THE EFFECTS OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE COURSE usma THE PROCESS APPROACH 7 Hi DEVELGPiNG ATTITUDES AND CGMPETENCEES 0F PROSPECTWE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AT CEBU NORMAL CGLLEGE, CEBU CEIY, PHILEPPENES ’ Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MECHIGAN STATE UNIVERSRTY ULY KENTANAR SABULAO £973 Lima/1r; Y E Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECTS OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE COURSE USING THE PROCESS APPROACH IN DEVELOPING ATTITUDES AND COMPETENCIES 0F PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AT CEBU NORMAL COLLEGE, CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES presented by Lily Kintanar Sabulao has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education . ”4&7 fl/fi’LV/m flajor professor Date '4— H‘ ‘ 4‘ 0-7639 ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE COURSE USING THE PROCESS APPROACH lN DEVELOPING ATTITUDES AND COMPETENCIES OF PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AT CEBU NORMAL COLLEGE, CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES By Lily Kintanar Sabulao The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an experimental curriculum combining a physical science course using the process approach and elementary science methods course in devel0ping the attitudes and competencies of prospective elementary school teachers at the Cebu Normal College, Cebu City, Philippines. Rela- tionships which existed between intelligence, process, attitude toward teacher-pupil relationship, and content in physical science were examined, along with differences existing between IQ levels and treat- ment groups for outcomes in content, process, and attitude. The population consisted of 90 prospective elementary teachers in their junior year regularly enrolled in the course, Physical Sci- ence, school year l97l-l972. Eighty-five of the subjects were females and five were males. Lily Kintanar Sabulao The instruments used to measure attitude,.process, content, and intelligence were: the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, Sci- ence Process Test for Elementary Teachers, A Content-Understanding Test and SRA Verbal Intelligence tests. All data to which statistical tests were applied were secured from scores made by subjects on the instruments. These data were analyzed by the t-tests, correlation techniques, and two-way analysis of variance. The 0.05 level of con- fidence was held for the rejection of the hypotheses tested. The design was a longitudinal study without a control group. The instruction of the science content of the course was organized around physical science concepts developed in the area, Matter and Energy. Most of the activities were taken from the Elementary Sci- ence Curriculum Guides l-6, constructed in l967 by the Bureau of Public Schools, Philippines, with the adoption of the process approach in the elementary science curriculum. The elementary science methods part of the course included an orientation of the use of the curri- culum guides using the process approach. A peer-group teaching ex- perience was included to give students opportunities to teach a con- cept and a process skill. The experimental curriculum also included lectures and independent study questions that were off-shoot of labor- atory experiences and discussions. The teaching procedure for the treatment groups was a weekly two-hour lecture and weekly four-hour Lily Kintanar'Sabulao laboratory: two-hour modular laboratory and two-hour recitation laboratory. The individual and group laboratory aimed to develop the basic and integrated processes of the process approach. The pertinent findings of this study were: I. There was a significant improvement between pre- and post-test measures in content and process at the end of the study. This indicates that treatment improved significantly the process and content competencies of the subjects. 2. There did not appear a significant improvement in the pre-post tests in students' attitude towards teacher-pupil relation- ship. Results showed significant improvement of attitude occurring in the High IQ group only. Since IQ was not related at all to atti- tude as shown in the study, this could be attributed to some vari- ables not accounted for in this study. 3. A significant increased positive correlation between process and content was found after treatment. This infers that as students became more competent in the processes during the course, they became more competent in the science content. A. Intelligence and process became significantly correlated in the course of the study. This indicates that the high IQ subjects of the study developed better process competency than the low IQ subjects. Lily Kintanar Sabulao 5. Relationship of intelligence and content was not found substantial at the end of the study. Findings pointed to treatment contributing inversely to the IQ groups, that the High IQ subjects did not gain as much as the low IQ group. 6. There were no significant correlations between intelli- gence and attitude. This infers that IQ is not an index of students' positive attitude towards teacher-pupil relationship. 7. A significant difference existed among the IQ levels in the three post-test criterion measures. A post hoc comparison re- vealed a highly significant difference between the High and Low IQ groups. This indicates that of the three IQ groups, the student with the high IQ has the better chances of improving her science competencies in process and content than the student with the low IQ. 8. There were no significant differences between the treat- ment groups in the process and content competencies at the post-test. This was expected as learning experiences were made as consistent as possible to the three class sections in spite of different schedules and subjects not organized according to IQ. However, a significant difference existed between two treatment groups in their attitude towards teacher-pupil relationship. 9. There were no significant interaction effects between IQ groups and class sections in process and content. This indicates Lily Kintanar Sabulao that there were no significant mean differences between the gains of the three class sections in process and content due to IQ distribution in the class sections. THE EFFECTS OF A PHYSICAL SCIENCE COURSE USING THE PROCESS APPROACH IN DEVELOPING ATTITUDES AND COMPETENCIES OF PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AT CEBU NORMAL COLLEGE, CEBU CITY, PHILIPPINES By Lily Kintanar Sabulao A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education I973 (:D COPYRIGHT BY LILY KINTANAR SABULAO I973 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Deep appreciation is extended to Dr. Shirley A. Brehm for her invaluable assistance in guiding this study. The writer also wishes to express her sincere gratitude for the suggestions and cooperation of Dr. Julian R. Brandou, Dr. Glenn Berkheimer, Dr. Alice Davis, and of the late Dr. Wayne Taylor who were members of the Guidance Com- mittee. Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. Maryellen McSweeny whose suggestions on statistical procedures were a great help to the writer; to Dr. Delbert Mueller for his great assistance in selecting the process instrument of the study. The writer would like to thank the Cebu Normal College faculty, especially to Dr. Tecla Revilla for her constant encouragement; to Mr. Teofilo Lutao who assisted her in the statistical part of this research study; to Mrs. Felina de la Victoria for administering the intelligence tests to the subjects of this study; to Mrs. Cerenia Silva for the numerous help extended to the writer; and to the elementary education students who participated as subjects of this research work. The writer wishes to thank her.husband, Rey, and children, her parents, sisters, and brothers, especially Jane, Alice, and David,. for their inspiration, moral support, and sacrifices throughout the different phases of this work. This study would not have been pos- sible without their support. Finally, sincere gratitude is extended to Dr. Vitaliano Bernardino of the Philippine-American Foundation, and to the Ford Foundation, Philippines, for the immeasurable assistance given to the writer in the completion of this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . Chapter I. THE INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l Elementary Science Education in the Philippines. . . . 2 General Objectives of Education and of Science Education in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . A Teacher-Training in the Philippines. . . . . . . . . . 6 The Preparation of Elementary Teachers . . . . . . . . 6 Science in the Teacher-Training Curriculum . . . . . . 7 The New Science Curriculum for Elementary Schools in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Action Research Conducted by the Writer in 1969. . . . l2 Rationale for Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l5 Statement of Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l7 Brief Overview of Design and Hypotheses of the Study . l8 Hypotheses Relevant to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . l9 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2] Definition of Terms Pertinent to the Study . . . . . . 22 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Rationale of the New Experimental Programs in Elementary School Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Psychological Bases and Learning Theories of the Innovative Elementary Science Prdgrams . . . . . . . 29 Analysis of Piaget's Theories of Learning. . . . . . . 3O Piaget's Theories and Their Implications to Education. 33 Bruner's Theories of Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3A Bruner's Theories and Their Implications to Education. 37 Gagné's Theories of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Gagné's Theories of Learning and Their Implications to Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Gagné and the Process Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . AZ Psychological Basis of the E55 Approach. . . . . . . . A3 Piaget and the SCIS Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . AA Summary of Innovative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . AS Improving Teacher-Education and Elementary Science . . A6 Objectives of Elementary Science Education . . . . . . A7 The Teacher's Role in Teaching Science Using the Innovative Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Summary on Teacher's Role in the New Innovative Programs in Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Impact of Innovative Curricula on Children‘s Learning in Science and in Other Disciplines: Social Studies and Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Cultural Forces Prompting Innovations in the currECUIum O O O O 0 I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 6] Evaluation of Elementary Science Programs as it Relates to Children's Learning . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Effects of Innovative Programs on Children's Compe- tencies in Content and Process Skills. . . . . . . . 69 Effects of Elementary Science Programs on Attitudes of Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7h Related Studies of the Present Investigation . . . . . 77 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Ill. PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 The Experimental Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 The Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 The Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOZ vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA Pre- and Post-Tests Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO3 Correlation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l07 Process Competency Measure Post-Test Data. . . . . . . ll6 Content-Understanding Post-Test Measure Data . . . . . Il9 Attitude Post-Test Measure Data. . . . . . . . . . . . I20 Post Hoc Comparison Post-Test Data . . . . . . . . . . l2l V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 127 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I27 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Conclusions--Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IAO Implications for the Science Instructor. . . . . . . . lh3 Implications for the Science Curriculum Specialist . . iAA Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A6 Problems for Further Investigation . . . . . . . . . . lA7 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I49 APPENDIX A. PRE- AND POST-TEST RAW SCORES OF PROSPECTIVE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS OF THE STUDY AND PRE- AND POST-TEST MEAN SCORES OF IQ LEVELS IN THE THREE CRITERION MEASURES. . l55 B. A SYLLABUS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL CURRICULUM (PHYSICAL SCIENCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I59 vii Table I0. II. l2- l3» LIST OF TABLES PROCESSES STRESSED IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES IN THE PHILIPPINES. PRE- AND POST-TEST MEANS OF PROCESS CRITERIA MEASURE OF ACTION RESEARCH . IQ LEVELS AND TREATMENT CLASSES. MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PRE‘ AND POST-TEST CRITERIA MEASURES. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES OF PRE‘ AND POST-TEST MEANS IN PROCESS, CONTENT, AND ATTITUDE CRITERIA MEASURES . PRE-POST GAINS IN PROCESS, CONTENT, AND ATTITUDE . PRE-POST GAINS IN THREE IQ LEVELS IN CRITERIA MEASURES . INTERCORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN ALL PRE- AND POST-TEST CRITERIA MEASURES. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ALL PRE- AND POSTrTEST CRITERIA MEASURES . CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PRE- AND POST-TEST CRITERIA MEASURES OF TOP ONE-THIRD AND BOTTOM ONE-THIRD . POST-TEST MEANS AND SD'S OF IQ LEVELS AND CLASSES. SUMMARY OF TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE RELATIVE TO TESTING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TREATMENT GROUPS AND IQ LEVELS IN POST-TEST CRITERIA MEASURES . POST HOC S-METHOO CONFIDENCE INTERVALS OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IQ LEVELS ON PROCESS CRITERIA MEASURE. O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O C O O O 0 viii Page ii IA lOO IOS l05 IO6 I07 l09 IIO Il3 ll7 II8 I22 LIST OF TABLES'(cont.) Table IA. POST HOC S-METHOD CONFIDENCE lNTERVALS OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IQ LEVELS ON CONTENT CRITERIA MEASURE. . . . . . . . . I5. POST HOC S-METHOD CONFIDENCE INTERVALS OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IQ LEVELS ON ATTITUDE CRITERIA MEASURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. I6. POST HOC S-METHOD CONFLDENCE INTERVALS OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSES ON ATTITUDE CRITERIA MEASURE. . ix Page I23 I25 I26 CHAPTER I THE INTRODUCTION World events and national needs have served to accelerate in- terest in science. The tremendous achievements of developed countries like those of the United States and Russia in the fields of industry, defense, and Space travel have pointed to the stark realization that progress and economic stability depend to a large extent on a country's advancement in science and technology. Considering the school as a potent basic agency in the promo- tion of science consciousness among the peeple and in the production of scientists and technologists, educators have assumed the task of im- proving the school system, particularly that educational aspect of science education. The purposes of education stem directly from the values and ideals of the society which maintains it. To a great extent the objec- tives of science education have changed with the changing needs of so- ciety. The purpose of education is ultimately to help children and young people acquire the understandings, attitudes, and skills which would make them happy and useful citizens of a democratic society. I Science education has a significant role to play in the realization of this overall purpose of education. In the Philippines, science and technology has lagged far be- hind. The country has been tagged as one of the underdeveloped coun- tries of the world, in spite of America's influence in her culture. There is a felt need for science consciousness and scientific know-how in agriculture and industry, for more food production, better health and safety and for wiser consumption. Since this is a basic problem of a developing country as a whole, the greatest responsibility lies in the hands of science educators, peOple who are concerned with science education. Elementary Science Education in the Philippines. Science in the elementary school in the Philippines has long been taught since I9OI at one time or another under varying names and characteristics. In the primary curriculum of l90l, Physiology and Nature Study were listed as subjects in Grades one, two, and three. Considered difficult, the curriculum was revised giving way to a AO- minute course called Science Studies in Grades five, six, and seven. Again the curriculum met revisions when in I907 and I909 Nature Study, Plant Life, and Physiology and Hygiene were taught in Grades four, five, six, and seven respectively, with the same time allotment of forty minutes. In l9l3 only Grade seven had some science, Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitation. Then for almost twenty years nothing was heard about science in the elementary school until I93A when a subject with the nomenclature, Elementary Science, was given in Grade three and another, Gardening and Elementary Science, in Grade-four.I In l9AO, other subjects like Pre-Military Training and Fili- pino Language came in. Naturally, since the length of a school day could not be lengthened, some subjects had to go. Science was removed from Grades three and four and was offered in Grades five and six. From that time on until I956, Elementary Science as a curricular sub- ject was taught to Grades five and six children only.2 From I957 to I969, the Revised Philippine Educational Program included science together with health in the whole elementary curri- culum from Grades one to six. Under this program, Health and Science was given A0 minutes in Grades one and two, A0 minutes in three and' four, and 50 minutes in five and six. Lately, since I970, another revision has taken effect. Science is taught as a separate subject. Health is integrated with Physical f f I Josefina A. Vicente and A. Juele, ”What is the Elementary Science Curriculum?,” Effective Approaches to Science Teaching (Manila: Manlapaz Publishing Co., Inc., l963), p. l7. \- C" a.» Education. A time allotment of A0 minutes is given to science in the lower grades and 50 minutes in the upper grades. General Objectives of Education and of Science Education in the Philippines The general objectives of education in the Philippines is pro- vided for in its Constitution, Article XIV, Section 5, which states: ”All schools shall aim to deveIOp moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship.”3 These objectives have gone through a number of revisions. One major change in these objectives was made when Congress of the Philip- pines, feeling the need for better education in the country, created the Board of National Education. As the highest educational policy- making body, its first job was to re-examine the whole list of objec- tives of education. Believing in the importance of science in this modern age, the committee adopted science and arts as the fifth cate- gory which cites: Arts and sciences are to be treated in the elementary grades in the simplest fashion, and should inculcate scientific attitudes in the young children. To eradicate or minimize superstitions and false beliefs, the children should be taught the roles of science on our life. Higher education should aim to prepare leaders in the arts, sciences and in the professions, and to conserve and extend the frontiers of human knowledge. The train- ing of leaders is to encourage among those who have the natural gifts for higher education. To accomplish this it is suggested that the government should begin to implement the constitutional provisions regarding the promotion of arts, letters, and sciences throughout the system of scholarship.