A STUDY OF THE STABILITY OF VOCATIONAL VALUES AS MEASURED BY THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY ThesIs for I‘I‘m Degree of ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Ray Richard Searle 1962 ‘iFintza This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE STABILITY OF VOCATIOI‘IAL VALUES 3 I’DXSUKCD BY THE“. VOGALIOI‘LKL VALUES INVJNTUle presented by Pay Richard Searle has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for 1°th. degree in Education .4 Major pr , ssor Date May 14, 1962 0.169 “Mé- A- LIBRARY E Michigan State l1 University ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE STABILITY OF VOCATIONAL VALUES AS EEASURED BY THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY by Ray Richard Searle The Problem The general problem of this study is to determine the stability of vocational values in relation to the stability of vocational choice. The purpose in view is to assess the stability of vocational values as a potential criterion for the event of vocational choice crystallization. The assess- ment is made in a longitudinal study of the values and choices made by a selected population of drop-outs, graduates, and students associated with Michigan State University. Two basic assumptions underlie this study: 1) That en- tering the world of work constitutes a reality shook which may have its repercussions on a value system, and 2) That entering the world of work as an academic drop-out would sus- tain a shock different from entering it as a successful grad- uate. Students of the population have not sustained such a reality shock and therefore ostensibly serve as a control group. Three majbr null hypotheses and two derivative sub-hy- potheses were tested. Major null hypothesis 1: There is no diIIerence between Ray Richard Searle the mean deviations of each of the seven values held by drop- outs, graduates, and students. Major null hypothesis 2: There is no difference in the number of changes in vocational choice held by drop-outs, graduates and students. Major null hypothesis 3: There is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the seven values held by drop- outs, graduates, and students who make no change in vocational choice, and there is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the seven values held by drOp-outs, graduates, and students who make a change in vocational choice. Sub null hypothesis a: There is no difference between the mean 1961 scores of each of theflseven values as held by new entries to a vocation and that vocation's 1961 occupational value image, or between that vocation's occupational image of 1961 and that of 1959. Sub null hypothesis b: There is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the seven values as held by males and females among drop-outs, graduates, and students. Methods and Procedures The hypotheses were tested on a sample of 422 subjects who previously participated in a concurrent validity study of the Vocational Values Inventory. Two years later, when this study was conducted in the academic fall quarter of 1961 the sample consisted of 118 drop-outs, 140 graduates, and 164 students. A total of 317, or 75% of the total Ray Richard Searle population, filed returns by mail. Six were incomplete in some vital detail. Therefore the workable sample numbered 311, 173 males and 138 females. The Vocational Values Inventory was the instrument used to measure vocational values. Considered as a battery of tests the reliability for the seven values ranges from .69 to .91. The concurrent validity study established that there was no significant difference between the tested and the stated appraisal of vocational values for the sample used in this study. A questionnaire was used to ascertain the status and nature of vocational choice. Lacking sample and instrumental independence, the results were subjected to the "t“ test and chi square test. . Results and Conclusions With one exception no value significantly differentiated between drop-outs, graduates, and students. In nine instances four of the seven values made distinctions within the three classifications. Only female and total drop-outs changed or sustained their vocational choice with significant frequency. With one exception values held by changers or by non-changers of vocational choice did not differentiate between drop-outs, graduates, and students, nor did stability of values make such differentiation. In every instance new entries to five of the vocations had some significant difference from 1959 to 1961 for some value in their profile. Teaching, business, and managerial Ray Richard Searle vocations tended to be unstable in their occupational value image. Teachers and Salesmen tended to change less from their new vocational choice value image than that image changed from 1959 to 1961. Business careerists seemed.to make changes dictated by the times and thereforeasupported the theory obversely. Medicine appeared to reflect anticipatory sociali- zation of values. Managers tended to disprove the theory. Males and females tended to oo-vary over time and there- fore values failed to make a significant difference between them. Control was found to be the most dynamic value through- out the testing of the various hypotheses, Altruism and Money failed to register any significant differences. It seems that the results on the whole tend to reflect either idealized responses, or the fact that values are more stable than perceived. A STUDY OF THE STABILITY OF VOCATIONAL VALUES AS KEASURED BY THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY BY Ray Richard Searle A THESIS Submitted-to Eichigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1962 e\ 5 t- g} t ‘V if) f'g\ .I’. -;, \ PREFACE Produce! here it the veriest infinitesimal fragment of a product, produce it in God's name.--Carlyle. From whence cometh my help? My help cometh from the Lord. who made heaven and earth.--Psa1m 121:1-2. ii Ray Richard Searle Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date of Examination: hay 14th, 1962, 10:00 A.h. Room 212, College of Education Dissertation: .A Study of the Stability of Vocational Values - as Measured by the Vocational Values Inventory Outline of Studies: Kajor area--Administrative and Educational Services (Pastoral Counseling) hinor area--General Education, Psychology Biographical Items: Birthdate--December 28th, 1916, Homewood. Illinois Undergraduate study—-Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 1934-1956. Diploma. Thornton Township Junior College, Harvey, Illinois, 1936-1938. Diploma. Hheaton College, hheaton, Illinois, 1938-1940. Bachelor of Arts. Graduate Study-~Eastern Baptist Seminary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1940-41. Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, New Jersey, 1942-1944. Bachelor of Divinity. Northern Baptist Seminary, Chicago, Ill- inois, 1957-1959. Raster of Theology. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1960-1962. Experience: Student Pastor--2nd Amwell Presbyterian Church of Rt. Airy, hew Jersey, 1942-1944. Pastor--1st Presbyterian Church of Brainerd, hinnesota, 1944-1948. Pastor-~Calvary Presbyterian Church of Wichita, Kansas, 1949-1953. Pastor--Immanuel Presbyterian Church of Evansville, Ind- iana, 1954-1956. Assistant Pastor--1st Presbyterian Church of River Forest, Illinois, 1956-1959. iii THE PROBLEM: ITS NATURE AND IKPCHTAKCE Scholarship cannot flourish in an atmosphere of -3- ‘_ CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS THE PROBLEM: ITS NATURE AND IMPORTANCE......... Statement of the Problem....................... Importance Of the StudYOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0.0... Definition Of TermSQOCOOOCOOOO0.0000.0.0.0.....O' Outline of the Study........................... REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH..................... Vocational Values and Vocation Choice... ..... .. Research with the Vocational Values Inventory.................................. Summary........................................ DESIGN OF THE STUDY............................ The Null Hypotheses............................ The sampleOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO The Sample Returns............................. The Instrumentation............................ The Statistical Analysis....................... Summary........................................ THE ANALYSIS OF DATA........................... Null Hypothesis 1.............................. Null Hypothesis 1a........................ Null Hypothesis 1b........................ Null Hypothesis 1c........................ Alternate Null Hypothesis 1............... Null Hypothesis 2.............................. Null Hypothesis 3.............................. Alternate Null Hypothesis 3............... Null Hypothesis a.............................. Null Hypothesis b.............................. Null HyPOthesis b10.0000000000000000000000 NUll HypOth661s b20000...eeeeeeeeeeeeeeoee Summary Diagram................................ SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS. summary 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I e O O O O O O Conc1u81on8 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C ResearCh Implications. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O BIBLIOGRAPHYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1V 95 95 100 106 108 TABLE 2" 3.1 3.2 4.2 4.7 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.8) 4.9‘ LIST OF TABLES PAGE Relationship of Work Value Groupings........... 51 Product Moment Intercorrelations of the 1959 and 1961 Scores for the Total Sample on the Vocational Values Inventory............. 54 Means and Standard Deviations of the 1959 and 1961 Scores for the Total Sample on the Vocational Values Inventory................ 55 Tested Differences Between the Mean Devia- tions Held by DrOp-outs, Graduates, and Students for Each of the Values..... ...... ..... 61 Tested Differences Between the Mean 1959 and the Mean 1961 Scores for the Several Values as Held by Drop-outs.................... 63 Tested Differences Between the Mean 1959 and theJMean 1961 Scores for the Several Values as Held by Graduates.................... 65 Tested Differences Between the Mean 1959 and the Mean 1961 Scores for the Several Values as Held by Students..................... 67 Mean Sum Squared Deviations of the Value Systems Held by DrOp-outs, Graduates, and Students....................................... 69 Changes and No Changes in Vocational Choice as Indicated by Drop-outs, Graduates, and Students in 1961............................... 71 Tested Differences Between the Mean Deviations of the Several Values Held by Drop-outs, Graduates, and Students Who Make Changes in Vocational Choice, and Who Make No Changes in Vocational Choice....... 73 Changes and No Changes in Vocational Choice Among Those Below and Above the Median of Summed Squared Deviations............ 75 Tested Mean Scores for the Several Values Constituting the 1959 and 1961 Occupational Value Images for Teaching, and the Value Systems of New Entries Thereto................. 78 V TABLE 4.10 4.12 PAGE Tested Mean Scores for the Several Values Constituting the 1959 and 1961 Occupational Value Images for Business, and the Value Systems of New Entries Thereto................. 80 Tested Mean Scores for the Several Values Constituting the 1959 and 1961 Occupational Value Images for Medicine, and the Value Systems of New Entries Thereto................. 82 Tested Mean Scores for the Several Values ‘Constituting the 1959 and 1961 Occupational Value Images for Selling, and the Value Systems of New Entries Thereto................. 84 Tested Mean Scores for the Several Values Constituting the 1959 and 1961 Occupational Value Images for Managing, and the Value Systems of New Entries Thereto................. 85 Tested Differences Between the Mean Devia- tions of Each of the Several Values as Held by Males and Females...................... 88 Tested Differences Between the Mean Deviations of Each of the Several Values As Held by Changers and Non-changers of Vocational Choice Among Drop-outs, Graduates, and Students, Whether Male, Female, or Totals......................................... 90 Tested Differences Between the Mean Deviationa of Each of the Several Values as Held by Drop-outs, Graduates, and Students, Whether They Be Male or Female, Changers of Non-changers of Vocational Choice......................................... 93 vi LIST OF APPENDICES PAGE Appendix A The Vocational Values Inventory........ 115 Appendix B The Questionnaire...................... 117 Appendix C Product Moment Intercorrelations for Sample Sub-groups....:............. 119 Appendix D Means and Standard Deviations for Sample Sub-groups...... ..... ....... 131 vii , CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM: ITS NATURE AFB IKPCRTANCE Scholarship cannot flourish in an atmosphere of CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM: ITS NATURE AND IMPORTANCE Axiology is the study of the theory of values. The general theory of values has its formal origin in the debate between Alexius Meinong and Christian von Ehrenfels during the 1890's concerning the source of value. Meinong emphasized the subjective source. Values emanate from an anticipated affect or feeling of expected pleasure. Ehrenfels saw value as residing in the object. Worthy exponents have continued to eXpound the respective merits of each viewpoint. Two other theoretical positions vie for contemporary consideration. Axiological relationism propounded by Dewey holds that values are the relation of things as means to the ends or consequences actually reached. Variables in interaction have instrumental value. Whereas this theory holds values to be verifiable, axiological nominalism denies that they are factual. That values describe neither a state of the subject, the object, or a relation, is also called emotivism. Values serve an expressive function and are there- fore factually meaningless. Distinct from the consideration of value sources, though somewhat contingent upon them, are the philosophical systems into which values‘are integrated. Lowe (34) outlines the .foremost frames of reference for a theory of values: 1. Naturalism. Logical positivism is the primary con- ‘tender in this area. Reality is limited to what can be de- 1 fined operationally. Hence, there is no hierarchy of values transcending the purely physical. For psychology it implies a behavioristic hedonism which reduces the life of mind to; the needs of the body. The criterion of the good is its sur- vival value. If that leads to mental slavery, as in Skinner's halden Two, it is also a freedom from the tyranny of choice. 