u- «I inn-“Ir“ TONAL DESIGN OF THE AMERICAN ORGAN: 1910 - 1969 Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JAMES RAYMOND SHARP 1970 LIBRARY “'1 Miclfigén State 8‘ LVN." {Qty ‘V ht, WHF“” This is to certify that the thesis entitled Tovak gays“ 0; H4 AN£WC¢AM QWQW: \°\\o - \‘Rh‘i presented by Sam, SLY.» has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ldegree mm. 1V\um_ \n lamakm WVHA Mvixk Tkeefl ow“; L liml‘vm MW Majorlgfi o ssor C 0V“ Da‘e 3‘16“7O 0-169 ABSTRACT TONAL DESIGN OF THE AMERICAN ORGAN: 1910-1969 By James Raymond Sharp Although organ design has been discussed a great deal in organ circles, little in the way of a broad historical survey has been forthcoming concern- ing the American instrument. The various changes which have come about in the past sixty years have been dealt with largely in piecemeal fashion and the observer is left with fragmented accounts of organ design in America. The purpose of this study is to give an account of the changes in tonal design as they occurred after the first decade of the twentieth century. Attention is focused on the various builders who most significantly altered the course of American tonal design, and their contributions are analyzed in re- lation to those of their contemporaries. Specifica- tions are quoted and examined in order to illustrate, insofar as possible, the basic approaches of American James Raymond Sharp organ builders. This thesis is supplementary to three public organ recitals given on July 23, 1967; June 2h, 1968; and May 6, 1969, in which the following compositions were performed: Jehan Alain, Choral Dorien; J. S. Bach, Prelude and Fugue in D Major (BWV 532), Toccata and Fugue in F Major (BWV 5&0), Dies sind die Heiligen zehn Gebot (BWV 678), and Schmucke dictho liebe Seele (BWV 65h); Dietrich Buxtehude, Magnificat primi toni; Nikolaus Bruhns, Prelude and Fugue in G Major; Jean Francois Dandrieu, Plein Jeu, Trio, and Bases de Trompette; Hugo Distler, Partita: Nun komm der i Heiden Heiland; Cesar Franck, Choral in B Minor; Girolamo Frescobaldi, Toccata quinta (Book II, 1637), Toccata per l'Elevation (Mass of the Madonna), and Canzona seconda (Book II, 1637); Paul Hindemith, Sonate III; Felix Mendelssohn, Allegretto (Sonata IV); w. A. Mozart, two Kirchensonaten (K. 2h5 and K. 328); Jan Pieter Sweelinck, Fantasia chromatica; Leo Sowerby, Toccata; and Ralph Vaughan Williams, 2212 Calfaria, Rhosymedre, and Hyfrydol. TONAL DESIGN OF THE AMERICAN ORGAN: 1910-1969 BY James Raymond Sharp A THESIS SUPPLEMENTARY TO THREE ORGAN RECITALS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1970 A C KN OWL EDGMEN T S The author is indebted to the Columbia Broadcasting Corporation for permission to use photoCOpies of a drawing and a photograph which appear in their record album, The Organ. Appre- ciation is extended to Mr. Sidney W. Boner, Howe, Indiana, for supplying a stOp list of the organ in St. John's Cathedral, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Dr. Russell Friedewald, chairman of the author's doctoral committee, merits hearty thanks for his wisdom in guiding the author through his doctoral program. The author is especially indebted to Dr. Corliss R. Arnold, the thesis advisor, for his guidance in the preparation of this thesis. His comments have been incisive and immensely helpful. Special thanks also go to the other members of the author's doctoral committee, Dr. Gomer Ll. Jones, and Dr. Theodore Johnson, for their help and support. The author is especially indebted to his wife, Beverly, without whose help this thesis would not have been completed. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGM NTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . iv INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 CHAPTER I. FUNDAMENTALS OF TONAL DESIGN IN II. III. IV. THE CLASSIC ORGAN . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Basic Principles The French Organ THE AMERICAN ORGAN OF THE EARLY TWENPIETH CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . 22 State of the Art 1925-1932: INCHOATE REFORM . . . . . . 46 Reappearance of Mixtures and Mutations THE RETURN TO CLASSIC PRINCIPLES: 1932-1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 The Background in EurOpe The German Orgelbewegung Senator Emerson Richards and G. Donald Harrison Walter Holtkamp Other Organ Builders REFINEMENTS IN TONAL DESIGN: 1950-1969 . 127 General Observations EurOpean Organs in the United States Neo-classicism in American Organ Building Conclusion BIBLIOGRAPI‘IY O 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 166 iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Organ in Michaelskerk, Zwolle, Holland . . . 7 2. Front of the Organ in Michaelskerk, Zwolle, Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 iv INTRODUCTION When one considers the philOSOphies of tonal design at work in American organ building in 1969, one is confronted with a myriad of possibilities. Differ- ing concepts are discernible,and it is possible to find builders whose sources of inspiration my be separated by as much as two hundred years. In addition, it is evident that tonal design and related problems have undergone significant and far-reaching changes since 1910. The process of change has been slow and has involved many individuals, both organists and organ builders. The facts surrounding these new tonal ideas have often been clouded because organ builders gen- erally are more concerned with carrying out their aims than in writing about them. It is the intent of this thesis to clarify the events and ideas which combined to bring about changes in the tonal design of the American organ. Particular attention is paid to those organ builders whose work was most significant. Stop lists have been selected to illustrate the various trends and changes which have occurred. Many Specifications have been studied, and the stop lists cited have been carefully chosen as representative. Stops are listed in three columns for those of narrow scale, wide scale, and reeds, respectively. A further division of narrow-scaled stops is made for strings and principals, respectively. A discussion of each dis— position is presented in order to point out its sig- nificant characteristics and relationship, where applicable, to other instruments. CHAPTER I FUNDAMENTALS OF TONAL DESIGN IN THE CLASSIC ORGAN The Basic Principles The upsurge of interest in the tonal design of organs in the United States during the past thirty-five years has been remarkable. One needs only to compare pages of professional periodicals of the years 1920 and 1960 to see this. It seems undeniably true that by far the most interest in such matters centers around the problem of a tonal design which will satisfy the demands of literature for the organ, which is diverse in many ways. It also seems reasonable to assert that the basic movement in reform of tonal design in the American organ has been, however slow-moving, a return to the fundamental principles of design epito- mized by French and German organs of the late seven- teenth and early eighteenth centuries, for it has become increasingly clear that organ building reached a very mature tonal level during that period.1 Almost all current American organ builders have in one way 1WilliamL. Sumner, The Organ (London: Macdonald and Company, 1958), p. 201. or another reassessed their own approaches to tonal design in relation to the fundamentals inherent in the old European organs of that time. In order to have a complete perspective on this movement it is necessary to formulate some ideas concerning these basic principles. The choice of French and German organs as most representative may be justified by the fact that the organs of those countries most consistently and completely exhibit the principles of design which brought the instrument to one of its highest artistic expressions. On the other hand, it is apparent that the organs of the Latin countries followed somewhat different paths during that period. This does not mean that radically different aesthetic ideas were at work in these countries. On the contrary, certain fundamentals of design which are found in the North European organs are also found, albeit at times in truncated form,in instruments of the Latin countries. Nevertheless, the organs of Spain and Italy exhibit characteristics peculiar to their own cultures which render them.less satisfactory for purposes of illustrating basic premises. Representative of the tonal design of organs built in North Germany and Holland is the instrument in the Michaelskerk, Zwolle, The Netherlands. This splendid organ, built in 1718 by Arp Schnitger and 5 his son, Franz Caspar, is certainly one of the most complete tonal designs of the period. Since it has remained relatively unaltered through the years, it affords the observer a comprehensive and accurate picture of organ building at that time. The disposi- tion of stops is as follows:2 Hoofdwerk 16' Prestant 16' Quintadena 16' Trompet 8' Octaaf 8' Roerfluit 8' Trompet h' Octaaf h' Speelfluit 8' Vox Humana 2' Prestant 2 2/3' Nasat II Ruischpijp IV Mixtuur III Cymbel Rugwerk 8' Prestant 8' Quintadena 16' Fagot h' Octaaf 8' Roerfluit 8' Schalmei 2' Superoctaaf h' Fluit IV Scherp 2 2/3 Quintfluit III Cymbel II Sesquialter Bovenpositief 8' Prestant 8' Holpijp 8' Viool di 8' Viola h' Holfluit Gamba h' Octaaf 2' Woudfluit 2 2/3' Quinta l l/2' Sifflet 2' Superoctaaf II Terzian V Scherp Borstwerk h' Prestant 8' Fluitgedekt 8' Dulciaan 2' Superoctaaf h' Roerfluit 8' Regaal IV Mixtuur 3' Spitsfluit 2' Gemshoorn l' Nachthoorn II Sesquialter 2John Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium (New York: Coleman-Ross Company, Inc., 1962), pp. 59-60. Pedaal 16' Prestant 16' Subbas 32' Fagot 8' Octaaf 8' Holpijp 16' Basuin h' Superoctaaf 2' Vlakfluit 8' Trompet VIII Mixtuur h' Trompet 2' Cornet A description of the tonal effect of this instrument depends not only on the stOps themselves but also has to do with the construction and layout of the organ. A survey of various organ cases built in the seventeenth century reveals that the placement and location of the pipes were precisely thought out and executed. Studies of representative Specifications show that there is a definite correlation between the placement of a division and its tonal relationship to the other divisions within the total design. The physical layout of the five divisions in the Zwolle organ is shown in Figure 1. It will be seen that each division, containing all the pipes playable from a given keyboard or pedalboard, is placed within its own enclosure which in turn forms a part of the total scheme (see Figure 2). The physical location of each division plays a part in the tonal scheme for, from.the standpoint of the listener, the lively "presence" of the Rugwerk gives quite a different effect from the more distant Hoofdwerk. The pedal stps are divided between the two towers which flank the main i ‘ Hoofdwerk Prestant 16’ guintadena 16' ctaaf 8’ Roerfluit 8' Sewing 4' e uit 4' giant 3' f I u roctaa 2’ (A ) . Cyfnebel 3 sterk " Ruispijp 2 stark ‘ Mixtuur 6 stark Manual S Trompet 16' 3mm t 8’ 8’ oz umana (B) }n "k restant 8’ guintadena 8’ oerfluit 8’ Octaaf 4' (C ) Fluit 4’ Quintfluit 3’ apex-mining? k s uia ter ster Rugwerk Sch‘lrp 4 stark Cymbel 3 mark ( D ) Fagot 16’ Se almei 8’ Bovenpositief II;r¢.i21tzint 8’ o Fijg’B' l r ; Vio a I Hoofdwerk Borstwerk guinta 6’ ctaaf 4’ (E ) Holfluit 4’ ‘ Boven_ ‘ Quinta 3’ Superoctaaf 2' positief wmmmmz' Simet 136' Tertiaan 2 sterl: Scherp 5 stexlt { Viool di Gamba 8' 5 Trompet 4' , Borstwerk i Fluitgedekt 8' ‘ Prestant 4' Roerfluit 4' Spitsfluit 3’ Superoctaaf 2’ Gemshoorn 2' Quintnnus IM' Nachthoorn 1' Fig. l.--Organ in Sesquialter 2 stark Mixtuur 4 sterk Dulciaan 8' Regaal 8' Pedaal Prestant 16’ Subbas 16’ Octaaf 8’ H01 ijp 8’ Supgroctaaf 4’ Vlakfluit 2’ Mixtuur 8 sterk Fagot 32’ Basuin 16’ Trompet 8’ Trompet 4’ Cornet 2' Arp en F. C. Schnitger 1718-1721 1953-1955 I). A. Flentrop, Restauratie E /| J! (\ )r' _ 11w 1_| - -—-_ o¢——. \\ \\ \\ \\ \\ ‘ \\ \\ \\\\\\\\I\\\ Michaelskerk, Zwolle, Holland ‘h‘ 1'" chaels- i 2.--Front of the organ in M Holland. Fig. kerk, Zwolle, case, with pipes sounding C, D, E, F#, G#, and A# on one side, and those sounding C#, D#, F, G, A, and B on the Opposite side. The technique of placing_ separately encased divisions in different locations was an important facet of the art, one which was taken up later by the organ reform movement in Germany and referred to as the werkgprinzip. One of the important elements of the tonal design of these organs is the basing of each division on a given Principal pitch. Above this basic pitch the Principal chorus is carried up through st0ps of higher pitches, surmounted by the mixture st0p(s) of the division. This is essential toward achieving a differentiation between divisions. Schnitger and other builders were very conscious of the need for variety of sounds and strove to impart this variety not only to the individual stops but also to the divisions as well.3 In the Zwolle organ the Hoofdwerk is based on the sixteen-foot pitch (Prestant); above this foundation stOp are the other Principal registers, the eight-foot Octaaf, the four-foot Octaaf, and a two- foot Superoctaaf. Completing the chorus are three mixtures, Ruispijp, Mixtuur, and Cymbel, each sounding at successively higher pitches. 3John Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium (New York: Coleman and Ross Company, Inc., 19627: p. 61. 10 The Rugwerk and Borstwerk are based on eight- foot and four-foot pitches, respectively, with corre- Spondingly higher pitched mixtures. Actually, the Scherps of the two divisions sound the same pitches at the lowest key, but the Borstwerk stOp has a dif- ferent breaking pattern so that it sounds generally higher than that of the Rugwerk.u The basic pitch of the Bovenpositief is eight-foot, but its Scherp sounds at a lower pitch than that of the Rugwerk.S The pedal is pitched at sixteen-foot pitch (Prestant), with the chorus con- tinued through a Mixtuur of eight ranks. Other similar instruments of this period often had pedal divisions pitched one octave below the Hoofdwerk, but the Zwolle organ duplicates the foundation pitch of the Hoofdwerk on the pedal. It has been suggested that the absence of a thirty-two-foot Prestant in the pedal may have been due to the lack of adequate height in the organ gallery.6 uFesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium, p. 61. 5This writer can attest to the fact of the interchangeability of Mixture terminology as used by Schnitger and others, having encountered numerous instances while inspecting many old EurOpean organs. 6Fesperman, The Oggan as Musical Medium, p. 61. 11 It is important to note that the tone quality of the pipes also played a role in the differentiation of divisions. The scaling and voicing of two identically pitched stops could produce quite different results, a technique which the seventeenth-century organ builders utilized to great advantage. Complementing the narrow-scaled principal choruses were families of wide-scaled stops (flutes) sounding at various pitches from sixteen-foot through one-foot. Since these flute stops were generally of the same dynamic level as the principals, they could be used not only alone or in various combinations of flute stops but also with the principal stops. Almost all stops would blend with one another, allowing maximum possibilities for different qualities of sound in combining the various registers. The variety of construction of the flute stops was considerable, giving a wide range of tone qualities in that group of stops. As with Principal stops, flute registers could also vary in scaling and voicing, further increasing the tonal possibilities of the flutes. In addition, the use of different types of flutes, e. g. Roerfluit 8' and Speelfluit h' on the Hoofdwerk and Holpijp 8' and Holfluit h' on the Bovenpositief, served to reinforce the practice of differentiating between divisions. 12 A few compound st0ps of flute quality were incorporated in the design, the most common being the Sesquialter (sic) and the Terzian. Although they are similar in quality, the Sesquialter sounded the twelfth and seventeenth, while the Terzian often was pitched higher, at the seventeenth and nineteenth.7 The remaining st0ps, the reeds, also were constructed in a variety of ways, which afforded the builder a wide assortment of sounds. Furthermore, reeds could be made in fractional lengths, a factor which affected their tone quality considerably. Whereas a Principal pipe of eight-foot length would sound but a single pitch, reeds of eight-, four-, two-foot, and even shorter lengths could be made, all of which would sound the same eight-foot pitch. This would enable the builder to place reeds of a suitable tone-quality within each division. As an example, the Principal pitch of the Hoofdwerk in the Zwolle organ is at sixteen-foot and the lowest sounding reed in that division is also at sixteen- foot pitch. Since the pitch of the Rugwerk is at eight-foot, the builder used a fractional length reed, the Fagot 16', in order that the more incisive 7Jack C. Goode, Pipe ngan Ragistration (New 'York: Abingdon Press, l96h7, pp. 203-20h. 13 sound of that stOp would blend better with the eight- foot principal chorus. In a similar manner the Borst- werk was pitched at the four-foot level and included a fractional length reed at eight-foot pitch and a one-eighth length Regal 8'. Other factors were at work in this approach to organ sound. The voicing of the stops, for example, was of critical importance. Nicking, the cutting of notches in the metal portions of the windway, was avoided. This enabled the builder to gain the maximum harmonic deveIOpment from each pipe, giving a certain brightness and clarity to the sound. In addition, each pipe spoke with transient sounds at the initial instant of speech. This gave the sound life and vitality and contributed to rhythmic clarity.8 Voicing techniques produced sounds which were full and yet mild in character. Harmonic richness was always present, but there was not a trace of harshness. As a result, it was possible to combine stops on these old organs in almost endless ways and also possible to play for long periods of time without tiring the ear. That the same fundamentals of design were applied 8JosephBlanton, The Organ in Church Design (Albany, Texas: Venture Press, 1957), pp. 57-58. to small organs as well is shown in the disposition of the organ at the parish church in Ludingworth, Germany.9 Hauptwerk 8' Prinzipal 16' Quintade 8' Trompete h' Oktav 8' Rohrprte 2' Oktav N' Rohrflote III Rauschquinte 3' Nasat VI Mixtur III Zimbel Rfick-positiv h' Prinzipal 8' Gedakt 8' Vox . humana , 2' Oktav h' Spielrote IV-VI Mixtur 2' Waldflbte 1 1/3' Sifflbte II Sesquialtera II Tertian OberwerklO 2' Oktav h' Gedackt 8' Regal IV Mixtur 3' Hohlquinte Pedal 8' Prinzipal 16' Gedackt 16' Posaune h' Oktav 2' Nachthorn 8' Trompete III Rauschquinte 2' Kornett V-VI Mixtur In this instrument the differentiation of pitches between divisions is carried out consistently, with 9Gotthold Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposition (Berlin: Verlag Merseburger, 1966), I, 325. 