AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION m lRAQ; r; s f _ wrm REFERENCE TO DATES, WHEAT, AND HARLEY; _- ' Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D“ ‘ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MOHUM EBRAHIM SAEED .f-Z-xgx §“.5§ ..... l. J LIBRARY (l A Z Michigan Sm University. f - This is to certify that the thesis entitled Agricultural Mechanization in Iraq With Reference to Dates, Wheat, and Barley presented by Kadhum Ibrahim Saied has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor 0f mm degree in Wevelopment 7m: 41. he Z , Major professor Date November 12, 1971 0-7639 ABSTRACT AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN IRAQ WITH REFERENCE TO DATES, WHEAT, AND BARLEY BY Kadhum Ibrahim Saied Very little has been written on the topic of agri— cultural mechanization in Iraq. The intention of this thesis is to help fill this void, and to open up new vistas for study. Agricultural production in Iraq is still tradi— tional; primitive tools and a limited supply of power hamper agricultural production. Drudgery and hard physical work dominate the Iraqi farms. Millions of people engage in food production, but are unable to feed the eight million inhabi— tants of the country; and each year import of food increases. Agricultural mechanization is one of the assured means of increasing agricultural productivity. This thesis describes and evaluates present cultural and mechanization practices with respect to the production of the three main cash crops of Iraq: dates, barley, and wheat. Several stages of mechanization are studied--hand, animal, and engine-powered implements-—and the importance of education, research, and extension programs are discussed. Finally a series of specific recommendations is presented. Kadhum Ibrahim Saied Iraq is fortunate in her rich soils (particularly alluvial soils) and abundant water; but it suffers from the necessity for constant irrigation and the resulting salinization. The Agrarian Reform Act of 1958 eliminated ancient inequalities, and made the peasants owners of small (30-60 acre) farms. These men are unaccustomed to their new responsibilities; they cannot yet afford new machines, and frequently cannot afford the risk of innovation. At present some can obtain the use of machinery through cooperatives and through government hire and rental services. Iraq's thirty million date palms supply over 80 per- cent of the world's date exports, and account for the liveli- hood of many of the Iraqi people. The present yield per tree is the lowest in the world. The following suggestions are made to increase yield and make the industry more efficient: adopt the chisel and Sledgehammer method of removing off- shoots, which compete for nourishment with the parent tree; use the auger bit to dig the holes in which the offshoots are transplanted; use the Harvester Loadstar to reduce labor costs and make cultivation and harvest more efficient (the machines allow workers to reach the crown of the tree more safely and faster); use of mechanical hand sprayers for more rapid and thorough pollination. It is physically and economically feasible to trans- plant mature palms now lost to urbanization and salinization. Research also shows that date pits contain many nutrients and Kadhum Ibrahim Saied when crushed can be used for animal fodder. Further study is needed comparing the cost of crushing with possible profit. Hand and animal powered tools will remain of great significance in Iraq for some time. Improvements are neces— sary in the raw materials and the techniques used in their manufacture and in their design. Improvements in native breeds of animals should be attempted. Engine power, where feasible, provides the obvious advantages of deeper ploughing, increased areas of cultiva— tion, less erosion, and more work per man hour. Guarantees should be obtained from every company importing machinery to Iraq that spare parts be easily available. Extension workers provide vital instruction for the new land owners who were so recently peasants. Instructional materials should be illustrated, at least, and as much instruc- tion as possible should be audio-visual. Sociologists and psychologists could fruitfully advise many extension program and cooperative society leaders. Adaptive research should receive high priority; researchers must be freed of time-consuming duties and pro— vided with adequate funds. A national committee to direct research and channel financial support would provide needed coordination. A Middle East regional center for research would give this direction on a larger scale, as well as conducting research of its own. Funds could be channeled through it on a matfhing basis. Kadhum Ibrahim Saied Some specific topics needing research are: the physical, social, and economic characteristics of Iraq; the comparative costs of producing and importing specific equipment; a comparison of the state—owned hire—and—rental services with those that are privately owned; and tests of the adaptability of imported machines. AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN IRAQ WITH REFERENCE TO DATES, WHEAT, AND BARLEY BY Kadhum Ibrahim Saied A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Study Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 1971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere apprecia- tion and gratitude to Professor Milton H. Steinmueller, Chairman of the Guidance Committee, and Professor Robert L. Maddex, Project Director, for their guidance and co- Operation throughout this study. My full appreciation is extended to Professors Bill A. Stout, Carter M. Harrison, and Chester J. Mackson for reading this manuscript and for offering comments and suggestions in making this study more far-reaching. Also, to Professor Howard F. McColly for his earlier guidance and valuable suggestions. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLE S O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . General Perspective . . . . . The Problem Setting . . The Problem . . . . . Objectives of the Study . Sources of Information . Limitations of the Study . REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . Iraq . . . . . General Philosophy of Mechanization Publications Giving Specific Information SELECTED PHYSICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF IRAQ . . . . Physiographic Features . . . . Social Environment . . . . . . Economic Aspects . . . . . . Cooperatives . . . . . . . . DATE MECHANIZATION--DATE PALM CULTURE IN Introduction . . . . . Uses of the Date Palm . Cultural Practices . . Transplanting Date Palms Concluding Observations iii Q00. Page ii vi vii \O \IONWWWH H 11 13 Chapter Page V. HAND AND ANIMAL POWER SYSTEM: BARLEY AND WHEAT . . . . . . . . 85 Wheat 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 85 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Hand Tools . . . . . . . . . 88 Tools and Implements Used in Cereal Production . . . . . . . . 91 Tillage . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Weeding . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Harvesting . . .\ . . . . . . . . 104 Threshing . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Winnowing . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Transportation and Storage . . . . . . 108 Advantages of Draft Animals . . . . . . 110 Disadvantages of Draft Animals . . . . . 110 VI. ENGINE-POWERED MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS IN IRAQ . . . . . . . . 112 , Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Economic Use of Tractors . . . . . . . 114 Plowing and Soil Erosion . . . . . . . 117 Use of Machinery and Fixed Cost . . . . 118 The Custom Use of Farm Machinery . . . . 121 Repair and Maintenance . . . . . . . 122 Selection of Implements . . . . . . . 123 Obstacles to the Use of Engine Power . . . 129 A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . 130 VII 0 EDUCATION 0 o o o o o o o 9 Q Q o o 133 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 133 The Educational System in Iraq . . . . . 134 Primary and Secondary Education . . . . 138 Higher Education . . . . . . . . . 144 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 VIII. EXTENSION AND RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . 149 Nature of the Extension Service . . . . 149 Some Desirable Personal Characteristics . . 156 Role of Research . . . . . . . . . 158 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 173 iv Chapter IX. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY Recommendations for Improving Date Production . . . . . . . Recommendations Concerning Improvement of Hand and Animal Tools and Implements Recommendations Concerning the Use of Animal Power . . . . . . . Recommendations Concerning Engine— Powered Implements . . . . . Recommendations Concerning Education Recommendations Concerning Extension Recommendations Concerning Research General Recommendations . . . . Page 175 176 180 181 183 184 187 188 191 194 LI ST OF TABLES Table . Page 1. Date Exports 1960-65 . . . . . . . . . 58 2.. Area, Production, and Yield Per Donum of Wheat in Iraq, 1950-70 . . . . . . . . 86 3. Area, Production, and Yield Per Donum of Barley in Iraq, 1950—1970 . . . . . . . 87 4. Depreciation and Cost of Farm Equipment . . . 124 5. Typical Ranges of Power Requirements, Operating Speeds, Field Efficiencies, and Field Capacities of Farm Machinery . . . 125 vi Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. LIST OF FIGURES A Proposed Offshoot Chisel . Present Date-Harvesting Method The Proposed Date Harvester . Structure of Educational System vii Page 62 73 76 137 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION General Perspective "Agricultural mechanization may be defined as the art of equipping agriculture with mechanical aids wherever_ possible for increasing the efficiency in the enterprise."1 The aim of agricultural mechanization is to increase the physical and economic productivity of agriculture. The advanced countries have realized this for about two centuries, and have improved their productive capabili- ties accordingly. There is a striking contrast between their high productivity and the low productivity of the underdeveloped world. Unfortunately the gap between the two is increasing rather than decreasing with time. At the present time, for instance, the average American farmer produces enough food for himself and 31 other people; in the underdeveloped nations, (and Iraq is among them) farmers produce food sufficient for only himself and one other person. For this reason over half of the Iraqi population must live on the land and 1H. F. McColly, "Agricultural Mechanization in.South- East Asia," Agricultural Engineering, 46 (January, 1965), P0 26—7. depend directly on agriculture for their livelihood. There is still not enough food to supply the country, and some food must be imported; and, ironically, the farmer performing the most necessary of all tasks, remains a man of little status, almost an object of scorn. What is the solution to this problem? Demov graphic pressures place these countries at a disadvan- tage; they must increase their productivity even more than the industrial countries do, just to maintain present (low) standards of nutrition. Although Iraq is not presently overpopulated, its rate of increase (3.3%) is among the highest in the world. Any improve— ment in present standards would demand an even higher rate of increase than the industrial countries achieve. The solution has two parts: to increase the yield per unit of land, and to increase the amount of land under cultivation. Technology and greater input can bring about the first goal, an increased yield per unit of land; to bring about the second goal, increasing land under production, more capital and more labor are needed“- primarily more labor. But if 70 percent of the popu- 1ation already lives on the land, supplying more labor would demand that almost the entire population be engaged in agriculture. This is of course not practi- cal; there are othen national tasks which must be done. And in fact the supply of agricultural labor is 3 constantly diminishing. Iraq, like many other countries, is experiencing the migration of many of the farm population to the cities. The mechanization of agriculture can help achieve both goals. That is, mechanization can help increase yields per acre as well as make it possible to cultivate more land in Iraq. But it is not likely that mechanization will be easy or be accomplished without serious adjustment problems resulting for both peOple and government. The Problem Setting Iraq is the largest exporter of dates in the world according to the FAO.2 Approximately 82 per cent of the world's export of dates come from Iraq. Dates are Iraq's most important cash crOp. FAO figures, however, also reveal that the yield'per tree of Iraq's date palms is the lowest in the world. Iraq's yield is about 12 kilos per tree as compared with a high of 30 kilos per tree in other areas. There are thirty million date palm trees in Iraq. It is obvious that increases in yield per tree could be extremely importantlnationally. Wheat and barley are also commercially impor- tant in Iraq. These crops are cultivated today with tools and methods little changed in several thousand years-- in fact, since the dawn of history. The wooden plow, the 2FAO'Trade Yearbook, 1969. spade, and the sickle are the main tools. Methods of produc- tion are primitive, depending mostly on hand and animal power. The area under cultivation for these crOps is steadily decreasing because of the problem of soil salinity which is occurring throughout most of the country. Further- more, crop rotation is rarely practiced and nearly one- half of the cropland is left fallow each year. Today in Iraq most farmers are landowners and decision-makers. This is a relatively new situation for them. Prior to the Land Reform Act of 1958, most farmers were neither landowners nor decision-makers. Thus, it is likely that many farmers, even after 13 years, do not yet have sufficient expertise in the acceptance of responsibility and in decision-making to provide the necessary foundation for a program of rapid mechanization of certain agricultural sectors. Adequate agricultural planning which takes into account all factors is probably not yet in existence in Iraq. As is so painfully obvious in the developed countries, planning is absolutely necessary; yet mistakes and failure to consider relevant variables frequently plague even the most astute. As in many develOping countries, a great gulf between those who plan the agricultural mechanization programs and those who carry them out probably exists in Iraq. The Problem It is assumed that all levels of the Iraqi society desire higher levels of efficiently produced agricultural output. It is further assumed that one of the suggested approaches to higher levels of output, agricultural mechan- ization, is a relevant alternative and indeed, the most apprOpriate alternative that can be studied. Specifically, then, the problem to be addressed in this dissertation is: What are the obstacles to achieving a higher level of agricultural mechanization and how can ‘ these obstacles be reduced in magnitude or eliminated entirely? Perhaps this "problem” cannot be solved in the "classical" sense but the author feels that the investigation suggested by the problem as stated will yield valuable information to decisionrmakers in Iraq during the fateful years ahead. Objectives of the Study The first objective of this study is to describe some important factors which affect the success of agricultural mechanization in Iraq; these factors include physical, social, econcmic, and legal aspects. The term ”agricultural mechanization" includes several different stages of mechanization: the use of hand-power implements, of animal powered implements, and of engine-powered implements. 6 The second objective of this study is to describe the present farming system, particularly cultural operations in date, barley, and wheat growing where tools and other mechanical equipment are used. The third objective is to discuss the various stages of mechanization in Iraq, with a view to analyzing the principal problems involved in each. The fourth objective of the study is to point out the important role played by education, research and extension work in the success of Iraq's agricultural mechanization program. The fifth objective is to develop a series of recommendations for the improvement of agricultural produc- ivity through mechanization. Sources of Information The information gathered together in this thesis is from many sources. Some of it is the result of personal experience; the author has taught at two universities in Baghdad, and before that was involved for many years with his family's date orchard. In addition, there are a number of estimates which he made in his capacity as agricultural engineer. The more recent information was obtained from friends who presently reside in Iraq; of particular value was the 1970 Quarterly Report of the Ministry of Agricul- tural Reform (Department of Statistics). Other statistics are derived from United Nations publications, in particular, of course, those of the FAO. Valuable information was also obtained from case studies of countries which face problems similar to Iraq's. Finally, although there is little written directly on the t0pic of agricultural mechanization for that country, use was made here of more general studies of Iraq; these often dealt with factors which affect the success of agricultural mechaniza- tion programs. Limitations of the Study Throughout this study the author encountered difficulty in obtaining adequate statistical data. Like other deve10p- ing countries, Iraq is not yet able to gather complete and accurate statistics regularly and the lack poses a real problem for research. To take only one example: the time necessary for a laborer to climb a palm tree is a seem- ingly minor piece of information, and a point on which as yet no research has been done; and yet the information is important to this thesis. In this, as in other cases, estimates had to be made. In addition, photographs of specific agricultural practices in Iraq would have provided valuable illustrations of points made here; unfortunately, however, these were not available. This is partially because of the fact, mentioned above, that there is little information on the specific tOpic of this thesis. Many of the recommendations cited in the final chapter must eventually be verified experimentally, but to do so is, of course, beyond the scope of this thesis. In fact, one of the main purposes of this study is to open up new avenues of research. For this reason, and because of the breadth of the tOpic, it was not always possible to give full details on methods of implementation; since so many factors are involved, it was thought preferable in many cases simply to describe the goal, and to leave the means for achieving the goal to further studies. In general, then, since this is the first study of its kind, the emphasis has been on establishing guide lines for agricultural mechanization and given recommenda- tions as suggested directives. Finally, it is beyond the scope of any one thesis to study in detail every crop grown in Iraq, and no attempt has been made to do so here. It is the three main cash creps: dates, wheat, and barley, which have been selected for close study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Almost nothing has been written on the specific topic of agricultural mechanization in Iraq.* There is more information available on two related topics: 1) the mechanization of agriculture in the emerging nations; (this includes mechanization attempts in general as well as programs in specific countries other than Iraq;) and 2) the general agricultural situation in Iraq. This chapter will comment on Literature of the first type is review in this chapter; information gained from the second category is incorporated throughout the body of this thesis. Iraq One of the few articles with direct bearing on agri- cultural mechanization in Iraq deals with the country's most well known crop, dates. In his "Transplanting Mature Date Palms in Iraq," Nocton describes the techniques involved in, and the economic implications of, an experiment with success- fully transplanted 87 mature date palms.l No special treef *It is worth noting here that statistical informa- tion on the country is equally difficulty to obtain. \ 1R. H. Nocton, "Transplanting Mature Date Palms in Iraq," World Crops, Vol. 17 (March, 1965), p. 72. 