THE EFFECT O5 PRLETING SWBNE RATIONS ON THE _ PERFORMANCE OF SWiNE AND RATS Thesis fa: thc Dogma of Ph. D. MECHSGAN STATE UNEVERSIW Rabat? Wayne Seerley ”i960 ‘ 111E815 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF PELLETING SWINE RATIONS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SWINE AND RATS presented bg Robert Wayne Seerley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D.deg,.ee in Animal Husbandry k) , (I « 7‘](""/IL/\J / Major @ofessor Date July 14, 1960 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University l chL. ”li.‘\1 I 44‘1“..$ THE EFECT OF szE'TING SWINE RATIONS ON THE EZRFCRMANCE OF SWINE AND RATS By Robert weyne Seerley AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department. of Animal Husbandry 1950 Approved “>2“— 5 ’ _75L."“*‘ ’ ". x‘_?=;_,.\ 1“” ' 21 190°?, 200°? artificially dried, and naturally dried corn. Jensen e£_gl. (1960) studied the nutritive value of corn dried at 140°?, 180°? and 220°?. while organic solubles apparently were not affected, the starch became slightly less susceptible to malt amylase digestion. Temperature did not affect total content of riboflavin, niacin or carotene. However, pantothenic acid values were 2.58, 2.40 and 2.31 milligrams per pound, respectively, as the temperature increased. Drying at 240°? increased ether extract and crude fiber values. E. Cooking agg’heat gtfegta on nutrients. Mitchell m. (1949) cooked cut corn from 20 to 45 minutes at 45 to 50 pounds pressure, then toasted at 350°? to 400°? for 3 to 4 minutes. Average digestible protein of the pre-toasted corn and toasted corn was 90 and 75.8 percent, respectively. However, in another trial the protein digestibility increased from 73.8 to 79.8 percent. Average biological value dropped from 59.6 to 56.4 perCent. Kurelec and Barabés (1950) reported pig gains were the same when fed either cooked or uncooked corn. The effect of processing on breakfast cereals has been studied by Murlin and others. In 1938 Murlin found that egg replacement value of torn wheat, flaked wheat and inflated wheat, was 92.8, 82.1 and 79.8 percent, respectively. The processes used to make these three wheats were, respectively, (1) steam cooked under pressure, (2) steamed cooked at 220°? then heated 450°? for one minute, and (3) steamed cooked under pressure then heated 350°? for seven minutes. Comparisons of true digesti- bility proved that heat decreased the availability of nutrients for metabolism. u—C'D‘wilr"1.;“m‘:“-.—V-:-n~ -_...-- 22 Ross §;_§;, (1941) reported dtgestibility of starch by enzymes was significantly different in pablum, rolled oats, quick oats, farina aun12meads cereal. Finer grinding cracked wheat improved the digestibility of starch. Stewart g£_§l. (1943) studied the effect of processed oat cereals ‘upon.rat growth. Conditions for four cereals were: (1) boiling point of water for fifteen minutes, then dried fifteen seconds at 130°C, (2) same as (1) except dried one to two minutes at 200°C, (3) processed at 190°C to 232°C for 5% to 6% minutes at 80 to 100 pounds pressure, then released the pressure to explode, and (4) heated 122°C for five minutes, then.live steam at 198°C with 200 pounds pressure for two minutes. All except the third process had equivalent growth rate to rolled oat-fed rats. Gear (1952) reported that heat processing affected most of the proteins and thiamine. A smaller effect was noted on carbohydrates, fats, inorganic salts, ascorbic acid, pantothenic acid, vitamin7A and vitamin 3. Other vitamins were apparently stable to heat. Cerniani (1951b) studied the effects of heat on the decomposition of glucose, sucrose and lactose. Eleven samples of each carbohydrate were placed in 5 100°C oven. At the end of 12 hours a sample was removed and weighed. Then the oven was turned up 10°C and repeated after 12 hours. This was continued for 132 hours to 200°C. Total weight losses were 21, 33.6 and 26 percent, respectively. A sharp break at 140°C was noted and indicated sudden decomposition. Frazier g§_al. (1953) observed that dry heating of fibrin at 160°C to 210°C with cornstarch, sucrose, glucose or fructose caused considerable nutritional damage as determined by rat feeding tests. The loss in protein quality produced in dry heating fibrin at 210°C was not —_— .4 “Man-n- - _”>_, . ~ . “use”: w”-.- 23 restored with various combinations of essential amino acids. All nine essential amino acids were necessary to restore quality. Heintze (1955) reported 0.5 to 1 percent deamination of glycine, glutamic acid, valine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, histidine and methionine by heating in 15 percent hydrochloric acid at 112°C to 179°C under pressure. Addition of 25 milligram percent of sucrose increased decomposition to 2 percent. Up to 47 percent of cystine, cysteine, serine and arginine was decomposed. Block 2331. (1946) fed rats an experimental human diet which had been made into a cake. This diet was fed as non-toasted and toasted at 100°C to 130°C. The rats just maintained weight; on the toasted, but when .63 percent of lysine was added, the rats responded normally. They concluded lysine was susceptible to heat damage. Kuether and Myers (1948) reported no effectvon lysine by explosion of cereal as measured by nitrogen balance with human subjects. Studies by Krehl et a1. (1945) suggested that corn diets increased the requirement for niacin. A later study by associates of Krehl (Henderson M” 1947) showed that the replacement of raw starch with dextrinized starch eliminated the requirement for niacin. Streightoff 9.11%. (1949) reported losses of vitamins from corn by boiling. Corn (1 ) boiled 30 minutes, (2) boiled 30 minutes then held over boil ing water for one hour, (3) steamed at atmospheric pressure for 30 minutes yielded. resI=°ectively, 80, 81, and 85 percent thiamine, 97, 97,1and 101 percent I'lbbflavin, 87, 87, and 103 percent niacin, and 63, 58, and 64 percent Vita.lnin C of the uncooked corn. Boiling caused riboflavin and niacin to leach, into the water, while thiamine and vitamin C were destroyed. 