaluations of the mentally handicapped children
in the present sample were available in the form of the 1937 Revision
of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (Form L) and the Wechsler
Intelligence Test for Children. The range of scores for the Stanford-
Binet was from 51-82. The mean was 67. 42 and the standard deviation
8. 17. For the WISC, the range was from 49 to 81. The mean was
69. 40 and the standard deviation was 7. 95.

Reference to Table 1 shows the percentage of right handed-
ness in the mentally handicapped ranges at various age levels from 75
to 91. Total per cent for the group was 84. When compared to the
normal group the difference as measured by chi square is significant
beyond the 5% level. However this great a difference with respect to
left handedness is in line with the findings of Gordon (9 ) who found

that of 729 mental defectives 18% or. 131 were left handed.

Table 1

Per Cent Handedness, CA, Mean IQ and Standard Deviation

15

Mentally Handicapped Children with Respect to N, Sex, Handedness,

 

 

 

N Sex Rhand Rhfind Lhand Lhand CA Mean IQ (51:31.
64 F 54 84 10 16 6-6 to 12-11 ”:2; :3 .7, Z:
51 F 45 as . 12 1-11 1:2$:22 23?:
45 F 38 84 7 16 16-0 to '20-4 11:23: (5): 2: i;
85 M 69 81 16 19 6-4 to 12-11 11:22:13 2: :2
.5 M 59 91 e 1 113322: 2:23
55 M 41 75 14 25 16-0 to 21-3 *3; 33 Z, :3
160 F 137 86 23 14 11:25: 33 i: ii)
205 M 169 82 36 18 4:62: 6): :2 5:
365 M&F 306 84 59 16 $2312 3 i:
*WEC

41*
S—B

16

For the normal sample it was impossible to determine the
range and mean IQ ratings for the younger and older groups as there
were a variety of intellectual measures, i. e. Kuhmann-Anderson,

SRA Primary Mental Abilities and the California Short Form Test of
Mental Maturity. The situation was further complicated by the fact

that some of the younger children had only been tested with regard

to reading readiness. However, the sample in the age range from 13-0
to 15-11 were all in junior high school and intellectual measures were
available for them. These children were all tested with the SRA Primary
Mental Abilities Group Intelligence Test. The mean for the group was
97. 85 and the standard deviation was 13. 58.

Due to the fact that intellectual measures were not available
for the younger and older subjects, the experimenter excluded those
children who were over age for grade placement and in the teacher's
opinion, intellectually inferior. Since Holt has had a program for the
educable mentally handicapped for three years, the classroom teachers
are alert and refer for psychological testing those children that experience
difficulty with the learning process. In view of the aforementioned, it
was highly improbable that a youngster who was mentally retarded was
included in the normal sample. A breakdown of the normal group follows

in Table 2.

17
Table 2
Normal Children with Respect to N, Sex, Handedness,

Per Cent Handedness and CA

 

 

N Sex Rhand RhZihd Lhand Lhand CA Mean IQ 3::
138 F 115 82 23 17 6-0 to 12-11
65 F 60 92 5 8 13-0 to 15-11 98.03 13.47
79 F 73 92 6 8 16-0 to 18-10
125 M 105 84 20 16 6—0 to 12-11
70 M 57 81 13 19 13-0 to 15-4 97.72 13.60
98 M 91 93 7 7 16-0 to 18-9
282 F 248 88 34 12
293 M 253 86 40 14

575' M&F 501 87 74 13

 

18

METHOD AND PROCEDURE

1. Each subject was first presented with a T on a clean half
sheet of paper which met the following dimensions: 4 inches across
the top, a 2 inch stem and 1/4 inch in diameter. There was a small
dot at the base of the T and subject was given the instructions to start
at the dot and draw a line anywhere he wanted to go as long as he didn't
go outside the lines. The subjects were further instructed that they
could not lift up their pencil and draw another line once they started.

In some instances the above instructions were modified for the younger
mentally handicapped and normal children. In this case the subjects
were told to start at the dot and drive their car anywhere they wanted
to go, so long as they did not go off the street. If subject stopped at
the top of the L or T he was told to go all the way.

2. Subject was then presented an inverted L on a clean half
sheet of paper (the dimensions of the L in this case were 2 1/8 inches
across the top with a stem of 2 inches), for ten successive trials (no
delay between trials). For any one subject, the L was always pointing
in theftsame direction, i. e. , right or left.

3. After subject had traversed the path, he immediately
went on to another L.

4. Following the ten L's, immediately or after a specified

delay, subject was presented with a T and the direction first turned

was noted. Same as L or opposite.

19

5. Half the subjects in each group were given an inverted
L pointing to the left and the other half to the right.

6. For all subjects the testing was done in a group situation.
The number of children in each group varied from as few as ten
in some mentally handicapped rooms to as many as 30 for normal
children at the high school level. In no case were the sexes separated.

After experimenter was introduced to class by the teacher,

he simply told the subjects that he wanted them to do something for
him. As was previously stated. the instructions were altered when-

ever it was deemed necessary.