10In 1959 the writer inspected the Ludingworth organ and had a lengthy conversation with the organist. The organ stood as originally constructed and had a Brustwerk, not Oberwerk, as quoted in Frotscher. 15 the Hauptwerk grounded at eight-foot, the Ruckpositiv at four-foot, and the Oberwerk at two-foot, Here also the pedal is pitched at the same level as the Haupt- werk. Corresponding to the manual pitches are the basic mixtures, Hauptwerk Mixtur at 1 1/3', Ruckpositiv Mixtur at 2/3', and Oberwerk Mixtur at l/h'. Reeds are placed in the divisions as usual, with a plentiful assortment in the pedal. Flute stops are distributed at various pitches on all divisions, complementing the Principal stops. From the design of this smaller instrument it is clear that the fundamental approach is identical to that of the Zwolle organ. The French Organ Compared to the German organ of the period Hie French instrument is at once both similar and different. Numerous important organs had been built in France during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a fact attested to by the survival of several fine cases. These organs laid the groundwork for the expansion of resources which characterize the instrument of the French Classic period. One of the most exhaustive treatises dealing with the French organ, its construction and tonal resources, dates from this period: Dom Bédos de Celles, L'Art du Factuer d'Orgues, published in Paris in 1766 and 1778. The work describes the art of French l6 organ building, giving cOpious information on matters such as the construction of the instrument, descrip- tions of pipe-work, principles of tonal design, as well as suggestions for combining the st0ps.ll Typical of French organ building during this period is the instrument of St. Louis des Invalides, Paris, built in 1679 by Alexandre Thierry. The disposition of stops is as follows: Grand Orgue 16' Montre 16' Bourdon 8' Trompette 8' Montre 8' Bourdon 8' Vox Humaine h' Prestant h' Flfite h' Clarion 2' Doublette 3 1/5' Grosse tierce V Fourni- 2 2/3' Nasard ture 1 3/5' Tierce V Cimbale (sic) 2' Quarte de nasard V Grand Cornet Positif 8' Montre 8' Bourdon 8' Cromhorne hr Prestant at Flfite 8' Petite Vox 2' Doublette 2 2/3' Nasard Humaine IV Fourni- 1 3/5' Tierce ture 1 1/3' Larigot III Cimbale Recit V Cornet 8' Petite Trompette ll . . . Gustave Reese, Fourscore Cla831cs of MuS1c Literature (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1957), ppo 75-76. 12Felix Raugel, Les Grandes Orgues des Eglises de Paris et du Departement de la Seine (Paris: Librairie Fischbacher, 1927), p. 57. l7 / Echo III Cimbale 8' Bourdon 8' Cromhorne V Cornet Pedales 8' Flfites 8' Trompette In essence, the French instrument parallels the German approach to tonal design. One of the basic tenets, the differentiation of pitch between divisions, is carried out in the two main divisions of the French organ, the Grand Orgue and Positif, which are pitched at sixteen-foot and eight-foot respectively. Each division contains Principals from foundation pitch through one or two mixtures, designated Fourniture and Cimbale. The scaling of these stops was made somewhat smaller for the Positif than for the Grand Orgue. Appropriately, the French builders spared little expense in the making of organs. Expensive materials were put into the pipework throughout the organ. Almost all wood stops were made of oak and the metal registers were made of tin, including not only those in the case prospect, but also those inside the case.13 One point of divergence from.the typical German organ is in the expanded use of mutation stops. l3Hans Klotz, Das Buch von der Orgel (Kassel: Barenreiter Verlag, 1955): P. 129. 18 In the St. Louis des Invalides organ there are no less than three such st0ps on the Grand Orgue and three on the Positif. These mutations, in addition to the five-rank Cornet (8', h', 2 2/3', 2', 1 3/5') on the Grand Orgue, give a total of eight off-unison ranks between the two divisions, a larger number than was usually found in the German instrument. Of further interest are the reed st0ps which were made in a slightly different way from those of the German style. Shallot Openings were wide and parallel, giving an intensely rich tone with strong upper partials.1LL In this reSpect the French builders must have excelled, for their reeds were instantaneous in speech and possessed a tone which was light but intense, giving the full ensemble a sense of great power. On the St. Louis des Invalides organ there are two chorus reeds on the Grand Orgue, a Trompette 8' and Clarion h'. In all there are seven reeds distributed over the four manuals. It should be pointed out that Dom Bgdos in his L'Art du Facteur d'Orgues gave several suggestions for drawing up the diSposition of st0ps for an organ; in each case, he called for a substantial 15 number of reeds. luRobert Noehren, "Poitiers Cathedral has Famous Cliquot Organ Built in 1791," The Diapason (June, l9h9), pp. 28-29. 15Dom Bgdos de Celles, "L'Art du Facteur d'Orgues," translated by William L. Sumner, Organ Institute Qparterly, VII, No. 3, pp. 29-31. 19 Another major difference between French and German approaches is in the make-up of the third and fourth manual divisions. In the German scheme these divisions are given their own completeness and are kept in a logical pitch relationship to other manuals. The French organ exhibits a contrasting concept. For the most part these manuals consist of a few solo st0ps, usually sounding from c' upwards. In the St. Louis instrument the Recit consists of a Cornet stop of five ranks and a Trompette 8', while the Echo includes a Bourdon 8', Cromhorne 8', Cornet of five ranks, and a Cimbale of three ranks. Both manuals 3 commence at c' and extend to c , indicating they were intended primarily for treble melodic lines. Perhaps the most striking difference lies in the design of the pedal, for while the German instrument displays a complete division, that of the French organ is usually marked by a paucity of st0ps. The St. Louis instrument has only two registers in the pedal, and other French organs of the period show similar pedal design.16 Although numerous French organs utilized separate cases for the Grand Orgue and Positif, the 16These st0ps were intended for use in playing a bass part or a cantus firmus. “O ,2 1.. idea of the werkzprinzip approach, so typical of the German organ, was not carried through the entire organ. The Rgcit and Echo divisions were placed inside the case of the Grand Orgue and, in many cases, the pipes of the Echo were located below the chestwork of the Grand Orgue giving a rather muffled and distant sound.17 It is, however, the similarities of the French and German organs which are most basic to the consideration of the reform of American tonal design. These elements, the differentiation of pitch between divisions, the building-up of complete choruses, and the division of st0ps into wide and narrow flues and reeds, are the fundamentals which provided the point of departure for American organ builders. Of equal importance is the general quality of voicing, characterized by clarity and assertiveness. From a secondary standpoint, individual characteristics of these two national styles played a significant role. In this particular connection, the French practice of including numerous mutations, especially the tierces, and the voicing of reed steps 17E. Harold Geer, Organ Registration in Theory and Practice (Glen Rock, New Jersey: 3? Fischer and BPO., 1957), p0 21.1.5. C...L to give a brilliant and assertive tone must be mentioned. The German werk—prinzip and the evident insistence on a wide tonal range in every division, including the pedal, are also of great significance. CHAPTER II THE AMERICAN ORGAN OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY State of the Art In the two hundred years following the end of the seventeenth century numerous changes had been brought about in the organ. The realm of tonal design was no less affected, and the changes in concepts, new ideas, and techniques which took place during the nineteenth century profoundly altered the tonal structure of the organ. The magnitude of these changes is shown in a comparison of the Specifications of the organ in the parish church at Himmelpforten, Germany, built in 162A by Hans Scherer,1 and the instrument for the Evangelical Lutheran Friedens Church, Kenosha, Wisconsin, built by Weickhardt in 1910.2 Himmelpforten Kenosha Hauptwerk Great 8' Prinzipal 8' Open Diapason 8' Rohrflbte 8' Melodia h' Oktave 8' Gambe h' Spielflbte 8' Dulciana 2' Oktave VI Mixtur 8' Trompete 1This instrument was inspected by the writer in 1959. The st0ps and voicing were largely intact from the original construction. 2The Diapason (January, 1910). 22 Brustwerk Swell 8' Holzgedackt 8' Open Diapason h' Spitzflote 8' StOpped Diapason 2' Prinzipal 8' Salicional 2' Waldflote h' Flute Harmonic 1 1/3' Nasat 8' Cornopean II Terzian 8' Oboe III Scharff 8' Regal Pedal Pedal 16' Subbass 16' Open Diapason 8' Prinzipal 16' Bourdon h' Oktave 8' Octave (16') 2' Nachthorn 8' Flute (16') VI Mixtur 16' Posaune 2' Kornett The difference in tonal design between the two instruments is striking, particularly in regard to the distribution of pitches. The Himmelpforten organ shows the customary German reliance on complete choruses in all divisions and differentiation of pitch between manuals, but any semblance of chorus is absent from the Kenosha instrument. Indeed, there is an obvious pre- ponderance of eight-foot and four-foot stops on both manual divisions, while the pedal shows only two inde- pendent registers. The Himmelpforten organ speaks with great precision of speech, clarity, and brilliance, but the design of the Weickhardt instrument reveals a certain thickness and heaviness of tone. The observer may ask what had brought about changes of so radical a character. The process of change had taken different paths in the various EurOpean countries, as well as in America. Many foreign influences were felt in varying degrees in the United States, although the gradual emergence of English ideas as the primary influence had the greatest effect. It is possible to see the gradual dissolution of the old werk-prinzip approach through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. More and more eight-foot registers were introduced to the general design; at the same time mutations were less numerous and mixtures were composed of fewer and fewer ranks.3 The emphasis on clarity gradually gave way to a desire for dynamic variation and greater variety of unison tone. The conceptions of the Romantic era brought about profound changes in the organ in order to make the instrument capable of the artistic demands of the time. The Barker Lever freed the builder from the restriction of lower wind pressure. This in turn gave builders the ability to produce stops of great power, which demanded more wind than had previously been possible. In addition, the number of stops on any given division was no longer limited; organists began to have at their control any number of st0ps. Along with this came numerous devices for changing registers such as free combinations, collectives (combination pistons), and 3Poul-Gerhard Andersen, Organ Building and Design, translated by Joanne Curnutt (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1969), pp. 2h7-252. 25 crescendo pedals. The result was larger, louder organs, more stops and more "gadgets” for the control of such instruments. Periodicals often referred to large new organs as monsters.LL The attempt to make the organ a one-man orchestra was in full sway. In the United States the influence of English builders had always been strong. Many of the earliest organs in this country had been imported from England, and those built in the United States were, in many 5 cases, by men of English tutelage. One of the most notable builders, David Tannenberg, created many fine instruments during his life's work in this country, a few of which are still preserved. His organs show some influence of the past glories of the instrument, as a glance at some of the specifications will reveal.6 Unfortunately, the work of these early American builders was lost in the overwhelming surge of nineteenth century ideas, and the instrument was swept along the same paths as in the European countries. By the end of the century the concept of the organ as u"Large Monster for City Hall, Portland, Oregon," The Diapason (April, 1911). 5Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium, pp. 5-6. 6William H. Armstrong, Organs for America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1967). pp. 83-112. a chorus instrument was gone. Organ tone became thick and dark, and upper-work appeared with less frequency. Scales grew larger, and heavier wind pressures were in vogue. Clifford Demarest expressed the view of many organists in an article in The Diapason which included a st0p list of what he considered to be The stOp list is given below: an ideal organ. 7 Great 8' Gamba 8' Flute 8' Trumpet 8' Gemshorn 16' Open Diapason h' Flute 8' Open Diapason Harmonique 8' Open Diapason h' Octave 2' Fifteenth Swell 8' Aeoline 16' Bourdon 8' Oboe 8' Salicional 8' Hohlflote 8' CornOpean 8' Vox celeste 8' Gedeckt 8' Vox 8' Viole h' Flauto Humana d'orchestra Traverso h' Violino 2' Flautino 8' Open Diapason III Dulciana Mixture Choir 16' Dulciana 8' Concert 8' Clarinet 8' Dulciana Flute (16') 8' Quintaden 8' Muted Viol h' Chimney Flute 2' Piccolo 8' Open Diapason 7Clifford Demarest, "Tone Colors in the Organ," The Diapason (September, l9lh), pp- 1-5. 27 Pedal 16' Dulciana 16' Bourdon 16' Trombone (Ch.) 16' Gedeckt 16' Violone (Sw.) 8' Flute 16' Open Diapason 16' Open Diapason (Gt.) 8' Octave Demarest wrote that the diapasons should be ". . . full, dignified, and pervading." Claiming that mixtures were merely shrieking devices, he lauded American builders' efforts to eliminate them in lieu of ". . . useful, artistic foundation tone." He asserted that mixtures were used as a means of cutting corners on expenses and lamented the fact that peOple could not seem to be able to tell the difference between noise and pure tone. The solitary compound stOp in Demarest's disposition was a soft (according to his own suggestion) Dulciana Mixture, which did not break throughout its entire compass. The lack of chorus is apparent in this instrument. Indeed, the orchestral concept is most evident with the emphasis placed on the variety of st0ps of differing tone quality. Strings appear on all manuals; flutes and diapasons are scattered about the design, generally at eight-foot and four-foot pitches. 8Ibid. 28 Conspicuously absent are mutations, an obvious victim of the orchestral approach. The concept was clear--tone color was thought of in terms of orchestral counterparts. Tone qualities were created by various types of stops sounding at unison or octave pitches. The idea of producing sounds through use of the harmonic-corroborating stOps (mutations) was rejected. It is of interest to note the presence of two eight-foot diapasons on the Great. This practice, which gives massiveness to the overall sound, was rather consistently carried out by other American builders. The Austin organ, built in 1918 for the Saint James Church, Barrington, Massachusetts, is illustrative of the fact that most builders concurred with the pre- mises set forth by Demarest. The disposition is as follows:9 Great 16' Double Open 8' Flauto 8' Harmonic Diapason Major Tuba 8' Horn Diapason 8' Gemshorn 8' Principal h' Waldflute Diapason h' Octave 9"Austin Builds for St. James Church." The Diapason (November, 1918), p. 16. 29 Swell 8' Viole 16' Bourdon 8' Oboe d'orchestra 8' Rohrflute 8' Cornopean 8' Viole Celeste h' Flauto 8' Echo Salicional traverso 2' Flageolet 8' Open Diapason Choir 8' Dulciana 8' Concert 8' Clarinet Flute 8' Geigen Princi- 8' Flute Celeste pal h' Flute d'amour Echo 8' Viole 16' Lieblich 8' Horn Aetheria Gedackt 8' Vox Humana 8' Vox Angelica 8' Gedackt (16') h' Fern Flute 8' English Diapason Pedal 16' Violone 32' Resultant 8' Tuba 16' Bourdon Profunda (Gt.) 16' Open Diapason 16' Lieblich Gedackt (Ec.) 8' Gross Flute 8' Flute Dulce (Ec.) The pervasiveness of eight-foot tone is clearly evident in the design of this instrument. From a total of thirty-two manual stops only one sounds above four-foot pitch, the Flageolet on the Swell. Similarly, there are no stops above eight-foot pitch in the pedal. There is an abundance of orchestral stops with no apparent relationship one to the other. 