1“figure. and Carpenter (1951) have shown that lime cooked corn enhances the IE"Vatilability of niacin. Also, wetting a normally pellagragenic raw diet 1mProved rat growth. By replacing certain fractions of corn, it was no: found that gluten, germ, and feed meal (the non-starchy portions) produced the same benefit as lime water treatment. Research by Pellett and Flatt (1956) did not agree with some of the previous work. They reported that lime cooked corn depressed rat growth rate , Supplementation with a B complex vitamin mixture improved growth response. The addition of riboflavin produced a response which was equivalent to the B complex addition. Thiamine fortification was not benefi cial. Chemical and biological assays showed a great decrease in thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content; however, the remaining niacin was thought to be more available. I t has been proposed by Kodicek (1956) that niacin of cereals may be in an alkali-labile bound form that differs from the known nicotinoyl derivatives. They found that corn has 73 percent of its total niacin in hominy and bran. Hydrolysis with 0.5 N NaOH freed the bound form of niacin. Pearson ML, (1957) agreed with previous work that niacin in corn is in a bound form. Niacin improved a raw corn diet, but did not help a °°Oked corn diet. The authors concluded by using paper chromatographic t'eel’ll'lique that niacin was 100 percent bound in raw corn, but 100 persent free in cooked corn. Also, the cooking process may have destroyed some 318-0 in, but the remaining niacin was available for metabolism. Griswold (1951) reviewed the literature extensively on the effect of heat upon the nutritive value of proteins. The following reviews have been cited from Dr. Griswold's article. Hayward aLaL (1936a) shQ‘II'ed that soybean digestibility and biological value were improved by 8 and 12 percent, respectively, when heated by a comercial soybean meal process. Mitchell and Smuts (1932) found that raw soybeans were deficient in cystine. Hayward M. (1936b) showed that cystine supple— mentation did not improve a cooked soybean rat diet, but did improve a ray soybean rat diet. TheSe authors hypothesized that cystine became available when raw soybeans were cooked. Later, Johnson 31.51».- (1939) f°11nd that while sulfur absorption was the same for raw and cooked soy- bean-3. the retention was about 2.5 times more with the cooked beans. A similar trend was noted with nitrogen. These authors concluded a sulfur- nitrogen complex existed in the raw soybean. This complex was not available {or metabolism. Hayward and Hafner (1941) stated that raw soybeans were deficient in methionine. Cooking improved the availability of methionine, but a supplemental source of methionine supported more rat growth. Ham and Sandstedt (1944), Bowman (1944, 1945, 1946, 1948) and others showed that raw soybeans contained one to several anti-tryptic factors, which lower ed the biological value of raw soybeans. Heating rendered these anti— tx-yptic factors inactive, resulting in a higher biological value. While a proper degree of heat improved the nutritive value of soybeans, 31rd and Burkhardt (194:3), Parsons (1943) and Evans and McGinnis (1946) ShOWad that excessive heat, such as autoclaving above 120°C, lowered the nutritive value. Certain amino acid deficiencies were noted with exces- ‘1Ve heating. Methionine, cystine and lysine deficiencies have been I‘epol‘ted by McGinnis and Evans (1947) and leucine by nose M. (1948). It has been suggested by Riesen egg. (1947) and Patton m. (1948) and others that a complex occurs between the aldehyde group of sugar and a free nitrogen group of an amino acid. Lysine, arginine or tryptophan are possibly involved in these complexes. Helnick and Oser (1949) stated in a summary of a number of papers or; the effect of heat on proteins that heat had a great effect on the nuti‘itive value of the protein without affecting the total protein content, ea*Sential amino acid composition, or protein digestibility. They showed “if-h heat processed proteins that the rate of enzymatic liberation of the 26 amino acids, rather than the degree of amino acid availability, was of cri tical importance for proper metabolism. They suggested as a hypothesis that it was important to have amino acids liberated during digestion at rates permitting mutual supplementation. Heat processing influenced the relative rate of liberation of amino acids. Geiger (1947) has shown that incomplete amino acid mixtures which lack an essential amino acid cannot be used for protein synthesis. Experi- meats; with lysine, methionine and tryptophan suggested that essential amino acids; unust be present simultaneously in order to build protein tissue from absorbed amino acids. (Ballison (1948) found that addition of moisture when cooking soy grits at boiling temperature improved the biological value. with little moisture, longer cooking helped. Also, while 50 percent of thiamine was destrt<>3red, neither riboflavin nor nicotinic acid were affected by 60 minute cooking. Kahler (1948) reported that untreated soybeans contained a saponin "*114311 was responsible for a bitter taste. Hydrolysis, hydrothermal treat— meszrt,. or infrared radiation destroyed this taste. Steaming at not more than 100°C destroyed methyl n—monyl ketone and diacetone alcohol, which VE’I‘E! responsible for bad odors and flavors of crude soybean preparations. st;€§3¢n also destroyed peroxidases and other enzymes responsible for ran<=idity and for destruction of fat-soluble vitamins. Mann and Briggs (1950) showed heating soybeans altered protein peaks on electrophoretic patterns. Because several small peaks changed tc’ (Dne large peak, amino acid interaction and denaturation were suggested. Carroll gt_§1. (1952) discovered the site of nitrogen absorption to‘be different in raw and processed soybean meal. The mean digestibili‘ Coefficient of material from the terminal end of the small intestine was +- 32,55 - 13.53 and 78.66 1' 3.08, but the fecal digestion coefficients were '{76.96 t 1.23 and 81.70 1’ 1.23 percent for the raw and processed meals, respectively. Therefore, processing accelerated the rate of digestion and significantly increased digestibility. The pH of the intestinal contents was the same for the two groups. In 1931 Morgan stated that she was not aware of any experiment indicating a decrease in protein digestibility due to either moist or dry heat. Sie tested heat treated cereal proteins and casein, and reported protein digestibility did not change. However, a nitrogen loss was no ted in the urine and it was concluded that though absorbed, some nitrogen was not available for tissue metabolism. Greaves M. (1984, 1938) and Block (19:54) found that casein heated above 140°C lowered the biological value and possibly altered 1351119 structure. Chemical analysis of heated casein detected no decrease in total lysine content, yet 0.2 percent