20

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The study was set up in the following manner to insure an
adequate number of subjects in eachgroup and at~the same time provide
for a control within each group. Essentially, the design is as follows:
The total number of mentally retarded ( N 365) were divided into
three different age groups on the basis of CA. This approximated the
three divisions arbitrarily set up by the Lansing Public Schools. That
is, the youngsters in the age range from 6-0 to 12-11 are in the
elementary program. Those with CA's from 13-0 to 15-11 are in
junior high school, while those with CA's above 16-0 are usually in
the high school program.

Each group was further broken down into three subgroups
on the basis of sex and experimental treatment. Males constituted
one group, females the other. Each sex group was then broken down
approximately in half. Half the subjects in one treatment being tested
after a 0, 24, 48, and 72 hour delay. The other half were given four
consecutive trials with no delay between trials.

The design for the mentally retarded is depicted graphically
in Table 3.

Normal children were fitted into the same type design. The
only difference is a greater number of subjects in each group. This

design is depicted in Table 4.

Table 3

Mentally Retarded

21

0, 24, 48, 72 Hour Delay Group

Male

Female

 

Elementary
CA range: 6-4 to 12-11
N 46

Junior high school
CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 27

Senior high school
CA range: 16-0 to 21-3
N 26

Total N male: 99

Total N 79

Total N 44

Total N 51

Total N 0-72
hr. group: 174

Elementary
CA range: 6-6 to 12-11
N 33

Junior high school
CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 17

Senior high school
CA range: 16-0 to 20-4
N 25

Total N female: 75

4 C'dnsecutive Trials, 0 Delay

Elementary
CA range: 6-4 to 12-11
N 39

Junior high school
CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 38

Senior high school
CA range: l6-0 to 20-1
N 29

Total N male: 106

Total N 70

Total N 72

Total N 49

Total N, 4

consecutive
trials group:
191

Elementary
CA range: 6-6 to 12-11
N 31

Junior high school
CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 34

Senior high school
CA range: 16-0 to 19-11
N 20

Total N female: 85

 

22
Table 4
Normal

0, 24, 48, 72 Hour Delay Group

 

 

Male Female
Elementary Elementary
CA range: 6-0 to 12-11 CA range: 6-0 to 12-11
N 68 Total N 142 N 74
Junior high school Junior high school
CA range: 13—0 to 15-11 CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 30 Total N 60 N 30
Senior high school Senior high school
CA range: 16-0 to 18-9 CA range: 16-0 to 18-10
N 39 Total N 61 N 22
Total N male: 137 Total N 263 Total N female: 126

.------—-------------------,---------------------------------------

4 Consecutive Trials 0 Delay

Elementary Elementary

CA range: 6-0 to 12-11 CA range: 6-0 to 12-11

N 57 Total N 121 N 64

Junior high school Junior high school

CA range: 13-0 to 15-11 CA range: 13-0 to 15-11
N 40 Total N 75 N 35

Senior high school Senior high school

CA range: 16-0 to 18-7 CA range: 16-0 to 18-5

N 59 Total N 116 N 57

Total N male: 156 Total N 312 N 156

 

M

23

RESULTS AND DIS CUSSION

The experimental results of this study have been
analyzed in terms of the responses made during the various delay
periods. In this study there were essentially two different ex-
perimental treatments, 1. e. , I (O, 24, 48 and 72 hour delay group)
and II (4 consecutive trials group), hereafter referred to as
Treatment 1 or 11. Since the subjects in both treatments made a
response at 0 delay, these responses were pooled and analyzed
separately for the retarded and the normal.

A response made opposite to the way forced was
termed an alternation response whereas a response in the same
direction as forced was termed a perseveration response. The
number of alternation responses made by each group was used as
a basis for statistical comparison, first in comparing the response
with chance and then as a basis for making a comparison between
groups. A summary of the results at 0 delay can be found in
Table 5. Before proceeding to analyze the results of the two
treatments we should consider the first task all subjects were
presented with. In this task all subjects were presented a T, no

previous trials, and the per cent of turns (right or left) was noted.

24

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25

Per Cent Turns Free Choice
No Previous Trials

 

 

Figure 11A depicts the per cent of right turn responses on
the T (no previous trials) for mentally retarded and normal subjects.
There is no doubt that the trend with respect to both groups is clearly
in the direction of turning right as chronological age increases. One
could almost posit that for mentally retarded, the choice of going
right is something that is learned slowly and apparently does not
level off until they are of junior high school age. This particular
finding may be an example of an incidental learning deficit in the
mentally retarded as suggested by Denny (4). A comparison of
mentally retarded with normal males in the age range from 6-0
to 12-11 regarding a right turn response gives a chi square value
of 18.970. This is significant at the 1% level. For females in
the same age range, the obtained chi square is 45.214 which is
also significant at the 1% level. These are the only significant
differences.

Alternation Data 0 Delay: Mentally Retarded
Females and Males

 

 

Figure 1 shows the per cent of mentally retarded females
who made an alternation response at 0 delay. Inspection of Figure 1

shows that the per cent of mentally retarded females making an

Percent Right

Percent Right

90

85

65

6O

55

50

45

40

35

90

65

60

55

50

11>
O .

