THE ENQUIRY METHOD IN SECONDARY SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY: UNITS ON THE CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY 0F IRAN Dissertation for the Dégree of Ph. D. MICHTGAQVE STATE UNWERSE’TY BERAKHSHANDEE WIN SAW! 1 9 7 4 ‘nu-oya «‘mv-vrrr m" «can. .. . . I fix ~3 sw*.Mu-2'3'§~Mm '9" {3 Eat-namé a? ‘P HUME 8: WW Lt EEC-K BINDERY INC.“ . v DERS E m tpzigguémcmm H! “3"“: 'w- ABSTRACT THE INQUIRY METHOD IN SECONDARY SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY: UNITS ON THE CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF IRAN By Derakhshandeh Hamidi Sadeghi Man has been curious about his environment since the beginning of time. This curiosity--especially from ancient times until the present day--has resulted in different definitions and perceptions of geography. As time went by. geographic education in different societies changed, gaining value in some and losing value in others. It is the purpose of this dissertation to describe current practices in teaching geography at the secondary level in the United States and in Iran, to introduce the inquiry method for teaching geography in the secondary schools and to apply the High School Geography Project to teaching the cultural geography of Iran. The analysis of geographic education in the United States before the 1960's shows similarities to that of geographic education in Iran (i.e. geography was considered an insignificant subject). The classes were teacher-oriented; the emphases were on memorization of facts from the texts and learning the names of specific mountains, Derakhshandeh Hamidi Sadeghi rivers, capitals, and cities. In the 1960's American educators gave new spirit to geographic education. It resulted from the High School Geography Project (H.S.G.P.) administered by the Association of American Geographers and sponsored by the National Science Foundation. The "new geography", as it is called, is based upon inquiry and upon the direct participation of the students. Simulation games, plays, films, slides, transparencies, and other tools were introduced as new strategies to geography classes in the high schools. The changes of the 1960's in geography classrooms is seen in many ways. The High School Geography Project encouraged students to view geography as a serious, necessary, and favorable discipline. In this study the inquiry method of "the New Geography“ is applied to teaching cultural geography in Iran. Units on physical geography, population, ethnic groups, languages and religion in Iran are included. In each unit the teaching strategies based on the H.S.G.P. method are applied. Conclusions drawn from the study indicate that the H.S.G.P. is applicable to teaching geography in other parts of the world besides the United States. However, the local situation relating to physical, cultural, historical, and social economic factors must be considered before applying the project. THE INQUIRY METHOD IN SECONDARY SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY: UNITS ON THE CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF IRAN By Derakhshandeh Hamidi Sadeghi A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education 1974 DEDICATION To the memory of my mother, "Meraut", who influenced my life and generated my interest in education. 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation could neither have begun nor have been completed without the patience, interest, contributions and encourage- ment of many people. I would like to express my appreciation to the nation of Iran and the Iranian government for granting the scholarship through the Ministry of Science and Higher Education during the course of these studies. Sincere appreciation goes to National Science Foundation, Dr. Gorge Uvichi, and Charles Heller, for their invitation to the l973 Summer Institute at Western Michigan University, and their contri- bution of the High School Geography Project. My warmest gratitude extends to Dr. Geoffrey Moore, the chairman of the committee and major academic advisor, for his help and advice. Thanks for the many hours spent reading and critizing this dissertation. The guidance and assistance of Dr. Daniel Jacobson, who patiently spent time reading and helping to prepare the manuscript is deeply appreciated. Indeed, without his generosity and devotion I would not have been able to finish my program of study and, parti- cularly, this research project. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Stanley Nronski for his generous and sustained encouragement, criticism and help. I am thankful to Dr. Raymond Hatch who, after the death of my previous advisor, Dr. Guy Timmons, honored me by becoming my advisor. Much gratitude is extended for his tolerant comments, criticisms, and magnanimity. Finally, many thanks goes to my husband, Ali, and my children, Mohammad, Shaheen, and Mariam, for their patience and cheerful fore- bearance during the course of these studies. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ....................... viii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ..................... 1 Statement of Nature of Geography .......... 1 Geographic Education in Iran ............ 5 Statement of Problem ................ 7 Research Considerations .............. ll Organization of Dissertation ............ l2 II. INQUIRY AND GEOGRAPHY ................. l3 Inquiry ...................... T4 The Nature of Knowledge ............. 15 The Tools of Inquiry .............. 15 The Attitudes and Values ............ 16 The Process of Inquiry ............. l7 Application to Geography .............. 21 H.S.G.P. Materials as a Model ........... 23 The Cultural Geography Unit ............ 25 Methods of Inquiry ................. 28 III. APPLICATION OF H.S.G.P. MODEL. UNITS ON THE CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY 0F IRAN ........... 30 Unit I. Brief Description of the Physical Geography of Iran .............. 30 Location, Site, Situation ............. 30 The High Lands ................... 30 The Alborz or Northern Highlands ........ 31 The Zagros Region or Western Massif ....... 34 Eastern and Southeastern Mountains ....... 38 The Low Lands . . . . . .............. 38 The Caspian Region ............... 38 The Persian Gulf Lowland ............ 38 The Iranian Plateau ................ 40 Climate ...................... 42 Climatic Regions of Iran ............ 42 Soil ........................ 46 Vegetation ..................... 48 Fauna ....................... 52 Inquiry Questions ................... 55 V Chapter Page Activity I. Physical Geography Laboratory Study ................... 56 Unit II. Population and Ethno- Geographic Differences ................ 59 Population .................... 59 Historical Background and Early Settlement ............. 59 Population in Ancient Time ........... 59 Twentieth Century Population .......... 60 Urban and Rural Population ........... 61 Ethno-Geographic Differences and the Culture Regions of Iran .......... 64 Kurds . . ................... 69 Lu rs ...................... 71 Qashgais .................... 75 Turkmans .................... 76 Arabs ..................... 79 Khamseh .................... 79 Baluchies ................... 79 Inquiry Questions .................. 82 Activity I. Group Work for Iranian Population ................ 83 Activity II. A Field Work Study of Iranian Tribes ............... 87 Unit III. Languages of Persia ............ 90 The Persian Language ............... 90 Inquiry Questions .................. 96 Activity 1. Study of Language of the Community ................... 97 Unit IV. Religions of Iran ............. 100 Zoroastranism ................... 100 Moslem ...................... 102 The Minority Religions in Iran .......... 104 Inquiry Questions .................. 107 Activity 1. Discovering Religious Patterns in the Suburbs ............... 108 IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............... 113 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 120 APPENDIX A. THE NAME OF IRAN AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF IRANIAN CULTURE ........ 128 APPENDIX B. GEOGRAPHY 0F IRAN, TIME AND SPACE ....... 132 APPENDIX C. SAMPLE RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE ........ 150 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Result of the Questionnaire ............. 8 2 The Persian Lowlands ................ 4O 3 January Temperatures at Selected Stations ...... 44 4 April Temperatures at Selected Stations ....... 45 5 July Temperatures at Selected Stations ....... 45 6 October Temperatures at Selected Stations ...... 46 7 Land Distribution in Iran, by Type ......... 49 8 Percentage of Migration to Tehran by Cause for Selected Years ............. 65 9 Percentage of Migration to Tehran by Age for Selected Years .............. 66 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 A Concept of Inquiry .................. 19 2 Iran Present and Past ................. 32 3 The Northern Highlands of Iran ............. 33 4 The North West Zagros ................. 35 5 The Central Zagros .................. 36 6 The Southern Zagros .................. 37 7 The Eastern Highland of Iran .............. 39 8 Mean Annual Amount of Precipitation (millimetros), 1951-60 ................. 47 9 Soil Types of Iran ................... 50 10 Forest Distribution in Iran .............. 53 11 Population Distribution of Iran ............ 62 12 Ratio of Urban and Rural Population in Iran ................... 63 13 Ethnic Groups . . ................... 72 14 Distribution of Nomadic Population in Iran ................... 81 15 Age and Sex Pyramid for Urban Population .................... 85 16 Age and Sex Pyramid for Rural Population .................... 86 17 Languages of Iran ................... 95 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of Nature of Geography Very early in human development...man discovered that his world varied greatly from place to place. It was to satisfy man's curiosity concerning such differences that geography developed as a subject of popular interest....This universal curiosity of man about the world beyond his immediate horizon, a world known to differ in varying degrees from the home area, is the foundation of all geography. Among the innumerable geographers of diverse countries who have stated this principle explicitly we may mention Strabo, Vidal de La Blache, Volz, Sauer and Darby.1 Curiosity about the nature of man and concern with the importance of the earth as the world of man developed early in human history. The thrust has certainly not diminished in modern learning in the 20th century. But neither new facts nor ideas can be useful in improving the knowledge of man unless he applies them intelligently. The discipline of geography which has a body of facts, concepts, and generalizations all in its own is no exception. Geography as a discipline obviously dates from ancient times. "Geography" comes from the Greek word geographia, meaning literally. 'description of the earth'.2 Beginning about 900 B.C. the academic 1Richard Hartshorn, Perspective on the Nature of Geography. Rand McNally and Company, Chicago, 1966, p.15. 2Rhodes Murphy, An Introduction to Geography. Rand McNally and Company, Chicago, 1961, p. 1. consideration of geography attracted the attention of the great writers and scientists. Homer, for example, defined the earth as a flat disk with Greece at its center.3 This idea was the framework for the study about the then known planet earth and its inhabitants. This defini- tion helped to shape the future of geography. In 520 B.C. Hecataeus, the first geographer wrote what he knew about the earth in his "Description of the Earth". In the 5th Century B.C. Herodotus, the Greek historian, considered the effect of the physical environment upon a nation's activities. The idea later became the well known "environmental determinism" of the geo— grapher and other scientists. In 200 B.C. Polybius wrote 34 volumes about the relationship existing between geography and history and the philosophical implications of this relationship. In the first century A.D. Strabo demonstrated for the first time a relationship between the physical environment and human events in his book titled "Strabo and Geography?. In the second century A.D., Ptolemy's map with its supplementary table opened another progressive era in the history of geography. Until the 7th century, the so-called Dark Ages, geographical studies and work in other sciences and literature were relatively scarce in Europe. 3The following paragraphs rely heavily upon William Warntz: Geographers and What They 00. Franklin Watts, Inc., New York, 1964, pp. 17-42. With the advance of Islam, the geographical ideas of Greece and Rome came to the attention of Persians. Persian scholars such as Al-Khwarizmi, with the aid of sixty-nine others, completed the map; it was concerned with the Moslem world.4 This universal conception of the world paved the way for future European geographers. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when Europeans began to travel to many parts of the old and new worlds, geography once again became significant as a discipline. There were great improvements in navigation and cartography. In Europe, in general, and in England, in particular, research in geography grew rapidly resulting in Varenuis' systematic principles. Later Varenuis' book was selected and edited by Issac Newton to "assist the young gentle- men of Cambridge in perfecting their studies“, and thus shaped the course of academic geography for both British and American Scholars.5 Geography was improving rapidly with the emphasis now on "descriptive geography." With the assistance of German geographers like Alexander Van Humboldt (1769-1859) and Karl Ritter (1779-1859) the atmosphere of geographical ideas was changed considerably. Humboldt in his book Cosmos actually laid the foundations for modern geography.6 6T. W. Freeman, A Hundred Years of Geography, Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, 1964, p. 70. Finally, during the 20th century, with new concepts and definitions, geography obtained a new position among the other disciplines. In France, the object of studying geography was to understand the earth in its relationship to man. In the United States, Guyot considered geography as the study of the earth as the home of man and William M. Davis taught that geography dealt with the distribution of every feature and the environment of every creature on the face of the earth.7 With all of its importance, geography remained "as dry as dust,“ in the classrooms of the United States. The subject was taught as one whose facts were to be memorized, ans geography acquired the reputation of eing ry as us . Even at the present time geography may be considered a dead subject; the students often regard it with contempt.9 Perhaps changes in the teaching of the discipline are greatly needed for a revolution in geographic education. It must deal with problems of the real world and the preparation of students to cope with an ever changing environment. With this situation the search for “where" and "why" must be one of the effective systems for the solution of the problems in geographic education. As McCune points out: 71bid. 8William Warntz, op. cit., p. 38. 9According to Dr. George Vuicich, Professor of Geography at Western Michigan University. Geographers face a complex world but have one simple basic question to answer, as the core of their subject, the question "where". This question is the first stepping stone of geogra- phic inquiry.10 While the first question is "where", the second question is "why". Why are particular phenomena where they are? Man - the thinking creature - in his diversities, in all of his inconsistencies, with all his varied heritages....never- theless....is obliged to try to answer this question, "why" are observable things including man and all activities, "where" they are on this earth. Making geography relevant to the world's needs...answering the question "so what" - is a challenge that geography teachers must meet. Where? Why? So what? are significant questions for geography teachers and students in the 1970's.1 Geographic Education in Iran Geographic education and thought goes back to ancient times in Iran. During the Greek and Persian contact, geographical con- ceptions were almost the same in both countries. Geography was the study of the earth and its inhabitants, as the Greek geographers or historians defined it. When the Islamic civilization flourished, arts and sciences developed considerably. During this period geographic education re- ceived priority and Persian scholars, such as Al-Kharazai and 10Shannan McCune, "Geography Where? Why? So What?", Ihg_ Journal of Geography, Vol. LXIX, 1970, No. 8, p. 454. 1115111.. pp. 455-457. Al-Adrisi, paved the way for a new geography with their maps, books, and new information about the known world. The Persian geographers developed the framework for future European geographers.12 During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when Europeans began to travel extensively and geography was receiving special consideration in Europe, it was losing its importance in Persia, for the social, political, and economic situation of Iran was not as conducive to scientific study as it had been previously. Therefore, with the exception of a few travel books by some scholars, there was not much geographical research being done. However, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought significant contact with Europe. The curriculum and educational structure patterned itself after the French system. French, as well as Arabic, was the foreign language spoken by the educated people. The geographical education also followed French ideas. With all its importance, however, geography was no more than the memorization of facts, names of mountains, cities and capitals of prominent countries. In the 1960's the ministry of education tried to change the whole educational system to a new vocational-oriented system.13 This change was effected in most of the curriculum in Iran. There- fore, the K-12 educational system received considerable attention, 12William Warntz, op. cit., p. 33. 13Iran Almanac, Echo of Iran, Tehran, Iran, 1970, p. 504. but the geography curriculum was still unchanged, mainly because teaching geography was not necessary for vocational training. So the where, why, and so what questions based on inquiry oriented study which have been raised in America are equally relevant and necessary for Iran. It is significant that inquiry teaching and learning have never been a significant factor in teaching geography in Iran. A questionnaire filled out by fifty Iranian students in different fields of study, and educational levels (high school students to Ph.D. candidates) at Lansing Community College, Saginaw Valley College, and Michigan State University, proved that there is a need to change Iran's traditional method of teaching geography. About 45 out of 50 students considered geography as an unimportant and dry subject, with excessive memorization of facts. This indicates a need for change in instructional methods, text books, and teacher training. The other five students referred to geography as a necessary discipline, but did not agree with the present day traditional teach- ing methods. They also perceived a need for a change in text, curriculum, instructional system, and teacher training (see Table 1, page 8). Statement of Problem In order to know the geography of a country, it is necessary to study its physical landscape, its culture and its people. Imparting geographical knowledge necessitates training in the methodology of geography and in the methodology of instruction. Result of the Questionnaire Table 1. afiuqu no; paaN ioafqns JO aoueuaodml "0&494I10W pue qsauaqul sqoeg Butzguowaw Bututeul uauoeal waqsfis leuotqonuusul sletuaqew fiutuuea1 paaedtotnned sauapnqs No XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXX X XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Weak Strong Yes No High Low High Low Yes XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX F (U C O 'F' 44 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0'- 'U (U S. I— Z’ w- 3 C" C 0—1 (I) 4.) D. Q) U C O U .3 g XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX LL. 0 Z XXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX U) Q) X >— I—NMQ'LDkONwO‘OF'NMQ'LOKDNmOSOl—Nm I—r—r—I—F-r—F-F-r—F-NNNN XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX No Response Conce ts Facts .94% No Response .219. 19.5. 6% 0% LEARNING MATERIALS 4% 94% 2% STUDENT PARTICIPATION Traditional n uir 0% I 100% INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM 10 As one reviews the history of geographic education of Iran, many problems become apparent. The teacher-oriented and lecture type classrooms, the disillusioned students, the ineffective and poorly trained teachers, and tedious books are a few of the more important problems. As a result of this system, geography is losing its meaning and importance and is combined with government and history to form a relatively insignificant part of a social studies curriculum which is graded nonrigorously. The gravity of the situation is supported by the results of a questionnaire (Table l) answered by fifty educated and outstanding Iranian students in different fields of study. Forty-nine out of fifty students could hardly define geography as a science, an art, or a course of study. Forty-nine out of fifty passed the course with a "D" (A-F scale) because the course was not important to study for, or the course was based on memorization of facts and was not at all motivating. The educators and geographers in the United States offer a viable solution based on the inquiry method to the grave teaching problem, which can be applied in Iranian schools also. In the 1960's social scientists in the United States per- ceived many problems in the social studies curriculum in general and in geography in particular. One of the results of their study was to originate a strategy for teaching geography using the High School Geography Project (H.S.G.P.) materials (Geography in an Urban Age)14 14A course of study prepared by the High School Geography Project of the Association of American Geographers supported by the National Science Foundation. The MacMillan Company, Collier- MacMillan, Ltd., New York. 11 which is based on the inquiry method. It is the purpose of this dissertation to describe the inquiry method, to introduce the H.S.G.P. instructional technique and to provide sample units based on the H.S.G.P. method for teach- ing cultural geography of Iran. The justification for using the H.S.G.P. as a model is that it has been successfully applied to teaching geography in other countries in addition to the United States.15 Research Considerations For this study, considerable published data from both Iran and the United States were used. The author spent three months in the summer of 1970 in Iran, gathering data, carrying on research, and interviewing personnel concerned with education in geography. Contacts were made with the faculties of Tehran University, the Teacher's Training College, and members of the Ministry of Education. The main purposes of the research were to discover information about geographic education and the curriculum at the high school level, to collect more data for this study, and to become better acquainted with Persian resource material concerning the geography of Iran. The author also spent six weeks in the summer of 1973 at the National Science Foundation Summer Institute in Geography at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan. The six weeks train- ing programs focused on: 15See Angus M. Gunn, H.S.G.P. Legacy for the Seventies, Centre Educatif et Culturel, Inc., 8101, Metropolitain, Anjou Montreal 437, P.Q., 1972. 12 1) study and participation in the methods and materials of the H.S.G.P. (Geography in an Urban Age), 2) the planning, performing and evaluation of six field activities designed to serve as models for the benefit of the teachers in the institute and their students, and 3) the use of various types of inquiry-oriented classroom activities, highlighted by the creation of such an activity by each individual participating in the institute. Maps, as geographical tools, were used to illustrate the distribution of the different phenomena. The H.S.G.P. was used as a model for the inquiry method in general, and for Unit Three in particular, for teaching cultural geography in Iran. Some inquiry questions and different activities based on the H.S.G.P. were designed for group work and individual investigation. Organization of Dissertation This dissertation consists of the following: an intro- duction including a brief statement concerning the nature of geography, a statement of the problem, and research considerations (Chapter I), an analysis of the inquiry method of teaching and its application to geography, the use of H.S.G.P. materials as a model (Chapter II). Specific applications of cultural geography including units concerning physical geography, distribution of population, language, and the religion of Iran are included in Chapter III. These units include group learning activities and a set of inquiry questions intended for individual students. The final chapter (Chapter IV) consists of a summary statement. CHAPTER II INQUIRY AND GEOGRAPHY In the 1870's American educational objectives were beginning to be strongly influenced by European educators. The theories of Pestolozzi (1746-1821), which emphasized teacher training, and the objectives of Johann Friedrich Herbert (1776- 1841), which emphasized concern for the young child, changed the atmosphere of the rigid classroom and produced the new theories and ideas which influenced William Torry Harris (1835-1909). According to Harris, "...true self actualization first required individual acquiescence to social status quo."] Francis Wayland Parker (1837-1902), in opposition to Harris, believed in educational objectives "as an exploratory 2 John Dewey (1859-1952), with process leading to self-discovery." his experimental ideas and the establishment of the laboratory school, developed the most interesting changes in America's educa- tional system. The first steps toward both the discovery method and inquiry learning in teaching were taken during the Dewey era; they were ushered in by the laboratory school. 