10 moving equipment was used; in fact, most of the machinery was available in Baghdad. He concludes that if the special equipment available in the U. S. or Britain were used, transplanting-would be economically feasible. Since date trees may take 30 years to reach maturity Nocton sees the possibility of beginning ready—made orchards with trees which would otherwise be lost—-destroyed by the expanding city or lost to saline soils. Valuable comments on the general agriculture and some reference to mechanization situations in the country are contained in United Nations documents such as the "Development of Iraq" Middle Eastern Affairs, March, 1950. This article is an abstract of the final report of the United Nations Economic Survey Mission for the Middle East. This document provides some historical insight into the agricultural situation in Iraq. It begins with the usual comments on Iraq's great potential for high agricultural production; it emphasizes the great amounts of unused land and the abundant water resources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, which carry enough water to irrigate millions of additional acres. Iraq exports then, as now, consisted mainly of foodstuffs and animal products. Since industry there is only beginning, the best means of increasing national wealth is by increasing agricultural production. This means cultivating more total land, and more land per worker; and this can only be accomplished by / 11 mechanization. Of particular importance are irrigation and proper drainage. Even twenty years ago the country was aware of its need for mechanization, and the government had created a five year plan for increasing the number of tractors and a ten year plan for greater mechanization. However, political events altered those plans, and the problems of today's Iraq remain substantially the same. 1 It was at that time, too, that the significant step of nationalizing the importing and distributing of all agricultural machinery was decided. General Philosophy of Mechanization A provocative introduction to the general problem of mechanizing agriculture is contained in Theodore Schultz's book, Transforming Traditional Agriculture. Although primarily dealing with economics, the author's essential point is relevant here: farmers in traditional societies, he contends, are not indifferent to price incentives. They may appear indifferent to western economists who fail to take adequate account of the realities of subsistence level agriculture; who do not recognize for instance, the unacceptability of risk when life itself depends on a success- . ful crop or who fail to notice that markets may be lacking for any increased yield. Other pOints he makes are mentioned throughout this thesis; the two which are fundamental are 12 the responsiveness of these farmers to the possibility of real profit, and the basic importance of education. This has been mentioned in the Introduction of this thesis and will be a recurrent theme. Schultz's contention was controversial at first but has been accepted at least in part by most contemporary theorists. The Science Advisory Committee to the President of the United States has noted some important factors which in peasant farming, can destroy the meaningfulness of price.2 Often, for instance, landlords receive a large share of the harvest but do not help pay for improvements in method; or peasants may live in extended families and be forced by tradition to share any increased production with family members rather than make a profit by selling it. There may be no place to spend increased income--they might want to buy more consumer goods but find that they are no locally available; "This does not indicate that the price, considered by itself, is not a positive incentive even to a farmer in such a situation.- It merely means that among the complex of influences on farmers' decision-making, the price incentive alone may be inadequate to overcome the combined effect of other influences." 2President's Science Advisory Committee, The World Food Problem, Report of the Panel on the World Food Supply, Vbl. II’IWashington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 524. 13 The implication of all this is that mechanization is possible. Improved efficiency will result when improve- ment programs are realistic and take into careful account all these factors. Publications Giving Specific Information The remainder of the literature surveyed will be books and articles which are of special value in planning particular aspects of mechanization. A good introduction to these, because of its detailed analysis of a particular situation, is "Agricultural Mechani- zation in South East Asia," by H. F. McColly.3 Although this article does not deal directly with Iraq, it is a valuable study of agricultural mechanization in Southeast Asia, an area which shares some characteristics with Iraq. The most common problems impeding mechanization are high population density, low per capita income, and intensive crop production. In addition the cost of input is often high, particularly the price of fuel; there are inadequate transportation and service facilities. A frequent accompanying problem is the instability of related government policies. The author lists other important factors in the advancement of agricultural mechanization which include: development of industrial production, development of machines for small farms, favorable prices of fossil fuels, shortage of labor, inefficient draft animals, and an encouraging 3Agricultural Engineering, Vol. 146 (Jan. 1965), p. 26. 14 governmental policy. After surveying the Japanese situation in detail the article concludes that it is a model of agricultural development. A similar study of Taiwan reveals that the country is only on the threshold of mechanization. The efforts which have brought Taiwan to this stage have been her consolidation of fragmented land holdings, and the adoption of a new land reform program which made the tiller more secure in his land, as well as the adoption of a better land use policy. According to the article, if several deep-rooted practices could be changed, the efficiency of agriculture will be improved. The problem is sometimes that of a cultural resistance to change. A valuable analysis of the sociological problems involved is "The Subsistence Farmer, Agrarian Culture, and Peasant Societies," by Everett M. Rogers.4 Rogers states, "The nature of interpersonal relations among peasants serves as a powerful block to most community development programs, based on the notion that people, with the help of some professional technical advice, can cooperatively solve their social and economic problemsgrhe basic community development assumption of peasant cooperation is seldom found and is one reason for the lack of success of many community development self-help programs in peasant settings." 4Everett M. Rogers, "The Subsistence Farmer, Agrarian Culture, and Peasant Societies," in Subsistence Agriculture and Economic Development, Clifton Whorton, Jr., editor. 15 Rogers lists eight characteristics which he feels typified peasant society. These are: mutual distrust in interpersonal relationships, a lack of innovativeness, lack of differed gratification, fatalism,limited time perspective familialism, dependence on government authority, low aspiration level, and lack of mobility. In the opinion of the author these are, in various degrees, quite descriptive of the fellaheen5 of Iraq. Of particular importance is their marked dependence on the government. The government for them plays the role previously filled by the landowner, (the Shaikh),before the land reform of 1958. A great deal of valuable work in the field of mechanization has been done by B. P. Pothecary.6 He writes that almost no developing country has based its mechanization program on tractors of low horsepower (20 hp or less). Reasons for this include unfavorable circumstances of soil, climate, crops, production levels, and skills, as well as the fact that many of the fundamental tasks to be done require more than 20 horsepower. Then, too, there is a lower cost per unit for manufacturing large tractors. 5Small farmers in Iraq, before Land RefonnAct of 1958 these men were peasants. 6B. P. Pothecary, "The Small Tractor in Developing Countries,"World Crops, XXI (July—August),l969. 16 Nevertheless, in India the introduction of a 15-20 hp tractor with four wheels has been a great success; and a major reason for this is that farmers prefer riding a tractor to doing the manual labor which is necessary with two wheel tractors. Pothecary concludes that a 15 hp four wheel tractor would be eagerly used by farmers in develop- ing countries. Pothecary7 writes that extension services play an important but often unrecognized role in the success of mechanization programs. The extension worker needs to acquaint farmers with economic facts such as depreciation, installment buying, the cost of repairs, and the cost of spare parts. He should also give basic instruction in the use and maintenance of the machines. Unfortunately men with the kind of practical orientation necessary for this kind of instruction in the field are hard to find. Finally, the extension worker should provide the following kinds of information to machine manufacturers: observations on maching performance, local farm requirements, and gaps in the technological tools available. A thorough and interesting book is Farm Implements for Arid and Tropical Regions by H. J. Hopfen; it is FAO Agricultural Development Paper No. 91. The paper itself gives clear drawings of an immense variety of implements, 7B. P. Pothecary, "Mechanization Needs Extension Work in Developing Countries," World Crops (March-April, 1969). 17 primarily those used for dry farming, in rice-growing, and for row-planting in tropical areas. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these tools is discussed, and suggestions are made either for its wider adoption or per- haps for some improvement in design. The book's excellent introduction tells the reader that the continued use of non-motorized implements is to be expected and encouraged. Historically, advances in agriculture (such as the first attempts at field cultivation) have coexisted with the stage which preceded them (such as hunting and herding). As the author notes, "Agriculture is so diversified and so flexible by nature that abundant production can be secured from a variety of systems." (p.1) The important point to be drawn from this is that the use of hand and animal powered implements continues to be important even in the age of engine-powered tools. The reason for this is that the use of power machinery cannot be justified unless there is a cash crop which can pay for the purchase, operation, maintenance, repair, and depreciation of the motorized implements. This cash can come from increased production, and/or from decreased cost--but in both cases good markets must exist. Naturally there are many situations where the use of motorized implements is not economical; the author lists these as small farms, irregularly laid out fields, widespread under- employment, insufficient mechanical skills among the farmers, 18 and insufficient repair facilities. For these reasons, Hopfen stresses, "in areas where agriculture will continue to depend for many years mainly on hand and animal power, significant improvements in production can often be obtained by the introduction of better small farm implements and machines" (p. 2). This increase in production can gradually lead to the accumulation of capital necessary for the adoption of larger engine-powered equipment. In his discussion of the assets and limitations of a wide variety of tools, Hopfen often points out that the increased efficiency of the tool may lie not only in better design, but in improvements in such factors as the breed of draught animals used, the characteristics of the crops farmed, the abilities of the local craftsman, or a better source of raw materials for the equipment. Certain points must be borne in mind when improve- ments in design are considered. Tools should be: 1) adapted to rapid, efficient, and non-fatiguing work; 2) safe; 3) designed simply enough for local construction; 4) lightweight and portable; 5) ready for immediate use (so no time will be lost in initial adjustments); and 6) made of available materials. Man-powered tools should be shaped to obtain "working motions which follow man's most natural movements 19 in direction, speed, and frequency as closely as possible, the use of as many muscles as possible to diminish the loan on each single muscle, and a variety of working motions, engaging different muscles . . ."8 In his treatment of animal-powered machines he notes that animals are a cheap source of power, especially if they are raised by the farmer himself, and even more so if they provide byproducts such as milk, meat, manure, and hides. Horses are the most efficient of draught animals, and smaller animals are relatively harder working than larger ones. Improving the harness is one big step in gaining more power from animals already owned. Other steps are better feeding, so as to strengthen the animals the use of single animals instead of animals in pairs for light work, and the improvement of the implements pulled by the animals. Finally, there is a work which deals with an area similar in many ways to Iraq: Agricultural Mechanization in Equatorial Africa, by B. A. Stout, et a1. This study, the result of several years' work including 18 months in the field, is a comprehensive compila- tion of information--published, unpublished, or learned 8H. J. Hopfen, Farm Implements for Arid and Tropical Regions, pp. 3-5. 20 first hand by the authors--relevant to agricultural mechanization in equatorial Africa. The general aims of the team were to provide information on present techniques and equipment in use, to identify factors affecting the success of mechanization, to discuss the economic problems involved, to identify the specific mechanization problems which require research, and to develop a series of recommendations for the program as a whOle. These objectives were accomplished; the work is highly detailed, highly professional, and invaluable for those doing further work in this area. It is also of great value to those, like the author of this thesis, doing work of similar nature (although much more limited in scope) for a different geographical region. Much of the specific information on suitable tools and effective techniques is applicable to different regions (such as Iraq) which have similar problems. It must never be forgotten, however, as this study emphasizes, that local research into local problems must be done, and that transfer of techniques from one region to another must be done only after careful thought and experimentation. A sampling of the specific information contained in the report and relevant to this thesis would include: the importance of adequate markets before increased productivity can be profitable, the need for simple but 21 effective methods of record-keeping for small farmers,and the fact that the cost of mechanization should be met out of resulting increases in production, and that tractors are ordinarily economically only if they can be used for a major portion of the year. The authors also discuss the economic advantages of animal power, the waste of energy and time caused by ineffective hand tools, which are often responsible for low levels of production and negative attitudes toward farming, the major limitation placed on cultivation by the necessity for weeding, the shortage of animal-powered equipment for harvesting and threshing, improvements which are possible in winnowing, and the unacceptable risks involved in experimentation on small holdings. Of equal importance with this wealth of particular facts is the general philosophy of mechanization which forms the backbone of this report. The authors repeat a number of times that mechanization is not an end in itself; that it must serve theenonomic needs of the farmer and the country. They also emphasize that mechanization is not merely the use of sophisticated machinery, but of any mechanical means whatsoever. There are three stages of mechanization, the use of hand-powered tools, of animal- power, and of engine-power. What this report states of Africa is also true of Iraq: the first two levels of 22 mechanization will be of real importance for at least the remainder of the century. Selective changes in the tools and equipment used (selective changes rather than too general and too abrupt changes) have as their goal "to reduce human effort, improve the timeliness and quality of various farm operations, [and thereby to increase] yields, quality of product, and overall efficiency" (p. xvii). Finally, the philosophy of mechanization put forth by this report recognizes the impossibility of mechanizing without considering the many other interacting factors. The Preface summarizes the team's sane view of this important but difficult undertaking: There is no question that mechanization will be employed; the question is at what level and to what degree. These questions do not seem difficult to answer until one considers that agriculture is only one aspect to be considered, and that mechanization is but a small segment of agriculture. In other words, questions about mechanized agriculture must be considered in relation to much broader social, economic, and political issues. Thus,. . . there is no single or simple path to development. The role of mechanization in agricultural development will continue to be a matter of opinion and con- jecture. (p. 2-iii). ~ CHAPTER III SELECTED PHYSICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF IRAQ Physiographic Features Iraq is the modern name for the old Mesopotamia, the land of the two rivers the Tigris and the Euphrates. It is situated in the southwest of Asia. It borders upon Turkey and Syria to the north and northwest, upon Iran to the east, Jordan to the west, and Saudi Arabia and Kuwait to the south. Iraq covers an area of 173,260 square miles, or 110,886,400 million acres; its population is 7,820,000 (1967 census). The country is about three times the size of Michigan, and has a population density of 42 per square mile. Iraq possesses great physical variations for its size ranging from the mountains of the North to the alluvial plains of the West. Geographically, Iraq can be divided into three main regions: 1) the high land, 2) the plan, and 3) the desert regions. Through the plain flow the great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, and it is here that the greatest part of the population is concentrated. Much of the economy is dependent upon 23 24 this alluvial region. The highland zone covers about 52 percent of the total area. The land rises gradually from the Tigris toward the northeast, until it reaches 12,000 feet above sea level in Iran. (In Iraq the highest crest reaches about 10,000 feet.) Agriculture ally this part of the country depends almost entirely upon rainfall. The amount of precipitation may vary between 12 and 50 inches per year. The unpredictability of the precipitation makes this area somewhat risky for farming. For example, in 1962 this area did not receive sufficient rain to sustain the growth of winter wheat. The Plain and the Rivers The area between the Arabian deserts and the foothills of the Iranian mountains is the most important in Iraq. Upon this area the majority of the population depends for its livelihood. Rich alluvial soil, oil wells, the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates-- these constitute the main wealth of the country. The Tigris rises in Turkey and continaes to receive water from rainfall along its cour=s in Iraq. Twenty miles south of Baghdad it is joined by its major tributary, the Diyala. The Tigris continues its course till it meets the Euphrates at Shatt al-Arab to make one wider river about 400 meters across. The Euphrates, too, rises in Turkey, but passes through Syria before it enters Iraq. Though the Euphrates 25 is longer, it is smaller than the Tigris. At high flood levels the Tigris Carries 250,000 cubic feet per second (in comparison with 12,000 cubic feet per second at its lowest stage). The Euphrates at flood stage carries 150,000 cubic feet per second, compared to its 3,000 cubic feet per second at its lowest. The rivers reach their lowest level in September and October; they flood in March, April, and May, when crops are already at least half grown.l At this time, because spring warmth is melting snow in the mountains, the rivers are carry- ing four' times as much water as at their low mark in the summer months. Climate2 Summer in Iraq lasts from May until October; during the season no rain falls, temperatures are hot (averaging about 95 degrees F, and sometimes reaching 120 degrees), and severe sandstorms occur. The heat is made even more difficult by high humidity in the river valleys. The winter (December-March) is cooler, more humid, and more variable. Frost is not common, but may occur. In the mountainous northeast summers are not as hot and winters are even cold; some places have up to three months of snow. 1George Harris, et al., Iraq (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1958). 2W. B. Fisher, "Iraq," Encyclopedia Brittanica, Vol. 12 (1970). p. 536. 26 Soil Characteristics and Management The soil of Iraq, in general, is rich in organic matter and other nutrients, and so highly productive. The deposited alluvial soils of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, and their tributaries, have added fertility to the soil. The soils of the country fall into two groups:3 1) heavy alluvial deposits, which are found in the Tigris and Euphrates Valley; and are grayish brown in color; and 2) the very light, pinkish gray-brown soils found mainly in the deserts. The alluvial soil is rich and fertile as it con- tains a large amount of humus and other nutrients. It also contains a substantial amount of clay particles which, when dry, can be used for building. The majority of the peasant farmers have their houses built from this material. The general texture of the Iraqi soils is silty clay loam or silty clay with somewhat low permeability. Soil reaction is generally basic with pH 7.7 to 8.6.4 The light soils are poor in humus and contain a low level of clay. However, for both groups of soils there is a serious problem of salinity. It is estimated that 1 percent of the total arable land goes saline every year. Today, it is estimated that 60 percent of all irrigated land in Iraq has become saline. This salinity is mainly caused by the lack of drainage facilities and 3 . n W. L. Power, "8011 and Land Use Capabilities in Iraq, Geographical Review, Vol. 44 (1954), p. 375. 