RELATIONSHIPS 0F SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS T0 INCOME ACHIEVEMENT 0F COLLEGE GRADUATES Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DANIEL M. SEIFER 1966 I!“ Michigan State Universi1y This is to certify that the thesis entitled RELATIONSHIPS 0F SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS TO INCOME ACHIEVEMENT OF COLLEGE GRADUATES presented bg Daniel M. Seifer has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degnm h, Management firm Major professor Dam July 14, 1966 0-169 LIBRARY ABSTRACT RELATIONSHIPS 0F SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS to new xHiEvrneuT or COLLEGE GRADUATES The purpose of this study was to discover relationships that any exist between selected personal characteristics of college graduates and their income-achieving potential within specific occupational environments. identification of the pertinent character- istics could lead to the development of a system indicating anticipated income achievement of a college graduate in various vocational fields before he acquires work experience. Pre-career indication of income potential has obvious counseling implications if maximum income achievement is a major objective of the college graduate. The particular personal characteristics sought by the study were the ones believed to affect the individual's adjustment, to a greater or lesser extent. to his working environment. The study defined working environment to mean a distinct work setting resulting from the organizational structures established by the five major classes of employers to whom practically all college graduates look for employment. These occupational environments comprise those of large corporations, smaller companies, governmental agencies. public schools and the environment of self-employment. Characteristics investigated include those related to the graduate's socioeconomic status, his achievement motivations and his social and academic achievements in college. Daniel H. Seifer The uniqueness of the study lies in the investigation process itself, since the study was conducted within a framework of data already available from a student's college record or readily attainable through a brief inquiry. Unlike psychological testing for prediction of success or failure within a given context, the method utilized by the study entails no special tests or testing procedures. Results of the study are expressed in terms of anticipated income potential within an occupational environment. The need for further research in the field of post-collegiate vocational counseling is emphasized by the paucity of existing know- ledge. A retarding influence has been the general belief that the operational timing of the counseling process, which can only follow completion of college training, restricts the graduate's ability to profit from it. His particular job choice has been limited and constrained by his college program to a particular line of work. How, then, can counseling be of help to him? The study postulated that a given occupational training can be practiced within one of several work environments, and that one, rather than another environment, will permit a higher performance level because the graduate's personality and abilities are more adaptable to it. if the graduate Is able to perform at a higher level in what, for him, is his maximizing environment, he will then be able to earn his optimum income. Counseling, therefore, to aid in the selection of occupational environment, rather than in the choice of a particular job, can render a substantial service to the college graduate, to his future employer, and to the social output of goods and services. '. e ‘1 v 3‘ £11391;- 2 - J V:, .- L '.‘.‘, .-- > . Daniel M. Selfer Two hypotheses were invesitgated: (i) that there are discernible relationships between selected personal and intellectual characteristics of the college graduate and his achievement record in his job; and (2) that there are discernible relationships between college achieve- ment and subseQUent career income achievement. The study examined a selected group of personal and intellectual characteristics of a sample of college graduates six years after receipt of their bachelor’s degrees. The graduates were classified into five occupational environments and then into three income ranges: high, medium, and low. The entire sample was compared with each environmental category. Some thirty-three independent variables were tested against the three dependent income variables. Using the chi-square test of significance, many variables were shown to be related to income achievement. I The results of the investigation suggest that, for the sample as a whole, higher incomes were earned by men whose parents were of low socioeconomic status, who were top grade students, who held liberal education in high esteem, participated heavily in extra-curricular activities, and who graduated with honors, or, were members of campus honorary societies. Unfortunately the independent variables tested hardly discriminated between one occupational environment and another. However, large corporations were found to favor younger employees, whereas other environments did not make the distinction. Poorer students, academically, seemed to have a better chance to become high income achievers in self-employment, and to earn the top salaries offered by the public schools. '.\~ ovi‘._"v.§n~- .£’ ‘ RELATiONSHiPS OF SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS T0 moat leEVEnENT 0F COLLEGE GRADUATES by 4“” Daniel H. Seifer A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR 0F PHlLOSOPHY College of Business l966 7,4931%,“ m. lu,TJ~h:‘ 2-,“; ' _.. ACKNOWLEDGMENT An initial piece of research requires aid and counsel in inverse proportion to the author's ability. Because that is so the author of this study received far more than his due share of competent advice, patient guidance and warm encouragement from his committee members at Michigan State University. Dr. Dalton E. McFarland, Chairman, Dr. Peter G. Haines, and Dr. R. Hinston Oberg freely gave more and better help than is reflected in the study itself. Dr. Darab Unwalla also receives, with the committee members, the author‘s expression of deep gratitude. i Sincere thanks are extended to Miss Selma Abbasse. Her excellent typing, patience and willingness to endure an unruly burden are matched only by her ability to question inconsistencies and errors of commission and omission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I._ THE RESEARCH PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Focus of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Related Research . ...... . . . . . Hypotheses Investigated . ............ Research Design . . . . . . . . . ..... II. OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND INCOME: EFFECT OF PERSONAL FACTORS . . . ...... Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . ..... III. BACKGROUND FACTORS OF THE SAMPLE MEMBERS . . . . IV. THE INFLUENCE OF SELECTED PERSONALITY FACTORS 0N INCOME ACHIEVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . ...... V. INFLUENCE OF INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS ON INCOME ACHIEVEMENT ............ Data Summarizing the College Career . Summary . . . VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Data Analysis iii l6 36 37 38 #5 49 55 56 65 70 73 75 Chapter Page VI. Continued Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 APPENDIX l APPENDiX ii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . th BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15] iv t“ “NO‘VT l0. ll. ‘2. l3. lh. l5. l6. LIST OF TABLES Hean Salaries by Type of Employer . . Median Salaries by Type of Employer . . . Numbers of'Graduates Employed by the Various Types of Employers . . . . . . . . Salaries According to High School Location Salaries ACcording to Job Location . . . . . Salaries According to Colleges Attended . Salaries According to Function of Employer . . . . Salaries According to Years of Job Service . . . . Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Years of Job Service . . . . . . . . Salaries According to Father‘s Occupation . Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Father's Occupation . . . . . Salaries According to Father‘s Schooling Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Father's Schooling . . . . Salaries According to Parental Support in College . Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Parental Support in College . . . . . Salaries According to Membership in, and Attitude toward, Social Fraternities . . . . . Page 9h 95 96 97 99 IOO lOl lOZ l03 104 l05 l06 l0? l08 Table l7. l8. l9. 20. 2i. 22. 23. 2A. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 3|. 32. 33. 3h. Salaries According to Self-support in College Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Self-support in College Salaries According to Harital Status in College Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Marital Status in College . O O O O o I o I o o 0 Salaries According to Age at Graduation Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Participation in Extra-curricular Activity Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Number of Years Out of School . a o a a o a o 0 Salaries According to Quartile Rank in High School Class . . . O I O O O D O O O O O C O C O 0 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Quartile Rank in High School Class Salaries According to College Entrance Psychologial Test Salaries within Occupational Environments According to College Entrance Psychological Tests Salaries According to College Entrance Reading Test 0 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to College Entrance Reading Test . O Salaries According to Evaluation of Basic College Courses . . . . C O O O O O O O Salaries According to Grade-Point Average for Basic College Courses . . . o o o o a . Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Grade-Point Average for Basic College Courses . Salaries According to Term Hours of ”A” work . Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Term Hours of “A” Hork O C O O . O O I O O O 0 vi Page ll0 lll ll2 ll3 ill-i llS ii6 ll? ll8 ll9 lZO l2l l22 i23 l2h l25 l26 l27 Table 350 36. 37. 38. 39. Al. A2. 43. an. #5. A6. 47. #9. 50. 5|. Page Salaries According to Term Hours of ”D” Hork . . . . . . l28 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Term Hours of “D" Hork . . l29 Salaries According to Term Hours of "F” Work . . . . . . l30 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Term Hours of "F” Hork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l3l Salaries According to Grade-Point Average for Hajor Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l32 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Grade-Point Average for Major Study Area . . . . . l33 Salaries According to Final Grade-Point Average . . . . l3“ Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Final Grade-Point Average . . . . . . . . . . . . l35 Salaries According to Honors Received . . . . . . . . . l36 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Honors Received . . . . . . . . . . . . . l37 Salaries within Occupational Environments According to Academic Probation Record . . . . . . . . . . . . l38 Proportion of Top Grade Average Students According to Occupational Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . l39 Comparison of Salaries and Grade Average Rank According to Occupational Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . ihO Salaries of Large Corporations Category According to Basic Courses Grade-Point Average . . . . . . . . . lhl Salaries of Large Corporations Category According to Major Study Area Grade-Point Average . . . . . . . l42 Salaries of Large Corporations Category According to Final Grade-Point Average . . . . . . . . . lh3 High and Low Salary Distribution According to Rank in High School Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lhh vii CHAPTER l THE RESEARCH PROBLEH Focus of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between selected personal characteristics of the male college graduate and his ability to perform in various jobs open to him. Tested relationships identifying superior job performance with particular personal characteristics point the way toward the establishment of valid criteria suggesting the types of graduates to enter specific work situations. The value of searching for, and identifying, the means to maximize the job performance and the social contribution of the college graduate is of inmediate importance to the graduate himself, to his prOSpective employer, and to the social system. Our country's increasing rate of technological advance depends upon fullest utilization of its richest resource, the emerging college graduate. The aim of this study was to take a modest first step toward the development of a useful technique to help the graduate reCOgnize the occupational situation most fully utilizing his talents. The typical graduate is most anxious to select the employment for which he is best suited and which offers him the highest income. 2 if the two criteria, suitability and income, are not compatible, he must choose between the satisfaction of comfortable adaptation and higher income. Hany unknowns affect his choice. Do the demands made upon the college graduate by his working environment vary from one situation to another? Does each environment utilize the intellectual capacities of the graduate in the same manner and degree? Do some environments rely more heavily on social skills, and others on analytical reasoning? How is the graduate to determine which position will maximize his strengths and minimize his weaknesses? On the other hand, how is the employer to determine which particular candidate is most likely to make the best adaptation to the environment of his institution? The above questions pose issues that modern science has not yet resolved. Occupational counseling at the post-college level could benefit from research on these areas. Related Research To date, practical experience and past history have been the established mainstays of college placement bureaus and professional recruiters from industry, government, and education. Recently, however, scientific answers have been expected from the psychol09ists to problems dealing with the occupational adjustment of the individual. While much is being done in the field of testing, and great advances are being made, there is urgent need for more research and new knowledge. McFarland states this need in a recent text: "Tests of personality are among the most unreliable and difficult to use, and much research “a! Yr. 1* ’ Yuk: "W ”M an“! - . .6 ' 3 must be done before they become useful in executive selection.”I Super and Crites, likewise, assert: Despite the great progress in psychological testing since its beginnings, knowledge of the characteristics which can be measured still leaves a great deal to be desired... the measuring instruments we now use even for the most adequately measured traits such as intelligence and vocational interest are still not completely understood; those we use for measuring personality traits such as general adjustment, lntroversion and the need for recognition are still in embryonic stages; and there are no methods of testing creative imagination, persistence, and certain other traits and abilities which are often assumed to be important...2 Psychological tests, with increasing precision, are predicting success or failure within given occupations. Thus, the same authorities who hold the above misgivings also exhibit confidence in the state of the art and in its future utility: During the past twenty'five years, and especially during the past decade, a great deal of research has been carried on and published on the validity of vocational tests. There is no longer any excuse for depending primarily on hunches as to the vocational significance of special aptitude tests, nor for going to the other extreme and concluding that since ”a test tests only what it tests,” one can conclude nothing from the psychological test results concerning vocational promise. Both of these attitudes and practices were widespread during the l930's, when validity data were sketchy and often disappointing. Enough data has now been accumulated so that a more realistic and pragmatic approach is possible.3 This study, seeking to relate selected personal characteristics of the college graduate to income potential and job performance endeavors to utilize the factors enployed successfully in psychological lD. E. McFarland, management; Princigles and Practices, Second Edition; The mcmillan Company, New York; l9 ; p. . 2Donald E. Super and John O. Crites, Appraising Vocational fitness by leans of Pszgholgical Tests. Revised Edition; Harper and Row, New York; l9 2; p. xi. 3lbid. ”Preface to the First Editions;” p. xiv. 1. testing to evaluate vocational prospects. In order to evaluate a person‘s vocational prospects, two types of information about him are needed; the psychological facts which describe his aptltudes, skills, interests, and personality traits, and the social facts which describe the environment in which he lives, the influences which are affecting him and the resources which he has at his disposal. Psychologjc§1_data needed include information concerning the general intelligence of the individual, that is, his ability to comprehend and use symbols or to do abstract thinking. This academic aptitude is important not only in school situations, but also in everyday life situations in which ability to analyze a situation or a problem, to draw conclusions, to generalize, and to plan accordingly, is needed. Social data are needed in order to provide a framework in which to interpret the psychological data. The occupa- tional level of the parents plays an important part, for example, in detenmining the vocational ambitions of a youth and in his drive to achieve them, as well as in fixing the financial resources upon which he can draw in furthering his ambitions.