‘i The Bureau of Public Schools in the Philippines adOpted the following objectives for elementary science: I. To help children cultivate scientific ways of thinking commonly referred to as scientific atti- tudes. 2. To help children develop a sound method of proce- dure, commonly called scientific method of solving problems. 3. To help pupils gain functional understanding of facts, concepts, and principles. A. To help pupils realize the need and develop the desire to conserve our natural and human resources. 5. To help children gain understandings, attitudes, and habits that will improve and maintain good per- sonal and community health and safety. 6. To assist children in the development of desirable social behavior. 7. To assist children in the development of apprecia- tion and a wide range of interests and hobbies. 8. To provide opportunities for the deveIOpment of' instrumental and manipulative skills such as: a. to read science content with understanding b. to make observations of events c. to perform various science activities like experiments, demonstrations, and projects.5 Ibid., pp. IS-l6. . I. 32 '1" l u . d 64 ‘ 'h. ‘ l I"‘ r. 'b (D p "r Teacher-Training in the Philippines The training of teachers in the Philippines is undertaken jointly by the public institutions represented by the normal schools under the Bureau of Public Schools and the College of Education, Uni- versity of the Philippines, and by private normal schools and colleges of education. The normal schools under the Bureau of Public Schools and the private normal colleges of education train elementary school teachers; while the colleges of education provide for the training of teachers for the secondary schools. Each of the private teacher training institutions is established either as a separate college or as one of the colleges in a university. The normal schools under the Bureau of Public Schools, like the Cebu Normal College of which the writer is a faculty member, serves surrounding regions such as Agusan, Bohol, Surigao, Misamis, and Negros Oriental. The Preparation of EIementary_Teachers The training of elementary school teachers used to cover a period of two years but with the revised curriculum, it takes four years to complete the training course. A Bachelor of Science in Ele- mentary Education curriculum (B.S.E.Ed.) offers courses in English, Antonio Isidro, ”The Teacher and His Profession,‘| The Philip- pine Educational System (Manila, Philippines: Bookman, Inc., l9A9), pp. 26l-263. National Language, Social Studies, Natural Sciences, Psychology and Education including the Philippine School System, Elementary School Methods, Handicrafts, Practice Teaching, Health and Physical Education and Military Teaching.7 The selection and admission of students in the government normal schools are governed by strict rules and regulations. Admis- sion is based on the results of a competitive examination given once a year to applicants. The applicant is given an interview for a per- sonality test. Applicants with physical handicaps such as deafness, conspicuous physical or facial defects, and speech defects like stut- tering and lisping are not accepted. Any graduate of a public or private secondary school is eligible for admission on the following conditions: a) he must fall within the upper 50 per cent of the class; b) he must not have failed in any year or subject in his secondary school work; and c) he must be at least l6 years of age. Science in the Teacher- Training Curriculum In recent years the elementary teachers' pre-service curriculum in the Philippines has been marked with several and quite frequent 7Ibid., p. 263. 8Ibid., p. 26A. modifications in an attempt to meet changing needs and demands. How- ever there has been much success in strengthening the science curricula. From l952 to l957 the four-year curriculum in the regional teacher- training colleges required six units of science, three of which were in the biological fields and the other three in the physical fields for graduation. Chemistry was offered as one of the electives. A year later, another change increased the units of the Physical Science and Biological Science to four units each respectively. In I960 the re- quired units for graduation In science was reduced again to six. Basic Science l covered units In The Earth and Living Things while Basic 9 In I968 with the Science 2 treated The Universe, Matter, and Energy. introduction of the process approach in elementary school science, the subject The Teaching of Elementary Science was offered as an elective while Biological Science (Science I) and Physical Science (Science 2) were required. Since I969 to date, the aforementioned elementary sci- ence methods course is integrated with the subject, Teaching the Ele- mentary School Subjects. In I970 the curriculum was again revised. This time Physical Science (Natural Science I) became a S-unit laboratory subject. Earth 9Liceria B. Soriano, ”The Role of Science in the Community School Concept of Philippine Education,‘| Science Teaching in Philippine Schools (Manila, Philippines: M. M. Castro Publishing Company, l960), PP- 31-35. and Space (Natural Science 2) is a required 3-unit course and offered for the first time. Biological Science (Natural Science 3) completes a total of II units of science required for graduation. The New Science Curriculum for Elementary Schools in the Philippines The many changes in the development of science educational programs In the United States in the last decade brought about a great impact in revolutionizing the science curriculum of the elementary schools in the Philippines. In l966 the Curriculum Division, Bureau of Public Schools, Philippines, planned out a curriculum workshop to develop science guides for elementary science. The elementary science curriculum was then developed and written in l966 and I967 by a group of Filipino science educators and the United States Peace Corps of the Philippines. A study of the new guides for use in the elementary grades re- vealed the processes stressed in each grade which progresses from one grade to the other. In other words, grade one has simpler processes; grade two getting complex and the intermediate grades emphasize both simple and complex processes. The new elementary science curriculum emphasizes science as a process whereby the child learns to understand his environment and l0 simultaneously deveIOps scientific skills through personal experience with materials and phenomena. As seen in Table l, the skills emphasized in each grade level vary. For Grade three they are observation, interpretation, compar- ison, and classification. In Grade four, the skills devel0ped in the previous grade are utilized and the skill of measurement is developed. The skills emphasized in Grades three and four are strengthened in Grade five while making inference, hypothesis and communication are deveIOped and stressed. In Grade six, all the skills developed in the early grades are developed further and the skills of predicting controlling variables and experimenting are developed and stressed as a means of learning about science. The science content that the child learns is organized around basic concepts which serve as unify- ing threads in a more realistic science instructional program. The content is organized around three broad topics, namely: Living Things; Matter, Energy, and Motion; Earth and Space. The activities of these topics are those that contribute to the deveIOpment of the aforemen- tioned scientific skills. Main objectives of the science curriculum point to the development of process acquisition and attitudinal changes. II TABLE I PROCESSES STRESSED IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES IN THE PHILIPPINESIO Grades The Processes l 2 3 A 5 6 l. Observation X X X X X X 2. Communication X X X X X X 3. Description X X X X X X A. Comparison X X X X X X 5. Classification X X X X X X 6. Inference X X X X 7. Measurement X X X 8. Hypothesis Building X X 9. Prediction X l0. Control of Variables X ll. Experimentation x 0 Jose Rizal Sanchez, l'Action Research on Science--A Process Approach,“ The Philippine Journal of Science Teachers, IV (September, l960), 26. Action Research Conducted by the Writer in I969 In I969 the writer became interested in the process readiness of her students, who were then prOSpective elementary school teachers in their junior year. Specifically the investigator wanted to find out if her students were equipped with the basic process skills to prepare them to teach science as a process. An action research study was then planned by the writer. This study was based on the premise that one cannot teach what one does not know. The problem of the study was then, ”How well equipped are our students in the basic processes preparatory to the teaching of elemen- tary science as a process?” Upon identification of the problem an action research was then conducted. The subjects of the study were 86 juniors registered in a course, Physical Science (Science 2). Basic processes mentioned in this study are those important investigative skills emphasized in the lower primary grades such as observing, describing, comparing, classifying, and formulating con- cepts. The action research aimed to equip our prospective elementary teachers with the basic skills so that they would be better prepared in teaching elementary science using the process approach. It is a common complaint among laboratory school instructors that our student teachers are not ready to teach science when they are assigned in the Laboratory School. 13 To determine the weaknesses of the students in the aforemen- tioned basic processes, a process readiness test adopted by the United States Peace Corps in in-service training was administered by the writer as pre- and post-tests. The tests given were for observation involving one-stage and multi-stage binary classification system. De- scribing and formulating concepts were also involved in the measures. The results of the pre-tests revealed a picture of the students who seemed fairly good on simple observing skills but seemed inadequate in the complicated ones. The lowest percentage made by the students in the tests were in communicating and formulating concepts. This re- searcher went further to investigate if students with high Grade Point Average (GPA) obtained high process readiness scores. It was surpris- ing to note that about one half of the students with high GPA ranked lower than either Medium or Low GPA students in the Process Readiness Tests. In communicating skill and formulating concept measures, four- teen students got a 0 score. Results of the overall pre-tests showed apparently that even high achieving students were deficient in the process skills. This result was surprising as the writer expected high process readiness scores from the top students of her class. As a result of these revealed deficiencies, the writer embarked on an action program. A sufficient number of process activities such IA as: observing a suffocating candle; observing mystery bags and boxes, observing a birthday candle; classifying objects such as rocks, leaves, buttons, seeds, and students were taken as process competency exer- cises. Comparing materials such as water and alcohol and kinds of paper, kinds of white powders was also part of the process competency program. This program went on for a period of four months. At the end of the study, the post-tests were given, the same set of tests given at the beginning of the program. A comparison of the results of the pre- and post-tests is seen in Table 2. TABLE 2 PRE- AND POST-TESTS MEANS OF PROCESS CRITERIA MEASURE OF ACTION RESEARCH Test | Test II Test III Communicating Observation involving Observation involving . , , . SkIlIs InVOIVlng One-stage MultI-stage , , . . . . . . descrIbIng and CIassqucatIon CIaSSIfIcatIon , formulatIng concepts Pre-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test 3T 7 3T Y Y 3? 80.03 85.A6 67.30 76.2A 37.28 58.62 It can be seen in Table 2 that students after the treatment showed improvement in the process skills. In Test I, there is an IS increase of five points; in Test II, nine points; and in Test III, a gain of twenty-one points in the mean score. This action research revealed that after weeks of students' undergoing process activities to develop their process competency, re- suits were encouraging. Data showed that 60 per cent or fifty-two of eighty-six subjects of the study improved their process scores. Twenty- five students or 28 per cent either got the same or lower scores than the pre-tests. The overall study gave a picture of students of science changed. Prospective elementary school teachers acquired to some extent the basic process skills necessary in the teaching of science as a process. Although there was no control group in the study, the change seemed to be attributed to the series of process exercises given to the students regularly for a period of four months. The writer found the course work limited as process activities were incorporated with the content of the course, Physical Science (Science 2), although it was a 6-hour a week course. Rationale for Problem The process approach in the teaching of elementary science was implemented in l968 in the Cebu Normal College with the distribution of the newly deveIOped curriculum guides (Grades one to six) by the l6 Bureau of Public Schools for the Cebu Normal Laboratory School. The writer teaches Physical Science (Science 2) to prospective elementary school teachers in the junior year of this college. The Cebu Normal College is a government teacher-training institution serving prospec- tive elementary school teachers in Visayas and Mindanao regions. With the new approach introduced in the public schools, in-service training programs for teachers were held throughout the country. The Cebu Nor- mal College was one of the sites of these in-service programs which were sponsored by the Bureau of Public Schools and financed by the Na- tional Science Development Board in the summer of I967. The training of prOSpective elementary school teachers in the Cebu Normal College in the use of the new science curriculum guides has been found wanting as a separate science methods course is not offered in the curriculum. Rather it is integrated in a general methods course, Teaching the Elementary_$chool Subjects as previously mentioned. Since most of the instructors who have taught this course are not aware of the ”new” science, the new trends in the teaching of science are sadly neglected, more so with the effective use of the newly deveIOped elementary science curriculum guides developed by the Bureau of Public Schools. As a result of this study, a recommendation for the inclusion of a science methods course in the elementary teacher curriculum was made. This was needed because science courses taken by our students I7 did not give them a feel of the new science as most of these courses are taught traditionally, where the lecture method is commonly used. Even if so-called ”experiments|I were done, most of them are really demonstrations, the cookbook style, which is not the essence of the new science--a process approach. A prospective elementary school teacher in science should broadly understand science, its basic methods, and process if he is to teach this kind of science to children. The results of the pre- tests of the pilot study gave us a negative picture of our student teachers who were not ready to teach science as a process. In answer to the needs of our prospective elementary school teachers, an old axiom might be repeated: Teachers teach as they were taught. Statement of Problem Feeling the great need of having prospective elementary school teachers who are studying in the Cebu Normal College learn the new science, the writer conducted a study the results of which would be the basis for the proposed revision of the science curricula of teacher- training institutions in the Philippines. The problem of the study conducted by the writer was investi- gating the effects of a Physical Science course using the process apnaroach in developing attitudes and competencies both in process and l8 content to prospective elementary school teachers. A main objective of the study was to determine whether a process-oriented Physical Sci- ence course would produce changes in the studentsl attitudes and com- petencies in both science and content after the treatment. Changes were measured in post-tests on attitudes (MTAI, Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory) and competencies in content (A Content-Understanding Test) and process (Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers). Also, the investigator was interested to know in this study if the stu- dents' process competency is correlated with content, attitude, and intelligence. Brief Overview of Design and Hypotheses of the Study Students registered in the Physical Science course (Science 2), l97l-l972, were subjects of the study. They were given intelligence tests at the start of the study to determine their three IQ levels: High, Medium, Low. Upon the writer's arrival early September, l97l, students could not be organized according to IQ but on their subjects of concentration. The design is a longitudinal study without a control group. An experimental curriculum was constructed by the writer to determine whether a process-centered course would produce changes in attitudes and competencies both in process and in content of prospective I9 elementary school teachers. Changes were measured in pre- and post- tests on attitudes and competencies in process and content. The design of the study was as follows: Pre Post X OpI 0cI Oal exp Op2 Oc2 0a2 All data to which statistical tests were applied were secured from scores made by prospective elementary school teachers on the instru- ments. These data were analyzed through the t-test, correlation tech- niques, and the two-way analysis of variance. Level of significance for rejection was set at 0.05. Hypotheses Relevant to the Study_ The following hypotheses were formulated relative to the above problems: Ho]: There will be no mean improvement between the pre- and post-tests for ability to perform process skills as measured by an . . . ll examInatIon, SCIence Process Test for Elementapy School Teachers. IDelbert W. Mueller, ”Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers, A Guide for Curriculum Evaluation: A Descriptive Study of the Implementation of the Earth Science Curriculum Project for the Carman School District, Flint, Michigan, l970-l97l (unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, I972). 