supplemental lysine overcame the deficiency when measured by rat growth. Eldred and Rodney (1946) conducted Lg 11.3.7.9 digestion studies on raw and heated casein. Using °°mb ined crystalline pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin, the degree of digestion did not differ between the raw and heated. Available lysine, as determined by .the specific enzyme lysine decarboxylase, was appreciably 1333 in the heated casein. Aughey and Mniel (1940), Lincoln M. (1944), Mund and Goddard (1945) and Pai 313;, (1957) agreed that cooking of cereal and other f°°ds had little effect on thiamine content. Cheldelin M. (1943) measured the losses of certain B vitamins aft’-er cooking thirty different foods. The degree of loss was slight for riboflavin and niacin, moderate for pantothenic acid, and extensive for inositol and folic acid. Evans and Butts (1951) concluded that autoclaving soybean meal for 4 hours at 15 pounds steam pressure per square inch inactivated basic amino acids and tryptophan in three different ways. The types of inacti- Vation were: (1) protein-bound amino acids react with glucose or sucrose to destroy biological activity of the amino acids, (2) protein-bound amino acids react with some other constituent of the protein to form a linkage, which was resistant to in m digestion with trypsin and erepsin but not to acid hydrolysis, and (3) protein-bound amino acids react with sucrose or glucose to form a linkage similar to the linkage in type two. Inactivation of lysine was of types 1 and 2, arginine of types 2 and s, histidine of types 1, 2 and 3, tryptophan of types 2 and 3. Lysine was inactivated most severely, while histidine and tryptophan were affected to a lesser extent. Pronin and Dakh (1952) observed that B—amylese activity of flour declined as heating temperatures were increased. A 5 percent flour extract heated to 42°C, 68°C and 72°C formed 71, 51 and 16 milligrams of “alto” from starch the first minute and 186, 186 and 16 milligrams during the first 15 minutes, respectively. It was postulated that a Charles in the B-amylase molecule occurred, thereby slowing the formation or the enzyme-substrate complex. This decreased the initial yield, but in time the enzyme became saturated with the substrate, so that the total Yield remained the same. Higher heat inactivated the enzyme and resulted in Poor yields. 1“ Effects of processing on. h cellular s ructur of cer ain Wolf 1391. (1952, 1958), Cannon gt 1. (1952), and Macueetere %. (1957) reviewed the gross anatomy, microscopic structure and chemical cW‘position of mature corn. Wolf £31. (1952) stated the endosperm was -- arr-1 1.4:, 1,:- «sf-11:7- 2’9 surrounded by an aleurone layer, which varied in thickness from 11 to 50 microns. Since there were no intercellular spaces in this layer, water and dissolved substances must diffuse through the cell walls before reaching the starch parenchyma cells. The cells of the starchy endos‘perm were elongate in shape. Most of the cells were arranged rougl'lly end—to-end, their long axes radiating in all directions from the vertical fissure under the dent in the upper part of the endosperm. Average cell thickness was 1 to 1.1 microns in the horny endospcrm and 1.2? to 1.3 microns in the floury endosperm. It was stated by the authors that some structural stress was apparent, which was thought to be caused by rapid growth. Within the cells, the starch granules were embeided in a proteinaccous matrix. This matrix was loose in the floury Portion of the endosperm, but dense and well developed in the outer horny endo sperm. ‘ Cannon E . (1952) reviewed the literature on the chemical composi- tion of the mature corn kernel. They cite the work of Porst (19l2) who stfited the average pentosan content of corn was 5.77 percent 0f the “‘81. and of this 48.62 percent was in the hull, 1.69 percent in the cndosperm and» 8.38 percent in the germ. Rothman and Polak (1941) found the structure of several cereal foods changed after cooking. Photonicrographs revealed that the endo- Bperm was broken down, which the germ was resistant to structural change due to cooking. The cells of the kernel covering shrank and vacuolized after prolonged cooking. Personnel at Central Soya Company, Inc. (1958) postulated that their solvent extraction process ”exploded" the cellular structure inside each 8olfbsan flake, thus releasing the protein and rendering it more available. 1Dhotomicrographs illustrated the breakdown of the cellular structure. Castle and Castle (1956) studied the digestibility of a ration con— ,1 sting of wheating (45$), barley meal (30%), flaked corn (14.593), fish- meal (7.5%), lucerne meal (2.5%) and vitamin A and D (.Sfi), and determined the rate of passage through the alimentary tract cf pigs. Using four pigs, the mean 5 percent excretion times were 20.3 and 21.5 hours (standard error 5:- 0.3, range 11 to 26 hours), respectively, for the LR. and P.M. feedings. Means for the 95 percent excretion time were 52.3 and 53.5 hours (standard error ‘3’- 0.9, range 42 to 83 hours), respectively, for the LE. and PM. feedings. There was no marked trend with age and increas- ing we fight. 28y subtracting the 5 percent from the 95 percent excretion time, the time over which most of the ingesta was excreted was determined. These values were 32.0 and 31.5 hours (standard error ‘3- 0.9) for the AM. and RM. feedings. Mean ingesta retention times were 33.1 and 35.2 hours (Standard error 1: 0.4) for the AJJ. and PM. feedings. Mean retention times, A.M. only, were correlated with the pig's live weight, digestibility of dry—matter of the ration, and the mean weighed dry-matter content of the feces. These correlations were i 0.233, -0.0l/9 and ‘1' 0.228, respectively. “one were statistically significant. In a later report (1957) these authors used the same techniques to ‘tudy the effect of (1) level of feeding, (2) amount of water, (3) fixed water and variable amounts of feed, and (4) rations with different crude fiber on the rate of food passage and percent digestibility of dry matter and crude protein. In Experiment 1, these investigators found that a one-half normal f°eding significantly slowed down food passage rate, while 1% or 2 times nOl‘mal significantly increased food passage rate. The dry matter content of the feces and the digestibility of dry matter were significantly different (P<’0.05) between the two extremes in feeding level. High feed intake decreased the fecal dry matter content, and increased the dry matter