2. Culturalism. Man's social nature is the criterion of the good. ieo-Freudians view wholeness as the optimum relat- ing of the individual to others. Adjustment is the ability to adapt to the group. Values tend to evaporate in a moral abdication of responsibility in favor of the group. But who is the group? Nrenn (74:327) saw this when he said, "The counselor can never be really loyal to society until he is loyal to something more than society." 3. Humanism. Man's moral obligation is to realize him- self as the ultimate value. This value is oriented in the belief that man is self-sufficient and able to control his own destiny. Fromm (8:26) contends: "The whole life of the individual is nothing but the process of giving birth to himself." Curran (10:19) states "A reasonable pursuit of one's own excellence" is a core therapeutic concept and a basic value scheme. But according to Lowe (34) Reinhold Nie- buhr holds that it is the man who thinks that he is most like God who is the most completely depraved. And Lowe (34:691) flatly declares, "Self-actualization does not seem to be enough," as a cornerstone of a meaningful value system. 4. Existentialism. Reality cannot be grasped by reason. The good is realized only in the decisions made by passionate inwardness orJexistenz. Whereas in logical positivism man makes his moral values by emotionally embracing some rational— ly delineated portion thereof, existentialism holds that de- cision itself makes the man in whom values are forever locked in subjective relativity. The will to meaning is that which imparts value to life itself. But the circularity of faith in faith may lead to ultimate nihilism. 5. Theism. Man's loyalty is to God. Man is totally de- pendent on God. As Lowe (34:691) puts it, "The theist, how- ever, differs from all who believe in the self-sufficiency of man by his belief in a personal God before whom he stands in need of redemption." One value is central for the theist: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with allthy soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind.“ Allport (2:80) says, "Love is incomparably the greatest therapeutic agent." Whereas humanism holds that man gains his life by holding it close and developing it, theism declares that one saves his life by "losing" it. This involves everyone in striving to do the will of God in every area of life. For the purposes of this dissertation it shall be basic- ally assumed that values have their source in the objeCtive, factual environment. They are measurable. They are also in dynamic interaction with the subjective capacity to per- ceive and categorize them. The process via which objective values are subjectively perceived and introjected is accom- plished by what Allport (2) calls a collective of measurable functions, For this purpose the continually becoming "self" has certain inborn dispositions: 1) The reflexes, drives and homeostatic functions requisite to survival,2) The inheritance of genelike traits, 3) The capacity to learn according to structured categories. It is with these dispositions that man seeks to overcome his estrangement from his environment (and his Maker). Inso— far as choice is exercised between cOgnatively perceived ob- jective values, the "self" is actualized. When positive or negative affect is aroused by these values, the "self" is motivated to action. Thus Allport (2:16) cites Goldstein, Angyal, Cantril, Lecky, Revers, Sinnott and others "who in common postulate one basic motive in lifa—éthe maintaining, actualizing and enhancing of the capacities of the experienc- ing organism.” In knowing good and evil as objectively de- termined by God, man "becomes" "as god". Awareness dawns. Self-awareness in relation to the environment is promoted. Experiences which promote such self-awareness are introject- ed as part of the hierarchy of an integrated value system. At first the organism's value system is the product of a course of life guided in part by random events, and in part by automatic opportunistic responses of various habit sub- systems. Choices made even under these circumstances contri- bute to the organism's self-actualization. However, when reali- ty forces the consideration of a multitude of contingencies in making a choice, the need for his emerging reference U1 context or value system becomes acute. Like a space capsule in the course of trajectory, there is a reversal of attitude. Random and Opportunistic choices which had built up a system of values for the organism's self-actualization now give way to choices made by that maturing, self-actualizing organism on the basis of that value system. Allport (2) calls this the oriented or "propriate" striving of the emerging "self" or proprium. He characterizes this shift as one in which conscience moves from introjected to self-referred value Judgments, from a "must" motivation to an "ought" motivation, from a negative fear of consequences to a positive selfecon- sistency. moreover, the central characteristic of propriate striving is that its goals are, strictly speaking, unattain- able. Such striving confers unity upon the personality. Yet there is no unity of fulfillment. The striving of the pro- prium in the arena of life maintains peace or unity within the personality. The value system of the organism constitutes the "rules" of the.game. Since man will spend most of his waking hours in some vocation, the choosing of that vocation assumes paramount im- portance. It will be the arena_best suited to the rules of the game as adopted by the organism. The individual addresses work for his own continuing self-realization. Super (63:196) himself supplies: "In choosing an occupation one is, in effect, choosing a means of implementing a self-concept." Work offers that environment wherein a procession of choices ministers to that "becoming" "as god". It will be that endeavor in which tensions are released enough to give satisfaction, but also that enterprize which leaves the person dissatisfied enough to pursue unattainable goals. He will get up the next morning and go back to work again. Suiting the arena to the rules of the game as held by a given individual is prerequisite to his winning the game of life. If, for example, one holds to the rules of football while attempting to play (make choices in self-actualization) on a baseball diamond, a third "down" may be a "third" out. The player or”side could then be "retired", but prematurely according to his frame of reference. In the process of interaction between vocational choice and those values which assume an association therewith, it is possible that randomness or opportunism prevails. Cir- cumstantial choice even of a vocation would then be contri- buting to the value system. Under these conditions the value system would tend more to be modified by the reality choice as made. Vocational choice would be less likely to be modi- fied by a value system. The individual has not paused to give it much consideration. Thus, vocational choice would tend to be more stable than a system of vocational values because that very choice would be contributing to the modi- fication of one's value system. If, however, external sanction gives way to internal preference, and if force-of-habit gives way to generic self- guidance, then vocational choice may be said to be made by the proprium. Individuality is asserted in relating that choice to the self-image and value system developed within the organism. Where this occurs the value system tends to remain stable, even though a variety of choices may be considered. Commitment to an integrated system of values tends to main- tain the individual’s stability because the continuity of identity of the self-image is inseparably bound with those values.. The point of concern and inquiry is the reversal of "attitude". Ginzberg (23) identifies it as the "moment" of crystallization. He states that the young adult is much more aware than the adolescent of the need to consider carefully the demands of the reality situation. True crystallization cannot occur until a clarification of values has been made. In his doctoral thesis Stein (60) found that crystalli- zation was more apparent in college male students than col- lege female’students. His conclusion was based on the de- gree of congruency between fantasy and expectational choice rather than on the relation of reality choice to vocational values. Rosenberg (47) alludes to the "voluntary“ selection of an occupation for certain sociological reasons. Values com- mensurate with the image of this future occupation are then introjected in a process cited as Merton's "anticipatory socialization". According to this view a kind of pseudo- crystailization occurs to which anticipated values associated with realization of that choice continue to make a contribu- tion. 2; putting the word "voluntary" in quotes Rosenberg virtually acknowledges that the selection is Opportunistic. A truly oriented choice is not likely to be made by a proprium to which reality factors are yet significantly contributory. However, he avows that both values and choices tend to deter- mine one another. In his earlier work (47:22) he states: "This study would suggest that values have a greater effect on change of occupational choice than the other way around (sic)." In a later work edited jointly with Lazarsfeld (33) he concludes from the same data that the interaction is mutual. On the other hand Dyer (16) found that vocational choices of college graduates made early in life have the greatest holding power. without knowing the concurrent values held it is impossible to assess whether this represents an exces- sive rigidity of choice or an unusually early maturing of the proprium. If thevformer is true, the values would tend to fluctuate in order to accommodate the choice..Ln the lat- ter instance the radix character of the personality would be supported by a well integrated and highly stable value system. The problem of this study develops out of the theory that vocational values will tend to be more stable than vocational choices if the point of crystallization has been reached. Then and thereafter the value system of the organism functions as the frame of reference for propriate, oriented striving. Statement of the Problem The general problem of this study is to determine the area of crystallization of vocational choice by assessing \O the stability of vocational values in relation to the stability of vocational choice. The assessment will be made in a longi- tudinal Study of the values and choices made by a selected po- pulation of graduates, students, and drop-outs associated with kichigan State University. Ginzberg (24:189) notes that "since actual work experience is the final test, it would be desirable for future investi- gators to explore its impact on the definitive vocational de- cisions of the individual." It will be the purpose of this study to make such exploration. The impact will be measured in terms of the stability of a value system over a two~year interval, 1959-1961. The instrument will be the Vocational Values Inventory (APPENDIX A). The choice of an actual work experience will be investi- gated from three different frames of reference: 1) The college drop-out is assumed to have become engag- ed in an actual work experience as a matter of circumstantial choice. If a vocational choice involving completion of an academic degree was made by the proprium, and if that degree was not obtained, it is more likely that circumstances dic- tated the type of occupation available. I2 9 fag g the original choice was not made by the proprium in the true sense. Jacob (28) avers that value systems will not stand up when undercut by forced choices between alternatives which involve conflict- ing values. The reality shock of academic failure is identi- fied as one source of vocational value modification. The im- pact of finding actual work experience commensurate with the preparation is identified as a second source of vocational value modification. Vocational choice is itself contributing to the value system of the self-actualizing organism. 