20 H02: There will be no mean improvement between pre- and post- tests for knowledge and understanding of physical science concepts as measured by an examination, A Content-Understanding Test. Ho : There will be no mean improvement between pre- and post- 3 tests of prOSpective elementary school teachers as measured by the Minnesota Teachers Attitude Inventory. Ho : There will be no significant correlation between content I. and process on the pre- and post-tests. Hos: There will be no significant correlation between intelli- gence and process on the pre- and post-tests. H06: There will be no significant correlation between intelli- gence and content on the pre- and post-tests. H07: There will be no significant correlation between intelli- gence and attitude on the pre- and post-tests. H08: There will be no significant correlation between process and attitude on the pre- and post-tests. Ho : There will be no significant correlation between content 9 and attitudes on the pre- and post-tests. 12Paul F. Brandwein, Sylvia V. Nievert, and Mary H. Williams, Science Teaching Tests, the World of Matter and Energy (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., l96A). 13Walter W. Cook, Carol Leeds, and Robert Callis, Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (New York: Psychological Corporation, I9SI). 2l H010: There will be no significant differences between the three IQ levels of subjects in the post-test process measure. Holl: There will be no significant differences between the three classes of subjects in the post-test process measure. H012: There will be no interaction between classes and IQ levels in the post-test process measure. H013: There will be no significant differences between the three IQ levels in the post-test content competency measure. HOIA: There will be no significant differences between the three classes of subjects in the post-test content competency measure. Hols: There will be no interaction between IQ levels and classes in the post-test content competency measure. H016: There will be no significant differences between the three IQ levels in the post-test attitude measure. H017: There will be no significant differences between the three classes of subjects in the post-test attitude measure. H018: There will be no interaction between the IQ levels and the classes in the post-test attitude measure. Limitations of the Study Some limitations of the study are the following: I. This investigation is a longitudinal study without a con- trol group. NI vin- ‘ 22 2. The subjects treated in the study deal with only one group of students, those studying in the Cebu Normal College, not with other groups of students in other institutions. 3. This study covers only a physical science course. A. Sex differences are not covered in the study because male students enrolled in the physical science course were very few. The number in the study involved 85 females and 5 males. 5. Classes were not organized according to IQ as the investi- gator resumed teaching September l97l, two months after the start of classes. Organization of these classes according to IQ was beyond her control. As previously mentioned, classes were already organized ac- cording to students' subjects of concentration. Definition of Terms Pertinent to the Study Physical Science Course: A course purposely constructed for this study to incorporate methods and content of teaching science in the elementary schools in the curriculum of the Cebu Normal College, Cebu City, Philippines. Science methods are incorporated in this course with the end in view of having students enrolled in the course acquire science skills in the new science and be able to teach science as a process. The content of the course is organized around the broad areas of Matter, Energy, and Motion which are partly found in the 23 curriculum guides in elementary science of the Bureau of Public Schools, Philippines. Concepts deveIOped around these broad areas aim to deveIOp the basic and integrated process skills of observing, com- paring, classifying, inferring, measuring, formulating hypotheses, predicting, controlling variables, and experimenting which are the processes emphasized and taught in the elementary grades. Process Approach: An approach to learning science involving science activities common to scientists in all scientific disciplines when they are practicing science. The new elementary science curri- culum in the Philippines, which emphasizes science as a process, is derived from the Science--A Process_Approach (AAAS). In this approach, the child learns to deveIOp scientific skills through personal exper- iences. It utilizes the process skills of observing, describing, clas- sifying, measuring, inferring, formulating hypotheses, communicating skills, predicting, controlling variables, and experimenting. Attitudes: This term ”attitudes” as used in literature on science education, has multiple meanings, and it is important to know precisely which meaning this writer is using in order to understand and evaluate this research. The study presented here directs attention to attitudinal change in the prospective elementary school teacher who experiences a curricular innovation which focuses on the processes of science. Attitudes have been selected for study since they reflect 2A perceptions maintained by individuals. These perceptions structure their behavior. They represent a key criterion for change or improve- ment. Competencies: This term as used in the study refers to acquir- ing of process skills and understanding of content in science. The function of this course was to introduce the prospective elementary school teacher to an understanding of science, both as subject matter and as processes of scientific inquiry. Prospective Elementary School Teachers: This refers to junior students registered in the course, Physical Science (Science 2) of the Cebu Normal College, Cebu City, Philippines, l97I-I972. Indeppndent Study; This involves questions examined in depth by students which are in line with peer-peer discussions and peer-peer instructor interaction in lecture and laboratory sessions. Lectures: As used in the study, refers to the lecture-discussion method. The teacher selects topics for lecture related to process- oriented laboratory activities, thus enriching generalizations and con- cepts learned in the laboratory. Modular Laboratopy: Students undergo a series of exercises to devel0p individual competencies in the processes. Each exercise is called a laboratory module. 25 Peer-Group Teaching: This refers to a method whereby students take turns demonstrating a concept or a process to different groups of the class. Concept Learnipg; This refers to learning of content and understanding of physical science. In this investigation concepts were organized around the broad areas of Mattery_Energyy and Motion. High, Medium, Low: The High comprised the top one-third of the subjects; the Medium, the middle one-third; the Low, the bottom one-third. These three categories refer to the IQ levels of the sub- jects. Assumptions of the Study I. That teachers teach as they were taught. 2. That teachers will be teaching the Philippine version of the AAAS Science--A Process Approach. 3. That teachers' behaviors can be modified. A. That attitudes are measurable. Overview In Chapter II the relevant research was reviewed with the ob- jective of providing the reader with a background with regard to find- ings of other researchers who have looked at the topic of the effects 26 of innovative programs in science on the learner. Chapter III provides the reader with a conceptual perceptive of the sample used in the study, the instruments, the design, the experimental curriculum, and the analysis procedure. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Since the purpose of this study is to examine the effects of a physical science course using the process approach in devel0ping atti- tudes and competencies both in process and products on prospective elementary school teachers, pertinent literature was reviewed, particu- larly those studies related to the experimental study. A more detailed review of the research conducted in this area is presented herein. Rationale of the New Experimental Programs in Elementary School Science With the impact of the new innovative programs in elementary science during the last decade, emphasis in science teaching has shifted from a product to a process approach. Reasons behind this change from content-oriented teacher-dominated traditional approach to process- oriented student-centered progressive approach in science teaching will be discussed in the following situations. Children today live in a world of new things. There are new discoveries, new medicines, new ways of doing things, new kinds of 27 28 jobs. Life today is radically different from that of the past. It is a fact that change is the accent of the times. One should ask whether the science curriculum is keeping pace with the world of our present day children. There is also the question of what the goals of science teaching should be for a rapidly changing society that produces new knowledge faster than it can be either communicated or consumed. Recent deveIOpments in curriculum design recognize the most important objective of science education, that is the acquiring of ”specific competencies in students which will make it possible for them to solve problems, to make discoveries, and more generally to think critically about science from their very years onward.“l Hurd sees a significant trend reflected in all programs, a shift from teaching the specific facts and theories that are the products of scientific inves- tigation to the investigation itself. The changes that science education has undergone in the past years can be traced to teachers' growing professionalism in the fifties and the upheaval of the American public when Russia launched into space the first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit in I957. l Robert M. Gagné, ”Psychological Issues in Science--A Process Approach,” The Psychological Bases of Science--A Process Approach (AAAS Miscellaneous Publication 65-8, I965), p. 7. 2Paul De Hart Hurd and James J. Gallagher, New Directions in Elementary Science Teachipg_(Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publish- ing Company, l969), p. l28. 29 The groundwork for the trends in striving for academic excel- lence was already laid down by organized educators of the country long before the flag-waving Sputnik concern of the public. Brehm, in a descriptive study of I'The Pursuit of Excellence Theme in American Edu- cation, l9AO-l963,” traced the present changes of the curriculum as partly due to the “professionalism movement among teachers in the late l950's and the greater recognition accorded them that led to their heightened concerns for the content of the subject matter they were specified to teach.“3 The Sputnik event saw the initiation of a large number of sci- ence programs to meet changing needs of both elementary and high schools. Change was the order of the day and the curriculum was re- vised with the end in view of improving the teaching of science. Psychological Bases and Learning Theories of the Innovative Elementary Science Programs Learning is at the very center of educational process. Ade- quate knowledge of the process of learning is important to the teacher, if she aspires to make her teaching effective. Some principles of learning used in teaching led to a greater and more positive result in 3 Shirley Alice Brehm, “The Pursuit of Excellence Theme in Amer- ican Education, l9A0-l963” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, l96A), p. l9l. I 30 the classroom. The teacher's first concern then is to know the child's intellectual development at a particular grade level in order to attain this end. Kuslan and Stone hailed the new interest which psychologists were showing in classroom learning and teaching, which would make it possible to base teaching on a sound theoretical foundation.“ Our bases of the innovative elementary science programs are attributed to the educational theories of three outstanding psychOIOgists of our times: Jean Piaget, Robert Gagné, and Jerome Bruner. An analysis of their theories and implications to education are treated here. Analysis of Piaget's Theories of Learning From his early work with children in Paris and through his continuing work at the Institute of Genetic Epistemology in Geneva, Switzerland, with which he has been associated for the past forty years, Jean Piaget developed his theories of intellectual deveIOpment. Piaget theorizes that the child goes through four stages of deveIOpment: Louis I. Kuslan and A. Harris Stone, Teaching Children Sci- ence: An Inquiry Approach (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., l968), pp. lOO-l02. 3l l. Sensori-Motor. This stage concerns the infant's early development. During this stage the child is Object- oriented and if he cannot see the physical Object, he does not realize that the Object cannot exist. In this stage the child moves from apparently uncoordinated reflex re- sponses tO successively more complex responses. He de- velops an initial sense Of the persistence Of permanent objects whether or not that something is an animate crea- ture. Piaget states that a child leaves this stage be- tween two and two-and-a-half years old. 2. Pre-Operational. In this stage, we have the begin- ning Of language, and the permanency of objects. A child realizes an Object exists without being physically pres- ent. Also in this stage, if one pours liquid from one glass to another of a different shape, the pre-Operational child will think that there is more liquid in one glass than the other. The child perceives only one relation- ship at a time, actions are not reversible and are domi- nated by perception. All results are possible; things are what they seem, not what they are. The child leaves this stage when he is about seven years old. 3. Concrete Operations. During this stage the child can consider two or three dimensions simultaneously in- stead Of one successively. In the liquid experiment, he realizes that the lack Of height Of the liquid is compen- sated for by the width of the second container. However, these are called concrete Operations because they operate on concrete objects and not yet on verbally expressed hypotheses. The stage Of concrete Operations is a pro- longed stage during which a child becomes able tO per- ceive stable and reversible relationships in concrete situations. He will often test his ideas with concrete materials iterating an Operation many times before he is sure Of it. He leaves this stage between the ages Of eleven and twelve. A. Formal Operations. In this stage the child can now reason on hypotheses, and not only on Objects. The child attains new structures which are more complicated and more mobile than those Of the concrete Operations. At the level Of concrete Operations, the Operations apply within an immediate neighborhood. The child at- tains the facilities to become capable of logical 32 thought, based on symbolic and abstract symbols. The stages are reversible, a child (or an adult) may Operate in a particular stage most Of the time but may relapse into an earlier mode of behavior in play, or regress during confusion or stress. On the other hand, the creative and powerful thinkers in our society develop a much higher formal Operation than that reached by the average adult. These stages have to appear in order but their time of appearance varies with the particular child and the particular society. It is noted that these stages are not abrupt changes, but rather the child progresses gradually from one stage to another. Piaget further be- lieves that the factors that attribute tO the growth from one stage tO the next are maturation, experience, social transmission, and equilibrium.5 The heart of Piaget's theory as it pertains to how learning takes place is the concept of ”mental equilibrium.‘l Briefly stated, the thought processes approach a type of stable equilibrium as learn- ing occurs. This is explained through Piaget's “assimilation- accommodation model.” As new information is encountered, something jars the learner so that a temporary ”disequilibrium“ condition is set up. As this new information is assimilated and the cognitive structure is changed in accommodation to it, equilibrium is restored once more. Disequilibrium is an essential condition of learning. 5Robert McGinty and Melvin Poage, An Analysis Of Piaget's Work with a Comparison tO the Works of Bruner and Gagné, Michigan State University, n.d., pp. lO-l2. (Mimeographed.) 6Ronald D. Anderson, Alfred De Vito, Odvard Egil Dyrli, Maurice Kellogg, Leonard Kochendorfer, and James Weigand, Developing Children's Thinking Through Science (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I970), p. I35. 33 Piaget's Theories and Their Implications to Education While Piaget has not been concerned with schools, one can de- rive from his theories as a number of general principles which may guide educational procedures. Some of these principles that can be adapted in the classroom are given by Girsberg and Opper: l. The child's lapguage and thought are different from the adults. The teacher must realize this and must therefore Observe children closely to discover these unique perspectives. 2. Children need to manipulate things in order to learn. Formal verbal instruction is generally ineffec- tive, especially for young children. The child must physically act on his environment. Such activity con- stitutes a major portion Of genuine knowledge; the mere passive reception Of facts or concepts is only a minor part of real understanding. 3. Children are most interested and learn best when experience is moderateiy novel. When a new event is both familiar enough so that it may be assimilated with- out distortion into current cognitive structure, and novel enough so that it produces some degree Of conflict, then interest and learning are promoted. Since at an age level, children's cognitive structures differ, all children will not find the same new event interesting, nor will they learn from it. This implies that success- ful group instruction is almost impossible. Children should work individually with freedom, at tasks Of their own choosing. Piaget finds too that an important aspect Of learning is self-regulation. Before he enters schools, and without adult instruction, the child learns in many ways. A. The child's thoughts_progresses thropgh a series Of stages, each of which contains distinctive strenghs and weaknesses. Teachers should reSpect both of these. Children should not be forced to bear materials for which they are not ready. They should be allowed to 3A apply their intuitive understandings to subjects covered in school. In order to accomplish this, the teacher must once again display high sensitivity. He must perceive each child's inadequacies and strengths. 