30 Not a single mutation is present; neither are there any mixtures. With such a tonal design it is apparent that the manuals have no functional tonal relationship to each other. The Barrington organ illustrates another facet in the tonal design common to most instruments of the period--that of having a Choir division designed for suitable accompaniment of the other divisions. Noel Bonavia-Hunt has pointed out the process by which the third manual developed into an assortment of quiet st0ps suitable for that purpose. Further- more, in many organs a group of highly colorful st0ps was included to make the Choir a collection of both soft, accompanying voices and color registers for solo use.10 The Choir manual of the St. James Church organ with five st0ps at eight-foot pitch is typical. Many volumes of music were printed during the period which called for extensive solo use of such st0ps. This instrument amply demonstrates its suitability for such tasks. Further evidence of orchestral thinking is seen in the various books dealing with the problems loNoel Bonavia-Hunt, The Church Organ (London: William Reeves, 1967), pp. 91-92. 31 Of transcribing orchestral music for the organ. Hubert F. Ellington devotes a significant portion Of his book to a description of the principles govern- ing techniques of transcribing. Going into elaborate detail he includes numerous works and discusses the apprOpriate stOpS to use in order to achieve an artistic result.ll Obviously an organ full Of Oboes, French horns, Strings, and Flutes would be most suitable. In The Making of Sound in the Opgan and in the Orchestra, Hermann Smith examines the physical factors at work in the production of sound from organ pipes and attempts to draw parallels with various orchestral instru- ments.12 Numerous other books and articles provide evi— dence that orchestral thinking was widespread among American builders. This should not be surprising, eSpecially when the typical organ recital Of the day would devote a portion Of the program to orchestral transcriptions. Theatrical effects were common and recitalists often produced dramatic improvisations such 11Hubert F. Ellington, The Art of Transcribing for the Organ (New York: H. W. Gray Company, 1922), pp. 38-112. 12Hermann Smith, The liakinLOf Sound in the Organ and in the Orchestra (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 19111: Passim, chap. iii. 32 13 as The Thunder Storm, complete with lighting effects. One further consideration of significance is the fact that the organ as an instrument was in greatest use in connection with the church. Sunday after Sunday the organ was used as a liturgical instrument, playing hymns, providing interludes, and accompanying anthems. Use Of the instrument for insipid interludes and back- ground music for prayers hardly inspired builders and organists to design the type Of organ that embodied the ideals of chorus, clarity, and brilliance. On the contrary, what served their purposes most admirably was the type of organ based on an orchestral approach. The practice Of enclosing divisions within a swell box was also in full sway. This box enclosed the stOpS on all sides save one, which was fitted with louvers that were controlled by the organist at the console. Since its invention in the early eighteenth century it had been applied to one or more divisions. AS the Romantic era progressed, the swell box also gained favor. Some organists advocated its application to every division in the organ. George Ashdown Audsley, the noted British organ eXpert, was one such advocate, writing: Whilst we do not eXpect a storm of Opposition to the proposal to extend the application Of the 13Barbara Owen, "American Organ Music and Playing, from 1700," Organ Institute Quarterly, X, 33 swell box to such divisions of the organ as the Choir and Solo, we are prepared to meet with a whirlwind of objectionS--unreasonable and illogical for the most part--against the proposal we have to urge to apply the swell box to both Great and Pedal organs. Emphasizing his statement, he continued: There is no more reason in making any division Of the organ unexpressive and invariably uniform in the strength of its tones, than there would be in destining any division of the Grand Orchestra to deliver its sounds at one unvaryipg strength and without any expression whatever. The justification of certain aspects of organ sound is again made on the basis of the orchestra. An examination of dispositions of the period indicates, however, that not even experts such as Audsley were able to convince the majority of organ builders, for the most common practice was to enclose the Swell, Choir, and Solo, while leaving the Great and most of the Pedal un- enclosed. Organ builders, freed from past limitations, devoted their attention wholeheartedly to new mechanical devices. Various key actions and windchest designs were invented or improved. Couplers, sub-couplers, and super-couplers, which made possible the coupling of an entire manual to other manuals and to the pedal, were widely used. ElectrO-pneumatic action enabled builders _ luGeorge Ashdown Audsley, The Art of Organ Building (2 vols.; New York: Dodd, Mead, and Campany, , I. 11.8-11.9- 3A to place the organ in unusual locations and at great distances from the performer. Joseph Blanton quotes from a printed program for the dedication of an organ in a large New York City church: The console rests on a large elevator and it can be elevated or lowered, as desired. Despite the large number of electric wires that connect the console with the different divisions of the organ system, it is possible, by means Of a flexible cable thirty feet long, to roll the console out on the floor of the Chancel so as to face the congregation when concerts are being given or other events make this desirable. The term “organ“ is a misnomer, as such wonderful and unique tonal effects can be secured that it is more like a great modern orchestra, and perhaps the most marvelous thing is that all six Of these organs-~even the remote Echo organ-- is [sic] under the control Of a single performer. This mechanism seems positively human, actuated by unseen power, far away from the organist, yet absolutely under his control, it interprets his touch and feeling. Electric cables run in various directions and multiple switches, motors, etc., are used, and while we are looking at this intricate mechanism, the organist begins to play and this inanimate matter is endowed with life and motion; valves open and close, pneumatic engines expand and contract, all in immediate response to the lightest touch. An instrument so modern and so complicated demands the employment of an artist of exceptional ability. No ordinary player would be capable of holding it within bounds and compel it to Obey his will, to thrill either Ry its soft cadences or by its elemental grandeur. 15Joseph Blanton, The Organ in Church Design (Albany, Texas: Venture Press, 1957), pp. 5&455. 35 Similar articles and comments on new organs indicate a wide-spread preoccupation with such mechanical matters.16 Builders were constantly striving toward meaningful new devices. W. L. Sumner gives a list Of inventions by American organ builders:l7 J. T. Austin A universal chest to provide constant wind pressure Robert Hope-Jones Sforzando mechanism to cause the swell shutters to close tightly as soon as a note or chord was begun E. M. Skinner A "whiffle-tree" action box to operate the swell shutters W. E. Haskell A means of producing an open flue tone from pipes of half-length, using a smaller diameter tube, closed at one end, in the pipe A device to produce Saxophone, Tuba, and Clarinet tone from flue stops These experiments were not confined to mechanical matters, as the orchestral registers indicate. Builders 16While touring in England in 1959 the writer was shown several instruments by Henry Willis IV, one of which had an attachment for a device similar in size and shape to a rectangular cigarette holder. By squeezing the device between his teeth the organist could control the swell shutters. 17‘William L. Sumner, The Organ (London: MacDonald and Company, 1958), pp. 195L196. 36 sought new tone colors and applied new techniques to scaling and voicing which had not been used in the past. One such stop common to many organs was the Diapason Phonon. This register was a large-scale Specimen of great volume. It most commonly appeared on the Great at eight-foot pitch. A roll Of metal or leather surrounded the upper lip of the pipe, which resulted in a dull, round tone Of little harmonic development. It served as a solo stop which provided the maximum power at the fundamental harmonic.18 Other stops of a similar nature were usually ‘present in ample number. This is Shown by the specifi- cation Of the E. M. Skinner organ built in 191H for the ZFinney Memorial Chapel, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio:19 Great 16' Diapason 16' Bourdon 16' Ophicleide 8' Diapason 8' Philomela 8' Tromba 8' Second 8' Claribel h' Clarion Diapason Flute h' Octave h' Flute 2 2/3' Twelfth 2' Fifteenth III Mixture Swell 16' Dulciana 16' Bourdon“ 16' Contra 8' Salicional 8' Spitzflote Posaune 8' Voix Celeste 8' Clarabella 8' Posaune 8' Aeoline 8' Erzaehler (16') 18 Ibid., p. 287. 19The Diapason (July, l9lh), p. 1. 37 8' Unda Maris 8' Gedeckt 8' Fluegel h' Flute Horn 8' Open 2' Flautina 8' Vox Humana Diapason h' Clarion h' Octave Choir 16' Gamba 8' Concert 16' Fagotto Flute 8' Clarinet 8' Geigen 8' Kleine 8' Orchestral Principal Erzaehler Oboe 8' Quintadena h' Flauto Traverso 2' Piccolo Solo 8' Gamba 8' Philomela 16' Fagotto 8' Gamba 8' Harmonic (Ch.) Celeste Flute 8' Clarinet (Ch.) 8' Orchestral Oboe (Ch.) 8' French Horn 8' Tuba Mirabilis Echo 8' Cor de 8' Vox Humana Nuit Pedal 16' Violone 16' Bourdon 32' Bombarde 16' Gamba 16' Echo 16' Posaune 8' Cello Lieblich lg' Ophicleide . (Echo) ' Tromba 32' Diapason 10 2/3' Quint h' Clarion 16' First Dia ason 8' Gedeckt p 8' Still 16' Second Gedeckt Diapason 8' Octave This general design was common for the period, with a heavy preponderance of eight-foot and four-foot 38 tone. As was usually the case with Skinner's organs, the instrument displays quite a large variety Of stops of string and reed quality inspired by the orchestra. Despite the fact that there was very little in the way of upper work, the Great did contain a diapason chorus, albeit diminutive, including a three-rank mixture. The tonal structure Of the other divisions, however, shows a lack of chorus ensemble. They are collections of colorful but, for the most part, unrelated foundation stops. It seems unthinkable that in an organ Of seventy- One stops the builder saw no need to include any pedal stop sounding above eight-foot pitch. Of special interest is the relatively large number of color stops, many of which were invented and used for the first time in the early twentieth century. Since this type of register occupied such an important place in the tonal scheme, a description of a few of the more interesting and unusual ones is appropriate. This will afford a deeper insight into the thinking concerning tone quality in the organ at that time. The Great organ contained several color stops, one of which was the Erzaehler. E. M. Skinner claimed to have been the inventor of the register and several dictionaries of organ stops support his claim. The stop itself, commonly found at eight-foot and four-foot 39 pitches, is of conical pipes, somewhat more pointed at the top than the more traditional Spitzflote. Its purpose was to integrate the tones of both bright and dull stOps and of high and low-pitched stOps. The register was voiced so that the lower harmonics were full and complete and gave cohesion of tone. Stevens Irwin states that the Erzaehler points up the pitches of the other stOps, without changing their character.20 Another flue stop which builders attempted to use as the organ counterpart Of an orchestral prototype was the Concert Flute. This stOp, usually made Of metal, is an Open harmonic pipe (twice the normal length and pierced with a hole midway along the tube). It is characterized by a sound which is somewhat louder 21 and smoother than its orchestral relative. A similar register, but of much larger scale, is the Clarabella. This stop gives a thicker tone and appears most Often on the Great organ, as in the Oberlin College instrument. Orchestral instruments of the wind section seemed to have been a particularly strong source of sounds for the organ builders Of the period, as the ‘1arge number of such stops witnesses. In the Finney 20Stevens Irwin, Dictionary of Pipe Organ StOps (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1962), p. 90. 21The Skinner Organ (New York: Fay-Leone- :Faurote), p. 17. hO Chapel organ there are several stops of this type such as the Fluegel Horn, Clarinet, Orchestral Oboe, and the French horn. Skinner is reputed to have developed a type of French horn stop which was remark- ably like its orchestral counterpart, even producing the characteristic "bubble" inherent in that instrument's attack. Outwardly the pipe resembled a trumpet sur- mounted by a pyrémidal cap which was soldered on.22 Another very common example was the Clarinet, a register found in many organs, usually on the Choir. It resembled the Baroque Dulzian in appearance and gave a limpid, round, and full-toned effect similar to the orchestral instrument. The tonal pallete of the typical Clarinet is characterized by a strong fundamental, weak second harmonic, a strong third, and a variety of higher-pitched harmonics. Perhaps this stop comes closest toward matching the sound of the orchestral model.23 The list of registers in the Finney Chapel organ and the cursory description of some of the more exotic ones has served to underscore the fact that interest in orchestral imitations had taken a position of higher priority than choruses and pure organ tone with the 22George Ashdown Audsley, The Organ of the Twentieth Century (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company, 19197, p. H66. 23Irwin, Dictionary of Pipe Organ Stops, p. N8. (D H) hi builders of the period. The ingenuity of those organ craftsmen cannot be denied. Their many inventions were quite successful from the standpoint Of mechanical matters. It seems clear, however, that the apparent gains were made at the expense of more fundamental considerations, those Of full choruses, relationship Of stops, blend, clarity, and brilliance. It was unfortunate for the organ as an instrument that these basic ideas had gradually been forgotten and lost in the wave Of technical innovations and new techniques. Perhaps the one individual who had the most influential (ruinous?) effect on organ building in the early part of the twentieth century was an Englishman who immigrated to the United States, Robert HOpe-Jones.21+ His invention, the unit chest, wrought terrible damage to the tonal design of the organ and helped make possible the ultimate degradation of the instrument, the cinema organ.2S Stated simply the unit chest allows any given stOp to be played at any 2u’HOpe-JOnes invented the Diaphone Which was used by the Canadian Govertment for its fog signal stations. He later modified the device for inclusion in his organs. 25Sumner, The Organ, pp. 230-231. N2 number of pitches by means of a multiplicity of electric wirings. For example, a Bourdon with ninety-seven pipes is playable at eight-foot, four- foot, two—foot and one-foot pitches. Wired in additional ways the stop is also playable on any manual or pedal, a technique which is called duplexing. Since different pitches call for differing scales, however, this technique produces sounds which are not completely satisfactory and represent a compromise in the interest of saving space and money. Unification, Often referred to as augmentation, was increasingly applied to organs. Instruments actually possessed far fewer pipes than one would expect from the large number of stop knobs on the console. The pedal division suffered most from.this practice, since many builders reduced the number of registers drastically.26 Few organists complained about this new technique, which appeared to increase the tonal possibilities of the instrument. Ferdinand Dunkley described the unit chest and claimed that it was superior in both tone quality and in possibilities to the older style, which he viewed as wasteful. He was so convinced of its 26Ernest M. Skinner, The Modern Organ (New York: H. W. Gray Company, 1917), pp. lh-18. AB validity that he proclaimed it the " . . . organ of the future.”27 G. R. Peters stated that the unification technique was valid because of the tremendous reduction in costs it made possible. Furthermore, he asserted it was a great help in solving the all-tOO-frequent problem of lack of space. He likened unification to H I . . . individual couplers,‘ and claimed that since certain stops sounded so much alike, they could success- fully be dispensed with in favor of the unit chest.28 Illustrative of the unification approach is the Hillgreen-Lane organ built in 1923 for Trinity Com- munity Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan:29 Great 8' Dulciana 8' Doppel- 8' Tuba h' Dulcet Flute Mirabilis (8') h' Harmonic Flute 16' Open 2' Piccolo Diapason 8' Open Diapason h' Octave 2 2/3' Quint Swell 8' Viole 16' Bourdon 8' Orchestral d'orchestra 8' Gedeckt Oboe 8' Viole (16') 8' Vox Humana Celeste 8' Quintadena 27Ferdinand Dunkley, "Organist Praises Unit Plan," The Diapason (January, 1910). 28G. R. Peters, "The Duplex Organ," The Musician, XXIII (November, 1918), 26. 