41bid. 27 by the improper methods of irrigation. Irrigating the field without draining the water allows evaporation which gradually leaves salt to accumulate in the soil. Near the surface of the soil there are sufficient quantities of salt to inhibit cultivation. It is interesting to note that the Tigris and Euphrates contain about 30 parts per 100,000 of salt at the time they enter the country, while at their lower course the ratio usually has trebled.5 Due to this problem of salinity, crop yields have suffered large losses. It is estimated that crap yields have fallen by 25 percent to 35 percent during the last 40 years, and this decline will continue until adequate measures are taken to rectify the situation. The presence of a drainage system is indispensible to the agricultural development of the country. The benefits reaped from the introduction of mechanization into crop cultivation would be cancelled by the decrease in yield to higher salt level. At the present time the government is implementing a comprehensive drainage scheme to cover 400,000 hectares of the irrigated area of the country. Most of the land to be covered by this scheme is located about 100 miles south of Baghdad, namely the Hilla and Diwaniya districts. This area is subject to high levels of salination where most of the agricultural land has already become saline. ‘5 I'b‘id. 28 Irrigation Irrigation6 is Vital to all agriculture in central and southern Iraq. The problem is complicated by the fact that the two main rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, flood each year when the crops have ' partially matured. Because of variations in the depth of the river, some places have free—flow irrigation while others need pumps. In addition, pumps must be used to get irrigation water back to the rivers soon enough to avoid salination of the soil. Two kinds of pumps are used: engine-powered pumps, and the Persian water wheels. No figures are available on the number of pumps, but estimates run into the thousands. On small holdings near Kufa, Hilla and Kut the water wheel is primarily used. Flood Control The Tigris is about 1270 miles in length, from its source to the Shatt—al—Arab; this is about two-thirds of the length of the Euphrates. A number of projects have been completed along the length of these two rivers in an attempt to control their flooding, which at times has caused heavy destruction of buildings, crops, and land.7 These projects are also aimed at a more profitable use of the waters of the rivers. They include: 1. The storage of flood waters from the Tigris at Al—tharthar, an area of depressed land in northwest Iraq; this is regulated by a dam, 6 , "Iraq," Encyclopedia Brittanica (1970), p. 536. 7Harris, op. cit., pp. 31~2. 29 which releases water stored during the spring for irrigation purposes during the dry summer months. There is a 40 mile canal connecting the Wadi with the Tigris at Samarra. The basin holds 63 million cubic meters of water and is also used for the genera- tion of electricity. 2. A similar storage of the flood waters of the Euphrates is accomplished at Al Habbaniyah utilizing a natural lake. 3. The erection of several barrages on each river at intervals along its course. The dam at Kut, for instance, is three times the size of the one at Hindia, and aims at improving condi— tions southeast of Kut. Other irrigation works are planned or in construction around Lake Hammor, Sulay— maniyah, Mosul, Irbil, and at Shatt—al-Arab. ‘ These barrages raise the water level upstream, so that all channels of the rivers continue to flow even during the dry season. This means that irrigation can be accomplished by gravity instead of by pumps. Like the other projects, these also generate electricity. About $80 million has already been spent on drainage projects, but several times as much needs yet to be spent. About $400 million has been spent in projects to control floods, and it is planned to spend at least that much more. Water is indispensible to agriculture; without effective irrigation, drainage, and flood control, no benefits will result from any kind of mechanization. 30 Increased production is impossible without a constant and well-regulated supply of water. Social Environment Iraq is now finishing its fourth decade of independence; this was won in 1932, and since then the country has played a significant role in world affairs. It is a member of the United Nations. Its geographic location gives it a strategic position in the world of politics and commerce and it serves as a link between the East and the West. The country has great natural wealth in its large oil deposits and in its date trees, which produce 80 percent of the world's supply of dates. Iraq can be classified as an emerging develop- ing country. It shares many economic and sociological characteristics with its neighboring countries. The Iraq society can be described as a traditional pre— industrial one, but it is going through a rapid change. The majority of the people, however, still follow definite norms which the society has established. The average Iraqi citizen acts in the prescribed manner and rarely questions the reasons for this pattern of behavior. What society has taught him he feels that he has suffi- cient justification to do. This attitude has been responsible for preserv— ing an older culture, and the differences in life-style are obvious to any visitor from a younger country. How— 31 ever, by the same token, the attitude has not allowed enough room for change. Family and kinship ties are strong in Iraq; the individual is often more concerned about the welfare of his family and his tribe than about himself. He knows that his welfare is inextricably bound to the destiny of his peOple. The average Iraqi values his honor, and that of his family, above all; he would not hesitate to give his life in order to protect his honor. Maintaining honor,contifigent upon action in the traditional manner, or its converse, avoid- ing shame, is as important a motivating factor as the profit motive in Western society. Loss of honor, and the ostracism it entails, is the worst punishment that society can inflict upon the individual, and, because of the strength of kin- ship ties, shame is reflected upon all the members of his family. Society is hierarchical and requires the maintenance of one's status.8 Certain occupations even though highly profitable, are considered dishonorable and relegated to lower classes. Vegetable growing, for instance, is done only by certain lowly tribes; poultry are cared for only by lower—class women. In addition, a vegetable grower is unable to marry into the families of wheat or rice growers, for vegetable growing is an occupation of lower status than cereal growing.9 This attitude certainly inhibits growth and development. The introduction of new ideas or a new 8 . n . . Doris Adams, Iraq's People and Resources (Berkeley: UniverSIty of California Press, 1958), p. 11. 91bid. 32 machine to mechanize vegetable crop production will be doomed to failure unless this attitude can be changed. Vegetable growing would have to become a respectable profession in the eyes of all the people. In a traditional society, people tend to deal with each other on a personal basis. Written contracts have little meaning when the interest of one party is being threatened. A building contractor or a share cropper may refuse to live up to the terms of his con— tract if conditions change and the fulfillment of the contract is no longer profitable to him. Resorting to the law to settle conflicts is a lengthy, time-consuming process; in many cases the person may surrender his rights in order to avoid inconvenience and delay. This fact may have prevented many great private projects in agriculture, industry, and commerce from even starting. The lack of mutual trust between the contractor and contractee must take its toll. Many economic opportunities have been lost that would have otherwise contributed a great deal to the welfare of the people and to the progress of the country at large. In spite of all this, the Iraqi people, like the people of other developing countries, possess a real desire for progress, for changes that would bring a better life. This strong desire and the accompanying high expectations are more and more evident. The people are gradually becoming aware of their rights and 33 responsibilities. A higher standard of living is being achieved. More literate and more educated people are found in Iraq than in any time in the last several hund- red years--perhaps even more than in any time in history. Unfortunately this progress has not taken place in every part of the country. The urban population is far ahead economically and socially. They are better fed, better cared for and better housed. The rural people, in con— trast, and in spite of significant progress during recent years, are still traditional and follow the older mode of life. Rural Organization and Values The village is the typical form of agricultural settlement in Iraq. Typically, it is small, and forms a classic example of an "in-group." The fertility of the land surrounding the village determines its size. In addition, the fields must not be farther than a few hours' walk; otherwise they would be uneconomical to farm and impossible to protect against animals and thieves. One of the economic characteristics of the traditional peeple is their attitudes toward the accumulation of wealth. The majority of them are content when they have accumulated sufficient economic means to provide for their livelihood in the immediate future-~a span of weeks or even days. Once this has been attained they strive no more. This is a significant factor that may 34 retard progress and hinder the adoption of new technology and agricultural techniques. If the person is not con— cerned with gaining material goods beyond his short-term projected needs—-or even his immediate needs—nit can be assumed that he will not be interested in maximizing his output. Time has little value, and is considered some— thing to pass or "kill" rather than as an economic oppor- tunity for improving one's lot. This traditional atti~ tude toward time is reflected in everyday speech. In Arabic people say, for example, "a1 saa tasseer," which, translated literally, means "The clock is walking." In the English equivalent, a clock or watch "runs." This is only one simple manifestation of the Iraqi attitude toward time. An increase in output would require either an investment in new tools or machines; or a change in methods of production. The villager is apt to do neither. He will not obtain a new tool or machine, nor will he alter his method of production.' In the first place he cannot afford the new equipment, because he lives at a subsistence level. In the second place he is afraid of taking a chance; there is great risk in changing methods of production, and risk is unacceptable in subsistence level farming. From this it is clear that mechanization will not succeed unless it is preceded by a change in 35 attitude; any mechanization program must take into account the economic facts of subsistence farming. In addition there is commonly a fatalistic atti— tude among the rural people, more than among the town and city dwellers. "God wills it" is a phrase often heard. Perhaps this fatalistic outlook is the result of a long history of domination by foreign powerscni the lives and freedom of the people. Also to be taken into consideration are the severe climate, periodic floods, poor health conditions, a lack of economic opportunities, and many other things over which the individual has no control. However, the art of speech is very well developed. Several centuries of foreign control and the absence of decision making on the part of the citizens have made them versatile in the art of conversation-~but less confident when decision and appropriate action are required. Therefore, talk becomes a substitute for action. The fatalism is gradually dwindling as more and more people come to have signifi- cant control over their destinies, and to participate in decision-making on matters pertaining to their lives and freedom. The Iraqi population can be classified from the aspect of geographical distribution into three categories. (1) The urban sector-~the cities and townspeople who make up about 35 percent of the total population; (2) The 36 villagers, who comprise about 57 percent of the total; (3) The remaining 8 percent are desert nomads and marsh dwellers. The Urban Population The urban population lives in large cities and towns. The biggest cities or the country are: Baghdad, the capital, whose population is about one and one half million, Basra, in the South, and Musel, in the North, are the next largest cities. These cities are charac- terized by modern buildings, paved roads, buses and cars, large schools, modern health facilities, airports, clean running water, and many other modern conveniences, including recreational facilities such as parks and theaters. At the same time these cities have the prob- lems common to most large cities of the world; they have their slums, their deteriorating buildings, and poverty. The people of the cities are primarily engaged in business, the professions, and trades. Still, a sub- stantial number of people are engaged in craftsmanship, and some of these skills have not changed in over a thousand years. Of course a large percentage of the city dwellers are government officials and employees. Besides these three large cities there are about a dozen towns scattered around the country whose popula— tion varies from 20,000 to 50,000 or more. They possess the same characteristics of the cities, but on a smaller 37 scale.§ These cities and towns constitute the main outlets for most of the agricultural produce of the countryside and the farms. They also provide the market places where most of the agricultural production can be sold. Seeds, fertilizer, tools, and machinery and equipment can also be bought in these towns. The Villagers In spite of the recent trend toward urbanization, two thirds of all Iraqis still live in rural areas. Agriculture is the main business of the Iraqi people and will remain so for many years to come. The villages, which may number in the thousands, range from 200 to 2000 or more in population. Life in the village is unlike life in the city or town. Long neglect and the persist- ing poverty of the people's life there has remained unchanged for the last two thousand years. Any observer would notice a marked difference between village life and life in urban areas. Due to this difference there is hostility in the villages toward the town or city dwellers. Almost every village has one or two coffeehouses where the villagers-«farmers, merchants, and visitors—- may meet. The coffeehouse serves as a place where contracts are signed and agreements are reached. Every coffeehouse has a radio and many of them now have tele- vision sets. There is a great potential opportunity for 38 the coffeehouses to serve the farmers, the villagers, in a more effective way. They could be utilized as places where the dissemination of knowledge can take place. Through the use of radio and television many educational programs can reach the farmer so that they may improve their methods of production. Or, the coffeehouse can be used as a place where extension workers can demonstrate and discuss with the farmers various problems pertaining to better methods of pro- duction, new tools, and marketing problems. The Desert Nomads and Marsh Dwellers There is a third group of people in the country; these are the Bedouins whose way of life makes them distinctive, different from both the urban and the rural population. They are mobile tribes. Political bound— aries mean little to them. They come and go across borders just as they please, following the rain and green pastures. Their economy is based on raising animals such as sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, and above all camels. Their need for water makes them settle near wells or rivers, especially during the hot summer months. There is no exact official count of these people but it is estimated that they number nearly half a million. Due to their continuous movement between Iraq and the neighboring countries it is difficult to take an 39 accurate census. "The life of the Bedouins is hard and simple. They subsist upon camel's milk and dates most of the year. Bread and rice are luxuries and meat is enjoyed only when an animal dies or is killed in honor of guests."10 Several government attempts have failed in past to get the Bedouins to settle permanently on agricul— tural land. The failure was partially due to the reluctance of the Bedouins themselves to accept and be part of a system where their freedom would be restricted. Another reason was that the government, in the past, did not take the matter too seriously for fear that the nomads would pose a threat to internal security as well as to the near—by agricultural development and irriga- tion schemes.ll More attention is urgently needed regarding a solution for the problem. The nomad's economy should be considered part of the national wealth. Their ability to turn the scanty resource of the desert into meat, milk, and wool is something which should be the subject of further consideration. loIbid. , p. 17. lJOften nomad tribes invade one another, for food and plunder; this is especially true after the dry season. 40 Again, there is no accurate figure for the number of people who live in Iraq's southern marshes. However, it is estimated that they represent about 3 to 5 per- cent of the total population. These people live in one of the most unfriendly environments of the world. The marshes are jungle-like areas, covered with wild trees and numerous islands. The people live in a very primi- tive manner; for their livelihood they depend on hunting, fishing, and matmaking. They also raise water buffalo whose milk is important in making cream. Some water buffalo are raised for sale to the local merchants. A good number of these marshes grow rice for their own immediate use and for the market in nearby towns. Technology does not play a significant role in the life of these people. Their tools are simple and so are their needs and desires. Economic Aspects Market and Transportation Mechanization and marketing are interrelated systems; the first cannot succeed without the second. Mechanization increases agricultural productivity, which in turn demands an outlet-~a market for those products. Mechanization would be self—defeating without adequate channels for getting the crOps to market. Many perishable commodities produced in northern Iraq 41 never reach markets because of inadequate transportation systems and marketing facilities. In subsistence agriculture markets are not needed as strongly as they are for a commercial cash crop. In subsistence economies only a small portion of the food reaches the market; only perhaps the local market where farmers sell their surpluses for cash or barter them in kind. In large scale cash cereal crops and date crops with which we are concerned, the size of the input demands marketing on a similar scale. The more mechan- ized and efficient the production is, the more sophis— ticated the marketing must be. Developing adequate marketing facilities in Iraq demands great effort on the part of the public and the private sectors. The govern— ment has the responsibility for providing roads and other essential transportation facilities, so the prod— uct may reach its destination. Most means of transpor— tation in Iraq, highways, railroads, and ship, and so on, are government owned. The private sector must build storage facilities and provide adequate management of the marketing of the privately owned crops. United Nations figures estimate that 35 percent of all grain in the U. S. is lost before it reaches the consumer.12 Marketing facilities, therefore, are of great importance. 2President's Science Advisory Committee, op. cit., p. 526. 42 Some of the reasons for the loss are lack of storage facili- ties, lack of refrigeration, and rats. It is sad to see food meant for humans eaten by insects or rats, or to see it decompose for lack of adequate storage, the construction of which is well within human capabilities. Although there are some storage facilities in Basra, they cannot contain all the barley which is exported. Storage is badly lacking for dates, which are often left in the sun and rain and so are ruined. Thus more adequate provisions must be made for these two main commercial crops. Warriner and Schultz agree that the farmers are responsive to prices; but Miss Warriner describes the high cost of marketing in Iraq which tends to reduce the profit a farmer might make from higher prices. In effect the high cost of marketing destroys the incentive which might result fromresult from higher prices at least for farmers who are some distance from urban centers. She describes the rough roads which are the only link to town. ". . . small donkeys carrying farm produce teeter to the towns, occasionally killed by lorries loaded with imported canned goods, which roar up the good new main roads from the ports to the capital."13 The result is that prices of imported foods are lower than prices of Iraqui produced food. The two most urgent needs for improving the market— ing situation in Iraq are storage and linking roads. The 13Doreen Warriner, Land Reform in Principle and Practice, p. 98. 