5. Children should talk in school, should argue and debate. Social interaction, particularly when it is centered about relevant physical experience, promotes intellectual growth. It should be clear that these views are at variance with many Of the assumptions Of traditional education. According to Piaget's evidence and theory, students at a given age level do not and cannot learn essentially the same material; they learn only in a minor way through verbal explanation or writ- ten exposition (concrete experience must come first); they can and do exert control over their own learning; and they should talk to one another.7 By way Of summary, the “Piagetian child is an active, exploring creature, not a passive receiver Of external stimuli. But he is also thorough and from the adult point of view, somewhat repetitious.” Bruner's Theories of Learning Jerome S. Bruner has been called the ”prophet Of the discovery- learning, favoring minimal teacher guidance and maximal Opportunity for 9 exploration and trial and error on the part of the student.” With 7Herbert Girsberg and Sylvia Opper, Piaget's Theory Of Intel- lectual Development (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I969), pp. 230-23l. Edward A. Chittenden, ”Piaget and Elementary Science,” Science and Children, VIII (December, l970), l5. 9Lee S. Shulman, ”Perspective on the Psychology of Learning and the Teaching Of Mathematics,” Elementary Education in the Seventies, Joyce, Oana, Houston, ed. (New York City: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, l970), Po 63- 35 Bruner the emphasis is not on the product Of learning but on the pro- cesses, which is the essence of most programs in the elementary schools. Bruner usually begins by concentrating on the manipulation of concrete materials by children. He believes that human beings pass through three stages of representation in their cognitive growth. These stages are explained as follows: I. Enactive representation. This stage appears after the child is about six months Old. In this stage, the identification Of Objects does not depend so much on the nature Of the Objects, but more by the actions en- voked by the Objects. At this stage, he is unable to differentiate clearly between percept and response. 2. Ekonic representation. This stage is entered after the age Of one. Here the child is able tO repre- sent the world tO himself by an image that is relatively independent Of action. In the beginning Of this stage, there remains a strong component Of manipulation as a necessary aid to imagery. There is now a sharp separa- tion between the child and the world around him. When he matches something in his mind to something he is en- countering he does so by pointing to some particular correspondence between the two. 3. Symbolic representation. When the child can be beyond this level by direct correspondence, he moves to symbolic representation. Symbolic activity stems from some primitive or photo-symbolic system that is specific to man. This system becomes specialized in such domains Of human life as language, in tool using, and in the organization Of experience itself. Some Of the basic properties Of a symbolic system are: categorization, hierarchy, prediction, causation, and modification. Bruner calls these representations modes.'O loMcGinty and Poage, An Analysis Of Piaget's Work with a Com- parison tO the Works Of Bruner and Gagné, pp. 75-77. 36 Jerome Bruner believes that any subject can be taught effec- tively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage l of development. He went to note: Research on the intellectual development of the child highlights the fact that at each stage of develOpment, the child has a characteristic way of viewing the world and eXplaining it tO himself.'2 The experience Of Bruner suggests that the readiness Of the child for learning is not a simple unfolding process but is dependent upon the way the child has been taught and upon the design of the , l currIculum. Bruner states that learning by discovery, frees the child from the immediate control of such ex- trinsic motives as high marks, desire for parental approval, and a need tO conform tO the expectations Of authority figures. His position is that to the degree that one is able to approach learning as a task Of dis- covering something rather than learning about it, to that degree will there be a tendency for the child to carry out his learning activities with the outcomes of self-reward, or more properly by reward that is dis- covery itself.I l Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Learnipg_(Cambridge, Massa- chusetts: Harvard University Press, l960), p. 33. lzlbid., p. 3A. l3Hurd and Gallagher, New Directions in Elementary Science Teaching, p. 79. “Barry A. Kaufman, ”Psychological Implications of Discovery Learning in Science,” Science Education, LV (January-March, l97l), 79. 37 Bruner's Theories and Their Implications tO Education Bruner is probably best known for his position on discovery- learning. He cites the reasons for the advantages Of this approach in the teaching of science: I. Discovery-learning increases intellectual potency. The student acquires information in such a way that it is readily available in problem-solving. 2. Discovery-learning increases intrinsic motivation. It strengthens the student's tendency to carry out his learning activities with the autonomy Of self-reward or the reward of discovery itself. 3. Discovery-learning teaches the student the tech- niques Of discovery. Solving problems through discovery develOps a style Of problem-solving or inquiry that serves for any task, or almost any task, one may en- counter. The student improves his technique Of inquiry by engaging in inquiry. A. Discovery-learning results in better retention of what is learned because the student has organized his own information and knows where to find the information when he needs it. Discovery is defined not as a product dis- covered, but as a process of working, and the so-called method of discovery has as its principal virtue and en- couragement Of such process of working.'5 Gagné's Theories Of Learning Robert M. Gagné is by comparison to Piaget and Bruner a newcomer tO the field Of educational learning theory. Gagne is primarily con- cerned with the process of learning as in the case of Bruner. l SMcGinty and Poage, An Analysis of Piaget's Work with Compar- ison to the Works of Bruner and Gagné, pp. 79-80. tr.) I L U Pig-- 5' v PA. a DUI,“ 38 Gagné has described eight types Of learning that are distin- guishable from one another in terms Of the conditions required tO bring them about. These eight types of learning begin with the simple types and end with the complex, thus forming a hierarchy Of types of learning. A brief description Of these eight types is given as follows: I. Signal learning. In this type of learning one learns a conditioned response to a given stimulus. An example given is a dog salivating at the sound Of a bell. This is called classical condition- ing. 2. Stimulus-Response learning. In this type of learning one moves the skeletal muscles in response to some stimuli. An example Of this is a dog raising its paw when it hears the word “shake hands.‘I This is also called Operant conditioning. 3. Chaining. This type of learning involves connecting in a sequence two or more previously learned stimulus-reSponse units. An example of this is a child calling someone by his name. A. Verbal association. This type Of learning might be a sub- class Of chaining where the links are verbal. An example is the trans- lation Of an English word into a French word. 5. Discrimination learning. In this type Of learning one learns to distinguish between previously learned chains. An example Of this is being able to distinguish the various models Of cars. 39 6. Concept learning. In this type Of learning one can clas- sify stimulus situations in terms Of abstract properties such as color, shape, size, etc. This type Of learning is very limited in animals, but is very common in humans. Language is the vehicle employed in this type Of learning. 7. Rule learning. A rule is a chain Of two or more concepts. The simplest type Of rule is of the form, “If A then B.“ In rule learning, one acquires the idea involved in such propositions, and not just the memorization Of the rule. 8. Problem-solving. In this highest order Of learning, one learns to combine previously learned rules into a new higher-order rule, and thus solving problems. This is commonly called thinking.l6 Gagné's Theories Of Learning and Their Implications tO Education Gagné defined problem-solving as it relates to elementary sci- ence education. He identifies a hierarchy Of capabilities that are learned as the child explores the world Of science, seeing them as essential to the child's success whether or not they are directly taught. In exploring the relationship Of problem-solving to discovery, Gagné suggests that problem-solving as a method demands the discovery l 6Robert M. Gagné, The Conditions Of Learnipg (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, l970), pp. 9A-276. A0 of principles by the pupils. Problem-solving is the only final step in a sequence Of learning that extends back through many prerequisite learning that must have preceded it in time. Inherent in most Of the interpretations Of inquiry as a mode of search is that children's thinking is not predetermined by the teacher nor is it structured to achieve results which only the teacher may have in mind.'7 An inquiry approach tO science instruction implies that there are significant problems tO be solved and that freedom to examine, manipulate, and explore is an essential characteristic of children's problem-solving experiences. Whether or not and to what degree the teacher may or should structure the learning experiences is a question naturally raised by the emphasis upon creative thinking. The instructional theory Of Gagné begins with a task or Objec- tive stated in behavioral terms. This task is analyzed to reveal its ‘knowledge structure. In so doing, the subordinate or prerequisite knowledge necessary for students tO master this task can be defined. lterating this procedure one builds a very complex pyamid Of pre- requisites to the task. Gagné's model contains the different levels identified as shown below. l7Gagné, The Conditions Of Learning, p. 235. Al a a2 bl b2 b3 bA b5 cl c2 c3 cA c5 c6 The £225.'5 the tOp level and is a problem-solving capability; the second level contains the rules, al and a2 or principles needed. The third level contains the specific concepts, bl, b2, b3, bA, and b5; the fourth level contains the necessary discriminations, cl, c2, c3, cA, c5; the fifth level, verbal associations or chains; and the bottom level facts or simple associations. Not every level is necessarily represented in a particular task hierarchy and every task has several such hierarchies.l8 This learning hierarchy is the basis Of the pro- cess approach. l8Ibid., pp. 237-276. A2 In theory, Gagné does not care how a student learns, it may be by discovery, by guided teaching, by drill, or by review. In practice when he implements his instructional theory he uses programmed mate- rials. In order for a child to be guided through a sequence Of in- struction one must program either the materials or the teacher. Gagné chooses to use programmed materials because they have one great advan- tage; they can be made virtually teacher proof. He believes programmed materials guide the child's learning a new task while encouraging ”discovery.“ Shulman attributed the position Of guided-discovery tO Gagné.l9 Gagné and the Process Approach Robert M. Gagné gives his rationale in support Of the process approach in the teaching Of science. He believes that Science-~A Process Approach represents an attempt tO establish the “specific competencies in students which will make it possible for them to solve problems, tO make discoveries, and more generally to think critically 20 about science from their very early years ahead.” He further expounds: l . 9Lee S. Shulman, ”Perspective on the Psychology Of Learning and the Teaching Of Mathematics,” p. l29. 0 Robert M. Gagné, ”Psychological Issues in Science--A Process Approach,” pp. 7-8. A3 When process is emphasized, it does not mean content is absent. Content is there but children are not asked to learn and remember particular facts or principles about these Objects and phenomena. Rather they are ex- pected tO learn these phenomena with process skills. What is taught to children should resemble what scien- tists do, the processes, that they carry out in their scientific activities. These skills which Science-~A Process Approach is designed tO establish begin in a highly Specific and concrete form and in increasing generality Of these skills by a planned progression Of exercise.2' Psychological Basis Of the E85 Approach The ESS program is based psychologically on the child's innate nature. ESS approach allows children tO follow their own in- clinations as they explore materials. The thinking behind this is that children learn more when they are doing what they want to do instead of what someone else wants them to do. Furthermore, such self- directed learning has more meaning for them.22 The psychological basis Of the E35 program is due to: using concrete things and children's active involve- ment in learning supported by Piaget's ideas on in- tellectual development. The notion that children should have the early phases Of learning has been stressed by Bruner, Hunt, Berlyne, Dewey, and John Holt. Moreover Susan Isaacs, an outstanding leader 2llbid., p. 8. 22Robert E. Rogers and Alan M. Voelker, “Programs for Improv- ing Science Instruction in the Elementary School, Part I,” Science and Children, VII (January-February, I970), 36. AA in child growth and development in England, and Robert Sears, an American psychologist, have emphasized that children derive the greatest pleasure from those things (either animate or inanimate Objects) that respond tO their manipulations.23 Piaget and the SCIS Progpam The SCIS program is based upon Piaget's learning theory of cognitive development. Piaget places major emphasis on the role Of activity in intellectual development especially in the years of early life.2u Based on this premise, the SCIS program emphasizes student activity. This activity is expressed in the forms Of child-tO-child interaction, child-to-Object interaction, and teacher-child interac- tion.25 With Piaget's theories Of learning as guidelines, the role Of the teacher is central in teaching the SCIS program. The classroom is converted into a laboratory, guiding students tO make Observations and forming inferences based on evidence, and not presenting informa- tion in a lecture fashion from a textbook. The teacher's art Of 23Ibid., p. 36. I. 2 Ginsburg and Opper, Piaget's Theory Of Intellectual Develop- ment, p. 22l. 2 5Robert Karplus and Herbert Thier, A New Look at Elementary School Science (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., l967), pp. l2-lA. AS questioning is the major vehicle for guiding the child's activity in the SCIS program. Summary Of the Innovative Approaches Piaget, Bruner, and Gagné cannot be compared on common grounds. Each one has his own theory Of learning that has influenced greatly teaching practices Of today. A great Piagetian learning theory that one can apply in the classroom is the use Of concrete materials which Bruner and Gagné also agree especially for discovery learning through the manipulation Of Objects. While Bruner and Piaget are interested in the process Of learning, Gagné stresses the final product. For Gagné, the crucial question is, ”What do you want the child to know?“ For Bruner, it seems to be, I'How do you want the child to know?” For Gagné, it is guided discovery; for Bruner, it is learning by discovery. Many educators find themselves to agree with Piaget's stages Of cognitive growth in learning. A teacher then should realize that children have a wide cognitive power, but should be aware that they have their limits. Piaget's investigations of conservation and re- versal have helped teachers understand how a child learns science. The works Of Bruner, especially in relation to discovery learn- ing has had a great effect on science education. The continual use Of A6 discovery learning in the classroom, in commercial texts and in the science program attests tO this impact.. Gagné's guided discovery and learning hierarchies is the basis Of today's programmed instruction and computer-assisted programs. In this approach, the student is led in a step-by-step fashion through given tasks until he reaches the tOp. The learning theories Of Piaget, Bruner, and Gagné have helped teachers_gain insight into the learning process. With these theories they have attempted to explain conditions for successful learning. A variety Of approaches based on their learning theories would come up meaningful to curriculum construction and educational practice. Improving Teacher Education and Elementary Science Since the new elementary science requires different competen- cies, teacher education will need tO be different. The processes Of scientific inquiry should be an integral part Of the pre-service in- struction. It is only reasonable to expect that, if elementary school teachers are tO emphasize in their teaching such skills as Observing, measuring, formulating hypotheses, and using numbers, the meaning and significance Of these must be a part Of their own college education. The teacher will also need to know how these skills are related to the basic concepts Of science. A7 The style Of teaching that the new programs call for requires teachers to have a greater understanding Of the learning process as it is related tO teaching science. Teachers need to know the Objec- tives of science education, her role in teaching science in the inno- vative programs and realize the impact of the innovative curricula on children's learning in science and in other disciplines as social studies and mathematics. Objectives Of Elementary Science Education Science education Objectives have changed with the times. Before the twentieth century, science has been at one time or another, a hit-and-miss affair. At one time it was regarded as the study Of nature, another time Object study; then of technology, than the pro- cesses Of investigations. A review Of the development Of science Objectives that changed with the times and influenced by society is hereby given: Before l860, religion was the dominant factor and society demanded the inculcation Of moral values; the science curriculum Of that time filled this need. When faculty psychology demanded mental discipline, the science cur- riculum Offered it. When society needed a reaction against rapid industrialization the science curricula 26Ronald D. Anderson, et al., Developing Children's Thinking_ Through Science, pp. l7-20. A8 stressed emotional and esthetic goals. The depression Of the l930's called upon the schools to teach prac- tical knowledge. The science curricula shifted tO teaching socially useful skills.27 It was not until I932 when the first landmark for elementary science education appeared, the publication of the Thirty-First Year- book by the National Society for the Study Of Education. It estab- lished the teaching of science in the schools and recommended a con- tinuous (K-l2) science program. The prime objectives Of science teaching were to develOp an understanding of major generalizations of science and scientific attitudes. The Forty-Sixth Yearbook published in l9A6 stressed that the learning Of science education be functional, that there should be functional understanding of facts, principles, and concepts. The development Of functional skills, attitudes appreciation, and interest was stressed.29 In l96O the Fifty-Ninth Yearbook on science Objectives was published. It expressed its awareness Of the increasing dependence 27Ibid., pp. Zl-22. 