29The Diapason (July, 1923), p. 15. Au 8' Aeoline h' Flfite a cheminée 8' Open Diapason Choir 8' Dolce 8' Concert 8' Clarinet Flute 8' Geigen H' Flute Principal d'amour 2' Flautino Pedal 16' Violin 32' Resultant (Sw.) 16' Doppel- 8' Violin flute (Gt.) (Sw.) 16' Lieblich 8' Dolce Gedeckt (Sw.) (Ch.) 8' Grosse Flute (Gt.) 16' Open Diapason 8' Octave (16') Of a total of twenty-five independent stops the pedal division commands only one. Duplexing has allowed the borrowing of stops from the Great, Swell, and Choir manuals. Unification is even applied to the Great with the Dulciana sounding at both eight-foot and four-foot pitch. Recalling the magnificently endowed pedal divisions of the seventeenth-century German instruments, the Trinity Church organ seems a pitiable affair. The most extensive application of unification and duplexing was in small organs such as practice organs. Large or small, however, the extent to which it reduced the number of independent stops and compro- mised the tonal integrity of the organ reached alarming AS proportions with many builders. Perhaps the ultimate application of this technique was in the cinema organ which flourished during the early part of the century. StOps Of all qualities were made playable at an almost endless succession of pitches and were duplexed around the manuals with little or no restraint. Joseph Blanton wrote of such organs: The mighty organs of the motion-theaters had a ruinous effect on the already decadent American church organ. The movie-goer became enamoured of the wails of the Vox humanas and the gushiness of the tremulous Celestes and insisted on hearing the same wierd sounds in the church Service; need- less to say, most builders obliged.3 The integrity of the organ could sink no lower. Tonal design had so degenerated that the principles which had brought about the great instruments of the past had vanished. There remained only one direction for organ tonal design, and that was a return to the principles of the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century German and French organs. 30Blanton, The Organ in Church Design, p. 54. 1925-1932: INCHOATE REFORM Reappearance Of Mixtures and Mutations It has always been difficult to make a clear and definitive delineation between various segments Of an historical process. It is no less true in the matter Of organ tonal design. There are, however, certain develOpments in the latter half Of the nine- teenetwenties which suggest that the tonal design of the organ was being reexamined. It has been shown that the organ in America exhibited a dismally poor tonal design around the turn of the century. It is significant that few American composers of prominence chose to write music for such an instrument.1 It is necessary to point out that the changes brought about during this period, while certainly improving the scheme Of the organ, did not reflect a fundamental reassessment of tonal design. Although there were certain long neglected elements in design which were returned to the instrument, they represent 1John Fesperman, The Organ as Musical Medium (New York: Coleman and Ross Company, Inc., 19627, p. he 32. A7 additions to an existing approach rather than a reordering Of the basic ideas. For the most part, advances in tonal design during these years consisted Of the gradual reappear- ance of mixture and mutation stOpS. While specifica- tions of organs built from 1890 to 1925 Show an almost complete absence of such registers, later instruments reveal that more and more were included gradually. Professional periodicals began to yield letters and articles dealing with such matters around the middle of the thirties. It is apparent that not all organists and builders shared the same Opinions, but there can be no doubt that changes in thinking were taking place in some peOple's minds. The matter Of unification, which had dealt the organ a serious blow, was one Of the techniques which came under particular attack. Ernest L. Mehaffey was highly critical Of the practice, citing instances in which pedal divisions contained only one or two ranks of pipes. He deplored this practice since, in his view, it left the pedal without any true independence. Mehaffey laid the blame for such practices at the feet Of organists as well as builders, attributing it to their desire to cut costs at the eXpense Of the pedal.2 2Ernest L. Mehaffey, "Augmentation and the Modern Organ," The Diapason (January, l92h), p. 29. he Edwin H. Lemare, an organist of note, likewise was highly critical of unification. " . . . robbing Peter to pay Paul,“ wrote Lemare in pointing out that the practice left the organ without the proper variety of sounds. He further noted that unification produced dead notes which tended to obscure musical lines, particularly in polyphonic music. Obviously concerned with a good ensemble sound, he cited the fact that the scaling of pipes should differ at various pitches, a Situation which was impossible with unified stops. Lemare was also critical of the concept Of substitut- ing super couplers for upper work. In his opinion, this was unacceptable,since it would not produce a proper chorus. Furthermore, he maintained that this also produced the undesirable effect of dead notes.3 That not all writers and builders shared these views is shown in an article written by Senator Emerson Richards. He wrote that judicious unification was in order. Richards stated such a practice was justifiable on financial grounds. While defending the theory that the organ needed proper ensemble groups,he saw nothing wrong with unifying some stops, particularly in the 3Edwin H. Lemare, "The Evils of Unification," The Diapason (March, 1925), pp. 32-33. A9 pedal. This, he felt, would not sacrifice too much in the general design.u An examination Of specifications during this period shows that the practice of unification and duplex- ing was on the decline, but at the same time it is clear that unifying stOps in the pedal still held forth in full sway with many builders. The organ built by the Reuter Organ Company in 1926 for the Concordia Teachers College, Seward, Nebraska, Shows the approach common to many builders. The diSposition Of stOps is shown below:5 Great 8' Viole 8' Doppel- 8' French horn d'gambe flute 8' Gemshorn 8' Open h' Flute Diapason Harmonique Swell 8' Viole 16' Bourdon 8' CornOpean d'orchestra 8' Stopped 8' Oboe 8' Salicional Diapason 8' Vox Humana 8' Voix Celeste h' Waldflote 8' Aeoline 2 2/3' Nasard 2' Flautino 8' Open Diapason Choir 8' Dulciana 8' Concert 8' Clarinet 8' Unda Maris Flute h' Flute uEmerson Richards, "Senator Richards Answers Lemare's Article," The Diapason (June, 1925), p. 26. 5The Diapasqp_(September, 1926), p. 30. 50 Pedal 8' Violon- 16' Bourdon 16' Trombone cello 16' Lieblich (Gt.) Gedeckt (Sw.) 8' Dolce 16' Open Flute (16') Diapason Only three out of a total Of twenty-seven stOps are allotted to the pedal division. The remaining pedal stops are merely unifications from other pedal registers or duplexes from manual stOps. It seems amazing that in a three-manual organ of perhaps thirty to thirty- five stOpS, there would be such a small number of inde- pendent pedal registers. Furthermore, in many similar instruments no pedal stop sounding above eight-foot pitch could be found, a situation which made necessary the employment of pedal couplers for the playing Of almost any pedal part. Another consideration which engaged the attention Of organists and builders during this period was the question of the prOper place of mixtures and mutations within the tonal scheme. Max Hess, writing in 223 Diapason, decried the omission Of these stops. His article set forth a brief history of mixtures and went into great detail concerning the composition and voicing Of such stOps. He insisted that each division needed a mixture to complete its ensemble. For the Choir he sug- gested a softer voicing of the mixture in order that it 51 would blend with the other voices in that division. In addition, he was in full agreement with the idea of returning mutation stops to the organ. Dr. Kaspar Koch, a noted organist, lauded the restoration of mutations by some builders. He wrote that the organ had become a deplorable type of one-man orch- estra, a collection of nothing more than a large assort- ment Of unrelated solo stops. Dr. Koch exhorted builders to include proper ensembles, including mixtures, which he felt were absolutely necessary. Concerning the in- clusion Of string stops, Koch felt they were acceptable, but cautioned that such stops should be kept apart from the ensemble, as they tended to Obscure the transparency of the whole ensemble.7 J. E. Pasquet went even farther. He claimed that no organ builder in the world was building mixtures properly. Pasquet suggested that mixtures be put on separate wind chests so that they would not be affected by super octave couplers. This, he proposed, would en- able these stops tO achieve their true purpose which was to provide correct upper harmonics, rather than to 8 make more noise. 6Max Hess, "Mixtures: their History," The Diapason (December, 1928), p. 39. 7Caspar Koch, "Conservation and Progress in Tonal Equipment in the Organ," The Diapason (October, 1926), pp. 12-13. 8Other upper work would, however, be so coupled. 52 He stated further that the mixtures should be voiced so as to be useable with a single other stop. This he claimed would work quite satisfactorily, writing, " . . . combining a soft Swell mixture with the Stopped Diapason is the nearest approach to a real harp that I have been able to make."9 It must be pointed out that, despite the numer- ous articles and letters by musicians urging the return of these elements Of tonal design to the organ, the actual inclusion of them in instruments by organ builders was sometimes a very timid affair. One of the leading builders of the period, E. M. Skinner, agreed with these ideas, at least up to a point. His organ for the Warner Concert Hall, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, built in 1926 typifies some of the early attempts at building a more inclusive type of organ:10 Great 16' Diapason 8' Flute 8' Tromba 8' First Harmonique (Ch.) Diapason h' Flute h' Clarion 8' Second (Ch.) Diapason h' Octave 2 2/3' Twelfth 2' Fifteenth IV Mixture 9J. E. Pasquet, "Are Organ Mixtures Constructed Properly?" Etude, XLV Only, 1927), h32. lOThe Diapason (October, 1927), p. 2. 53 Swell 8' Salicional 16' Bourdon 16' Waldhorn 8' Voix 8' RohrflOte 8' Cornopean Celeste 8' Flute 8' Oboe Dolce d'amour 8' Diapason 8' Flute 8' Vox Humana h' Octave 8' Celeste h' Clarion III Chorus h' Flute Mixture Triangulaire 2' Flautino V Cornet Choir 16' Gamba 8' Concert 8' Tuba 8' Gamba (16') Flute Mirabilis 8' Gamba h' Flute 8' Clarinet Celeste 2 2/3' Nasard 8' Dulciana 2' Piccolo 8' Unda Maris h' Gambetta (16') 8' Diapason Pedal 16' Gamba (Ch.) 16' Bourdon 16' Trombone 8' Cello (Ch.) 16' Echo Bourdon 8' Tromba (Sw.) (16') 16' Diapason 8' Gedeckt h' Clarion 16' Diapason (16') (Gt.) 8' Still Gedeckt 8' Octave (16') (Sw.) h' Super h' Flute (16') Octave (16') The most Obvious advance this organ reveals over past instruments is the inclusion Of a full chorus of diapason tone quality on the Great, including a four-rank Mixture. In addition, the Swell incorporates two compound stops, one of which is a Cornet, the other a Chorus Mixture of three ranks. Heretofore,if there ELL had been a mixture in the Swell, it was a rather innoc- uous register with voicing so soft and unobtrusive as to be practically neutral. Skinner had included two chorus mixtures that, as indicated by their titles, functioned as full-voiced members of their respective ensembles. The specification, however, also reveals the preoccupation with color stops since there are three celestes on the organ in addition to the usual assortment of orchestral reeds. The orchestral organ, however, was by no means being replaced, as is shown by organs Of the period and articles by interested parties. H. F. Parks, writing in gfipgg, sought to treat the question Of registration by applying colors to the basic tone qualities which he in turn related to the sections Of the orchestra. Parks dwelled at great lengths on the effects of mixing colors and described the results in highly colorful, but rather un-organistic terminology.ll On the same topic, J. H. Stewart saw nothing wrong with the concept of the orchestral organ, though " . . . within limits," which he neglected to describe in his article. The key to grasping his concept of organ tone is in his suggestions for registering the 11H. F. Parks, "The Art of Tone-Coloring on the Organ," Etude, XLVIII (May, 1930), 360. 55 Prelude and Fugue in E Minor, by J. S. Bach. The great lengths to which he goes in adding and retiring stOps throughout the work reveal an approach to registration which is strongly, if not completely, orchestral.12 Indicative of the fact that not everyone shared the Opinions of those who advocated the liberal use of mixtures and mutations is the Pilcher organ built for the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation of Atlanta, Georgia, in 1930. The specification is given below:13 Great 16' Open 8' Melodia 8' French Diapason 8' Gemshorn Trumpet 8' First h' Flute Diapason Harmonique 8' Second Diapason h' Octave 2' Super- octave Swell 8' Viole 16' Contra 16' Contra d'orchestra Clarabella Fagotto 8' Viole 8' Clarabella 8' Cornopean Celeste (16') 8' Oboe 8' Aeoline 8' Gedeckt 8' Vox 8' Aeoline h' Flute Humana Celeste 2 2/3' Nasard (H') 2' Piccolo h‘) 12J. H. Stewart, "Registration," Etude, XLVIII (February, 1930), 130-131. 13The Diapason (June, 1930), p. 2. 8' Diapason Phonon 8' Horn Diapason III Dolce Cornet Choir 16' Contra Dulciana 8' Muted Viol 8' Viol Celeste 8' Dulciana (16') h' Dulciana (16') 2 2/3' Dulcet (16') 2' Dulcet (16') 8' English Diapason Pedal 16' Violone 16' Contra Dulciana (Ch.) 8' Cello (Sw.) 16' Open Diapason 16' Second Open Diapason 8' Open Diapason (16') 5 1/3' Quint (16') h' Octave (16') 8: 81 8: L1»! 2! 32' 16' 16' 8: 8: 8! Concert 8' Clarinet Flute Flute Celeste Quintadena Flute d'amour (8') Piccolo (8') 16' Contra Fagotto (Sw.) Ophicleide Tuba (16') Resultant Bourdon Gedeckt (Sw.) Gross Flute (Sw.) Dolce Flute (Ch.) Still Gedeckt (Sw.) 16' 81 This organ shows very little change from the organ Of the first decade of the century. absent are mixtures, Conspicuously and it must be pointed out that the two mutation stops which are found on the organ are the result of unification. In fact, unification is used extensively throughout the instrument, particularly in the pedal division, which possesses only five inde- pendent stops Out of some eighteen stop—knobs on the console. The leathered Diapason under high wind pressure, too typical of organs of that period, is present on the Swell. The large number of orchestral stops and the almost total absence of independent stops above four- foot pitch are certainly two of the most Obvious characteristics Of this organ. There are twenty-nine instances of unification and duplexing, twelve of which occur in the pedal division, a situation which hardly qualifies the instrument to be classified as an example of judicious unification. The solitary compound stop on the organ, the Swell Dolce Cornet, is an unbreaking mixture of 2', 2 2/3', and 1 3/5'. The voicing of this stop was rather standardized among builders, being rather soft and unobtrusive. In any event, it was obviously not intended to function as an ensemble mixture.lu It is Obvious that in designing an instrument of only a small number Of stops the designer necessarily must be more discriminating in his choice of registers. 1LAStevens Irwin, Dictionary of Pipe Organ Stops (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1962), pp. 75-76. 58 It is, therefore, easier for the observer to discern with accuracy the fundamental approach and order of priorities of the designer. Thorndike Luard dealt with this problem in an article which appeared in The Diapa- agg. In it he discussed the two fundamental issues as he saw them--the relative importance of chorus and variety of sounds. In his suggested dispositions he revealed himself as being strongly wedded to the concept prevalent in the early twentieth century. One of his specifications is given below:15 Great 8' Dulciana 8' Melodia h' Flute 8' Open Harmonique Diapason Swell 8' Salicional 8' Gedeckt 8' Oboe 8' Voix h' Flute Celeste d'amour 8' Diapason Choir 8' Dulciana 8' Melodia (Gt.) (Gt.) 8' Unda Maris h' Flute Harmonique (Gt.) Pedal 16' Bourdon 15Thorndike Luard, “Designing Plans for Small Organs," The Diapason (May, 1929), p. R9. S9 16' Lieblich Gedeckt (Sw.) 8' Flute (16') The specification above reveals complete re- liance on eight- and four-foot stops. There is some unification as well as duplexing. In fact, the Choir consists of a single independent stop, the others being duplexed from the Great division. Luard also allows only one independent stop for the Pedal out of a total Of fifteen in the entire organ. The concept Of chorus is obviously absent since there is provision for principal stops only at eight-foot pitch. The view that variety Of sounds should come only through re- gisters of different tone qualities and those at eight- and four-foot pitch is evident. Another organist who wrote on the subject of small organs was William H. Barnes, a man who rose to a position of considerable influence in organ circles in later years.16 One of his articles began with a description of the Great division of the Old instrument in the Boston Music Hall. The organ had originally been built by the firm of Walcker of Ludwigsburg, Germany, in 1863. The instrument displayed many characteristics of the German Baroque organ, such as 16Barnes' name appears continuously in periodicals from 1925 to the present. His book, The Contemporary American Organ, 1930, has gone through numerous editions and has been quoted frequently by other authors. 60 full and independent choruses in each division, differentiation of pitch between manuals, and voicing which was clear and incisive. Barnes alluded to the brilliance and grandeur of the instrument and pointed out the unique effects of its mutation stOpS. When he then set forth his own ideas on tonal design, however, the approach of relying on eight- and four- foot stOps plus super octave couplers asserted itself. In his concept strings and especially reeds were Of high priority. Concerning mixtures he wrote, " . . . a mixture would come last in my estimation," and " . . . if Choir reeds were what they should be, the mixture would be almost unnecessary."l7 After lavishing such high praise on the Boston organ it is curious that he could espouse an approach which was diametrically Opposed to the principles inherent in the Older instrument.18 Another common practice in the building Of small organs was the use Of what builders referred to as synthetic reeds. This contrived effect was arrived 17William H. Barnes, "Tonal Design and PrOper Ensemble for Small Organs," The Diapason (October, 1931), p. 37. 