£l in our free economy, income and job performance are related. The job applicant, the seller of labor, is free to move into any market of his choice. The buyer of labor, the prospective employer, in theory, at least, establishes his labor price on the basis of the value of the anticipated marginal output of the job applicant. This supply and demand process in the labor market of the college graduate is believed thus to equate the price of his labor, which to him is income earned, with the value of his marginal product to his employer. The income of the individual, in this way, serves to measure his output or job performance level. Utilizing this analytical framework, the study will hereafter use income achievement as the bench mark for job performance. _—_¥ hibid, pp. 6-7. S A study by flagrabi and King showed that college graduates of l958 to l960 were earning, in l964, from $6,000 to $lh,999, with 58 percent of them over $8,500.5 This compares with figures developed in this study covering l958 college graduates. The figures here indicate a mean annual salary for all l958 graduates of $9,200, at the time the data were gathered in late I964 and early l965. The top 50 percent of the graduates earned a $l0,h00 mean salary six years after their graduation. These earnings show considerable advance in the past few years. Vest, in a follow-up study of Southern lllinois University graduates between l9h9 and l958, found the mean salary in l959 to be $6,033.6 in England, an effort to evaluate the monetary investment of higher education showed there was 3 l4 percent return on six years of additional education "beyond the school leaving age of fifteen."7 in attempting to evaluate higher education in terms of income achievement, the present study leans heavily on the academic record of the graduate and also on social and motivational characteristics he exhibited while on the college campus. identification of the relationships between college achievement and career achievement is the keystone in the development of this system for predicting the income~achieving ability of the graduating college senior. The 5Frances M. Hagrabl and Marcia P. King, "An instrument to Gather Economic, Occupation and Family Structure Data;” Quarterly figjletin of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Statiggg Michigan State University, East Lansing; Vol. #3, No. 2; November, l965; pp. 2i5-220. 6Leonard west, ”A School of Business Surveys its Alumni, '949*l958;" Southern illlnois University, Carbondale; l960. 7Hark Blaug, ”The Rate of Return on investment in Education in Great Britain;”_1he Manchester School; September, l965. Journal 9E_Economic Abstracts, iv, l, March, l966; p. l27. 6 significance of intellectual ability in career achievement and the significance of social skill and motivational drive undoubtedly vary with the perticuiar job and its environment. Warner and Abeggien, speaking of the executive and his motivation, say that ”men who achieve and advance themselves in business are the kind of men who achieve and advance themselves in school. Their ambitions drive them upward step- by-step to higher educational levels just as they push themselves upward in business.”8 The driving personality depicted by Warner's description of the successful executive‘s collegiate performance will be validated later in this study. Positive relationships between high income achievement and high college grades were discovered to be commonplace among employees of large corporations and smaller companies, but this pattern was found to be lacking elsewhere. The graduates who were self-employed, and the graduates employed in education and govern- ment service who received top grades while they were on campus, did not drive themselves upward in their careers, if income earned is an accurate measure of their driving force. However, institutional factors may have affected their progress, since the data in this study were taken when the graduates were only six years into their careers. Progress in a self-owned business enterprise admittedly requires a certain period to "build the business,” and in modern bureaucracy, mobility is notoriously slow. C. wright Hills said "although salaried employees may compete with one another, their field of competition 8H. Lloyd Warner and James C. Abegglen, Occupational Mobility 13_American Business and lndustry_-l928-l952; University of Minnesota Press; l955; p.99. 7 is likely to be seen as grubbing and backbiting.”9 Competition for grades in college is certainly of a different order, and achievement may or may not indicate similar personal characteristics. Before concluding the topic of higher education and its effect on career achievement, a word of caution is in order lest one give undue credit to the influence of education on career achievement. in the British study previously cited, Hark Blaug states that "education, earnings, ability, motivation, and social class are all lntercorrelated, preventing the isolation of the pure effect of education on earnings."'0 The adaptation of the individual to his occupational environment for maximum income achievement may be relegated to a secondary role if he is interested, rather, in ”forming a monument to himself” or if he is in search of power.H Finally, Henry H. Hriston suggests that much successful achievement is due to ”happenstance”: Hundreds of men and women may be searching for an effective vaccine and fail to find it while one, whose intellectual gifts, education and laboratory equipment are no better, hits upon the precise combination which achieves the results so many others sought. A large element of luck -- or happenstance -- if the word "luck” is offensive, permeates every aspect of life. Her all the power nor the wealth of the state can alter this stubborn fact.l2 9C. Wright Hills, White Collar; New York, Oxford University Press; i95l, pp. 263. loalaug. 22. cit.. "U. Lloyd Warner, and Norman H. Martin, lgdustrial Han, _§g§inessman and Business Organizations; Harper and Brothers, New York; 1959; pp. 166. '2Henry He Hriston, ”Humanists and Generalists”, The Annals of .ih? American Academy; December, l959. Hypotheses investigated it has been previously stated that personal data on the graduate were to be compared to his income achievement in an effort to discover relationships that may exist. However, at the time of college graduation most graduates have no career experience upon which to judge income-achieving ability. For this reason, the study employs recent college graduates who have career experience records to make the comparisons. The research examines a sample of graduates, together with both their career records and their college records, to seek the relationships that can later be applied to graduating college seniors exhibiting similar personal and intellectual characteristics. To test the ability to predict the income achievement of a college graduate based on selected personal factors and intellectual characteristics, the study investigated the following hypotheses: i. There are discernible relationships between identifiable personal characteristics of college graduates and their subsequent level of job performance in a given work environment as measured by earned income. 2. There are discernible relationships between the college achievements of individuals and their subsequent career achievements as measured by earned income . Research Design To relate income achievement to personal characteristics, the first problem is to discover which of the many characteristics of the college graduate are the predictors of job performance in a given work situation. One approach is to examine a group of recent college graduates having a particular number of years' experience in working at their chosen careers. An examination of their income achievements should indicate the levels of performance in the different jobs and under the various conditions of employment in which they are engaged. The high income achievers, by earlier definition, constitute high level performers. Certain of the personal characteristics of these high level performers may be responsible for their superior career achievement. identification of these characteristics can be accomplished successfully only if social and environmental factors are considered together with the intellectual and motivational forces acting upon the individual. ”Particular mllieus” are thus created, as Harner and Martin explain: Yet it is clear that certain kinds of personalities make successful leaders and other kinds seem to doom men to failure. These personalities which hinder or help them achieve and rise into power and position, are formed in the ordinary cultural matrices in which all of our personalities come into being. Yet research evidence indicates that particular milieus, and experiences within them, have peculiarities that are identifiable and significant in the careers of successful men.‘3 l3Warner and Martin, op. cit., p. 22. l0 it is true that many college graduates perform well in a number of different capacities. it is also true that many others may perform better in one job, under specific working conditions, than in another. The latter group of graduates with special, rather than general, abilities constitutes the more significant clientele for this type of study. After having made the selection of the high level performers on various jobs, with incomes earned as the basis, the next step was to search out the points of differentiation between these men and others who did not perform as well on similar jobs and conditions of work. One way to select these distinguishing characteristics is to test as many different characteristics of both the high and the low performers as are possible with attainable data. Those characteristics that differ in a statistically significant manner from high performers to low performers on a given job are the ones sought by the study. Testing the characteristics of college graduates holding different jobs and performing at differing levels was undertaken by selecting a sample of recent college graduates and exploring two sets of factors: social skills and adjustment, and intellectual abilities. Each of these is probably related to the graduate‘s income achievement. it is his adaptation to his occupational environment, as well as his store of knowledge, that gears the graduate's efforts to the quantity and quality of his performance. The term, 'occupational environment,‘ as em'Pioyed throughout this study, is defined and restricted to distinct work settings resulting from organizational structures established by the five major classes of employers to whom college graduates look for employment. These occupational environments comprise ll large corporations, smaller companies, governmental agencies, public schools, and self—employment. A more detailed discussion of these environments occurs later in the stbdy. The selection of personal characteristics for testing against income achievement is limited to available data. The uniqueness of this developmental study is its execution within a framework of data already available from the graduate‘s college record, or quickly attainable through brief inquiry. The method employs as many of the personal characteristics of the college graduate as are readily available. The technique can be effective only with the expansion of personal data on the college graduate. However, this development is already underway. Testing, sorting, and grading of students todAy begins in the first grade and continues through the secondary schools. As the tests become more standard and more valid they can become an additional factor for providing guidance help in an increasingly more meaningful fashion. The procedure and design of the study may be smmnarized briefly: l. Personal factors and intellectual characteristics believed to be related to the performance of jobs held by college graduates were selected. 2. A sample of college graduates with a particular number of years of career experience was chosen. 3. The data was go thered: (a) by “mans of inquiry of the sample members; and (b) from their college records. l2 h. Income as the dependent variable and personal factors as the independent variables, were tested for statistical significance. 5. The personal factors exhibiting the largest differentiation between high income achievers and low income achievers were identified. 6. Factors identified were used to predict income achievement of emerging college graduates possessing similar personal characteristics. figthods Employed The original intention of this study was to determine whether or not college achievement provided an accurate indication of the subsequent career achievement of college graduates. if career achievement is related to college achievement, what is the nature of the relationship? is the frequent practice of hiring students with the highest grades, regardless of the nature of the intended job, realistic and meaningful? To test the concept, it was necessary to: (i) select a sample of college graduates with career experience; (2) acquire the college records of the sample members; (3) obtain the post-collegiate history of the sample members to determine their degree of career achievement; and (h) compare the college record with the career record to see whether or not the degree of 'success“was similar. An immediate problem arose concerning the definition of 'success,’ either in college or in career. Because the problem of l3 defining ”true success” did not lend itself to easy solution, income achievement was selected as the sole criterion for career performance. Collegiate performance was to be accepted as given, and variables of many sorts were to be tested against income achievement for statistical significance. A questionnaire was chosen as the most practical means for obtaining the career data on the sample members. instead of restricting the questionnaire exclusively to the graduate's career history, additional variables were conceived, and data concerning them was requested in the questionnaire along with the career history. The Sample The problem of locating a suitable sample is often solved by the researcher on the basis of accessibility and convenience. Since the study was conducted in East Lansing, Michigan, the population was selected from Michigan State University graduates. Proper selection of the sample dictated two restrictions: (l) the population from which the sample was drawn must be college graduates with equal amounts of career experience; and (2) a sufficient proportion of the sample members must be willing to c00perate. To meet the restrictions, the sample was drawn from recent graduates whose assumed interest in social science research would secure the necessary degree of cooperation. in the meantime, official records of the graduates were made available for the project by the office of the Michigan State University Registrar. The sample was selected from a papuiation comprising all the male candidates for the bachelor's degree in the Michigan State lh University Class of l958. Every fifth name on the list of graduates was drawn, after which the female names were deleted. Questionnaires“l were sent to the sample members with a letter requesting cooperation. Following is the mailing schedule and the response data: Number Percent Original mailing, November 2, l96h S3l Returned, undelivered ‘ _12 Actual sample size}5 22 3129: Total reSponses by December 3i, l96h 25h 49.3 Deficient responses “11 _~1;g Usable responses by December 3i, i964 217 h2.l Additional reSponses by March 3], l965 19%. _lfi;§ 3lo bl.7 Deficient _ll 6.l Total usable 287 55.6 Total response 516/355 = 69 percent lIgsting the Data information from the questionnaires and the transcripts was coded, punched, and tabulated in accordance with the Michigan State University Computer institute for Social Science Research, Technical Report A (revised), Analysis of Contingency_Tables, [Act ii) for the l“See Appendix.ii. l5This figure overstates the situation since less questionnaires were actually received by the sample members. Questionnaires were returned from the second mailing as undeliverable, though they were sent to the same address as in the original mailing, from which they were not returned. Therefore, an undetermined number of questionnaires were neither delivered to the addressees nor returned to the sender. i3 CDC 2600.16 The following information was obtained;' l. Observed frequencies 2. Row means and standard deviations 3. Percentage of cells in row tables 4. Percentage of cells in contingency table column totals 5. Theoretical frequencies 6. Contributions of cells to chi-square 7. Chi-square (uncorrected) with degrees of freedom resentation of Data For the reader‘s convenience and to facilitate presentation of the data, some of the larger tables have been condensed where it was possible to do so without prejudice to the implications of the data. For example, Table 5 shows twelve degrees of freedom, yet it is only a three column by five row table. Originally it was three columns by seven rows. (The colleges of Education, Communication Arts, and Veterinary Medicine had their own rows, with snail cells and some blank ones.) lbp. H. Sim and M, J. Beech, revised by A. Williams and L. Widmeyer. CHAPTER II OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND lNEOME: EFFECT OF PERSONAL FACTORS This study utilizes a taxonomy of working conditions of employment allowing for distinctions according to personal adaptation. The system presupposes that an individual with a given technical, vocational, or liberal education has more than a single working environment from which to choose his career. Thus it is advantageous for him to select the occupational environment to which he is best adapted. As previously stated, five such occupational environments are employed in the study. The 284 sample members are distributed as follows: l. Large corporations li8 2. Smaller companies 50 3. Self-employment 23 h. Governmental agencies 55 5. Public schools 30 6. Other 8 nginition of Occupational Environments The categories of occupational environment do not indicate the nature of the work performed by any individual. They merely suggest the existence of basic differences resulting from the several l6 l7 institutional structures of employers. The categories and their proportionate size reflect our society's employment of college graduates, our top pool of talent. it is immediately apparent that of the five categories, three are prime examples of modern bureaucracy. / Together, these three employ almost three fourths of the entire sample: large corporations, governmental agencies and public schools. Small company employees and the self-employed complete the list. Research literature is replete with descriptions of the types of individuals in each, their origins and their development. The occupational environment in which the individual finds himself has an effective relation to his adaptation. Becker and Strauss could be Speaking of the bureaucratic employee, the self- employed professional or small company retail manager, when they discuss problems encountered in serving outside clients: Organizations built around some particular kind of work or situation at work tend to be characterized by recurring patterns of tension and of problems. Thus, in occupations whose central feature is performance of a service for outside clients, one chronic source of tension is the effort of members to control their work life themselves while in contact with outsiders. in production organizations, somewhat similar tensions arise from the workers‘ efforts to maintain relative autonomy over job conditions.l Interpersonal relations of individuals in their occupational environment have a bearing on the types of men who can adapt to a given work situation and perform at a higher or lower level within the limitations imposed. Simon speaks of the instability of behavior _ IHoward S. Becker and Anselm L. Strauss, "Careers, Personality, and Adult Socialization", American Journal of Sociology, LXLL; University of Chicago Press; Chicago; l956; p. 253. 