35

 

 

26

Males Females

 

 

 

 

r/
I
M1 ,
Mentally Retarded ’ “Wily.
-, - ...... _ , I —— -— - Retarded
-.. Normal , I Normal
I
, /
I I
11 ’ '
I
m1 I
I
I
L g l i - cl---___....-- |
6—12 13-15‘ 16+ 6-12 13-15 16+
Chronological Age

 

 

'vrsv‘~‘l .PJ-.w"t;

.“.'bu-;r.-u-4 f4...“ app. . ‘n'ass

Mentally
Retarded

Normals

-..... .. Females ,__Females

Males Males

 

 

/

J wan-Una “Ii—m” ...—wuq-gqo -v --—\w-—-t _ 1 1 -‘ .-- -.. -- | 1

 

 

 

6-12

13-15 16 6-12 13-15 16+

Figure 1A. Percent right turn responses. No previous trials

100

90

80

70

60

50

4O

30

Pe rc ent of Alte rnation

20

10

6-12

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

Percent of Alternation

20

Figure 1.

 

Mentally Retarded Females

~L- —a——~-'--—J

 

13-15 16+

Chronological Age

Mentally Retarded Males

 

 

1

13-15

11

Chronological Age

Percent of alternation O delay. Mentally retarded 8'5

27

28
alternation response at 0 delay decreases as chronological age increases.
In other words, it appears that for this group there is a tendency to
become more conforming or more resistant to the effects of satiation
as age increases. The per cent of alternation in the elementary
group (64%) when compared with chance performance gives a chi
square value of 5. 062 which approaches significance at the 2% level
(5. 412). The per cent of alternation for the junior high school group
(55%) is only slightly above chance performance, consequently it is
not significant. However, the marked tendency to perseverate (29%
alternation) demonstrated by the senior high school group is significant
beyond the 1% level (chi square 8. 022). When the percentage of
alternation for all mentally retarded females is combined and compared
with chance we get a p value slightly larger than . 50. This nonsignificance
points up the need to consider age with respect to stimulus satiation
behavior.

Figure 1 also shows the per cent of alternation responses
made by mentally retarded males. Reference to Figure 1 shows that
the per cent of alternation for mentally retarded males does not vary
with respect to chronological age. Per cent of alternation at 0 delay
is approximately the same for all three age groups (50%). Consequently
there are no significant differences at the various age levels. This
finding seems to indicate that mentally retarded males are not

particularly satiable.

29

Alternation Data 0 Delay Mentally Retarded
Males vs. Females

 

Figure 2 compares the performance of mentally retarded
males and females with respect to alternation at O delay. From
Figure 2 it is evident that the per cent of alternation does not differ
too much between the sexes until a chronological age of 16 is reached.
At this point the girls show less effects of satiation. The difference
between the two older groups is significant at the 5% level. Chi square

4. 205.

Alternation Data 0 Delay: Normal
Females and Males

 

Figure 3 depicts the per cent of alternation for normal
males and females. With respect to the female elementary group it
is obvious that the per cent of alternation (49%) does not differ
significantly from chance. By the same token, even though 60% of
the females in the junior high group make an alternation response,
they too, do not as a group, differ significantly from chance. It
appears that normal females as a group are much more homogeneous
with respect to alternation behavior, that is to say, the tendency to
alternate does not appear related in any way to chronological age up
through the senior high school age range. However, in contrast to
the junior high group the trend for the older females is somewhat in

the direction of perseveration and/ or conformity (47% alternation),

100

90

8O

70

60

50

40

30

Percent of Alternation

20

10

30

 

 

' ------- Female
r
K‘
1- ~“ -
‘ ‘

. ~l--
,- \ ~~M\
1 \\
'1' \
f \
I \
"' \

\
\
\\

7 \

 

0 L L 1

Figure 2.

T 1

141-12 13-15 15+

Chronological Age

Percent of alternation O delay. Mentally retarded
males and females.

100

90

8O

7O

60

50

4O

30

Percent of Alternation

20

10

100

90

80

70

6O

50

4O

30

Percent of Alternation

20

10

31

 

 

 

 

" Normal Females V
-1 \--
\\\
r— \\\\
1
t...
i
L.
1
1 - 1
6-12 13-15 16+
Chronological Age
r
_ Normal Males
r
L
1 1
6-12 13-15 16+

. Figure 3. Percent of alternation 0 delay. Normal S's

32

if we consider the drop in per cent of alternation from the junior high
to the senior high group.

The per cent of alternation for normal males as indicated
by Figure 3 shows that with the exception of older males there are
no significant differences from chance. The obtained chi square for
older males in the high school group is 10. 244. This is significant
at the 1% level. It is interesting to note that this per cent of alternation
(66%) is approximately the same as obtained by Denny with his male
college students.

Alternation Data 0 Delay: Normal
Males vs. Females

 

 

Figure 4 compares the performance of normal males and
females with respect to per cent of alternation at 0 delay. Inspection
of Figure 4 shows that boys and girls in the elementary group do not
differ to speak of in alternation behavior. Males in the junior high
group perform about the same as the younger males whereas junior
high females tend in the direction of alternation. Even though there
is an apparent difference between males and females at this age level
it does not approach significance (chi square 2 l. 910, p = . 20).
Differences with respect to alternation behavior are most pronounced
when comparing older males with older females. That is, the older
males tend to alternate whereas females respond in the direction of
perseveration. The difference between these two groups as tested by

chi square is 6. 000. This is significant at the 2% level.