1Alexander Rippa, Education in a Free Society, David Makay Company, Inc., New York, 1967, p. 176. 2151a. 13 14 "The purpose of the school was two-fold: (l) to exhibit, test, verify, and criticize (Dewey's) theoretical statements and principles and (g) to add to the sum of fact and principles in its special line. As a result of Dewey's strategy. the expository teaching method then took a new direction which can properly be entitled “inquiry" or "discovery". Inquiry Inquiry can be described in many ways. Wronski describes it within two frames of reference as follows: The first refers to a means for verifying knowledge claims in the social sciences. How does the social scientist know what he claims to know? The usual answer to this question is that the social scientist engages in some kind of scientific method which results in knowledge capable of being verified with varying degrees of precision or con- fidence.... The second frame of reference for inquiry concerns its use as a teaching-learning method in social studies classes. In this context it is logically akin to problem solving. In fact, practically all of the elaborations of the inquiry method assume as a starting point the existence of a problem to be solved.4 Student inquiry begins with agitation or disturbance of the mind. This step leads the student to discovery. He finds the informa- tion about problems, makes hypotheses, tests the different hypotheses, chooses the best one and takes action. 31bid., p. 138. 4Wesly and Wronski, Teaching Secondary Social Studies in a World Spgjety, D. C. Heath and Company, Lexington, MassaChusetts, —___ 1973, p. 85. 15 A 900d inquirer, Beyer emphasizes, has three major attri- butes: knowledge, the tools of inquiry, and the proper attitude and values.5 They are discussed below. The Nature of Knowledge This area is characterized by three different factors: First, no information is final and complete: second, knowledge changes over time; and third, current beliefs are tentative and temporarily based on past experience and may change with future investigation. Also what we call knowledge is not knowledge, but rather someone's opinion of reality which is based on his past experiences and background. The Tools of Inquiry Good inquiry necessitates: first, the ability to find reliable sources or fundamental information; second, the knowledge of concepts for raising questions which may be asked of experiences and data (without which inquiry is not possible); and finally, the process of rational investigation. Inquiry requires that the investigator understand this process, be acquainted with its work, understand the interconnection of its different functions and be familiar with its use in learning and teaching.6 (See Figure l, p. 19). 5Barry K. Beyer, Inquiry in the Social Studies Classroom, Charles Merrill Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio, 1971, p. 14. 5151a... pp. 16-17. 16 The Attitudes and Values A productive and successful inquirer must have the proper attitude and values. Beyer recognizes the following as proper attitudes and values for the good inquirer: l. Skepticism, a questioning attitude which rejects simple solutions, is one such characteristic. A skeptic is doubtful about answers and does not easily accept any simple solution to a problem as a final truth. This doubting attitude causes the inquirer to question others' interpretations, and, through experience, to find new realities and truths. The questioning attitude not only serves to generate inquiry; it also stimulates and guides it. 2. Curiosity, a characteristic of wanting to know which is strongly related to imagination, is the ability by which one can find possible solutions to problems and create hypothetical alterna- tives. Curiosity and imagination maintain inquiry. 3. Respect for the use of reason is another attitude of the inquirer. A good inquirer must have the ability to use rational exploration as the best way to learn. 4. Respect for evidence as a test for accuracy is also important. The quantity and quality of the evidence, related to the questions and problems should be kept in mind by the good inquirer. Without this respect for accurate input, the results obtained are not valid. 5. Objectivity, the ability to consider different sides of a question, is another characteristic of a good inquirer. He must be 17 aware of his own prejudices. 6. Willingness to suspend judgement is also important. An inquirer should be very careful in reaching final decisions and in coming to conclusions prior to an examination of the data. A generalization should be based on sufficient data rather than on one or two examples. 7. Tolerance for ambiguity plays an important role in inquiry. The degree of tolerance certainly differs from person to person, and it is this ability which permits the inquirer to learn and understand. (See Figure l). The Process of Inquiry The process of inquiry is the product of attitudes, values and knowledge. The steps are complicated and consist of defining goals and objectives for inquiry, guessing at a tentative answer, and making hypotheses, testing the hypotheses with different data, and finally drawing a conclusion. Definition of each step will follow.7 1. Defining a purpose for inquiring begins when one feels, wants or needs something. It may be a question, a problem or some new information which demands research to answer the need of the person. Therefore, an idea, purpose or want is the initial require- ment. 7 The following paragraphs rely heavily upon Beyer, op. cit., pp. 20-22. 18 2. Proposing a tentative answer or solution is the second step of the process. After a hypothesis has been constructed, one can conjecture regarding possible causes and answers. These answers are based on the perceptions, experiences and background of the inquirer. This conjecture determines the nature of the developing inquiry. 3. Testing the hypothesis is the third step. When the hypothesis is determined, it must be tested through relevant informa- tion. This is the significant portion of the process and requires intensive examination of the information in order to accept or reject the hypothesis. 4. The fourth step consists of drawing a conclusion. This conclusion is a decision-making part concerning the validity of the hypothesis. The inquirer must find out how much of the evidence supports his guess. If the evidence is not strong enough to support the hypothesis, he must find other data, hypothesize a second explana- tion, and test it. 5. Applying the conclusion to new data and generalization is the last step. The inquirer applies his idea and he can be more general and less specific. Different concepts emerge in this way. Therefore, the relationship between general concepts or classes of data with generalizations can be determined. A concept of inquiry with its three major dimensions has been visualized in Figure 1. To this author inquiry is a process of self involvement. It depends on the personal background, the way of thinking, experiences, 19 It is changing Curiosity Respect for the Use of Reason It is interpretation It is tentative Tolerance for ~ Ambiguity About the Nature of Knowledge ATTITUDES AND VALUES KNOWLEDGE Willingness eSPECt to Suspend EvTHthe bout the Judgment Tools of Inquiry Objectivity Sources of data ‘nalytica Concepts A process of rational inquiry 1. Defining a 2. Developing a Purpose Tentative Answer 5. Applying the Conclusion to New Data 3. Testing the Tentative Answer 4. Drawing a Conclusion Figure l. A Concept 0f INQUICY Source: Beyer. Inquiry in the Social Studies Classroom, p. 24. 20 and other perceptions of the individual. It is an individual process. A scholar or student discovers and inquires for the sake of self satisfaction, not to satisfy another person. In the classroom the teacher can help the student raise questions, can help him in the process of inquiry, but he cannot inquire for the student. As Fancett points out: For inquiry to take place, the student must feel a summons and perceive the possibility of achieving a goal, or action, or satisfaction. The summons is his "call" to thought, it must be heard if he is to engage in the activities of in- quiry. But it is not simply a matter of hearing the bugle, or for that matter, perceiving that the teacher wants him to be moved. It must come from within. The sequence is illustrated in the following diagrams. Summons ------- Inquiry ---------- Discovery ------ Decision or Action-~- (realization (the desire (the search or of new rela- (change of belief or need) ------ investigation)---tionships) ----- or behavior) --------- 8 The teaching-learning aspect of the inquiry approach is con- cerned with the analyzing of a problem in a logical and systematic fashion by the student; the teacher is the guide. Of course, logic is not new. Logical teaching was a method of education in ancient Greece. It was divided by the Greeks into two different branches: inductive and deductive. The inductive approach starts from the specific and produces generalizations. The deductive focuses on the general and leads to the specific. The inquiry method is usually more inductively than deductively oriented. 8Verna S. Fancett, Social Science Concepts and Classroom, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, 1968, p. 27. 21 Application to Geggraphy The area of "social studies" as practiced in the schools in the United States includes the following disciplines: history, psychology, anthropology, geography, sociology, economics, government, and social problems. Its methods in the past can be stated as follows: "Tell 'em what you're going to say, say it; then tell 'em what you said". This ancient bit of advice to the novice speaker has been taken far too seriously by many social studies teachers. Their teaching has become telling. The textbooks are expository and filled with fact and generali- zations for students to learn and give back an examination designed primarily to test. More than any other factor, this technique of teaching probably accounts for the well- known unpopularity of the social studies in the schools. One survey after another reveals that students.rate their social studies classes the dullest and least useful of their academic courses.9 The social studies, particularly geography, were for a long time unpopular subjects until the beginning of curriculum reform in the 1960's. In this period, geography received considerable attention from curricula planners and educators with respect to its role in discovery and inquiry. The Association of American Geographers produced a number of geographical units in the High School Geography Project (HSGP)10 based on the inquiry method in order to change the nature of classroom geography in the secondary school. Today the new geography in the secondary school classroom is based on inquiry and discovery. Consequently, the student discovers 9Edwin Fenton, Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools, Holt, Rinehart and'Winston, Inc., New York, 1966, p. 117. 1”These will follow. 22 things for himself and engages in reflective thinking. Reflective thinking which was one of Dewey's strategies could also be conceived of in five phases, as Fenton points out: ..... l) suggestions in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution, 2) an intellectualization of the diffi- culty or perplexity that has been felt (directly experienced) into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought, 3) the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea of hypothesis, or initiate and guide observation and other in collection of factual material, 4) the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition (reason- ing, in the sense in which reasoning is a part, not the whole of inference), and 5) testing the hypothesis by overt or imagination action. But the reflective thinking method was applied to natural (empirical) science, not to social (cultural) science which remained unchanged, and continued to use traditional methods. The expository teaching method was changed to encompass the techniques, tools, and assumptions, upon which "the new social studies" was built, in the 1960's. In the "new social studies" different hypotheses, fresh materials, and different directions helped the students in the process of learning. The teaching of geography, as well as the other social studies, continues to change with the strategies of reflective thinking, discovery, and inquiry. The method has, perhaps, reached its highest in geography through the H.S.G.P. material which will be discussed in the following chapters. "09.. cit., p. 119. 