2) The college graduate is assumed to have made adequate preparation for engaging in the world of work. Nevertheless, the "final test" is the work experience: entry, itself. Super (63) believes that there is a synthesis between the value system and reality. Rosenberg (47) holds that values be- come distorted by engaging in the actual field of labor. While most likely sustaining academic success and vocational reality in quick succession, his vocational choice will tend to be made in the light of his value system as a matter of prior commitment. The proprium may’be said to have functioned in making an oriented decision. The value system of the gra- duate, though modifiable, is less likely to change than that of the drop-out because of the time and money invested in 'pursuing an integrated value goal. 3) The student will be assumed to be unemployed on a career basis. This in no way deprecates the exploratory value of hobbies or part-time employment. Rather it acknowledges the temporary and contributory nature of random or Opportunis- tic so-called "odd jobs". A majority of the student's waking hours are spent in the classroom or in study. Jacob (28) ob- serves that the values of students are more likely to be so- cialized than liberalized by their college experience. The world of work has not yet presented its full reality shock to the evaluating organism. kerton's "anticipatory sociali- 11 zation" must be considered as a factor, however. A change in vocational choice will be accepted as such when perceived by the subject and noted on his questionnaire. having determined whether one or more of the areas of reality shock are significantly differentiated by a change in the vocational value system, the areas most significant of change in vocational choice will be ascertained. hhether changes (or sustainings) of choices reflect a striving of the proprium, a true crystallization, or not, will depend on their assessment in relation to the stability of their reSpec- tive vocational value systems. Following Ginzberg (24) in avowing that a crystallized occupational choice can only follow a clarification of goals and values, and reflecting Allport (2) in assuming an oriented choice to be the act of prOpriate striving in view of a stable value system, it is propounded that sustained choices support- ed by no significant change in values indicates propriate choices. Sustained choices in the light of fluctuating values reveal circumstantial choices. A shift of choice sustained by stable values may well be made as a matter of propriate striving. Unstable values held in conjunction with unstable choices would tend to indicate that the event of crystalliza- tion was not yet a matter of experience. Rosenberg (47) found that values tend to be more stable as they reflect the value norms of a given occupational area of choice. Let it be assumed that the index for the several values for a given area of occupational choice be obtained 12 from these indices held by persons indicating that area of choice at a given time of inventory. Then if values tend to have a greater effect on vocational choice than vice versa, the values for those who have made changes in vocational choice will tend to be less different from the values char- acteristic of that new area of choice than the latter itself has changed in the same period of time. In other words, pro- priate striving in oriented self-awareness will reveal, by change in vocational choice, an increased job awareness. Stein (60) found that the men tended to be more realis- tically oriented than women. where feasible, therefore, a comparison between the sexes will be conducted. Broadly stated, the basic hypotheses of this study are as follows: 1. Drop-outs, graduates and students will hold vocational value systems at differing levels of stability. 2. DrOp-outs, graduates and students will make vocational choices at differing levels of stability. . 3. Drop-outs, graduates and students will reflect propriate striving or true crystallization by differing in levels of stability of vocational values in relation to changes in vocational choice. 13 Sub-hypotheses develOped from the foregoing research are: a. Those choosing a new vocation will reflect these 1961 occupational value images more consistently than these occupational value images themselves remain consistent from 1959 to 1961. b. Men, more than women, will tend to be realis- tically oriented in relating vocational choice to vocational values. Importance of the Study Samler (48) notes that we are confronted with a vacuum in values. It has been the practice of some counselors to avoid the area of values because of the desire to remain objective. But Williamson (73) affirms that while values may not be made explicit, the counselor's reactions, em- phasis, objectives and methods betray his system of values. If there is a need for values to be considered, and if there is something intrinsically irrepressible about them, an attempt to understand values and value functions is in order. Furthermore, Norrell and Grater (39) have found that making a vocational choice is in reality an expression of the individual self-concept. If the self-concept is distorted by lack of self-awareness, the vocational choice will tend to be inappropriate. Insofar as one's value system is likewise coincident with one's self-awareness, a delineation thereof and the understanding of its functions are properly in the province of counseling. If the vocational choice can be iden- tified as one made by the proprium out of an integrated sys- tem of values, academic counseling will have a valid basis. If there is fluctuation or indecision in making a vocational choice, the implications for counseling will vary in the light of whether such instability of choice is supported by a stable or unstable system of values. This study is undertaken in order to provide a better understanding of the stability of vocational values and vo- cational choices. in the process of noting the impact of reality factors on values and choices, that area may be identified in which crystallization occurs as a pivotal event in the process of vocational choice.. Definition of Terms Kalgg: Although value is variously interpreted according to its ideological context, for the purpose of this study it shall be defined thus: "A value is a conception of the desirable" (47:6). As a conception it is in a cognitive frame of reference. As something desirable it lies in the objective purview. As capable of arousing the emotions it either attracts or repels according to the generalized concept of the good. The con- —s \N cept tends to stabilize into a standard to which or from which conformity is either right or wrong. The affect remains sub— ject to the phenomenological approach to reality and therefore may be represented on a continuum of what is the good. A value is therefore to be distinguished from attitude, interest, need or satisfaction. A vocational value is a concept of the desirable in the area of occupations. Choice: In speaking of vocational choice Super (63:184) states: "Choice is, in fact, a process rather than an event." It shall be so understood in this dissertation. However, a preference statement of vocational expectation made in 1959 and a record of occupational entry as of 1961 shall be re- garded as existential events within that process. In the case of students an additional preference statement of ex- pectation rather than a record of vocational entry will be used. grystallization: According to Ginzberg (24) crystalli- zation is the cumulative impact of a series of decisions on the ability to make an occupational preference statement. With regard to the function of crystallization Ginzberg dis- tinguishes two types: work-oriented and pleasure-oriented. The former is active in making a preference statement, the latter is passive. One is actively viewing work as a means of self-realization. The other is passively responding to external pressures. This distinction corresponds to that of Allport who characterizes the active personality as propriately 16 striving. If vocational choice is an act of propriate striv- ing, that work will be chosen which best tends to implement the self-concept. If crystallization is not yet achieved, vocational choice will not be supported by a stable value system. The choice itself will thus in some measure be con- tributing to a possible future crystallization. heanwhile it is more likely to be the result of random or opportunistic options. Drop-out: One who was once enrolled at Lichigan State University and who is not now enrolled there or at any other institution of higher learning on a full-time basis as of fall term, 19L1, without having graduated. Graduate: One who was enrolled at Michigan State Univer- sity and is now graduated from it or any other accredited in- stitution of higher learning as of fall term, 1961. Those who are enrolled as graduate students and indicate no major role as employed shall be classified as a student for pur- poses of this study. Student: One who was once enrolled at Michigan State University and is now enrolled there or at any other insti- tution of higher learning as of fall term, 1961. Outline of the Study Chapter II is devoted to a review of the literature. Attention is given to the research in the areas of vocational values and vocational choice. In the third chapter the methodology and procedures 17 used in conducting the study are presented. The statistical design and its basic assumptions are outlined. It also in- cludes a description of-the instruments used in securing the data for this study. Chapter IV contains the analysis of the data. The conclusion, observations and suggestions for addi- tional research are presented in chapter five. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH The purpose of Chapter II is to review selected research pertaining to vocational values, vocational choice, and their interrelationship. Particular note will be taken of those results or inferences bearing upon choice crystallization. A review of all research conducted by using the Vocational Values Inventory will conclude the chapter. The focus of this review will be directly on the voca- tional aspects of value and choice. In thus narrowing the scope a broader treatment can be given to the sizeable amount of research literature accruing to these specialized t0pics. Ko attempt will be made to present a review of the literature placing these topics in historical or developmental perSpec- tive. This has been adequately done by Super ((4) and by Stein (60) in his Ph.D. dissertation. Vocational Values and Vocational Choice Rosenberg (47) and associates conducted the Cornell stu- dies in 1950 and 1952 under a grant from the Carnegie Corpora- tion of new York. A declared major objective in these studies was the investigation of the problem of occupational choices and occupational values. The first study involved a repre- sentative sample of 2,758 students in college. The second study was conducted among 4,585 students representative of 16 19 eleven universities throughout the United States. A total of 944 Cornellians were re-interviewed in the second study, maxing possible an examination of trends and changes. The process of occupational choice among college students is viewed as a series of progressive delimitations of alter- natives: 1) The values, orientations and life-styles of mid- dle and upper class families, 2) Sex, race, religion and na- tionality, 3) Occupational awareness, 4) Reality factors as- sociated with natural physical and mental endowments, 5) Per- sonality needs, 6) Attitudes, 7) Values. Data were received via specially constructed question- naires. From a ranking of ten requirements for an ideal job or career sir vocational values were grouped by constellations of two through a computed coefficient of correlation. A con- tinuum of psychological distance extends from self-expression values (permits me to be creative and original, to use my special abilities and aptitudes) through people-oriented va- lues (permits me to be helpful to others, to work with peo- ple rather than things) to extrinsic reward values (gives me status and prestige, a good deal of money, a stable and se- cure future). The security value was arbitrarily added as logically falling into the last category. By means of weighted averages occupations were ranked according to the emphases accorded them by the people plan- ning to enter each of them. A hierarchy of occupations was eStablished for each of the value constellations. By an analy- sis of values and choices made in 1350 and again in 1952 two basic trends were noted: 1) The tendency toward psychological consistency, 2) The suggested tendency that values have a greater effect on change of occupational choice than vice versa. The over-all conclusion was that: Values are not only determinants of action, but are themselves determined by actions...both values and choices tend to determine one another, and both tend to change in he direction of greater mutual consistency, thereby leading to reduction of conflict (47:24). Other findings are: that those with a high faith in people stress interpersonal occupational values, whereas those with low faith in people tend to choose impersonal values; that the detached personality tends to prefer crea- tive or self-expressive values, the compliant type tends to move toward people for their own sakes, and the aggressive personality comes to be more nearly identified with extrinsic reward values; that, relatively speaking, women are people- oriented, men are extrinsic reward-oriented. Rosenberg (47) also found that vocatianal values are less likely to change if: 1) Values held are similar to the norms of the given occupational choice, 2) One shares a con- servative socio-economic ideology, 3) There is a high career satisfaction, 4) One is a long-range planner, 5) A high de- gree of proficiency is obtained, 6) The occupational choice is commensurate with the social progress of one's most con- sistent environment. However, "given a cultural value which is faced by an inexorable economic reality, the individual moves toward the conclusion that the value is not really 21 important (47:123)." The basic tendency is toward the reduc- tion of psychological tension. The problem in Rosenberg's study was defined in broad terms as an investigation of the process of occupational choice among college students. The study was primarily des- criptive. No attempt to test a theory was made. The instru- ment used was included in the appendix of the book, with modifications indicated when appropriate to the times and places given. The population was declared to be representa- tive without description or delineation of a basis for the statement. Roeber (46) declares that the study's rationale would depend on the extent to which it is possible to differentiate vocational values. No source was given for the original list of ten values given a rating. Roeber further insists it is impossible to judge the adequacy of the sample and that it was a dangerous assumption not to differentiate between male and female reactions to the questionnaire when interpreting the results. A wealth of testable hypotheses was generated by the study, however. A major limitation of the study would seem to inhere in the inconsistency of conclusions derived therefrom. In the original monograph (46:22) it states: "This would suggest that values have a greater effect on change of occupational choice than the other way around (sic)." In a later work (33:259) this statement appears: "Both choices and values appear to exercise approx mately equal influence in bringing about the 22 increase in consistency." In this light Rosenberg (47:81) admits: One of the most perplexing problems in the study of the occupational choice process is that of fi- guring out when a decision is actually a final