digestibility. Digestible protein was not altered. In this experiment water and feed were held in a constant ratio of Zizl pound. In Experiment 2, the ranges in water feeding were 2} (which was considered normal), 1%, 3 and 3 3/4 pounds per one pound of meal. Results of a low level feeding were the same as the normal; however, the high levels of feeding water significantly increased food passage rate. The percent dry matter in the feces, digestible dry matter and digestible protein were not altered by the various levels. In Experiment 3, the water was held constant, and the ration fed at two levels, namely, 0.6 times normal and 1.5 times normal. Mean reten- tion values were 35.0 hours and 23.2 hours for the low and high feeding levels, respectively. This was a difference of 11.8 hours which was significant at the P<.0.02 level. The fecal dry matter content, digestible dry matter and the digestible protein were the same. In Experiment 4, normal and high fiber rations were compared. One ration had 5.6 percent crude fiber and the other ration 10.9 crude fiber. The rate of food passage for these two rations was the same. The percent dry matter in the feces was significantly higher with the high fiber-fed tags. Dry matter, nitrogen-free extract and crude fiber digestibility coefficients were significantly lower for the high fiber-fed pigs. Digesti- bility coefficients for crude protein and ether extract were not signifi- cantly different between the two rations. q. a. I no i III. EXPmIMENTAL PROCEURE The objectives of these experiments have been to study and evaluate the effects of pelleting on three different swine rations. The test rations were formulated to compare three fiber levels. This investiga— tion consisted of nine experiments: Experiment 1. Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment 8. 9. Pigs ad libitum-fed three test rations in meal and pellet forms. Rats ad libitum-fed three test rations in meal and pellet forms. ‘ Palatability study -- high corn rations. Performance of paired pigs -- equally fed to 180-200 pounds bodyweight, then ad libitum fed to heavier weights. Apparent digestible energy studies with equal and ad libitum feeding. Apparent digestible nitrogen studies with equal and ad libitum feeding. Rate of food passage studies with equal and ad libitum feeding. Double reversal studies with paired pigs. Bat performance when fed processed corn. It was hypothesized that the first ad libitum feeding experiment would provide information pertaining to the expected performance of pigs when fed.with normal feed lot conditions. Subsequent experiments were conducted to provide explanations for differences observed in the ad libitum feeding experiment. e e arm The three test rations were (1) fortified corn-soybean meal, (2) 20% oats by weight replacing corn, and (3) 40% cats by weight replacing corn. For convenience, hereafter these rations will be designated as high corn, 20$ oats and 40% oats. The ingredient composition of these rations is listed in Table 7. Each ration was prepared as high protein and low protein. When pigs averaged 125 pounds bodyweight, the high protein ration was replaced by the low protein ration (based on the National Research Council's protein requirements for swine). One-half of the meal rations were made into 3/16 inch pellets by a California pelleting mill. Steam was used to condition the meal before pelleting. Proximate analysis of the six high protein rations is shown in Table 8. Analytical determina— tions were done in accordance with the A.0.A.C. methods (1950). Sixty thrifty weanling Duroc, Hampshire—Chester White and Hampshire- Duroc crossbred pigs were grouped into six uniform lots. The pigs were allotted on the basis of genetic relation, weight, sex and general appearance. During the early phase of the experiment the pigs were vaccinated for hog cholera, wormed with piperazine and sprayed with lindane for external parasites. Facilities for each pen included a portable sleeping house with ajoining concrete slab, automatic waterer and a six compartment self-feeder. Feeders were checked often to insure proper plate setting. All pigs were weighed individually every two weeks. Feed placed in the self-feeders was weighed and recorded. and feed weigh backs TABLE 7. INGREDIENT COMPOSITION OF RATIONSa —— — _ —‘-c v ewe... _ j- ag... '* m: Oern° 77.25 85.25 58.75 57.75 40.25 49.25 Oatsc --- --- 20.00' 20.00 40.00 40.00 Soybean meal (44%) 16.00 7.00 14.50 5.50 13.00 4.00 neat and bone scraps (50%) 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Fishmeal (60%) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Alfalfa meal (17%) 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Limestone 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 Dicalcium phosphate 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 Trace mineral salt (0.5% zinc) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Trace mineral (ccc - swine) 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 B vitamin mix (Merck 58C) 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 Vitamin A and D mixd 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 Vitamin 512 (Pfizer 9 plus) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Aurofac 10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 —w .—¢ -— ”P“. is “rm-or- H>M‘ aRation cost (per cwt.): High corn - meal $2.86 ton for grinding and mixing. bHigh was approximately 17% crude protein. 13% crude protein. 0% oats - meal $2.83 40% oats - meal $2.80 Low was approximately pellet $3.11 pellet $3.08 pellet $5.05 Ration costs included $5.00 per ton for pelleting in addition to $2.00 per cCorn and oats were ground through an l/8 inch screen. dVitamin A and D supplement supplied 1000 USP units A and 300 USP units of D per pound of ration. '"fi' .po' 3:, E 3411'. . __ , E a _._‘ “1".‘wulgmm " flmzmwa‘fig“¢: TABLE 8. PROXIHATE ANALYSIS OF HIGH PROTEIN RATIONS Ether Crude Crude Nitrogen-free B 0 extract fiber protein Ash extract L 4 High corna ueal 13.21 3.72 3.00 18.38 4.09 57.60 Pellet 12.98 3.77 3.07 18.13 4.07 57.98 20$ oats Heal 11.92 4.01 5.07 17.83 4.28. 