43 producing of more foods through technology and mechanization will result in no benefit to the farmer without these. In Iraq there are several modes of transportation: railroads (at present there are about 1635 kilometers of track throughout the country); roads, suitable for motor vehicles, of which there are about 4,271 kilometers;Li and dirt roads and paths, which are very common. These are often impassable during the rainy season. It may be more difficult to transport crops the ten miles to the nearest railroad track than it is to transport it——by rail-~the i remaining 500 miles to market. Many of these "roads" are in fact so narrow that only people and animals can use them; they are impassable to tractors, and trucks. Several benefits would result from good roads. They would help lower the cost of the product, increase the mobility of the landmbound peasant, enable exten— sion workers to reach distant farms and villages and support mechanization programs in these remote areas. There are several examples of the essential role of transportation to mechanization programs and ulti- mately to crop production. A pump may fail at a crucial time during the summer in a distant village. If the farmer must spend days traveling to the city for spare parts or must wait for a repairman to make the journey to him, the crop may die for lack of water. Or, l4Brittanica Book of the Year, 1970, p. 439. 44 heavy machinery may be shared among several villagers; if roads and bridges are unreliable, the machinery may not be available when it is needed. Road-building should be accomplished by the government. The farmers are not capable of this job which properly belongs to the public sector. The govern- ment should make a survey of the needed roads which would link the farms to one another. These roads need not be expensive. While Iraq does not need to be concerned about i the effects of cold weather on their roads, the country does face severe problems from the summer sun. Perish- able products will not survive long in the intense heat, and must reach their market quickly. Another means of transportation is private trucking, which does most of the short—haul shipping. These trucks are owned by private owners, producers, and wholesale buyers. These haul produce from the farm to the countryside meeting-point for reshipment. Since the government imposes a 200 per cent tariff on trucks, this high expense is met by the private truckers but passed on to the farmer and the consumer. The high cost of shipping sometimes forced farmers to leave produce-~for instance melons, which do not command a high price--to perish in the fields. At the present time there are no refrigerated transPortation facilities, either by truck or by railroad, 45 a fact which makes transportation of agricultural prod- ucts susceptible to spoilage because of the intense heat. For instance, the cereal crops will spoil; and shipments of seed will not germinate if left too long in a truck or railroad car. Speed is an important factor in the Iraqi climate. Increasing production through mechanization would be futile if the outlet remains slow and expensive. Agrarian Reform To some people land reforms means only a redis- tribution of the land; in reality it is not so simple as that. True agrarian reform lies not in the revolu— tionary redistribution of land but in the evolutionary process by which people find security on the land. It involves not merely the cravings of land-hungry people, but the whole complex problem of rural insecurity. We are concerned here mainly with agrarian reform as a social process where man-land relationships can be enhanced to advance the life of the rural people, the farmer and his family. Inequality of ownership of the land has long 16 been an acute problem in Iraq. The historical background 1 5Robert W. Hudgens, "Essentials of Land Reform," International Development Review, 1961-2. 16Fuad Baali, "Relationships of Man to the Land in Iraq," Rural Sociologz, Vol. 31 (1966). 46 of the present problem begins in the time of Hammurabi (2124-2091 BC). At that time the monarchy, the upper class, and the merchants owned most of the land. Some- what later, in the time of the Kassite kings (1760-1185) important chiefs received large gifts of land if they supported the rulers. In allihose early period slaves were usually the actual cultivators of the soil. Slaves were in fact a large fraction of the population. In the Islamic era there was also a great number of large land holdings. Caliphs gave feudal estates to civil and military officers as payment for their services. The result was not only a feudal system but the great poverty of the agricultural population, who were for all practical purposes forced laborers. In the Turkish occupation (1534-1917) tribal ownership was common and the Turks often clashed bloodily with the Iraqi tribes over land use. Reforms attempted by the Ottoman government were usually too violent to succeed. The British, during their occupation and later the Mandate (1917-1920; 1920-1932) took no real steps toward agrarian reform. When the new state of Iraq began in 1921 the officials discovered that many records of land ownership had been destroyed or lost. Land settlement laws were enacted entitling the government to keep records of all ownership and to settle disputes over property rights. However, for the following reasons, 47 Cooperatives Cooperatives were tried in Iraq before the land reform, but were not successful; for one thing, the farmers had no interest or incentives, for they were only hired laborers. The shaikhs did not need coopera- tives, since they were very large landholders with plenty of money and land.28 Since the land reforms there have been a few spontaneously organized cooperatives in the prairy provinces, including Mosul; but the concept is still’ alien to the irrigation zone. There seems to be little inducement for farmers there to join. During the early years of land reform the farmers were for the most part only temporary tenants (they had to prove their worth as farmers for 10 years before acquiring title to the land) and so they did not qualify as members of a coop— erative. In addition there was no credit extended to them and no trained organizational help; there was not even equipment available. Some of these problems have been solved; for instance, sufficient funds are available today; organi- zers and supervisors are receiving training from an FAO expert, and the 1964 amendment to the Land Reform Law allows temporary tenants to form cooperative societies. l7Warriner, o . cit., pp. 97—99. 48 the heads of the tribes rather than the common people benefited from this law. 1. For a long time, the tribes exercised customary rights of collective ownership. The landholding entity was the tribe as a whole. 2. Law Number 50 of 1932 (amended by Law Number 29 of 1938) stipulated that all people must register the titles or deeds to the land they possessed. 3. The tribesmen were not fully informed with respect to this law, and their Chieftains thus found an opportunity to register in their own names the tribal lands. 4. The government was aware of what was going on; but instead of compelling the shaikhs to register the lands in the names of the tribes, and in order to strengthen its own power, it encouraged them in their illegal procedures. 5. As a result of this, relationships between the shaikhs and the tribesmen became one between landlords and share tenants, and the power of the large landowners reached unprecedented heights.l8 Size of Holdings Aside from the desert area, the area of Iraq is 241,913 square kilometers, of which one third is arable. It remains true, as it has for thousands of years, that agricultural holdings are owned and controlled by a relatively small number of owners. In 1958-9 less than 2 percent of the total agricultural holdings included 68 percent of the land; and conversely 86 percent of the lBBaali, QB. cit., p. 173. 49 holdings comprised less than 11 percent of the total area.19 There are substantial differences, however, from one province to another and from one region to another. The largest holdings are found in Kut and Amarah,20 perhaps because these provinces include much flat land, and because their population is of a single culture. In the Southern region21 is found the most extreme example of this disproportion, for there 90 percent of the land is in the hands of less than 5 per- cent of the landowners. The North, more fragmented geographically and ethnically, has a more equal distri- bution, although even here almost 45 percent of the land is controlled by 3 percent of the people. Land Tenure Prior to 1958 The laws of 1933 gave the landlords great authority over the peasants, even including the right to keep them on the land as long as they were indebted. In effect the fellahin were not tenants but laborers, receiving a small proportion of the crop production in place of a wage. The result of these oppressive conditions was a 19 . Ibid., p. 174. 20 Hashim Al- -Dabbagh, Etudes Statistiques Sur Le Developpement Economique de LTRak, p. 121. 1 Baali, loc. cit. 50 heavy emigration to the cities, as well as occasional violent outbursts in the countryside.22 The Dujailah settlement, initiated in 1945, was one relatively successful attempt to improve conditions. In spite of handicaps and some failures, the settlement overcame tribal differences among its members, salinity of soil, lack of adequate drainage facilities, and failure of the c00perative to become a "successful experi— "23 Nevertheless its successes ment in agrarian reform. and those of the few projects modeled after it were available only to a few of the agricultural population. Land Tenure Since the 1958 Revolution The Land Reform Act of 1958 had two principal aims; first, greater justice for the peasant; secondly, a means of improving the quality of agricultural produc- tion. The ignorance of the peasants and the lack of interest on the part of the landowners had previously resulted in agricultural production of poor quality. The Act reallocated any land holdings in excess of 1000 donums of irrigated land or 2000 donums of rain-fed land. However, "bureaucratic confusion, the uncertain- ties of the political climate, landlord indifference and poor weather combined to reduce agricultural 22Ibid., p. 178. 23Ibid. 51 production by about 25 percent during the years 1959- 1961."24 Production of grain fell 17 percent, rice declined 20 percent, and cotton over 16 percent.25 The most important reason for this decline in production is uncertainty over ownership of land, for the people naturally hesitate to cultivate when they are not sure they are legally entitled to the crop. In addition, since the Iraqi soil becomes salty so soon when adequate drainage is not maintained, and the pumps have not been regularly operated because of uncertainty over owner- ship, some cultivable land has been lost. In spite of efforts at reallocating the land, the ownership of most of it has not yet been settled. It has been estimated that only about one fourth of the land which the govern- ment appropriated was actually redistributed to smaller owners.26. In effect, it has remained under the control 27 of the former land owners. Other factors contributing to the failure are the ever—present village distrust of 24 Kathleen Langley, "Iraq: Some Aspects of the Ecopggic Scene," Middle East Journal, Vol. 18 (1964), p. O 5Warriner, op. cit., p. 94. 26 . n - John S1mmons, Agricultural Development in Iraq," Middle East Journal, Vol. 19 (Spring, 1965), p. 131. 27Langley, op. cit. 52 the government, together with traditional resistance to innovation; but in spite of all this the government continues its efforts toward the goal. Work continues, for instance, on drainage systems, and efforts are being made to establish workable agricultural cooperatives. The main provisions of the law are as follows: 1. The expropriation of privately owned land holdings in excess of 1000 donums (250 hectares or 625 acres) of irrigated land, or 2000 donums of rainfed land (Clause 1) Requisitioning was to begin with the largest properties. 2. The distribution of expropriated land to occupying and other cultivators in order of priority, in units ranging from 30 to 60 donums (7.5—15 hectares, 18—36 acres) of irrigated land and from 60 to 120 donums of rainfed land. 3. Payment of compensation based on assessed land values to expropriated landowners; and payment by the new owners to the full purchase price of the holding over 20 (in 1961 amended to 40) years. 4. Formation of co-operative societies, with compulsory membership for recipients of land, and wide functions, including mar— keting of produce, supply of farm equip- ment, and organization of agricultural production. 5. Regulation of tenancy relations between landowners and cultivators on land pending expropriation or not subject to expro— priation. Eviction of cultivators was prohibited, and the proportions in which produce was to be divided between land- owners and cultivators were prescribed, according to their respective shares in costs. Before land reform, when holdings were large and labor plentiful, the land—owners mechanized only to a 53 limited extent. Now that Iraq is moving toward smaller holdings, the large supply of landless peasants willing to work for one landlord is disappearing, and the aid of mechanization is increasingly necessary. Holdings are limited to 30 acres of irrigated land and 60 acres of rain-fed land; holdings this size cannot be cultivated by one man unless he has some form of mechanization. Since the peasant is a new land—owner, this should pro— vide incentive to improve the productivity of the holding and so increase the owner's lot in life. The machinery must somehow be made available at a reasonable expense to these poor farmers who are the new owners; perhaps the cooperative owning and sharing of machines would provide some answer. The first stage of mechanization will be the full utilization of animal power, for this is quite readily available to small land owners; when this has been effec- tively used and productivity has increased, the farmers will be more capable of buying engine—powered equipment. The hire—and—rental service of the government will help the farmer through the initial stage of mechanization, since the equipment is made available at reasonable costs. Cooperatives Cooperatives were tried in Iraq before the land reform, but were not successful; for one thing, the farmers had no interest or incentives, for they were only hired laborers. The shaikhs did not need cooperatives 54 since they were very large landholders with plenty of money and land.28 Since the land reforms there have been a few spontaneously organized cooperatives in the prairy pro- vinces, including Mosul; but the concept is still alien to the irrigation zone. There seems to be little inducement for farmers there to join. During the early years of land reform the farmers were for the most part only temporary tenants (they had to prove their worth as farmers for 10 years before acquiring title to the land) and so they did i not qualify as members of a cooperative. In addition there was no credit extended to them and no trained organizational help; there was not even equipment available. Some of these problems have been solved. Sufficient funds are available today; organizers and supervisors are receiving training from an FAO expert, and the 1964 amendment to the Land Reform Law allows temporary tenants to form coopera- tive societies. In 1966 there were 339 cocieties in existence. However, few of these societies have undertaken marketing; most emphasize production aids, and are doing good work in this area. The government employees, and each society has about 2400 acres of land. The supervisors are in fact functioning as project manager, they invest new capital and supervise its use, operate demonstration plots introducing crop rotation, new crops, and implements and 2 8Warriner, op. cit., pp. 97—99. 55 machinery. The supervisors live in the villages, and are supplied with a house, and a bicycle; they are paid about 30 ID ($84) each month. This salary is too low to encourage men of high qualifications to undertake these rather lonely jobs. Their salary should be closer to a professional scale. Iraq, like much of the world, is suffering a high rate of inflation, and this makes it even more important to pay these men adequately. Another shortcoming of the cooperatives as they exist today is that while they are encouraging the use of modern imported machinery and equipment, they make no mention of improvements in animal—powered machinery. The government should encourage the efficient use of animal—drawn implements; these are cheaper, more available, and more familiar to these new land owners. Finally, "the societies are not cooperative societies in the ordinary sense of the word. They are agencies to induce peasants to cooperate on lines laid down from above."29 This may be necessary as these cooperatives begin, but there is a definite danger involved. A cooperative society is ideally an indepen— dent unit which manages its own affairs, its heads and managers should be chosen from among the farmers. As ‘time passes, the role of the government should diminish, 29Ibid., p. 98. 56 and the local units encouraged to make more and more of their own decisions. The government should limit itself to extending credit and other facilities which the farmer might need. There is no point to agrarian reform if the skaikh's role as decision—maker is merely replaced by the government in the same role. In the final analy- sis, each farmer is capable of running his own affairs; he should not be merely the recipient of orders from above. "Crucial decisions which affect both the amount and efficiency of agricultural production can be made gpgy by individual farm operators."29 A final recommendation: Simmons notes that in many places anthropologists and psychologists team up with organizers of cooperatives. This has not been done in Iraq, but would have obvious advantages. President's Science Advisory Committee op. cit. p. 506, emphasis added. ' ' 31Simmons, op. cit., p. 66. CHAPTER IV DATE MECHANIZATION——DATE PALM CULTURE IN IRAQ Introduction Iraq is one of the oldest date-growing countries in the world; dates are considered an important food crop there, and upon it most of the people depend for their livelihood. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) probably grew in Babylon (now Iraq) as long ago as 6000 years before Christ; it is the leaves of this tree which figure in the Biblical account of Palm Sunday. Accord- ing to the Koran, Mary the mother of Christ, had dates for her first meal after the birth of the Child. The date industry plays a vital role in the economy of Iraq. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) there are approximately 30 million palm trees in the country now, and Iraq is regarded as the number one exporter of dates in the world. 57 58 Table l compiled from FAO's trade yearbook, 1966, shows the average date export per country for the six years 1960 to 1965. TABLE l.—-Date Exports 1960-65. Exporting Country 1000 tons % Iraq 261 82 Iran 26 8 Algeria 21 7 Saudi Arabia 3 1 Tunisia 3 l UOSOAO 3 1 Total 317 100 Trees are grown in the central and southern regions of the country; they reach a height of almost 100 feet, with a nearly straight trunk. The average height of the tree is 40 to 60 feet. There are no records establishing the average life span of the date tree, but it is believed that it may live as long as 150 years. The tree takes eight to twelve years to reach sufficient maturity to bear fruit, depending on 59 the amount of care it receives. The palm tree is made up of three main parts: the root system, the trunk, and the head (or crown) which contains branches and fruit. The diameter of the truck varies from one and one half ‘ feet to two and a half feet. Iraq is endowed with a natural environment con- ducive to the growing of date palms. There is no coun- try which can compete with Iraq in the world date market. A look at the most productive date-growing area in the world will explain why this is so. Along l Shatt-Al Arab (the river formed by the union of the Tigris and the Euphrates) about half of the Iraqi date farms are found. There is a hundred mile stretch of date orchards on both banks of the rivers, and there is nearly a jungle of the trees. These gardens are watered twice daily by the actions of the tides of the Persian Gulf. The water backs from the river through channels dug for this purpose by the date growers them- selves. The only expense involved in this assured irrigation system is the labor required to clear the channels at intervals. In addition this concentration of date palms is close to the port of Basra, and so ships can be reached at minimal cost. From this it is clear that no other country possesses such great natural advantages for commercial date production. The other 50 percent of the trees are found in several other locations, including the following districts: 60 Baghdad, Hilla, Kerbala, Deywanih, Samaw, Baquba, and other places. There are over 200 named varieties of dates in Iraq, but four of these varieties are the most popular and comprise about 95 percent of the dates produced in this country. These varieties are Zehdi, Kastawy, Halawy, and Khadray. Uses of the Date Palm The palm tree serves many purposes. Aside from the food crop it bears, its trunk is used in construc- tion; in housing as support for the roof, and in the construction of overpasses over narrow channels, streams, and ditches. The green parts of the fronds are used in the making of household furniture in peasant dwell— ings; beds, chairs, doors, baskets, animal cages, and many other uses. The dry fronds and leaves are used as fuel. The leaves can also be plowed into the soil as a source of organic matter. The leaves are also wrapped around young trees when they have first been separated from the parent tree, to protect them from excessive heat and cold. as: The date consists of the edible part and the pit, or stone. The fresh fruit may be sold at a local market, but onwa commercial basis the fruit must be cured (either on the tree or after picking). Some of the fruit 61 is boiled and its juice extracted to.form a syrup about the consistency of honey. The remaining dry matter is used as feed for animals. The fruit contains many nutrients. The young tree, from 5 to 15 years old, develops from 3 to 8 offshoots which grow from the trunk of the parent just above the soil line. These offshoots are the main source of new trees. Date palms can also be grown from seed, but the process takes a much longer time. Cultural Practices Removal of the Shoots The general practice is to remove the shoots from the parent stem as soon as they are ready for planting, that is, when they are 3 to 4 years old. In many cases the growers do not remove these shoots because of the extensive labor required. This is especin ally true when the growers has neither room enough on his own land for more trees, nor a buyer for extra shoots. If, on the contrary, there is'a market, it is still possible that the market value does not match the cost of the labor required. However, most growers are in agreement that the early removal of the shoots is necessary for full production from the parent tree, for the shoots compete for nutrients which are needed by the parent. 