 

33

 

100 '

9O - ...... Female

80 - Male
8 70 t
8
E 60 L- ’a\ .
Q) I ’a' ‘x
:3 , ,r \
<2 50 _' 1" /' ‘x\
‘8 N./ 4
‘E 40 -
o -
E: -
q, 30 ,.
D.-

20 1-

10 f.

-
O 1 A J
6-12 13-15 16+

Figure 4.

Chron010gica1 Age

Percent of alternation, O delay. Normal males
and females

34

Alternation Data 0 Delay: Mentally
Retarded vs. Normal

 

 

Figure 5 compares mentally retarded females with normal
females and mentally retarded males with normal males at 0 delay
with respect to per cent of alternation. No difference between intelligence
groups is obtained with respect to alternation when the data across all
age levels are lumped together. Some significant differences, however
are obtained between normals and retardates for both sexes when
comparisons are made at each age level.

Regarding the females, significant differences are obtained
between young mentally retarded and young normals and between older
mentally retarded and older normals. The differences as expressed by
chi square are 4. 251 and 4. 358 respectively. Both are significant at
the 5% level.

The only significant difference obtained when comparing
the performance of mentally retarded males with normal males is
in the older age group. Reference to Figure 5 indicates that the older
normals show a higher percent of alternation than do their mentally
retarded counterparts. The difference as measured by chi square
is 4. 276, significant at the 5% level. Both normal and mentally
retarded males in the elementary and junior high group hover near
50% with respect to alternation. Consequently, there are no significant

differences at these age levels.

100

90

80
C.
.9.
16
r:
x.-
E’-
25
t...
o
‘E
Q)
13

m 30
11-

20

10

O

100

90

80
c

.2 70
13
r:
L4
E’-
2
“-1
o
‘E
C)
U
L.
Q)
114

10

70-

35

- ...... Mentally Retarded Females

4 .—...___..__Normal Females

 

 

 

 

it X

1

1l ~

i g 1
6-12 13—15 16+

Chronological Age

,. —————— Mentally Retarded Males
1- ......._.__.. Normal Males

l

 

V wflJ-pcwe-‘n- 'U ”.0me

6-12 13-15 16+

Chron010gica1 A; e

Figure 5. Percent alternation 0 delay. Mentally retarded and

normal S's

36

From the evidence at hand, it appears that we have to
reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference with respect to
the alternation and stimulus satiation phenomena at different age levels.
The results point up the fact that the tendency to alternate among normal
males is more pronounced as they increase in chronological age. This
tendency contrasted with chance yields a chi square of 10. 244, significant
at the 1% level. As a further check on this phenomenon, individual
responses at this age level were analyzed to determine if a preference
for going right was accounting for the difference. Although more male
subjects turned right (70%) after being forced left, than turned left (62%)
after being forced right the difference is not significant (chi square =
. 600. p = . 55. Thus, a right preference is ruled out as an important
variable.

The data with respect to the mentally retarded females
lend further credence to the rejection of the aforementioned hypothesis.
In this case the tendency for the younger females to alternate beyond
chance performance is significant at the 5% level, chi square 5. 062.
Older retarded females indicated a perseveration tendency. This
tendency is significant at the 1% level, chi square 8. 022. It should
be noted that the same analysis of right preference as performed
with normal males was taken here and no significant differences were
obtained. Chi square = . 280 and . 668 respectively for the younger and
older group. In both cases p was near . 5. Appendix I lists the per-

centages of responses for all subjects who were forced right and left.

37

Effects of Repeated Testing with Females

 

The data with respect to dissipation of satiation collected
on successive days have been analyzed in terms of per cent responses.
The response made at 0 delay was used as a base for comparing the
response made at the other delay periods. The dissipation of satiation
refers to the effects of the initial response (only if significantly different
from chance in the direction of alternation) to tend in the opposite direc-
tion from which it was significant as time passes. Figure 6 compares
the responses of mentally retarded and normal females in Treatments
I and II. In Treatment I it is seen that younger mentally retarded fe-
males in the age group from 6-0 to 12-11 are alternating as much at
the end of 24 hours as was true at 0 hours. But by 48 and 72 hours the
tendency to alternate has largely dissipated. Comparing the per cent
of alternation at 0 delay to that at the end of 72 hours gives a chi square
value of 4. 131, significant at the 5% level.

Although both normal and retarded females (age range
13-0 to 15-11) in Treatment I do not show a significant per cent of
alternation at 0 hours they show the same trend over days as present
in the mentally retarded 6—12 group.