3‘5 ‘9’ i -m 73 ‘3. under competitive patterns caused by errors in predicting the behavior of others: The relationship of the values of interacting individuals with the conseqUences of their joint behavior determines whether the behavior pattern will be competitive or cooperative. it would seem that instability in the behavior pattern may result when the pattern is competi- tive or when each of the participants in the pattern errs in predicting the behavior of the others. In a similar vein, McFarland says that different structures of employee relations management lead to line-staff conflict and tension that cannot be presumed ”to be the same for all patterns, since they set up differing interaction patterns, job expectations, and communication channels.“3 With the instability of individual behavior within the organization, there are, nevertheless, factors and 'conditions within the bureaucratic organization that make for rigidity and predictability on the part of the participants when the organization is viewed from the outside: The reduction in personalized relationships, the increased internalization of rules, and the decreased search for alternatives combine to make the behavior of members of the organization highly predictable; i.e., they result in an increase in the rigidity 2f behavior of participants . At the same time, the reduction in personalized relationc ships (particularly with respect to internal competition) facilitates the development of an esprit fig cores. The bureaucratic position, at successively higher and higher levels, represents the end of the mobility line for most college 2Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior; Second Edition; The Hacmiilan Company; New York; l938; p.77. 3Dalton E. NCFarland, Cooperation and Conflict in Personnel Administration; American Foundation for Management Research; New York; l952; p. #6. 1"James 6. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organization; John Hiley and Sons, Inc.; New York; l950; p. 39. l9 graduates, since three fourths of them start their career in bureaycratic organizations and others may enter later, according to the career histories reported by the sample members of this study. Bensman and Rosenberg report that playing his role as a bureaucrat ”at all adequately is to pay a heavy social and psychological price.” As he picks and chooses between roles representing prebureaucratlc sentiments he becomes less of a bureaucrat. “On the other hand if his bureaucratic role has been deeply internalized, he will be anxious and unhappy about subordinatlng it to other things ... and when a large it also modifies the dominant “5 number of officials are affected, character-structure of the society. Ihe Nature of work within the Occupational Environments The nature of the work performed by an individual college graduate is so diverse and Specialized in our society that any attempt to so categorize the graduates was considered impractical for this study, because of the size of the sample. To illustrate the impracticality of categorizing the sample members by function, and, at the same time, to acquaint the reader with the types of work they perform, some repre- sentative titles of the sample members from each group are shown below: (I) Large Corporations: research mathematician labor relations representative packaging technician merchandising analyst 5Joseph Bensman and Bernard Rosenberg, “The Meaning of Mark in Bureaucratic Society,“ identity and Anxiety, Ed., Maurice R. Stein, Arthur J. Vidich and David Manning Hhite; The Free Press, Glencoe, lllinois; l960; pp. l8l-l82. 20 (Large Corporations, cont.) airlines food supervisor air pollution researcher bank trust officer budget coordinator sales promotion, assistant manager plant pathologist product designer television commercials, producer busline safety director sales engineer (2) Smaller Companies insurance underwriter florist, assistant manager education director of professional association advertising, assistant manager newSpaper reporter, photographer and assistant editor orchard forenan food catering firm, district manager hospital food supervisor retail store, inventory control manager advertising agency, vice president factory product scheduling supervisor in5urance investigator steel erection firm, treasurer real estate firm, development manager (3) Self-Employment: life insurance salesman partner in security sales firm priest auto dealer veterinarian dairy products producer, distributor, and retailer (son of owner) laundry and dry cleaning operator designer and building contractor partner in wholesale toy concern restaurant operator (son of owner) billiard equipment franchise operator (A) Governmental Agencies: veterinarian, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture police sergeant civil service personnel examiner conservation engineer (soil) parole officer state parks planning assistant traffic engineer tax collector librarian county agricultural agent rocket project engineer forest ranger is) l‘J (Governmental Agencies cont.) biochemical researcher Strategic Air Command pilot assistant Attorney General clinical psychologist The occupational classification used in the study deals with the environment of the job rather than with the content of the job. A given individual may be trained in a particular line of work, but he is usually also free to practice that line of work in more than one working environment. The study investigates whether a particular individual will perform at a higher level in one occupational envir- onment, to which he is personally more suited, than in another. Qse of income as the Criterion for Judgment The use of income achievement as the dependent variable in this study warrants a statement of explanation. income achievement in our society is considered by many college graduates to be an inadequate end in itself. Their contention is that inc0me per se may be of secondary importance when considered alongside other long-run goals. Self-fulfillment, or personal development to one's maximum potential, is a long‘term goal frequently mentioned as being of greater signi- ficance than monetary income. Service rendered to society is another goal often considered Superior to incomecachieving prowess, as in the case of the minister, the social worker, the artist, and others. However, this study investigated only income achievement in light of the selected variable personal factors, and avoids any value judgment concerning the rank standing of income achievement in the . fwd?!) '3 _, ‘ —, - -' .l .‘ inf-thin“ K7355; ' if)”. '.. l': . >1 » ‘t'V'; '-t;,1_-",, 23 hierarchy of social significance. Noneeconomic employment rewards also merit a brief discussion. it is commonplace knowledge that many college graduates willingly forsake economic gain for gains that are to them more satisfying. Among such non-economic rewards are social status, political power, public service, job satisfaction, public prominence, and others. What is the dollar and cents valuation of the satisfaction derived by some teachers for the joy of working with, and helping to develop, young peeple in our society? What is the monetary value of the excitement and the personal attention that the politician or news analyst derives from his work? These questions are not dealt with in this study. The task here is only that of evaluating income achievement. But the case of evaluating income achievement has its own problems. What is the income of a typical large corporation employee-- a chain store manager, for example? His stated salary, reflected in his monthly pay-envelope may be ten thousand dollars or twelve thousand dollars--but that is not the whole story. Closer examination reveals that the company pays part of his general family expenses. An estimate by a Spokesman for a large corporation indicated that entra, or 'fringe' salary benefits added 26 percent to its salaried employees‘ annual income. A variety of plans and special arrangements cover these payments, making them hard to evaluate precisely. A.man earning a stated salary of ten thousand dollars can be 'better off' (as the economist puts it) than another earning twelve thousand dollars, according to his corporation's organizational salary chart. The difference lies in the cash value of the long-and-short-term aspects of the extra benefits. Recipients do not know, and cannot 24 learn from company paymasters, the actual cash value of the various company contributions made in their behalf. To cite an example, a recent report of the Super Market institute discloses that of the large corporations (those with sales over one hundred million dollars) health insurance on store managers was carried by 96 percent of the companies, life insurance by lOO percent, bonus programs by 65 percent, profit participation by 65 percent, retirement plans by 9i percent, and stock purchase plans by 52 percent.6 in view of such widespread parti- cipation, the question is not how many corporations participate in any given type of benefit, but rather, to what extent? How much of the actual cost does the company pay? How much does the individual store manager pay himself? Since the various benefit plans operate on a group basis the company itself does not know the exact amount of its partici- pation in an individual case. The Institute Report shows the companies' share of the various benefits as follows: Number of Companies Participating Percent of Total Cost Health Life* Retirement Paid by Companies insurance insurance Plan Less than 50% 8% T1 4% 50% i8 i6 10 51-99% lh l2 ll 199% .99 .92 .12 lUO luO luO *TYpically $10,000 Source: Super Market Institute Sixteenth Annual Report, 196%. 0Super Market institute Sixteenth Annual Report, l96h. 25 However, life insurance, health insurance, and retirement plans do not complete the list of extra benefits added to an employee's gross annual salary; they merely head the list. Other benefits disbursed by corporations include bonus plans, profit participation plans, and stock purchase plans. The character of the benefit plans and the degree of participation in them by the companies is as varied as the number of companies. Many other benefits were mentioned by the respondents. They reported a diverse assortment of extra benefits ranging from athletic, concert and lecture program discounts, travel time for educational purposes, ”good” expense account, personal use of company car, free dental and/or medical care, travel privileges at discount rates, PX, bar and commissary privileges, sick leave (sometimes convertible into cash payments), longevity payments, free parking and recreational facilities, cost-of-living increases, extra paid holidays, salary- continuation insurance, dependent insurance, and other benefits infrequently mentioned. In education, the vacation is an extra benefit of considerable economic importance to teachers. Roughly speaking, teachers receive about one hundred days of vacation annually. Sumner, spring, and Christmas vacation periods are long enough to enable the teacher to earn extra income if he chooses to do so and is able to find supplemental employment. Summer vacations also allow the teacher to take further educational training for which employers are willing to pay higher salaries. The income achievement of the college graduate is used in the study as the indicator of job performance. However, it is also 26 recognized that possibilities for earning high incomes are restricted in some occupational environments attractive to college graduates. Government service and public school teaching are examples. For this reason, income is measured within, rather than across the five major environments. Non-economic income, extra benefits to corporation employees, retirement benefits to governmental employees, and long vacations for teachers have a long-term effect on the real annual salary rate, as Opposed to the rate reflected by weekly or monthly paychecks. Selection of Variables for investigation By definition of the research problem, the variables constitute personality factors and intellectual characteristics. The research design calls for testing the chosen independent variables for statistical significance against three dependent variables, to be run first on the total group comprising the sample as a whole and then on each of the five categories of occupational environment. The dependent variables constitute the salary ranges of the sample members. Three salary ranges were used, chosen so as roughly to divide the members of the sample into a high group and a low group, each containing about one quarter of the sample, with the remaining one half in the middle group. The salary groups were designated and defined as follows: (i) Salary range A, members with annual salaries above $ll,000 (2) Salary range 8, members with annual salaries $8,000 to $li,000 (3) Salary range 0, members with annual salaries below $8,000 27 After placing the sample members in their respective salary ranges, the independent variables listed below were tested against each of the dependent variables, the three salary ranges. The dependent variables were then tested for signficance against the sample as a whole, representing the total group, and then against each of the five categories of occupational environment. The independent variables relate to both social and intellectual characteristics of the individual. The choice of the independent variables was governed by availability of the data and its relevance to the problem under study. Anticipated reluctance of the respondents to divulge personal information and attitudes to an unknown researcher precluded questioning that undoubtedly would have been beneficial in extending both the breadth and the depth of the study. _§xaminatlon of the Eersonaiity Factors The independent variables listed below relate to the social and motivational personal characteristics of the sample members. While most of the data originates in the mailed questionnaires, some of it is developed from the graduates‘ official university transcripts of credits. The latter group carries identification as to source: l. Occupation of fathers of sample members 2. Years of schooling of fathers of sample members 3. Location of high school from which respondent was graduated7 h. Years out of school before college graduation7 5. Age at the time of college graduation7 70ata developed from official university transcripts. 23 6. Amount of financial support received from parents during college 7. Membership in a social fraternity8 8. Attitude toward social fraternities 9. Extra-curricular activities as an undergraduate8 l0. Degree of self-support during college ll. Receipt of federal government serviceman's assistance in college l2. Marital status as a college undergraduate l3. Number of jobs held since college graduation l4. Number of years on present job Although the study considers two types of personality factors, social and motivational, the two groups are not distinct. There is overlap, for example, in a personal characteristic develOped from data pertaining to the first variable: Occupation of fathers of the sample members. The resultant characteristic has social implications because vof the close relationship between the socioeconomic status (SES) of the respondent‘s family and the father‘s occupation. At the same time, the resultant characteristic has motivational connotations. What are the differences between the motivational drives of the son of a factory laborer and those of the son of a physician? The 'rags-to-riches' Philosophy, keystone of a passing American legend, suggests that the factory laborer has something deep within him driving him out of the —_ Bibid. r) 1“. l- ,7 impoverishment he has always known to the 'other side of town.‘ However, with the new affluence of the middle class and the depression of the lower-lower class, modern Horatio Algers tend to give way to the juvenile, too often delinquent, of the city slum. While recognizing the possibility for strong motivation, it is also possible that the factory-laborer's son may be less motivated toward achievement beyond that of the social position he has known in his youth. Cultural advantages of literature and the arts and the vaers of education were neglected and absent from his home, dampening, or failing to awaken, his desire for social mobility. Just as there are social and motivational overtones for the son by virtue of his factory-worker father's OCCupation, so are there also overtones of a different nature for the son of the highly esteemed professional father. This young man was born with the legendary 'silver Spoon in his mouth.‘ He received everything social and economic prestige had to offer without 'lifting a finger.