28Guy M. Whipple, ed., A Program for Teaching Science, Thirty- First Yearbook, National Society for the Study Of Education (Univer- sity Of Chicago Press, I932), p. x. 9Henry 8. Nelson, ed., Science Education in American Schools, National Society for the Study Of Education, Forty-Sixth Yearbook (University Of Chicago Press, l9A7), p. l. A9 Of society on science, especially the concern Of society over the shortage Of manpower and the launching Of Russia's first man-made Sputnik into space. The Fifty-Ninth Yearbook added problem-solving and critical thinking to its list Of Objectives, and it stressed the importance Of teaching science as a process of inquiry.30 As a result of this great upheaval Of societal needs and con- cerns, a large number Of science programs were initiated for the pur- pose Of improving the teaching and learning Of science. It is imper- ative, then, that all those concerned with such programs understand clearly the role Of science in the elementary school. Victor gives us six broad goals for the elementary science program: I. Help our children understand and interpret their environment. A gOOd science program will be directed tO learning concepts and their relationships, not memorizing these concepts or facts. The science program should be orga- nized so that there is time and Opportunity for the children to reinforce and strengthen their understand- ing of these concepts. 2. Help our children learn the key Operations Of science and scientists. Children are natural problem raisers and problem solvers. A good science program will give an insight into the different methods that scientists use tO solve their problems. Children can use these methods to 30Henry 8. Nelson, ed., Rethinking Science Education, Fifty- Ninth Yearbook (University of Chicago Press, l960), p. 37. 50 solve their problems, and in the process, develop greater insight and the ability to think more critically and more abstractly. 3. Help our children to think critically and crea- tively. The science program can help children think both critically and creatively. This kind Of thinking will help children develop the habit of questioning things, Of making careful and accurate Observations, Of with- holding judgment until sufficient evidence has been collected, and Of showing a willingness tO be tolerant Of and receptive to new ideas. A. Help our children grow according to their indi- vidual abilities, interests and needs. The science program can Offer a wide range Of learning activities for the children, thus making it possible for the school tO provide for the varied in- terests, abilities, and needs Of children. A good science program lends itself well to individual learn- ing, and therefore it is able to help each child grow in science to the utmost Of his ability and capacity. 5. Help our children live successfully in a chang- ing world. The science program can help children understand that nothing is fixed and that our universe itself is based upon change. Children should come to realize that change is an inevitable part Of their lives. Studying and learning about change in science--how and why change happens and the whys and means Of coping with change--more intelligently and successfully to the equally rapid sequence Of events and changes they may expect tO encounter in their future. 6. Correlate science with the rest Of curriculum. Learning can be more effective when all phses of the curriculum is integrated. Correlating science with mathematics, has been a project with the Minnesota Mathematics and Science Teaching Project (MinneMAST). This could be done with the other subjects in the *‘1 (A) 5i elementary curriculum; arts, social studies, reading, and the language arts.3 The innovative programs in science are the AAAS, Science--A Process Approach, SCIS (Science Curriculum Improvement Study), and the ESS (Elementary Science Study). These programs devote primary atten- tion to the process Of science and secondary attention to the product of science. All of these programs are activity-oriented and less Of teacher domination in the classroom. Although these programs are similar in some aspects, there are differences in the emphasis on concepts, phenomena, and processes that make up the science course. I. Elementary Science Study (ESS). This program stresses the child's involvement with the phenomenon and is confident that he will thereby gain practice with the processes and achieve understand- ing Of valuable concepts even though these are not made explicit. 2. Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS). This pro- gram stresses the concepts and process learnings with emphasis on the children's experimentation, discussion, and analysis. 3. AAAS, Science--A Process Approach. This program stresses the child's practice with the processes and uses the phenomena only as vehicles and concepts as tOOls. An added difference is that the l 3 Edward Victor, Science for the Elementary School (New York: The MacMillan Company/Collier-MacMillan Limited, l970), pp. 7-ll. 52 AAAS program attempts to appraise the children's progress more syste- matically and in greater detail than do the others.3 Basic premises of the AAAS Science--A Process Approach are: l. The scientists' behaviors in pursuing science constitute a highly complex set of intellectual abilities which are however, analyzable into simpler activities. 2. Scientists' behaviors (processes) are as most scientists agree, highly generalizable across scientific disciplines. This refers to the transfers of training to other disciplines. 3. These intellectual processes of scientists may be learned. Implication seems to be that intellectual activities of scientists can be learned by almost children, regardless of ability, as they progress from kindergarten through Grade six.33 The psychological bases of the AAAS program are principally Gagnian and evidence are behavioral objectives, action words, and the hierarchy. The program is characterized by laboratory activities. The Teacher's Role in Teaching Science Using the Innovative Programs The role of the teacher in the eXperimental science programs is very important. It could mean prOgress in education or defeat by way of the traditional approach. Lacking insight into the phIIOSOphy , 2 3 Karplus and Thier, A New Look at Elementapy School Science, p. 87. 33John NeWport, ”Are Content and Processes Salable Itemsi,” School Science and Mathematics, LXX (April, l970), 2. 53 behind these programs could make a one-way traffic. Effective teach- ing means the meeting of the minds, that of the teacher and the child. Sears and Kessen say: Teaching is an exchange between people. This simple human fact is both problem and promise for education in science as it is for all education. The child can understand, only what he has been prepared to under- stand, the teacher can teach only what he knows, and the meeting of the prepared child with skillful is an unforgettable encounter for both.3u Hurd believes that the style of teaching in the new programs call for teachers to have a greater understanding of the learning pro- cess as it is related to science. Teachers need to understand child develOpment and how to work with individual pupils as well as with children in groups. To be successful in teaching the new science, teachers should be skilled in listening to children and diagnosing learning difficulties, and then, through proper questioning, be able to guide the pupils toward the goals of instruction. With the changes in the style of teaching, the teacher expects changes in the child too. The kind of teacher that expects these changes should see teaching as an interaction. This is where the action that affects pupils outcomes. Establishing a 3A Paul B. Sears and William Kessen, “Statement of Purposes and Objectives of Science Education in School,” A Psychological Bases of Science--A Process Approach (AAAS Publication, n.d.), p. 3. 35 Hurd, New Directions in Elementapnycience Teaching, p. l28. r I 5A relationship between teacher behavior and teacher efforts is the key to the solution of the problem.36 The improvement of learning is the ultimate goal. Teaching- learning processes that are involved toward this goal relate to: Children and youth who become more knowing, more understanding, more skillful, more creative, healthier, and more moral in their behaviors as a result of their school experiences. Greatly responsible for the en- hancement of the processes conducive to learning is the teacher who is directly engaged in conducting the main business of the school, that of helping children to learn.37 In the new science programs, science is viewed as a big ques- tion mark. Too often science is viewed as a set of answers. It is understandable that if science is viewed by teachers as a body of facts or a set of answers, it will be taught as such, often through textbook readings. Kondo and Demkovitch say: Perhaps viewing science as a big question mark is more congruent with current trends in science education in the elementary school, in which the child's active in- volvement in his own learning is stressed. When science is viewed in these terms, the questions and subsequent quests for the answers, and not the answer per se became the focus of attention. Questions concerning natural phenomena precede answers. In this approach, the answers, and quests for answers, became more meaningful to child- ren. Rather than having children ”experiment” by doing additional demonstrations of application of facts 36Donald Musela, ”Improving Teacher Evaluation,II The Journal of Teacher Education, XXI (Spring, l970), l7. 37Louis J. Rubin, ed., Life Schools in School and Society, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, l969, 8. 55 presented in books or by the teacher. Children can exper- iment to find out. The science period becomes a time to question and to investigate phenomena, not a time to learn answers to questions which have not even been posed.38 Examining the impact of inquiry teaching and materials upon children as revealed in several recent research studies, Renner and Stafford reported the rapid development of children taught by inquiry. In this aspect, ”the teacher must provide such experiences for them and permit the interaction between the children and their environment 39 tO take place.” Lewis and Potter reported that children are more stimulated by: the teacher who is as curious about science as they are, and who can find ways for them to solve their own prob- lems than they are by teacher who knows and tells all the answers. Children don't want or need a teacher who is just a textbook. What a teacher says and does and the way she acts make a deep impression on children. A teacher quickly wins the respect of children when he lets them know that he is willing to tackle with them science problems to which he does not know the answers. The solution of the problem then becomes a cooperative venture. O 38Allan K. Kando and Joan Demkovitch, ”Science is a Great Big Question Mark,” Science and Children, VIII (November, l970), lA-lS. 39John W. Renner and Donald G. Stafford, “Inquiry, Children, and Teacher," The Science Teacher, VII (April, I970), 56. 0June Lewis and Irene C. Potter, The Teaching Of Science in the Elementary School (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I965), P. 9- 56 Karplus considers the concept of the teacher's role as impor- tant when one considers any group Of learners, but becomes particularly critical when one thinks about the learning patterns of elementary school children. He states, can and Especially in the early years of elementary school child- ren, the child is functionally illiterate in regard to the printed word . . . . The presence in the classroom of an adult leader (the teacher) capable of listening to, anal- yzing, and guiding his communication, which can by design be based on actual experience, leads to the further devel- opment of understanding on the part of the children. Karplus cites the classroom as the laboratory where children make discoveries and gain experience with natural phenomena. The teacher is the leader whose job is not primarily to tell children about science or to listen to them while they read about science, but rather to Observe children while they are involved with science. Pupils are encour- aged to experiment to find answers to their questions. Speaking of the role of the teacher in the new program Butts Montague had this to say, Our role as teachers is that of skillfully structuring situations in which students are called upon to perform tasks. After assessing which of these they can do or which are absent then we as teachers structure the sit- uation in which students are guided to perform. 3 I“Robert Karplus and Herbert Thier, A New Look at Elementary Science, p. 8i. uzlbid., p. 93. hBDavid Butts and Earl J. Montague, I'Who's Responsible for Learning?,“ Science and Children, VII (May, l970), l7. 57 It is evident that the authors of this statement express the responsibility for learning belonging to the student, but the teacher is there to see that he accomplishes this end. ”As the student Oper- ates, the influence of the teacher is constantly felt as additional guidance, assessing or structuring of new situation is needed in order to confront the student with the need to improve his performance . . . . IlAA . . . In specIfIc behaVIoral tasks. ThIs IS the role of the teacher In Science--A Process Approach. The role of the teacher using the new science programs is definitely changed. The findings of a research of the changed be- haviors of teachers teaching the ”new” science curriculum, Science--A Process Approach, revealed the teachers teaching Science--A Process Approach were found to differ significantly from teachers not teaching a re- cently developed science curriculum. The curriculum organization of Science--A Process Approach emphasizes children doing activities. These “doing“ behavior were found to occur significantly more Often in these class- rooms.“5 hsGene E. Hall, ”Teacher-Pupil Behaviors Exhibited by Two Groups of Second Grade Teachers Using Science--A Process Approach," Science Education, LIV (October-December, l970), 333. SC F F: I .II nu U H. \ hm. ‘ n \ . s‘ II A It a (v 58 Summary on Teacher's Role in the New Innovative Programs in Science The ”new“ science calls for a new teacher's role. The thrust of education is from a narrow emphasis on accumulation of factual and substantive knowledge to a broad scOpe which includes conceptual un- derstanding, knowledge Of processes, development of self-learning skills, and growth of scientific attitudes. The conduct of investi- gative, laboratory-oriented classes represent a departure from conven- tional expository methods Of teaching. These changes the teacher in science should realize. Impact of Innovative Curricula on Children's Learning in Science and in Other Disciplines: Social Studies and Mathematics With the impact of the innovative curricula, we expect changes in children's behaviors in learning science and other disciplines. Hurd comments that the ”new” elementary school programs provide children with the Opportunity to engage in learn- ing activities that are closely aligned with science as a discipline. Children make their own interpretations from what they have observed. They speculate on the best way to interpret the data and test their ideas in contact with those found by other pupils. In these ways, children experience the kind Of activity that typifies the work Of a scientist, not in the specialized context Of the re- searcher, but in terms of ideas and materials at their own level Of development. The children, not the teacher, SIOI 59 is a guide to learning, more than a “teller” of sci- ence. 6 Findings of recent researches as a result of the new innova- tive programs on other disciplines hypothesize that ”an inquiry- centered experience in science education prepares a teacher to teach A7 all subjects in an inquiry point of view.” In the Social Studies, Taba commented that like the new mathematics and the new science, the new developments in this subject tend to emphasize induc- tive learning, discovery learning, and active inquiry. The idea is to encourage students to discover general- izations from the analysis of original unprecedented data, to build one concept and generalization upon another, to compare, contrast, and evaluate and even- tually to develop an understanding of the fundamental structure of the subject or subjects. Like the ”new science,” social studies encourage teachers asking open-ended questions especially “those that invite discovery and search, divergent answers, exploration and hypothesizing that I I ' “‘59 are the essence of the new science program. Mathematics was the first discipline to undergo major revi- sion in the sixties, the decade of curriculum reforms. Acceleration A6 Hurd, New Directions in Elementary Science Teaching, p. 3. h7Renner and Stafford, "Inquiry, Children, and Teacher,“ 57. haHilda Taba, ”Techniques of ln-Service Training,” Elementary Education in the Seventies, Joyce, Oana, Houston, eds. (Holt, Rine- hart and Winston, l970), p. 5. 60 of change occurred as a result of a potential threat to the national image and national defense. Topics in the curriculum were generally introduced earlier than they were previously. Content of the elemen~ tary program was broadened to include aspects of mathematics other than arithmetic. Like science and social studies, the teaching- learning modes were the directed-discovery techniques. The teaching of mathematics, like science and social studies, are ”to give students an opportunity to think for themselves, the opportunity to appreciate the order and pattern which is the essence of mathematics, not only in the man-made world but in the natural . 5l world as well as the needed SkIIIS. Linkage of science and mathematics was attempted in a number of projects. The Minnesota Mathematics and Science Teaching Program (MinneMAST) was one of these projects. The project proceeds on the assumption that the school curriculum in science and mathematics should be consi- dered as a unity. This curriculum provides children with the attitudes, skills, and knowledge that are favorable to further school work in science and mathe- matics. 50William Joyce, Robert Dana, and W. Robert Houston, Elementary Education in the Seventies (New York City: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, I970). P. 5. 5IEdith Biggs, ”Mathematics Laboratories and Teachers' Centres the Mathematic Revolution in Britain,” Elementary Education in the Seventies, p. 66. 