57.11 Pellet 12.07 3.84 4.70 17.44 4.28 57.89 40% oats Meal 11.10 3.79 7.71 17.38 4.88 55.36 Pellet 10.80 4.00 7139 17.00 4.44 58.37 aHigh corn ration analyzed 0.58 percent calcium, 0.53 percent phosphorus and 99.20 parts per million zinc. followed the weighing of the pigs. As the pigs individually reached 210 pounds, they were sacrificed and the carcasses were evaluated by conven- tional methods. This experiment was designed to measure rat performance when the test rations were fed as meal, pellets and reground pellets. The hypothesis was that the reground pelleted rations would provide more information per- taining to the nutritive value of pelleted feed. Criteria used were: (1) growth rate, (2) feed intake, (3) feed efficiency, (4) ration palata- bility, and (5) ration density as related to feed intake. Ninety individually-fed rats were fed the three high protein test rations as reported in Table 7. Five weanling male and five female rats were assigned at random to each treatment with the stipulation that a male and a female rat must be caged on each tier and on opposite sides of the rack“ (The rats were caged in two 60 cage racks. The rats were weighed weekly for four consecutive weeks. Water and feed.were fed ad libitum. D. Egpggiaggtmfi, Pglgtapilitz ElEQ! -- high corn gating‘ This experiment was initiated to study the palatability of the high corn ration. Smith (1957) and others stated that pigs prefer to eat the pelleted ration. Conrad (1958) observed that pelleting improved consump- tion of high fiber rations, and attributed the increased feed intake to improved palatability. A group of pigs was offered the following three forms of the corn ration, each in a separate self—feeder: a meal, a pellet, and a reground pellet. The location of the feeders was alternated daily to avoid habit in feeder selection. 2. ans-We Pe 6mm d..ma_._a -;._egssll1_£s€1._9._l_t 89:299. pgggg§_bggzggight, then ad libitgm fed to heavier weights, Six replicate pairs of pigs were used in this experiment for each of the three test rations. The pigs were paired on the basis of genetic relation, weight, age, sex and general appearance. Pigs were fed indi— vidually in a 20' x 24' Doane-type house which has twelve 3' x 8' pens. Feed was provided twice daily, at 8:00 A.M. and 4:30 P.M. During the equal feed intake phase, the amount of feed provided at each feeding was based on the consumption of the pig eating the lesser amount of feed. Therefore, one pig was near maximum intake at all times while the other pig probably was receiving somewhat less than maximum desired feed intake. Feed weights were not taken at each feeding. Instead, 20 pounds of feed were weighed into a can and recorded. Each feeding was simply a volume measurement. Care was taken to insure that the cans provided for the pair emptied at a uniform rate. Single compartment feeders 37 with a deep cup were used in order to minimize feed wastage. Water was provided ad libitum in Jamesway steel hog pans. The pigs were weighed every two weeks, and feed consumption for the two week period was determined. This routine continued until the pigs weighed between 180 and 200 pounds; at this weight they were ad libitum fed to the end of the trial, d i i um ed The same pair-fed pigs used for Experiment 4 were utilized in this experiment. Three weeks before the end of the equal feeding trial, these pigs were transferred to another barn where each pig was confined to an 8' x 8' pen. It was not necessary to alter feeding and management practices for this study. Accurate daily feed records were kept prior to the start of the equal feeding digestion trial in order to establish the best level of feeding. During the ad libitum feeding digestion trials, the pigs were fed twice daily, but the quantity fed always exceeded the amount the pig could consume before the next feeding. In the initial feeding of each trial, ferric oxide was utilized for the purpose of marking the beginning of the fecal collection period. The appearance of red color in the feces marked the start of fecal collection. After five days, ferric oxide was again added to the ration; fecal collections were terminated at the appearance of the red color. During the digestion trial, weight records were kept on feed consumed and feces excreted. Feed samples were collected at each feed- ing for analysis. Four fecal collections were made daily-~8:00 A.M., 1:00 P.M., 5:00 P.H. and 11 P.M. After recording the weight Of the fecal material, it was thoroughly mixed, and approximately a 10 percent aliquot was taken for analysis. The aliquots were put into a Jar, sealed and stored at 5°C. After the five day collection period, the fecal samples were dried in a 100°C oven for the purpose of dry matter and energy determinations. Prior to the energy determinations, the dried fecal samples were finely ground in a Wiley mill, then thoroughly mixed. Feed and fecal samples were analyzed for energy in a Paar plain Jacket oxygen bomb calorimeter. Procedure followed was in accordance with the bomb calorimeter instruction manual. The percent apparent digestible energy was calculated on the basis of the formula; A.D.E.a “>- T feed e r M - (T f cm x 100 (Total feed energy ) a'Apparent Digestible Energy b figrams of feed x $ D.M. of feed) x Calories per gram of feed DAL] c Egrams of feces x 1 D.M. of feces) x Calories per gram of feces 13.24.] 0. WWe WW ad bi eedi This experiment was conducted simultaneously wdth the energy study (Experiment 5). Fecal samples for nitrogen and energy analysis were taken at the same time. The fecal samples for nitrogen analysis were placed into a Jar which contained 200 milliliters of a 1 percent boric acid solution. This solution was used to avoid loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia. The samples were sealed and stored at 5°C. At the end Of the trial, the fecal solution was increased to known volume with tap water. The grams of fecal material were then calculated as grams of dry fecal material per milliliter of solution. Each sample was thoroughly mixed and a 20 milliliter aliquot was taken for macrOXJeldahl determina- tion. The macroKJeldahl determinations were done in accordance with standard A.O.A.C. methods . .Apparent digestible nitrogen was calculated using the formula: 8 b - T eca n r enc x 100 T A-D-N'3(fi) 3 (Total feed nitrogen ) filpparent Digestible Nitrogen bEgrams of feed x 1).“. of feed) x f nitrogen per gram feed 13.113 c [grams of feces x f‘ 1).