In Treatment 1, the tendency for the mentally handicapped
females to perseverate persists over 24 hours but is dissipated by 48
hours. In other words, this age group shows a perseveration tendency

at 0 hours and then responds in the direction of alternation. In contrast

Pe rc ent Alte rnation

Percent Alternation

.38

Treatment 1

6-12 13-15 16+

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mentally
,, ..- I ” .. Retarded
,2,"\‘\ Females
I \ \
.’ \ \
, \ \ Normal
‘\ \ ————-—- Females
\ \\
35 ’
30 1’
25 m 1 1 _L L L L _1 1 4 1‘ __,
0 24 48 72 0 24 48 72 0 24 48 72
Hours
Treatment II
'13—15 16+ identally
Retarded
- Females
Normal
Females
I'm-‘1
. N/ \
\
,’ 1\
I X
I
I
I
I
30 t !
25 l L AL J 4“,,JL...~.. 1.-....,..........-...,4-1.".-.L..- l.-._-...l.-_-.--..
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Delay Intervals

Figure 6. Percent alternation treatments I and II. Mentally retarded and
normal females

39
normal females show a tendency to perseverate though this is not
significant.

The results of Treatment II as depicted in Figure 6 are
very interesting and show the phenomenon of spontaneous alternation
on immediately successive trials in young female mentally retarded.
Inspection of Figure 6 shows the per cent of alternation at O delay to
be 64%, immediately thereafter on the second response it drops to
39%, then on the third response it goes up to 65% and finally on the
fourth response drops to 36%, yielding a saw tooth effect which reflects
satiation or alternation from the immediately preceding response.
When the first and third responses are compared with the second and
fourth, we get a chi square value of 4. 845 and 5. 220 respectively.

Both are significant at the 5% level. This finding seems to refute the
observations of Wingfield (26) who found no tendency for spontaneous
alternation in human subjects.

Reference to Treatment II as depicted in Figure 6 shows
that normal females in the age range (13-0 to 15-11) closely resemble
young mentally retarded females with respect to alternation behavior.
This seems to be correlated with the fact that both groups initially
show an appreciable percentage of alternation. Older mentally handicapped
females differ from both normal and other mentally retarded females
in Treatment II not only with respect to percent of alternation at 0

hours, but also in that there is a tendency to alternate in Treatment II

40

on the second response and this holds up for two delays. Only on the
fourth response does it tend in the direction of the original response.

In other words, although these females tend to perseverate after
making ten forced similar responses, the second free response tends
to follow a stimulus satiation preference that is opposite to the previous
free choice. This confirms the findings of Denny and Allen when they
presented females with two successive free T's unpreceded by forced

trials.

Effects of Repeated Testing with Males

 

Figure 7 compares the responses of mentally retarded
and normal males in Treatments I and 11. Reference to the results
of Treatment I in Figure 7 shows that a dissipation tendency is evident
in the older normal males. One point of interest is that this dissipation
effect is somewhat cumulative. That is, the number of older males
responding by going in the same direction as forced builds up over
the delay periods. If the per cent of alternation at 0 delay is compared
to that of 72 hours, we get a chi square value of 7. 653. This is signi-
ficant at the 1% level.

Effects of Repeated Testing: Mentagy

Retarded Males and Females and
Normal Males and Females

 

 

 

Figure 8 compares mentally retarded males and females

in Treatments I and II. Although there are no significant differences

7a)
65

2 '00

2

E 55

1.4

3

:5 5o

1‘} 45

U

1.-

12)

a. 40
35
3o
70
65
60

S 55

s

c 50

$4

8

<2 45

8 40

3-4

C)

01 35
30
25

Figure

41

Treatment I

13-15

 

 

 

 

 

 

’ — 1 2
r (J hr’lentally
* ‘ Reta rcleci
1r- ‘1‘ Nialcs
l\ ‘\ '
L / \ , ‘ Norm-11
I 1 \
1 ‘ hi." 13:
/ \ ( \ 1 L s
j’/ x \ ’ \-....
\ \ ‘\ / I
“ \ \ ’ \
)- \ \ \ \ f I s
1/ ‘
\ .l \
\ "x \ .7 \
I < \ .I‘
. I
L \J.
\
l L i 1 l i L l ..L 1.. ,1___,____,_1__,~_,,._
O 24 48 72 0 2-1 48 72 0 24 118 72
Hours
Treatment 11
1\-'Ientally
r-U-lZ 13-15 111+ ” ‘ - " Retarded
° Males
‘0 Normal
c Males
\ / I
E \ \ I ’
1 \ \ I I
\ \ I
1 \ ’ ‘
1 \ —-~ \ \ I
l , \z \ I
\
- \ ,' \. \\ \ I
\ ' 1‘. \
c V \ \ I
\
L 1
i 1 L ..L... - l1.l.,,.....1_.__ “L --.- ..Ll. ..."...w.-1.........t..,.- 1 _, 1.- .--
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Delay Intervals

7. Percent alternation Treatments 1 and 11. Mentally retarded and

normal males

Percent Alternation

Percent Alternation

 

Treatment 1

 

42
65 - 6—12 13-15 16+ ------- Female
M... A I
60 - \ / \ \ ...._.____.___.Ma.le
\ / \
\ l, \ ‘\
55 1/ . , \
1/ \\ \ \___..._
50 t‘ \ 1 y
1 \ \
\ \ I
45 r ‘\I_.\‘ I \
1, "\ I
1 I \
._ ./
4O 1 \ '3] / \
'1 1' 1-
35 1" ' I
i /J , \
1 , \
3O ' 1’
1 1.
25 L l 1 1 l Lam—.144...“ l..~.~._........,.,....-J....... l-.. . .l .. .. , I . ..
O 24 48 72 0 24 48 72 O 24 48 72
Hours
Treatment 11
~--— - - ~ Female
13-15 16+
Male
//\
/
/ \
\

 

 

30

 

:.
25 L 1 i 1 I 1 21L- “.1...“ ,. .. ...-l. .--..._L.-.._-1......... -..t... ..-.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Delay Intervals
Figure 8. Percent alternation Treatments 1 and II. Mentally retarded

male 8 and female 5.