6l Other objectives include the following: i. Presenting science and mathematics as a part of a continuing human endeavor and as changing, creative disciplines; 2. Providing children with the skills, processes, and techniques of science and mathematics that will permit them to be rationale and effective individuals in society; and 3. Helping children to make sense of the universe and man's place in it. Cultural Forces Prompting. Innovations in the Curriculum It is an accepted fact that cultural forces Of a country direct innovations in curriculum-making. Society is one of the forces that influence the goals of education, the curriculum of the school. The curriculum of a school reflects the needs of society at one time or another. The United States. The present elementary curriculum found in American schools today has undergone an evolution. The current curriculum patterns used in the elementary school did not emerge from a scholastic vacuum or out the clear blue. Rather, they are contemporary phases of curriculum evolution. From almost a singleness of character depicting narrowness in scope, purpose, em- phasis, and methodology--in yesterday's curriculum, 52 Hurd, New Directions In Elementary Science Teaching, p. 88. CUI'I the: Iear hen :qu the I 62 there has appeared an array of curriculum patterns and instructional changes.53 Within a given society, the factors that exert influence on curricula are variable and numerous. However, the ”more potent of these factors are three sources of directiveness--content, society, learner."5h Anderson agrees with the author of the previous statement when he mentions of the basic sources that influence the changing curri- culum: the nature of the discipline, the nature of the learner, and the nature of society and culture.55 Schools are institutions established by society for a partic- ular purpose. Thus it is not surprising that “society is the main de- terminer of the answer that will be given to the function of the goals of education. The importance of society goes beyond this, however, and In the area of science, for example, it is of prime determiner of what aspects will be included In the curriculum and of how this content 56 will be organized.” 53William L. Walker, “The Developing Elementary School Curri- culum," Contemporary Education, XLII (April, l97l), p. 2AA. Ibld. 55Anderson, et al., DevelopingChlldren's Thinking Through Science, p. IAS. 56Ibid., p. lA7. 63 As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the everchanging goals of science education from the past to the present--from religious to utilitarianism, to the disciplines, then to the processes--can be traced to society's changing needs. At the same time, one can see the ever dependence of society on science and technology, and this 57 dependence has been, and is, increasing at a rapid rate.” That society has influenced the curricular changes can be illustrated when Russia sent into orbit its first man-made satellite, Sputnik I. Since Sputnik, much of the science curricula of this nation has been changed. The success of the Soviets in space vehicles created in many Americans the need to revise and revamp the physical science and mathe- matics curriculum. This surge to reform these dis- ciplines has spilled over to many of the sciences and other disciplines.5 Kuslan and Stone viewed the changing curricula as due to a rapidly changing society stimulated by advances in science. They give a rationale of the rapid changes of the curriculum: Schools exist to help young peOple know about and participate in the life of their time. In the past when cultural change and progress in science were slow, instruction in science could lag fifty years or more with little consequence for the individual or the nation. At the turn of this, however, 58 John Paul Eddy, “Some Thoughts on Curriculum Reforms in Amer- Ican Schools,” Contemporary Education, XLVII (May, l97l), 300. 6A America began to move from an agrarian society to a scientific technological society. Adjustment made in the science curricula reflected new technological development.59 The Phiiippines. The history of the country produces some rough look at Philippine culture. A quick look of Philippine history would give one a picture of a country dominated by foreign powers at one time or another. The Spaniards dominated the country for over five hundred years leaving the country the Catholic religion and a passion of life. The Americans, with almost half a century influence, left her a Westernized education that developed, as called by the U.S. Peace Corps, the ”Coca-Cola culture.” The Chinese, followed by the Japanese, left her with the social cancer of corruption and the stigma of the World War II. As of this day, the Philippines is still struggling for a national identity. A foreigner would find it diffi- cult tO understand Filipino culture because of its ”East-West cultural dualism of Filipino ideology and political orientation."60 David L. Szanton, formerly of the Peace Corps, Philippines, has described Filipino culture as one of ”cultural fatigue.” “Cultural fatigue is the physical and emotional exhaustion that almost 59 pp. l5-l6. Kuslan and Stone, Readings on Teaching Children Science, 60Onofre D. Corpuz, The Philippines (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, I965), pp. 52-53. is )3 65 invariably results from the infinite series of minute adjustments for long-term survival in an alien culture.” Szanton proceeds by describing Filipino culture of many influ- ences as: derived from decades of American domination, followed by some years in which American cultural influence has been stronger than that of any outside nation . . . conceptual- izing Philippine culture as being something like an onion with various layers. The outer layer is American in cul- tural coloration, especially in urban areas. Underneath this layer is a Spanish Catholic layer acquired during more than three hundred years of Spanish domination. The core of the onion, however, is distinctively Malaysian and non-Western. The PCV, especially when newly arrived has difficulty determining where one layer ends and the next begins. If Philippine education is basically traditional, one can trace it to its long history of foreign domination. Traditionalism is found in the home where parents dominate the children, dictate to them what to do, and children are receptacles of this culture. Tradi- tionalism is heavily expressed in schools where teachers dominate the classroom and students find it best to be seen and not to be heard. The writer then can say that the traditional curricula reflects very well the Filipino traditional way of life. 6lDavid L. Szanton, Cultural Confrontation in the Philippines (unpublished paper, n.d.), p. l0. Ibid. 66 Formal education started when the Americans took over the country after the Spanish-American War in I898. Education was pri- marily on the three r's. Since then, education in the Philippines was patterned after the United States until she became independent in l9A6. So for quite a while, the school curricula was influenced by American education and not by Philippine culture. Then the second world war broke out leaving the Philippines a place of great devastation. Everything became disjointed, more so with education. The country had to pick its pieces again. Education became static because of a spiritless society. Brandou has this to say of Philippine situations: The national priorities in the Republic of the Philip- pines are similar to those in other developing nations. The country needs to exploit its own natural resources to either feed its growing population itself or de- velop skills which can be exchanged for food in the international market place. It must concentrate on ways to reduce the gap between the ”haves” and the “have nots” by raising the quality of life for all. Universal education opportunity is accepted as an appropriate mechanism for change; and to increase the rate of change, certain fields have been selected for extra emphasis. Agriculturally-oriented science and technology have been given priority; this school and college science education have become important foun- dation areas. 63Julian R. Brandou, ”Philippines,” The Science Teacher, XXXVII (October, I970), 27. 67 The present curricula constructed towards this end have their prime objective to improve the living conditions of the Filipino people. The drive to uplife the economic condition of the Filipino people has so far produced a unique edition of BSCS green version biology program; adaptations of CHEM Study Chemistry, PSSC physics, and IPS physical science, and trials of ESCP earth science and ISCS science. Elementary school science is also being altered toward the AAAS materials.64 These curriculum materials have been produced by the coopera- tive efforts of Filipino educators and the Peace Corps, Philippines. The Philippine approach has taken into consideration the level of national development. Our educators recognize the basic fact that the Philippines, a de- veloping country, will never simply wake up one morning to find itself an industrialized nation. Consequently, they are accepting their responsibility to develop sci- ence teachers. Projecting from this basic groundwork, they confidently expect that another generation will have the scientists and technologists necessary to sup- port an industrialized nation. We have seen in effect how cultural forces are prime movers of curriculum changes, how society directs the schools toward this end. Changes are expected to fit society's needs. To see if the changes are in line with society's goals is the subject of an evaluation. Ibid. 65Brother J. Damian Teston, FMS, ”Innovations in Philippine Science Teaching,” The Science Teacher, XXXVII (October, I970), 32. 68 Evaluation of Elementary Science Programs as it Relates to Children's Learning A treatment of the evaluation of the innovative science pro- grams would be to look at the goals or objectives of science teaching as it relates to children's learning. A review of findings or re- search work along this line reveals encouraging and positive results. A statement of the goals will guide us to a review of this evaluation. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the goals of science education as embodied in the Fifty-Ninth Yearbook stressed problem- solving and critical thinking and emphasized the importance of teaching science as a rpocess of inquiry. It also stressed the development of skills, attitudes, appreciation, and interest.66 These outcomes have been identified by Hurd and Gallagher: I. An understanding of science principles 2. Skills for acquiring knowledge 3. Favorable attitudes toward science. A number of investigations conducted during the past decade have compared the effects of different courses, procedures, and mate- rials on achievement, process skills, and attitudes towards science. 66Nelson B. Henry, ed., ”Rethinking Science Education,‘I Fifty- Ninth Yearbook, p. 37. 67 Hurd and Gallagher, New Directions in Elementary Science Teaching, pp. l2-l5. 69 Evaluation on the effects of the new programs achieving the goals of science is treated along this line. Effects of Innovative Programs on Children's Competencies in Content and Process Skills A review of a limited number of studies in the past decade comparing the effects of ”traditional” with “modern“ science courses on students' competencies in content and skill is hereby treated. Karplus and Thier conducted a study comparing SCIS (Science Curriculum Improvement Study) students and non-SCIS students on the understanding of science principles. They revealed that after the study, SCIS students gained a greater understanding of relative motion than non-SCIS students. Neuman attempted to measure intellectual growth of first-grade children utilizing Material Objects unit. He found that the group of SCIS girls scored significantly higher on a post-test. Various com- parisons were made as well as with first graders in a conventional program. 8Karplus and Thier in Barbara S. Thomson and Alan M. Voelker, "Programs for Improving Science Instruction in the Elementary School,“ Part II, SCIS, ERIC, Science and Children, VII (May, I970), 30. 69Donald B. Neuman, ”The Influence of Selected Science Exper- iences In the Attainment of Concrete Operations by First Grade Child- ren“ (paper read before A2nd meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Pasadena, California,.February, l969). 70 Stafford conducted a research on the question Of accelerating concept skills in the area of conservation. The experimental group showed greater growth in each of the six areas tested: conservation of number, length, liquid amount, solid amount, weight, and area.70 Montgomery's study on the effects on BSCS inquiry teaching on achievement and retention in biology revealed the following: I. The BSCS materials generally improve the retention of bio- logical knowledge; 2. The use of inquiry with traditional materials is at least as effective as the traditional approach with those materials; 3. The inquiry teaching method coupled with the BSCS materials apparently results in the greatest post-test achievement.7l Lashier's study compared an experimental group with a control group to test two null hypotheses of four grade levels; whether there was an initial significant difference between two groups and also whether the experimental group exceeded the achievement of the control group after encountering the AAAS program. Findings revealed that in 7ODon Stafford, ”The Influence of the Science Curriculum Im- provement Study First-Grade Program on the Attainment Of the Conserva- tionsJ'University of Oklahoma, l969, Vol. XXX (unpublished disserta- tion), p. 2862-A. 7]Jerry L. Montgomery, ”Effects of BSCS Inquiry Teaching on Achievement and Retention in Biology” (paper presented in the NSTA nineteenth annual meeting, Washington, D.C., March, l97l). 7] all four grade levels, there was no initial-significant differences at the 0.05 level between the control and experimental groups as mea- sured by the pre-test sets of competent tasks. After completing the sequence of AAAS exercises, both groups were post-tested with the same instruments. In all four grades, significant achievement differences existed in favor of the experimental group. Significance at kinder- garten level was set at 0.05 level. In the first grade, the level of significance was 0.025. In the second grade, a 0.00 ”grade level of significance” was obtained. The level of significance for the third grade group was 0.05. The results of the study indicated that the students involved in this AAAS program consistently achieved more of the stated objectives than the students in the control.72 Ritz in his study of the effect of 2 instructional programs: Science--A Process Approach and the Frostig program noted that kinder- garten children who received Science-~A Process instruction followed by visual perceptual training attained significantly higher Perceptual 73 Quotient scores than did the pupils of the other two groups. 72William S. Lashier, Jr., ”An Assessment of Science--A Process Approach” (paper presented in the A2nd meeting of National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Pasadena, California, February, l969). 73William C. Ritz, ”The Effect of Two Instructional Programs, Science--A Process Approach and the Frostig Program for the Development of Visual Perception, on the Attainment of Reading Readiness, Visual Perceptual, and Science Process Skills in Kindergarten Children” (paper presented in the A2nd meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Pasadena, California, February, l969). 72 Zietler conducted a study of the effect of a science program of children of age three on their perceptual skills. The program was based upon development characteristics of children as well as the learning of investigative skills. Evaluation was an integral part of the program. On the pre-test, the children observed 8 out of 22 pos- sible properties of Objects given to children. 0n the post-test after the program, l9 properties were observed and named. The differences between the mean scores on the pre-test and post-test was significant at the 0.0l level.7h Jungwirth in his investigation of a course in a process- oriented curriculum of BSCS Biology for ninth and tenth grade children in Israel contradicted opponents of process-oriented curricula, who expressed the fear that pupils would acquire less “subject-matter,” than pupils in content-centered curricula. From data obtained in his study, BSCS pupils gained significantly more than pupils studying con- ventional biology.75 Rowe made a comparative study of SCIS and non-SCIS children's skills on observation. She conducted the study with eight SCIS and 7“W. R. Zietler, ”Science Evaluation for Three Year Olds” (paper presented in the NSTA nineteenth annual meeting, Washington, D.C., March, l97l). 75Jungwirth, ”Content-Learning in a Process-Oriented Curricu- lum: Some Aspects of BSCS Biology in Israel," Science Education, LV (January, l97l), 9A. 73 eight non-SCIS second graders. After they examined two different systems (i.e., aquarium and an SCIS whirlybird), through observations, the examiner disagreed with all the statements made by both groups of students. Six of the SCIS students argued their point of view but only one from the non-SCIS group even attempted a second experiment . 76 to support hIs argument. Regarding evaluation of £55 (Elementary Science Study), the feedback gathered from teachers and administrators indicates that children who use ESS materials like science, ask more questions, ask more perceptive questions, are more observant about things outside of school and actively initiate projects.77 In a summary statement on the effects of using ESS program on children's learning Rogers and Voelker said: In the area of the psychomotor domain, ESS's emphasis upon children's manipulating concrete materials, develop motor skill. But ESS's greatest strength is, perhaps, its contribution to the effective development of child- ren. Children derive satisfaction from exploring, in their own individual ways, interesting materials, find- ing not only answers and solutions but also that they have the ability to learn for themselves. Perhaps, too, 76Mary Budd Rowe, ”Science, Science, and Sanctions,” Science and Children, VI (March, l969), ll. 77Robert E. Rogers and Alan M. Voelker, ”Programs for Improv- ing Science Instruction in the Elementary School,” Science and Child- ' ren, VII (January-February, l970), A2. 7A children who find satisfaction in exploring will in time come to value and commit themselves to it.78 Effects of Elementary Science Programs on Attitudes Of Students The term ”attitude” as used in researches in science education has multiple meanings, and it is important to know precisely which meaning a given writer is using in order to understand and evaluate his study. Majority of studies on “attitudes towards science have been concerned with effect on feeling--like vs. dislike-- toward science in general or a particular science. Other investigations have dealt with 'attitude towards scien- tists' which refers to like vs. dislike or approval vs. disapproval of the activities engaged in by scientists and the kind of people that scientists are. Finally another group of research investigations and writings has been concerned with the more cognitive 'Scientific attitude,‘ which is another term for adherence to or knowledge of the 'scientific method.'”79 The writer is particularly interested in studies that change the learner's attitudes after using an innovative program in program in science. Studies, along this line, are limited, especially among children. 