18It is interesting that Barnes, long-time critic of tracker action and classic design, recently was very complimentary about the Casavant tracker action instrument at Colorado State University. 61 at by combining different pitches of various stops to give a tone which vaguely resembled a reed register. One such method included a Salicional at eight-foot, a flute at four- and two and two-thirds-foot pitches, all controlled by a single stop-knob labelled Oboe. Two justifications were put forward in defense of this practice--that of the limitation of finances and that reeds tended to go out Of tune Often. Actually, the technique resulted in nothing more than a type of unification with not very satisfactory results.19 H. B. Parker decried this method of Obtaining reed sounds in the organ. He laid the blame at the feet of organists as well as builders and asserted that it was an improper procedure. Parker suggested that if organists would keep reeds in tune there would be fewer problems with those stops and there would be no need to resort to synthetic sounds.2O Ernest M. Skinner exhibited in his organs an approach to tonal design which was somewhat more ec- lectic than that of many other builders. He was res- ponsible for the erection of many instruments and ad- vocated the inclusion of choruses as well as solo stops 19A visit to almost any Older organ in a college or university practice room will support this assertion. 20H. B. Parker, "Plea for Genuine Reeds as Necessity in Small Organs,” The Diapason (December, 1927), p. 31- 62 within the complete design. Various articles by Skinner leave no doubt about his thinking concerning the Organ, and he evidently was a man who did not hesi- tate to express his views in the most forthright manner. One of his largest instruments was the organ he installed in Hill Auditorium at the University Of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1928. It illustrates his concept of tonal design:21 Great 32' Violone 8' Stopped 16' Trombone 8' String Diapason 8' Orchestpal Organ‘ 8' Claripgl Trumpeth IV String & Flute" 8' Tromba Mixture" 8' Erzaehler h' Clarion h' Flute 16' Diapason 8' Diapason 8' Diapason*y 8' Diapason I 5 1/3' Quint h' Octave h' Principal 2 2/3' Twelfth 2' Fifteenth V Mixture IV Harmonics Swell 16' Dulciana 16' Bourdon 16' Posaune 8' Viole 8' Clarabella 8' Trumpet d'orchestra 8' Rohrflute 8' Cornopean 8' Voix Celeste 8' Flauto 8' Oboe 8' Echo Dulcet Dolce 8' Vox Humana 8' Flute h' Clarion Celeste IPlayable on the Great, Swell, Choir, and Solo Enclosed in Great expression box 21The Diapason (April, 1928), p. 29. 8' Diapason h' Octave V Mixture V Cornet Choir 16' Contra Gamba 8' Gamba (16') 8' Dulcet II 8' Dulciana 8' Diapason Solo 8' Gamba 8' Gamba Celeste 8' Stentor- phone h' Octave Echo 8' Muted 8' Unda Maris u: 2: 8: u: : 2 2/3' 2: 1 3/5' 1 1/7' 8: u: 8: Flute Triangulaire Flautino Concert Flute Flute Gemshorn Nasard Piccolo Tierce Septibme Flauto Mirabilis Orchestral Flute Gedeckt 16' 16' 8: 8: 8: 8: 8: 8: 16' 16' 8: 8: 8: 8: 8: 8: u: 8: Heckel- phone (Solo) Bassoon French horn (Solo) English horn Harmonica Heckel- phone (Solo) Bassoon (16') Clarinet Heckel- phone Contra Tuba Tuba Mirabilis Tuba (16') Heckel- phone Corno di Bassetto French horn Orchestral Oboe Clarion Vox Humana 6A Pedal 32' Violone 16' Bourdon 32' Bombarde (Gt.) 16' Echo 16' Ophicleide 16' Violone Lieblich 16' Posaune (Gt.) (Sw.) (Sw.) 16' Gamba 10 2/3' Quint 16' Bassoon (Ch.) 8' Gedeckt (Ch.) 16: Dulciana 8' Still 10 2/3' Quint (Sw.) Gedeckt 8' Trombone 8' Cello (Sw.) (Gt.) (Gt.) h' Flute 8' Tromba h' Clarion 32' Diapason 16' Diapason 16' Diapason 16' Diapason (Gt.) 8' Principal 8' Octave 5 1/3' Quint 3 1/5' Tierce 2 2/7' Septiéme IV Mixture Skinner described the Hill Auditorium organ as one in which he sought to include elements of all schools Of classic organ building along with what he referred to as modern improvements. He stated that every care and much time had been devoted to the proper voicing of all the mixtures and mutations. Concerning these he chided those organists who " . . . like smothered Diapason tone . . . and those who prefer the octave coupler as against the ensemble of pipes." Of those organists he wrote, " . . . I have formed the honest conclusion that they have no ears."22 On the other hand, Skinner berated those who Opposed what he considered to be modern improvements, 22Ernest M. Skinner, "Mr. Latest Work and Other Matters," The Diapason (April, 1928), p. 35. Skinner Writes of his 85 especially his own. He outlined in The Diapason what he saw as the numerous advances in organ building during the preceding fifty years, namely such items as the Berker Lever, various pneumatic actions, coupling systems, and adjustable pistons. The main thrust of his case, however, was that American organ building had contributed most significantly to the area Of orchestral color stops, several of which he had perfected and patented himself. He saw these developments as substantial contributions to the tonal vocabulary of the organ and was Obviously annoyed with those who did not share his opinions.23 A glance at the specification of the Ann Arbor organ makes it difficult to see the justification for Skinner's claim that it included the elements of all schools of classic organ building. Nevertheless, the instrument does display a significant advance Over the typical organ of fifteen years earlier. The organ is arranged in six divisions, five manual and one pedal, and includes 129 ranks of pipes in all. Although the specification reveals a certain prevalence of eight— foot stops, there are several high pitched stops. When it is compared to the instruments of many other builders 23Ernest M. Skinner, "Improvements in the Organ during the Last Fifty Years," The Diapason (February, 1929), p. A6. 66 of the same period, it shows a higher percentage of chorus registers. The Great includes a complete principal chorus with independent 16', 8', 5 1/3', 8', 2 2/3', and 2' registers, tOpped with a five-rank mixture and a four- rank Harmonics. Similarly, the Swell contains a prin- cipal chorus of eight- and four-foot principal stops, capped by a five-rank mixture. The Swell also includes a five-rank Cornet which gives a total Of four compound stops between those two divisions.21+ The Pedal includes a principal chorus Of 32', 16', 8', and 5 1/3', surmounted by a four-rank mixture. There are numerous flute stops of various pitches which complement the principal choruses and encompass a range from 16' to 1 1/7' pitch. It should be noted that Skinner retained the practice Of including several eight-foot diapason stOps of the same pitch on a single manual. Mutation stops, which had been so sorely lacking in organs Of the early twentieth century, are present in this organ in much greater numbers. Most are confined to the Choir, although two appear on the Great. The mutations in the Pedal at 5 1/3', 3 1/5', and 2 2/7' pitches belong to the 16' overtone series. 2LLA compound stOp is one in which there are several pipes sounding for each key. 67 Of particular interest is the 10 2/3' Quint of reed quality which reinforces the thirty-two-foot series. Skinner was favorable toward the inclusion Of orchestral stops and the fact is shown very clearly . in this organ. Registers Of that type are present in every division, including the Great, although the major- ity are placed in the Choir and Solo. Typical examples are the English horn, Bassoon, and Clarinet on the Choir, and the Heckelphone, French horn, and Orchestral Oboe on the Solo. Skinner's interest in mechanical devices is expressed by the presence of two stops on the Great labeled Piano 8' and Piano h'. Chorus reeds are plentiful in the design and several reeds of wide scale were placed on very high wind pressure. One was the Tuba Mirabilis in the Solo division which produced a very loud and heavy tone. Strings are numerous throughout all the div- isions; they are most abundant in the Swell and Choir. The usual two-rank celestes are present, giving the un- dulating effect characteristic of two ranks of similar construction tuned to produce a Slight beat. Also present is a compound stop designated String Organ 8', which includes six sets Of narrow-scaled strings. This stop is duplexed so that it is playable on the Great, Swell, Choir, and Solo manuals. Intended for use with 68 this register was another stop labeled String Mixture IV which consisted of four ranks sounding h', 3 1/5', 2 2/3', and 2' pitches. The inclusion of so many colorful stops such as these with the chorus ensembles was in accord with Skinner's stated view that both were necessary in the modern organ. It is important, however, to remember that the instrument did contain chorus stops, mixtures, and mutations, registers which had long been non- existent in the American organ. In 1931 an interesting experiment in organ building took place in Claremont, California, which, in its own way, foreshadowed new ideas which were to become important in the years after 1932. An organ was built for the College Auditorium at Claremont College by the Estey Organ Corporation. This instrument, re- ferred to as a new universal school of organ building, was an amalgamation of pipes from a variety of sources, including both European and American builders. An attempt was made to include the sounds characteristic Of various eras Of organ building. Copies of certain past builders' stops were constructed and sent to Estey for inclusion in the organ. Those included were re- productions Of Harrison and Harrison and Schulze diapa- sons, Cavaille-Coll reeds, harmonic flutes, and celestes, and German mutations. All these ranks were combined to 69 form the total design in which mutations figured pro- minently. Although this exercise led nowhere insofar as the copying Of Old masters' secrets are ccncerned, it should be viewed, nevertheless, as a commendable effort to take advantage of the best which older schools of organ building had to Offer. In short, it does indicate that a few builders were interested in some elements of the glories of past organ builders.25 A further indication that interest in past eras was beginning to flower lies in articles relating visits to famous Old European organs which began to appear sporadically in professional periodicals. As early as 1926 0. E. Schminke wrote in @3292 of his visit to see the Gottfried Silbermann organ in the Cathedral of Freiburg, Germany, built in 1710. He describes the stops in great detail and compares them to some of those found in American organs, finding fault with the latter in many cases. Although Schminke was impressed with what he saw, he evidently failed to grasp the fundamentals of design involved and found fault with the lack of swell pedals and complained that on the Silbermann instrument one " . . . can't play expressive melodies."26 25"New Universal School of Organ—building Represented in Instrument Being Installed at Claremont, California," The Musician, XXXVI (August, 1931), 23. 26)0. E. Schminke, "Old Silbermann Organ Dating from the Time of Bach," Etude, XLIV (February, 1926), 93. 70 Seth Bingham, who was later to gain widespread prominence in organ circles as a composer for the organ, wrote of his visit to Geneva, Switzerland, and Of his playing the historic organs Of that city. He pro- fessed to see some good in the more classically oriented organ, namely its clear ensembles and brilliant sounds but, like Schminke, Bingham declared the American instrument to be superior due to its wider variety of color stops. He, too, failed to perceive the funda- mentals of design which governed the structure Of those organs and was more concerned with the character Of the individual stops and the noisiness of the Old tracker 27 action. It remained for others to discover the secrets of the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century French and German instruments. 27Seth Bingham, "Geneva and its Organs," The Diapason (February, 1932), pp. 22-23. CHAPTER IV THE RETURN TO CLASSIC PRINCIPLES: 1932-1950 The Background in Europe We have considered the poor state of the American organ of the early twentieth century; it must be Observed that the European organ had not es- caped the same fate, although the circumstances sur- rounding its decline were somewhat different. The decline of the Baroque organ had begun even with the work of the noted German builder Gottfried Silbermann. The Old werkeprinzip was altered with the substitution of an Oberwerk for the Ruckpositiv. Mixtures were similar in pitch between the divisions, and voicing suggested a homogenous, sweet tone.1 The Baroque instrument was then in the early stages of a develop- ment which would eventually liquidate it as an accept- ed concept Of tonal design. The process lasted from the latter part of the eighteenth century until the early twentieth century. Many factors were at work. The music of the 1Poul—Gerhard Andersen, Organ Building and Design, translated by Joanne Curnutt (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1969), pp. 197-198. 71 72 late eighteenth century was moving inexorably away from.polyphony and toward homophony and made new de- mands on the organ and drastically changed its func- tion. Discoveries in acoustics also exercised an influence over the design of organs. The theories concerning combination tones, the creation of funda- mental tones by utilizing certain higher overtones, were applied to the organ. One of the most dynamic organ builders of the period, Franz Caspar Vogler, attempted, as a result of his own views on physical acoustics, to change the basis for tonal design com- pletely. He believed that his simplification system would produce a greater effect with many fewer pipes and aimed at creating grandeur and dignity by the use Of combination tones.2 The specification Of the manual divisions of the organ in St. Peter's Pfarr- kirche in Munich, Germany, shows Vogler's conception of ideal tonal design:3 I Manual 16' Principal /3' Nasat 5 1 8' Principal 3 1/5' Terz 2' Principal 1 1/3' Quint 2Johann Seidel, Die Orgel und ihr Bau (Amsterdam: Frits A. M. KnUT, 1962), p. 13. 3Andersen, Organ Building and Design, p. 2h8. 73 II Manual 16' Principal 10 2/3' Gross Nasat h' Principal 3 1/5' Terz 11 Carillon (2 2/3' and 1 3/5') 1' Principal III Manual 16' Posaune 16' Contrafagotto 8' Krummhorn h' Trompet IV Manual 16' Theorbe 8' Viola da gamba V Manual 8' Flauto h' Gemshorn Gone is the werk-prinzip. In its place is an orchestral concept with reeds allotted to the third manual, strings to the fourth, and flutes to the fifth. The first two manuals show clearly the use of difference tones, e.g., 10' and 10 2/3', to create the 32' pitch. Fortunately, not everyone shared Vogler's views, but the concepts governing the Baroque organ were slowly being discarded and forgotten. Organs built in Germany during the twentieth century contained more and more eight-foot stops and especially orchestral stops. Mixtures and mutations were present, but in drastically reduced numbers. Furthermore, their function was not 78 clearly understood, and they were consequently voiced too loudly, giving a harsh, penetrating tone and one that did not blend satisfactorily.8 In France the classic traditions were also lost. Although a few elements of the early designs were recognizable in the specifications of nineteenth century French instruments, the differences were great. Scales were much wider. Wind pressures and voicing were stronger and gave a massive tone. The whole con- cept was symphonic. Swell boxes and couplers con- tributed to enormous tutti, with crescendos leading to 5 the tutti and decrescendos leading away from it. The German Orgelbewegung By the late nineteenth century the symphonic organ was common in Germany, but not all voices were unanimous in praise of it. As early as 1906 Albert Schweitzer wrote of his disenchantment with the modern organ even though it was considered by many to be a miracle of advanced technical skill. After traveling in Germany for many years to see organs Old and new, Schweitzer professed to see an advantage in certain methods used by Older organ builders such as the slider chest, mechanical connections from key to chest, uWilliam L. Sumner, The Organ (London: Macdonald and Company, 1958), p. 207. 5 Andersen, Organ Building and Design, pp. 258- 26h. 75 and stops of round and soft but full tone. He also decried the practice of imitating the stringed orch- estral instruments.6 Schweitzer praised Silbermann's organs and exerted considerable influence in the effort to persuade musicians to reexamine the tonal precepts which were then widely accepted. Interest in the venerable Old instruments of Germany increased rapidly. Organs which were regarded as quaint Old relics and now out Of date were examined. Hans Jahnn brought the Old Scherer-Schnitger organ in St. Jacobi Kirche in Hamburg and the Gottfried Silber- mann instrument in the cathedral at Freiburg to the attention of other organists. Descriptions of the stops, scaling, registration and dispositions Of these Old instruments appeared in print, and, for the first time in more than one hundred years,organists listened sympa- thetically and began to hear the organs in a new way. The scholarly works of Werner Lottermoser aided the process through scientific investigation into the sounds of these Old instruments. Under the direction of Professor Wilibald Gurlitt, Walcker built an organ to the specifications given by Michael Praetorius in his 6Albert Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, translated by C. T. Campion (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1933), pp. 87-101. 7 Andersen, Organ Building and Desigp, p. 301. 