23 H.S.G.P. Materials as a Model year The High School Geography Project...spans a decade of unprece- dented curriculum activity in the United States. It began in 1961 as a joint endeavor of the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers. By 1964 it had moved entirely under the wing of the Association of American Geographers, and had become the recipient of greatly enlarged financial support via the National Science Foundation. By 1970 it had spent two and a half million dollars in the nine- year task of producing a brand-new one-year high school geo- graphy course.12 The materials were developed to span one academic or school as follows: Unit 1 Geography of Cities 6 weeks Unit 2 Manufacturing and Agriculture 4 weeks Unit 3 Cultural Geography 4 weeks Unit 4 Political Geography 3 weeks Unit 5 Habitat and Resources 4 weeks Unit 6 Japan 4 weeks The material is based not on geography alone, but on the social studies as a whole. The emphasis is mainly on man and his en- vironment. These materials could be used by a variety of teachers including the history teacher, the geography teacher and the social science teacher. The materials consist of films, color slides, audio tapes, student work manuals, decks of role cards, activity sheets, overhead transparencies, and hardware models. The project focuses on lengus M. Gunn, op. cit., p. 7. 24 urban life, beginning with urban living and branching out to include manufacturing, agriculture, culture, politics and the habitat. Regional geography is finally dealt with in a unit on Japan. Each lesson of the 200 or so in the whole course carries detailed instructions for classroom.organization and pro- cedures. Typical of these suggestions are openeended inquiry questions which focus on materials rather than on 13 people, quest1ons for wh1ch there are no "correct" answers. The developers of the project believed in updating geography in the high school. They wished to change the emphasis in the classroom from rote memory of highly specific facts to an understanding of general concepts. Their final objective was to stimulate the interest and in- volvement of students in the class rather than having stolid listeners as before. Students should understand.that geography involves the study of man and his interplay with the environment. Therefore, they must be able to search out information and apply that information to their own environment and community. The authors felt that they needed to deal with more than geography. They were trying to give a new dimension to geography by using new methods to demonstrate the interplay between geography and politics, economics (agriculture and manufacturing), culture, population, cities, and physical phenomena.14 In general the characteristics of H.S.G.P. have been described as follows: 1315101., p. 8. 14This has been the result of an interview with Dr. George Vuicich the Director of H.S.G.P. at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, in the winter of 1970. 25 First...is the assumption that prepackaged, carefully structured instructional materials developed by diverse specialists will improve teaching and learning in geography...second...is essentially to emphasize concepts...A third and highly signi- ficant assumption of H.S.G.P. is that a wide variety of instruc- tional media, offering diverse perceptual experiences to the students' senses, increases the probability that interest will be maintained and that concept will be learned...A fourth strategy of the H.S.G.P. is inquiry learning. This is perhaps the overall strategy and as such it is related to most of the others. By inquiry learning is meant the basic scientific attitude, sometimes called problem solving, sometimes called sciencing. It implies uncertainty as to thg outcome of in- quiry...inquiry learning pervades H.S.G.P. For this study the emphasis will be on cultural geography or Unit Three. Analysis of the nature of the unit follows: The Cultural Geography Unit Unit Three, the cultural unit, consists of Student Resources, a Student Manual, and a Teacher's Guide. It is composed of five different lessons: 1) different ideas about cattle, 2) a lesson from sports, 3) the expansion of Islam, 4) Canada: a regional question, and 5) culture change - a trend toward uniformity. The contents are accompanied by games, maps of the distribution of languages in Southeastern Canada, slides of different cities in the world which are to be used for cultural differentiation; the Blocade - pass route for diffusion study, and trans- parencies. The readings in the text are problem-oriented and are intended to stimulate discovery of new solutions with regard to natural forces. The following example illustrates the nature of Unit Three, “Cultural 15A. David Hill, "Strategies of the H.S.G.P. for the College," The Journal of Geography, Vol. LXIX No. 9, Dec. 1970. pp. 544-551. 26 Geography.“ The first title in this segment is "What's a cow to the 16 Nuer of Africa." The study of Nuer was made by a British anthro- pologist. ...for all Nuer - men, women and children - cattle are their great treasure, a constant source of pride and joy, the occasion also of much foresight, of much anxiety and of much quarrelling; and they are their intimate companions from birth to death. It is not difficult to understand, therefore, that Nuer give their cattle devoted attention, ...Nevertheless, though they are much attached to their breasts, we must beware of putting into Nuer minds a septi- mentality about animals so often found among ourselves. The second title about cattle is centered on the bullfight from Ernest Hemmingway's "Death in the Afternoon". This illustrates the attitude toward bullfighting of the people in whose country it originated. The formal bullfight is a tragedy, not a sport and the bull is certain to be killed. If the Matador cannot kill him and, at the end of the alloted fifteen minutes for the pre- paration and killing, the bull is led and herded out of the ring alive by steers to dishonpg the killer, he must, by law, be killed in the corrals. The third segment is called "Cattle in India“ and deals with the central fact of Hinduism and the cow, which is described by GANDHI: Man through the cow is enjoined (directed) to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the cow was selected for apotheosis (devotion to divine status) is obvious to me. The cow was in India the best companion. She was the giver of 16The Nuer are a large cattle keeping group who live in the Southern Sudan in Africa. 17Student Resources. Unit Three, Cultural Geography, op. cit., 181bid., p. 3. 27 plenty. Not only did.she.give milk, but she also made agri- culture possible. The.cow is a poem of pity. One reads pity in the gentle animals. She is the mother to millions of Indian mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God...19 The strategy and media for this study include the presenta- tion of slides of different uses of cattle around the world and discussion of these uses including their relevance to the cultures of each country. The aims are to prove to the student that: 1. Customs that seem strange to them will be acceptable when they study and understand the custom's function in the total culture of a nation or group. 2. Some conditions may encourage the diffusion of ideas or customs and some may act as barriers. 3. The difficulties inherent in establishing the origins of culture traits. 4. Generalizations.about cultural diffusion are related to the study of the spread of any culture trait. 5. Cultures around the world are becoming more similar.20 The unit consists of four other segments using the same teaching strategy and objectives. Hence, there is no need to discuss them in detail here. 191518.. p. 4. 20Unit 3, Teacher's Guide, op. cit., p. VII. 28 Methods of Inquiry The materials as a whole stress the importance and use- fulness of "concepts" and "inquiry.“ Much use is made of games and simulations to prepare the students to apply and relate these problems to their own communities. Readings in the text are problem and concept-oriented in order to stimulate discovery of new solutions with regard to natural forces. The following example illustrates the nature of the concept oriented method in Unit Three. The first concept -- Cultural relativity -- is approached in Activity I by means of a filmstrip showing different uses of cattle around the world. Cultural diffusion - the second concept - is the theme of activities 2, 3, and the optional activity, "games illustrating the spread of ideas." The latter has a series of classroom demonstrations of some basic principles of diffusion as well as several readings about the exchange of ideas and technology. The games are recommended as an opener to the idea of diffusion for those classes that need a step-by-step approach. The two integral activities concerned.with cultural diffusion use the origins of sports and the spread of Islam as subjects. The third major concept is that of.the geographical.region. Students map the French region in eastern Canada according to three cultural indicators. The unit concludes with the fourth concept that aspects of world cultures are now more similar in this age of rapid travel and mass communication. The activity uses a filmstrip.showing traditional cities to illus- trate that concept.2 The inquiry method can be illustrated in the segment con- cerning “different ideas about cattle.“ An inquiry into cultural variety introduces students to some of the problems and insights to be found in cultural geography.. Filmstrips, readings and discussions.should lead students to understand that other cultures are not necessarily ludicrous or backward. As they discover.that customs and attitudes very different from ours often are thoroughly reasonable in their own settings, students learn to appreciate.and accept differences among people. Cattle.apg various human attitudes toward them are the example chosen. 29 A set of open-ended inquiry-oriented questions has been designed to encourage student involvement in more research and study. The following is a sample of inquiry questions relevent to the objectives of Unit 3: 1. Some of the people of East Africa have a practice of inserting a hollow tube into an artery of their cattle and drawing out blood. -The cattle are not seriously harmed by the practice and.the people use the blood as an important part of their diet. What is your opinion about such a practice? Compare and contrast the spread of rock 'n roll music in the teen culture of America to the spread of socialist political ideas. Have these two aspects of culture diffused into the American teen culture to an equal extent? If so, why? If not, why not? Why is it difficult to.determine where such ideas as golf or baseball or democracy originated? If you were going to describe the diffusion of bull- fighting, what kinds of things would you want to know about?2 In this dissertation the model will be applied to a study of cultural geography of Iran: hence, the strategy, the reading materials, the activities, and the inquiryquestions will be patterned on the H.S.G.P. in general, and on Unit Three in particular. 23Ibid., p. VII. CHAPTER III APPLICATION OF H.S.G.P. MODEL. UNITS ON THE CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY 0F IRAN Unit I Brief Description of the Physical Geography of Iran Location, Site, Situation Iran is located in southwest Asia between Pakistan and Mesopotamia. It has a common frontier with the U.S.S.R. in the north and with Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. It is also bounded by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf in the south and by Iraq and Turkey in the west (see Figure 2). It covers an area of about 628,000 square miles or 1,648,000 square km.1 It is six times the size of Great Britain and three times the size of France. It stretches between 25° and 400 N. Latitude, 440 and 630 E. Longi- tude (east of the Greenwich Meridian). The High Lands High mountains cover about one-half of the total area of Iran and consist of three massives: one east-west range or northern mountain - the Alborz, the second which stretches from northwest to southeast - the Zagros, and the third, a lower broken massif in the 1One square mile is equal to 2.54 square kilometers. 30 31 east, which has a number of different names. The Alborz or Northern Highlands This massif stretches from Astara in the west to the Jajarm in the east, a distance of 600 miles (966 km.). The maximum width is almost 80 miles (129 km.). It has the highest peak in the western part of Asia and Europe - Mt. Damavand (18,955 ft. or 5,601 m.). The massif is characterized by extremely steep slopes, especially on the north side which faces the Caspian Sea.2 The Alborz Mountains, like a wall, separate the Caspian Sea from the interior plateau. (Figure 2). The Alborz system can be divided into two different parts: the Talish Hills in the west and the Central Alborz in the middle and east. The Safid Rud3 separates the main Alborz from the Talish Hills. (Figure 3). The Central and Eastern Alborz are distinguished by the main volcanic peak of Mt. Damavand which is located in the center. To the east, the massif gradually decreases in height. The division of the system, the Sha-Kuh4 makes an arc and stretches toward the north. The altitude declines considerably and finally small patches of hills appear to dwindle and partially die out in the area of Jajarm, in the east. 2Fisher, W. B., The Land of Iran, Cambridge University Press, 1968, p. 38. 