‘ Is there within this y0ung man the burning desire to achieve--to eclipse and move beyond his father's achievements? Or are his motivational drives atrophied from years of dornancy? As his motivational characteristics are open to question by a study of this type, so are the effects of his social position, or more accurately stated, his father's social position. Again, he may strive for achievement because of it--to make sure it is maintained or even surpassed, or he may feel that having 0 eXperienced prestige it would always remain with him regardless of his own achievement or lack of achievement. There is the further case that having known high SES, its charm was tarnished and the motivation to perpetuate it was never deveiOped. One might well wonder who is 30 the higher income achiever, the factory laborer's son or the doctor's son? The ambivalence of one-way categorization of the independent variable relating to the occupation of the sample member's father also holds for other variables forming the basis for the development of personality factors. without developing the rationale for the use of each variable, it is apparent that they illustrate various areas of the respondent's personality. Careful not to exceed the boundary of what the respondent may call his own ‘personal business,’ the data does touch upon a variety of factors. Social and motivational personality factors are linked with the respondent's SES in the independent variable already discussed, father's occupation, and in the variables pertaining to father's schooling, financial support during college received from parents, and membership in and attitude toward social fraternities. The rural-urban dimension of the sample member‘s personal background, perhaps affecting both social and motivational factors also, is the variable covering the location of the high school, with its city or rural nature, from which he was graduated. Only two of the respondents had attended private preparatory schools, so the high school location for all the others may be assumed to be the home location. Are the city-bred youths higher income achievers than rural boys, or is the converse true? There are five independent variables, mostly motivational in essence. These include: (i) the number of years out of school before college graduation; (2) age at graduation; (3) participation in extra- curricular campus activities; (h) degree of self-support during college 3i and (S) receipt of federal government serviceman‘s assistance (the ”El Bill”). These variables are assumed to suggest the strength of the respondent's desire to complete his college education and earn his bachelor's degree. The number of years out of school indicates little if it is zero. as most responses were. However, if it was three, four, or up to nine, as some were, the valuation of college education may have been high, as may have been the motivation. One would expect this variable to correlate higher career achievement with longer periods out of school. The age-at-graduation variable is an 'automatic' statistic available on the transcript, and is nearly identical in effect and in interpretation to the number of years out of school. The variable to measure the degree of participation in extra- curricular campus activities reaches into a different area of the member‘s personality. Here the study examines a desire for achievement not related to economic factors, but probably is related to peer- recognltion. Extra-curricular activity of a modest nature is the expected campus norm, but when the fever of activity reaches from four to eight or nine campus organizations, the motivation for peer recognition can be assumed to be strong indeed to warrant the time and energy lost from academic pursuits. Using 'common-sense' reasoning, one might assume the high-campus-actlvity participant, the undergraduate's 'big-wheel-on-campus,' will turn out to be a high income achiever. The last two independent variables to be considered here deal with self-support in college and government support from either of the two serviceman's assistance acts. The motivational implications of a sample member supplying all, or most, of his own financial support in college are obvious. He is generally expected to be a high income 32 achiever because he has 'what it takes' to put himself through school. it has the motivation, but does it follow that ability to achieve in the business world depends solely on motivation? What is the role of ability? The final independent variable examines the relationship between the servicemen and his ability as an achiever of income, once he begins his career. Did the fact of his military service affect his personal qualities of determination, his maturity, or some other characteristic that might lead to higher than anticipated, or lower than anticipated income achievement? gzgmination of intellectual gharacteristics Typically, the sample member‘s intellectual ability is related to his later income achievement. This study attempts to determine the extent of this relationship. With the exception of the college entrance psychological test and the college entrance reading test, the variables relating intellectual characteristics to income achievement are based upon grades received in various college courses. Two cautions are in order. First, intellectual capacity may not be directly related to one‘s ability to earn grades of a given order. The psychologists refer to under-achievers and over-achievers of grades. The under-achiever receives grades below expectations based on other factors. it follows that the over-achiever receives grades above expectations. Second, intellectual capacity may not be positively correlated with income achievement. in fact, there is little evidence to suSpect that it is. Many of us know highrincome businessmen who have limited intellectual capacities. At least, their academically-related intellectual abilities are limited. It is this type of intellectual ability which is measured and discussed in this study. intellectual capacity may be of 33 lesser importance in occupations dealing with peeple, as sales work, or with adeptness and manual skill, as surgery, or with creativity, as the fine arts. A limitation of this study bears on its development of relation- ships between intellectual capacities and income achievement, pg£_gg, rather than bearing on career success, however, it may be defined, or job satisfaction, or life adjustment, or service to society. in addition to the fourteen independent variables considered in the preceding section, the following twelve independent variables were each similarly tested for significance against the three dependent variables comprising the three salary ranges of the sample members. After testing the independent variables against the dependent variables for the entire group, the sample as a whole, the variables were tested again for each of the five major occupational categories. The variables utilized to indicate the intellectual characteristics of the sample members are: l5. Ouartile rank in high school graduating class l6. College entrance psychological test l7. College entrance reading test l8. Honor society membership '9. Graduation honors awards 20. Grade-point average, Basic College courses 2i. Grade-point average, major study courses 22. Grade-point average, final 23. Earned hours of ”A” work 2“. Earned hours of ”D” work 25. Earned hours of ”F” work 26. Academic probation record 3h The independent variables, intended to relate the intellectual characteristics of the sample members to their future income achieving ability, fall into four functional categories; (i) the variables that reflect the pro-college student; (2) the variables indicating general college-study grade averages; (3) the variables that distinguish the top scholars; and (h) the variables that mark the low academic group. The variables to test the existence and nature of relationships between the intellectual characteristics of the sample members and their later income achievement are perhaps the most important ones of the study. if they are, there is justification for the prevalent beliefs that a college education 'improves the mind“ and enables one to 'get ahead,‘ regardless of famous non-schooled tycoons. The first group of variables to consider deals with the student's intellectual capabilities, as of the time he left home and high school for the college campus. These are three variables indicating his rank in his high school graduating class and two college entrance test scores. The high school rank, based on his four-year grade record, is indicative of an on-going characteristic influenced as much by what occurred in his classrooms four years earlier as by his latest batch of term papers and final examinations. 0n the other hand, the scores of the college entrance psychological test and the reading test deal with the student's capabilities as of the moment. They furnish a standardized benchmark of performance applicable to all entering freshman alike, whereas the high school quartile ranking may allow some variance. That is to say,a student may rank in the first quartile 0f one high school class, but in another class he may be placed in the second. The study will determine if high school rank is more, or less, \ M Uf indicative of later income achievement than the testing procedures adepted av the colleges. The second group of variables is to determine whether or not coiiege grades in toto, or various c0moinations of co:rse grades, are related to income achievement. The customary assessment for comparison of students is the final grade average. However, to test the authen- ticity of this single grade average, the study also uses the grade averages earned in the sample member‘s major study area and in the 3asic Callece c0urses. The Basic Colie;e grade average is interesting for a s ecit reason. Only in the Basic Colic age did all the sample members take the same courses, at the same tim.e, from the same instructors. After the Jasic Co liege this de:rae of comparability “ different courses from those r-r 0.3 ;_ is lost. Students in Engineering in the cial Sciences, Education, and other colic as The question to be answered is whether or not grade averages, of one classification or another, are related to income achievement. The third and fOLrth 3ro:ps of indepezcont variables are academically selective bettee. the sample members. The third group of variables tescs the income earning ability of top students by selecting the members of the various honor societies, studs ni;s wi.o u re graduated ‘with honors' or with 'high honors,“ and those who earned the highest number of 'A' grade credit hOLFS. If high r3045 are pre dictivc of high income achievement, this group of variables should prove the point Conversely, the fourth group of independent variables, relating income achieving to intellectual characteristics of the sample members, tests the later performances of the low group academically. These variables comprise, in addition to the data supplied by general and specific 36 grade averages, data to test students with academic probation records and those with significant numbers of credit hours of 'D‘ and 'F' grades. The study uses this opportunity to observe the relationship, if any, between low academic performance and income achievement. A caution is in order. The students with grade averages below ‘0‘ are not represented in the sample, since they were removed from their programs and had no Opportunity to earn the bachelor's degree. The sample members referred to in the study as the low academic group are actually 'CD or better students, and should not be confused with 'D' or 'D+‘ students who are forced to withdraw from college. A similar critical study of college drop-outs would be of interest to researchers working in this area, but is not a part of this particular study. Limitations of the Study This study, to the writer's knowledge, is the only one employing the technique under investigation. Class follow-up studies usually seek to generalize from information dealing with specific objective data, such as occupation, income, location, and so on. This study, on the other hand, deals with a subjective concept, the particular individual's personal adaptation to his uleUe working environment. Since it is the only study of this kind, the method is untried and experimental. Other studies seeking the same end could profit by the shortcomings of this one. First, it was too broad in character. Too many answers were sought for a single study of this nature. Second, in light of the results, the questions could have been sharpened; some should have been added, others deleted. Third, the statistical 37 manipulation of the data should have been fitted to three-by-three, or to three-by-four tables using cell chi-square tests for significance. Some tables in the study were set up into three rows by six, seven or eight column matrices complicating interpretation by developing too many small or blank cells. For these reasons, some of the data presented are Summarized or rearranged from the original form of the tables printed by the computer. One should also bear in mind the need for more data on the individual's personality to improve the effectiveness of the results. Further, the study takes a 'snapshot' of the graduate's career position six years following his college graduation. Some men advance Quickly in their careers, others more slowly. if the data were taken after a four-year, or an eight-year test period, the results might differ. Sunnary The variables selected for the study examine a set of personal factors and intellectual characteristics of the college graduates comprising the sample. The data are taken from two major sources: (l) official records made available through the Registrar's office, and (2) reSponses to a mailed questionnaire. The personal factors include the background of the sample member, the socioeconomic status of his family, and certain social actions he exhibited both before and during his college career. The intellectual characteristics of the sample member comprise various combinations of grade-average, test results and rankings, and his receipt of ”A“, ”D”, and ”F” graces. Graduation honors are used, on the one hand, and academic probation record, on the other, to further compile the record. CHAPTER ill BACKGROUND FACTORS OF THE SAMPLE MEMBERS RELATED TO iNCOHE ACHIEVEMENT Some background factors pertaining to the graduates selected as members of the sample will be helpful in order to place in proper perspective the various relationships between the men and their income achieving abilities. Where were these men when the data was gathered, six years following their graduation? What were they doing? For whom were they working? which ones were earning the highest salaries? The men selected for the study received their bachelor's degrees from Michigan State University in i958. Because the study attempts to establish a frame of reference in which to relate the college graduate to the occupational environment for which he is best suited, various personal background factors must be examined in light of career income achievement. in this study the criterion for job performance is income achievement within an occupational environment. This framemrl. assumes that individuals who adapt better to a given occupational environnent perform better within it, and so receive higher incomes than they would in an ill~suited environment. The best performers and the highest ircome achievers in an occupational environment comprise the adaptive group whose particular personality factors and intellectual characteristics the study attempts to identify. 39 The following factors bearing on the working conditions and income achievement of the sample members will be discussed in this chapter: Mean salaries in occupational environments Median salaries in occupational environments Employment in the occupational environments High school location Job location six years after college graduation Colleges attended within the University Function of employers Years of service on the job Mean Salaries in Occupational Environment The relationship between occupational environment and income achievement is shown in Table i. Mean salaries for the five rajor occu- pational environments produced a spread of 47 percent (ran the low of public schools to the high of self-enployment. in this study, the five occupational environments comprised the sample as a whole, against which the individual occupational environments were compared. The top income achieving group was self-employment which earned a mean salary 22 percent over that of the whole group. On the other hand, the public schools category earned a mean salary 25 percent lower than the whole group mean. The large corporation category was ll percent above the whole group, at the mid-point between the self-employment category and the whole group mean. The other two environmental categories were close to the mean: smaller companies, at the whole mean level, and governmental agencies, h percent below it. 1+0 Median Salaries in Occupational Environments Median salaries, according to Table 2, were found to be fairly close to the mean salaries, indicating that the mean figures were not appreciably skewed by clusters of very high, or very low, salaries at either extreme of a category. The highest median salary was earned by reSpondents in the self-employment category, l3 percent above the median salary of the sample as a whole. This differential was below that of the corresponding mean salaries. A smaller differential was found to exist among the respondents in the large corporations category, whose median salary was found to exceed the group median by 5 per cent. The remaining three categories, those of the employees of smaller companies, governmental agencies and schools were found to exhibit the same differentials from the group averages for both their mean and median salaries. Employment in the Occupational Environments Categorization on the basis of employer's institutional structure constitutes a major aSpect of the framework developed to examine the particular characteristics of the individual and his optimum adjustment to these institutional structures. in this study the particular work settings resulting from the employer's organizational design are called occupational environments, which term is believed to be more indicative of the causes of relationships resulting from the interaction of the work place and the individual worker. The largest of these occupational environments, according to Table 3, was that of the large corporations, a category which accounted for 42 percent of the whole sample. Govern- mental agencies and smaller companies comprised the next largest hi categories, while public employees and self’employment were the smallest of the five categories. High School Location The bulk of the sample members, practically three’fourths of them, came from Michigan public schools. The high schools of the other one-fourth were divided almost eQUally between the Great Lakes states, surrounding Michigan, and the eastern states. Only 3 percent of the sample came from other parts of the country or from abroad. Mean income calculated from the data in Table h indicates that high school graduates from the eastern states earned 5 percent more than those from the Great Lakes states. These, in turn, earned slightly more than the graduates of Michigan high schools. A less highly selected group of college students would be expected to earn somewhat lower incomes. Michigan students are less highly selected because Michigan State University, a tax-supported institution, exists primarily to educate students who are state residents. More selective entrance standards for outrofrstate students suggests higher income achievement after graduation. Further, a student living a greater distance from the college of his choice is either very anxious to obtain a college education, or is anxious to go to that particular college. in either case, higher income achievement after college is to be expected. The home origins of sample members were not found to be significantly related to income achievement. 