62 .Hmmnau uooammmo pmmodonm ¢::.H mmouHm coop m5. — 7 1 a {I‘Vh 0 «ix—.2 “4““ \~ " 3 .o., . A '» ~ \{e‘g~“\ h- A.’ r —. / ‘4‘ I 63/} i \n. I u'! 5 53‘s. 97'?" , , .. _) M . ~.“‘ «fig. f _“ 1 '4: ‘ u ‘ “ F. -. ‘ 5‘."— -;'_ AWE! figs-’3 .— a H t .M" ' climbs the tree with the aid of a Tebalia, and carries a basket attached to a rope. 74 is the most expensive operation in date production. It is estimated that the total cost of harvest is equal to one- half of the total value of the crop. Almost the entire date harvest in Iraq is accomplished by simple hand tools: the sickle, the chillab, and the tebalia (a harnes to aid the climber climb tall palm trees). Short trees can be climbed without the aid of a tebalia (see Figure 2). Dates ripen in July, but are left on the tree to cure until September. However, a fresh fruit can be collected any time from June until September and sold for immediate consumption. With the aid of the tebalia the climber ascends the tree, and with the sickle or chillab cuts off the stalks of the bunches. These are placed in a tray or basket and lowered to the ground. This is a very slow method and so frequently the branches are cut and simply thrown to the ground, where they land on mats. In spite of the mats, some of the dates scatter or land away from the mats and must be gathered. Women and children are employed to collect these scattered dates. The dates often pick up dirt from the bushes or streams in which they land. When the dates are piled on the ground, the moist dates are separated from the dry ones and only the dry ones are shipped to the storage area. Transportation is almost entirely by means of animals. The lack of good roads for trucks, and the presence of streams crossed only by narrow bridges makes the use of trucks impossible. 75 Date Harvest Harvesting dates according to the old method described above is a costly, slow process. The shortage of palm tree climbers is worsening, and frequently dates remain longer on the trees than they should, because harvesting labor is not immediately available. The dates are damaged if they remain on the tree when the fall rains begin. The Iraqi date industry will probably cease to be profitable if it continues to depend on this old harvesting method. Therefore, mechanized harvesting offers great merit and could save one of the most important and certainly the largest agricultural induSH tries in the country. The date growers of Southern California's Coachella Valley faced a similar problem just a few years ago. The survival of their multi-million dollar industry was threatened by the ban on Mexican farm labor. The entire valley depended on the skills of these“migrant workers in harvesting, pruning, pollination, and so on, of the 60 foot palms. The labor shortage induced one company (International Harvester), in cooperation with Cal-Dates, to develop what is called the Loadstar Harvesting Machine. In California the traditional method of harvesting had involved carrying a 30 or 40 foot extension ladder from tree to tree. Once at the top of the tree the bracero was supported by a harness somewhat similar to the one still used in Iraq; and, as in Iraq, dates were lowered by basket to the ground. fl‘lllll _ Zortwom. $.5Q 3 kmchm :3 UZDIN. 9:1- :ca ointmxl V.N>:p2mw (HQ uiqzttnimx ’ .umumw>um= sumo oomomoum 039:1.m ousmdm 77 International Harvester solved the labor shortage by deVeloping a platform carried by a four-wheel truck. The truck can cross the irrigation ditches and Other obstacles with no problem. From the platform there extends telescopic booms which carry large wire baskets to the crown of the tree. As illustrated in the accompanying diagram (a modified version of the one used in California) the hydraulic-controlled baskets are directed from the truck. They go from bunch to bunch, and the ripe dates are collected in the basket. The bottom of the basket opens (there are small shelves on which the men can securely stand) and the dates are dropped from a safe height into the truck. In the California model these trucks contain shakers which immediately separate the dates from the strands on which they cluster. Many benefits would accrue from the use of such machines in Iraq. These include: 1. Reduced cost of harvesting; 2. Dates of better quality, since damage from sunburn, bruises, mishandling, birds, etc. would be avoided (a man could easily cover the dates when necessary); 3. Greater profit through improved quality and higher efficiency; 4. Fewer accidents and deaths due to falls (this factor naturally causes a shortage of labor today); 5. Easier pruning, thinning, and removal of dead leaves; 6. Elimination of the uncertainty of relying on transient labor. 78 This approach requires less labor and resulted in a seven- fold increase in production per man in the California gardens.2 Transplanting Date Palms An important piece of research was carried out by R. H. Nocton3 some six years ago. In essence, it involved the transplantation, with 100 percent success, of 87 mature date palms. These trees were from 10 to 21 meters tall and weighted from 14 to 38 tons. The successful and economic accomplishment of this imposing task has important implications for Iraq. There are three areas where it has potential application, the first being the improvement of the climate in Baghdad. The city has doubled its size in the past years, and the great amounts of construction have meant the destruction of large numbers of trees.' The dif— ference in temperature and humidity-~or rather aridity—— in the city has been marked. Yet to grow trees to replace those which have been cut down takes at least 15 years, i.e., this is the growing period necessary before the trees provide shade and up to twice that length of time may be required for the tree to reach maturity. The reclamation of the trees now being destroyed would be a real asset to the city. 2Harry Conner, "Long Reach for a Date," International Harvester World, I (1969), p. 7. 3Nocton, op. cit., p. 72. 79 The second potential area of application is to remove the trees which are now being lost because of saline soils. Large numbers of these are found in the tidal irrigated parts of Southern Iraq, particularly away from the river.4 Effective drainage of the area is very expensive, and if an economical means of trans- planting can be developed, considerable savings would be affected. A third area of application is the reclamation of trees which have fallen during heavy windstorms. High winds are common in Iraq, and at present, trees which are uprooted during the storms are left to die. Keeping in mind the thirty years wait until a replace- ment reaches maturity, substantial savings would result from the replanting of these trees. The most important potential benefit is the beginning of "instant orchards" with trees from any of these sources-—city, saline areas, or victims of wind. When these orchards are underplanted with the citrus trees which flourish there, the value of the annual produce from an orchard of about 60 palms would within a year or two be about $1300 (500 x 2.4). According to Nocton, this easily makes the transplanting an economic undertaking. He does advise, however, government help. He adds that capital is available for shortterm projects 4Ibid., p. 79. 80 such as this, where it is not readily available for projects--such as new orchards--which would take 20 or 25 years even to begin producing. ' As he carried out the task, it involved mostly only machinery presently available in Baghdad. The steps were as follows: excavators were used to dig a trench around each tree; from this trench hand labor dug inward until a cone shaped bowl of earth had been formed, containing the entire root system. Steel plates were secured around the cone, hawsers passed under it, and the whole (weighing from 14 to 38 tons) was lifted by mobile crane (Le Tourneau) and placed on a Low Loader. At the transplanting site which had been chosen for its soil type, moisture content, the mobile crane lifted the tree from the Low Loader and placed it in its new position. Later tree alignment was accomplished with a mechanical winch.l At various stages in the operation mechanical spraying of a water-dispersible plastic was done to control trans~ piration. During the first three months following transplanting, intensive irrigation was accomplished by overhead sprinkling equipment obtained from British Overhead Irrigation43Ltdv He adds, however, that speCialized equipment for the moving of large trees has been developed in America (Greenshade, Ltd.) and in Britain (Tree Movers, Ltd). He 81 apparently feels that though the trees can be moved using the general equipment described, on a long term basis investment in the special equipment would be wise. Several observations follow: first the trans- planted trees must be carefully and scientifically super- vised during their first three months. The availability of this kind of technical labor must be checked before transplanting could be done on a large scale. Secondly, it is possible that the cost of labor involved in the manual digging could be saved if it proved feasible to remove the trees directly from water-drenched soil. This should be investigated. It is apparent that these concluding words of the author have real potential significance for Iraq: "It is an economic proposition to transplant mature date palms and guarantee a 90 percent survival rate, providing special tree-moving equipment is used and that a scientific approach is made to the question of controlling transpiration and root growth."5 Pgtential Use of Date Seeds for Animal Feed The date industry in Iraq suffers from lack of profit, because overhead costs are so high. A possible 51bid., p. 721. 82 means of increasing profits would be the utilization of date stones, which are presently discarded. A good portion of the dates now exported are pitted, and these centrally collected pits have never been put to use. Another potential source of pits is the date oil indus- try, which extracts oil and discards the remaining dry matter, which of course, includes pits. At the present time barley is heavily used as animal feed, but recent research has indicated that crushed date pits could be used as a component of feed and reduce the amount of barley needed. Harry6 reported as far back as 1936 that they could be used in feeding cattle. El Shazley7 has experimented with their use in feeding sheep, and Afifi8 has successfully used date stones in chick rations. All three livestock are raised in large numbers, though chiefly for local consumption. Since barley could be exported as a bash crop, its partial replacement by date seeds would aid the economy of the country. 6R. G. Harry, "Some Analytical Characteristics of Date Stone Oil," Analyst, 61 (London, 1936), 403. 7K. El-Shazly, E. A. Ibrahim, and H. A. Karam, "Nutritional Value of Date Seeds for Sheep," Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 22 (1963), p. 894. 8M. Afifi, F. Abdeu, and M. El-Sayed, "Date Stone Meal as a Substitute for Barley in Chick Rations," Tropical Agriculture, Vol. 43 (April, 1966), p. 167. 83 In Iraq there are thirty million date trees; if each Of these bears about 100 pounds of dates annually, the annual date harvest approaches three billion pounds. One percent of this, or 30 million pounds9 are pits; thus there is a potential for up to 15,000 tons of pits to be used each year for feed. One of the reasons date pits are not now used for feed is the difficulty in crushing them, for they are extremely hard. They are hard to grind in ordinary hammer mills, and at present are usually crushed in a disc crusher, and then powdered with grain—grinding stone mills.lo Studies should be made comparing the cost of crushing with potential profit from the sale of the crushed pits as feed. Concluding Observations Iraq is the largest date—producing country; it has a near monopoly on the fruit because of its unique natural advantages for their culture. These advantages should be fully exploited for the benefit of the country. Without improvements this multi-billion dollar industry will suffer. One of its main problems is the shortage of labor, which is required at every stage of date grow- ing, from severing the offshoot from the parent, to 9El-Shazly, op. cit., p. 894. 10El-Shazly, op. cit., p. 894. 84 pollination, to supporting too~heavy bunches, to pruning, to harvesting, and irrigation. Special trips up the height of the tree must also be made at times to protect the fruit from rain and insects. Date growers are finding it more and more difficult to make a profit from this important crop, because of the shortage of labor. A second reason for mechanization is improved quality fruit, since bruises and other damage would be prevented. Mechanization would make it not only cheaper to reach the top of the tree, but safer. Further profit might be made from using crushed date pits as animal feed. This and the feasibility of large-scale transplanting of mature palms presently lost to urbanization and salinization should be studied. CHAPTER V HAND AND ANIMAL POWER SYSTEM: BARLEY AND WHEAT seer Wheat is the most important small-grain crop in Iraq, being exceeded only by barley in acreage. Wheat is an important food crop in the country. It is consumed on a very large scale mainly for human consumption. Wheat is grown as indicated mainly in the north part of the country depending on the rainfall for its water. The origin of wheat is not known. But the Bablonians and Summatic grew wheat in Mesopotamia 5000 years ago. It is believed that wheat was originated in Southeast Asia. According to De Condolle, wheat once grew wild in the Euphrates and Tigris Valleys and from there spread to the remainder of the world. The most common variety grown in Iraq is the Kurddia and Ajeba, which is similar to the hard red winter and the soft red winter that are grown in the United States. The Mexican improved wheat has been lately introduced and according to the latest report issued by the Agrarian it has met with success. Table 1 shows the production of wheat for 1950-1970. 85 86 TABLE 2.--Area, Production, and Yield Per Donum of Wheat in Iraq, 1950-1970. Year Area in Production in Yield in Donums Metric Tons Kg./donum 1950 380,000 520,000 137 1955 570,000 553,300 112 1960 5,084,625 591,519 116 1965 6,813,000 1,006,000 148 1966 6,947,000 826,000 119 1967 5,916,900 10,111,500 170 1968 6,650,700 . 1,512,200 227 1969 8,355,921 1,188,560 124 1970 6,980,558 1,228,477 175 Source: Quarterly Report, Ministry of Agrarian Reform, Iraq. General Directorate of Planning, Dept. of Statistics, March, 1971, p. 14. (Arabic language.) Wheat is a winter crop and is usually seeded in late October or in the early part of November. When wheat is planted later than the normal date for locality 10%to 15% more seeds are advised to be sown. The cultivation methods employed for wheat are similar to those applied for barley. In the central and southern region wheat is to be irrigated lighter and more frequently than barley. Wheat is less tolerant to salina- tion than barley thus barley is usually given a favored place in the rotation system. 87 ,. Barley Barley has been known for a thousand years in Iraq, and was probably cultivated before recorded history. The Assyrians and the Babylonians grew barley on both banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. It has continued to be an important crop through the centuries. Table 2 shows the production of barley for 1950-1970. TABLE 3.--Area, Production, and Yield Per Donum of Barley in Iraq, 1950-1970. Year Area in Production in Yield in Donums Metric Tons Kg./donum 1950 4,000,000 801,000 200 1955 4,819,000 757,000 156 1960 4,151,284 803,807 194 1965 4,389,000 806,000 184 1966 4,677,000 832,000 178 1967 2,990,300 710,300 237 1968 3,502,400 973,700 278 1969 4,872,038 1,250,142 257 1970 2,646,618 675,999 255 Source: Quarterly Report, Ministry of Agrarian Reform, Iraq. General Directorate of Planning, Dept. of Statistics, March, 1971, p. 14. (Arabic language.) Barley is mainly used as fodder and as a cash crop for export. Barley is also used for bread in rural areas, and for the making of beer in urban areas. As 88 .shown in Fig. 1, the country has produced 931,000 metric tons in 1968; this represents a significant increase from the previous year when 860,000 metric tons were grown. Barley is a winter crop, grown mainly in the central and southern regions of the country. Specifi— cally, it is grown in the lower Tigris valley around the Kut district; in the central Euphrates zone from Nasiriyah to Samawah; and around Mosul, Irbil, and Kirkuk. Although wheat sells for twice as much as barley, farmers still prefer barley because of its tolerance of aridity and soil salinity, and because of its relatively short growing season and its high resistance to pests and diseases. These reasons are especially persuasive in the central regions where salinity, for example, is high, sometimes reaching pH 8.3. Hand Tools Tools are an integral part of any cultivation system, even in the traditional farming of Iraq. Hand tools play an important part in the Iraqi agriculture. Every farmer has some kind of tool to aid him in cultivation, harvesting, or general management of the farm. Although these tools may vary from one area to another, their principles are the same, and in the final analysis serve one purpose: to aid in tilling the land. For example, the blade of the spade of the southern region of Iraq is smaller than that of the spade of the central region 89 Almost all hand tools are manufactured locally. The long history of agriculture in the land of Mesopotamia has fostered the development of the art of blacksmithing; tools made there truly withstand the test of time. Un- fortunately these tools have not changed in design through the centuries; it is as if a resistance to change is built into them. Due to the scarcity and high cost of imported steel Iraqi tools are mainly made from scrap metal which has already lost its temper. It has become easy to break, quick to rust, and wears out quickly. Most of these tools, then, have a very short span of life. The farmer, therefore, has to take care not to place too great a load on his tools and at times he will do extra physical work himself rather than endanger his tools. A major step in the development of hand-tool manu- facturing in Iraq was the adoption of the tool—hardening system by many of the smiths. This has brought some relief to the farmer by making his simple tools last longer. The concept of steel grading or the scientific classification of metals is not fully understood by the local tool-makers. The majority of the tool blacksmiths own simple workshops with basic forges. It is interesting to note the total capital investment in the average shop in the opinion of the author very seldom exceeds $400. It cannot be expected that they will produce better quality tools with only cheap equipment available to them. In order to have better quality tools, major steps have to be 9O taken in the establishment of small factories preferably in the countryside where farmers could have ready access to the improved tools, which of course must be sold at a price they can afford. The improvement of hand tools will have a marked effect on agricultural productivity. Hand tool design is a complex process that may require a great deal of study and research to ensure products that are adapted to individual regions. It is indispensable that any change in the design of the present tools offer sub- stantial improvement. Without this the farmers will certainly refuse to buy them. Since at present the government is responsible for the import of all steel and other metals, the government must take measures to see that the proposed new handntool factories receive a steady flow of raw materials. Lumber is another item which is important in the production of hand tools. Most hand tools are made par— tially of wood; wood makes the tool lighter and easier to handle. Good quality wood must be incorporated in the improved hand tools. As traditional agriculture develops into modern mechanized farming, a new demand for specialized tools will be created. Stout gives a comprehensive list of the factors which must be considered in the designing of new tools and implements.1 The list is as follows: 1B. A. Stout, et al., Agricultural Mechanization in Equatorial Africa, Institute of International Agricul- ture, Research Report No. 6 (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1969), p. 2—165. 