3Rud means "river" in the Persian language. 4Kuh means "mountain" in Persian. 32 .. _--Il.“"?o' . . Mun-— Figure 2. Boundaries and Location of Iran. Source: Wilber, Donald M., Iran Past and Present, p. 4. Figure 3. The Northern Highlands of Iran. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 39. 34 The Zagros Region or Western Massif This great; mountain stretches from the north — the Turkish-Russian frontier - to the southeast through the Mokran and Pakistan frontiers. The length of this great wall is about 995 miles (1600 kilometers). Most of its structure is anticlinal. The height of the mountains increases toward the north. The massif of Zagros can be divided into three major parts: the northwestern, the main, and the southeastern. The northwestern Zagros in the north is characterized by several faults, valleys, and basins which make up the major Aras Valley. 0n the surface toward the south are the basins of which the Rezaiyeh is the most important. Farther south the features of volcanic topography can be considered in the peaks of Sabalan (14,000 ft. 4000 km.) and Sahand (12,138 ft. 3,000 km)5 (see Figure 4). The main Zagros Range consists of the hills which link Qazvin to Hamadan and Kirmanshah. The massif stretches about 750 miles (121 km.) to the northwest and from 200 to 250 miles (321 to 402 km.) to the southeast. The mountain is folded considerably in the north; toward the south it becomes relatively even and the features change to an undulating system (see Figure 5.). The southern Zagros start from the south of the Karun basin. They are quite different from the northern and main areas of the massif. The wind deposits, sands and sediments change the features of the lower southern part (see Figure 6). 5Fisher, op. cit., p. 9. 35 ,.Mlaneh ‘; A. 1. <. M ‘1) . _, :r’ ig/x -.. e , . “Rag—ht L . “j Tehran \ 1 2. “' 1 \‘\ m Land over 3000m 17'??- Saline soil ’\ I: j—1500 3000m 2% 45a]! marsh _ _ _ 9‘ , 18" _‘r UnderlSOOm «Ha-Railway (Sisyj ~\._ f ‘ . ‘ )4" Ku—nansnm —--- International boundary Roads Figure 4. The North West Zagros. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 8. . azvin loTehran ——. f Suleiman g... 2; 1500-3000m ' [:3100-1500m ., EUnder 100m 2 ‘2.“ Railways 12.; Salt lake i‘='—‘L Salt marsh ? .5» st ::~:510I~1"05 0 Figure 5. The Central Zagros. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 19. 37 - N‘sxsiia'sflmdn -Ovev 2000": E31000 2:000... 1 200—1000m ‘ Under 200m ;~ Salt lake Figure 6. The Southern Zagros. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 27. 38 Eastern and Southeastern Mountains From Khorasan in the north to Baluchistan in the south, the topographical features of Iran are virtually opposite to those in the west. The broken and separated uplands with different widths and altitudes characterize the high lands of the east in Iran. The Famous mountains of this massif are Kuh-i-Surkh and Kuh-i-bizak in the north, the Quain-Birjand highlands in the center, and Kuh-i-Taftan in the south (see Figure 7). The Low Lands The Caspian Region This area covers a narrow lowland between the northern part of the Alborz Mountain and the southern section of the Caspian Sea. It begins at Hasan Quilibeg in the east and stretches to the west to the Astara. The whole lowland is about 400 miles (643 km.) in length having great variety in width; from one mile to about fifteen to twenty miles. The Turkman is the widest lowland. The Caspian lowland can be divided into three main areas: Gilan in the west, Mazandaran in the Central area, and Gurgan in the east. The Persian Gulf Lowland This area stretches along the northern shore of the Persian Gulf for about 869 miles (1,400 kilometers). The southern lowland is v13 BIJISTAN DA$_|;1_T-l- “- WKAVTR . D u' .I I". I ...- 1| ‘5! 11, 2° Bandar'Abbis \“WKMZT .‘P _ , .M/ "T‘VKlthmarK‘Q -S Hllnun-l-gt le Muffin}. ‘4 55:1} [_:j1500- -2000m Under ISOOm Figure 7. The Eastern Highland of Iran. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 61. 40 located near the two gulfs; the Oman and the Persian, which are separated by the Hormoz Strait. be divided into two sections: and, 2) Minab to the mouth of the Shat-L-Arab. area is the Khuzistan Plain. Therefore, the southern lowland can 1) Mokran from the Pakistan to Minab At the end of this The following table illustrates the situation of the Persian lowlands. Table 2. The Persian Lowlands Lands With Lower Than 300 Meter Lowlands or The Sea Elevation The Length of Sea Shores S.K.M. S.K.M. the Shore KLM l. Caspian lowlands 550 Gilan and Mazandaran 7,440 10,700 Gorgan 1,760 9,300 2. Gulf of Oman 18,000 600 Persian Gulf 28,500 880 3. Kuzistan Plain 41,000 180 Source: Iran-Shahr, The UNESCO National Commission, Vol. I, University Press Tehran, Iran, p. 4 (Persian source). The.Iranian Plateau The great Iranian Plateau stretches from the northwest to the southeast and consists of an area of about 150,000 square miles (400.000 S.K.M.). The central highlands with the same direction, cross from 41 Azarbijan in the north to the Baluchestan in the southeast as a division line at a length of 23,000 km.6 0n the southern side of the central highland, the Zagros and Alborz massives stand out. The altitude of the plateau decreases from the northwest to the southeast gradually. The average height is about 1,800 meters in the Azarbijan, in the north, and 100 meters in Baluchestan in the south.7 This situation affects considerably the distribution of population, the use of cultivated land and the economy of the area. The rainfall decreases toward the south gradually. The heavy annual rainfall in the northwest replaces the dryness of the south. The clear rivers in the north change to more saline salty rivers in the south, where most of the farmers must use the Kane; system to get the fresh water for cultivation.8 The Situation can be illustrated using Rajput as the example: The great Iranian plateau extends from the wall of Alborz in the north to the Zagros ranges in the west and embraces the Afghanistan and Pakistan borders in the east. It is a great desert area of about 150,000 square miles whose dry- ness and salinity militant against the possibility of any growth of vegetation. The mountainous regions get only an 6Iran-Shahr, op. cit., p. 6. 71511., p. 7. 8The water from the mountain streams penetrates into the ground at the foot of the hills and is significant for irrigation of alluvial soil, construction of long tunnels under the ground taps these underground supplies, known as Karez which are very old types of irrigation systems started by Persian and spread to Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. 42 occasional shower of snowflakes which serves to cover the slopes with a carpet of verdure but further south the main table--land envelopes you with the bleak and barren atmosphere of the desert created by its rugged, sunbaked and treeless form, with huge salt areas scattered here and there.9 Climate The effect of climate on man's activities more or less has been indicated by geographers, geologists, and anthropologists. Iran, as a small part of the world, is not an exception to the rule. The influence of climate upon different areas of the country appears in the plant life, animal life, housing, clothing, food and occupations. Hence, the general divisions of the climate of Iran will be discussed. A] 12 have all written on the Blairlo, Trewartha , and Koppen climate of Iran. The following classification is based upon their work. Climatic Regions of Iran (1) The Caspian regions in the north moderated by the sea can be classified as Mediterranean climate. The winter is warm with 9A.B. Rajput, Iran To-Day, Lion Press, Lahore Pakistan, 1953, p. 12. 10Thomas Blair, Climatology General and Regional. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1942. 11Glen 1. Trewartha, The Earth's Problem Climates, the University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1961. 12W. Geirer Koppen, Handbuch der Klimatologie, Vol. 1, Berlin, 1936. 43 considerable precipitation and the summer hot and dry; the Caspian Sea moderates the weather. The rain rises above fourteen inches along the Caspian Sea...A considerable portion of the precipitation is now, especially in the northern region and in the mountains...this winter precipi- tation, occuring with North or Northwest winds...That move inland from the Mediterranean region.13 Man has taken advantage of the climatic base. The area enjoys large scale cultivation and a dense population in the developed cities along the sea. Gilan, Mazanderan and Gorgan are three oustans or provinces which are the major locations of agricultural activity and industry. (2) The Zagros region--this area has the lowest temperature in January and warmest in August. The altitude of the mountains from the northwest to the southeast decrease and this situation affects the annual rainfall. The northwest section is characterized by the highest rain and lowest temperature, and the southeast by the driest seasons and highest temperature. Consequently, the northwest area is considered as a more populated area with more agricultural activities. (3) The Persian Gulf region--January is the coldest and July is the hottest month in this area. High temperatures and damp and sticky weather are the general characteristics of the climate in this area. This physical condition provides a very hard environment for living; therefbre, the population is sparse except in the Khozistan Plain. (4) The Great Iranian Plateau--This large central plateau has 13Thomas A. Blair, op. cit., p. 338. 44 a 4,000 ft. (1.5 km.) elevation, and is surrounded by high and rugged mountains. In this area the annual rainfall ranges from five to eleven inches.14 The summer is very dry and the rainy season is between November and March. As a whole, the climate of Iran is continental, not marine, because the prevailing winds move from the land rather than from the sea in all seasons. It is considered a dry country because the annual precipitation is not adequate except in the north and some northwestern parts. (see Figure 8). The following tables illustrate seasonal temperatures of Iran. Table 3. January Temperatures at Selected Stations Elevation Above Sea . Av.* Av.* Abs.+ Abs.+ Mean Station Level Max. Min. Max. Min. Monthly Abadan 3m 19°C 7°C 27°C -4°c 13°C Arak 1752m 45 -5 17 -25 O Bandar 'Abbas 6m 23 14 30 5 l9 Bushire (Bushahr) 14m 19 10 28 -1 15 Isfahan 1590m 10 -2 20 -16 4 Jask 4m 24 16 29 9 20 Kirman 1749m 13 -1 24 -24 6 Kirmanshah l322m 8 -4 19 -21 2 Mashhad (Meshed) 985m 8 -2 24 -24 3 Pahlavi -15m 11 5 27 -9 8 Shiraz 1530m 12 0 22 -1O 6 Tabriz 1405m 4 -5 16 -25 -l Tehran ll90m 9 -l 19 -16 4 Yazd 1240m 13 1 27 ~14 7 Zabul 500m 14 2 29 -4 8 * - Av. = Average. + - Abs. = Absolute Source: The Land of Iran, p. 222. 14One inch is equal to 2.5 centimeters. 45 Table 4. April Temperatures at Selected Stations Average Mean Average Station Maximum Monthly Minimum Abadan 32°C 25°C 18°C Arak 20 13 6 Bandar 'Abbas 29 26 23 Bushire 31 25 19 Isfahan 23 16 9 Jask 30 27 24 Kirman 24 17 10 Kirmanshah 20 12 4 Mashhad 19 14 9 Pahlavi 16 13 10 Shiraz 24 16 8 Tabriz 17 ll 5 Tehran 22 16 10 Yazd 27 20 13 Zabul 28 22 16 Table 5. July Temperatures at Selected Stations Elevation Above Sea. Av.* Av.* Abs.+ Abs.+ Mean Station Level Max. Min. Max Min. Monthly Abadan 3m 45°C 28°C 53°C 22°C 37°C Arak l753m 36 19 43 8 28 Bandar 'Abbas 6m 39 31 45 28 35 Bushire 14m 39 28 50 23 34 Isfahan 1590m 37 19 42 ll 28 Jask 4m 35 28 42 21 32 Kirman 1749m 35 18 41 9 27 Kirmanshah l322m 37 16 44 7 27 .Mashhad 985m 34 18 43 ll 26 Pahlavi -15m 30 22 35 15 26 Shiraz 1530m 37 20 41 14 29 Tabriz l405m 32 17 40 7 25 Tehran 1190m 36 22 43 15 29 Yazd 1240m 39 24 45 16 32 Zabul 500m 38 23 45 22 31 * - Av. = Average + - Abs. = Absolute 46 Table 6. October Temperatures at.Selected Stations Mean Mean Station Monthly Station Monthly Abadan 27°C Mashhad 14° Arak 15 Pahlavi l8 Bandar 'Abbas 30 Tabriz l4 Bushire 26 Teheran 18 Isfahan l6 Shiraz 19 Jask 28 Yazd l9 Kirman l7 Zabul 20 Kirmanshah 16 Source: The Land of Iran, pp. 222, 225. S911 The soil regions of Iran include the following: 1. Caspian shore: with its sediments, alluvium, and loess deposits. 2. Alborz mountains: composed of thick limestones, sand- stones and shales. 3. Central plain: consists of saline series, and salt lakes (Kavirs). 4. Central Zagros: which can be divided into the three separate zones--first, the red and green charts, siliceous shales: second, the Bisitun limestones zone; and finally, the Hamadan zone composed of the Karun and Karkheh river deltas. 5. The Khuzestan plain which consists of the Karun and Karkheh river deltas, with non-saline alluvial soils. 6. The Zagros folded zone or Fars series characterized by salt, marls, silt and sandstones. g1 CASPIAN‘; _ 15's- 1.: °. 1 l I Seasonal percentage —4Precipitation in , millimetres 25 N I -— |<——_.____.i._ 45! Figure 8. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 237. 48 The percentage of land use is summarized in Table 7. The soil type of Iran has been mapped in Figure 9. Vegetation In the study of Iranian vegetation, one must consider the climatic situation, since the country consists of high mountains, desert areas and plateaus. Each of these geological features provide different climatic conditions which influence the type of vegetation in the various regions. 15 The phytogeographical regions must also be considered. More than 10,000 plant species have been recorded in Iran, and whilst most of them belong to the.Irano-Turanian group, which dominates the.vegetation of the interior plants and uplands, many contributions from Euro-Siberian, the Nubo- Sindian and regions characterize the phytogeographic pattern along the Caspian, the Persian Gulf, and the Mokran shores, respectively. 5 One must also look into the varied topography of the Iranian plateau which provides varying amounts of precipitation over its wide area. Precipitation ranges from the great rainfall (20 in.) (1,950 mm) in the north to the arid and desert area (3.9 in.) (100 mm) in the center and south. This situation results‘in diverse climates-ecology and diversity of vegetation types. The influence of human activities on the vegetation is still another element which one must bear in mind in the study of Iranian vegetation. 15The study of the distribution of plants on the earth in relation to their geographical regions. 16Fisher, op. cit., pp. 280-281. 49 L .ON_ .a .888” .caeH Co xoom eaa> _eoepmepapm "auezom nlllu _ _ m. m. CH _ Tn m H u... m. w m w L. u u U I. J J L. 3 d 3 D. D. D. 1. w 3 D. n 0 url S S S M n. S .I. J a U 1. q 1.. D. 1. n 0 n a S n L. J S U 3 U .1 U 1.. A ..A D. D D. P 1. p. 1m 9 n 3 U «J G. N J .0 J D. W n I. a L. s a II. a D. J a 3 P 1. p I.. p n p .L. ~II 0 A 1.. O A D. M a O. 1. M D. u S J A L. S G. D. S A L S .0— 3 P D. 9 n. L. 1. u u 1. L. D. «I p I: 0 D. a U .0 U 1. S D. D. D. D. S S w... w. W m. . S D. J ON 0 a J J S m m D. E s w S r1. Z 10m mm>k >m zwp m_nm> ucm -xo?:H -umoz zoFFmJ -Lo use eo quh mew>ee uqusuoo u—zuc: -_u_:u m3oumwz xgmg cowpm> Laue: mucmb pan “emcee -oQEwH -wp—zu u_e< -me gene: muse; .Ex wee: m Hues: moe< maxh Am .coLH :_ =o_p:n_gpmro use; .5 w—nmp 50 ‘)2 2 2222 1111 11 i I a CASPIAN Ill l' ‘ p. 0:5. .03...” I I \‘r v i. 0‘“ ~./'\. '1 I 1: 11.; ‘ 1 :1. "3‘371 ,e"-....<' . .. .1 ,- ~15 92. ‘11 Leeched Forest Soil: ”-10.“ 1:93:25: Lima Humid 17. 111.19 Roauons - Chutnul Soils..- ., I \ I: Blown Slew. Soils... .7. 7-15 [m Limosols oi sfimi-nnd.,.l2.15.16 onions Desert So-l; as-umanuu ssociahons in the cell PERSIAN ““1 a Saline 581.414.34.54 ; , 1 GULF . -mmacms°.1s.....3 3‘9 W‘ ‘-- .' " -Non-ulinoAlluvillSods 1. 2. 1, 5521. GULF or OMA . Lei #2 Figure 9. Soil Types of Iran. Source: Fisher, The Land of Iran, p. 252. 51 During the long history of man's habitation on‘the Iranian plateau, the land has provided materials for fuel and edible shrubs and herbs and roots for food and medical purposes. The type of culti- vation has changed considerably during this long period of time since the natural oases have dried up and man has been forced to irrigate fields by artificial means. To illustrate the above, Fisher has classified the natural vegetation according to atmospheric humidity and temperature.17 The humidity (precipitation) classification includes the following: 1. Humid forest. 2. Semi-humid and semi-arid forests. 3. Steppes and deserts with loose tree stands and brushwoods. (a) Interior plateau (b) Garmsir18 The temperature classification is based on two altitudinal zones. First, "Garmsir" or “Warmland” consists of some tropical low- lands in the southern area and in some central areas symbolized by date-palm cultivation. The second zone is "Sardsir" or "Coldland" which refers to the cool upland valleys and plateaus characterized by forest and grain cultivation. The natural vegetation in the area of the Gulf of Oman consists of the following: date-palms, different 17Ibid., p. 283. '81 id. 52 tamarix, acacia, capparis, and many other tropical trees}9 Citrus fruits, bananas, coconuts and nuts are also dominant in this region. In northern Iran, typical trees include: ash, elm, hornbean, walnut, syrian pear, pistachio and almond. The forest also includes different varieties of bushes. (Figure 10 illustrates the forest dis- tribution in Iran)° Through their agricultural activities, the people have changed the physical condition of the country. From the beginning of its history, the land of Iran has been "under the plow." Cultivation and production of different grains, fruits, vegetables and shrubs go back to the beginning of man's activities in the country's long history. Fauna The distribution of fauna in Iran relates strongly to geographical location and the impact of climate and vegetation. The former has caused penetration of different species into the country. Numerous foreign elements have made their way into Iran by different routes...Indian fauna entered the country mainly from Blauchistan, and both the northern palm squirrel (Fanambulus Pennanti) and the asiatic black bear (Selenarctos Theibetanus) belong to this category: the tiger, on the other 19Tamarisk (Tamarix L.): tree of shrubs with slender branches and feathery clusters of pinkish flowers. Acacia L.: any of several tree or shrubs of the mimosa family with clusters of yellow or white flowers. Capparis L.: prickly trailing bush with green flower buds. .goguam >5 um_wasoo "mogaom .cmLH c. cowusawgpmwo pmmgom .o_ mgamwm llllifl «2.3.2. ‘3'.- 0053; min» 33...: 9.858... :3 33.6.. :33 ”52.9. 86:8... 3.: 23.6.. 5:8 .- 53 338.. 32.824 ”Sweet 9:020; z<¢ 2. 55.31.55 .595... 53 54 hand, certainly arrived by way of Afghanistan.20 The latter, the typical dry climate and different tempera- tures, affect the mammals in the country in different ways. Some species adapt easily and some do not. For instance, the Chiropters2] and wild boar adapted to the climate very well. Bats in the ganats have an excellent home since the underground canals provide humidity in summer and good shelter in winter. The Kurdistan area which has a cold winter and a hot summer provides a good environment for acclimatization of wild boar. Rodents can be found everywhere in areas with plentiful water and the semi-desert, such as in Khurasan in the northeast through Qazvin in the center, and Hamadan in the west. The Caspian coast and Persian Gulf are two areas in which most of the black rats and Norwegian rats can survive due to their humidity. Iran has been famous for its domestic animals. Those found throughout the country are the Persian cats, the Iranian greyhound or "Tazi" in Azarbaijan, the Indian buffalo, sheep, and goats. The typi- cal domestic animal in Gurgan and in the central province is the camel. 20Fisher, op. cit., p. 298 21(Ki-rop'ten) Pteron, a wind. feather. a bat. 55 Inquiry Questions 1. Compare the Mediterranean climate with the climate of your community. What factors make theirs different? 2. Compare and contrast the Alborz massif to the eastern highlands of Iran. Have these two massives developed any physical differences? If so, why? If not, why not? 3. What conditions make the Zagros region climatically different from the Persian Gulf region? Is any one of them an environ- mentally determined region (based on the geographical theory of environmental determinism)? If you don't believe in this theory, what would be your explanation of the physical changes which have resulted from man's action? How can you defend your explanation? 4. What has man done to change the physical characteristics of the Iranian Plateau? What evidence do you have for those changes? 5. Based on the classification and map study of the soil of Iran, what would be your comments about the agricultural difficulties in the salty soil areas? What technical suggestions can you give for changing these conditions? 6. What are the functions of the "Karez“ and "Ghanat'l in terms of agriculture, culture and social life in Iran? Why are they there? Where did they originate? How do you know? 56 Activity I Physical Geography Laboratory_Study Educational Objectives At the end of this activity the students should: 1. Be acquainted with the basic physical geography of Iran and especially of the local community. 2. Have examined and understood the weather, plants, and animal life in their communities. 3. Know how to distinguish between different soils for cultivation. 4. Define their projects and problems based on their personal concepts. 5. Be able to search for sources related to their interest topics. Time and Periods This activity requires six class periods of 50 minutes each. Basic Materials and Sources of Information InCTUde: The reading material in the physical geography units, film- strips, a school library, slides of different mountains, information concerning soil structure, plants, and animals in the nearby community and any physical geography text book which would be useful for this activity. First Period The teacher brings a set of designed topics related to the 57 physical geography into the classroom. For example: A) A collection of rocks with names, descriptions, the ingredient structure, and the chemical composition. B) Surveys, and maps of the nearest rivers, canals, streams, water systems and/or any head waters of the community. C) Local soil samples and analysis. 0) The daily weather study. E) A study and measurement of local precipitation and humidity. F) A collection of leaves, plants, and flowers from the local area. G) An album of collected pictures of animals, insects, and fauna of the local community. The students have to work in their own laboratory (school, library, home, garden, laboratory) to examine the problem. The first 25 minutes of the first period, have the students choose topics of interest for either group of individual work from the above list. The second 25 minutes, pass the resource materials to each group or individual to furnish them with information related to their topics. Make sure that each group or individual knows what they are to do. Second Period The students have started the work on their problems and at this stage everybody knows his responsibility and interest. In this period the representative of each group or each individual must 58 present either orally or in written form an abstract about their project. This will be helpful to the entire class in terms of the exchange of ideas and the procedure involved. Third Period Have each group or individual discuss their plans and pro- posals with the teacher so that possible needs can be met and confusion eliminated before proceeding to further study. Fourth Period The students must bring to the classroom the final results and collections of their studies and present them in the classroom. In this session the students are responsible for a group discussion concerning their problem and method of approach. The teacher acts only as an observer. Fifth Period The conduct of this period is the responsibility of the teacher who must bring up questions, comparisons, contrasts, and related phenomena, and evaluate each topic so that the students can be aware of the strengths and/or weaknesses of their work and findings. Sixth Period For evaluation, have the students grade themselves. The grade for this study is based upon three criteria: (1) students evaluation of their own efforts, (2) teacher's evaluation based on individual progress, the student's ability, and the output, and (3) teacher's conception of the amount of creativity exhibited by the student. 59 Unit II Population and Ethno- Geographic Differences Population Historical Background and Early Settlement The study of archeology, fossil man, and modern racial distributions indicate that the Iranian Plateau was occupied by early man in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene Epoch. Carleton S. Coon studied the Bisitun Village near Kermanshah, Belt Cave near Behshar, Tamtama near Lake Rezaiyah, and Hotu on the Caspian shore. He indicates that the Iranian Plateau has been a site for the settlement of highly gifted people. Neolithic and Upper Paleolithic cultures were designated. Some samples of animal husbandry on the west side of the Caspian Sea indicate the site of man in this part of the Iranian Plateau. Perhaps the western Zagros and the Caspian shore have been early locations of man and passageways for moving from point to point along the shore.1 Population in Ancient Time According to the Greek historian, Herodotus, Iran was a very densely populated country in ancient times. From early times, Iran has been a melting pot consisting of different tribes and groups. The 1Carleton S. Coon, The Origin of Races, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1962, p. 482. 