“. of feces) x i nitrogen per gram feces D.M.] The method used in this experiment was a modification of the method used by Belch (1950) and Castle and Castle (1957). It was postulated that the rate of particle passage was an indication to the rate of food passage through the alimentary tract. By thoroughly mixing colored particles with a day's ration, the time the feed remained in the alimentary tract was estimated by recording the time fed and the average particle excretion time. Finely ground corn cobs were used as the reference parti- cle. Ground corn cob particles were sized by screening and then dyed. The particles that would pass through a .156 inch (5 mesh) seive, but would not pass through a .131 inch (6 mesh) seive were selected for the passage studies. One-half of the selected particles were dyed red, and the other half dyed blue. Permanently dyed particles were prepared by soaking the particles 24 hours in either a 2 percent solution of acid fuchsin dye or methylene blue chloride dye. These studies were conducted simultaneously with the digestion trials (Experiments 5 and 6), except the particles were fed 24 hours before the start of the digestion trials. This permitted a majority of the particles to be excreted before the start of the fecal collection period of the digestion trials. On the evening which preceded the start of the experiment, the pigs were allowed to eat only one hour. This 1“Shred a good appetite the next morning, which was important for rapid and complete consumption of the feed and particles. Approximately 400 red particles were thoroughly mixed with the 8:00 A.M. feed, and approxi- mately the same number of blue particles were mixed with the 4:30 P.M. feed. Fecal collections were made daily at 8:00 A.M.. 1:00 P.M., 5:00 P.M. and 11:00 P.H. The fecal material was washed through a .110 inch (7 mesh) sieve by water, but the particles were retained by the sieve. Particles were counted at each collection. When all particles were excreted, the total number was taken as 100 percent. Then, the percent passage at any given time could be calculated by dividing the total number of particles into the number passed up to that particular time. A particle passage curve was developed by calculating the percent excreted after each collection. This curve was developed by placing the hours after feeding on the abscissa and the percent particle passage on the ordinate, and plotting the points for percent passed at each collection. The curve was produced by drawing’a line through these points. This curve was used to analyze the data statistically. l. meriment 8, Dggble reversal studies with mizegm In this experiment each pig was tested twice with the meal and pelleted high corn ration; thereby each pig was his own control in compar- ing the two physical forms of the ration. Thur pairs of uniform pigs were selected and pair-fed an equal amount of a ration. Feed consump- tion between pairs was not considered. This experiment required four test periods during which one pig of a pair was given the ration in the order of meal, pellet, meal, then pellet while his mate received pellet, meal, pellet, then.mea1. Experimental procedure was otherwise identical to Experiments 5, 6 and 7. Two trials were conducted to determine the effect of processing corn on rat growth. Smith (1957) stated that the grain portion of a poultry ration appeared to be benefited.more by pelleting than other ingredients. Since most other ingredients had been previously cooked, it was unlikely that heat would have much effect on these ingredients. Bothman and Polak (1941) found the structure of several cereal foods changed after cooking. Personnel at Central Soya Company, Inc. (1958) postulated that their solvait extraction process ”exploded” the cellular structure inside each soybean flake, thus releasing the protein and rendering it more available. In this experiment, Central Soya Company, Inc. prepared corn by several different processes, which were: Trial 1 - (1) unprocessed corn, ground (2) corn conditioned to 180°F, ground, pelleted, and reground (3) same as (2) except conditioned to 208°F (4) conditioned to 1800?, flaked (5) same as (4) then toasted (20% initial moisture, 5 minutes live steam, 25 pounds Jacket pressure per square inch, 25 minutes toasting time) (6) same as (5) with 25% initial moisture (7) same as (5) with 15 minutes toasting time (8) same as (5) with 85 minutes toasting time (9) same as (5) then ground Trial II-- (1) unprocessed corn, ground (2) same as (5) of Trial I with 50% initial moisture (3) same as (2) with pH of the mixture adjusted to 9 before toasting (4) unprocessed finely ground corn (5) medium ground corn pelleted at high temperature-- approximately 208°F Ten rats were selected at random and assigned each test ration. Hanagement of the rats was the same as reported in Experiment 2. The basic ingredients in the test rations are listed in Table 9. The rations and water were ad libitum-fed. TABLE 9. INGREDIENT COMPOSITION OFIPAT DIET __a..elnezsdiept Phases Corn 72 Crude casein (90¢) ‘ 13 Fishmeal (60%) s Dehydrated alfalfa meal (17%) 5 Corn oil 3 Dicalcium phosphate 0.25 Trace mineral salt (98.000% Na61, .012% Co, .0135 I, .455% Mn, .045% Cu, .240% to, .ooe$ zn) 0.5 B vitamin supplement (Merck 58c) 0.1 Vitamin.A and D concentratea 0.05 Vitamin 312 supplement (Pfizer 9+) __Q‘§§ TOTAL 100.15 8Vitamin A and D supplement supplied 1000 USP units A and 500 USP units of D per pound of ration. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. WM d haemtiawne in me and pellet Igmg. Table 10 summarizes pig performance. Analysis of variance (Table 11) shows a significant difference between rations. Carcass data are reported in Table 12. Student's range test revealed that pigs given the pelleted rations gained significantly faster than the pigs on the same ration in meal form (P<0.05). The daily gains were the same for all pelleted rations, but the gains were significantly (P<0.01) reduced with the 40% meal ration. There were only slight differences in feed consumption with the rations containing no oats and 20% oats in either the meal or pellet forms. In the case of the 40% oat ration, the pellet-fed pigs ate 5.15 pounds per day, while the meal-fed pigs ate only 4.66 pounds per day. Surprisingly, the highest feed consumption for all lots was in the 40% oat pelleted lot. Wastage, sorting and low consumption of the 40% meal ration indicated this ration was unpalatable. It appeared the energy intake was reduced with the high fiber meal ration and resulted in poorer performance. Feed intake was increased by pelleting the 40% oat ration and was undoubtedly partially responsible for increased growth. The results were in agreement with the data from the recent evaluation of oats by Jensen gt_al. (1959b). Pelleting improved feed efficiency by 0.24, 0.40 and 0.49 pounds feed per pound gain, respectively, for the high corn, 20% oats and 40% oat rations. In general, as the oat level increased, the feed efficiency 43 TABLE 10. Pmmos OF PIGS AD Luann-m THREE muons IN mm m 2mm FORMS Ration II'igh corn 20¢ oat—5' 40% oats Ration preparation Meg; PM figg Pellet Meg; 11:11.31 14.95%. L L 3 4_--_:§ 5 No. pigs 98 10 10 10 10 10 Av. initial weight, lbs. 31.1 31.1 30.9 31.1 51.2 31.0 Av. final weigit, lbs. 183.8 198.6 177.4 195.6 160.1 196.2 Av. daily gain, lbs. 1.53b 1.623c 1.471D 1.65‘1 1.29 1.65d Av. daily feed intake, lbs. 4.76 4.83 4.87 4.81 4. 