de- cision. When has an ultimate crystallization taken .place? If we are to improve our ability to pre- dict whether or not a student making a certain choice will stick to it, we will have to give very careful consideration to the degree to which his values and his choices are in harmony or conflict. In postscript, it is further noted that Rosenberg holds technical and/or professional Specialization to be an impor- tant factor of occupational choice crystallization. Psycho- logical involvement and economic investment augur for a greater stability in both values and choices to accompany the more specialized vocations. Ginzberg (24) and associates used a modification of the genetic method to trace the different stages through which an individual passes in the process of making an occupational choice. The population sample was limited to white males, Protestant or Catholic, of Anglo-Saxon background, coming from families of 310,000 to $12,000 average annual income where both parents were alive and living together. The boys were to be free from overt physical, emotional or intellectual handicap, and have a measured intelligence quotient of 120 or above. The ages ranged from 11 through 24 with selections made at two year intervals from among students at Horace Mann- Lincoln School and Columbia University. In addition 17 boys from a deprived economic background and 10 girls from Barnard R) \91 College were used in certain aspects of the study. The interviewing technique was used eight times at each of the eight stages in the educational process, for a total of 64 in the main group. It was an exploratory study of the patterns of occupational decision-making. Based as it was on relatively few cases, it yielded only tentative conclusions. The process of making an occupational choice is divided by Ginzberg.into three distinct periods: 1) Fantasy period, ages 6 through 11, 2) Tentative period, early and late adoles- cence, 3) Realistic period, early adulthood. The basic ele- ments in a general theory of occupational choice are that it is a process, largely irreversible, and subject to inevitable compromise between the individual and his environment. Spe- cific reference to the role of goals and values in regard to occupational choice is identified with the verbalizations of fifteen and sixteen year-olds. Their attention focuses on the returns from work, the values inherent in work. and at this particular stage, on the time perspective required for an adequate preparation for work. Later there is regard for the concomitants of work in terms of peOple, i.e., as associates or supervisors. Emotional factors having a direct bearing on the process of occupational choice are declared by Ginzberg to be: 1) Reali- ty testing, 2) Development of a time perspective, 3) Post- ponement of gratification, 4) Compromise. Dominant values distinguish the work-oriented type of personality from the pleasure-oriented type. The former is usually active in resolving the problem of occupational choice. The latter is usually passive, letting outside forces propel one into a choice. ., This study attempts to develop a general theory of occu- pational choice. Tiedeman (66) in his Critical review of this study suggests that despite stated cautiousness, the authors are more confident about the age ranges than their data warrants. He notes that it is a definitely privileged population sample. He believes that the defining of devia- tion in terms of the theory presented is a bit premature when the basic data is on only 64 selective individuals. That com- promise is inevitable is a truism. It can be said that the genetic method was used only by virtue of retrospection. It is Tiedeman's considered Judgment that it is only because the theory squares so well with experience and general psycho- logical knowledge that any credulitiy is to be accorded it. The study does provide a valuable theoretical framework for the conservation of human resources. Most important for the present study is the definition given to_the concept of choice crystallization. "Crystalliza- tion is the process whereby the individual is finally able to synthesize the many forces, internal and external, that have relevance for his decision (24:107)." The first step in this pivotal concept seems to be an awareness of personal prOpen- sities and the recOgnition of the kind of work one wishes to avoid. The second step is a translation of this prepensity into an actual choice. It is a commitment. It is character- 25 ized by a quality of acceptance which contrasts with the con- fused hyperactivity of the exploratory phase immediately pre- ceding. Whereas other earlier phases of the process of occu- pational choice would be correlated chronologically, crystal- lizatibn varies with age according to the idiosyncrasies of the individual personality and the concomitants of external reality factors. The actual process of choice crystallization is best observed in retrospect. It is held to be the culmina- tion of the entire choice process and its most important ingredient. I It should be noted that pseudo-crystallization is a re- cognized phenomenon. Such choices are supported by key per- sonalities in the individual's immediate environment, by strong role expectations and other external pressures, or by basic emotional difficulties in which there is inadequate self-awareness. In Allport's (2) terms, the proprium is not the functioning factor in choices of this kind. A stable value system is unlikely to be found in support of such choices. A value system incongruent with that of the occu- pational image is a tentative predication of pseudo-crystalli- zation. Super (64:65) and asSociates projected a Career Pattern Study beginning in 1951-52. Continuing for about a 20 year period, it is the aim of the study to observe the vocational behavior of a group from relatively early in the choice-mak- ing process, i.e., before any attempts are made to translate the self-concept into vocational terms. It was further decided 26 to limit the study to boys because they tend to have a clearer occupational role and to assume more occupational continuity than girls. The sample therefore consists of 138 eighth grade boys and 142 ninth grade boys from the public schools of Middletown, New York. The latter serves as the core group or main source of data while the former is used for special purposes within the project. A very thorough analysis of Middletown itself was made. A series of 26 tests, questionnaires and ratings were administered. Some of these, including the work Values Inventory were especially constructed for this study. Inter- views of the boys and of the parents were fully recorded on tape. The material presented (65) is based on data from 105 boys in the ninth grade because inadequate information was gleaned from the other 37. The Work Values Inventory used in this study is a test about "attitudes" toward work. It is a paired comparison in- ventory designed to measure the relative strength of fifteen presumed values: creative, aesthetic, planning, theoretical, variety, independence, supervision, work conditions, associa- tions, way of life, social welfare, security, material, pres- tige and mastery. It was constructed by Donald B. Super, assisted by Davis, Warnath and Hana. The test-retest relia- bility on 25 boys in the eighth grade was ascertained through a rank-order correlation to be .81. The number of scores above or below chance levels for each boy were summed to yield an index in this area of testing. 27 For ninth grade boys this index did not correlate signi- ficantly with any aspect of dimensions 1 (Orientation to Choice), 3 (Consistency of Vocational Preferences), and 6 (Wisdom of Preferences). In dimension 2 (Information and Planning) there was a correlation significant at the .01 level with "extent of planning activity". In dimension 4 (Crystal- lization of Traits) there was a correlation at the .01 level with "rewards of work". In dimension 5 (Vocational Indepen- dnece) there was a correlation with "auspices of work" at the .05 level of significance. It is concluded that dimension 4 (Crystallization of Traits) which includes the work Values Inventory is apparently inadequate as an index of vocational maturity in ninth grade boys. The process of vocational development is seen as an on- going and generally irreversible. It is an orderly, pattern- ed process which lends itself to predictability. It is a dynamic process which incorporates the past into the present in the light of the future. Integrative vocational adjust- ment produces long-range satisfactions for the self as a socialized individual. There is acknowledgement of an inter- action reminiscent of Rosenberg's valueéchoice dilemma: The degree of vocational maturity attained by an individual was viewed as determined in part by his vocational adjustment, for adjustment requires a behavioral repertoire which is a function of de- velopment. At the same time, the nature or quality of an individual's vocational adjustment was seen as a determinant of his vocational maturity, for adjustments made facilitate or impede the develop- ment of new modes of the individual's behavior appropriate to his new life stages (65:71). The study is a descriptive exploration of the basis for a theory of vocational development. It is comprehensive in scope and genetically projected. The instruments are well defined although not fully reproduced, especially in the cases where they were constructed for this study. The sample and its environment are clearly delineated, although some- what arbitraril, chosen for the convenience of the researchers. The techniques used are described in full. Samples of the structured interviews are given in the appendices. Many sug- gestions for further research are amply pointed out by the authors. The major limitation of the study is that it is as yet a hypothetical construct. In fact, it will not even be com- pleted for about another 10 years. However, its longitudinal aspect should prove a major contribution to the understanding of the process of vocational develOpment. Choice crystallization per se is deferred in favor of identifying stable or unstable career patterns. A career pattern is the sequence of occupations held by an individual or group throughout the working life span. These patterns may be characterized as stable (early achievement of stabi- lity), conventional (series of trial jobs followed by a stable job), unstable (trial jobs, temporary stability, and then more trial jobs), and multiple trial (unbroken series of trial jobs). Whereas Ginzberg views implementation of a vocational choice as a consummate compromise, Super would prefer to use the word "synthesis". This word is applied to the more or less continuous aspect of what Super holds to be essentiall, a learning process. Vocational entry is seen in this light to be merely one more step in playing a role via which there is a developmental implementation of the self- concept. O'Conner and Kinnane (41) conducted a study in which they factor analyzed work values for the purpose of identi- fying their parameters. They used a modified version of Super's Work Values Inventory, recasting it into a four-point rating scale. The values were described as important aspects of deciding about a job. A total of 191 undergraduate men at Catholic University constituted the sample. The results were factor analyzed by the complete centroid method until six fac- tors were extracted. These are: Factor A (Security, Economic, Material), Factor B (Social, Artistic), Factor 0 (Work Condi- tions, Associates), Factor D (Heuristic, Creative), Factor E (Achievement, Prestige), and Factdr F (Independence, Variety). It was concluded that Ginzberg's three-way classification was too broad and contains work values relatively independent of each other. On the other hand, Super's‘15 categories of work values are too discrete. It is suggested that a more homogeneous grouping of items in the Work Values Inventory could be ordered on the basis of this study. ' It is by no means a random sampling on which this study was made. Generalizations in almost any plane would need to be recognized as extremely tenuously based. There is an added weakness in the assumption of parity of definition of values between Ginzberg, Super and the authors. There may be further reason for discrepancies of interpretation of this analysis due to the variant ages of the respective samples. The authors seem to be unaware of the Cornell study in which only seven values are grouped in constellations similar to Ginzberg's. The recommendations of the study are not necessary in the light of the fact that they have already been achieved in Rosenberg‘s work and in the Vocational Values Inventory, not as modifica- tions of Super's categories, but in their own right. warren (70) found that changes in college major were not likely to occur when a discrepancy existed between the self- concept and the expected occupational role. Using a sample of 525 male National kerit Scholarship winners who entered over 200 different colleges as freshmen in 1956, the fre- quency of occurence of agreements between the self-concept and occupational role was taken as the norm. The self-con- cept was obtained by means of the Omnibus Personality Inven- tory. 13 sources of job satisfaction. differentiated the self-concept The occupational role was reflected in the rating of No statistical significance from occupational role among those making no change in major, a minor change, or even a major change. However, further that differences significant at between single major changes in minor change, or a double major scrutiny of the data revealed the .05 level were to be found college major, a major and change. It was found that a low grade point average tended to differentiate those making changes. additional observation that high scores on the Thinking Most significant for this dissertation is the Intro- TABLE 2:1 . RELATIONSHIP OF worm VALUE GROUPIIEGS* Ginzberg's_Groupings work Itself Outcomes Concomitants Suger' s Groupings Theory Mastery B Creativity Planning, Supervision Variety ’11th D Social Artistic Economic. Katerial Security Prestige A E bbbtd Independence _ C Conditions of Work Associates Boss Way of Life E F boots * From O'Connor and Kinnane (41) 32 version Scale also tended to differentiate the subjects. Those having high scores reflected more independence in making a change. Low scorers tended to be influenced by external, ob- jective conditions. It could be concluded that scoring high on the Thinking Introversion Scale was tantamount to an indi- cation of propriate striving. This study tends to make a worthy contribution to the research in this area. while the major hypothesis was not substantiated with this particular population, valuable alters native observations were made. Strong and Feder's (61:170) statement in their critique of the literature regarding the measuring of the self-concept is appropriate: Every evaluative statement that a person makes concerning himself can be considered a sample of his self-concept, from which inferences can be made about the various properties of that self-concept. Stephenson (59) investigated whether the concept of crystallization of occupational choice should be associated with the ability to make a preference statement (Ginzberg) or with the entry into a reality-tested situation (Super), whether it be professional school attendance or in a remunera- tive'position.