91 1. Adopt tools for efficient performance and steady work; 2. Minimize fatigue by improved balance and working conditions; 3. Reduce injury or wear to man or animal; 4. Keep weight low for easy transport; 5. Construct from local readily availabl materials; ° 6. Choose the most simple design appropriate to the job; 7. Design for specific tasks, and with only simple adjustments; 8. Require the least maintenance and prepara- tion for use; 9. Construct so that parts can fit together only one way; 10. Secure firm fastening between handle and blade; 11. Eliminate wherever possible the need for wrenches (spanners) or special tools for adjustment; 12. Make simple tool clamps with no nuts or pieces to lose; 13. Use self-locking pins, chained to frame for joining parts; 14. Design to accommodate high work loads caused by unusually dry or hard conditions (animal tool bars should be capable of pulls up to 454 kg); 15. Give careful attention to improving drawbar hitches.- Tools and Implements Used in Cereal Production Traditional tools are used by most Iraqi farmers. Most of these traditional tools are even used on the most mechanized modern farms, since they are common, have been used for centuries, and represent a kind of security to the farmers. These traditional tools are: 1. Breaker plow. This is made up of three parts: a beam, a plow share, and a handle. There are two kinds of breaker plows; one is made entirely of wood, the other has a metal-plated tip. The plow merely breaks 92 and lifts the soil, leaving an open furrow without turning the soil. 2. Harness. Second in importance; it is single yoke. 3. H23. This is used for digging, cutting bushes, and chopping wood. 4. Spade, The spade is used for hand-cultivating, cleaning irrigation ditches, and making small dikes around. irrigated field plots. It has two parts--the blade and the wooden handle--and has a foot rest. 5. Sickle. A curved steel blade ending in a point attached to a short handle, used primarily for reaping. It usually has small teeth along its blade. 6. Chillab. A larger sickle, but without teeth. 7. EQEE- Made of a wooden head and tines. One type has two tines and is used for handling grain sheaves; another with five or six tines for grading. Tillage In spite of controversies about tillage-~depth of cultivation, or whether to cultivate at all-tilling is still practiced in all cereal farms in Iraq. Stirring the soil by tillage tools offers the following advan- tages:3 2A. P. G. Poyck, Farm Studies in Iraq (Wageningen, Netherlands: H. Veenman N.V., 1962). 3Harold K. Wilson, Grain Crop§_(New York: McGraw- Hill, 1948). p. 72. 93 l. Improves the physical condition of the soil by increasing aeration and infiltration of water; this creates a more favorable environ- ment for germination and growth. 2. Prepares a feeding zone for roots, often by incorporating organic matter, manures, or crop residue with the soil. 3. Reduces weed population by killing weed roots. 4. Controls certain diseases and reduces insect damage. 5. Reduces wind and water erosion. The average Iraqi farmer may not be aware of all these advantages, but he does know that in order to have a crop, the soil must first be tilled. These farmers, as mentioned earlier, use only a few primitive tools; most of them do not have access to more modern equip- ment. Tillage operations are accomplished by hand- powered, animal—powered, or engine-powered operations. Hand Operations Many Iraqi farmers use this method. The most important hand tools are the hoe, the spade, and the shovel. The spade is the most commonly used. The man who works his land by himself uses a great deal of the short growing season for this preliminary opera- tion; a team of workers therefore is more efficient. The reason for the increased efficiency is that one of the men walks ahead clearing rocks, roots, and branches; this can even be done by a young boy. The plow then moves much faster than it could if the man who was driving it had to stop every few feet to remove obstacles. 94 The average depth of spade tilling is 8 to 12 inches. Hopfen writes that cultivating soil by hand to this depth requires about 500 man hours.4 The hoe is used to break up the hard soil or to dig out roots, rocks, etc. Women and children often use the hoe for clearing the fields of rocks and stones, preceding the tiller. The shovel is used for cleaning ditches or water channels. When a spade breaks, a shovel may be used instead until the farmer repairs or replaces his spade. Hand tillage is slow and expensive. Hired workers are not always available and may charge high prices. The average worker charges 600 file ($1.50) for a six hour work day. As mentioned elsewhere, the supply of labor is decreasing as men seek the less demanding jobs of the city. The shortage of labor is a problem not only during tillage, but all through the growing season and the harvest. The average hand-operator is mainly limited to the labor of his family and himself, which of course limits the amount of land he can till, no matter how large his holdings. Time limitation is another factor which hinders the increase of land under cultivation. All tillage must be completed before the rains start in early 4H. J. Hopfen, Farm Implements in Arid and Tropical Regions (Rome: Food and Ag. Org. of the U.S.), quoted in Stout, op. cit., p. 2-169. 95 October. If hand—operations are used not much land can be tilled at this time. Animal Power Operation The majority of farmers have some kind of animal power at their disposal--horses, mules, oxen, cows, and donkeys are the usual animals which are used as draft animals. Camels have never been used; perhaps this is because of the camel's difficult temperament, or perhaps because he is viewed by the Arabs as too noble for that kind of work. The camel is extensively used, however, for transportation and as pack animals. The author estimates that probably 80% of all cereal crops produced in Iraq at one time or another were transported by camel. The use of draft animals and the introduction of the breaker plow have been of great importance in the cereal crop industry; the plow because it breaks the soil to a greater depth and saves both labor and time. Although it takes 500 hours to plow one hectare with a spade, it takes only a fraction of that by the use of draft animals. All in all, the use of animals in tillage should be exploited as much as possible. The draft animals are available almost everywhere in the country. The general practice is to use two cows or two oxen, but when horses are used, only one is hitched to the plow. Horses are very important to farmers; possessing a horse will substantially increase his production. Unfortunately many farmers cannot afford to buy a horse, 96 so several farmers may share a single horse. A horse is usually thought of as consisting of four parts.5 The farmer buys one or two parts, and uses the right to use the horse on the condition that he partly maintains and takes care of the animal. Foals belong to the original owner.l The breaker plow, which is hand and animal powered, has the advantage of being lightweight so that the farmer can easily bring it from his home to the field; another advantage is its low price. (Still, the farmer fears the theft of the plow, and this is why he carries it to his home at night. While the plow is usually pulled by animals, there are times when no animals are available, and then two men pull the plow. No two plows are exactly the same. They are manufactured locally, and the local manufacturers have no quality control measures. The farmer chooses the plow which he likes best from those for sale, and pays a price set by a few minutes of bargaining. Prices vary from 600 fils to two dinars ($1.60 to $5.60) depending on the size of the plow and the quality of its wood. The metal which sometimes plates the tip of the plow is forged by local blacksmiths. Sometimes the farmer himself attaches metal to the tip of the plo -- he may use a horseshoe, scrap metal, or part of an old hoe. They reach a depth of 8 to 10 inches, and usually 5Poyck, op. cit., p. 50. 97 cut a furrow four to ten inches depending on the size. The breaker plows last only about two working seasons, and then must be repaired or replaced. There has been no study of the average rate of work of this plow in Iraq. However, it is estimated in the United States that a man with two oxen on the average can plow one acre a day.6 Some well-off farmers buy steel moldboard plows from the government, or rent one from a cooperative or hire-and- rental service set up by the government. These steel moldboard plows are more efficient. A horse, a cow, or fig oxen can pull one of these plows. The Government hire and rental service is located only in Baghdad; therefore, some farmers have to travel a hundred miles to rent a plow or other implement. Dis- tance and the cost of transportation is often an inhibit- ing factor. Even when the farmer is willing to undergo the trouble and expense, there are not enough plows available at these stations for all who desire them. The farmers prefer the moldboard plows, and wish that credit would be extended to them so that they could buy them. Planting Hand Planting Almost no farmers have special equipment for planting; seeds are either hand—broadcast or placed in 6Ploughboy, 12 (1820-21); 133 (From Rhode Island America) quoted by Lee Rogin, Introduction of Farm Machinery (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1931), p. 16. I 98 prepared holes in the soil. Seeds used for planting are seldom cleaned or treated by the farmers; clean seeds, however, reduce weeds and promote germination. So the government has occasionally distributed clean, treated seed of the better varieties, and at minimum cost. The planting of wheat and barley is commonly done by hand broadcasting, after the field has been prepared. This simple method of hand broadcasting is as follows. The farmer wears a long garment, which blouses above the belt. In this fullness of the garment above the belt the farmer carries seed, and simply reaches in for a handful of it, which he then throws on the soil as he walks along. The amount of seed sown, of course, depends on the speed with which he walks and the size of the handfuls he takes. Through experience the farmer learns how much seed he needs per hectare. This method has a number of shortcomings; for one thing it distributes the seed unevenly. Only experienced farmers can distribute the seed at all evenly. After the crop grows, the very thick areas should be thinned, but the farmers usually avoid doing so because of extra expense. A variation of the hand—broadcasting is the carrying of a basket woven from palm leaves to hold the seed. According to Stout's experience with similar 7 methods used in Africa, it takes about four hours to sow one hectare of land with this method. According to 7Stout, op. cit., p. 2-199. 99 the U. S. Department of Labor,8 it takes one hour and 18 minutes to sow one acre of small grain by the hand- broadcasting method. This places a limitation on the amount of land a farmer can sow. Those sho have larger holdings have to hire laborers to help with planting. Hand-broadcasting has the further disadvantage of con- suming more grain per unit of land than would a grain drill. Some farmers maintain that hand-broadcasting is satisfactory, and that the increase in yield brought about by a grain drill does not justify its cost. Another argument in favor of the hand method is the pre- vention of delayed planting; on rainy days, for instance, the machine cannot function, and must wait until the soil dries. The farmer is not so delayed by rain. For these reasons, the grain farmers of Iraq, whatever level of mechanization they may have reached, prefer to plant seed by the hand-broadcasting method. The economic advantages of the two methods of planting should be studied. Such research has not yet been done. Row drilling is not commonly practiced in Iraqi cereal crop fields, naturally, because the seed is hand- broadcast, but it is interesting to note that seed drilling was practiced in ancient Mesopotamia. According to Hopfen "the Sumerians were the first to seed their 8Rogin, op. cit., p. 206. 100 grain in rows with a seeding-tube connected to a plow, a method still used in some Eastern countries."9 Covering Seed Covering the seed is the operation which follows seed broadcasting. This must be done as soon as possible, as the farmers fear that the seed will be eaten by the birds. Seed covering is done in one of three ways. Animals may be led through the fields in groups, and their hooves trample the seeds into the ground; these animals may be sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, and cows. Trampling has the disadvantage that it cannot be measured, and so seeds are covered well in some fields, less well in others. A second method is brushing the fields with branches. Both the first and second methods are carried out by women and children. When the field is very large, the farmer, rather than hire extra labor, invites his neighbors to a banquet perhaps of mutton and rice and in return they help cover his seed. This kind of "volunteer" work is called "sukra." Hand broadcast Seeders (either seed-box seeders or rotation seeders) that were used in the United States in the late nineteenth century may offer advantages over the present hand-broadcast method used by Iraqi farmers. The introduction of these seeders, or ones similar in 9Hopfen, op. cit., p. 78. 101 principle, would prove a step forward in Iraqi progress toward mechanized farming. They require little extra effort, and they would be inexpensive. The third method of seed-covering is done by the plow, which is drawn over the field once more to bury the seeds. The method is not popular as it tends to bury some seeds too deep for germination. When the plow is used, the initial seeding must be heavier in order to compensate for the seed which is lost in this way. This method is the least used of the three. Animal Planting Operations Generally speaking, wheat and barley are not planted by animal drawn mechanical planters. Most farmers do not own seeders; although a few farmers use tube seeders attached to a plow, this is used mainly for maize and vegetable crOps. A small grain drill implement which can be drawn by animals is available at the govern- ment hire and rental service, but, as indicated earlier, farmers are reluctant to use these services. Mechanical Seeders Mechanical-animal drawn planters are not popular in cereal crop production in Iraq. Only a very few farmers use them, mainly in planting vegetable seeds. In using these machines in cereal crops the farmer has to choose the right plate for the right seeds. Seeds intended for planting must be clean and free from weed 102 seeds. When in use the seeder must be regularly checked to be sure that it is dispensing seeds and that the dispenser has not been clogged. In the north part of the country where precipitation is high, the seed must be not only covered but firmly imbedded; otherwise rain- storms can Wash away the seed, especially that which is planted on slopes. The use of a wheel or a board follow- ing the seed drill would accomplish this. Weeding Weeding is recognized as an important cultural practice in food crop production. Weeds cause big losses to farmers, since they reduce crop yield by competing for nutrients in the soil. They also increase the cost of cultivation and harvest, because a crop infested with weeds requires extra labor for threshing and clean- ing, and so they reduce the market value of the crop. Crops to be used as seed are sold for less when they con- tain weed seed, because the weed seed must be cleaned from the crop seed before planting. Weeding is not usually practiced in wheat, rice, and barley production. In Iraq farmers do not expend the extra energy to weed the fields because of the extra cost and labor involved. The farmer prefers to save the time and money involved rather than have a larger yield. Weeding is practiced in fields where row crop- ping has been done. Most row cropping in Iraq is done for vegetable crops, little is done in cereal crop farms. 103 Weeds can be controlled by many methods. First, by tillage, which stirs the soil, second, destroying the weed by mechanical means such as spade and shovel; third, the use of clean seed; fourth, the use of chemical herbicides, fifth, mowing, and sixth, smothering the weed when crOps become so dense that they prevent sun- light from reaching the weeds. The above methods are all known to the farmers, but only a few are common. These are: crop rotation, the use of clean seeds, shallow cultivation before plant- ing, and the use of the hoe in removing weeds. The use of the hoe is very expensive, and most farmers are reluctant, because of its requirement of extra labor, to use it. The use of certain chemicals (herbicides) such as 2,4D iron sulfate and copper sulfate is prac- ticed by the government on its plantations and uni- versity experimental stations. Most smaller farmers do not use these chemicals. It is the opinion of the author that the use of chemical herbicides should not be practiced until the farmer has acquired sufficient knowledge about the potential danger of these chemicals. To adOpt other weeding practices aside from crop rotation and cleaner seeds, the farmers must first change their planting methods; that is, they must change from hand-broadcasting to a properly spaced planting method. Row planting will allow the adoption of animal drawn weeding implements and thus ultimately will make weed 104 control easier and less costly. Stout, in his book, Agricultural Mechanization in Equatorial Africa, has discussed several animal-drawn weeking implements. It is the opinion of the author that these implements should be tested in Iraq and, if they prove to be successful, should be made available to the farmers. These imple- ments, as listed in the report, are as follows: (1) the single-row hoe, (2) the lever-expansion cultivator, (3) the steerage horse hoe, (4) the German Reno Cultivator, (5) the Indian—type single—handle cutlivator, and (6) the semi-flexible harrow. For further discussion and details see Stout, pp. 2-230 through 2-234. I No study has been conducted in Iraq to determine the effect of uncontrolled weed growth on yield, but there is no doubt that weeds are undesirable competition to the grain crops and should be removed. Research however is urgently needed to determine the extent of yield reduction due to lack of weed control on Iraqi cereal fields. Harvesting Hand Harvesting The harvest season is the busiest time of the year on every farm in Iraq. Farmers and their families, and even their animals, are busy gathering the returns of their labor. Cereal crops such as wheat, barley, and rice need to be harvested as soon as the grains have matured sufficiently. Any delay may cause severe losses. 105 The main losses occur from the shattering of the grain and dropping of the grain from the stalk. The common method of harvesting grain crops is to reap the stalks with a sickle. The sickle is believed to be the most important and the oldest tool in the world. Hopfen says, the sickle is still widely used all over the world to reap cereal, particularly paddy rice which has soft but tough straw and is easily shattered. Serrated sickles are more common in . . . southern and central Iraq. The sickle has been more fully described in the descrip— tion of methods of harvesting dates. Since the sickle is a one-handed tool the other hand is free to hold the stalks while the sickle shears them. The cradle, although it has been used in Europe and the United States for a century, is not used in Iraq. Sickle harvesting is very slow. The cradle, if introduced into harvesting procedures in Iraq, would increase the effi- ciency of hand harvesting. According to Hopfen, grain can be reaped with a cradle three times faster than with a sickle on flat fields with uniformly standing crops.11 The cradle, for all practical purposes, is a scythe, with a frame made of five tapering wooden fingers attached alongside the blade. This cradle can be used in har- vesting each of the two crOps with which we are con- cerned. However, in using the cradle, care must be 10Ibid., p. 98. llIbid., p. 112. 106 exercised to prevent shattering, as this is apt to happen to very ripe grains. Most farmers do not bind their sheaves, but carry them loose and pile them on the threshing floor. Threshing Hand Threshing Hand threshing is not commonly done in Iraq. Animal threshing is the method used in threshing wheat and barley. Animal Threshing Almost all threshing of wheat and barley, and most of the rice, is threshed by being trampled by animals. The stalks of grain are transported from the field, to the threshing floor (usually an open-air space), by the men themselves, their wives and children. Animals such as cows, donkeys, and horses are also used to carry the stalks. .Animals are made to walk through the spread-out stalks. Men, too, walk with their animals to help with the threshing. The animals are usually exhausted from the strenuous work required at harvest time; some of them even die from the exertion. To speed up the thresh- ing process, many farmers tie a heavy piece of wood behind the animals; men or women may sit on the logs to make them extra heavy, and to herd the animals. Hopfen describes this device as: 107 an animal-drawn implement consisting of two wooden boards, slightly raised in front, which are fitted with short pegs, serrated knives, or hard stone, inserted into holes on the underside of the boards. The operator stands on the implement to add weight and this is dragged over the crop, spread on the floor, the knives or pegs rpgbing out the grain and brushing the straw. The disk roller for threshing seems to have a place in Iraq. A good example of this is the Olpad (Indian) Thresher. In Stout's words, The machine is pulled over the sheaves by an ox team and parallel sets of disks rub out the grain. The straw is turned by men with forks or it may be stirred by an attachment fixed to the rear of the device. The rain must be cleaned after it is separated. 