29b Location Six Years After College Graduation An examination of mean incomes according to job location six Years following college graduation was found to be statistically #2 significant, as Table 5 shows. Not quite one half of the sample members were working in Michigan at that time. Almost one fifth were located close-by, in the Great Lakes states. Together, the eastern states and the Vest Coast area equally divided one fourth of the sample members. The remaining l0 percent located in the southern, southwestern, plains, and mountain states. The graduates in the southern states earned a mean income i9 percent above that of the entire group, the sample as a whole. The mean income of the men in the eastern states was is percent above the entire group, and those in the west Coast area earned 7 per cent more. Mean salaries for graduates in the other regions were closer to those of the Michigan men, which were a little below the salaries of the entire group. Examination of income achievement by location indicated statistical significance at the one-half percent level. Colleges Attended within the University The colleges attended within the University proved to have a statistically significant relationship with income achievement. Table 6 shows the largest proportion of the sample members, over one third, graduated from what in l958 was called the College of Business and Public Service. (How it is called the College of Business.) The College of Agriculture and the College of Science and Arts (now divided into three colleges: Arts and Letters, Natural Science, and Social Science) divided about equally a little more than another one third of the sample members. The College of Engineering graduated one seventh of the sample, and the other colleges, combined, a somewhat smaller proportion. The Engineering graduates earned a mean salary 43 23 percent above that of the entire group. The next highest were graduates of the College of Business and Public Service, who earned a mean salary h percent above that of the entire group. The graduates of the College of Science and Arts were 3 percent over the entire group. Those of the College of Agriculture were 7 percent below it. Graduates of the other colleges earned mean salaries slightly below those of the entire group. fgnction of Employegg A statistically significant relationship was also f0und between employers, grouped by function performed, and income achievement. The highest proportion of the sample members were engaged in manufacturing, as Table 7 indicates. These graduates also earned the highest mean salary, l3 percent above that of the entire group. The next largest employment, one fifth of the sample members, was found in governmental services. This group earned a mean salary 5; percent less than that of the entire group. The lowest income group was education, compris- ing ll percent of the sample members and earning a mean salary 17 percent below that of the entire group. Other graduates, employed in miscellaneous services, distribution, communication and transportation, earned mean salaries from i to 6 percent above the entire group. The graduates in finance, real estate, and insurance earned mean salaries 10 percent less than that of the entire group. Years of Service on the Job No statistical significance was found between income achievement and length of service on the job, as of six years following college graduation, when the data was collected. According [+4 to Table 8, about one fourth of the sample members on the job for six years, held only one job since starting their working careers. Another one fourth had been on the job one year or less. The middle one half is fairly evenly distributed between periods of two to five years on the job. Table 9 indicates a narrow spread in mean salaries within most of the occupational categories, regardless of the length of service. If the table shows a preference for any time period, it is that of five and six years. The group with that length of service earns slightly higher mean salaries in three cases out of five. The entire gr0up has #0 percent of its membership in the one-and two-year bracket, 22 percent at three and four years, and 38 percent have been on the same job since they graduated, However, the mean salaries of the three job-service gr0ups are within l percent of one another. This chapter has given the reader some background data on the graduates selected as members of the sample for the study. Because the study deals with job performance within the major occupational environments, and because job performance is here measured in terms of income achievement, the background data were presented in their relationships with the salaries earned by the graduates. it is evident that statistically significant relationships exist between income achievement, on the one hand, and job location, the college attended within the University, and the function performed by the employers of the graduates, on the other. However, statistical significance does not exist between the income achievement of the graduates and their high school location or the number of years employed in the jobs they held six years following their college graduation. CHAPTER IV THE lNFLUENCE 0F SELECTED PERSONALlTY FACTORS 0N lNCOHE ACHIEVEMENT This chapter seeks to identify existing relationships between selected personality factors and income achievement of college graduates. The personality factors are of two general orders: first, 'those related to the graduate's socioeconomic status (SES) and that of his parents, and second, those related to motivational aspects of his personality demonstrated during his collegiate career. Personality factors related to the graduate's SES are: Father‘s occupation Father's schooling Parental financial support in college Social fraternity membership and attitudes Personality factors dealing with achievement motivation are: Degree of financial self-support in college Federal serviceman's (6!) support in college Marital status in college Age at graduation College extra-curricular activity participation Number of years out of school before college graduation “S #6 Factors Related to Socioeconomic Status Father's Occupation The occupation of the sample member's father had a significant relationship to his son's income achievement. This data is shown in Table l0. The total sample, considered as the entire group, showed that the sons of the skilled laborers made up i} percent of the sample and made a mean salary 7 percent above the control group. The only other environmental category whose members exceeded the entire group in mean salary earned was that of the sons of the managerial and self-employed fathers, who accounted for bk percent of the sample and earned 5 percent more than the entire group. The sons of unskilled laborers comprised ll-l» percent of the sample and earned at the same rate as the entire group. Of the remaining two groups, sons of white- collar workers accounted for 24 percent of the sample but earned 6 percent less, and sons of professional fathers accounted for 5 percent of the sample and earned l3 percent less than the entire group. Table ll shows that the sons of skilled and unskilled laborers were the top income achievers in three of the five occupational environments: large corporations, smaller companies and governmental agencies. in the self-employment category only two cells were considered and in these cases the sons of managerial and self-employed fathers were the top income achievers. The public schools category also had but two cells large enough for consideration, and here the sons of whiteecollar workers earned more than the sons of unskilled laborers. “7 Father‘s Schooling The number of years of formal schooling completed by the fathers of the sample members is not significant, according to the data in Table l2. For the entire group, the largest category, 38 percent, consisted of fathers who attended, or were graduated from high school. Their sons earned the same mean salary as the entire group. The next largest category was that of fathers who attended, or were graduated from college: 2h percent. Their sons earned the highest salaries, 5 percent above the mean salary of the entire group. 'The sons of fathers with advanced college degrees earned ll percent less than the entire group, but only accounted for 6 percent of the sample. The remaining category of fathers received 8 years or less of formal education. Their sons made up one third of the sample and earned the same mean salary as the entire group. Table l3 shows the same data to be inconclusive when broken down by occupational environment. The fathers with the least number of years schooling had the highest income- achieving sons in the large corporations, governmental agencies and public schools categories; however, the spread was narrow. College- trained fathers had the highest income-achieving sons in the smaller companies and self-employment categories, but again the salary spread between all categories of fathers was narrow. Barental Financial Support in College There is a statistically significant relationship between financial support received from parents and income achievement six years following college graduation, as shown in Table lh. However, the relationship was curvilinear, since the graduates who received #8 medium support, fronilo percent to 59 percent, earned h percent more than those who received less support, and 9 percent more than those who received more financial support from home. The data also showed that the two largest groups, between 40 and 50 percent each, received less support than the small group which comprised l3 percent of the sample and received more than 70 percent of its financial support from parents. Table l5 shows the data by occupational environments. in the large corporations category, the group with the least support from home was highest in income achievement, while in the self-employment category those who received the most support from home earned the highest mean salary. For the employees of smaller companies and governmental agencies, those who received moderate support from home earned the highest salaries. The school teachers' salaries were equal, regardless of home financial support. fignbership inL and Attitude toward, Social Fraternities There was no significant relationship between income achievement and the attitude of the sample.members toward social fraternities. The data presented in Table l6 show that 30 percent of the entire group belonged to fraternities and that these men earned a mean salary 7 percent higher than non-fraternity men. There was practically no difference between the incomes of the l5 percent of the sample who said they did not belong to a fraternity but would do so if they had the chance to decide again, and the incomes of the remaining 55 percent of the sample who did not belong and would not avail themselves of the opportunity if they again had the choice. When the data are examined according to OCCupational environments, in three of the four categories 1+9 which had enough fraternity members to allow statistical inference, the fraternity men were found to be the tOp income achievers. However, it was only in the case of self-employment that the difference was very large. The fraternity members of the self-employment occupational environment earned 29 percent more than the entire group, while the non-fraternity members among the self-employed earned lb to l7 percent more than the entire group. The large corporations and governmental agencies categories were the other two occupational environments in which the fraternity members were the top income achievers, but the mean salary Spread was narrow in both cases. Summary The first portion of this chapter discussed relationships between income achievement of the sample member and four factors indicative of his socioeconomic status and that of his parents. Statistically significant relationships were found between income achievement and father's occupation, and between income achievement and the degree of financial support during college furnished by parents of the sample member. However, no statistical significance was observed between the graduate's income achievement and his father's years of formal schooling, or between his income achievement and membership in social fraternities, or his attitude toward them. Factors Related to Achievement Motivation financial Self-Support in College No statistical significance existed between the degree to which the sample members supported themselves while in college and their 50 income achievement after college. Table l7 shows that the two largest categories were the middle ones. The graduates who provided l0 percent to 39 Percent of their own support comprised 35 percent of the sample and earned a mean salary at the level of that of the entire group. The largest category, #2 percent, accounted for 40 percent to 70 percent of their own financial support and earned the same also as the entire group. The category that contributed above 70 percent to their own support accounted for l6 percent of the sample and earned the highest mean salary, 7 percent above the entire group. The data of Table l8 show the manner in which the sample members of the various occupational environments supported themselves. Three of the categories, large corporations, smaller companies, and governmental agencies, had their top income achievers in the gr0up that contributed more than 30 percent to its own support. The self-employment category earned at the same rate in both support groups. The school teachers who contributed less than 30 percent to their own support while they were in college earned a l0 percent higher mean salary than their peers who contributed more. §grviceman‘s Adjustment Act Support The relationship between the degree to which military servicemen used federal assistance to start their college educations, or to return to college if they had already started, and their later income achievement was not statistically significant. Although these men placed a high value on education and possessed the determination and perseverance to complete the requirements for the bachelor's degree, they did not prove to be high income achievers. Si The entire group was separated into three parts for the test: 6i percent received no federal support, l9 percent received l0 to 59 percent federal support,land the remaining 20 percent received 60 percent, or more, of their college financial support through the federal acts. However, the no-support group earned a little below the mean salary of the entire group, and the two groups who received federal support earned only a little above it. When the large corporations category was tested separately, a curvilinear relation- ship deveIOped. The group who received up to 50 percent federal support earned 5 percent higher salaries than the entire group, but the no-support group earned l3 percent more, and the over 50 percent support group earned l8 percent more than the entire group. The mean salaries were: no government support $10,360 l to 49 percent government support 9,660 50 percent government support, or over 10,850 QEQree of Financial Support by Wife Examination of the entire group shows that 23 percent of the reSpondents received some financial help from their wives during their college period. Those who did, earned a little bit more than their classmates who were not married, or whose wives did not work. Tests of the large corporations category, however, show that men who received some, but less than 20 percent of their support from their wives, earned a mean salary i8 percent higher than those who received support at the 20 percent level, or above. 52 Harital Status in College There was no significant relationship between income achievement and marital status in college. According to Table l9, Si sample members were married before they arrived on campus, and another 96 were married during the college period. ”embers who were not married while in college earned a mean salary 4 percent below the entire group. Those who married during college earned 5 percent above the entire group, and those who were married before they went to college earned 7 percent above the entire group. The large corporations category shows the top salary earners to be those married before their college period. This group earned 22 percent above the mean salary of the entire group. The men who married while attending college earned l5 percent above the entire group. Those who were not married when the data was collected, six years following their graduation, earned l2 ' percent above the entire group, and the men who married after college earned 9 percent above the entire group. The five categories of occupational environment do not exhibit uniformity of pattern, 586 Table 20. Only in the large corporation category did the men who were married before college prove to be the top income achievers. The men who married while in college were high income achievers in three categories: smaller companies, governmental agencies, and public schools. The men who married after college earned the top incomes among the self-employed. £99 at Graduation The age of the respondents at the time of their college graduation had no statistical significance, as Table 2i shows, when 53 compared with their income achievement. The pattern of the entire age-at-graduation group has negative correlation with that of the large corporations category. in the entire group the older men earned the highest mean salaries, although by a narrow margin. The men who were 25 to 28 years old at the time of their college graduation earned 3 percent above the mean for the entire group; the 23-and Zh-year old graduates earned a fraction of one percent above the entire mean; and the 2l-and 22-year old graduates earned just a fraction of one percent below the mean. 0n the other hand, in the large corporations category, the 2l-and 22-year old graduates were the high income achievers. They earned 2i percent above the mean salary of the entire group; the 23-and Zh-year old graduates earned 16 percent above; and the men who were 25 through 28 years old at the time of their graduation earned l4 percent more than the entire group. ggtra-currlcular Activity Participation income achievement and college extra-curricular activity participation are related in a statistically significant manner. For the entire group, using a 3-row by 8-column table, the chi-square value was 30.l67 (d.f.- lh; sign. .Ol; significant). The data in Table 22 show that graduates who participated in l to 3 activities earned mean salaries 2 percent below the entire group mean; those who did not participate earned a fraction of one percent below the mean; and those who participated in h activities or more earned l0 percent above the entire mean. For the large corporations, the smaller companies and the governmental agencies categories, the high Participation group earned the highest incomes. However, the Sh non-participating group was second high in two out of three cases, ranking above the moderate participants. A curvilinear relationship is indicated in three out of five cases.' Two categories, self-employ- ment and public schools, had but two of the three cells large enough to warrant inference. However, in the self-employment category the moderate participants earned more than the high participating group. in the public schools category, the non-participants earned more than the moderate group. when the large corporations category was considered alone, the results were not significant. However, the high participant group earned 22 percent more than the entire mean, while the other two groups earned only ll and l3 percent more. fiumber of Years out of School The number of years each sample member was out of school between his high school graduation and his college graduation did not prove to be statistically significant. One would suppose that, once having left college, a man would return to it very reluctantly; or that having taken a job, or having gone into military service following his high school graduation, he would rather not start college at all than start after a prolonged absence. if this supposition is true, those men who do stay out of school for a time, and then go back, would be expected to become high income achievers. Tests made on the men who remained ' out of school, see Table 23, showed that the ones who were out from i to h years earned less than the entire mean, by 3 percent. Those who attended school continuously earned the same mean salary as the entire. group; while those who were out of school for 5 to 9 years earned 7 percent more than the entire group. The data shows that, 55 within the various categories of occupational environments, all indicate higher earnings for the men who were out of school for l to 9 years, except in the case of the self-employed. In this case the difference only reflected a 2 percent higher mean salary for the men who attended school continuously. Summary in the Second part of this chapter seven factors bearing on the sample members' personalities were tested for association with their income-achieving abilities. Certain patterns were developed suggesting associations between income achievement and these factors, though six of them were not found to be statistically significant. For example, in five cases out of six, men who contributed more to their own support in college earned higher salaries. Again, men who were married before they attended college, or while they attended college, earned l0 percent more than their classmates who were unmarried during Icoliege. However, no consistent pattern existed with regard to receipt of government financial assistance during college, financial support by wife, age at graduation, or number of years, if any, out of school. 