78Ibid., A3. 79Lewis R. Aiken, Jr. and Dorothy R. Aiken, “Recent Research on Attitudes Concerning Science,” Science Education, LII (October, I969), 295. 75 Charen compared an Open-ended inductive approach with a tradi- tional, deductive approach in the teaching of high school chemistry laboratory. He obtained attitude measures by observing 268 students, by discussion with them and their teachers, and by administrating a questionnaire. The students expressed more positive attitudes toward the inductive approach because it reportedly ”made them think, feel like real chemists, gave them more freedom in the laboratory, and was more challenging, interesting, enjoyable, and stimulating than the traditional approach."80 Another study on changing attitudes of children was done by Lowery. His study involved 335 California fifth-grades, divided into experimental and control groups which were matched for I.Q. at each of three socio-economic levels. The experimental group received in- struction in an NSF-sponsored science unit on animal coloration; the control group was taught a comparable science unit on the topic of animals from the California textbook series. Among the results were' the significant changes in attitudes toward science in the experimental group, but not in the control group, at each socio-economic level and especially in the upper socio-economic group. OGeorge Charen, “Laboratory Methods Build Attitudes,“ Science Education, L (February, l966), 5A-57. 8lLowery in Aiken and Aiken, ”Recent Research on Attitudes Concerning Science," Science Teacher, LIII (October, l969), 30l. 76 De Lucca investigated changing attitudes of students in a structured-inquiry approach in an Introductory Geology laboratory course. The control group was taught by the lecture-demonstration- participation method. Results indicated that the experimental course produced favorable students' attitude to geology and science. Cossman evaluated the effects of a course in science culture on children's attitudes and scientific literary. He found significant positive effects of the experimental course on attitudes, general understanding of the scientific process, and critical thinking but there was no significant change in scores on a science achievement test.83 From the foregoing citations of research studies of the ef- fects of the different innovative programs on children's attitudes and competencies in content and in the process skills, the writer believes that there is adequate evidence though limited, that these innovative programs have achieved the goals of science education set according to the needs of a dynamic changing society. 2Frederick P. de Lucca, ”Structural Inquiry Methods Materials for an Introductory Geology Course" (paper presented in the NSTA nineteenth annual meeting, Washington, D.C., March, l97l). 3Cossman in Aiken and Aiken, ”Re,ent Research on Attitudes Concerning Science,” Science Teacher, Llll (October, 1969), 302-303. 77 With the curriculum innovations, parallel programs for teacher education have been developed. The question arises: with what type of teacher can a teacher education program be expected to produce the greatest change in both perception of the innovation and the practice of the innovation. Analysis of related research is hereby presented. Related Studies of the Present Investigation With the innovations in the elementary school science curri- culum and the changes we expect in children's behavior, we look for- ward to new teacher-training programs. Voelker gives his rationale of a revision of the curriculum in teacher-education to meet prospective elementary school teachers' needs. He gives students' reasons as follows: College methods courses in general are on the docket. Students enrolled in teacher-preparation programs are requesting, even demanding more relevant and practical experiences . . . . These college students hear their methods instructors commend the techniques of individ- ualized instruction but they do not see these tech- niques demonstrated. No wonder, then, that they con- sider much of the teacher-education programs to be trivia. At the same time students are aware that in- creasing emphasis is being placed on specifying com- petencies which they are to acquire before being certified for teaching. 8A Alan M. Voelker, ”A Competencies Approach to Teacher Educa- tion,” The Science Teacher, XXXVII (September, l970), 37-38. 78 Voelker recommends a type of teacher-preparation program in which individualized instruction is practiced in which the student is made aware of these competencies that are expected of him, and in which he is given the Opportunity to develop these competencies in real school situations. The Department of Education of Hunter College introduced a methods courseirIelementary science education in I965 which is under- going continuous evaluation and revision. This course includes methods and materials appropriate for classes from the kindergarten to the sixth grades. An evaluation of the curriculum of a new course in elementary methods at Hunter College was done by name of feedback data obtained by questionnaires from samplings of newly appointed elementary school teachers, student teachers, and students. All three groups rated the methods course content as to what they thought was most useful for the beginning teacher in science.87 In the summer of I967, the University of Illinois established a new course which combined a science course with an elementary school 85Ibid., 37. 86 Edward Frankel, ”Evaluation of a Curriculum for Elementary Science Education,” Science Education, LII (April, l968), 28A. 87Ibid., p. 285. 79 science methods. No formal statistical measurements of success or failure have as yet been attempted of this innovation, although a report is expected about students' changed attitudes and accomplish- ments. Purdue University is attempting to individualize their science-methods instruction on the premise that as they ”find each child enters a grade level with differing abilities, we also find that each prospective elementary teacher enters a science-methods course with differing abilities.89 The Science Education Area at the University of Houston has developed a laboratory-oriented program of self-instructional modules for the pre-service elementary school teachers. The in- structional modules were developed around the major elementary science curriculum projects: SAPA, SCIS, ESS, MinneMAST, IDP, and COPES. These modules provide the pre-service elementary teacher 8Sidney Rosen, "Report on a New Single Course Combining Content and Technique In the Science Preparation of Elementary School Teachers” (paper presented in the A2nd meeting of the Na- tional Association for Research in Science Teaching, Pasadena, California, February, l969). 89Gerald H. Krockover, "An Individualized Science Methods Approach" (paper presented in the NSTA nineteenth annual meeting, Washington, D.C., March, l97l). 80 an opportunity to learn science concepts in an active, material- centered situation. Okey has presented a program for teaching science process skills that is underdevelopment. Intended users of the program are prospective and in-service elementary school teachers of Indiana University, Bloomington. The science process skills referred to in h i 5 program are primarily those associated with the curriculum, Science--A Process Approach. The experimental study the writer was involved in was assumed tc> be unique in the sense that she was not aware of any study like it:. She developed a course incorporating a methods course and a prlysical science course in the Cebu Normal College, Philippines, hopefully to develop prospective elementary school teachers' attitudes and science competencies in skills and content. An evaluation of tharwges in students' behaviors was done at the end of the experimental Study. A review of studies alone this line was found to be limited. A similar study was that of Pickering's which was a comparison of ‘ 90JacobW. Blankenship, ”Facilitating Change for the Pre- S'E-I‘VIce Elementary School Teachers" (paper presented in the NSTA nine- teenth annual meeting, Washington, D.C., March, l97l). 9'James R. Okey, ”Developing Competence in Process Skills” (paper presented in the NSTA nineteenth annual meeting, Washington, °- C- . March, l97l). 8i inquiry-laboratory, inquiry-demonstration, and lecture techniques in an experimental study of the effects of inquiry experiences on the attitudes and competencies of elementary teachers in the area of sci- ence. He found that the inquiry-laboratory group was superior to the inquiry-demonstration and lecture-techniques groups on the criteria of attitude toward science. His conclusions pointed to a significant improvement between the pre- and post-tests for all attitude and com- petence criteria under investigation.92 Bruce in a study to find changes in teachers' attitude and competencies after a 3-week SCIS workshop held at Michigan State Uni- versity reported in his findings no significant differences in the teachers' attitude toward the teacher-pupil relationship before and during formal involvement in the program.93 Part of his findings also revealed no significant difference in the teachers' understanding of the processes of science. Of in- terest to the writer was his findings of a positive correlation 92Robert 5. Pickering, ”An Experimental Study of the Effects of Inquiry Experiences on Attitudes and Competencies of Prospective Ele- mentary Teachers in the Area of Science“ (unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, Michigan State University, l970), pp. l5A-l59. 93Larry Rhea Bruce, "A Determination of the Relationships among SCIS Teachers Personality Traits, Attitude toward Teacher-Pupil Relationships, Understanding of Science Process Skills and Questions Types” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969). Pp. 99-100. 82 9A between the proceps test and the Minnesota Teacher Attitude test. This was one of the hypotheses tested by the writer. Olsted in his study of the effect of a science teaching methods on the understanding of science of prospective elementary school teachers concluded that the groups showed significant increase in their understanding of science as measured by the TOUS (Test on Under- standing Science). The function of the course was to introduce to prospective elementary school teachers an understanding of science both as subject matter and as processes of scientific inquiry.95 On studies regarding changes in attitudes of prospective teachers, Oshima examined the differences between lecture-demonstration method and the individual investigation method in a college course for prospective teachers of elementary school science. Oshima found no significant changes in attitudes in either group, although there were slight positive changes in the experimental group. The experimental group also gained significantly more in confidence in teaching sci- 96 ence. 9L'lbid , p. lOO 95Roger G. Olsted, ”The Effect of a Science Teaching Methods on the Understanding of Science,” Science Teachipg, LIII (January, l969), 9'I0- 96 Oshima in Aiken and Aiken, ”Recent Research in Attitudes Concerning Science,” 300. 83 Die] investigated the effects of an experimental course in physical science for non-science majors on the attitudes of prospec- tive elementary school teachers. The experimental group had non- directed teaching and a pervasive laboratory approach, while the con- trol group had lectures and a fixed laboratory experience. The re- sults revealed no significant difference between the change scores of the two groups on a measure of rigidity (”mind set”) or on the prospective teachers' social outlook toward science.97 Liddle compared the effects of two modes of small group in- struction in an elementary science methods course upon the attitudes held by pre-service elementary teachers related to science and the teaching of science. One treatment was designated as auto- instructional, while the other was designated as lecture-demonstration. The auto-instructional treatment involved manipulation of materials and equipments by the students, which directions were provided for by guide sheets for each session. The lecture-demonstration treatment involved the same topics and objectives but the students were not allowed to manipulate the material and equipment. 97Diel in Aiken and Aiken, op. cit., 300. 98Edward Liddle, ”A Quasi-Experimental Study of the Effects of Two Modes of Instruction on the Attitudes of the Pre-Service Elemen- tary Teachers in the Area of Science Teaching” (unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation, Michigan State University, l97l), abstract page. 8A Findings revealed greater positive changes in attitudes of the lecture-demonstration treatment group than the auto-instructional treatment group. The findings of this study indicate that instruction in an elementary science methods course can aid the development of 99 more positive attitudes toward science and teaching of science. Summary The past two decades have been marked by great changes in the school curriculum. Causes could be traced to the growing professional- ism among teachers in the fifties and triggered by the concern of the American public with the launching of the first man-made satellite by the Russians. Here we see how society directed the goals of the school's curriculum to fit its pressing needs. Curriculum changes then became the order of the times. Along with the changes were the learning theories of Piaget, Bruner, and Gagné which were the basis of the new curriculum program in the elementary school. Piaget and Bruner emphasized the processes of learning and Gagné on the product of learning. In this chapter we see a different role of the teacher as she effects changes in the child's behavior. She is a far cry from the traditional teacher who dominates the classroom activities. Rather the new teacher acts as guide, not a teller of science. 85 A review of research studies though limited, revealed the pos- itive results of the use of the innovative programs in science. Sig- nificant gains are found in experimental studies using the science curricula as the SCIS, E85, and AAAS in effecting changes in the child's attitude and science competencies in process and content. With changes we expect from the child in the new programs, we look forward to changes in teacher-preparation. There is a number of revisions of teacher education curriculum lately that hopefully war- rants changes in the prospective elementary school teachers' attitude and competencies set in the patterns of the new science programs. Results of experimental studies on changes of prospective elementary school teachers are not quite so promising especially in changes of attitudes. More studies along this line are expected for more ade- quate information. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY Described in this chapter are the population, the instruments, the design, the experimental curriculum, and analysis procedures used in the study. The Population The pOpulation used in the investigation were prospective elementary school teachers of the Cebu Normal College, Philippines. Subjects of the study were 90 students comprising of three sections of juniors registered in the course, Physical Science (Science 2), of the Cebu Normal College, Philippines, l97l-l972. Eighty-five of the subjects were female and five were male. The Instruments Instruments to measure intelligence and changes in attitude and science competencies were: I. Science Research Associates (SRA) Verbal Intelligence Tests, Forms A and B. 86 87 2. Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI). 3. Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers. A. A Content-Understanding Test. SRA Verbal Intelligence Tests. SRA Verbal, Forms A and B, is a test of general intelligence. It measures the overall ability and flexibility Of an individual in adjusting to the many complex situa- tions that arise in everyday living. It takes into account quickness of thought and action, ability to comprehend and follow instructions, and ability to prepare in advance for difficulties that might arise to hinder the accomplishments of an assigned task. Forms A and B can be used at all educational levels from junior high school through col- lege, and at all employee levels from unskilled to company executives. The SRA intelligence tests, being largely language dependent and not culture free, could have been biased to the subjects. In view of this, the subjects of the study perhaps did not perform as well as their American counterpart. The testing time was limited to l5 minutes and this is unduly short as far as to the Filipino subjects are concerned. The SRA intelligence test was administered to the subjects by the Guidance Coordinator of the Cebu Normal College shortly before the IThelma G. Thurstone and L. L. Thurstone, Verbal Intelligence TestsJ Forms A and B (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1956). P- 2. 88 arrival of the writer in September, l97l. Raw scores were converted to Quotient Rank. Results revealed IQ as high as l3l and as low as 60. The mean converted IQ score of the subjects was 83.7. For statistical purposes, subjects were divided into High, Medium, and Low IQ levels to determine significant differences of the three groups in the three criteria measures. Criteria of the three IQ levels was based on the ranking of subjects from highest to lowest. The top one-third composed the High; the middle one-third, the Medium; and the bottom one-third, the Low. It is hereby mentioned that the writer could not organize these classes according to IQ results as previously planned in her dissertation proposal. Upon her arrival, classes were already organized according to students' major subjects of concentra- tion. Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI). The Minne- sota Teacher Attitude Inventory is designed to measure those atti- tudes of a teacher which predict how well he will get along with pupils in impersonal relationships and indirectly how well satis- fied he will be with teaching as a vocation. Investigation car- ried on by the authors of this test indicate the attitude of teachers toward children and schoolwork can be measured with high 89 reliability, and that they are significantly correlated with the teacher-pupil relations found in the teacher's classrooms. The investigator's objective in giving the MTAI as pre- and post-tests was to determine if significant change occurred in pros- pective elementary teachers' attitude across time toward children and school work as a result of the experimental curriculum used in the study. With the MTAI, there are no “right” or ”wrong” answers. Rather, there are agreement or disagreement with specific attitude statements. In order to avoid a change in the accepted terminology, the scoring keys have been given the commonly used “right” or ”wrong” labels; no implication of correctness or incorrectness of answers is intended. The possible range of scores on the MTAI is from ISO to minus l50. Each response scored ”right” has a value of plus one, and each response scored “wrong“ has a value of minus one.3 The MTAI instrument calls for one's attitude toward teacher- pupil relationship in an American setting. Scores of the instrument reflect to some extent a child-centered permissive attitude which is predominantly an American cultural mode. Since the subjects of the 2Walter W. Cook, Carol Leeds, Robert Callis, Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory Manual (New York: Psychological Corporation, I951). P- 2- 3Ibid., p. A. 90 study belong to a culture where respect for tradition, the family, and authority is the rule, responses could have been affected by this cul- tural background. The MTAI is a type of test in which the structure is unfa- miliar to the Filipino subjects. The MTAI calls for responses in five categories: strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, strongly dis- agree. To the subjects, a response is either categorically agreeable or disagreeable to a certain statement. She either agrees or dis- agrees with a statement in the Inventory. The responses, strongly agree and strongly disagree, are too emphatic and beyond her culture. Belonging to a culture that is not inquiry-oriented, her responses tend to be influenced to a large extent by authority of the book or what the teacher says. Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers. The writer used the instrument, Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers to measure competency in the processes of prospective ele- mentary school teachers. This is adOpted from Mueller's instrument to measure processes which he purposely constructed for his research study. lIDelbert W. Mueller, ”Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers, A Guide for Curriculum Evaluation: A Descriptive Study of the Implementation of the Earth Science Curriculum Project for the Carman School Districr,_Flint, Michigpn, l970-l97l (unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, I972). 9i The pre- and post-tests of this instrument tend to measure the basic processes (observing, classifying, measuring, communicating, and inferring) and the integrated processes (formulating hypotheses, de- fining operationally, controlling variable, interpreting data, and experimenting). The test, consisting of two types, has 35 items and a total of 77 Points for all processes evaluated. One type provides written instructions for the students and states the problem to be considered. Each student had her own answer sheet which she marked as she was directed to do. The other type consists of multiple choice items with each having four possible answers to choose from. A reliability coefficient of .87 and .70 were established for the pre- and post-tests respectively of this instrument in Mueller's study. He used the formula:5 MSR - MSRC = r MSR MSR = means square subjects MSRc = means square interaction between subjects and test items r = reliability coefficient 5 G. J. Hoyt, ”Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis of Vari- ance,” Psychometric, VII (l9Al), pp. l53-l60, as found in William Mehrens and Robert L. Ebel, Principles of Education and Psychologipal Measurement (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, l967), p. lll. 92 Content-Understanding Test. To measure competency in the understanding of science covering the areas in Matter and Energy, the writer administered the pre- and post-tests, A Content-Understanding Tests adopted from Science Teaching Tests, the World of Matter and Energy.6 The test consists of 80 multiple choice items with each having A-5 possible answers to choose from. The instrument covers units on Matter and Energy and excluded those on Earth and Space which area was taught by her substitute-instructor before the writer took over the classes. The Design_ The design was a longitudinal study without a control group. An experimental curriculum was constructed by the writer to determine whether a process-centered course would produce changes in attitude and competencies both in process and in content of prospective elemen- tary school teachers. Changes were measured in pre- and post-tests on attitudes and competencies in process and content. The design of the study was as follows: Paul F. Brandwein, Sylvia S. Nievert, Harry H. Williams, Science Teaching Tests,_the World of Matter and Energy (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., l96A), pp. 60-78. 93 Pre Post 0pI 0cI 0al exp Op2 0c2 0a2 The Experimental Curriculum The course, Physical Science (Science 2), was used in this study. This was a year course consisting of two semesters. An exper- imental curriculum was purposely constructed by the writer for her classes in her study to incorporate content and methods of teaching science in the elementary schools. Science methods is incorporated in this course with the end in view of having students enrolled in the course acquire investigative skills needed in the new science and would be able to teach science as a process. The first semester's work was focused on the building of the process skills developed in the elementary grades l-6. Process activities were taken from the elemen- tary science curriculum guides, and AAAS Science--A Process Approach. The content of the physical science course was organized around concepts in the area Matter and Energy, taught in the Elementary Sci- ence Curriculum Guides l-6. This set of curriculum materials was con- structed by the Bureau of Public Schools, Philippines. Additional activities to improve science competencies were also adopted from M'Chlgarl State University's Physical Science 203 which was constructed by Dr. Flichard McCleod and his team of the Michigan State University 9A Mathematics and Science Teaching Center. Concepts in the units on Matter and Energy aimed to develOp the basic and integrated process skills of Observing, comparing, classifying, inferring, measuring, formulating, hypotheses, predicting, controlling variables, and ex- perimenting, which are taught in the elementary grades in the Philip- pines. This teacher-preparation experimental curriculum included the following components: I) independent study questions, 2) lectures, 3) recitation laboratory, A) modular laboratory, 5) peer-group teach- ing. Independent Study. The independent study involved questions examined in depth by students as a result of peer-peer discussions in laboratory sessions or peer-peer instructor interaction in lecture and lab sessions. Since fewer topics were considered in the lectures, this type of instructional module was in order. Lecture. The lecture portion of the course was allotted two hours a week. Topics related to the laboratory activities were se- lected for lecture. Emphasis was given on concepts learned in the laboratory. Enrichment of the concepts and related concepts was fur- ther investigated in the independent study projects of students. Recitation Laboratory. Two hours a week of recitation labor- atory was included in the experimental course. This was mainly labor- atory work followed by discussion of findings on a series of problems 95 investigated on Matter and Energy. In this type of laboratory, the class was divided into groups of four or five where students observe, measure, infer, interpret data, predict, control variables and test hypotheses by experimenting. Most of the activities were taken from the Elementary Science Curriculum Guides l-6 and Physical Science 203 of Michigan State University as mentioned earlier. Modular Laboratory. Another two hours a week were given to students for individualized laboratory work. Its Objective was to develop individual competency in the aforementioned processes. Indi- vidual students went through competency exercises toward this end. Peer-group teaching was a part of this modular laboratory. Peer-Group Teaching. The objective of the peer-group teaching was to have the students get the feel of teaching science as a process. Students in the group took turns demonstrating a concept or a process skill. This was usually followed by a critique session by the whole class, which basis was a set of criteria for peer-group teaching. Sub- ject matter content of the peer-group teaching was taken from the Elementary Science Curriculum Guides l-6. The Treatment This study is concerned with a group of students, comprising four sections (III-A, III-B, III-C, and III-D) of juniors registered 96 in the Physical Science course (Science 2) of the Cebu Normal College, Philippines, l97l-l972. When the writer arrived early September to take over these classes, students were already organized according to their subject areas of concentration. For the purpose of controlling the size of classes, the writer distributed the class section Ill-D students having the least number (l8) to class sections III-A, Ill-B, and III-C making 32, 33, and 33 students in each class respectively. By the second semester, this number dropped to 30 in each class since the eight students had met the science requirements for graduation and did not continue in this course. The teaching procedure was two-hour lecture and four-hour laboratory weekly: 2-hour recitation laboratory and 2-hour modular laboratory. Sections III-A and III-C met 3 times a week (M-W-F) with a total of 6 hours a week. Section III-B met twice (T-TH) with the same number of class hours, 6 a week. The first week of the experimental study was utilized for the administration of the pre-tests instruments. Subsequent instruction in the treatment of the study in the first and second semester was made as consistent as possible throughout the three classes. As men- tioned in the early part of this chapter, the course incorporated methods and content of elementary science. 97 The instruction of the methods part of the course involved: I) the objectives of science education in the elementary school, 2) the psychological bases of the innovative science programs, 3) basic infor- mation of the Philippine science curriculum in the elementary grades as to content and processes involved, A) instructional techniques in teaching science, 5) preparing instructional materials especially on lesson planning with emphasis on the construction of behavioral objec- tives, 6) constructing simple aids and devices in line with the new programs, 7) constructing sample evaluating materials particularly the paper-pencil type stressing on the processes developed in the elemen- tary grades. A peer-group teaching activity was required of each student. Here students took turns in demonstrating a process or a concept to a _ group. Students of the course also observed classes in the laboratory school to see children learn science through the process approach. The instruction of the content part of the course was organized around the units on Matter and Energy. Investigations using the pro- cess approach were carried on Density, Boiling, Heat, Light, Sound, Magnetism, Electricity, and Simple Machines. Basis of these activities were the Elementary Science Guides l-6 and MSU's Physical Science 203 as mentioned earlier. Sessions were divided into lecture (2-hour weekly) and laboratory sessions (A-hour weekly) making a total of 6 hours a week. 98 The Collection of Data During the first two weeks Of the experimental investigation, the pre-test instruments were administered to all subjects. The sub- jects of this investigation were given these instruments over a period of three successive days. The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI) Form A, was administered on the first day, Science Process Test for Elementary School Teachers given the second day, and the Content- Understanding test on the third day of the second week of September. Data collected on the attitude measure is presented in Table I of the Appendix. In the case of the instruments for measuring science competency in content-understanding and processes in science, raw scores were utilized for subsequent analysis. All of the data collected are pre- sented in Table I of the Appendix. During the last two weeks of the experimental study (April, I972), the same procedures that were followed during the administration of the pre-tests instruments were utilized. The post-test instruments included the same instruments Used in the pre-tests. The scoring of these instruments also followed the same procedures as described in the pre-tests. These data are recorded in Table I of the Appendix. 99 The Analysis of Data To analyze the data collected during the experimental investi- gation, the writer selected a number of statistical treatments for the purpose of clarifying some aspects of the study, and to test the hy- potheses as stated in Chapter I. All data to which statistical tests L were applied were secured from scores of the pre- and post-tests ob- tained by the subjects on the aforementioned instruments used in the study. Hypotheses one, two, and three were tested by the test analysis of difference between pre-test and post-test means. The level for the rejection was set:at0.05,determining the significance of the differ- ence at this level. The procedure to test hypotheses fOur, five, six, seven, eight, and nine was the correlation technique. A 0.05level of significance was used to test the relationship between content and process, intel- ligence and process, intelligence and content, intelligence and atti- tude, process and attitude, and content and attitude on the pre- and post-tests. The test statistic r was used to give the value that would reject the null hypotheses. The correlation technique was also used to test the significant correlation of the same set of’variables in the top one-third and bottom one-third of the subjects on the pre- and post-tests. Statistical treatment to determine the significant lOO difference of the IQ levels and treatment groups was a two-way ANOVA design with three IQ levels (High, Medium, Low) and class (Ill-A, III-B, III-C) as independent variables in the pre- and post-tests of the three instruments. As to the criteria of the classification of the three IQ levels subjects were ranked from highest to lowest. Those who got quotient rank equivalents of 87 to l3l composed the High IQ level group; 79 to 86, the Medium IQ level group; and 60 to 78, the Low IQ level group. Table 3 shows the number of subjects found in each class based on this criteria. There were 30 students in each class. TABLE 3 IQ LEVELS AND TREATMENT CLASSES Classes IQ Levels* Total III-A III-B III-C High 9 9 l2 30 Medium II II 8 30 Low l0 l0 IO 30 Total 30 30 30 90 *High (top one-third) with quotient rank equivalent to 87-l3l. Medium (middle one-third) with quotient rank equivalent to 79-86. Low (bottom one-third) with quotient rank equivalent to 60-78. lOI As shown in the results of the testing used in the study, an overall mean of 83.7 was obtained by the subjects, falling far below the American norm of 99.75. The classification of High, Medium, and Low IQ levels as used by the writer in the study did not come up to the standard norm set by the SRA stanine rank of three IQ levels. The SRA stanine rank classified quotient rank equivalents of ll2.5 to IAO as Good; 87.5 to ll2, as Average; and 60 to 86.5 as Poor. Outcomes of the intelligent tests would point to the subjects as mentally poor by American standards. It should be mentioned here that subjects of the study, as well as other applicants for admission to the Cebu Normal College, were screened and passed a battery of tests given by the Bureau of Public Schools as entrance examinations. Before applicants are qualified to take the tests, they should belong within the upper fifty percent of the high school graduating class. In this aspect, the writer feels that the results of the SRA intelli- gence tests did not do justice to the subjects in terms of IQ. Furthermore, the use of the SRA Non-Verbal Form could have been given as supplement for cases scoring very low and requiring rechecking. This was not available as materials could not be secured at the time of the study. Significant differences of row and column effects and their interaction were calculated by the computation of the F-ratios to I02 test hypothesis ten to hypothesis eighteen. Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe's method was used to uncover the groups causing the row and column effects or their interaction if they existed. [Summary Pre- and post-test instruments were administered to a tOtal sample of 90 students of the Cebu Normal College, Philippines, to determine the effects of a Physical Science course using the process approach in developing attitude and science competency of prospec- tive elementary school teachers, l97l-l972. To determine improvement of subjects in attitude and compe- tencies after the treatment, a t-test analysis of difference between pre- and post-test means was used. To test the relationship between content and process, intelligence and process, intelligence and con- tent, intelligence and attitude, process and attitude, and content and attitude, the correlation technique was used. Correlation of the same set of variables of the top one-third and bottom one-third of the subjects was also included in the analysis. A two-way analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences of the IQ levels and the treatment groups. The next chapter gives the analysis of data and results. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS Data collected are analyzed in this chapter and results are based on this analysis. The hypotheses as stated in Chapter I are statistically treated for their acceptance or rejection in this chapter. Pre- and Post-Tests Data The primary purpose of giving the pre- and post-tests of the study was to ascertain the relative effects of treatment on attitudes and competencies of prospective elementary school teachers. An analysis of significant differences between pre- and post- test means on the scores of the criteria measures was used to test hypotheses one, two, and three. Hypothesis one stated that there will be no mean improvement between pre- and post-tests for ability to perform process skills. Hypothesis two stated there will be no mean improvement between pre- and post-tests for understanding phys- ical science concepts. Hypothesis three stated that there will be no mean improvement between pre- and post-tests on attitudes of l03 lOA prospective elementary teachers. Tables A, 5, and 6 present data of pre- and post-test mean scores and standard deviations of the three criterion measures on process, content, and attitude. Table A shows means and standard deviations on pre- and post-tests. These were statistically treated to test hypotheses one, two, and three. Table 5 shows a significant difference between pre- and post-tests in students' ability to perform the processes. It further reveals a significant difference between pre- and post-tests on con- tent and understanding of physical science concepts. Test statis- tics then rejected hypotheses one and two. Hypothesis three was not rejected as there were no significant differences at 0.05 level be- tween pre- and post-tests in students' attitude before and after treatment as shown in Table A. Table 6 shows pre-post test gains on students' processes, content, and attitude. It shows significant mean gains in process and content at 0.05 level . However, no significant gains were found in the attitude criteria measure. Further analysis revealed the significant differences of pre-post test means existing in all three IQ levels (High, Medium, Low) in both process and content competency measures as shown in Table 7. 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