66 5.15 Feed per pound gain, lbs. 3.12 2.88 3.32 2.92 3.61 3.12 Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain $8.75 $8.80 $9.27 $8.86 $9.98 $9.85 aOne pig died (hemorrhagic enteritis) bSignificantly different than Lot 5 (P<0.01) °Significantly different than Lots 3, 5 (P<0.01); 1(P<0.05) dSignificsntly different than Lots 5 (P< 0.01); 3(P<0.05) TABLE 11. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F WEIGHT GAINS ource v anc i mg“ f '_ Total 59 22,660 Rations ' 5 11,056 ' 2,211 10.1115t Error ‘ 55 11,604 211 L.- .— a‘I-Iighly sigiificant (P< 0.01) 45 . ‘I‘ gr II '.|i. ‘ 91’s-; III, III"! I." III mo.em mm.n mm.eo ea.ae mm.am es.an oa.a ea.om as.ma m.mHm pended Hm.em mm.m sa.mo mH.ae em.am Hm.ae ae.a me.mm He.ma m.OHm Hem: nose woe om.mm ma.n om.me am.ae ec.cm .eo.mn ea.a om.oe oo.ea a.mam ”tease ea.mm we.» mo.ne ma.ae ae.em mm.mm ma.a mo.on ea.ea a.oam H66: 5566 mom ma.om Hm.n me.eo em.ae om.Hm Ha.me ma.a am.mm em.ns m.eam needed ae.om om.» mo.me ne.ae an.mm eH.ma we.” Hm.mm em.ma a.aam How: soon seem .I .wtinadmejzilmi- -. . «v1.1... timiilmllmemomw -. gnawiwijfifl 11 I Elli .53 p: mpoa memoueo 039 $50.80 05A £3033 sawed." 9330.5 unmask perm some 33 33% (3A1... mwooaeo Hocvnwmmam Ammwdmm>< 83V mzmorm Edam Bad 3: 2H mchadm Eta—aumHA a mwum mom magmmm mmdomdu .NH mama. d«meased, but efficiency decreased much faster with the meal rations. Feed cost per 100 pounds bodyweight gain increased with increasing levels of oats. This was primarily due to poorer feed efficiency. The cost differences were less between the pelleted rations, but followed a trend similar to that of meal rations. Although gains were more costly with oat rations, it appeared that the cost of pelleting was justified only with the higher fiber rations. with reference to the optimum crude fiber level for growing- finishing swine, it would seem that the value (6.57 percent) reported by Axelsson (1953) is too high. 0n the basis of this experiment and observa- tions by Jensen ggmal. (1959b) and Conrad and Beeson (1958), probably the optimum level is lower than the level suggested by Axelsson. Carcass results showed there were no differences between the experimental rations in regard to dressing percentage, carcass length, backfat, percent lean cuts, percent primal cuts, loin area and percent fat trim. The 40% meal-fed pigs were slaughtered approximately three weeks later than the majority of the other pigs. B. _ rmn Ra d ibi - re e_ rationngg lle orm Table 18 shows the results of this experiment. The data were analyzed by analysis of variance (three way classification, Snedecor, 1956). The daily gains and feed efficiency of the rats on various rations were generally consistent with the observations on the pig experiment (Experiment 1). Rat gains were significantly (P<0.05) improved by pelleting. Reground pellets were as effective in stimulating growth as the pellets. Feed consumption was reduced on the 40% meal ration, and the reground pellm-fed rats consumed more feed than the meal-fed rats, 30.03: m .m .o .e .m .H 352% :38 398.33 fiSSCEma O 30.3.: s 39% est gouache masfisehaeap $06va a .m .v J £8.33 s 98» so...“ 898.33 238833? mn.n o¢.w an.» Aw.mH ow.mn ob.ma mm.¢ mo.¢ omo.¢ m.mmH m.mmH m.¢vH v.mn m.mn m.mn OH OH 0a m m a ve.n ma.» on.n am.oH mm.ma v0.0a em.e nem.¢ .mo.¢ «(.3 one: «63 m.oe m.mn m.me oH ca ca 0 m e NH.n Ho.» mm.n macaw .aaem seam eon pooh 3.3 3.: 5.3 23» .835 .33 33 .5 s¢N.m mb.v mm.¢ madam .uamm hfladu .>< mdsa 0.3." mdma peep» $2M?) ads...“ :5 was. ad... saw as...» .232, 335 .5 0H 0H 0H easy nepann m m a gonads guano vegan! aeflaom macs: vgobom Janina...) monB m Emma manna amatxDaHmHA 94 2mm: ma4 mm .>< no 059 .oz vaOh Egm a: g zH 20:..me .56 egummm Qv mo zmoo 4 arm warm mom mammdm aAoHsmdm ho mag Hogbd .0." Has OOH om om Ammacoom «mums manonv were aoaaoaoxm oHoaunmm on on on 0e on on 1 i T d I d 823m: .25 mzofié zmoo age Be egg SE no 22m med: ”manage manganese mo 3.3 .H auburn eSesseg OIOIQJ'BJ % Awqfleeom menus mnsosv seas aoauouoxn onofiuamm 03 oo 8 2. 8 cm 9. on om . q d u q q \ a \ woaflmm .IIII. 1 \ \o \ ‘ “ eSesseg etotqseg g AGZAQEHH .x24v monB4m Hmco moan nah :DBHQHA n4 monk ho mmHsm MDOh umO4mm “ensue“ .>< on on 3 S S 3 S 2 S 33 .82 m m b m n v n m H hopes: arena i.o||§uul|luumdm«_ a. gunman. Idanpwade mm «356 .033 C homom .m coed Pad 1 .3532 on on 3 1.32: mm 6283 5283 383 328885 6096609 conesoa douesoe mmm couesoa Idvcco nausea Idenoo macho dogwmoa 933353348 28 amfloofi BE Ems 55:85am .3" .H .35 new mamas 1" .L'.ww—=.--r._- 1w“ rm "— mg. .~-.-m§u' ,. W Cwnfiflt‘!m3"’ ' t“ - - mm.w na.w on.n mn.n n¢.n macaw .saew seam son doom on.ea om.eH em.ma ,em.mH 5e.mH eases .oaeaaa ease sense .54 «5.5 om.¢ em.v H5.¢ 03.4 cases .easm sales .54 0.555 n.omH a.ama . m.nen H.HmH asses .558555 35555 .54 m.mm «.33 5.25 ”.me e.mn eases .5555»: Hansen“ .54 oh on on on ca 5555 «spasm m e n m H aspen—a 95.5 n:umaom .limmam. 0.5.mmnnunuxammquqaaom .mtoo 639:2" 603600555. 60333 cavemen 60300938.. 8558 eases» .eoxsae .eoasae senate equate agenda .eouoaaaeeeo .emecnuaeeoo goo ammfloomm am am: Hogan 95m .HH A452. .wm Huge 72 A review of literature concerning the effect of heat and cooking on cereal grains and other ingredients revealed that high temperatures destroy, denature, and/or prevent utilization of nutrients. With quanti- tative analysis techniques, it has been shown that carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins may be changed or destroyed by heat (Mitchell ggflal., 1949; Murlin gg_al.. 1938; Ross g5_§1.. 1941; Stewart g;_al.. 1943; Oser, 1952; Cerniani. 1951; Frazier gj‘gl,. 1953; Heintze,1955; Block:§g_al,. 1946; Streightoff g&_al,. 1949; Pellett and Platt, 1956; Bird and Burkhardt, 1943; Parsons, 1943; Evans and McGinnis, 1946, 1947; Klose g;_al., 1948; Riesen §5_g},, 1947; Patton g;_§1., 1948; Mann and Briggs, 1950; Morgan. 1931; Greaves g;_§1.. 1934, 1938; Block g£_gl,, 1934; Endred and Rodney, 1946; Cheldelin g;_gl.. 1943; Evans and Butts. 