76 Syntagma Musicum, II. The problems raised by these revelations were seriously studied and discussed in Germany for many years, with the eventual result of a return to the principles of design as revealed in the Baroque organs.8 The return, however, was neither swift nor unanimous. At first builders cautiously included some low mutations. Eventually they began to experiment with mixtures and high mutations and changed their methods of scaling to conform to Baroque practice.9 The gulf between the two practices is seen rather vividly in a comparison of the specifications of the organ built by Gottlieb Voigt in 18h8 for St. John's Church, Halberstadt,lo and the instrument built by Wilhelm Sauer for the University of KOnigsberg in 1928.11 Halberstadt KOnigsberg Hauptwerk Oberwerk 16' Bordun 8' Prinzipal 8' Prinzipal 8' RohrfIOte 8Hans Klotz, Das Buch von der Orgel (Kassel: Barenreiter Verlag, 1955), p."131. 9Andersen, Organ Building and Design, p. 302. loGotthold Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposition (Berlin: Verlag Merseburger, 1966), II, 1002-1003. 11 Sumner, The Organ, pp. h25-h26. 77 8' Gedackt 4' Oktave 8' Gemshorn h' Gemshorn 8' Viola IV Mixtur da Gamba III Cymbel ' Oktave 16' Rankett 2 2/3' Quint 8' Krummhorn 2' Superoktave III Kornett IV Mixtur Oberwerk Brustwerk 16' Lieblich 8' Quintade Gedackt 8' ViolflOte 8' Flauto h' GedacktflOte Traverso 2' Prinzipal 8' Gedackt 2' Nachthorn 8' Salizional l' BlokflOte 8' Geigenprinzipal II Sesquialtera h' Spitzflbte 8' Vox Humana h' FlOte Pedal Pedal 16' Subbass 16' Untersatz 16' Viola 8' Prinzipal 10 2/3' Quint 8' RohrflOte 8' Oktave h' Gemshorn 8' Gedackt 16' Dulzian 8' Violoncello 16' Rankett h' Oktave h' Cornet 16' Posaune The difference is Obvious. The KOnigsberg organ has turned away from the predominance of unison tone as exemplified in the Halberstadt instrument. Furthermore, Sauer has refrained from including any orchestral stops and has returned short resonator reeds to the scheme. The pitches of the pedal registers in the KOnigsberg organ are more evenly spread; Sauer evidently saw no need for a large number Of stops of low pitch. 78,, Eventually all components Of the Baroque organ were reevaluated by the adherents of the German Orge - bewegung. Succeeding years saw the reappearance of the werk-prinzip, mechanical action, and organ cases. Practices of the nineteenth century were largely dis- carded.12 Senator Emerson Richards and G. Donald Harrison It is impossible to define exactly the precise time of the first changes of opinion concerning tonal design in the United States. One fact is clear, how- ever: the new ideas provoked a controversy which not only raged for years but continues today. Several organ builders and organists contributed substantially to the American organ reform. A survey of professional periodicals from about 1932 to 1950 reveals that the change in attitude was very slow. The few who called for reevaluation of basic premises were a minority. Indeed their efforts were to consume many years before achieving some success. One Of the primary sources of inspiration for the American reform was the historical instruments of Europe. Americans had visited these Old organs in the past, but they either failed to see the underlying 12Andersen, Organ Building and Desigp, pp. 302- 303. 79 principles of design or, if they did understand the principles, they rejected them. Emerson Richards, U. S. Senator from New Jersey and well-known organ enthusiast, was one Of the first authors to write articles which appeared in professional periodicals advocating a change in tonal design for the American organ. Ie traveled in EurOpe a great deal, playing and inspecting Old organs. He probably had some discussions with various EurOpean organists about the trends in organ design in their own countries. Richards' suggestions were quite radical for an organ world still strongly wedded to orchestral organ design. He asserted that the prOper vehicle of expression was necessary for an adequate understanding and appre- ciation Of Baroque composers. To him it was impossible to design a modern organ without knowing the Baroque instrument. The basic question, as Richards saw it, was one of ensembles, particularly the diapason chorus. To achieve the prOper chorus he suggested a Double Open Diapason 16', two diapasons 8' of differing tone quality, a Quint 5 1/3', two Octaves h', a Twelfth 2 2/3', Fif- teenth 2', and two mixtures, one of fifths and octaves, and the other a Sesquialtera which might contain thirds.13 Considering the typical instrument of his time, Richards' prOposals for such a full principal chorus were advanced, to say the least. It is interesting that, l3Senator Emerson Richards, "Ideal Tonal Design of Modern Organ as Based on the Classic," The Diapason (October, 1932), p. 18. 80 despite his acquaintance with the old organs of Europe, he allowed one facet of the unison approach to linger in his proposals: the inclusion of two similar stops of the same pitch. He did, however, insist that the diapasons should possess qualities of harmonic devel- opment which would facilitate their blending with other members of the chorus. It is no surprise that he re- garded the leathered, phonon diapason completely un- suitable.lu The typical pedal division of two or three stops was severely criticized by Richards. He called for pedal divisions of complete harmonic structure. To attain this, he suggested as a minimum that the pedal should include loud and soft registers at all pitches 15 and at least one mixture. TO organists who were content with two sixteen-foot pedal stops and the usual battery Of couplers, Richards' proposals must have seemed unnecessarily elaborate. The typical Choir division was also criticized. Richards explained how it had become a collection of soft, accompanying stops and solo registers. This was in con— flict with Baroque Rackpositiv which he claimed was the direct survivor of the Positive, a small organ carried in religious processions and used for accompanying small luIbid. lSIbido, pp. 18-190 81 / groups of singers.10 According to his reasoning, the stops best suited for accompanying singers were princi- pals. The Choir division therefore should have its own principal chorus and serve as a small Great organ. He praised the efforts of some builders who included a large number of mutation stops in the Choir which, he felt, would give an almost unlimited Opportunity for color combinations.17 To illustrate his comments about the Choir division Richards listed three examples: those found in the organs of St. Jude Church, Thornton Heath, England, built by Henry Willis; Trinity Chapel, Hart- ford, Connecticut, built by E. M. Skinner; and Passau Cathedral in Germany, built by Steinmeyer.18 Thornton Heath Hartford Passau 16' Rohr— 16' Contra 16' Quintadena gedeckt Spitzflute 8' Prinzipal 8' Open 8' Spitzflute 8' Violflbte Diapason (16') 8' Rohrflbte 8' Violon- 8' Concert h' Oktave . cello Flute h' Spitzflbte 8' Hohlflute 8' Dulciana 2 2/3' Rauschquint 8' Dulciana 8' Unda II 8' Vox Maris V-VII Mixtur Angelica h' Gemshorn III Cymbel 2 2/3' Nazard 16' Trompete 2' Piccolo IV Sesquialtera 16It is generally accepted that the Baroque Ruckpositiv was the successor of the Positive. The small organ, usually of only one or two stOpS, which was carried about and used in processions was not the Positive, but the Portative. 17Richards, "Ideal Tonal Design," p. 18. lBIbid. 82 8' Trumpet 8' Clarinet Richards complimented each example and was particularly pleased with the good chorus effect Of the Hartford organ. It is curious, however, that he expressed no special satisfaction with the design of the Passau Choir division, since it contained the prin- cipal chorus which he had stated was necessary. It also seems strange that he complimented the Thornton Heath instrument, because it contained a certain heavi- ness at eight-foot pitch and had no principal stop sound- ing above eight-foot pitch. Not everyone agreed with Richards' conclusions. E. M. Skinner gave his reply to the Richards article in the November issue Of The Diapason. He disagreed with what he saw as pitting ensemble against solo registers. Skinner defended orchestral reeds as being artistic in a way which harmonic—corroborating stOps could not duplicate. He stated that, although the twelfth and fifteenth were satisfactory to a certain extent, they were really not very good for church responses because the organ needed flute celestes and other such registers for such purposes. Skinner asked what the chorale-preludes of J. S. Bach would sound like on one of Richards' organs. He answered his own question by asserting that such works had found perfect eXpression O 03 on new voices such as the Erzahler, Unda Maris, 19 English Horn, and Pedal Dulciana. Skinner also claimed that leathered, high pressure diapasons would produce a beautiful tone which would blend perfectly with mixtures.20 J. B. Jamison disagreed. He stated that leathering greatly lessened the harmonics of a pipe, thus decreasing its ability to blend. In addition, he felt a leathered diapason would inev— itably dominate the ensemble. Jamison did, however, agree that the tonal design should include both ensembles and solo registers.21 Jamison's approach was set forth in detail in the September, 1933, issue of The Digpason. It was his opinion that the heavy preponderance of eight-foot tone was the wrong concept. Such registers were too often conspicuous and individual and produced a thick, pervading sound which lacked brilliance. He felt American organ builders had taken up the English idea of several eight-foot diapasons and carried it to an extreme. Jamison cited the American approach of pro- viding power through the addition of more and more Q l’E. M. Skinner, "E. M. Skinner on the Modern Organ and Modern Advances,” The Diapason (November, 1932), p. 8. 20 Ibid. 21J. B. Jamison, "Diapason Tone and Leathering," The Diapason (December, 1932), p. 31. 84 eight-foot registers and stated that the voicing of these st0ps had also been marked by increasingly more powerful sounds. The solution lay in the more even distribution of the weight of tone. Jamison's answer to this problem was the Cornet as used by Silbermann. Instead of supplying eight-foot power through indi- vidual registers at that pitch, Jamison favored the supplementing of the pitch by the harmonics present in the Cornet. This would relieve the eight-foot st0ps of having to support the upper work as well as providing both solidity and brilliance. The unison diapasons could then be voiced with a soft, rich tone, which would facilitate their assimilation into the total ensemble. Above these st0ps Jamison would place several mixtures of varying power. His prOposed Great organ appeared as follows:22 16' Diapason 3 1/5' Tenth 8' Diapason 2 2/3' Twelfth 8' Diapason 2 2' Fifteenth (16') IV Harmonics 8' Diapason 3 III Cymbal 8' Diapason u III-IV Cymbal S 1/3' Quint VIII Synthetic u' Octave Mixture u' Principal V Cornet (Diapason h) The Synthetic Mixture possessed no independent pipes but instead was drawn from various other existing 22J. B. Jamison, "The Next Step Forward in Organ Design," The American Organist, XVI (September, 1933), #51-h53- 85 stops. He dismissed the criticism that mutation pitches drawn from unison stops would be out of tune by stating that no one would be able to tell whether they were in tune or not. A lengthy list of possible combinations were given by Jamison in order to demon- strate the wide variety of chorus sounds available from his specification. To this basically English- German type of flue chorus he would add reeds of the British variety. Although this approach represented a step for- ward in the sense of a more balanced chorus, Jamison's proposals did not entirely purify tonal design. The presence of numerous eight—foot diapasons, used in con- junction with a Cornet and Mixtures, did not yet accomplish the idea of a purified ensemble. It is appropriate to list the composition of the manual divisions of the organ built by the Austin Organ Company, for whom Jamison served as tonal director. The organ was installed in St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Oakland, California, in l93u:23 Great 16' Diapason 8' Harmonic 8' Diapason Flute 8' Diapason 2 8' Gemshorn u' Octave u' Flute 2 2/3' Twelfth Ouverte 23The American Organist, XVII (July, l93u), 315. 86 2' Fifteenth V Cornet III Mixture Swell 8' Salicional 16' Gedeckt 16' Fagotto 8' Voix 8' Rohrflute 8' Trumpet Celeste u' Chimney 8' Oboe Flute 8' Vox Humana 8' Geigen 2 2/3' Nasard u' Clarion u' Octave 2' Gemshorn III Mixture Choir 8' Dulciana 8' Concert 8' Clarinet 8' Unda Maris Flute u' English 8' Viola u' Traverse horn Flute 8' Diapason 2 2/3' Twelfth 2' Fifteenth 1 3/5' Seventeenth Although the specification given above is smaller than that of Jamison's proposed organ, it shows he car- ried out the basic premise of his approach in this instru- ment. Not only is the Cornet present on the Great, but also in the Swell, since the Mixture contains the seven- teenth, nineteenth, and twenty-second. Jamison intended for the Cornet to function in the same manner in both the Great and Swell divisions. The rather liberal in- clusion of mutation stops was an advance over instruments of previous years, but the idea of a chorus built on stops of ascending pitches was not achieved in the Choir division. European organs continued to interest American organists. What had been in past years mere items of curiosity now became the subject for serious study by 87 Americans. Some claimed that European instruments held certain secrets revelant to current organ building. Others were skeptical about what the classic organs could reveal to contemporary ears. Howard McKinney, reflecting upon his travels in Europe, saw the basic question as whether the organ was to be solely for church accompaniment or as a concert instrument. The question was crucial in his mind, and it was necessary for American organists to resolve the question. He rejected the romantic, orchestral instrument of the previous decade and asserted that the trend was toward a more classic organ. McKinney indicated that the Germans had already resolved the matter and assumed a new direction. He supplied a brief description of the old organ in Groningen Castle mentioned by Praetorius. McKinney called for the adoption of certain principles inherent in that organ: essential differen- tiation of manuals, labials confined to principals and 21+ bourdons, and the general quality of sound present in that organ which was attained by the use of low wind pressures, slider chests, scales which broaden as they ascend, and pure tin pipes. McKinney's main point was that the technical advances of the day were only useful insofar as they helped organ builders to realize the 2“McKinney was not completely accurate, since the German Baroque organs often included other varieties of flute steps, e.g., the Spitzflote and KOppelflote. 88 great ideals of tha past.25 In this aim he was to be in the company of an increasing number of organists and builders. At the same time other American organists saw Europe's old organs in a different light. William H. Barnes journeyed throughout EurOpe and recorded his views about the historical instruments which he saw and played. He was particularly disdainful of the old Italian organs and called them unimpressive. He advised other Americans not to waste their time going to see such small organs. Barnes criticized the fact that many Italian instruments had no steps sounding below eight-foot pitch and gave a sound which he felt was too weak and lacking in power. The German organs did not fare much better at his hands. He found much fault with their lack of mechanical appointments; he had observed that one large new German instrument was equipped with only two pistons. Although he admitted the brilliance of the mixture st0ps, he nevertheless criticized the reeds as being primitive and too nasal. His major com- plaint, however, concerned the volume of the organs, which he judged to be inadequate. Barnes asserted that sixty sets of pipes in a German organ would equal the 2SHoward McKinney, "Organs of Germany and Their Influence on the Present Day," The Diapason (April, 1933), pp. 10'-110 89 power of an American or English organ of thirty regis- ters. He suggested that a division of Baroque stops might be included in a new organ, but that the remainder 26 of the instrument should be as modern as possible. F. Lewis Eldridge spoke very highly of the old Christian Muller organ in the St. Bavo Kerk in Haarlem, Holland. After describing the beautiful case of the organ, he listed the stops and gave the following des- cription: The general effect of the tone of the full organ can be described as being round and cohesive in the extreme. In the ensemble the roughness of the reeds is not apparent, and the mixture work is not obtrusive. The mixture stops when tried alone are sweet, and not shrill. Although none of the departments are under expression from the swell, the build-up through mutations and reeds, together with the superlative acoustics, give a crescendo which seems to live and breathe. Apart from the acoustics of the building, the main secret of success is the sure touch in the tonal design of the instrument considered as a whole. The flutes of the organ.have a broad tone without being dull. The prestant stops take their place as diapasons and incline toward flutiness, but their tone is gentle and tends to blend well. The scales and metal are good; the cut-up is fairly 7 high and the winding and soundboard room is generous. Eldridge surely touched on the central point, the wholeness of the design. His description of the sound 26William H. Barnes, "Odyssey of an Organ Enthu- siast," The American Organist, XIV (April, 1932), 219-220. 