43

between male and female mentally retarded in either Treatment '1
or II, certain similarities in trends between the two groups are
evident.

Figure 9 compares nermal males and females in Treat-
ments I and II. Again there are no significant differences between
males and females when treated separately for Treatment I and
Treatment II. The reader may find it of interest. to scan the com-
parisons in Figures 8 and 9.

Comparison of Treatments I and II:
Mentally Retarded

 

 

Figure 10 contrasts the performance of mentally retarded
males and females in Treatments I and II. In young mentally retarded
females it appears that the largest discrepancy occurs when comparing
the response at 24 hours to its equivalent (second delay) in Treatment II.
This difference as measured by chi square is 3. 810 which approaches
significance at the 5% level (3. 841). But since the whole stimulus effect
at 0 delay is in itself significant, this iiiii 2 comparison appears stable.
The point to be made is that the 24 hour delay eliminates a satiation
effect from a single previous trial. The same sort of trend with respect
to a perseveration tendency is also present in the 16+ mentally retarded

females in trials 2. In light of the deviant pattern of the 13 to 15-11

age group, the interpretation of these results is indeed complicated.

Percent Alternation

Percent Alternation

7O

65

6O

55

50

45

4O

35

25

7O

65

Treatment I 44

 

     

 

 

6-12 13-15 ’ 16+
1 _ _____ Female
1. ,--—'\ Male
\
1. \
\
\
L r
s
\
__ \
\
\
r \
\
\
l 1 L l _L_ .12 ...-..L.-........;_..1.-....-..1--."4......1.
0 24 48 72 O 24 48 72 O 24 48 72
Hours
Treatment 11
______ Female
Ts—lz 13-15 16+
- \ Male
\ .

 

 

 

5‘ / \
s“ \\‘
\-
LL 1 1 m i 4 -1 1.....- ..., l i l
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Delay Intervals

Figure 9. Percent alternation Treatments I and 11. Normal males and

females

Perc ent Alte rnation

Percent Alternation

35

3O

25

65

6O

 

 

45

Females

Treatment I

.. ._ ...... Treatment II

 

 

 

6-12 13-15 . 15+.
L I L i J 1 L J ...-.J_._._..L.-....._.l-.-.__
24 48 72 0 24 48 72 0 24 48 72
2 3 4 l 2 3 4 l 2 3 4

Delay Intervals

 

 

 

Figure 10.

Males
{- Treatment I
\~\ .. ..... Treatment II
l\'~\ I
\_,L
‘\ I I,
\\ / { I
\\ / \ I
J / ‘ I
\
’ \ I
.r’ \ I,
\ I .
l3— 1 5 \ 10+
1 1 5 . _ ...}. ,.. .. .....- ...“--.
O 24 48 72 O 24 48 7'
l 2 3 4 l 2 3 4

Delay Intervals

Percent alternation Treatments I and II compared. Mentally

retarded 5's

46

Because mentally retarded males don't show any tendency
to alternate or perseverate, they don't show any clear cut alternation
tendency from successive trials.

Comparison of Treatments I and II:
Normals

 

Figure 11 contrasts the performance of normal males and
females in Treatments I and II. None of the differences among these

comparisons is significant.

Avoidance

 

Figure 12 depicts the per cent of avoidance in the normal
and mentally retarded children with respect to age. Avoidance in this
case is defined as going the opposite way as forced for all four trials

for both treatments combined. Although there are no significant

 

differences when making comparisons between groups, the 13 to 15

age group seems to contain some individuals who have a strong tendency
to alternate and this is particularly interesting when contrasted with

the group a few years older who seem to show an opposite effect.

One further point of interest is the trend shown by mentally retarded
and normal males. It appears that per cent of avoidance decreases
with age in normal males whereas in the mentally retarded.it seems to

increase.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Females 47
7O _
65 ”
Treatment I
8 ...... Treatment II
S
c
H
c)
j: ' l/\ /
< \\// \‘l
2 \ /-\
. \
U U
"* :
<1)
D4 '\ V]
35 r-
30 ~ . ..
6-12 13-15 16+
1 l I 1 L 1 ___;____-... “mus,“l. .-..-J
O 24 48 72 O 24 48 72 O 24 48 72
l 2 3 4 l 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Delay Intervals
70 l—
Males Treatment I
65 +
_____ Treatment II
60 b
C
8 -------
E
C
L.
3
E
E
o
o
p
a)
D4

 

 

 

35%
E
30}-
l 6-12 13-15 16+
in l J l l J I I l J ... ..c 1-2-21 ....-.
o 24 48 72 o 24 48 72 o 24 48 72
1 2 3‘ 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
D

Figure 11.

elay Intervals

Percent alternation Treatments I and II compared.