‘ He theorized that an independent criterion of crystallized occupational choice was needed other than the expressed preference statement. Super's dictum of the implementation of a self-concept via occupational choice was chosen as the criterion under investigation. Medicine is the most rigidly prescribed pre-professional training area. Has the self-concept of the pre-medical stu- dent crystallized before application to a school of medicine? This was the problem presented for research. The sample was taken from among bona fide applicants to the University of Kinnesota School of Nedicine out of the College of Liberal Arts during the fall quarters of 1547-51. Of 770 applicants, 368 were not admitted at this school at the time of readiness. These non-admitted individuals were the sample used. From a return post-card questionnaire it was found that 78 now held the h.D., 30 held the D.D.S., and 121 more held medically related degrees. This remarkable consistency among those originally refused admittance to the medical school of their choice was taken as evidence of the persistence of the implementation of a self-concept. Such evidence, it is averred, argues for the crystallization of occupational chaise prior to making application to medical school. It would tend to support Ginzberg's thesis rather than Super's. The point of this study seems well taken. Another cri- terion of crystallization is needed. The study is deficient in that probability models were not used. How many of these subjects would have evidenced the implementation of a parti- cular self-concept by chance alone? The sample is well-de- fined and could be considered suitable to the problem. Gener- alizations to other populations and to other less rigorous areas of occupational choice should be restricted. Small (57) propounds the theory that the determination of a vocational choice must take into account the ego strength of the individual. His major assumption is that all people 34 tend to seek satisfaction of their basic needs in every major aspect of life, including the choice of a vocation. Is this action dominated by fantasy or tempered by it? Small hypothe- sizes that individuals with different ego strengths will show differences in the use they make of reality and wishful think- ing in making a vocational choice. A sample of ten "adjusted" and ten "maladjusted" boys was selected at each of five age levels.15-19. To assess the reality content of each vocational choice, each subject was rated on a four point (0-3) scale. This scale was assigned to the personal characteristics important to the several job classifications found in Part IV of the Dictionary of Occupa- tional Titles. A rating was given each boy for his first and second choice. Among the better adjusted, the second choice tended to be less realistic than the first choice. Among the more’maladjusted, the opposite tended to be true. Fantasy dominates the first choice of the maladjusted. Con- trary to Ginzberg, Small found no linear relationship between age and reality. To make the same or similar vocational choice is held to be an ego function. It suggests an economy of self-perception in which the limit's of one's potential success are in awareness. To assess the fantasy content of each vocational choice a job-awareness or job-concept interview was conducted to as- certain the fantasies about occupations. To check against the interview content, 15 TAT cards were used and the responses scored on the same scale as the interview content. It was kl U1 found that the comparison group sought out ego-involvement with the environment and used skills, talents and intelligence to do so. The disturbed group tended to turn away from the environment and to restrict ego expression. The more disturbed showed significant agreement between needs expressed in their job-concepts of first and second choices. This might be expected where these two choices were similar. But the disturbed made fewer similar choices and more often sought similar need satisfactions from dissimilar situations. The implications are that fantasy and reality factors operate simultaneously at all ages in the selection of a .vocational choice. To effect a compromise the reality per- ceptions of the individual are needed to curb, integrate or redirect the mpulses generated by fantasy. This is an ego function. This study is important for its emphasis on the function of ego strength in the process of vocational choice. A bet- ter description of the basis on which the sample was chosen could have been given. The hypothesis is adequately stated in the light of the theory held. The methodology was clearly described, but the results were not tested against chance. This study is worthy of further investigation. Research with the Vocational Values Inventory The Vocational Values Inventory was developed as an in- strument of measurement by Buford Stefflre of Eichigan State University, and Leland Johnson and Stanley Singer, psychologi- cal consultants of Sherman Oaks, California. In its current form as printed in 1958 it consists of 168 forced choice items and is scored to yield seven measurements of values. The seven scores of the inventory are indicative of the seven postulated basic values which are: Altruism, the extent to which the student values work in which he helps others and does kind things for them. Control, the extent to which he values work where he is the "boss". Job Freedom. the extent to which he values work in which he can control his own hours and methods. honey, the extent to which he values work with high financial and materialistic re- wards. Prestige, the extent to which he values work in which people will look up to him, a job which gives him high status. Security, the extent to which he values work he is sure of keeping as long as he de- sires. Self-realization, the extent to which he values work which lets him express his ideas, interests, and ideals and lets him be creative. Stefflre {53) reports on the concurrent validity of the Vocational Values Inventory when used with the Rooney Problem Checklist and personal history information obtained from a group of 112 high school seniors. Since not all personal his- tory information was obtained from every student, the usable number of students varied in the several correlations. It was found hat a biserial correlation for self-reali- \N «1 zation existed for a boy aSpiring to a white collar position rather than for a boy whose objective was blue collar work. A student whose father is a white collar worker places more importance upon altruism and control than does the child of a blue collar worker. Students planning to go to college had positive correlations in the value placed on self-realization and altruism and negative correlations in the value placed on money as compared to the emphasis on values placed by students not planning to go to college. Students making "A" and_"h" marks placed a higher value upon altruism and significantly lesser value on control and money than do "C" and "D" students. Girls who do not plan on immediate marriage after high school graduation are less concerned with security and more concerned with prestige than are girls who plan to be married soon after graduation. to significant relationships were found among either boys or girls when an analysis was made by rank order corre- lation of the number of problems checked on the Mooney Problem Check List as it related to Vocational Value Inventory scores. It was concluded that job freedom may not be a definable or important value since it did not significantly relate to any of the members of the groups in the areas of attempted validation. Problems and values could well be considered as two independent dimensions of the high school personality. In confirmation of earlier research it was further concluded that for those of middle class background, plan or achievement is associated with concern for altruism and self-realization. 05 For those of lower class beekground, plan or achievement is associated with security and money. kuch work in replication and use with a variety of popu- lations is acknowledged as necessary to the acceptance of the Vocational Values Inventory as a useful instrument. It does possess the quality of introducing students to certain funda- mental considerations of the meaning which work has for them. The instrument does mediate between the broad dimensions of Ginzberg's analysis and the discrete dimensions of Super's. While a review of the literature is the acknowledged source of the postulated values, no basis was suggested, statistical or otherwise, for the selection of these particular dimensions. Stein (6C) conducted a concurrent validity study using the Vocational Values Inventory as the instrument for his doctoral dissertation research. He sought to determine speci- fically whether students planning to enter different occupa- tions tended to vary in their values. he also was Concerned with whether students from different socio-economic levels tended to vary in their values. Possible differences between men and women's system of values as measured by this particu- lar instrument were a final object of inquiry. The sample used was drawn from social science classes of the basic college at Michigan State University. It con- sisted of 261 males and 175 females for a total of 436. All were approximately the same age. The sample was selected "on the basis of expediency and convenience." Reliability coefficients ranged from .69 to .91con the several value indices using Hoyt's method, a modification of K)! \C‘ the kuder-Richardson formula. when considered as a battery of tests these scores were accepted as meaningful for analy- sis. Cf the 168 items fourteen for women and six for men were found which did not measure the property which they were sup- posed to measure. It was found that among men only altruism, money and con- trol significantly differentiated vocations. Altruism was a distinguishing value between men selecting teaching and so- cial welfare from those selecting engineering and the "don't know" category. Money as a value was useful in differentiat- ing between engineers and business men on the one hand and teachers on the other. Those men selecting selling as a vo- cation had greater control test scores than those Selecting social welfare, forestry or medicine. Likewise those choos- ing managerial work have greater control sub-test scores than those selecting medicine. All these were significant at the .01 level. Among women altruism, prestige and control significantly differentiated among the vocations chosen. women selecting nursing, social welfare and teaching had greater altruism scores than those selecting selling, journalism and artistic work. Prestige differentiated women choosing journalism from those electing artistic work, social welfare, teaching, nurs- ing and selling. homen W10 were interested in a career in sales had a higher control sub-test score than all other selected vocations. All these were significant at the .C5 40 level. Money differentiated the upper class for men and prestige, the upper class for women, from among the various socio-econo- mic levels. No other sub-test scores were significantly different for any other socio-economic level. It was apparent that men scored significantly in a dif- ferent manner than the women on the Vocational Values Inven— tory. Validity was not registered for the men on six items, for the women on fourteen items. In addition men scored higher on the values of money, job freedom and control. women 3 scored higher on the values of altruism and self-realization. Using an accompanying questionnaire Strain evaluated the concept of choice crystallization on the basis of the measure of congruency between fantasy based and expectationally based vocational choices. When viewed in this perspective men appeared to sustain more congruency and therefore seemed to have achieved crystallization more significantly than women. This problem was well defined and the hypotheses ade- quately stated. However, the arbitrary selection of the sample used militates against the significance Of the statis- tical inferences derived therefrom. “Sub-group samples were admittedly too small in many instances to give meaningful results to the inquiries made. Helpful suggestions for fur- ther study with the use of this instrument were presented in conclusion. Stefflre and Leafgren (54) used the Vocational Values 41 Inventory as one of a battery of instruments in.a study of counselors and clients. The sociometric problem of similarity of personality among mutual choices, mutual rejections and ran- dom pairs was the point of inquiry. It was hypothesized that mutual choices would be most aliKe, random pairs next most alike, and mutual rejections least alike. The sample consisted of forty graduate students enrolled in a national Defense Education Act Guidance Institute at Richi- gan State University. All were either school counselors or secondary teachers preparing to be counselors. They had spent five months together in training. By a Q-sort form of selection eleven pairs of mutual choice, and eleven pairs of mutual rejection were obtained.