27F. Lewis Eldridge, "Haarlem Organ, Most Famous of its Period, Has 200th Birthday," The Diapason (Septem- ber, 1938), p0 150 90 of the mixture st0ps must have aroused some curiosity about these registers which were appearing more fre- quently in some American organs. The revelations concerning the EurOpean organs by Emerson Richards and others did not fall on deaf ears. Others were aware of deficiencies in the American organ and attempted throughout the decade to correct them. Of all those involved, two men stand out as having contributed most substantially to this new direction: G. Donald Harrison and Walter Holtkamp. Harrison, an Englishman by birth, did his early work with the Henry Willis firm before migrating to the United States in 1927. In this country he worked first with the Skinner Organ Company and then with the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company. He was made technical director of the Aeolian-Skinner firm in 1933, an event which placed him in a position to bring about the tonal reforms characteristic of his later instruments. Harrison proceeded to set forth his ideas concerning the tonal design of the organ. He pointed out that the decay of the American organ had come about through exaggerated tendencies, e.g., more and more eight-foot tone, higher wind pressures, and loud voicing. The low wind pressure diapasons of Edmund Schulze and the reeds of Henry 91 Willis were praised by Harrison, who observed that these builders had rarely, if ever, found it necessary to em- ploy more than one such unison register to support the ensemble. He rejected the assertion by some that organ design in 1932 should be a COpy of the instrument of Silbermann's day, but nevertheless made it clear that he believed the new directions were basically sound. Harri- son declared that it would be best to absorb into his system the basic tonal ideals of earlier instruments without sacrificing the best of the new voicing tech- niques which had been developed in recent years. He was in hearty agreement with the return to certain classic principles such as providing a characteristic ensemble on each manual, lower wind pressures, clarity, and a transparent tone. At the same time he did not rule out the use of orchestral solo st0ps and other soft work.28 One of the weakest divisions of the American organ at that time was the pedal division. In the early part of the twentieth century this division had been re- duced to a handful of st0ps, generally of sixteen—foot pitch, whose purpose was more to shake pews and rattle 29 windows than to provide any independent musical line. 28G. Donald Harrison, "Present Organ Trend Sound in Principle and Not an Imitation,” The Diapason (September, 1933), pp. 22-23. ’3 Lglbid. 92 Emerson Richards advocated a completely independent pedal and the doing away with the practice of augmen- tation (unification). He showed how the use of aug- mentation produced scales which were unsuitable and attacked the idea that the cost of providing more pipes for the pedal would greatly increase the expense of an instrument. What was often overlooked, Richards ob- served, was the fact that while money was indeed saved in the leaving out of many pipes, the unit chests re- quired for augmentation cost a great deal more than the straight variety. It was his contention, which he sup- ported by citing financial figures of several organ builders, that cost of providing independent pedal st0ps was very little more than the expenses involved in unit 30 Many organists were satisfied with the pedal as chests. it was, among them William H. Barnes. He disagreed with Richards, saying the pedal did not need many independent registers since its function was merely to provide a solid bass for the manuals. Barnes attributed the call for independent pedal divisions to " . . . the severely classically-minded enthusiasts." He felt it was more important to provide the colorful stops on the manuals 3OEmerson Richards, "Pedal Organ Discoveries," The American Organist, XVI (October, 1933), A99-SOH. 93 than to worry about making the pedal independent.3l William King Covell asserted that no great music could be played on organs which did not possess independent pedal divisions. He laid the blame for the augmented pedal on electric action which had freed the builder from having to provide all independent registers and declared that it was not only possible but necessary to design straight pedal divisions which were in keeping with the manuals. Covell suggested several possible designs and stated that the increased cost of such designs would be .32 almost negligible. Pedal 16' Diapason 16' Bourdon 8' Principal h' Octave IV Mixture Great 8' Diapason 16' Quintaton h' Principal II Rauschquinte T? v Mixture Except for the lower pitches of the mixtures, Covell's specification could have served as the model for a small Arp Schnitger organ of the late seventeenth century. Many organists of Covell's time must have been 31William H. Barnes, "Pedal Organs," The Amer- ican Opganist, XVI (October, 1933), 515. 32William King Covell, "Straight Pedal Organs," The American Organist, XVII (June, 193H), 289-270. an shocked by such radical proposals. For the Swell division of his organ he proposed a full diapason chorus supplemented by a Viola d'gamba 8' and Celeste, and two reeds-—Fagotto 16' and Trumpet 8'.33 G. Donald Harrison gave one organ builder's view on the question, stating that there was no question as to the great superiority of the independent pedal. He had observed the unbalanced effect of eight-foot registers when derived from their respective sixteen- foot stops and revealed that the attempts to overcome this deficiency by experimenting with various curious scales had failed. The stop list of the pedal division in the organ for All Saints Church, Worchester, Massa- chusetts, was cited by Harrison as representative of his approach.3u It is revealing to compare the afore- mentioned specification with that for the Wicks organ 35 in St. Alphonsus Church, St. Louis, Missouri. Aeolian-Skinner, 1933 Wicks, 1935 Pedal Pedal 32' Soubasse 32' Resultant 16' Principal 16' Diapason 16' Contrebasse 16' Diapason (Gt.) 33Ibid. 3I‘I’G. Donald Harrison, "A Straight Pedal Organ," The American Organist, XVI (November, 1933), 5H9. 35The American Organist, XVII (April, 1935), 157. 95 16' Soubasse (32') 16' Subbass 16' Diapason (Gt.) 16' Violone 16' Violone (Ch.) 16' Bourdon (Sw.) 16' Flute 10 2/3' Bourdon (Sw.) Conique (Sw.) 8' Diapason (16') 10 2/3' Grosse Quinte 8' Subbass (16') 8' Octave 8' Bourdon (Sw.) 8' Flute Ouverte 8' Violone (16') 8' Viola (Ch.) 5 l/3' Bourdon (Sw.) 8t Flfite 16' Tuba (Gt.) Conique (Sw.) 6 2/5' Grosse Tierce 5 1/3' Quint u' Su er Octave up Fl te III Sesquialtera 32' Contre Bombarde 16' Bombarde (32') 8' Trumpet h' Clarion Although there are two borrows and duplexes of manual stops to the pedal in the instrument designed by Harrison, the division as a whole contains an unusually large number of independent registers. The Wicks organ shows a completely different concept, one which was more widespread than that advocated by Harrison and others. Emphasis is on sixteen-foot tone, as had been recommended by William H. Barnes. There is no stop sounding four- foot pitch or above and no independent register above sixteen-foot. 36 organs. The Resultant 32' was typical of many A long series of large instruments were influenced by Harrison, and each organ represented in its own way 36The thirty-two-foot pitch was a combination tone resulting from the Bourdon 16' and Bourdon 10 2/3'. 96 his ideas concerning a clarified ensemble. Among those early organs were the instruments in the Memorial Chapel, Harvard University (1932), St. Mary the Virgin Episcopal Church, New York City (1933), All Saints Church, Wor- chester, Massachusetts (l93h), Grace Episcopal Cathedral, San Francisco, California (193h), Groton School Chapel (1935), and Church of the Advent, Boston, Massachusetts (1936). The organ built for the Church of the Advent was planned and carried out along the lines of the somewhat earlier Groton Chapel instrument. The dis- position is given here:37 Pedal 16' Contrabass 32' Subbass 16' Bombarde 16' Bourdon 8' Trompette 16' Principal (32') H' Clarion 8' Principal 16' Lieblich S 1/3' Quint Gedeckt (Sw.) u' Principal 8' Flfite Ouverte III Mixture 8' Gedeckt (Sw.) II Fourniture h' Harmonic Flute Great l6' Sub-Principal 8' Harmonic Flute 8' Principal 8' Diapason S 1/3' Gross Quinte H' Octave ' Principal 2 2/3' Quint 2' Super Octave V Sesquialtera IV Fourniture III Cymbel 37The American Organist, XIX (September, 1936), 305- Swell 8' Viola da 16' Lieblich 16' Bombarde Gamba Gedeckt 8' Trompette l 8' Viole Celeste 8' StOpped 8' Trompette 2 8' Echo Flute 8' Vox Humana Salicional h' Flauto h' Clarion H' Fugara Traverso 8' Geigen u' Geigen 2' Fifteenth III Grave Mixture III Plein Jeu Positive h' Principal 8' Rohrfloete IV Scharf u' Koppelfloete 2 2/3' Nasard 2' Blockfloete 1 3/5' Tierce l' Siffloete Choir 8' Dolcan h' Zauber- 8' Clarinet 8' Dolcan Celeste floete 8' Trumpet 8' Viola The harmonic fullness of the Great and Pedal are most striking. The presence of five compound stops in these two divisions is noteworthy, especially when we recall the mixtureless organs of twenty years prior. One remaining element of the earlier years is seen in the presence of two diapason st0ps of eight- foot pitch, although these st0ps were voiced to give different tone qualities. The Swell also displays a complete ensemble capped with two mixtures, one for flue and the other for reed ensemble. When employed 1 witn the reeds these mixtures give a very brilliant 98 sound, thus making unnecessary the very high pressure stops of the early part of the century. The Church of the Advent organ also contained one division which was a direct example of the study of old European organs-~the Positive. This division was placed in the open and consisted of principals and flutes voiced with a very clear and assertive tone. It was considered a necessity by Harrison for the correct playing of the music of J. S. Bach and other Baroque composers. The departure from the usual Baroque practice lay in the fact that no reeds were included and that the Sesquialtera was divided into two separate registers. The incorporation of such a division was nevertheless a giant step forward in granting to the organ tonal design which was well integrated in its general scheme. If Harrison's organs seem somewhat conserva- tive to observers of today, it must be pointed out that his proposals stood in stark contrast to those of many of his contemporaries. A perusal of repre- sentative stop-lists by other builders reveals how wide the gulf was. The specification of the Pilcher organ built in 1938 for the Reid Memorial United Presbyterian Church, Richmond, Indiana, is illustrative.38 Pedal l6' Violone 16' Lieblich Gedeckt (Sw.) 16' Dulciana 38The American Orggnist, XXI (April, 1938), 2. 8' Cello (16') 16' Diapason 8' Octave (16') Great 8' Gamba 8' Melodia 8' Trumpet h' Flute 16' Diapason d'amour 8' First Diapason 8' Second Diapason u' Octave 2' Fifteenth III Mixture Swell 8' Viol d' 16' Lieblich 8' Cornopean orchestre Gedeckt 8' Oboe 8' Viol 8' Gedeckt Celeste H' Flute h' Fugara Harmonique 2' Flautino 8' Violin Diapason 8' Diapason u' Octave Choir 8' Dulciana 8' Concert 8' Clarinet 8' Unda Maris Flute u' Flauto 8' Diapason Traverso 2' Piccolo Echo 8' Viola 8' Hohlflbte 8' Vox Humana 8' Viola u' Waldlete Celeste V Harmonic Aetheria The tonal design of the Richmond, Indiana, organ could not have been farther from Harrison's approach. 100 The ideas of the early part of the century are firmly expressed in this organ, and very little progress is evident. Although the Great organ has a semblance of ensemble, the remainder of the divisions are an assort- ment of various tone qualities with little relationship to each other. The Pedal division was particularly de— ficient because it contained only three independent stops, all of which were of sixteen-foot pitch. Other builders showed the same reluctance to accept the ideas of the reformers. It is clear that organ builders had to work then, as well as now, with organists in drawing up specifications for new organs. Some dispositions indicate that many organists were satisfied with most of the old ways. Typical of M. P. MBIler's work during the period was the organ built in l9hl for James Memorial Chapel, Union Theological Sem- inary, New York City:39 Pedal 16' Violone 16' Bourdon 16' Posaune 16' Contra 16' Gedeckt 16' Fagotto Dulciana (Sw.) (Sw.) (Ch.) 8' Bourdon 8' Posaune (16') (16') 16' First 8' Gedeckt H' Clarion Diapason (Sw.) (16') 16' Second H' Hohlflute Diapason (Sw.) 8' Octave (16') 8' Principal (16') 39The Diapason (November, l9ul), p. l. Great 16' III-I 8t 81 8! L“ 2! V Swell III-I Choi 1 Solo 8! 8: 81 )4: 8! t V r 6' 81 8t 8: 81 81 Violone Viole d'amour First Diapason Second Diapason Octave Super Octave Plein Jeu Viole Viole Celeste Echo Salicional Salicet (8') Geigen Principal Octave Cymbel Contra Dulciana Dulciana (16') Unda Maris Diapason Viola da Gamba Viola Celeste 101 8: Clarabella H' Harmonic 81 LL' 2 2/3' 21 1 3/5' 8! )4! Flute Bourdon Hohlflute Flauto Traverso Flautino Concert Flute Flute d'amour Nazard Spitzflute Tierce Orchestral Flute Harmonic Gedeckt 8' Tuba (Solo) 8' Trumpet (Solo) u' Clarion (Solo) 16' Fagotto 8' Trumpet (16') 8' Oboe 8' Vox Humana H' Clarion (16') 8' Clarinet 8' Tuba 8' Trumpet 8' Orchestral Oboe 8' French horn 8' English horn u' Clarion (8') 102 The design of the instrument is strongly tied to the orchestral tradition with the Choir and Solo divisions packed with imitative stops, both strings and reeds. Although the Choir does contain two muta- tions, the remainder of stops in that division are orchestral strings and reeds. The Swell is alloted an abundance of eight- and four-foot stops, although there is a diminutive chorus of principal stops pres- ent including a mixture. Typically, the greatest weak- ness lies in the Pedal, which has only five independent stops. The remainder of the stops are either borrows from the manual divisions or extensions of other Pedal registers. The tonal design of the instrument illustrates the fact that many organists were not willing to sacri- fice a wide assortment of orchestral stops in order to have an independent and balanced Pedal division. In 1937 the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company built an instrument for the Germanic Museum at Harvard Univer- sity which gave impetus to the reform movement. The organ was completely unenclosed and had the following resources 3’40 Pedal 8' Principal 16' Bourdon 16' Posaune IV Fourniture 8' Gedecktbass 8' Trumpet (16') uOThe American Organist, XX (May, 1937), 166. 103 H' Nachthorn h' Krummhorn 2' Blockfloete (Pos.) Great 8' Principal 16' Quintade H' Principal 8' Spitzfloete 2 2/3' Quint u' Rohrfloete 2' Super Octave IV Fourniture Positiv III Cymbel 8' Koppel- 8' Krummhorn floete H' Nacht- , horn 2 2/3' Nasat 2' Block- floete 1 3/5' Terz l' Siffloete This was an example of Harrison's so-called Baroque organ. He built it to try to recapture the fundamental character of the organ which, he felt, had been lost in the Romantic era. The instrument resembled the organ of the German Baroque era, except for the fact that it contained no principal stop on the Positiv divi- sion. The organ earned both the praise and scorn of organists for years and has taken its place as one of the most significant instruments of the early years of the reform movement.l‘Ll E. Power Biggs utilized the instrument for a lengthy series of J. S. Bach recitals, events which ulHarrison' organ was replaced by a three- xnanual and pedal organ by D. A. Flentrop in 1958. 104 would hardly have proved worthwhile twenty years ear- lier. Although many musicians were interested in this new instrument, numerous organists stayed away from the series, obviously displeased with the design of the instrument and what it implied.LIre One who did go, however, was William H. Barnes, who said of the organ: One of the most interesting things about this organ, which I particularly observed in hearing Mr. Biggs play a Handel Concerto, some Bach choral preludes, and some of the precursors of Bach upon it, was the fact that it was possible not only to get the ne- cessary clarity for playing contrapuntal music, but that some of the soft effects with the mutations and Siffloete were positively ear tickling. Actu- ally quite as much so as some of our much vaunted modern solo effects, such as French horns, Flute Celestes and other orchestral voices. This was something of a revelation to me, and no doubt will be to many another organist who may be misled by thinking that the term "classic" organ is synonomous with such words as severe, figstere and cold. It need not necessarily be so. Barnes hastened to add, however, that in his opinion the organ could serve as Great and Choir divisions of a three-manual organ, with the addition of a modern uh Swell organ. Harrison had built the Harvard organ to re- capture a lost spirit, not to set a fixed direction. “Z"Power Biggs Makes History at Harvard's New Baroque Organ," The-Diapason (January, 1938), p. h. h3William H. Barnes, The Contemporary American Or an (3rd ed.; New York: J. Fischer and Bro., 1937), p. 186. qubid., pp. 165-166. 105 Actually he was impressed with and interested in Cavaillé-Coll organs and the brilliant French reeds. Blend was his principal consideration, and he insisted that the most important achievement in an organ was the fusing of the various elements. In this respect he was critical of the high pressure reeds used by rE some builders. Harrison's reeds were characterized by a brilliant, fiery tone and voiced in such a manner so as to blend with other stops. He rarely included (F: in?