0n the other hand, statistical significance did exist associating income achievement and collegiate extra-curricular activity participation. Test of this variable indicated higher income achievement, five times out of six, for the active students. CHAPTER V lNFLUENCE 0F INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS on INCOME Acmsveneur In this chapter an attenpt is made to seek relationships between intellectual characteristics of the college graduate and his income achievement six years following his graduation. The sample as a whole is used as the entire group for the examination of the data. Each of the five occupational environments will be compared with the entire group to determine whether or not differences between high income achievers and the other sample members are statistically significant. The data allowing selection of the fifteen independent variables for test against the dependent salary-range variables are available on the graduate‘s official transcript of credits. In order to assess the graduate’s intellectual characteristics, no additional or special testing is required. The data are already develOped and accessible at the time of his graduation from college. The chapter will deal with three general types of independent variables: (l) Data reflecting pre-college characteristics: Quartile rank in high school class College entrance psychological test scores 57 College entrance reading test scores Scholarship support in college (2) Data generated during the college period: Evaluation of Basic College courses Basic College courses grade-point average Term hours of ”A” work Term hours of ”D” work Term hours of ”F” work (3) Data summarizing the college period: Major study grade—point average Final grade-point average Honors received Honor Society membership Probation record Comparative grade standings according to occupational environments Data Reflecting Pre-College Characteristics .anrtile Rank in High School Class There is no statistically significant relationship between income achievement and the sample members‘ quartile rank in their high school classes, according to the data presented in Table 2%. About one third of the sample placed in the first quartile and a slightly higher proportion in the second quartile. The third quartile comprised 2l percent of the sample, while the remaining 7 percent placed in the fourth quartile of their high school classes. In income achievement the graduates in the top quartile placed the highest 58 preportion In the high salary range. They also placed the lowest proportion in the low salary range. Table 5i illustrates the relationships between the quartiles and the top salaries, Range A, and between the quartiles and the low salaries, Range C. The tendency toward a curvilinear relationship becomes apparent at once, with fewer ifigh salary members In the second and third quartiles than in the first and fourth. Conversely, there are proportionately more low salary members In the second and third quartiles than in the first and fourth. The results for calculated mean salaries in the second and third quartiles represent a straight-line relationship with the first quartile. The fourth quartile is too small for statistical inference. Table 25 indicates that mean salaries earned are highest among the top quartile and lowest among the third-quartile graduates. When compared with the entire group mean salary, the mean for the top quartile is 8 percent higher; for the second quartile it is a little lower, and for the third quartile it is 6 percent lower than the entire mean salary. However, examination of the individual categories of occupational environment do not show this relationship to be consistent. In the smaller companies and public schools categories, the top mean salaries are earned by the graduates in the second quartile of their high school classes. In the governmental agencies category top mean salaries are earned by those in the third quartile. The results differ for the graduates employed by the large corporations. The highest mean salary is earned by the top quartile graduates, some 25 percent above the sample mean. Additionally, there are significant cell chi-square values, at the 5 percent level. There are more top salary group members in the first quartile than expected frequencies would indicate, 59 and less than expected in the second and third quartiles. For large corporation employees, at least, there is a significant relationship between Quartile rank in high school graduating class and income achievement. College Entrance Psychologjcal Test Scores The scores of college entrance psychological tests were not related at a statistically significant level to subsequent Income achievement by the graduates. Table 26 shows the largest porthn of the sample scores between the fortieth and the fifty-ninth percentiles. Thirteen percent scored over the 80th percentile and 5 percent scored under the 30th percentile. Table 27, showing mean salaries according to the various scores, indicates a very narrow spread across the score continuum, although the high psychological- test scorers tended also to earn the highest incomes. in two categories of occupational environments the top scoring groups were also the top income groups. These two were the large corporations and smaller companies categories. in the self-employment and governmental agencies groups, the middle test scorers were the highest income achievers. The lowest scorers of the school teachers category earned the highest mean income. nglegc Entrance ReadinggTest Scores The reading test scores, just as the psychOIOglcal test scores, showed no statistically significant relationship to income achievement of the sample members. Table 28 indicates that 58 percent of the sample members were in the fortieth to the sixty-ninth percentile. 60 There was a larger spread, some l3 percent, between the mean salaries of the low test graduates and those of the high test graduates for the entire group, according to Table 29. The highest test sample members were the highest in income achievement also. However, when testing by occupational categories, the results were inconclusive. In the smaller companies category the high test members were the high income- carning group. in the governmental agencies group, the moderate and high test members both earned the same mean salary. in the large corporations and public schools categories, the lowest test groups earned the highest mean salaries. §gholarship Support There was no statistical significance between the receipt of college scholarship support, in any amount, and income achievement during the six-year period following college graduation. The data indicated that l7 percent of the sample members received some scholarship aid. One, or possibly two, of those cases involved athletic scholarships. Although the relationship was not significant, the recipients of scholarships did earn a mean salary 8 percent above the’entire mean, while the balance of the sample members were, consequently, a little below the entire mean. In considering the large corporations category by itself, however, the income received by the l5 percent of the group who received scholarship aid was of statistical significance, at the two and one-half percent level (X2 = 7.3l7; d.f. = 2; sign. .025; significant). The recipients of scholarships earned a mean salary 25.percent above the entire mean, while other large corporation employees earned only ll percent more than the entire neon salary. 6i Data Generated During the College Period Evaluation of Basic College Courses it was only in the Basic College course sequence that all of the sample members took the same courses, more or less from the same instructors, and at about the same time. Differences of opinion, as shown in Table 30, caused one third of the group to express the Opinion that Basic Colkage courses were more valuable than ”other” courses; one fourth held that they were less valuable; while almost one half said they had about the same value. The latter two groups earned practically the same mean salaries as the entire group, but the group with high evaluation of basic courses earned 5 percent more. The same relationships held for the two categories, large corporations and smaller companies. Those valuing basic courses highly earned more than others in their categories. However, among the self-employment category, the high income achievers valued the basic courses about the same as the others. The governmental agencies category exhibited the narrow Spread shown in the table, but still the highest income achievers said the basic courses were less valuable than the others. in the public schools category, hardly any graduates valued the basics highly. The two other groups earned the same mean salaries. An additional fact in Table 30 is of interest. In the smaller companies category, 72 percent of the members valued the basic courses highly, only 23 percent valued them about the same, and 5 percent said they were less valuable. The mean salary of those who valued them highly was l2 percent above the entire group mean, while those that valued them about the same earned a mean salary 23 percent below the entire group. 62 Basic College Courses Grade-Point Average For the entire group, statistical significance is not indicated between high grade-point average in the Basic College courses and subseQUent high income achievement of the graduates. However, Table 3i shows the low grade-average students in the entire group placed the lowest proportion in the high income group, and the highest proportion in the low income group. it was the other way around with the high grade-average group. Table 32 indicates the top students earned l7 percent more than the average for the entire group, while the students with less than a ”C” average in the basic courses earned 5 percent less than the average mean salary of the entire group. An examination of mean salaries by categories shows that in all cases but one, the top grade-average students were the top income achievers. The lone exception is in the public schools category, where the lowest grade- average students earned a little more than the high grade-average students. in the large corporation category, a significant cell-chi- square value (X2 a 3.70) indicated a low number of poor students in A the top income group. Term Hours of ”A” Work in testing the ability of the college student to do ”A” work against his career income achievement, the result yielded a relation- ship that was not statistically significant.‘ The proportion of the sample receiving fromlzero to nine hours of ”A” was 38 percent. The Proportion receiving from i0 to 39 hours of “A” was #2 percent, as ——¥ IX2 - l9.356; d.f. = l2; sign. .05; not significant. Sign. .lO; Significant. 63 shown in Table 33. Twenty percent of the graduates received forty hours of ”A”, or more.2 Table 3b shows a slightly curvilinear relationship between number of hours of ”A” received and subsequent mean salaries. The top ”A” group earned income at a rate 7 percent above the mean salary of the entire group. The middle "A” group earned at a rate 3 percent below the entire group, but the low group of "A” receivers earned only sllghtly below the entire group. in the large corporations category, the top ”A” group earned considerably more than the others. in the governmental agencies category they earned only slightly more. For the smaller companies, the top salary earners were in the middle ”A” group. in both the self-employment and the public schools categories, the highest mean salaries went to those who earned the fewest ”A's”, although the Spread between the salaries was narrow. An interesting cell chi-SQUare relationship (X2 a 2.58; sign. .lO; significant) was found in the large corporations category, where a frequency higher than expected occurred in the t0p ”A” group who earned the top salary range. Igfm Hours of ”D“ Work There was no statistical significance in the relationship between receipt of ”D” grades and career income achievement for the sample as a whole. According to Table 35, #0 percent of the graduates received from zero to nine hours of ”D” grades, 50 percent received from ten to 39 hours, and 9 percent received 40 hours, or more. The ‘ zprom 40 to 69 hours of ”A” were earned by ll percent of the sample; from 70 to 98 hours, by 5 percent; 99 hours and over, by h Percent. Seven percent earned no ”A” grades. 64 mean salaries of the three groups of ”D” receivers are given in Table 36. There is very little difference between the three nean salary figures of the entire group. Examination of the data according to occupational environment categories shows that in three categories, large corporations, snaller companies and governmental agencies, higher incomes were earned by the low ”D” group. On the other hand, the high mean salary of the self-employed members falls in the middle "D“ gr0up. The high mean salary earned by the teachers falls in the group earning the greatest number of ”0” hours. Igrm Hours of “F” Work In testing the number of term hours of ”F” grades received by the graduates of the sample as a whole against their later career income achievement, no statistical significance was found. Table 37 shows that l7 percent of the graduates received l0 or more hours of ”F” grades during their college careers. More than one half received no ”F” grades. However, the mean salaries indicated in Table 38 show that students with l0 or more hours of ”F” earned the same mean salary as those with no ”F” grades. Analysis of relationships between occupational environment and the receipt of ”F” grades was no more indicative of income achievement than was the analysis of the entire group alone. in all five categories, the maximum mean salary was earned by the group receiving the lowest number of ”F” grades, but in two categories, receivers of greater numbers of ”F" grades earned just as much. in other cases, with the exception of the smaller companies category, the difference in mean salaries earned is slight, regardless of the number of "F‘s” received during the graduate's college years. 65 Data Sunnarizing the College Career Major Study Grade-Point Averagg income achievement was tested for statistical significance against the grade-point average earned by the sample member in the courses of his major study area. The result showed the relationship was not significant at the acceptable 5 percent level. (it was significant at the l0 percent level). Table 39 shows that two thirds of the graduates achieved averages between 2.00 and 2.99; and a little over one quarter of the group was above the 3.00 average. Seven percent were below the ”C” average in their najor subjects. Members of the entire group who scored over the 3.00 average, earned income 5 percent above the entire average. Those who scored below 2.34 were next, earning the same income as the average of the whole sample. The low income-earning group was composed of graduates with averages between 2.34 and 2.99, once again developing the curvilinear relationship familiar in the college record comparison with income achievement. Examination of the occupational environments individually finds the high grade-average students earning the top mean salaries in three of the five categories; large corporations, smaller companies and governmental agencies. In the public schools category, the low grade-point students earned the highest mean salary, though by a narrow margin. In the self-employment category, the middle grade-achieving group was the top income group by earning #3 percent above the entire mean, while the top grade group earned income only ll percent above the entire mean. The low grade-average graduates earned income lh percent above the mean salary of the entire group. When the large corporations category was 66 examined by itself, the relationship between high grades in the major subjects and income achievement was significant at the 5 percent level. Final Grade-Point Average The final grade-point average of the sample member was found to have a statistically significant relationship with his income achievement. The data presented in Table hi shows an almost even division of the sample into three parts. The top third had a grade average of 2.67 or over; the middle group had a 2.3“ to 2.66 average; and the low-grade-average group was below 2.33, but above -the minimum required for graduation, 2.00. The curvilinear relation- ship is again in evidence, as the low grade-average group placed more men in the A salary range, and less in the C range, than did the middle grade-average group. The top grade-average students were also the top income achievers. For the entire group, the top grade- average students earned ii percent above the group mean. The low grade-average students earned the same income as the mean, and the middle group earned 4 percent less. in four of the five categories the top students, academically, were the high income achievers, by substantial amounts. In the large corporations category the tap students earned 8 to i0 percent more income than others in the category; in the smaller companies they earned l0 to 29 percent more; in self-employment they earned 7 to l6 percent more, and in governmental agencies they earned 6 to 7 percent more. in the public school category there were too few for inference in the top grade-average group, but the middle grade-average men earned a little less than the low grade-average graduates. 