‘ From a table of random numbers eleven non-mutual pairs were selected. The Vocational Values Inventory as well as other instru- ments used failed to differentiate significantly between the three groups. All observed differences could well have been associated with chance. The conclusion tended to support the thesis that from a client-counselor standpoint, choices were made on a "better than" rather than an "equal to" basis. The self-ideal rather than the self-concept of the present seemed to be the motivating factor. Using the same sample Stefflre, King and Leafgren (56) attempted to ascertain the characteristics of effective coun- selors. Via the same Q-sort method the peer group chose those whom they would be most likely to go to for counseling. The tOp nine of a normal distribution were designated "chosen" and the bottom nine were designated "rejected". It was as- 42 sumed that "chosen" may be equated with effective and that "rejected" may be equated with "ineffective". In the area of values as measured by the V.V.I. it was found that effective counselors could not be discriminated from ineffective counselors. In yet another study Stefflre and Leafgren (55) investi— gated the value differences between counselors and administra- tors. In an exploratory study they hypothesized that counse- lors would be higher than administrators on the values of altruism and self-realization perforce of their respective occupations. Administrators on the other hand were held to score higher on the values of control, job freedom, money and prestige. No prediction was made regarding the value called security. The sample of forty counselors is the same as in the two previously reviewed studies. The twenty-three administra- tors were all employed as superintendents or principals and were working for advanced degrees in school administration. T-tests were significant at the .01 level to sustain the hypothesis regarding counselors. They could be differentiated from administrators by the values of altruism and self-realiza- tion. While job freedom and prestige did not distinguish ad- ministrators, control and money values did at the .01 and .05 levels respectively. Security was not significant in either case. while the problems presented generated hypotheses that were theoretically plausible, results must remain tentative and generalizations held to a minimum in the light of the. 43 small and highly selective samples used. These three studies indicate well the type of work of which the V.V.I. is capable. Further research with the use of this instrument should tend to reveal additional facets of the fascinatingly practical problem of the relation of vocational values to vocational choice. 44 Summary A critical review was presented of the research literature relating to vocational values, vocational choice, and their interrelationships. The problems, hypotheses, methodology, techniques of analysis, findings, conclusions and generaliza- tions for the several pertinent studies were examined and evaluated. Several important conclusions were produced by this re- view: 1. There is a recognized need for investigating the interrelationship of vocational values and vocational choice. 2. There is a further need for one or more external criteria for choice crystallization. 3. A general theory of vocational choice is open to further research and analysis. 4. It is possible to view the concept of choice crystal- lization as a "crisis in vocational commitment". 5. The ramifications of a theory of vocational values lhas its analogues in a theory of personality. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The study is designed to test differences in the level of stability of vocational values with a view to ascertain- ing the area of vocational choice crystallization among a selected pOpulation of drop-outs, graduates and students as- sociated with Michigan State University. The Null Hypotheses The basic research hypotheses stated in Chapter I are here cast in their null form for the purpose of statistical testing and analysis. Rull Hypothesis 1: There is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the seven values held by drop-cuts, graduates, and students, as measured by the Vocational Values Inven- tory. V The symbolic representation for null hypothesis 1 is: H1z/apdrop-outs z/ID graduates :/(3) students where/CD : the average deviation between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for the several values. Null hypothesgg l §2222fi There is no difference between the mean 1959 and 45 Null 46 the mean 1961 scores for the several values as held by drOp-outs. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis 1 sub-a is: H18: M-1959 score : E-1961 score where M = the mean of the 1959 or 1961 scores of the several values as held by drgp-outs. Hypothesi§.1,§3b;b: There is no difference between the mean 1959 and the mean 1961 scores for the several values as held by gradggtes. _ The symbolic representation for null hypothesis 1 sub-b is: H1b: M-1959 score = M-196l score where M = the mean of the 1959 or 1961 scores of the several values as held by graduates. Hypothesis 1 Sub-c: ' . There is no difference between the mean 1959 and the mean 1961 scores for the several values as held by students. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis. 1 sub-c is: ' 'M-1959 score = m-1961 score 10‘ where M = the mean of the 1959 or 1961 scores of the H several values as held by students. Altegnate Null Hypothesis 1: The mean of the sum of the squared deviations of Null 47 the value systems held by drop-outs will not exceed that mean held by graduates which will in turn not exceed that mean held by students. . The symbolic representation for alternate null hypothesis 1 is: AHI: Z D51 drop-outs 2 inf, graduates é 2D,?1 students where D: : the mean of the sum of the squared differences between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for all seven values. Hypothesis g; There is no difference in the number of changes in vocational choice held by drop-outs, graduates and stu- dents as indicated by them on successive questionnaires. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis 2 is: 1 H2: f drop-outs = f graduates : f students where f z the frequency of the number of changes in vocational choice indicated by drop-outs, graduates and ,students. Hypothesig 2: There is no difference between the mean deviations of the several vocational values held by drop-outs, graduates and students who make no change in vocational choice, and there is no difference between the mean de- viations of the several vocational values‘held by drop- outs, graduates and students who make a change in voca- tional choice. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis 3 48 is: ' change change .change H3: [/0 drop-outs 2/10 graduates.://0 students no change no change . no change /"0 drop-outs 2/40 graduates z/uO students where /.(0 = the average deviation between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for the several values as held by those who do and those who do not make changes in vocational choice among drop-outs, graduates and students. Alternate Null_Hypothes;§ 2: There is no significant difference in the number of those making a change or not making a change in vo- cational choice among those whose summed squared devia- tions are below or above the median of dr0p-outs, graduates or students respectively. The symbolic representation for alternate null hypothesis 3 is: non-change non-change AH}: f below median : f below median : ~ (drop-outs) change non-change (graduates) f above median f above median (students) where f : the frequency of the number of those in the respective categories among drop-outs, graduates and students. Related sub-hypotheses written in the null form are: Null Hypothesis 3: There is no difference between the mean 1961 scores of each of the several values as held by those indicating a change into a new vocational choice and that vocation's 1961 occupational value image, or between that occupation's Null 49 value image of 1961 and that of 1959. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis a is: Ha: M changers = M 1961 occupational image M 1961 occupational image : M 1959 image where M e the mean of the scores of the several values as held by those indicating a given occupational choice as of the times indicated respectively. Hypothesig b: There is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the several values as held by males and fe- males among the drop-outs, graduates and students. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis b is: H :- 5 males = b /y0 males = 90/9 males : /up females (drop-outs) /;0 females (graduates) /Afl9 females (students) (totals) where/0 : the average deviation between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for the several values as held by males and females among drop-outs, graduates, students and totals. Hyppthesis 21‘ There is no difference between the mean deviations of each of the several values as held by changers and non-changers of vocational choice, whether male, female or totaled members of the drOp-out, graduate or student groups respectively. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis b1 is: Null SO Hbi‘fl” changers ..—. 0 non-changers (mal’e drap-outs) (male graduates) (male students) (female drop-outs) (female graduates) (female students) (total drop-outs) (total graduates) (total students) where/0D = the average deviation between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for the several values as held by the changers and non-changers of occupational chdice in each of the categories indicated respective- ly. Hypothesis 22‘ There is no difference between the mean devia- tions of each of the several values as held by drop— outs, graduates and students, whether male or female indicators of change or no change in vocational choice respectively. The symbolic representation for null hypothesis be is: H : D drop-outs = p graduates = 9 students b2 // / (I/nzle changers) (male non-changers) (female changers) (female non-changers) where/up = 'the average deviation between the 1959 and the 1961 scores for the several values held by drop-outs, graduates and students in each of the categories indicat- ed respectively. 51 The Sample, The various hypotheses were tested on a sample of drop- outs, graduates and students associated with Michigan State University. Inasmuch as this is a longitudinal study, the entire population as previously selected was polled. In the spring of 1959 Dr. Jacob Stein conducted a concurrent validity study of the Vocational Values Inventory. His sample was selected at that time from among students at Michigan State University "for reasons of expediency and convenience". With the aid of Dr. Douglas Dunham of the Social Science department sixteen classes of Social/Science 233 were used. Out of-528 students tested, incomplete in- formation on the instruments used reduced the workable and . therefore tabulated sample to 36 students. However, only 422 IBM cards were found to be available for the present work., Thus there were 254 males and 168 females all of whom were in the same age range approximately. According to Stein their socio-economic background could be consider— ed as five per cent upper class, seventy per cent middle class and twenty per cent working class. This conclusion was based on an analysis of the subject's own answers to questidn three of a questionnaire used in the concurrent validity study. The sample as described becomes the population for this study. With the passage of time it is now divided into 52 three distinct groups. There are 118 drop-outs, 140 gra- duates and 164 students as of the fall term, 1961. The entire constituency of each classification was used, with follow-up procedures diligently striving for an 80 per cent return. Sample Returns From an International Business Machine card file of the concurrent validity study the names, student numbers, and other pertinent data were obtained for this study. Current addresses were ascertained with the aid of the registrar's office and the alumni office of Michigan State University. After the design of the study was approved each subject was mailed the following: a. One copy of the Vocational Values Inventory b. One answer sheet (machine form A) c. One copy of a questionnaire d. One stamped, self-addressed envelope e. One letter explaining the data requested Follow-up procedures included one post card, one letter by the examiner, one letter of encouragement to answer, sign- ed by the examiner's academic advisor, one complete re-mail- ing of the instruments to those who had not yet filed a re- turn, and one final letter by the examiner. A total of 317 53 returns were filed, or 75 per cent of the total population. Of this number six were incomplete in some vital detail and were therefore not used. The workable number of subjects for this study is thus 173 males and 138 females, a total of 311. Since all of the population had an equal and independent opportunity to be in- cluded in the sample. it may be considered a validly random sampling (35). Instrumentation The Vocational Values Inventory (see appendix A) con- ‘sists of 165 forced choice items and is scored to yield seven measurements of values. These values have been enumerated and defined on page 36 of this study. Stein (bO) fount that the reliability coefficients for each of the several value indices ranged from .69 to .91 when computed according to Hoyt's modification of the Kuder- Richardson formula. When considered as a battery of tests, these scores are accepted as a meaningful indication of the reliability of the instrument. In spite of the maturation effect inevitable to the test-retest method of determining reliability the product moment correlations between the 1959 administration of the inventory and the 1961 administration of the inventory were calculated. Table 3.1 shows intercorrelations for the total sample. Table 3.2 shows the means and standard deviations 0f the total sample. Appendices contain tables of the in- m0cm0HmstHm no am>ma so. mesmefiaficmflm mo am>ma mo. u * H a mH.