“ them in the Great organs he designed, but placed several such chorus and solo stops in the Swell instead.LLS Harrison's instruments gradually began to take shape in the form of a Great, an enclosed Swell, an unenclosed Positiv, and Pedal. If the instrument had greater resources, an enclosed Choir might be added. This general scheme was later to be adopted by many American organ builders and served as a basic approach for organ building for over two decades. Emerson Richards was in full accord with Harrison's efforts. The two men were good friends, and both were concerned with the American organ and its trends in tonal design. Richards' numerous articles served to articulate the new ideas and acquaint other organists with the Iaroposals for reform. In trying to arrive at an expres- Sion.with which to describe the new approach, Richards 85G. Donald Harrison, “Chorus Reeds are Ensemble, not Solo," The American Organist, XXIV (June, l9ul), pp. 172-17LL- lO6 praised Harrison and Walter Holtkamp for carrying out the new ideas so successfully. He summed up his views on what constituted the new "American-Classic" in a description of the rebuilding of the Aeolian-Skinner organ in the Church of St. Mary the Virgin, New York City, designed by G. Donald Harrison and Ernest White, organist of the church. An analysis of each division of the organ as originally built and in its rebuilt form is illustrative.b’6 Great, 1932 16' Principal 8' Flute 16' Double 8' Principal Harmonique 8' Trumpet 8' Diapason 8' Gemshorn u' Clarion 5 1/3' Quint A! Flfite H' Octave H' Principal 3 1/5' Grosse Tierce 2 2/3' Twelfth 2' Fifteenth V Harmonics Great, l9h3 16' Principal 16' Quintaton 8' Montre 8' Bourdon 5 1/3' Quint 8' Quintaton (16') ' Prestant u' Flfite Couverte 3 1/5' Grosse Tierce 2 2/3' Octave Quint 2' Doublette V Harmonics III-V Fourniture III Cymbale M)Emerson Richards, "An American-classic Organ Arrives," The American Organist, XXVI (May, l9u3), 106-108. 107 The pitch differentiation of manuals was carried out by placing the Great at sixteen-foot pitch, the Swell at eight-foot, and the Positifu7 at four-foot. The new scheme called for a change of the structure of the Great from a reliance on reeds to a full flue chorus, which was accomplished by removing the three trumpets under high wind pressure and placing two new chorus mixtures in the division. The use of two or more unison diapasons was rejected; Harrison considered one such stop sufficient to support the chorus."L8 Swell, 1932 8' Salicional 16' Flfite 16' Bombarde 8' Voix Celeste Conique 8' Trompette 8' Viole 8' Rohrfloete 8' Oboe Sourdine H' Flfite 8' Vox Humana 8' Voix Aeolienne Triangul- h' Clarion H' Salicet aire 2' Salicetina 8' Principal h' Octave IV Sesquialtera V Plein Jeu Swell, 19A3 8' Salicional 16t Flfite 16' Bombarde 8' Voix Celeste Conique 8' Trompette 8' Viole 8' Bourdon 8' Oboe Sourdine a Chéminee 8' Vox Humana 8' Voix u' Flfite A' Clarion Aeolienne Couverte u7The use of French terminology in the organ was at the insistence of Mr. White, organist of the church. uaRichards, "An American-classic Organ Arrives," pp. 106-108. 108 h' Salicet 2 2/3' Nazard 2' Salicetina III Cornet V Plein Jeu The Swell division was changed less than the other manuals. The eight- and four-foot principals which had been in the Swell were melted down to pro- 1% vide metal for the Gambas on the Positif, leaving the Swell without principal st0ps at any pitch.89 The chief requirement for a Swell in Harrison's con- 1 L cept was a battery of chorus reeds capped by a mix- ture. The presence of principal st0ps in the Swell was not considered a necessity, although he provided them whenever funds allowed their inclusion.50 Choir, 1932 16' Contra 8' Concert 16' Bassoon Dulciana Flute 8' Trumpet 8' Viole 8' Spitz- 8' Clarinet 8' Viole flute h' Clarion Celeste h' Flute d'amour 8' Geigen u' Gemshorn Principal 2 2/3' Nazard V Sesquial- 2' Piccolo tera 1 3/5' Tierce 1 1/3' Larigot Positif, 19A3 16' Salicional 8' rlfite \ 16' Musette 8' Viole Traversiere 8' Cromorne Q 0 O O C u’Restrlctlons on tin and other metals during the war precluded the making of new metal pipes. g0 . . . D ’ Richards, "An American-claSSlc Organ Arrives," pp. 129-131. 109 8' Viole u' Flute 8' Clarinet Celeste d'amour u' Chalumeau 8' Gambe 2 2/3' Nazard 8' Gambe 2' Piccolo Celeste 1 3/5' Tierce 1 1/3' Larigot u' Principal IV Cymbale The Positif, transformed from an old Choir, !_ 5 remained enclosed in a swell box. This, together with l the presence of the strings, was not satisfactory in Richards' opinion. Both he and Harrison favored an unenclosed Positiv containing flutes, principals, mix- EJ tures, and short resonator reeds. In spite of these few qualifications, Richards nevertheless considered the St. Mary Positif as basically sound in design. The eight-feet flute, Principal and Cymbale formed the ensemble of the division and were supplemented by three mutations and four ranks of strings, the latter at the insistence of Mr. White. The most significant change was the inclusion of the short resonator reeds, which increased the effectiveness of the division as a Baroque unit. Richards was very complimentary about the sound of the reeds, saying they produced a light, 51 hollow and penetrating sound. The new design also allowed for a Bombarde division of ten steps. Due to the restriction on new metals, however, the steps were not available at the time of rebuilding. 511bid. Pedal, 16' 16' 8! 16' 16' g: 6 2/5' S 1/3' h' IV Pedal, 16' 16' g: 8' u: u: 16' 5 1/3' 1+1 IV IV II 110 1932 Dulciana 16' Centre Basse Violon- cello (16') 16' 10 2/3‘ 81 u: Principal Diapason (Gt.) Octave (16') Gross Tierce Quint (16') Principal (16') Harmonics 21 19A3 Centre Basse Salicional (Ch.) Centre Basse (16') Salicional (Ch.) Centre Basse (16') Salicional (Ch.) 16' 16' 81 LL' ’4' Principal (Gt.) Quint Doublette Grand Cornet Fourniture Carillon Flfite Ouxerte Flute Conique (Sw.) Quint Flute (16') Octave Flute (16') Kleine Flute (16') Quintaton Flfite Conique (Sw.) Quintaton (16') Flfite Conique (SW.) Quintaton (16') Plate Conique (Sw.) Quintaton (16') 32' 16' 16' 16' 8' g: 8' u: u: u: 32' 16' 16' 8' g: u: I Contre Bombarde Bombarde (32') Double Trumpet (Gt.) Bassoon (Ch.) Trumpet (Gt.) Trompette ; (16') L Bassoon 'y‘ (Ch.) 1 J Clarion M” (16') Clarion (Gt.) Bassoon (Ch.) Centre Bombarde Bombarde (32') Musette (Ch.) Trompette (16') Musette (Pos.) Clarion (16') Musette (Pos.) Almost all the voices in the Pedal division \vere new or reworked. Since there was a need for new lll ‘ranks, the old Diapason 16' was melted and a new wood Centre Basse 16' was provided. Richards observed that 'the use of unification resulted from the lack of new jpipes. This made the Pedal somewhat less than satis- :factery. The design, however, was to provide the Pedal Vdith as many independent steps as possible and especially ”2 to provide an independent principal chorus. If the mat- erials had been readily available Harrison would have included more Pedal registers.52 E! The basic design of this "American-classic“ instrument provided the fundamental approach evident in IIarrison's later instruments. Additional refinements tvere made, but the basic approach remained the same. 'The contributions of Harrison to the American organ re- :form were of great importance because they were made at 21 time when many other organists and organ builders were <3entent to have instruments whose main quality seemed to lee the ability to make a tremendous amount of noise and :imitate the orchestra. Harrison's whole attitude toward <3rgan design is succinctly stated in his own words: It seems to me that the only way to build ar- tistic and successful instruments is to have knowledge of what has gone before, and to thorough- ly understand the underlying principles upon which the great works of the past have been based. The works produced are then originals, and while they 52Ibid., pp. 153-15A. 112 can possess all the advantages of other good work, they have theiquwn personality and re- flect their own time. Walter Holtkamp Another builder who worked diligently to solve the problems of tonal design was Walter Holtkamp, who E} had assumed direction of his father's firm in 1931. Holtkamp referred frequently to Schweitzer's Out ofqu Life and '.‘L‘hou:»h.t.5LL He started at the same point as ‘EZZ had Harrison-~dissatisfactien with the American organ. One of his principal complaints was the placing of organs in chambers, a process which he thought bottled up the tone. The location of the old European Ruck- positiv must have exerted a strong influence on Holt- kamp, for in 1933 he built an unenclosed Positiv divi- sion to be added to the existing E. M. Skinner organ in the Cleveland Museum of Art. This addition had come about as a result of discussions between Paul Quimby, Melville Smith, and Holtkamp concerning the playing of the works of J. S. Bach. Their conclusions were that the organ needed freedom from enclosure and a broad— ening of the tone so that clarity could be achieved. 53‘33. Scott Buhrman, "Clarity and Its Develop- znent," The American Orggnist, XX (February, 1937), u7-so. 58F. H. Weber, "H Holtkamp Story," The Diapason (April, l962),'p. 28. 113 The Cleveland Positiv, which was widely publicized, was a significant step toward that goal. It stood on the balcony rail directly above the main floor and was located behind the organist. The pipes stood entirely in the open and were free to speak without any hindrance. Holtkamp asserted that only in that way would a pipe adapt itself to its neigh- bors, using the ceiling and walls of the building as 55 case work to blend and project the sounds. It is interesting to note that many of the ideas expressed by Holtkamp in describing the building of the Cleveland Positiv guided his approach to organ building for many succeeding years. He opposed the forced voicing of pipes which, he felt, made them re— bellious. The matter of wind pressure was of central importance and involved the whole nature of the organ. Holtkamp observed that high wind pressure tended to rob pipes of their individuality and caused them not to complement each other in a natural manner. On the other hand, he believed that low wind pressure allowed pipes to speak easily and with a free tone, to develop their own harmonics, and also to be a contributing mem— ber of the ensemble. The pipes of the Cleveland Posi- SSWalter Holtkamp, "Building the Ruckpositiv," The American Organist, XVII (March, l93h), l22—l2h. 11L; tiv were voiced to produce a percussive attack, which Holtkamp considered necessary to impart the much need- ed elements of gaiety and joy to the tone.56 One of his early instruments was the organ built in 193M for St. John's Church, Covington, Ken- tucky. The result was an organ of modest but straight— forward character. In a description of the instrument, Holtkamp wrote of the manner in which they placed the organ in a free-standing position to achieve a free and relaxed speech from the pipes. The disposition is given below:57 Pedal 16' Contre 16' Quintaton 8' Posaune Bass (Gt.) 8' Cello Great 8' Salicional 16' Quintaton h' Ludwigtone 8' Principal u' Prestant Swell 8' Viola 8' Harmonic h' Oboe- da Gamba Flute Clarion V Mixture u' Gemshorn 2 2/3' Nasard 1 3/5' Tierce 56Ibid. S7Walter Holtkamp, "An Organ to See and Hear," The American Organist, XVIII (July, 1935), 269-271. 115 Several characteristics of the organ are of importance. Although the resources of the instrument were relatively small, Holtkamp included two mutations and one mixture. The allotment of three independent registers to the Pedal also indicates an attempt to discard the idea of using that division only as a support to the manuals. Both of these actions indi- cate that Holtkamp was trying to impart to the organ a sense of chorus and independence of the various di- visions. He arranged the pipes on the chests so as to form a visual composition pleasing to the eye. It is also noteworthy that the instrument did not contain tremulants, celestes, or a Vox Humana. In 1937 St. Philomena's Church, Cleveland, Ohio, placed the responsibility of building its new organ with Holtkamp. The instrument contained a total of thirty-three registers, all of which were indepen- dent. Also significant was the inclusion of a Ruck- positiv, which was claimed to be the first instance 8 of such a division in modern America.5 The specifi- 59 cations are as follows: 58Two earlier examples are known: the Erben organ in Trinity Church, New York City, built in 18h6, and the Jardine instrument in the First Presbyterian Church, Newburgh, New York, built ca. 1863. 59The American Organist, XXI (February, 1938), 60. 116 Pedal 16' Dulciana 16' Bourdon 8' Posaune 16' Violone 16' Gross- floete 8' Octave h' Choral- bass IV Vorsatz Great 8' Salicional 16' Lieblich Gedeckt 8' Diapason 8' Bourdon h' Principal h' Hohl- II Tierce floete Swell 8' Gambe 8' Flute 8' Schalmei 8' Viole 8' Ludwig- 8' Vox 2' Fugara tone Humana h' Octave u' Oboe V Plein Jeu Flute Clarion Ruckpositiv u' Prestant 8' Quintaton 2' Doublette 8' Gemshorn III Cymbal h' Rohrfloete 2 2/3' Nazard 1 3/5' Tierce Each division, including the Pedal, contains its full principal ensemble in addition to supplemen- tary flute and string stops. The Great Tierce is made ‘up of 2' and 1 3/5' pitches. Perhaps the most striking thing about the instrument is that two of the three manual divisions are unenclosed, a fact which must have been startling to many organists in 1937. The Buck- positiv was projected out from the gallery rail and gave 117 a free and unencumbered tone. Holtkamp stated that the location of the Ruckpositiv enabled it to develOp a distinctive individuality quite apart from any dif- ference caused by disposition or voicing. He indicated that the division would possess a different character if it were placed with the remainder of the organ. The complete Pedal division represented an improvement on earlier organs he had built and was typical of his later instruments. Holtkamp experimented extensively with the basic components of the organ and how to achieve the best results. One of his most important contributions to organ building was the reintroduction of the slider chest. The organs of the Baroque era had employed the slider or spring chest, but the advent of electric actions of various types had discouraged their use and they eventually disappeared. Holtkamp began to experiment with the slider chest with electro-pneumatic pull-downs and found many things about it advantageous. He declared that pipes needed some type of sympathetic relationship and that it was impossible with the types of chests in use at that time. Holtkamp believed that the musicality of the old European organs was not fully recreated by modern builders and that part of the problem 6Droid. 118 lay in the wind chest design. The credit for attention to wind chest construction and design must be given to Holtkamp, since he was the first to assert that they had to be a basic part of the tonal concept. The attack of the pipes was more important than their tone to Holtkamp, and he believed that the cleanest and most precise attack was possible only when slider chests were employed. He claimed this gave the player more musical feeling and imparted to the playing better rhythm and generally cleaner results.61 One of his earliest uses of slider chests was in the small organ built in 1938 for Emmanuel Lutheran Church, Rochester, NewYork.62 Pedal 8' Choralbass 16' Subbass Great 8' Principal h' Nachthorn Swell u' Prestant 8' Quintaton IV Cornet Holtkamp's Opinions concerning the slider chest are stated in his remarks about this organ: While it is yet too early to make a general statement about the results we have achieved 61Walter Holtkamp, "Plea for Reviving the Slider Chest," The American Organist, XXII (January, 1939), 13-15. 62T. Scott Buhrman, "A Miniature Sliderchest Organ," The American Organist, XXI (April, 1938), 136. 119 with the Sliderchest, my observations to date convince me that it has possibilities way beyond our present comprehension. I am now convinced there are many advantages in the Sliderchest, or note—chamber chest. It promotes fuller and more ample sonorities; it helps produce clearer and more agreeable results in contrapuntal music; and it encourages legato and even super-legato touch. Some builders R abroad even go so far as to state quite positive- ‘ 1y that the Sliderchest is the one and only true chest. In America we may never go to that extreme but I am convinced that eventually the Sliderchest will play aémuch more important part in organ building. “- Few statements about organ building have been more prophetic than Holtkamp's remarks about the possibilities of the Sliderchest, for future years were to see its increasing acceptance by other builders. The process was quite slow, however, and many organists did not share his opinions about resurrecting the slider chest. The venerable organ expert, William H. Barnes, had a different opinion. He recalled his years of playing tracker action organs while a young boy and declared he did not like the slider chest at all. He enumerated his objections: noisiness, sticking sliders, robbing of air, and the increased cost of making sliders. Barnes con— sidered sliderchests old—fashioned and to use them would be a step backward.6u Holtkamp persisted, however, and 'used the Sliderchest in most of his organs and succeeded 631bid. 61LWilliam H. Barnes, “The Sliderchest," The American Organist, XXII (April, 1939), 131—132. 120 in achieving what many organists considered to be a very musical result. The tonal design of the Rochester organ shows the germ of an approach which was to become typical of Holtkamp. There are no duplications of pitch within the divisions, and all the stops are of pure organ tone. There were no orchestral registers. Holtkamp's descrip- tion of the voicing sheds some light on the quality of sound: The Great 8' Principal (used in the front pipes of the case) is far from being a bold Diapason of the English variety; the tone is mild and broad; it has that peculiar singing quality produced only by low pressure and wide low-cut mouths. The A' Nachthorn is an open metal flutgsof large scale, precise and positive in speech. Holtkamp was obviously after a milder sound than that found in the roaring organs of twenty years earlier. The utilization of low wind pressure and wide, low-cut mouths produced a singing and unforced quality which was not unlike the German Baroque instruments. Perhaps the most important element of Holtkamp's design, however, 'was the insistence on ensemble regardless of the size of the organ. Holtkamp did not preclude the inclusion of orchestral imitations or other organ effects, but he