1951; Pronin and Dakh, 1952). Extensive losses of lysine, cysteine. serine and arginine were reported. High vitamin losses included pantothenic acid, vitamin C, riboflavin, inositol, and folic acid. Both slight and extensive thiamine losses were reported. Research findings showed that niacin content was probably reduced, but the remaining niacin was more available. Henderson g;_gl.(1947), Laguna and Carpenter (1951), and Pearson §§_gl, (1957) reported that cooked corn eliminated the requirement for supplemental niacin in feed. Krehl ggugl. (1945) suggested that raw corn diets increased the require- ment for niacin. Kodicek.§1_gl. (1956) proposed that niacin of cereal grains may be in an alkali-labile bound form. Pearson gt_31. {1957) agreed with Kodicek's work. They stated that niacin was 100 percent bound in raw corn, but 100 percent free in cooked corn. The temperatures used in some of the previously cited experiments were within the range of pelleting temperatures. Wornick (1959) stated that animal fats, grain seed-coating and several microingredients will 73 melt‘when pelleted. Perkas (1959) has reported that certain enzymes are destroyed by pelleting. Research with soybeans indicated that the raw bean.must be properly processed for improved nutrition value. Heat is necessary in order to destroy inhibitory factors in soybeans, yet, excessive temperatures lower the biological value of soybean protein (Griswold, 1951; Hayward.§£_al.. 1986a, 1986b; Johnson gt_§1,. 1939; Hayward and Hafner, 1941; Ram and Sandstedt, 1944; Bowman. 1944, 1945, 1946, 1948; Bird and Burkhardt, 1943; Parsons, 1943; Evans and McGinnis, 1946, 1947; Klose §1_21,, 1948; Riesen 9.1.2]... 1947; Patton 9141., 1948). It is not clear that processing of corn or any one fraction of the ration will support more growth. Perhaps the pelleting process affects all ingredients in.a manner to make nutrients available simultaneously. Melnick and Gear (1949) and Geiger (1948) have clearly shown that nutrient mutual supplementation is important for growth. V. SUMMARY Nine experiments were conducted to study and evaluate the effect of pelleting three rations on growth, feed intake, feed efficiency, carcass quality, ration palatability, energy digestibility, nitrogen digestibility, and rate of food passage. The three test rations were (1) fortified cornpsoybean meal, (2) 20 percent oats by weight replacing corn, and (8) 40 percent oats by weight replacing corn. Pelleting significantly improved growth rate when the three test .rations were ad libitum-fed to pigs and rats. The daily gains were the same for all pellet-fed pigs; however, in the meal form of these rations, the gains decreased as the fiber level increased. Feed consumption was generally increased with the pelleted rations. The feed required per pound of bodyweight gain increased with the higher fiber rations, but the increase was less with the pelleted rations. parcass data showed there were no differences between the experimental rations in regard to dressing percentage, carcass length, backfat, percent lean cuts, percent primal cuts, loin area and percent fat trim. Pellsting significantly improved daily gains and feed efficiency when the three test rations (pooled data) were equally and ad libitum- fed to paired pigs. In both the equal and ad libitum feeding trials, the apparent energy digestibility of the high corn (low fiber) pelleted rations was significantly greater than the meal form of the same ration. On an 74 .ii. iii? ..I||||‘l'|]v‘. it'll- . III1LIJ. equal feed intake, the apparent energy digestibility of the 40% oat (high fiber) meal and pelleted rations was not significantly different; however, digestibility of the meal form was significantly improved 75 when ad libitum-fed. Apparent nitrogen digestibility was the same for the high corn and 40% oat rations in either meal or pellet forms. In the rate of food passage studies, pelleted low and high fiber rations passed significantly faster through the alimentary tract than meal rations when equal and ad libitum-fed. Pooled data showed that the 5% fecal excretion time, 95% fecal excretion time, and the mean ingesta retention time were less with the pelleted rations. A palatability study with the high corn ration in the forms of meal, pellets and reground pellets showed that pigs definitely preferred pellets. Tue feeding trials were conducted to study the effect of processed corn on the nutritive value of a rat ration. 0n the basis of growth, different processing methods did not improve the nutritive value of corn. VI. CONCLUSIONS The results of these investigations indicated that pelleting a high corn, 20% oat or 40% oat ration resulted in (1) increased daily gains, (2) increased feed consumption, (3) improved feed efficiency, (4) reduced feed wastage, (5) improved the palatability of the rations, (6) improved energy digestibility, (7) increased food passage rate with- out lowering digestibility, and (8) reduced dustiness. On the basis of ad libitum and enual feeding studies and digestibility studies, it is postulated that the nutritive value of the test rations was improved by the pelleting process. Therefore, pelleting probably altered the chemical nature and/or availability of feed ingredients. Faster growth was attributed to the improvement in the nutritive value of the ration and increased feed intake. Faster food passage rate through the altmntary tract seemed to be responsible for most of the increase in feed intake. Improved palata- bility probably supplemented the faster passage rate to increase feed intake. It was thought that improved ration density was important only to improve the palatability of the ration. Better energy utilization probably had some influence on the improvement of feed efficiency. Inconsistencies in energy digestibility were noted when the low and high fiber rations were ad libitum—fed. More studies must be conducted to properly evaluate this observation. Apparent nitrogen digestibility was not changed by the pelleting process. 76 1'—_-———I 77 Studies on processed corn indicated that pelleting or heat-treat- ing this fraction of a ration did not improve the nutritive value. —-'——’ VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, 5. L., W. H. Stark and P. Kolachov. 1943. Reduction of the fermentable carbohydrate content of corn by kiln drying. Cereal Chem. 20:260. Allred, J. B., L. S. Jensen and J. McGinnis. 1956. Studies on the growth promoting effect induced by pelleting feed. 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