- m0.- em.- 00.- 0m.-**mm.-**wmu aw.- a0.- mm.- a0.- 0H.-**am. ceassmaasmL-samm a as.- 00. em.- 0n.- m0.- m0.m*au. .mm.- 00.- m0.- sm.- m0. spaesomm a 00. sa.- m0. mm.- H0.- mm.m*0s. mp» m0.- mo. m .- emanates a m0.- m0. s0.- mm.- :0.- 00.**mm. mmm s0. s:.- gases a ma.- sm.- s0.- 00.- a0.- m0. **m:. amm- Hm.- scumbag now A mm.l**mH. ma.1 #0. ©©. mo.**aw. MW.I fiospcoo a **ma. 0 .- 0m.- am.- ma.- wH.-**sm. smazspha swag .4 a mH.- mH.- mm. 00. 0m.-**0H. compsmaammL-aamm .9 H mm.- m0.- m~.- 0m.- 00. spnssemm M Ma. sH.- :0. 0m.- mmasmmem A no.1 00. mm.- zmcoz H mH.- um.- somemem 900 H mH.- acapsoo a Smwsnpa< an m a 2 am 0 a mm m a 2 as 0 a 0m0a Hmoa GmOH AHHm-zv meEzm>ZH mmDQ<> Q mm& 20 mgm2 4...: mem82¢ru1zoz .m> § memOz¢AO1zo7nfi< E t 1H111w 6:..le 1111. 11. \A . 3:25 ea 8333 GE memE. End. :0... “E . _ . _ .1 . 014:: e.“ Aerzssm 92:55.55 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS Summary The major problem of the study was to determine the stability of vocational values and assess them as a potential criterion of vocational choice crystallization. As a longi- tudinal study the values and choices made by a selected popu- lation of drop-outs, graduates and students associated with Michigan State University in 1959 were compared with their values and choices made in 1961. By ascertaining whether vocational choices were supported by stable value systems among drop-outs, graduates and students, the classification Could be identified for which the stability of values might serve as a criterion of vocational choice crystallization. Theoretical assumptions were developed from the research and literature devoted to the areas of vocational values and. vocational choice. In the analyses of the implications of the relationship between them the matter of choice crystalli- zation assumed a focal point of interest. It seemed to re- preseht a metamorphosis of personality of singular importance both for the individual and his culture. From the review of the literature two basic assumptions were made: 1) entering the world of work constituted a reality shock which may have its repercussions on an individual's value system, and 2) entering that world or work as an academic 95 96 drop-out would sustain a shock different from entering it as a successful graduate. Students of the population have not sustained such a reality shock and therefore could serve ostensibly as a control group. The investigation was conducted near the end of the 1961 academic fall quarter. Copies of the instrument and ques- tionnaire were mailed to the total population of 422 subjects for whom 1959 data was available. A 75 Per cent return was received after five follow-up procedures were employed. The Vocational Values Inventory is an instrument of 168 forced choice items, yielding scores for each of seven values in an ipsative manner. The questionnaire assisted indeter- mining the status and nature of vocational choice. The re- liability and validity of the inventory were accepted on the basis of results obtained in the concurrent validity study by Stein, with due note being taken of the exceptions with regard to item validity. For consistency of analysis the instrument was used without revision. Because of the lack of independence between scores on an ipsative type scale, and because of the administration of the same instrument on the same pOpulation, the results yielded themselves to analysis serially and consecutively by the "t" test and chi square test for independence. Results were scored and tabulated for product mement correlations, means and standard deviations to be computed on MISTIC, the electronic digital computer at Michigan State University. Other tests were hand-figured. 97 The three major null hypotheSes are: 1) there is no sig- nificant difference between the mean deviations of each of the seven values as held by drop-outs, graduates and students, 2) there is no significant difference in the number of changes in vocational choice held by drop-outs, graduates, and stu- dents, and 3) there is no significant difference between the mean deviations of the seven valuesas held by drop-outs, gra- duates, and students who make no changes in vocational choice, and there is no difference between the mean deviations of the seven values as held by drop-outs, graduates, and students who make changes in vocation choice. Null hypothesis 1 Sub- a b,c affirmed that there is no significant difference between the mean 1959 and the mean 1961 scores for each of the seven values as held by drop-outs, graduates, and students respect- ively. Alternate null hypothesis 1 held that the sum of the squared deviations of the value systems held by drop-outs will not exceed that mean held by graduates which will in turn not exceed that mean held by students. Because of the inability to meet assumptions, the alternate null hypothesis 1 was not tested against chance. J Null hypothesis 1 must be accepted with one exception. While on the whole, values do not distinguish drop-outs, graduates, and students from one another, Control as a vo— cational value was found to discriminate between drop-outs and graduates. Null hypothesis 18 must likewise be accepted with one exception. Most drop-outs have the same set of values, but drop-outs in 1959 valued Security more than they 98 did in 1961. Discrimination between the graduate and his un- dergraduate perspective is afforded by Control on the part of males and totals, by Security on the part of females and totals, and by Job Freedom on the part of females. Null hypothesis 1b must be accepted in all other instances.' Null hypothesis 1c regarding the delineation of student values in 1959 and 1961 must be accepted in all but three instances: Control and Security for males and Self-realization for fe- males. 1 Null hypothesis 2 was subjected to the chi square test of independence. It must be rejected on the part of female and total drOp-outs who both change or do not change their vocational choice, because in each instance the frequency of change is more than could be expected by chance alone. In all other instances the null hypothesis 2 that there is no significant difference in frequency of changes in vocational choice among drop-outs, graduates and students must be accept- ed. ‘7 Null hypothesis 3 stipulates that there is no difference in the values held by drop-outs, graduates, and students who make changes in vocational choice, or who do not make such changes. With but one exception the null hypothesis must be accepted. Values do not discriminate between drop-outs, gra- duates, and students, whether changers of‘vocational choice or not changers of vocational choice on the whole. The one instance where this does not hold true is that Control tends to make a difference between students and graduates among 99 those who make no change in vocational choice. Alternate null hypothesis 3 must be accepted in its entirety. Assuming that those below the median of the summed squared deviations for the seven values represented those with stable value systems, it was hypothesized that the frequency of changers or non- changers below the median could not distinguish drop-outs, graduates, and students from changers or non-changers above the median. No distinctions were made. Null hypothesis a postulates that there is no difference between the value system of new entries to an occupation and that occupation's value image, and that the 1959 and 1961 oc- cupational value images likewise do not differ. IFive repre- sentative vocations for which adequate data for testing was available were chosen to test this null hypothesis. That new entries can be delineated by some difference in values considered in profile from the new occupational image 'were found to be so. The null hypothesis must be rejected in every vocation tested. Value images for three of the five occupations changed between 1959 and 1961. The others were stable and the null hypothesis could be accepted. Null hypothesis b states that there is no difference be- tween he mean deviations of the several values which would discriminate between males and females among drop—outs, gra— duates, students, or totals. The hypothesis must be accepted, inasmuch as men and women tend to vary together over time. 'Values do not differentiate between changers and non-changers 0f vocational choice, whether male or female or totaled mem- 100 here of the drop-out, graduate, and student groups respective- ly, eXcept in four instances: Control, Job Freedom and Secu- rity distinguishes the changers among the male graduates from the non-changers of vocational choice. Job Freedom also makes the same distinction for male students. Otherwise null hypo- thesis b1 must'be accepted. Job Freedom and Control are dy- namic in discriminating between several groups when the value systems involved are viewed from the point of view of drOp- ‘outs, graduates, and students, and also from the point of view of change or no change in vocational value and also for the point of view of male and female. Job Freedom dif— ferentiates between drop-outs and graduates among male changers of choice. Control does likewise between graduate and.student male non-changers of vocational choice. In all other instances null hypothesis he must be accepted. Conclusions Several conclusions are based on the results of the study: 1 1. There is no difference in the main between the drop- outs, graduates, and students with regard to the stability of the value systems which they hold. The reality shock of entering the world of work, whether on the part of those academically successful or un- successful, seems to be held in undue suspect by some. If Control differentiates between drop-outs and gra- duates, this fact may be due to an over-all cultural 101 change reflected in this same value under other hy- potheses. 2.There are one or more values which tend to delineate within the three classifications. however. Security was more valued by total drOp-Outs-in 1959 than in 1961. Long-term working conditions may have held-some appeal that paled the quarterly prOSpect of probation when they were as yet students. Control for male and total graduates could mean a relishing of the executive qualities of the work for which a college education has qualified them. Graduate females and total graduates now disdain the Security so highly valued in 1959. hhen it is noted, too, that Job Freedom is more characteristic Of the female graduate, it would seem that creativity was asserting itself and that the motherly instinct might be more inter- ested in giving security than receiving it. Even female students indicate that they are more desirous Of fulfillment, or Selferealization, in 1961 than in 1959. Control and Security discriminate between 1959 and 1961 male students. A reciprocal relation- ship is suggested by the fact that more value is now placed on Control and less value is placed on Security. When it is noted that less value on Security is shared by total drop-outs, female and total graduates, and male students, while more value is placed on Control by male and total graduates, and by male students, a 102 trend inflhenced other than by matters academic or vocational is suggested. It is tentatively concluded that totalitarian authority demands that there be these shifts in value among democratic peoples as a matter of self-preservation. It is a sweeping cul- tural change that is the offspring of our times. . Lack of testing against probability forces the in- terpretation of alternate null hypothesis 1 to very tenuOus conclusions. Nevertheless, the arithmetical comparison of deviation means is suggestive of re- levant observations. Greater change from zero is evidenced by drop-outs than by graduates or students. But this holds :nly for those who make changes in vocational choice. .For non-changers the evidence is for a theory systematically reversed. No change in vocational values seems to be supported by low change in vocational.chnina . Dunn-outs who make no vocational change are the most stable in their vocational values. But those drop-outs who do make a vocational change are the most unstable value-wise. Students are the least likely to vary in vocational values when changers are compared with non-changers. Females tend net to support the theory. Another study subject to more rigorous analySTs must be undertaken before these conclusions can be more than speculative. 