67 Honors Received Receipt of honors by the sample members is significantly related to>career income achievement. Although only is percent of the graduates received their degrees with honors or with high honors, their income achievement, as Table 43 shows, was superior to the honor society members who did not make the required 3.0 or 3.5 grade averages to qualify for the honors awards, and also to the graduates who were not members of honor societies. The mean salaries indicated in Table hh show that the honors graduates in the entire group earned a mean salary l6 percent above the entire mean. The honor society members earned l0 percent above the mean, while the other graduates earned 4 percent below the mean. Only three occupational environment categories had sufficiently large cells in the honors column to warrant inference. in the governmental agencies category, the honors graduates earned income 5 percent above the entire mean salary. However, the honor society members did not do as well as the graduates who received no honors and did not belong to honor societies. The large corporation category was found to have income achievement significantly related to college honors. Honor society members were the top income achievers, earning income 25 percent above the entire mean, followed by the honors graduates, who earned 2i percent above the mean. The remainder of the large corporations category, 70 percent of the graduates, received no honors and did not belong to honor societies. They earned income only l0 percent more than the mean salary of the entire group. 0‘ 0:) Probation R:cord No statistical significance was fOund in the relationship of the income achievement of the sample members and academic probation. 0f the graduates, 65 percent served no academic probation, l3 percent served three months (one Quarter term), and 22 percent served six months or more. Table #5 shows the mean salary of the graduates with no probation record to be 3 percent above the category moan and those with probation records to be 2 or 3 percent below the category mean. An examination of the OCCupational environments by categories shows that in all cases but one, the graduates with no probation earned more than the other 2 groups in their categories by the following percentages: large corporations, 2 to 4 percent; sneiler companies, 5 to 6 percent; self-employment, 2i percent; governmental agencies, 2 to 5 percent. The lone exception to the above pattern occurred in the public schools category, where graduates with probabtion records earned slightly (more income than those with no probation record. figmparative Re5ults An effort was node to determine the overall grade-average correlation with income achievement for the entire group, and for the occupational environment categories. Table 46 shows the data for the prOportion of high grade-average students (over 3.0) for the five categories and the entire group. Basic College grade-averages indicated 2# percent of the entire group had a 3.0 average or better. To tOp the list, the governmental agencies had 33 percent over 3.00, and the public schools had l9 percent, at the low end of the rank order. The other categories placed near the entire average. in the 69 major subject grade-averages the entire group had 28 percent over the 3.0 mark. Three categories, large corporations, smaller companies and governmental agencies, head this comparison with 3i percent each. The public schools category was low with 2i percent. The last evaluation in this series covered final grade-point averages. The entire group had l9 percent over 3.0. Leading, was the large corporations category with 24 percent, and the governmental agencies close behind with 22 percent. The public school category was again low with l0 percent of their group finishing college with 3.0 average, or better. The above results were compiled and compared with income achievement in Table #7. The data show that the governmental agencies had the highast proportion of top students, but rank next to last in mean salary. The large corporations and self-employment categories rank second in proportion of top students, and first and second in income achievement. The public schools category is last in income achievement and also in proportion of top students. Large Corporation Salaries and Grades An earlier section of this chapter stated that there was a significant relationship between Basic College grade-averages and income achievement in the large corporations category. Table #8 shows a breakdown for the three salary ranges, indicating their proportion in each of the three grade-average groupings. The top salary men had 7 percent in the low grade grouping, whereas the low salary men had five times that number. Similarly, the top salary men placed 36 percent of their group in the top grade grouping, whereas the low salary men only had half that number. Table 49 shows the statistically Significant relationship between major subject grade-average and Ileana 70 achievement in the large corporation category. The low grade-average group has 37 percent more men in the low salary range than in the high range. Conversely, the high grade-average group has only one third as many in the low salary range as in the high salary range. Finally, Table 50 shows that the relationship between income achievement and final grade-average for the large corporations category was not significant. However, the same pattern of relationship as that of the two preceding tables is evident. The cell of the low grade-average column is twice as large in the low salary row as in the high salary row. Conversely, the cell in the high grade-average column is two and one-half times as large in the high salary row as it is in the low salary row. Summary intellectual characteristics of the members of the sample were .tested against incomes earned to identify those of significance. The first group of intellectual characteristics dealt with the sample member in his pre-college period. Statistical testing of the whole sample as a unit revealed no significant relationships between income achievement and college entrance psychological and reading tests, or between income achievement and rank in high school class and receipt of college scholarship awards. However, after examining the entire group, comprising the whole sample, the large corporations category was examined by itself. Significant associations developed between income achievement and high school class rank, and also between income achievement and receipt of college scholarship awards. in testing the high school class rank, significant cell chi-square values indicated. more than the expected number of tap income men in the top quartile of 7i the high school class, and less than the expected number of top income men in the second and third class quartiles. Testing of the large corporations category for relationship between college entrance tests and income achievement indicated no statistical significance. The next section of the chapter was concerned with intellectual characteristics of the sample member evidenced during his college career. The factors examined were: Basic College courses grade-point average, and evaluation, and hours of ”A”, ”D“, and ”F” grades received during the four-year college period. Apparently, graduates who evaluated the basic courses highly, compared to ”other” courses, were the top income achievers, although the relationship was not statistic- ally significant. The same general rule applies in the relationship of grades to income. The graduates who received the highest proportion of "A” grades, and the lowest proportion of ”D” and ”F” grades, were the high income achievers. However, for the entire group the degree of the relationship was insufficient to warrant statistical significance. in testing the large corporations category, statistical significance was determined in relating high grades to high income achievement. The final section of the chapter considered intellectual factors comprising a summation of the collegiate record achieved by the sample member. High major study grade-point average suggested high income achievement, but not at the 5 percent level of error. There wns, however, statistical significance between higher incomes earned and higher final grade-point average. Receipt of graduation honors, and honor society membership indicated high income achievement, also at a significant level. On the other hand, students with 72 probation records were able to earn income at about the same rate as their classmates who had never been on academic probation. A comparison between proportion of tap students in a category and income earned by that category, showed that tap students frequently select ‘ careers that are not among the tap income producers, since the category next to the bottom in income achievement was first in proportion of too students. Finally, statistical significance was determined showing that large corporation employees who had earned high college grades also experienced superior income achievement. CHAPTER Vi SUHHARY AND COHCLUSlONS This study examined a selected group of personal and intellectual characteristics of college graduates. These characteristics were tested for statistical significance against the income achievements of a sample of two hundred eighty-four Michigan State University graduates in the sixth year following their college graduation. Ranges of annual income comprised three variables so that each characteristic was tested separately against the high, middle, and low income achievers in the sample. The various factors were each tested six times against the level of income achievement of the sample member. The first testing involved the whole sample, which was used as the entire group. The next five tests covered the five nejor occupational environments around which the study was designed: large corporations, smaller companies, governmental agencies, public schools, and self-employment. This testing pattern permitted the researcher to observe the relationships of any giVen personality factor of the individual sample member in three diffcrent roles: (l) as a nxmbsr of the high, middle, or low income group; (2) as a member of the entire group, and (3) as a member in a particular OCCupational environment. 73 7h Tests of the characteristics against the income achievement of the sample members were conducted to»iearn what relationships, if any, existed between them. The findings indicated many relationships, some of which did not support the hypotheses of the investigation, while others did support them. The results of all the tests cannot conven- iently be discussed so they are first listed categorically. Following the listing some concluding remarks will summarize the most important features and present some generalizations drawn from them. in this chapter the results of the investigation are presented in a different format. The various occupational environments are treated separately here, whereas, in earlier chapters presenting the data they were treated together as each of the independent variables was discussed in turn. The purpose of combining the variables into each occupational environment is to allow the reader to distinguish more easily the different characteristics that mark the high income achiever, and the low income achiever, within each environment. Not all the variables were tested for statistical significance. Those that proved to be statistically significant were so designated in the earlier chapters concerned with presenting the data. Some variables are presented as proportionate findings only. in the following listings, a characteristic of a high income achiever will be shown only if the income of the particular sub-category of the occupational environment exceeds the category mean salary by 7 percent or more. in terms of dollars of annual income, 7 percent represents a considerable sum -- varying from about $500 per year for the lower salaried men to $800 for those who are higher paid. if the income of 75 a particular sub-category exceeds all others within the occupational environment by l0 percent, or more, an asterisk is used to make this distinction. Conversely, in presenting the characteristics of low income achievers the sub-category must be at least 7 percent below the category mean to be listed at all. If it is l0 percent, or more, below the mean salary of the category, it, too, is marked with an asterisk. Summary of Data Analysis !. Large Corporation ENEJOXEE; A. High income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. *sons of unskilled workersI b. sons of poorly educated fathers, (8 years schooling, or less)2 2. Hotivational factors a. *married before college b. high range (A or more organizations) participant in extra-curricular activities 3. Pre-college intellectual characteristics a. *highest Quartile of high school class b. low range (below 50th percentile) in college entrance reading test lSub-categories of high income achievers bearing an asterisk are l0 percent, or more, above all others in the occupational category. zSub-categories of high income achievers bearing no asterisk are 7 to lo percent above all others in the occupational category. 76 A. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. high range (3.0 or above) grade'average in Basic College b. high range (20 hours or more) ”A's” received c. high range (3.0 or above) grade-average in major study area d. high range (3.0 or above) final grade-average e. *member of one or more honor societies 8. Low income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. *sons of professional men3 b. *sons of well-educated fathers (graduate college degrees) 6. *middle range (10-59% college financial support from parents 2. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. *low range (below 2.0) grade-average for Basic College courses ll. §maller Company Employees A. High Income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. *sons of skilled workers 3Sub-categories of low income achievers bearing an asterisk are l0 percent, or more, below all others in the occupational category. 77 b. *middle range college financial Support from parents c. belonged, or would belong to social fraternity, if had another chance Motivational factors a. *hlgher range (over 30%) financial self-support in college b. *married during college c. *high range participant in extra-curricular activities d. out of school 5 to 9 years Pre-college intellectual characteristics .a. *second quartile of high school class b. high range (60th percentile or aoove) on college entrance psychological test c. high range on college entrance reading test d. *Basic college courses evaluated ”more valuable” College achievement: intellectual claracteristics a. *high range grade-average in Basic College courses b. middle range (l0-l9 hours) in term hours of “A” grades received c. *iow range (0 hours) in term hours of ”F” grades received 73 d. high range grade-average in major study area e. *high range final grade-average f. *graduation honors received 8. Low Income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. sons of white-collar workers“ b. *high range college financial support from parents 2. Motivational factors a. *lower range financial self-support in college 3. Pre-coliege intellectual characteristics a. third quartile in high school class b. *Basic College courses evaluated “about the same” 4. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. *middle range final grade average Ill. Selfaempioyed A. High Income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. sons of managerial workers and the self-employed “Sub-categories of low income achievers bearing no asterisk are 7 to l0 percent below all others in the occupational category. 79 2. Pre-college intellectual characteristics a. *middle range on college entrance psychological tests 3. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. high range grade-average for Basic College courses b. *middle range for term hours of “D” grades received c. *middle range for major study area grade-average d. *high range for final grade-average 8. Low income Achievers i. Socioeconomic factors a. *sons of white-collar workers b. *middie range financial support in college from parents c. non-member of social fraternity 2. Motivational factors a. married before college b. *high range participant in extra-curricular activities 3. Pre'college intellectual characteristics a. high range on college entrance psychological test b. *Basic College courses evaluated ”less valuable” 80 h. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. *thh range for term hours of ”D” grades received b. high range for major study area grade average c. *thh range (over 9 months) for academic probation lV. Governmental Agency Employees A. High Income Achievers l. Motivational factors a. *married during college 2. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. low range for term hours of ”D” grades received b. *graduation honors received 8. Low income Achievers l. Socioeconomic factors a. sons of men holding college graduate degrees 2. Pre-college intellectual characteristics a. low range for college entrance psychological tests b. *low range for college entrance reading test 3. College achievement: intellectual characteristics a. middle range for term hours of ”D” grades received 8l V. Public School Teachers A. High Income Achievers l. Motivational factors a. *out of school i to h years Conclusion Large Cocporations Environment High income achievers in the large corporations occupational environment were men whose fathers were unskilled workers with eight years, or less, of formal schooling. They were extremely active in extra-curricular activities, and many of them were married before they came to college. They ranked in the highest quartile of their high school classes, but placed in the low range in their college entrance reading test. They were in the top range for grade-averages in Basic College courses and in their major study area. Their final grade- average also placed them in the top academic range. They were in the high range for term hours of ”A” grade received and were members of campus honor societies. Low income achievers in this category were sons of professional men holding graduate college degrees. They received middle range financial support from parents while they were in college. They placed in the low range for grade-average in Basic College courses. fll ler Companies Environment High income achievers in the smaller companies environment‘were sons of skilled womkers who received middle range financial support from their parents. They either belonged to social fraternities, 82 or said they would if they had another opportunity to make the decision. They were in the higher range for financial self-support in college and were out of school for a number of years before returning. They married while in college, and were extremely active in extra-curricular activities. They placed in the second quartile of their high school classes, and in the high range for both psychological and reading college entrance tests. They evaluated liberal education highly. They were in the high range for final grade-average and also for Basic College and major study grade-averages. They were in the middle range for ”A” grades received, and the low range for ”F” grades received. They received graduation honors at the close of their college careers. The low income achievers in this category were sons of white- collar workers who received high range financial support from their parents. They were in the third Quartile of their high school classes and evaluated basic College courses "about the same” as other courses. They placed in the middle range for final graderaverage. §£Jf’employment Environment The high income achievers were sons of managerial and self- employed men. They placed in the middle range on the college entrance psychological test and in the middle range, also, for the major study grade-average and term hours of ”D” grades received. However, they were in the top range for the final grade-average and for the Basic College grade-average. The low income achievers were sons of white-collar workers and non-members of social fraternities who received middle range financial support in college from their parents. They were extremely active in 83 extra-curricular activities. Many of them were married. Their grade pattern‘was inconsistent: they placed in the high range on the college entrance psychological test and in their major study area grade-average, but they were also in the high range for term hours of ”D” grades received and for length of time served on academic probation. They evaluated the Basic College courses ”less valuable” than other courses. Governmental Agencies Environment The high income achievers married while they were in college. They were in the low range for term hours of ”D” grades received, and they received honors at the time of their graduation. The low income achievers were sons of college educated men. They scored in the low range for both the college entrance psychological and reading tests and in the middle range for term hours of ”D” grades received. fubl ic Schools Environment Salary schedules of public school teachers are so tightly structured that there is insufficient range to permit differentiation according to personal characteristics. In the public schools salaries advance on a length-of-service basis rather than according to the level of performance of the teacher in the classroom. All Environments The conclusions of the study proved to be longer, more complex and less conclusive than the researcher had hoped. The conclusions indicate that within the present sample high income achievers as 84 a group are from lower socioeconomic homes, are tap grade students, more mature, when judged by age, marital status and self-support in college, and, on campus participated very actively in extra-curricular activities. 0n the other hand, the low income achievers were from higher socioeconomic homes, enjoyed a higher level of financial support from parents while in college, were largely middle range students, and did not value liberal education as highly as did the high income achievers. Distinguishing the type of graduate who might be better adapted to one, rather than another environment, proved most difficult on the basis of the particular variables tested in the study. Greatest differentiation between top achievers and the rest of the categories proved to be in the large corporations and smaller companies environ- ments. Variables used in the study are indeterminate so far as requisites of personal adaptation to the large, rather than the small organization are concerned. To the graduate with a lack-lustre college record of achievement, measured in_terms of both personal and intellectual factors, sound counsel would seem to favor less competitive enterprise, such as self-employment and public school teaching, where some of the poorer students did relatively well. Government service attracted good students, but mobility is apparently so slow that six years was an insufficient period to permit the high potential men to demonstrate their abilities and receive recognition in the form of higher earned incomes. 85 The reader will recall that the'data presented in the body of the study had more to say about relationships between personal characteristics of the sample members and their income achieving abilities in all occupational environments, than it did about the same relationships within any one environment. However, the original intent of the study was to develop a system for guiding the graduate into one, rather than another, environment. it was hoped that the graduate's personal characteristics would indicate a maximizing usage for his talents in one of the five occupational environments studied. Several difficulties were encountered. One had to do with the size and occupational distribution of the sample. Two environ- ments, self-employment and public schools, were too small. The populations of these two environments were only 23 and 30 respectively. Low numbers overall tended to cause small cells in the four or five column tables, making some sub-categories inadequate for statistical inference. Another difficulty was the salary structure under which teachers operate. Their rigid salary schedules tend to prevent recognition of high job performance, since teachers who perform well in the classroom do not receive commensurate salaries. 0n the other hand, in the case of the self-employed members, the earnings show great discrepancies within the category. The average earnings of the upper one-half of the category members are more than twice as large as those of the lowest one-quarter. One feels sure that combinations of personal characteris- tics cannot account for this great spread in salaries. More likely, Dr. Vriston's "happenstance" (see page 7) is a major factor. 86 These deficiencies in the public schools and self-employment environments reduce the original five categories to three more dependable ones: large corporations with ll8 members in the sample; smaller companies with 50; and government with 55. Fortunately, these three categories comprise 80 percent of the entire sample, so that little data would be lost if the two small environments were dropped from consideration. Within the remaining three environments, there are three groupings of personal characteristics to examine for indications of maximum compatibility on the part of the graduate to a specific environment: (I) characteristics relating to the socio- economic status of the graduate (or to his family of orientation), (2) characteristics relating to his motivational drives, (3) character- istics relating to his intellectual abilities. These will be discussed in turn. The socioeconomic status of the sample member is significantly related to his income achievement as the study has pointed out, but it is not discriminating between one occupational environment and another. in all three of the environments, graduates from families headed by poorly-educated fathers with low-status jobs, were able to earn salaries up to 30 percent higher than men from families with higher socioeconomic status. Also, men who received from their families less financial support while in college, earned up to 20 percent more than classmates who received a greater degree of financial support from home. Attitudes toward social fraternities did not discriminate. Large corporation men who were favorably disposed toward fraternities earned a little more than those who held a negative opinion. About one-half of the smaller company employees held positive views toward social fraternities. These men earned l0 percent more than the other 87 one-half who viewed them negatively. Only one-third of the government employees favored fraternities, and they earned about 3 percent less than the other two-thirds of the category. There are five independent variables to relate achievement- motlvation of the sample member while in college to his later income achievement. One of these, high participation in extra-curricular activities, was previously stated to be significantly related to income achievement when the sample as a whole was considered. Again, however, this variable did not discriminate between environments. in all three major environments, the high-range participators were also high-range income achievers. Similarly, men who contributed more to their own support while in college were the high-range income achievers in all three major environments. The remaining three variables are believed to relate to the maturity of the sample members. These variables also failed to discriminate between environments. Examination of the data showed that men married before or during the college period were the high income achievers in all major environments, and that, to some extent, the older men earned more than those who graduated from college at an earlier age, except in the case of the large corporation category. The age variable did differentiate between the large corporation environment, where apparent preference and higher rewards go to younger employees, and the other environments, where increased age is not considered detrimental. in the large corporation environment, younger men, those who were 2i or 22 years old when they graduated from college, earned 7 percent more than their older classmates. 88 Intellectual abilities of the sample members, as evidenced by their college records, comprise the core of the final fifteen variables under consideration. in the large corporation environment, the high school class quartile rank of the sample members is closely related to income achievement. The first quartile members earn more than those in the second quartile, who, in turn, earn more than the third quartile meribers. However, the low group, comprising 6 percent of the category, and ranking in the fourth quartile, earn more than their classmates, in the second and third quartiles, but not as much as those in the top quartile. Significant cell chi-square values were obtained relating income achievement to quartile rank only in the large corporation category. in the smaller companies environment, men in the second Quartile earned 25 percent more than those in the third quartile, but they also earned l4 percent more than men in the top quartile, proving only that patterns of research expectations do not always fall neatly into place. in the governmental agencies environment, quartile rank in high school class offered little evidence of utility. While only a few percentage points separated the earnings, regardless of quartile, it should be pointed out that Table 25 shows a negative correlation. College entrance psychological tests for the sample as a whole indicated significance at the l0 percent level only. The top range of scores (70th percentile) included about one-third of the group. These men were high income achievers having earned 3 percent above the group mean, while the lowest ho percent of the sample, scoring below’59, earned 3 percent below the group mean. However, an examination of Table 27 by environment yields no discernable pattern useful for prediction of future income achievement, or for guidance of the college 89 graduate. Tables 28 and 29 indicate much the same story for college entrance reading tests. in two cases, smaller companies and governmental agencies environments, the top scorers earn 5 and 2 percent respectively, above the category means, but for the large corporation employees, the lower one-half out-earns the upper one-half. All in all, college entrance psychological and reading tests fail to discriminate between high and low income achievers within the occupational environments. Of the remaining twelve variables, nine deal directly with college grades. All of these fail to discriminate between the environments. One cannot say, on the basis of grades, that a given graduate is more likely to perform at a higher level in any one occu- patlonal environment than in another. Each of the variables, again, indicates across the environmental boundaries, that high grade achievers in college become high income achievers in their business careers. In so doing, they sustain the Warner and Abegglen statement (see page 6) that ”men who achieve and advance themselves in business are the kind of men who achieve and advance themselves in school. Their ambitions drive them upward step~by~step to higher educational levels just as they push themselves upward in business.” This study was able, however, to insert a qualifying statement to this particular point: while high grade achievement in college suggests subsequent high income achieve- ment in business, it does not follow that lack of grade achievement in college is a reliable indication of subsequent lack of income achievement. Table 32, for example, shows that in the smaller companies environment, graduates who had earned less than a ”C” average earned more than those -Hho earned between ”C" and ”B” averages; and in the governmental 90 agencies environment, the below ”C” students earned about as much as the top range "8”, or better, students. This group of graduates, apparently, had greater potential than they utilized in college, qualifying them for the dubious distinction of the academic world‘s "under-achiever” label. The same pattern occurs frequently in Tables 34, 36, 38, ho, #2, and #9, where the bottom grade-achievers surpass in income achievement, graduates with a better college grade record. This fact gives rise to the curvilinear grade-income relationship discussed in Chapter V. The final three variables, dealing with intellectual character- istics of the sample members as evidenced by their college achievements, are: (l) evaluation of liberal education courses; (2) honors received and membership in honor societies; and (3) probation record. Once again, discriminations are mostly within occupational environments, rather than between them. High income achievers in the large corporations and in the smaller companies environments expressed a positive attitude toward liberal education, while in the governmental agencies environment, they indicated that liberal education courses (at Michigan State University they were given in the Basic College in i958) were less valuable than ”other” courses. it seems unlikely that this indication on the part of high income achievers employed by governmental agencies would be sustained if another sample of governmental employees were to be tested. One may be led to believe that "practical" men seeking maximum incomes might have the tendency to deprecate liberal education in general, but we hardly expect these men to choose careers in government service. 9i Hen who graduated with honors earned higher incomes in all three major categories than those who did not, as shown in Table #4. However, in the large corporation category, the graduates who belonged to campus honor societies, but whose grades did not qualify them to graduate with honors, earned even more, by 5 percent. 0n the other hand, in the governmental agencies category, the members of honor societies earned h percent less than those who did not belong to honor societies and whose grades did not permit their graduating with honors. Most likely, neither the lower earnings of the honors graduates in the large corporations environment, nor the low earnings of the honor society members in government service are directly related to the variables in question. The final variable in the grOup relating to the intellectual abilities of the graduates as evidenced by their college achievement, deals with their probation records. About one third of the graduates were on probation -- one-half of them for one or two terms, the other one-half for three or more terms. in each of the three major environments the graduates with no probation record earned only i to 3 percent more than the category mean. Conversely, the graduates who had the maximum time on probation earned only 2 to h percent less than the category mean. Direct comparison shows the maximum probationers to have been earning 4 to 5 percent less than their classmates who escaped probation altogether. The results of the investigation indicate that for the sample as a whole, higher incomes are earned by men whose parents were of low socioeconomic status, who were top grade students, who held liberal education in high esteem, participated heavily in extra-curricular 92 activities, and wh0>graduated with honors or were members of campus honorary societies. Unfortunately the independent variables tested hardly discriminated between one occupational environment and another. However, large corporations were found to favor younger men, whereas other environments did not make this distinction. Poorer students, academically, seemed to have a better chance to become high income achievers in self-employment and to earn top salaries offered by the public schools. in income achievement, poor students in all categories frequently surpassed better college grade achievers, though they did not earn as much as the top students. Certainly more research is required if the system envisioned by this study is to be made operational. New data developed from increasing numbers of tests in public schools and colleges will shed more light on personal characteristics of college graduates, and on their needs and performance abilities. Employers, too, must help develop and make available more information on the particular demands of their occupational environments if the future applicant and his career environment are to be coordinated for greater productive efficiency. APPENDIX i 9# TABLE l.--Mean salaries of college graduates six years following college graduation by type of erpioyer “a §_a l.a rgy R a n g e Category Employer Structure AE- §3 Cc Mean Large Corporations $l2,850 $9,h50 $7,260 $l0,230 Smaller Companies l3,2§0 9,067 6,860 9,200 Self-Employment i3,900 8,780 6,166 ll,300 Governmental Agencies l2,592 9,350 7.000 8.850 Public Schools 8,450 6,780 6,900 All Categories $l3,140 $9.300 $6.900 $ 9.200 afalary Range A: bSalary Range 8: CSalary Range C: $ll,000 per year and over $8,000 up to $ll,000 per year Under $8,000 per year (an .1) TABLE 2."Hedian salaries of college graduates six years following college graduation by type of employer S a l a r y R a n gge Category Employer Structure A B C Median Large Corporations $l2,h00 $9,000 $7,080 $ 9,790 Smaller Companies l2,550 9,l20 7,500 9,550 Self-Employment l3,500 8,500 6,000 l0,h30 Governmental Agencies l2,075 9,060 7,h00 8.725 Public Schools 8,450 6,850 6.900 All Categories $12,I+60 $9,000 $7,050 5 9,250 O-..- 96 TABLE 3.--0verali salary averages of college graduates six years following college graduation % of # in Median Mean Employer Structure Sample Category Salary Salary Self-Employment 8 23 $l0,h30 $ll,300 Large Corporations #2 ll8 9,790 l0,230 Smaller Companies l7 50 9,550 9.200 Governmental Agencies l9 55 8.726 8.850 Public schools 11 30 6,900 6.900 Other 3 8 All Categories lOO 2814 $ 9.250 $ 99200 t 97 ._o>o. mo. o. .co_. ooo um8. a _o\~coco n:.m n A_ov ._o>o_ mo. o. .co_. so: “mo._ u _o\~oc_o mmoo . 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