3 The introduction of this machine into Iraqi threshing practices could make threshing much more efficient. Winnowing Hand Winnowing The next step after threshing is the separation of the grain from straw and other foreign materials. The most common method on Iraq's farms is wind separa- tion. With the aid of a spade, a wooden fork, or a shovel, a man tosses the mixture into the air; the grain with the higher density falls in a nearby area, and the lighter chaff falls further away. Naturally this is done when the wind is strong. Luckily Iraq has frequent winds; no fan or artificial source of wind is used in lzIbid., p. 120. l3Stout, 0p. cit., p. 2-259. 108 winnowing. This is an area which needs further study. The present method is very slow and perhaps the use of a fan might be considered. Transportation and Storage After threshing,the grain and the straw are carried by animals, usually by the camel, which carries about 200 kg. and can travel a long distance without need of food and water—-sometimes it can travel as long as seven days without these. The camel can travel on sand and desert, and cross dikes and ditches and unpaved roads where no trucks can go. Donkeys, mules, and horses are also used for shorter distances; however, in the north part of the country the grain is usually carried by horseback, because horses are more capable of traveling on hills and mountaneous areas. The grain is carried to the storage areas of the local merchants. Because of lack of storage facilities, many farmers will store their grain in the open area, covered only by straw. Some of the grain which is kept for consumption by the subsistence farmer is stored in a cylinder made of dried mud, about 2—3 ft. in diameter and 5-6 ft. tall. The straw is usually sold to the local building constructors who mix it with clay mud and then builds walls and houses from it; with the mixture he also builds roofs and fences. 109 Animals also draw carts which are used in trans- portation. The most common size is about 8 ft. long and 4 ft. wide; it is like a four wheeled wagon, and is usually pulled by two horses or oxen. This cart can carry up to 1000 kg. The back wheels are about 4 ft. in dia— meter, the front wheels about 2 1/2 ft. Some smaller carts have only two wheels. These carts have been hazardous to motorists; if the farmer is close to a blacktopped road he will drive the cart along it, but since his cart lacks lights and reflectors, many accidents can occur especially at night. There is much room for improvement in cart manu— facture in Iraq. The adoption of ball bearings and the wheel axle and tire wheels would offer great advantages over the traditional cart. The carts would then be more efficient and require less animal traction. Animals can also be used for irrigation. In Iraq, many of the smaller holdings are irrigated by the Persian wheel (nauor). Its use is mainly confined to vegetable growing; although it is occasionally used for irrigating wheat and barley, it is never used in rice plantations. The nauor is powered by a horse, donkey, or cow. The Persian water wheel [nauor] is widely used for raising water from shallow wells. . . . It is powered by oxen [horses, and mules] and' driven from a shaft by peg-gearing. An endless chain of buckets are mounted on a large diameter wheel at the top of the well. As the wheel rotates, the buckets dip into the water, at the llO bottom of the well, and lift it to the top into an irrigation canal. The disadvantage of this is that the horse or donkey, the prime mover, needs once in a while a whistle or a spank to make him move. He must be supervised. It is said that sometimes dogs are chained close by and trained to bark at the horse (mule, etc.) whenever it stOps. Advantages of Draft Animals Although people tend to underrate the potential of animal traction, the expense and technical problem involved in the more appealing large machines means their use must be restricted. The unique advantages of draft animals should be seriously considered. These advantages include low cost, and the fact that since they are available locally and need not be imported, problems with foreign exchange are avoided. In addition, animal-drawn implements are well adapted to small holdings. In addition the compost manure is an effective fertilizer; some soils will not respond to any other fertilizer. Owning animals poses none of the technical and engineering problems which arise from the needs of machines; animals are simpler to manage. Disadvantages of Draft Animals Feeding these animals can be a problem during the dry season, although it is true that the animals presently used in Iraq are hardy and fairly resistent 14Ibid., p. 2-282. 111 .to the severe climate and their often inadequate diet.15 In general the animals have to live on scraps, as very few Iraqis grow fodder, and pasturing is done only on a limited scale.' In addition, animal teams must be directed by several people (one of the men leads the animals, another guides the implement, and the third prods the animals). A tractor can be driven by one. Another drawback is the limited traction power of these animals; and the quality of cultivation is not as high as that achieved mechanically. Animals, too, are in- efficient with dry, heavy clay soils. Animals also are subject to disease and then need veterinary care. Since animals are only harnessed for work during the relatively brief plowing season, they do not develop the strength and work habits which they could have if used more often. It is impossible to decide in this thesis what every individual farmer should do; his decision will depend upon all these various factors. However, the natural course is that the farmer gradually progresses from the use of hand power to the use of animal power, and eventually to the use of engine power. 15Harris, op. cit., p. 205. CHAPTER VI ENGINE-POWERED MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS IN IRAQ Introduction Engine-powered machinery and implements are not new to Iraqi farms; in fact, they have been in use for many years. In the 19403 and 19503 a few land owners (Shaikhs) used almost every type of modern equipment. They owned tractors, combines, and various attachments, most of which was used for land preparation and harvesting. Before 1948 the import of machinery was done by private dealers, but at that time government decided to nationalize all importing of machinery. The argument for this was that the move would protect farmers from inferior machines which the private dealers might try to sell them. This obviously eliminated competition. It is still true today that government is the only importer of farm machinery and farmers cannot buy imported machinery from any other source. Machinery now available in Iraq can handle every aspect of farming, from land tillage to harvest and transportation of the crops. (This is done on a very small scale mainly limited to government projects). 112‘ 113 Some people fear that farming will be increasingly neglected as the people reach higher educational levels and refuse to accept the drudgery of hand and animal cultivation.~ If this is true, mechanization will become more and more necessary in the country. There are many other reasons for increasing use of engine-powered equip- ment. Mechanization offers many advantages. These include better land preparation through greater tractor power to work the heavy soils which hand plowing cannot handle adequately. Tractors also have greater power for turning green manure and breaking heavy grassland. It offers speed and efficiency in harvesting the crops and may prevent damage due to delayed harvest. Through the use tractors drawn plows, a deeper and more thorough soil preparation become possible thus help to control runoff by increasing the capacity of the soil to absorb and retain water. Most important of all it can facilitate expansion of the area under cultivation. The use of the tractor gives the farmer the power necessary for faster cultivation, and thus he can process more land in less time. At the present time the supply of labor is con- stantly diminishing in Iraq, as more and more peasants move to the cities. The need for engine-powered machines becomes more acute every day, since the growing population means demand for increased food production. The cost of a tractor or similar implement is so high that the average farmer can seldom afford it. This may be one of the main 114 reasons that Iraq agriculture remains traditional, and why hand and animal-power still dominate the scene. Economic Use of Tractors Tractor-powered equipment Should be used only when such use brings about significant improvements in quality of product or efficiency in labor. Labor freed by the use of this equipment should be effectively used throughout the agricultural season, rather than merely eliminated to reduce costs. The extension agent can most effectively instruct the farmers in the efficient use of this freed labor. The cost of the machinery usually means that there. must be a sizeable increase in production to make its use profitable. Too many farmers fail to appreciate the real cost of their machinery, and instead take any opportunity to mechanize and reduce the labor required, without taking into account the full economic implications of this change. Cost should be considered more important than saving labor in the decision to use mechanized implements. Mechanization can extend the area under cultivation and improve the timeliness of such operations as weeding and sowing. It is not always possible to achieve both these goals, however, one may partially cancel the other. The main problem of mechanization is to keep cost within manageable limits; often the market value of food crops is so low that mechanization cannot be profitable 115 Even when markets are good, however, machine use is usually not profitable unless it can be prolonged over a rather large amount of time each season. Although a tractor- drawn plow can cultivate an area several times as large as that cultivated by an ox—drawn plow, the size of the hold- ing may impose other limitations on the total area cultivated. In addition, the larger area under cultivation may create other labor shortages; for instance, weeding the larger area may be difficult if the mechanized implements are used only for cultivation, rather than in facilitating early planting or releasing labor which could be devoted to weeding. This would be a major constraint to the expansion of land under cultivation if proper weeding were always done, but as yet this is not the case. The use of a tractor may contribute to weed growth unless plowing is done in advance of the planting; under this system many weeds will germinate and sprout before the regular crop is planted. One shallow cultivation will bury these weeds, and then the regular crop can be planted. Shallow cultivation requires less power and is just as effective as deep cultivation. Most of the 116 weed seed will have grown and been destroyed before the regular crOp even starts. Inter-row cultivation is another effective way to facilitate weedings. Good land cultivation will certainly help reduce weeding problems. The expansion of area under cultivation may create another labor problem at harvest time, depending on the method of harvesting and the availability of labor at that time. When harvest is fully mechanized then all the machinery and equipment should be ready for work when the crOp reaches maturity. There are three factors which help overcome the labor bottleneck at harvest time: first, fuller mechanization of harvest; second, abundant supply of labor; third,tflnaextent to which harvest-time can be stretched without damaging the crop. The cost of the machine may induce the farmer to crOp larger areas; he may have to increase yield in order to make his investment in machinery profitable. This can be achieved by the addition of more input such as fertilizer, pesticide, better quality seed, but the cost of the machinery will eventually necessitate increasing the area under cultiva- 1 tion and so reducing fallow land. At the present time 65% of the 1A. P. Poyck, Farm Studies in Iraq, p. 43. 117 land is cultivated; with the introduction of engine-powered equipment this may rise to 80 or 85%. Working the fallow land is more appealing and more profitable than clearing new land, since much effort is required to make new land suitable for cultivation. In addition the farmer does not care to risk damage to his expensive new machinery by using it in fields where there are large rocks and roots. Sometimes, however, there is new land which is quite smooth and free of major obstacles, and in this case the farmer may increase the land available for cultivation rather than reducing his fallow land. The fertility of the new land would be another factor affecting the farmer's decision. From all this we can see that machines play a large role in the intensification of land use. Plowing and Soil Erosion Plowing hilly land may cause soil erosion unless this area is contoured. The use of grass strips will prevent some erosion, as will the use of cut—off drains or small dikes to check the intensity of water flows. In addition, the deeper cultivation which is possible with mechanized equipment will mean that more moisture is obsorbed in the loosened soil, and so less smflj. will wash away. 118 Use of Machinery and Fixed Cost The2 cost of machinery is largely determined by the extent to which equipment is utilized and the amount of time which is required for each unit of land. Some of the fixed cost is involved in pay for supervisory and operating personnel, as well as in the acquisition of repair facilities; but the most important fixed cost is depreciation. The rate of depreciation of course depends on the quality of maintenance. The life of the machine can be measured in terms of hours used, or in terms of years owned. Ordinarily it must be measured in terms of years; for one thing, the machine grows obsolete as time passes, and for another factors such as rust and corrosion make it less useful each year. For these reasons there is a minimum annual depreciation, and this cost must be related to the number of hours the machine was used that year. This hourly cost will decline as the number of hours the machine is used increases. "Experience indicates that it is very difficult to make mechanization pay unless a tractor can operate at least 500 hours per year." 3 2John C. deWilde, Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical AfriCa, pp. 114-131. 3 Ibid. 119 The average farmer in Iraq will never find the 500 hours of work for a tractor which would justify his buying it. He must either rent a tractor or use it cooperatively with his neighbors. The length of time a tractor can be used will depend on both soil and climate conditions; the tractor will be more economically feasible if the farmer can find more than a single operation for it to perform. The tractor is also more justifiable if it is used in an area which grows two crops each year, for then it is used for twice as many hours. Tractors can also be made more economical if they are used for tasks other than cultivation, such as transportation, grinding, lifting water, and digging (with an anger bit). But the use of a tractor in these ways must be done only after careful consideration of the economics of other ways of doing the same tasks. Operating costs per acre are more significant than cost per hour. Nevertheless, "the economics of mechaniza— tion will be determined by translating the cost of mechanical operation per unit of area into cost per unit of output."4 The greater the market value of the crop, the more money--in terms of mechanization—~can be invested in it. For all these reasons the farmers can clearly use mechanization profitably in only one of two ways: either 4Ibid., p. 119. 120 rent a tractor at a reasonable cost from a government or private agency, or use the tractor cooperatively. Cooperatives will be discussed in more detail later. Governmental hire-and-rental services are now available, and they too will be discussed at another point. Although it is difficult to mechanize small farms economically, nevertheless the Land Reform in Iraq has made small farmers the majority of the agricultural population. They must be given careful consideration. The ultimate use of mechanization is to increase production. The farmer must always take into consideration the market for the product; only when demand is high enough to bring about good prices for the increased productivity can mechaniza- tion be justified. To advise the farmer simply to mechanize is not just, since farmers vary widely in their socio-economic circumstances. For some farmers mechanization will mean changing from hand-power to animal power; to others it will mean changing from animal power to machine power. Some farmers tend to mechanize without basing their decision on sound reasons; in some cases it would actually be cheaper to use animal power than engine power. The stage of mechanization chosen should be the one that mobilizes the economic resources of the individual farmer and it is up to the farmer to choose the appropriate state of mechanization 121 for his particular environment and economic condition. The farmer, in the opinion of Schultz and of many others, including the author, will be responsive to the economic incentives actually available to him. The Custom Use of Farm Machinery Farmers in Iraq ordinarily have too little land to justify their buying large or expansive machines. Since they can nevertheless profit from the use of such machines, a sound alternative is to rent them. At the present time this can be done through two agencies: one is the govern— ment hire-and-rental service, and the second is private services of this nature. The government hire-and-rental service owns several hundred tractors, combines, and other implements. The government agencies are all in Baghdad, and so serve only those farmers fairly near the city; however there are plans to extend the service to other parts of the country. There are also private contractors who do custom work mainly land preparation for the farmer. Even those farmers who could afford to buy this machinery should still carefully weigh advantages and dis- advantages5 of renting it instead. The extension agent can best instruct the farmer in these points; a more detailed discussion of his role is given in a later chapter. The most obvious advantage is that the farmer does not have to make a large capital investment in either purchase or maintenance. The money saved can be used for improving other facets of the 5Harris Smith, Farm Machinery_Equipment, p. 474. 122 farming enterprise. Another disadvantage is that a trained operator is furnished with the machinery. Finally, the farmers would gain the benefit of new machinery (without having to worry about obsolescence) and of machinery larger than he could profitably buy if his holding is small. There is no doubt, however, that there are disadvantages in renting machinery. One is that machinery may not be available when the farmer most needs it, because of high demand. If the operator is careless or irresponsible, marked damage may be done to the crop. The cost of hiring machinery for large jobs may be as high as the cost of purchasing the equipment, and since the agencies prefer to do larger jobs, they may refuse to accept smaller ones. Repair and Maintenance Farmers in Iraq generally use hand— and animal- power, and very few use engine power. The hand and animal powered farmers generally obtain spare parts for their implements from local craftsman, probably the carpenters and blacksmiths of the nearest village. What they need in the way of spare parts and repair services is readily available, because the raw materials of their implements are wood and scrap metal. The farms using engine power have more difficulty satisfying their needs, and usually must go to the cities for parts and repairs. Even these services are not always satisfactory, because the artisans 123 there, although highly skilled, may lack necessary equipment and spare parts, since the importing of these items is con- trolled by the government. For this reason there is fre- quently some delay before the farmer can obtain the needed services. Since the government has the responsibility of importing all needed machinery, it should be able to secure spare parts from the countries which supply the imports. However, a great variety of machines are imported, and there has frequently been difficulty in supplying spare parts for them. In the final analysis the farmers are the victims of this inefficiency. What is needed is a guarantee from every exporting company or country whose products are imported that spare parts will be available whenever needed. Table 4 on the following page tells the number of years,on the average, certain important farm machines are used, before they become obsolete; the hours of use they will give before wearing out; and the total repair cost for the machine, during its entire life, expressed as a per- centage of the purchase price. Selectipn of Implements Some basic principles in selecting farm.machinery deal with timeliness of operations, working days available, the ability to operate additional hours per day, and allowances for unplanned delays. 