4. Only female drop—outs and total drOp-outs make a 103 distinguishing number of changes or non-changes in vocational choice.. They tend to be the victims of their environment more than graduates or students, especially if they are unaware of their value sys- tems and act accordingly. That changers among drop- outs change more and that non-changers change less is suggestive of the possibility that the value sys- tem plays a part. Stable values could lend weight to stable choices, while unstable values could lend weight to unstable choices. As with interests, the more disoriented one is value-wise, the more inap- propriate the vocational choice is likely to be. When-vocational values interact with vocational choice as far as this sample is concerned, there is no in- dication on the whole that might lead to demarca- tions between drop-outs, graduates, and students. Reality shock not only does not seem-to affect the stability of values, but it does not tend to affect the stability of choices in relation to those values. Academic success or lack of it is likewise an un- helpful delineator here. Control again appears, this time to identify students as over against graduates. Could they be more aware of a cultural trend than graduates in this swiftly moving world? If the stability of vocational values is taken into account when interacting with vocational choice, no differentiators are evident. It could be postulated 102+ that the median was inadequate as criterion of value stability. If vocational values tend to be more stable than vo- cational choice, sustained, even changes in choice made on the basis of a stable value system should reflect the event of vocational choice crystalliza- tion. This event is to be more closely identified with students than with graduates or drop-outs. Teachers and salesmen tend to confirm this theory. Businessmen support its obverse by making changes in vocational choice seemingly dictated by the times rather than by a value system. New entries to the medical profession tend to be molded in their values by anticipation of the occupational value image. Can they be said to acting propriately? Managers could be said to disprove the theory. Nhile males may tend to respond differently than females to a given instrument of personality testing, this sample of males and females tended to vary coordinately. Values failed to differentiate be- tween them. Changers are to be distinguished from non-changers of vocational choice among male gra- duates by Control and Security as well as by Job Freedom. The Control-Security reciprocity has already been noted. The male graduate changer is the most likely to be characterized as a representative of Allport's opportunistic personality. He, more than ing: 105 others, vacilates significantly in three values out of seven. He has yet to come to realistic terms with his own hierarchy of values. When considering all three factors, -gender, -change or no change in vocational choice,-classification as a drop-out, graduate, or student, then values are seen again as predominantly stable. Job Freedom dif- ferentiates between drop-outs and graduates among male changers of vocational choice. Control does likewise between graduate.and student sustainers of vocational choice. Control continues to take its place as the most dynamic value of this study. Job Freedom might well be a projection of college careerists onto the world of work. ,Some general observations might well include the follow- Generalizations beyond the sample must be considered as tenuous and in need of further validation from a predictive point of view. Two values, Altruism and honey, do not significantly differentiate any of the groupings made under any of the hypotheses tested. Holding the effects of reality shock in suspect may well be done in the context of action. Verbalizing about what may be perceived as the idealized mode of behaVior could be that which is measured by this instrument. 1 C36 4. The Vocational Values Inventory could well become the instrument of Optimum versatility and research, being more discrete than Super's fifteen category omnibus, and more specific than Ginzberg's three category classification. Such an instrument is highly recommended by O'Connor and Kinnane (41). Research Implications This study was based on two theoretical assumptions: 1) that entry into the world of worh constituted a reality shock which may have its repercussions in the stability of values, and 2) that entry into the world of work as an aca- demic drop-out would sustain a shock different from entry as a successful graduate. The results of the tested hypo- thesis do not sustain these assumptions. The implications for further research are: 1. That values are vastly more stable than perceived. Therefore, more sensitive instruments of discrimination are most likely necessary to effective research in the area of value stability as over against mere determination of values. 2. That verbalizations about values may fail to repre- sent a situation-related course of action. Therefore, some means of authentication seems necessary to validate the findings about values. 3. That an ipsative scale imposes severe limitations to the statistical investigation of values. Therefore, it would seem salutatory to cast the instrument of value inquiry 107 into some other form. 4. That as a criterion of the stability of values the median break is inadequate. Therefore, it would seem that the search for a criterion of vocational choice crystalliza- tion is yet a step removed from the determination of voca- tional value stability. Could one criterion serve both purposes? 5. That students constitute the focal point of choice crystallization. Emanating from this area, low change in values tends to be characterized by no change in choice, while a high change in values tends to be accompanied by high change in choice} The gradient of incidence of this phenomenon from the vortex of student life to some point of insignificance seems worthy of further investigation. . e. That the theory of the interaction between vocational values and vocational choice needs integration with personality theory. 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"Q-sort: A Means of Exploring Voca- tional Choice," Educational and Psycholggicgl Measurement, Vol. 21 (1961), pp. 597-605. Feingold, G.A. "Relationship Between Intelligence and Vocational Choice of High School Pupils," Journal of Applied Psychologx. Vol. 7 (1923), pp.1E§-153. First,Joan M. "Drop-outs," Michiggn Education Journal, Vol. 38 (1960), pp. 250-253. Friedman, Bertha B. Foundations of the Measurement of Values. Contributions to Education No. 911. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1946. Fryer, Douglas, "Predicting Abilities from Interests," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 11 (1927), pp.212-225. Ginsburg, s.w. and Herma, J.L. "Values and Their Relation- ship to Psychiatric Principles and Practice," Jouppal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 7 (1953). Pp. 546-573. . Ginzberg, Eli. Occupational Choice. New York: Columbia University Press, 1951. . "Towards a Theory of Occupational Choice," Qpcupations, Vol. 30 (1952), pp. 491-494. Henry, Carl F.H. Christian Personal Ethics. Grand Rapids; Eerdmans, 1957. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 37. k)! 00 39. 40. 41. 42. 111 Heppock, Ronald. Occupational Information. New York: EcGraw-Hill, 1957: Jacob, Phillip E. Changing_V§lpes in Collgge. New Haven: Edward w. Hazen Foundation, 1956. hay, Lillian held. "The Relation of Personal Frames of Reference to Social Judgments," Archives_p£ Psychologl, No. 283 (1943), p. 40. Kohler, Wolfgang; The Place of Value in a World of Facts. New York: Liveright Company, 1938. Konvitz, Milton R. On the Nature of Value. Morningside Heights, New York: King's Crown Press, 1946. Korner, Ija. "Of Values, Value Lag, and Mental Health." The American Psychologist, Vol. II, 1956, pp.543-546. Lazarsfeld, Paul and Rosenberg, Morris. The Language of Social Research. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, T955. Lowe, C. Marshall. "Value Orientations: An Ethical Dilemma," The American Psychologist, Vol 14 (1959), pp.687-693. McNemar, Quinn. Psychological:Statistics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1955. Heehl. Paul. "Religious Factors and Values in Counseling," Journal of CounselingAPsychology, Vol. 6 (1959), PP-255-27 . Mowrer, O. Hobart, "Some Philosophical Problems in Psycho- logical Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psycho- logy, Vol. 4 (1957). pp. 103-110. Murphy; Gardner, "The Cultural Contest of Guidance," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 34 (1955), pp.34149. . Norrell, Gwen and Grater, Harry. "Interest Awareness as an Aspect of Self Awareness," Journal of Counsel- ing_PsychologY. Vol. 7 (1960), ppI'289-290. Norris Louis William. Polarity: A Philosophyof Tensions ’Among Values. Ch cago: Henry Regnery Company, 1956. O'Conner, James P. and Kinnane, John F. "A Factor Analysis of Work Values," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 8 (1961), pp. 2 3-2 7. Parsons, Ralcott and Shils, Edward (Eds.) prard a General Theory of Action. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- sity Press, 1959. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 500 51. 52c 53. 54c 55. 112 Patterson, C.H. qunseling_and Psychotherapy. Theopy and Practice. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959. . "The Place of Value in Counseling and Psychotherapy," Journa;¥of Counseling Psychology, Roe, Anne. The Psychology of Occupations. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1957. Roeber, Edward C. "Occupations and Values," by Rosenberg, a review The Personnel and Guggance Journal, Vol. 36 (1958). pp.72-73. Rosenberg, Morris. Occupations and Values. Glencoe, Illi- nois: Free Press, 1957. Samler, Joseph. "Changes in Values: A Goal in Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 7 (1960), pp 052-39 0 Segal, Stanley J. "A Psychoanalytic Analysis of Personality Factors in Vocational Choice," Journal of Counsel- ing Psychology, Vol 8 (1961), pp. 202-210. Singer, S.L. and Stefflre, Buford. "Sex Differences in Job Values and Desires " The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 32 (1956 , pp. 370-47%. . "Age Differences in Job Values and Desires." Journal of CounselinggPsychology, Vol. I (1954), 89-91. . "A Note on Racial Differences in Job Values and Desires," Unpublished mimeographed manuscript, Michigan State University, no date. Stefflre, Buford. "Concurrent Validity Study of the Vo- cational Values Inventory," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 52 (1959)} PP. 339-347. Stefflre, Buford and Leafgren, Fred. "Value Differences Between Counselors and Administrators." Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, no date. . "Similarity of Nutual Choices, Mutual Rejections and Random Pairs." Unpublished manu- script, Michigan State University, no date. Stefflre, Buford, King, Paul, and Leafgren, Fred. "Char- acteristics of Counselors who here Judged Effec- tive by Their Peers. " Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, no date. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 55. 66. 67. 68. 690 Small, L. "Personality Determinants of Vocational Choice," Psychological Honpgraphs, Vol. 67 (1953), pp. 1-21. Smith, David Wayne. "Value Systems and the Therapeutic Interview," The School Counselor, Vol. 7 (1959), pp.23-28. Stephenson, Richard R. "Occupational Choice as a Crystal- ~lized Self-Concept " Journal of Counseling Psycho- logy, Vol. 8 (1961), pp. 211-216. * Stein, Jacot. g Concurrent Validity Study of the Vocational Values‘Ipventory. UnpuinShed Ph.D. dissertation, Hichigan State University, 1960. Strong, Donald J. and Feder, Daniel D. "Measuring the Self Concept: A Critique of the Literature," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 8 (1961), pp.170-178. Strong, E.K. Vocational Interests 18 Years After College. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955. Super, Donald E. The Ps cholo of Careers. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957. . Vocatiopgl Development. Career Pattern Study No. 1. New York: Teachers College, Bureau of Publications, Columbia University, 1957. Super, Donald E. and Overstreet, Phoebe L. The Vocational Maturity of Ninth Grade Boys. New York: TeaEhers ColIege, Bureau of Pub ications, Columbia Univer- sity, 1960. - Tiedeman, D.V. "Occupational Choice" by Ginzberg, a re- view. Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 22 (1952), pp. 184:190. Tyler, Leona. "Research Explorations in the Realm of Choice,‘ Journal of Counseling PsychOIQAY, Vol. 8 (1961), Pp. 195-20 0 Uzzell, Odell. "Influencers of Occupational Choice," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 39 (1961), pp. . - 9. Von Haring, Otto. A Grammar of Human Values. Pittsburg: Pittsburg University Press, 1961. . warren, Jonathan. "Self Concept, Occupational Role Expect- ations and Change in College Major," Journal of CounselingpPsychology, Vol. 8 (1961), pp. 164-169. 114 71. Hestermarck, E. Ethical Relativity. Peterson, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams and Company, 1960. 72. White, R.K. "Value Analysis; A Quantitative Method for Describing Qualitative Data," Journal of Socigl Psychology, Vol. 19‘(1944), pp. 351-358. 73. Williamson, E.G. "Value Orientation in Counseling," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 36 (1958), 74. Nrenn, C.G. "The Self Concept in Counselin ," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 5 (1958 , pp. 10 -109. 75. . "Psychology, Religion and Values," The Per- soppel and Guidance JQurnal, Vol. 36 (195 , pp.326+334. ' APPENDIX A VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY . ~_.— .__ i- , VOCATION VALUES INVENTORY Developed by Leland Johnson, Stanley Singer, Valley Psychologi- cal Consultants, Sherman Oaks, California, and Buford Stefflre. Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Mich. This inventory is given to help you answer the question, ”What Do I Really Want From a Job?" Remember, different peOpIe will have different answers to this question. There are no right answers and no wrong answers, and therefore your score will be neither good nor bad, neither high nor low. However, your score, if you follow the directions prOperIy, should help you understand yourself better and understand the meaning that work has for you. This may help you to select an occupation which will satisfy you. In this inventory you must make a choice between each pair of items. In some cases it will be hard to make a choice between the items because you will want to choose both items or neither. But, remember, you must make a choice. Work as rapidly as you can, and do not consider any one item too long. DO NOT MARK THIS BOOKLET 1958 APPEEDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE IF 10. 11. 118 QUESTIONNAIRE Namefiv If graduated, date? ‘ Tmonth) (year) Student number __Major? . As best you remember, what was the occupational choice that you realistically expected to make and so indicated on a similar questionnaire in 1959? you are NOW employed full time and NOT a student: what is your present occupation? What are your duties in brief?__ Do you consider your present occupation to be temporary? or permanent? (IF temporary, to what do you plan to change? (IF temporary, when do you plan to make a change? Do you consider your present occupation to be in the area for which your college major prepared you? Yes No Do you consider your present occupation to be in the area of your expected occupational choice as indicated above? Yes No you are now a student: What is the most likely occupational choice that you NOW expect to make? Do you consider your present expected occupational choice to be in the area of the eXpected choice of 1959 as indi- cated above? Yes No _fi__> I Have you changed your declared major since spring term of 1959? 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