Normal b's

Percent Avoidance

Percent Avoidance

48

 

 

 

 

 

 

Males Females
..... Mentally Retarded - ----Mentally Retarded
__ Normal .___.__. Normal
35 -
3O ' //\\
l/ \
\
25 "' // \
2 , \
.. / x
20 - , »—- x \
2 I’ / ...---" ~2‘“ \
.- " .—---"" -\ \
15 er \.
~ ---~....___~_~ \
10 L ,J....._....‘._....__._,. . V .. . ..--.4w¢.-~.... “..--4‘ .. I 2 . - l
6-12 13—15 16+ 6-12 13—15 16+
Chronological Age
Normal hIentally Retarded
35 F ____ - Female __-_ Female
Male Male
30 r ” /‘\
/ \
// \\
25 / \ ,
/ 1,287"
20 ‘l' // /,'/" \‘
I ...... ‘\ \ ‘/ /
10 3 1.._.-,.._....- ,...:.T .. ..2... . M. It--- _ . ,,-,. -.2 t - .. ,- _. 1
6-12 13-15 16+ 6-12 13-15 16+

Chronological Age

Figure 12. Percent avoidance. All trials

49

Perseveration

 

A comparison of mentally retarded and normal subjects
with respect to percentage of perseveration (making a response in the
same direction as forced throughout all four delay periods in Treatments
I and II) is depicted in Figure 13. It can be seen that the per cent of
perseveration in normal and mentally retarded males is not too
different at the three age levels. The whole difference in Figure 13
is in the behavior of the mentally retarded females. The trend to
perseverate as chronological age increases for mentally retarded
females is such that significant differences are obtained when comparisons
are made between younger mentally retarded and younger normal
females and older mentally retarded and older normal females. Chi
square = 7. 006 (1% level) and 3. 829 (5% level) respectively for the two
groups). These findings are congruent with percentage data of alternation

at O delay.

Because of the large number of statistical comparisons made
in this study, the probability of obtaining 16 significant differences at
the 5% level if 63 comparisons were made was taken into consideration.
According to tables prepared by Sakoda, Cohen & Beall (19), one would
not expect to find by chance, 16 significant differences at the 5% level

if 63 comparisons were made. One would only expect three.

Percent Perseveration

Percent Perseveration

50

 

Males Females
T
40 " Normal l\ormal
/
35 - _ _ .___- Mentally Retarded .. ..-...— Mentally //
Retarded /
30 '

   

 

10 _l l ......w. ...--MV.-J-..-.~._MH,, . I ~.._. , ...-.. . ',
6-12 13-15 16+ 6-12 13-15 10+

Chronological Age

 

 

 

 

 

 

Normal Mentally Retarded
40 b .__.__....Male Male
/
/
35 _ ...... Female _____ Female ,
/ I
/
/’
/
/
A
/ \
I
I
I
/
I
10 L w“ "“7 #4 ____,_...-_...,. ......h~........gl. ‘_ * .-, :..: J-o -. y -- - ‘ ' l -
6-12 13-15 10+ 6-12 13-15 16+

ChronOIOg-ical Age

Figure 13. Percent perseveration. All trials

51

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study wouldseem to suggest
differences between mentally retarded and normal children in
alternation behavior. The youngest mentally retarded females
showed the highest per cent of alternation at 0 delay. This finding
may be related to the recent work of Zeaman and House (11) where
it was found that younger mentally handicapped tended to select novel
stimuli in a discrimination experiment. However the younger males
in the present study responded more or less in chance fashion showing
no particular trend. The youngest mentally retarded males responded
in the same manner as did younger males and females in the normal
group. Thus, the only deviate in both of the youngest groups was

the mentally retarded females. Since older mentally retarded females

‘ i

K
- ’

showed a pronounced tendency to perseverate, ('t Jr‘n-ay well be that
this perseverative tendency is a learned phenomenon. Possibly
this perseveration tendency is reinforced as a result of an inter-
action with normal children. In other words, as a mode of adjustment,
older mentally retarded females may find that by conforming to the
standards of the normal group one can avoid painful embarrassments
and frustrations in contacts with their peers. We need look no further
than classrooms for the mentally retarded to find support for this

explanation. Almost without exception, males outnumber females

with respect to special room placement. Fortunately or unfortunately,

52
this is probably due to the fact that most teachers are less prone to
refer young girls for individual intelligence testing as long as they
can keep up with the group with respect to social poise, etc.
Consequently, when retarded females are placed in a special room
they are usually older than males when first placed in a special class
and have learned that the best way to "get along” is to conform. This
tendency for older females to show perseveration behavior is in accord
with the data on normal college women as reported by Denny and
Allen (4).

The present data indicate that retarded males as a group
do not vary with age in alternation behavior. But more importantly it
could be that they are less satiable than the normal males at the oldest
age level.

The data when viewed in their totality seem to fit the findings
of Stevenson, Zigler (24) and Plenderleith (17) in that there is little
evidence of rigidity in the mentally handicapped. This is especially
true when viewing the performance of the males. The only marked
indication of ”rigidity'l and/ or resistance to satiation was found in
the older females as they showed a perseveration tendency at O delay.
However, if this group was absolutely ”rigid, ” this perseveration
tendency would hold up throughout the various delay periods. Such
was not the case, as there was a definite trend in Treatments I and II

towards making an opposite response after the first delay period.