60 population of Iran consisted of six different tribes according to Herodotus: the Achaemeridaes, the Panthialaseans, the Danusilaeans, the Germanian, the Daans, and the Nardians.2 During the Greek and Persian wars in the Dardanelles, Xerxes had about 1.7 million men in the army, a large number for the popula- tion of the times. Although ancient Iran was much larger than the present-day country, population was quite dense.3 Iran was a center for great wars which naturally affected the population. Famine, disease, and natural disasters also accounted for some other reductions of population in Iran. Twentieth Century Population The first census in the new century was taken during the reign of Reza Shah the Great with the establishment of "The General Department of Civil Registration and Statistics" in 1924. The main functions of the department were to determine the population of Iran in terms of tribes, households, marriages and divorces, births and deaths, and the followers of the different religions. The department has been expanded considerably since 1924. The census taken in 1956 indicates that the total population of Iran was 18,944,831. Since then, the population has increased at the rate of 2.4 to 2.5 per cent 2Herodotus is quoted in Marshall Field, Field Museum of Natural History, Antropological Series, Vol. 29, Chicago, 1930, p. 37. 3Statistical Year Book. The Imperial Government of Iran Plan Organization Statistical Center of Iran, 1966, p. 37. 61 per year.4 The Iranian Plateau consists of 628,000 square miles or 1,648,000 square kilometers with a density of population of 18.5 persons per square mile or 12 persons per square kilometer. About one-third of this population lives in cities, the rest in villages. ‘ The latest statistical information can be obtained from the census of 1966. At that time the total population of Iran was 25,781,090. Density increased from 18.5 to 25.2 per square mile. Population distribution, like the distribution of vegetation and animals, is affected by temperature and rainfall. A glance at Figure 11 shows the population concentrated on the perimeters of the country. Central Iran has a very sparse population. The growth of population in Iran in the 20th century can be traced to three elements: the increase of foodstuffs, the rate of income in the urban and rural areas, and the control of diseases and better hygiene. Urban and Rural Population The distribution of urban and rural population in Iran has changed considerably since the beginning of the 20th century. Accord- ing to the 1966 census, about 61 percent of the total population is considered rural (see Figure 12). The rural dwellers live in the village areas and engage in agricultural activities. Their contribu- tions as national revenue producers are most important. Rural migration increased considerably during the early 1930's. In the 1960's the growth of population in the urban areas was especially rapid. The 4Fisher, op. cit., p. 468. 62 .emmF .LwnEo>oz "msmcwu chowumz co ummmm "muezom .cmeH cw copusnwgumwo :owumpzaom .FF wgsmwu 1 1 l1 1 . 1: its .35 g i! a .11: 1 h Im= Fmowumwpmum mo away so woman Lacuna An umpwasou "mugaom m.m ~.~ Fwo. o.~ m.mm w.o~ ~.e oom— ¢.m N.m opo. m.N p.om _.mp m.m momp _.a o.~ mo. e.~ m.~m m.up m.¢ ammp ¢.m w.N mo. m.~ m.oo m.mp ~.m momp m.¢ ~.m P.F m.~ m.Fo m.o~ m.m Nem— ¢.¢ m.m No. ¢.N m.—m o.w_ m.~ pomp m.m o_.N coo. F.F N.mm ¢.m_ N.“ comp N.¢ m._ are. v._ m.mm _.FN M.“ mmmp N.m ~.P mo. ~.F _._m ¢.mN m.m mmm_ n.m o.m mo. P.F m.~m m.m_ m.m “map m.~ v.m mo. o.F oo.mm m.m~ N.“ mmmp mmmwggmz memcmgp xgmpwpwz cowumozum »_wsmu now maoa me> 5:: 9.2% 33mm mcv>oz mcwxoom mgmm> umpumpmm Low «mama an caggmh op copumgmwz do mmmpcmugmm .m anmh .00mp .cmgH mo xoom Lam» quPngpmpm we open co comma goguzm x5 umFPQEou ”mugsom 66 N.¢ m.¢ N.0 o.Fp o.o~ m.m~ 0.¢F 00oF v.0 o.¢ 0.0 0.FP F.mp 0.0m c.0N 00oF ¢.m m.v 0.0 P.NF 0.o~ «.mm 0.0m v0mp m.m P.0 _.0 m.0_ 0.pN 0.0m 0.FN M00— ¢.¢ m.¢ m.n 0.NP n.n~ o.mm 0.m_ ~0mp ¢.v o.P _.m m.0p 0.m~ 0.0m m.¢p ~0mp m.m N.v N.o_ 0.5p 0.0m m.m~ 0.0— o0m~ m.¢ _ —.v ¢.FF F.N_ ~.0N 0.0m F.m mmm— m.0 F.0 m.F— m.mp n.0m F.¢N 0.0 wmmp 0.0 0.0 F.0 m.FN c.0N 0.0m F.0 nmmp N.0 ¢.0 N.o~ 0.0m 0.0m m.NN 0 00m— ...w.“ .. ...m. fl. ...m. ...m. ...m. m.“ ‘mgmm> umuompom 000 mm< x: cmgzmh op cowpmgmwz 0o mmmpcmogmm .m mFamh 67 Although tribal life and nomadism exist in other parts of the world, the Iranian tribes and nomads in some aspects (art, language, religion, etc.) have rather unique characteristics. The way of life for the Iranian tribes is quite similar. The twice a year movement - to the mountainous area in the summer and to the warmer plains in winter - is typical of nomadic life. The summer trip is called Sardsir or lglag, and the winter movement Garmsir or Queshlag by the Iranian tribes. The men are engaged in stock raising and agricultural activities, while the women are busy with carpet weaving, felt mat making, and bread baking. The seasonal migration is often a well organized group trip of well over 100 miles. These seasonal movements may cover as much as 200 miles and take place over a number of weeks. The routes are always the same, but careful organization and planning is required to keep large numbers moving at the same steady rate. Men and boys drive the flocks of sheep and goats, and the women and children follow behind, riding on donkeys and camels piled high with all their family property. Each evening the black, goats-hair tents are pitched along the trail. At the seasonal encampments, the tents of families of the same clan are grouped together and shelter all the tribal possessions. Carpets woven by the women or felt mats cover the ground, and along the sides of the tent are piled blankets, copper utensils, water jugs, bags of grains, and chests of clothing. Tribal life is almost self-sufficient. Only tea, cotton piece goods, sugar, arms and ammunition and jewelry come from the towns.5 The tribal organization is hierarchial with the Il-Khan on the top as the leader. Then come the Khans for each tribe, the 5Donald N. Wilber, Contemporary Iran, Thames and Hudson, London, l963, pp. ll-lZ. 68 Kalantars (the heads of sub-tribes) and the Kadkhodas (the heads of clans). The group division also is structured on an hierarchial basis with the gel? as the head. Each eel has different divisions which are sub-divided into ten, twenty, or fifty smaller groups which are called Tayifeh, Tireh and Dasteh, respectively. Under this classification and organization, the seasonal movement takes place in a very peaceful atmosphere. The physical characteristics of the country offer climbing in the mountainous area in the summer and fertile plains in the winter, rather than grazing their flocks in the deserts such as the Arabian Peninsula or the Syrian Desert. This situation has been described by Haas as "vertical nomadism" as opposed to “horizontal nomadism". ...the Persian mountain tribes, a 'vertical nomadism'...in opposition to the lhorizontal nomadism' of the steppes and desert. Jhis, however, is not the only difference between the vertical 'nomadism'. While in the realm of great nomadism, particularly in the Arab Peninsula and the Syrian desert, the tribes used to contend for pasturage and raiding each other was their favorite occupation; hostilities among the great tribes of Persia seems to have been rare. The main reason for this intertribal peace is undoubtedly that the territories inhabited by the tribes.have since prehistoric times sufficed for their livelihood, on the other hand, their seasonal migra- tions were defined in place and time so that frictions with the neighboring tribes did not.occur...Under these circumstances the vertical.nomadism of Persian tribes is a nomadism of its own kind - a limited and well regulated nomadism.7 The tribes contribute considerably to the economy of the country. As farmers and cattle breeders, they participate substantially, 6§§l_is originally a Turkish word. It is plural and means tribe. 7William Haas, Iran, Columbia University Press, New York, 1946, p. 56. 69 mainly in the town's economic life where the meat, milk, and dairy products which they produce are marketed. Their political importance also must be considered by the Iranian government. Although there are differences between the languages, religions, customs, and physical characteristics of the tribes, these cultural differences can not be barriers to nationality in Iran. The tribesman of Iran regardless of name and clan is a Persian and a zealous Iranian soldier. Today the Iranian tribes can be classified into the following troups in terms of their geographical location, dialects, religion, customs, clothing and diets: l. The Eurgs, This group consists of about 2,000,000 of the total population and are distributed in the highlands of the Zagros Mountains, western Azerbijan, Kermanshah, Luristan, north of Khorasan, Fars, Kerman, and Baluchistan. The Kurds are one of the oldest peoples of the Iranian Plateau. Groseclase states their historical background as follows: The people most famous in legend and story are the Kurds... Darious lists them among the peoples he subdued: they are the Carduchi of the Anabasis, whom Xenophan and his ten thousand encountered on their adventurous return to Greece gfge§.§erving as mercenaries in the armies of Cyrus II (40l The Kurds are warlike, organized, and a very zealous people. Throughout history they have been an important element in the politics and economy of Iran. To illustrate their importance, Shah Abbas 8Elgin, Groseclase, Introduction to Iran, New York, Oxford University Press, l947, p. 22. 70 from the Safavid dynasty, forced part of the Kurd tribes to migrate from western to northeastern Iran. His plans were to control the Turkman revolution in Khorasan, and to break up the influential power of the Kurds in the west. The Kurd communities range from highly developed settled groups to primitive nomads. The economy of this tribe consists of animal husbandry and agricultural activities. The main agricultural products are: wheat, barley, tobacco, beets and different beans. The weaving of rugs, shawls, and carpets represents the industry of the Kurd tribes. The language of the Kurds is Kurdish which has borrowed much from the Medic and Persian languages. There are many different dialects. Their religion is Moslem, mostly of the Sonite sect. They are strongly religious; most of the clans' conflicts have been caused by religious contacts. Their food consists mainly of bread and meat combined with dairy products and cultivated grains. The clothing for women consists of pleated skirts and velvet jackets with satin blouses to keep them warm during cold weather. The men wear wide bottom slacks with cotton shirts and long tunics. Hand woven slippers called "giveh" are made in different colors and designs and serve as summer shoes. The winter boots come from the towns. The marriage and death ceremonies are virtually the same among the Kurdish tribes. The daughter of the family is trained by the mother in a very restricted environment. A dating system before marriage does not exist. If the "law“ is broken, the father has the right to kill his own daughter for breaking up the prestige of the 71 family and the clan. Marriages are arranged by the parents, mostly within the same clan. The average marriage age for girls is 14 to 16 and for boys is 16 to 21. The man is the head of the family, but the women have almost equal rights in the village community. The Kurds are famous for their hospitality and generosity. They are good horsemen and expert marksmen. In 1946, a “Kurdish Republic", which combined all the Kurds in Iraq, Iran, and Turkey was formed. However, the republic did not last very long. It was dissolved when all the leaders were captured by the Iranian government. 2. The Eggs, The slopes of Zagros, south of the Kurds, is the location of the Lur, another nomadic tribe in Iran (see Figure 13). Their population is slightly more than that of the Kurds. The Lur, including their largest tribe, the Bakhtiars, live on sheep, goats, and cattle raising. Of course, as is the case for other tribes, most of the Lurs are now settled and their main activity is agricultural. The sowing of two crops a year is very common. They sow one crop in the uplands during the fall, and the other crop is sown in the lowlands in winter. The Lur tribes consist of 4 different groups: The Lur live in Luristan, and comprise four groups of tribes: The Lur proper, the Kuhgilui, the Mamasani, and the Bakhtiyari. Their greatest ambition is to be armed with a gun and cartridges. ...Big and strong, courageous to foolhardiness, the Lur live on a land that is extremely fertile, from the produce of their flock, and when possible, from plunder.9 9Therese Marie, The Lords of the Mountain, Chatto and Nindus, London, 1956, p. 113. Figure 13. Source: ETHNIC GROUPS 72 I h :‘o' ‘t’..- 3., ussp- »- “at. n‘ ‘ Ea '5: a. -—-.—-‘—‘ ‘ M ~ > -—- --zx - a , .“.u! Emu? . _- arr"- ‘-;::_ , .‘ '. L - __—;i .’ ‘ _ 9 J '. I - l." . ~ 1-. Em ~ . '- . . MALANDERANI Meshcd. - .~ I _ 7; a “‘— 2‘ ;- H.2- xes- rt‘a- . .3. ‘ I” ~ . Kermanshah ' " P E R 7., -' . s '3! ‘6559 BAUkfllfiiggarl ‘ I?!“ 1‘. v _ ______‘ A 5’4.” 1“. . 1 *6 N ‘ ...f' 1' “7‘1". V/ X. a... Ouhga't .Kcrm:n “I a " ‘11:" . : - _‘ ‘ <‘\.J . — .shuaz ’. ‘1. _“ O ’ m ", 9 Ouch a'x up, . , z~ g —-—1— 9% 1 - =— Anb- , 0% '.=".'---._=_ ""‘1; _. .1 4 IRAN =—';.