124 TABLE 4.——Depreciation and Cost of Farm Equipment.1 Years Until Hours to Total Repair Cost, Machine Obsolete Wear Out % of New Cost Tractor 15 12,000 120 Tractor Plow 15 2,000 80 Tractor Disk Harrow 15 2,000 30 Spring-tooth harrow 20 2,000 40 Spike-tooth harrow 20 2,500 30 Grain Drill 20 1,200 25 Field Sprayer 10 1,500 30 Tractor Cultivator 12 2,500 40 Tractor Mower 12 2,000 75 Combinea 10 2 ,000 40 Manure Loader 10 2,000 25 Manure Spreader 15 2,500 25 Tractor 15 12,000 120 aOperating costs such as fuel, oil, grease, wire, twine, etc., not included). lSmith, op. cit., p. 468-9; Source: Ag. Engin. Yearbook, 1962. 125 .Ahmmav a .Ho> .hm\HHH\mwm nomnoum omd "mousom m.a mm.-mo. msuom m.eum.a zou\mxo.au o.~ mqacaneoo «.4 mm.-oa. manos o.muo.H zon\mxo.mmuoo.s Hanna cease s.a smuoa. mmuom o.a-m.a gnam\mxo.omroo.s scaum>auaso a.a mm.-os. mwumm ~.aam.fi «so\mxom.anma. coauom mascam 3onumn xmwo m.a oa.-mo. om-om o.mum.m mso\mxoo.auam. swan m.s oa.uko. omuom o.mua.~ Neuxsxaa\auem. sumoneaos k.s Hm.-mo. omuom um.mus.a Naoxmxos.ouaa.o msocmmasna "scam mommm>< supez mppflz w H£\EM musmEmHHsvmm szom soaumummo no mcwnomz nous: Hmm Hobo: Hmm mocmfioflmmm pmwmm mm\mum um\mm semen .mumswcomz Eumm Mo mowufiommmo pamflm pcm .mmflocmfloflwmm pamflm .mpmwmm msaumummo .musmfimufisvmm Hm3om mo momsmm Havammall.m Manda 126 Table 5 includes data for farm machinery applica- tions, taking into account the wide range of values made necessary by such variables as soil, climate, power, and operator performance. Basic relationships relating to computing data such as included there are: (draft, in kg) x (speedg_in meters per sec.) (l) dPs = 75 where d = drawbar horsepower, and P5 = Pferdestarke = 0.9859 hp (2) Ha per hr = (W, in m) x (I000n km_per hr) x E where W = rated width of machine action in meters S = speed of travel of the operation E = field efficiency in percent The following formulas are helpful in estimating machinery annual costs. Fixed Cpsts Annual Costs (1) Annual cost First cost-Salvage value Years of Life (2 ) Depre ci ati on First cost+Salvage valuexRate of interest 2 (3) Interest where Fixed costs include depreciation, interest, taxes, housing, and insurance. Variable costs include fuel, lubricants, repairs and maintenance. Taxes, insurance, and 127 housing charges may be known, but if not, they are often estimated at 4 percent annually. Repair costs are usually higher as the machine grows older. However, a uniform repair charge is usually levied each year. Fuel and lube ricant charges can be estimated from experience or from' information supplied with the machine. Fuel, oil and lubricants consumption of engines is obtainable, but they may be estimated on the basis of about 2.5 hp per liter of fuel (gasoline), and 3.0 or more hp per liter of diesel fuel. The selection of the right implements for the job can mean the difference between success and failure. Implements should be tried out and tested before they are bought. For instance, a shallow disk plow may be prefer- able to a steel moldboard plow for soil that has low water retention qualities. Also, the disk plow is less susceptible to breakage. In the past, the extension of credit by the private dealers sometimes meant that the farmer chose equipment carelessly since he was not immed- iately asked to pay for it. Today the Iraqi government rents or sells all equipment to the farmer, and whether or not he receives credit, the farmer is limited in his choice of equipment available to him. He may have the choice as to what size or horsepower but he has little choice either as to whether it is English made or Swedish or any other make. The national policy as to what country these 128 machines are brought from always affects the suitability of the equipment available to the farmers. Since the people do not fully understand and appreciate these machines, it is imperative that their use be supervised and directed by knowledgeable people. This is particularly true whenever new machines or equip- ment are introduced. Otherwise abuse of the machine takes place, breakage is common, and the early deterioration of the machine is inevitable. Farmers, tractor operators, and maintenance men should be fully instructed on the use and maintenance of the machine. The farmer should be told of the average life expectancy of the machines, so that he may intelligently calculate the benefits and expense of the machine. Many farmers thinkvof the machine as a life-time companion, particularly since it costs so much, and do not think of the annual depreciation of the machine. The extension worker should play a big part in teaching farmers the economic and technical facts about their machines. Ordinarily, an educated person will learn new facts faster than an uneducated one. Since most Iraq farmers are illiterate and uneducated the task of teaching these people new techniques or introducing them to new machines is a major undertaking. Educating the people is of highest priority in a program of mechanization; the reasons for this and specific means of accomplishing it will be discussed in a later chapter. For the present, it 129 is sufficient to refer to Theodore Schultz, who insists that governments invest in schools and education before they invest in factories and machines because unskilled labor cannot operate complex machines. The introduction of farm machinery into a develop- ing country such as Iraq requires a thorough study to determine the types and quality, of machinery needed, as well as a price range which is appropriate. In addition sutdies must be made to determine whether presently existing machines can survive the particular agricultural conditions in Iraq. Past experience has indicated that not all machinery is suited to the Iraqi soil and climate. Some of the machines that were imported from the temperate zone did not function adequately in the hot summer months of Iraq. They needed modifications, such as: l. the addition of more blades to the air fan which cools the radiator; 2. reducing the water pump diameter so that the fan will turn at a faster rate thus drawing more air through the radiator for more effec- tive cooling; 3. replacing the radiator with a larger unit. This is only one example, but it illustrates the possible problems that result.from operating machines produced in one country in another country of quite difference char- acteristics. Obstacles to the Use of Engine Power Mechanization is not an easy undertaking; there are many obstacles in its path. The following is a summary 130 of the major obstacles, which are treated in detail in various places in the thesis. 1. High initial cost of machinery and equipment, together with high costs of spare parts. High depreciation rate. High cost of repairs. Inadequate maintenance system. Lack of skilled labor. Low per capita income among the farmers. Inadequate transportation system. Lack of research and extension facilities. High illiteracy rate among farmers. 10. Shortage of credit facilities. 11. Inadequate food crop storage facilities. 12. Inadequate marketing system. \DCIJ~JO\U1-bb.)l\) 0 Another obstacle, one too subtle to express in a single short phrase, but just as important as those listed above, is ill-advised decisions which reflect a lack of understand- ing of the complexities of mechanization. A Case Study Since pumps are very important in irrigation, and irrigation is in turn essential to the agriculture and hence the economy of Iraq, a committee was formed at one time to study the various types of pumps available. In Iraq, as in many developing countries, local industries are begin- ning to produce a variety of products. For generations the pumps used in Iraq have been imported from abroad, particularly from England. The committee, which included several agricultural engineers (one of whom was the author) was asked to compare the pumps being newly produced by local industry with those which had previously been 131 imported, in order that the government might make recom- mendations concerning them. Among the findings of the committee was that the local manufacturers Were limited in their capacity to produce pumps, and could only manufacture a relatively small number each year. They also learned that these local manu- facturers depended on scrap metal for their raw material. However, an earlier committee had reported that the quality of the locally produced pumps exceeded that of the imported pumps (Rustens), and in particular had a higher discharge head. On the basis of that first report the Ministry of Agrarian Reform had been ordered to buy the machines from the local source. The local manufacturers were now seeking a further concession, the prohibition of any importing of pumps. During the preceding year the price of the locally produced pumps had nearly doubled, and still the manufacturers were unable to fill the needs of the department. The committee asked the local manufacturers to what extent they could increase their output, and found that the companies (there were only two) had each less than $15,000 in capital and employed only a handful of workers. The \committee concluded that these companies were not capable of supplying the needs of the entire country; their limitations in technical know-how, capital, and raw materials were too great. On the other hand, the manufacturers argued that if the government would eliminate the competition 132 from imported pumps, they could expand production and meet the demands of the agricultural industry. The committee concluded that the only feasible concession would be the imposition of a tariff of about 20 percent on imported pumps, thus giving the local manufacturers a possibility of making a profit on their product. They could not agree that cutting off of all imports was necessary; in fact, they felt that the great dependence of the country on pumps, especially during the intensely hot dry summers, would make this elimination of imports far too great a risk. In other words the report of the original committee had been made hastily and without investigation in depth, and yet significant policy decisions had been based on it. If mechanization is to be a success, decisions must be carefully made and based on extensive research. Official decisions have far-reaching implications, and must be based on the best information and judgment available. The eventual success of mechanization may rest in large part on the selection of men for those committees who are knowledgable in their fields and willing to undertake all the research necessary. The conclusion to be drawn from this case study is that a committee of men knowledgeable about agricultural machinery and aware of Iraq's needs be formed to secure an adequate and proper method for the selection of machinery and equipment based on the needs of the country. CHAPTER VII EDUCATION Introduction Although the value of education cannot be meas- ured in purely financial terms, the economic results of a lack of education are undeniable. The tragic gap between the developed and the underdeveloped countries of the world is not so much due to a dif- ference in natural resources as to a difference in educational levels. The greatest resource of any country is the ability of its people. Throughout his influential book Transforming Traditional Agri- culture, Theodore Schultz insists that the capability of the farmers is the most important factor for explaining differences in agricultural production. More important than the distribution of seed, ferti- lizer--or machinery-~isthe distribution of information. Post-war Europe recovered rapidly because of the knowledge and skills of the farm population; third— world countries lag, Schults insists, because their rural population is unskilled and uninformed. Simple 133 134 literacy is the farmer's mst important tool, because it is the key to self-education as well as to further formal education. More specialized knowledge, such as that of farm tools and machinery, opens the door to increased efficiency and higher productivity. These emerging nations face severe problems in their efforts to improve education. Frequently demographic pressures are almost insurmountable; great efforts to educate more people are frustrated by even higher birth rates. In addition there are deep-seated traditional biases against the education of women. The worst problem facing Iraq, as this chapter will show, are: (1) an education system which has influenced young people to move to the cities; (2) an educational system which has concentrated on the social sciences and humanities, while neglecting the technical education which would be of most use on the land; (3) the emphasis on rote learning, and the result- ing discouragement of a spirit of inquiry. The Educational System in Iraq Education in Iraq is recognized today as the most important factor in the country's economic development. Governments of the past and the present have given educa- tion a considerable amount of attention and support, because they realize that through education a nation can reach its highest social, economical, and political goals. 135 In the minds of the people, too, education plays an important role. There has always been a strong desire among the people of Iraq for education. Parents, whether they live in urban cities or in rural villages still strive hard to see that their children go to school. Although there is compulsory elementary education, the law hardly needs to be enforced. The attitude toward education in Iraq may spring from the desire for knowledge for its own sake; but deep in the hearts of these people education is viewed as an escape from a prison whose walls are poverty, disease, and ignorance. The farmer and the peasant believe that through education their children can enjoy a better life. The ultimate goal of these peasants is for their children to acquire a government post and live in the city rather than the poverty-ridden environment of the village. Most government jobs are located in urban areas. Unfortunately, therefore, the school has been a contribu- ting factor in encouraging migration to the cities, leaving the village and rural community with a shortage of educated people. It is obvious that rural schools should not only teach academic courses; they should also foster programs relevant to community life. In addition the primary school should teach an elementary science course. It should be part of the ele- mentary school curricula in order to prepare students for advanced science courses in the secondary school and ultimately in colleges and universities. Students would 136 then be better prepared to carry out the task of mechani- zation (in its broadest sense) and would be more familiar with scientific and technical phenomena. In advanced countries children are brought up in an environment where different scientific concepts and technical ideas become familiar to them at an early stage in life. The school in the underdeveloped countries therefore should see to it that this shortcoming is compensated for, by exposing pupils to more technical and scientific concepts. The school must be the most important factor in elevating the level of the environment in which the child lives. In spite of all the efforts directed toward univer- sal literacy in the country, many people still remain illiterate. However, a substantial and steady increase in the literacy level has been accomplished during the last twenty—five years. According to the census of 1947, the literacy level was 8 percent.1 In 1957 the literacy rate went up to 15 percent.2 According to the latest census of 1967.3 a literacy level has been registered as 23 percent. From the above it is evident that the literacy level has jumped at an accelerated rate, a further proof of the active campaign the government has waged to increase 1Doris Adams, "Current Population Trends in Iraq," Middle East Journal, 10 (1956), lOpp. 2George Harris, Iraq (Harf Press, New Haven), 134p. 3A1 Jamhuria, Newspaper, January, 1970, 5p. 137 Jooxum mn N zo~h E E/ zm¢if the operating and maintaining of these machines. In any plan to change subsistence agriculture into 21 <:ash industry, investment in machinery may represent the tingghest input in terms of capital goods. Therefore, the farmer should be able to select, operate and maintain his machinery otherwise failure would be inevitable. The role CDf’ t:he extension service in fostering this kind of educa- tion a1 program cannot be overemphasized. It is rather beyond the scope of this paper to go intc, idetail on every facet of a mechanization program which demands the presence of the extension worker. The newqfilk" emerging societies that are embarking on mechaniza- tion, .as a potential instrument for their development find it Ve :ry difficult to assimilate all of the new technological inno“rations that the field of agricultural mechanization enta“3:55.13, without receiving systematic help in upgrading their educational capacity. The mere introduction of a _—\ 1Usually supplied with operator. 153 tractor to a traditional farming system, for example, may require on the part of the farmer a basic knowledge of how the tractor operates. To cite a technical example, the operator should understand in his effort to mechanize hi 8 farm that driving a tractor with little or no oil in the crankcase will ruin the engine in a very short time. Also the concept of depreciation of farm machinery and implements should be fully understood. Recognizing a profit from the use of machinery in the first year is not an indication of the complete econo- mic implications of mechanization. The farmer in the first year of using his machine has little or no repair bills; but as the machine gets older it may require more money for repair and maintenance. In addition the farmer often overlooks the necessity for saving against deprecia- tion. A well-organized extension system will not only teach the farmer the many skills and knowledge, but will save him a great deal of money. It will also enhance the occupation of farming and promote desirable changes through the estab- lish-Irlent of favorable attitudes toward machines and mech e nization . Another point at which the extension service can be 0 33 real help to the farmer is instruction in the poten- tiaIL danger of not being able to understand the man- machi ne relationship. If the machine is not properly understood, its function may cause severe accidents and even death. Risk can be minimized with the help of the 154 extension worker, who will show the farmer the proper use, nIEanintenance, and operation of the machine. The foregoing discussion mentions some of the technical, economical, and health problems that the farmer and his family may face from the introduction of machinery igrtho agricultural cultivation. The role of the extension service will not only be to help overcome barriers to change the technological gap, but also to instill under- standing of the economic aspects of agricultural machinery op eration and ownership. The use of agricultural machinery requires a large j.Il£itial investment; then it requires the development of t:ea<:hnical skills and knowledge on the part of the farmer Ihxe:fore they can be used at a profitable margin. As indi- cnaized, the role of the extension service in promoting agricultural mechanization cannot be overemphasized. The extension workers should accomplish most of these objec- tiVe s: (the following is a modification of the excellent list: given by B. P. Pothecary): 1. Basic instruction for tractor owners, including simple machinery management, cost, and the necessity for preventive maintenance; 2. Basic instruction, including equipment setting for tractor drivers/ machinery operators; 3. As above but for driver-mechanics (in remote areas); 4. The printing and distribution of literature in local languages; 5. The establishment of demonstration/training ‘ farms on which new techniques could first be evaluated and then demonstrated; 155 6. The establishment of formal training facili- ties for instructors and supervisors; 7. A two-way service for operational research units and machinery manufacturers or importers concerning machinery performance; 8. Liaison with machinery suppliers or govern- ment—operated workshops over service and spare parts supplied; 9. Safety instruction. Man/machine interaction is a new phenomenon to the fellahin; 10. Special efforts should be made to help the bedouin to improve their livestock; 11. Veterinary services are badly needed in many places; this is particularly true for the large flocks of sheep, which suffer from pests and diseases which could easily be controlled by modern measures. Certain comments should be made about the instruc- t;jL<:nal methods employed. For one thing, there should be nxu1<3h opportunity for demonstration and personal contact allowing individual instruction. This is for two reasons: iEj_J:st, many of the fellahin cannot read or write. Secondly, t:rur1>ugh the centuries these people have developed a convic- ‘hixari of their inferiority; thus personal attention from an agent of the government may help improve their self-concept and gyive them the confidence to tackle complex tasks. Another point which should be made is that even the l;>:1inted material which is used should contain many 111118 ‘trations. And finally much instructional use can be made ‘<:f radio and television. It is a common saying in Iraq that the fellah has always a transitor radio in his hanél