53

The data with respect to normal subjects also point up
the fact of individual differences in alternation behavior at various age
levels and between males and females. If we compare. the percentage
of alternation for all males against that of the females. there are no
significant differences. However, when we explore the percentage of
alternation between sexes with respect to age levels, significant
differences occur. This is especially evident when making a comparison
at the older age level.

In the same vein, when the percentage of alternation for a_ll
retarded females is compared to that for all normal females there are
no significant differences. The same holds for males. However,
significant differences are evident if we compare groups on the basis

of chronological age and sex.

54

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION

Since this study was more in the nature of an exploratory
investigation into one facet of behavior in mentally retarded and normal
children. generalizations emanating from this investigation should not
be considered as being directly applicable at this time to classroom
situations. Rather, the data should be considered as being basic and
should be extended further or coupled with parallel research that
more closely follows the conditions one finds in the average classroom.
In this respect, current research dealing with learning in the area of
mental retardation points up the fact that much more research is
needed in this area before sound educational procedures can be for-
mulated and applied to this group.

That the concept of satiation is of importance can be seen
if we ask the question as to why the relationship between grades and
IQ is so variable; are boredom and need for a change the important
factors? Do brighter youngsters become bored more easily with some
of the repetitious drill they have to face ? In a purely theoretical vein,
we well know that learning theory has made significant contributions
to the counseling process. Even though the concept of stimulus
satiation is but one factor contributing to the learning process, its
import becomes evident. Thus, it is considered that the present
investigation makes a contribution in the direction of providing

information in an incomplete and fragmentary area. Should the results

55
of this study be substantiated by further research, it would appear that
retarded as well as normal children could benefit from being placed
into distinct groups on the basis of their performance in a series of
perceptual and motor tasks. The important thing is that particularly
among mentally retarded females there seems to be sufficient differences

to suggest the use of different educational techniques.

56

SUMMARY

The present study was undertaken to explore the effects
of stimulus satiation and related phenomena in mentally retarded
and normal school age children. Three hundred sixty-five subjects
of both sexes, ranging in age from 6-0 to 21-3 made up the mentally
handicapped sample. There were 575 children in the normal sample.
Mean IQ ratings for the mentally retarded sample were 67. 42 and
69. 40 on the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children, respectively. In brief, all subjects were first presented
with an open alley figure shaped like a T on a plain half sheet of
paper. Subjects were then told to start at the bottom of the T and
draw a line with a pencil anywhere they wanted to go, as long as the
pencil was not lifted from the paper and the borders of the T were
not crossed. The direction first turned was noted. Normal children
of both sexes and at all age levels showed a definite preference for
turning right. For mentally retarded, the right preference appeared
to be a developmental phenomenon. That is, as age increased so did
the right preference. A. theoretical explanation to account for this
finding was discussed.

After the T, all subjects were presented with an inverted
L on a clean half sheet of paper. For half the subjects the L was
pointing right and for the other half the L was pointing left. The

subjects were then forced either right or left for ten trials, no delay,

57
then were presented with another T after a specified delay. Once
again, the direction first turned was noted.

The following hypotheses were tested:

1. There is no difference in the alternation behavior (stimulus
satiation effects) at different age levels.

2. There is no difference between sexes as regards alter-
nation behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

3. There is no difference between normal and mentally
retarded children in alternation behavior (stimulus satiation effects).

4. The introduction of delay after stimulus exposure will not
result in less alternation behavior (dissipation of stimulus satiation
effects).

On the basis of the data, [the lst hypothesis was rejected
as there were significant differences from chance in the alternation
behavior of younger and older mentally retarded females and in older
normal males. The 2nd hypothesis was also rejected as younger
mentally retarded females differed significantly from younger mentally
retarded males and older mentally retarded males. For the normal
sample, significant differences occurred between older males and
older females. The 3rd hypothesis was accepted as the data when
viewed in their totality showed no significant differences between
normal and mentally retarded children with respect to the effects of

stimulus satiation. The 4th hypothesis was rejected as dissipation

effects were evident whenever a significant amount of stimulus

satiation occurred.

Subsidiary findings with respect to avoidance and per, ,

severation were discussed as were the educational implications of

this study.

58

Per Cent Subjects Responding with a Left or Right Turn

Appendix I

After Being Forced Right Or Left at 0 Delay

59

 

 

Number % % Number % %
Age forced L R forced L R
right left
' Mentally Retarded Females
6—1-2 31 68 .32 33 4O 60
13-7-15 16 54 46 25 44 56
16+ 24 28 72 21 65 35
Mentally Retarded Males
6—12 43 59 41 '42 55 45
13-15 32 47 53 33 43 57
16+ 28 39 61 27 78 22
Normal Females
6-12 69 54 46 69 57 43
13-15 33 55 45 32 54 66
16+ 39 54 46 40 . 57 43
- Normal Males
6-12 63 43 57 62 47 51
13-15 35 43 57 35 49 51
16+ 48 62 38 50 30 7O

 

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