———=. Aub- 91.; .1 -——-———- , IT: Bunch! ,‘ -‘ J ~ * .MF 1' ». ‘ ._‘,—'-—.-.§:§.=_ Aub- wzn_;‘-«;,,‘. Ethnic Groups. Iran, Vreeland, p. 38. 73 The Lur tribes are distributed over the Zagros chain, a rich and well watered land. They are engaged in agriculture. Their industries include rug, shawl and carpet weaving. Among them one can find wealthy people. Their summer grazing area is Esfahan; the winter area is the Khozistan Plain. The capitol is in Khoramabad, a central location. In ancient times the city used to be the military and busi- ness center where the nomads exchanged their goods. The Bakhtiari is the largest of the Lur tribes. This tribe consists of two different branches: Haft Lang and Char Lang, each composed of different clans. Their origin can be traced back to ancient times. The Bakhtiari...reveal their feeling of belonging together in legends of a common origin. One legend asserts that all Bakhtiari are descendents in the male line of a Mongol noble named Bakhtyar, who came into Persia in Ancient times and founded a lineage that maintained its independence in the mountains until subdued by the founder of the Sassanid dynasty, Ardashir. Bakhtiari who believe this legend consider them- selves all distant relatives.1O As with the other tribes, the Lur are self-sufficient people, depending on their own products and industries. Very few of their needs and merchandise come from the main cities. The Luri language is an old Persian dialect. They are Moslem and are of the Shiat sect because they have been influenced more by the Persians than by the Kurds. Family relationships are very similar to the other tribes. The father rules the family, but the mother can replace her husband while he is absent. The tribal husband used to have more than one wife 10 1957, p. 41. Herbert Vreeland, Iran, Human Relation Area Files, New Haven, w 74 before the 1960's when a law forbid all Moslem men from practicing polygamy. The family relationship is described by Arasteh as follows: ...The tribal husband unquestionably rules the family. As a Moslem he is permitted more than one wife but only the Khans can afford this privilege. Among the Bakhtiari and some of the other tribes, a Khan customarily chooses his first wife from a family of his own rank, the second one from the family of a subordinate chieftain and the third from the family of a common tribal family.H Divorce is unknown among the Lurs. The women are very sociable and do not wear veils, they participate in most of their husband's work and responsibilities. They are usually good horseback riders and good marksmen due to their childhood training which is almost equal to that of men. The Lurs, both men and women, are expert horseback riders and excellent shots. They are noted for their bravery, generosity, hospitality and other fine qualities. They love freedom and independence and are generally very kind-hearted people. However, if provoked, they can be dangerous antagonists.12 The woman's main job in addition to household responsibilities is rug weaving and dye making. The Lur son occupies a respected posi- tion in the family because, after the death of his father, he acts as the leader of the tribe or clan. The oldest daughter occupies the position next to the mother in terms of status and responsibilities, but is under the command of the father. Both girls and boys must 11A. Reza Arasteh, Man and Society in Iran, E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 1964, p. 155. 12Iran Today, Ministry of Information of the Imperial Iranian Government, Vol. 11.9, Teheran, Iran, 1964, p. 15. 75 learn how to ride and shoot. Marriage arrangements are made by the fathers, and inter-family marriages such as between cousins are common. Boys and girls are educated in local and village schools. In recent years the government arranged for teachers to move twice a year with the tribes in order to educate their youngsters. Clothing for most of the Lurs is very similar to Kurdish fashions. They may wear common European style dress; but the local dress for men is a cotton shirt, black or blue wide trousers and a long coat and for women a pleated wide skirt, satin top and a colored velvet vest. The women also cover their heads with a piece of silk which is adorned by gold or silver coins. The Lurs' main staple is bread, which is made by the women in brick and mud ovens called Iangr, Milk and dairy products serve as a main food; lamb and chicken are also important. 3. The Qashgais. (The name has been written in different ways such as Qashqai, Kashkai, and Gashghai, by different authors. The most common ones have been used here). The Qashgai is a tribe of Turkish origin composed of approxi- mately 40 branches. They live in the state of Fars. Their summer grazing area (Sardsir or Yelaq) is in the highest valleys of the Zagros around Semiran. Their winter region (Garmsir or Qeshlaq) is in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf around Fars. Accounts of their origin differ. Some say that they lived in Turan in the days of Jengis Khan, and were brought to Iran by Nadir Shah. They first lived in Khalajistan, then most of them settled in Fars. Because of their name, others think that they came from Kashgar in the wake of Hulagu. Others again, and this seems to be the most commonly accepted version, 76 presume them to be of Turkish race; their dialect is common to southern Turkey and is spoken in Azerbaijan and the northern Caucasus. The Kashkai claim to be of the white race, of which they have the characteristics and of Aryan descent.13 In any event, it is certain that this tribe is migratory being distributed around the Fars, south of the Bakhtyries Lur. The majority are nomads, but among them a considerable number are settled in the towns and villages. Qashgai is one of the wealthiest tribes of Iran. They cultivate their land. The main crops are wheat and barley. Animal husbandry is the basis of their economy. Their language is a Turkish dialect. Their diet and customs are relatively similar to the Lurs and the Bakhtiaries. The Qashgais are Moslems of the Shiat sect. Their industries include carpet and rug weaving. The tribe has been famous for horse breeding, and they are the finest producers of crops and cereals. They are the most educated and civilized tribe of Iran. The qualities which stand out clearest among the Kashkais are the high level of family life, strongly influenced by women; the well developed communal sense; the high degree of art whereby articles of daily use are made beautiful; the superb horses and horsemanship of the Darreshuri; the way the Khans have clung to nomadic life and remained close to their people; and lastly, the great propriety of the tribe...insure that the Kashkais reach the highest level of civilization.14 4. The Turkmans. The Turkmans live in northern Iran in contrast to the southern tribes. The Turkmans of Iran include two main branches, the Gooklans and the Yamoots. The Gooklan group is 13Therese Marie, op. cit., p. 115. 14Ibid., p. 116. 77 composed of 10,000 tents with the center in Gurgan, west of the Caspian Sea. The Yamoots are the Turkmans who are distributed on the Gorgan Plains on the east side of the Caspian Sea. They are composed of two different branches, the Atabai and the Jafarbai. A number of the Atabai Turkmans live on the border of Iran and the U.S.S.R. The Turkmans, similar to the Qashgais, are the migrating tribes from Central Asia. They entered the country from the U.S.S.R. and settled in the northeastern part of Iran. Historically, Iran has been much troubled by the nomadic, riding Turkmen, who have crossed and recrossed the Russian border for many centuries, wreaking havoc on the Persian inhabitants of the area. With rather broad heads, Mongoloid eye folds, and straight hair, not always dark, they present a markedly different appearance from other Iranians. 5 The land of the Turkmans, or Turkman Sahara, was very dry and the tribes suffered from a deficiency of grazing land. Under the new plans, the government provides possibilities for agriculture and water supplies. The Turkmans are good farmers and cattle breeders. Their land produces good barley and wheat. They produce the universally famous Turkman carpets, with their special color and design. The Turkman desert, land over which their flocks grazed, was a dry plain, stretching across the untilled wilderness as far as the Russian frontier. Their land was generally too saline for crops, and only through the great efforts of dig- ging deep wells was good drinking water obtained. Today, the Turkman Sahra is probably the most prosperous agricultural area in the country. Maintaining a standard of living superior 15Vreeland, op. cit., p. 45. 78 to that in the southern plateau or plains and inhabited by settled tribes of Turkmans.who are admired.throughout the country for their business acumen, honesty, and skill...Most.Turkmans wealth is earned from wheat and barley crops, sheep and cattle stock, and of course, the world-famous Turkman carpet.15 The language of the tribe is a Turkish dialect. The Turk- mans are Moslem and belong to the Shiat sect. Their diet consists of bread, milk products, cereals, and lamb. The most distinguishing characteristic of Turkman tribes is their clothing. In winter, long fur coats and fur hats are very common. In summer, a brightly colored long tunic with an embroidered hat replaces the winter fashion. The Turkmans are excellent horse breeders; their horses are famous in Iran. Most of the Gooklan Turkmans own Turkman horses. As with their special picturesqueness and dress, the Turkmans have their own literature. Other Turkish speaking tribes of Iran are the Shahsavan tribes of the foothills of the Sabalan Mountains in the northwest of Iran. They spend the summer months in these mountains and winter in the grazing area on the Mogan plains. These tribes are composed of approximately 1,963 families who are engaged in cattle grazing and farming. They are Moslem in faith. The other Turkish speaking tribes are the Afshar tribes distributed in Azarbaijan and Zanjan. Cattle grazing and farming are their main activities. They are Moslem also. There are some Iran 16Office of Press and Information, Embassy of Iran, Review, Vol. VI, No. 2, Washington, D.C., February 1961, p. 11 79 Qajar tribes which also speak Turkish and are distributed in Hamadan, Arak, Khorasan, and Azarbaijan. 5. The Arabs, The central location of the Arabs is in the state of Khozistan, west of the Persian Gulf, and in Fars. They are nomads; very few of them are settled. Their language is Arabic. Their economic activities are agriculture and small rug weaving. Because of the warm southern climate, they usually dress in long straight cotton dresses; sometimes they cover their hair with a cotton scarf. Wooden sandals serve as shoes. They practice the Moslem religion. Their diet consists of dairy products, lamb, bread, and cereals. 6. The Khamseh. These tribes derive their name from an Arabic word “Khamse'l which means “the number“ (5). These tribes con- sist of five groups (Baseri, Arab, Baharlu, Nafar, and Einalu). They migrated into the eastern Fars in the high and low land areas. They are a combination of Arab, Turk, and Lur. Although they speak Persian, they also understand Turkish and the Arabic languages. Their summer grazing area is Darah, and they inhabit Lar in the winter. Their agricultural products are barley, wheat, and cereals. They are good cattle stock nomads. 7. The Baluchies. The Baluchies live in the eastern part of Iran mainly in the southeastern section in the state of Baluchistan. A few families have settled down, but the majority are still nomads. They are composed of several groups 0V.92!E; as they call themselves. Each qaum is headed by an authorized person who is called Amir, After Amir, in terms of authority, comes the Sardar or leader. They also 80 migrate two times a year during the summer and winter. Due to the geographical location and climate, their way of life is different from the other nomad tribes. Here each qaum has its special grazing area and a location for each seasonal migration. Their tents consist of completely black material which serves to protect the inhabitants from the extreme sunshine and heat. At the end of fall, they butcher several cattle and sheep; they smoke or sun-dry the meat in order to preserve it for winter use. The milk is preserved also by processing it into cheese. These are the women's activities. Also they are in charge of the industries, rug, blanket, and felt weaving. The Baluchi men are warriors. Protecting their rifles and swords is an important avocation; they use camels extensively. They are Moslem of the Shiat sect and their dialect is very similar to the Kurdish language. Figure 14 illuStrates distribution of nomadic population in Iran. 81 .003 032302 $3.ch chowamz no 330 "3.26m .szH c. cowumpzaom Uaneoz mo cowganwgpmvo .ep mgamwu i. .Iii’li'l'ils-Iilq‘z A H 4 ..1\. I. I. 1. 1.3. \ )1..\lJ\v \ \/«\.J\I\t(l(lal . . r. '6 11‘. I I I!" 119*\ \‘L Ii .0 \.\. .nv .- .. I'd] _ lol- 3. 3"! X. 9‘- I. ,. r! £. a. g 3nh¢~h