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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE
PRACTICES OF IRAN'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND
SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE ITS EFFECTIVENESS
AND EFFICIENCY

presented by

Qorbanali Salimi

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Educational
Administration

@IZWQWM

Major professor

 

1mm. 7, /?7
/

0-7639

 

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES OF
IRAN'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO

IMPROVE ITS EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY

BY

Qorbanali Salimi

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education

1978

ABSTRACT

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES OF
IRAN'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND SUGGESTED STRATEGIES TO
IMPROVE ITS EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY

By
Qorbanali Salimi

The paramount impetus and basic reason for undertaking
this study was to: (a) conduct a comprehensive diagnosis of
the organizational problems of Iranian education; (b) provide
a conceptual framework and reference of those organizational
factors leading to effectiveness and efficiency in developed
countries, particularly in the U.S.A.; (0) present selected
administrative strategies that have been used by others to
reform educational organizations and to apply those to the
Iranian educational system.

To complete this study, the ecological, sociocultural,
historical and economic-political factors in Iran were
scrutinized to determine their impact on the administration
of educational organizations. Then, the evolution of the
educational administration was pursued, and the current
situation probed to determine the problems which permeate
administrative effectiveness.

A review of current theories and research was conducted
dealing with organization, leadership, motivation, decision

making, communication, change and development. This was

Qorbanali Salimi
done to determine various objectives and aspects of organi-
zational effectiveness. The present educational adminis-
trative condition in Iran was analyzed and compared with
known objectives of organizational effectiveness. The out-
come of the research study, coupled with this writer's own
personal experience and development as an Iranian teacher,
led to a set of proposals and recommendations for those
Iranian educators who wish to make changes and to improve
the effectiveness and efficiency of administrative activities
in the educational organization of Iran.

The most striking conclusion drawn from this invest-
igation revealed that the following deficiencies are the
greatest stumbling blocks to organizational effectiveness:

1. The wide gap between growing societal demands
and the shortage of highly trained personnel.

2. The lack of motivation among employees to take
on innovative roles as well as the lack of a
reward system to stimulate and facilitate such
motivated behavior.

3. The absence of activated and enthusiastic pressure
groups to accelerate organizational change and
development.

A. The communication gap coupled with the lack of
an effective information system to monitor and
assess the effectiveness of a change process.

5. Thelack of coordination and consistency among

various departments and activities of the members

Qorbanali Salimi

in the organization and their external relations.

6. The lack of appropriate organizational mechanisms
for involving and supporting talented and insight-
ful individuals in planning and decision making.

7. The existence of a centralized administration which
overlooks the local creativity with its ingenuity
and exigent demands.

8. The use of authoritative leadership practices
through which employee's dependency, submissiveness,
alienation and frustration are perpetuated.

9. .Thelack of esprit de corps within the educational
organizations.

10. The strong tendency of individual employees to
serve their self-interests, enhancing their
status, and rewarding themself financially in
lieu of caring about the attainment of organiza-
tional objectives.

11. The existence of high inertia and low salience
which reduce the opportunity to change and advocate
the status quo and stagnation.

12. The lack of valid criteria in appointing and

promoting top officals.

RECOMMENDATIONS. In View of the major deficiencies
enumerated above and a review of the literature regarding
organizational effectiveness, the following are the most

essential needs of the Iranian educational organizations:

Qorbanali Salimi
A sharper definition of organizational objectives
with identification of local and national
priorities.
Implementation of democratic tenets within the
entire educational structure.
Proper coordination of imaginative and practical
efforts which promise to advance education.
Full mobilization of individual employee's
capabilities by involving them in interorganizaa;
tional relationship and decision making.
Establishment of advisory and supervisory staff
in guiding the professional work.
Provision for continual organizational training
to foster joint decision making, problem solving
and effective communication skills.
Establishment of a rewards and sanction system
that can motivate staff to spend the time and
effort required to implement innovation.
Decentralization of authority and responsibility
with the guidance of competent and experienced
educators and citizens in order to allow the
consideration of both the need for new programs
and their appropriateness to the local situation.
Continual evaluation to measure total organiza-
tional performance as well as the performance of

staff activities.

Qorbanali Salimi

10. A means of providing employees with an opportunity
to experiment, to reflect on themselves and their
situation, to work together on these matters
in an atmosphere of openness and trust.

11. Development of feelings of belonging, and commit-
ment to overall organizational objectives.

12. Provision for different administrative skills and
approaches in doing what works in a particular
situation.

13. Use of a valid, reliable, and impartial criteria
for employee's appointments and promotion in
order to identify the right administrators for
the right jobs.

14. Support of leaders who are intellectually competent,
imaginative, vigorous, and who will assume control
of the organization with commitment to positive
purposes of the organization rather than the
negative functions.

15. Strategies such as participative management,
management by objectives, managerial grids,
sensitivity training, feedback, reinforcement,
counselling and group therapy in order to unify
the individual and organizational objectives.

In addition to above recommendations, suggestions for

further research in various areas of educational organiza-

tions was made.

DEDICATION

to my people

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, the writer of this dissertation wishes
to acknowledge most gratefully the valuable help that was
rendered by the doctoral advisory committee: Dr. John Suehr,
Dr. Ruth Useem, Dr. Melvin Buschman and Dr. Donald Nickerson.
Particular gratitude is due to Dr. Suehr, my Committee
Chairman and Dr. Useem who contributed me with their
comments at various stages during the progress of my study.
My sincere thanks are also to my brother and my
Iranian and American friends particularly to Mr. Ron
Randolf and his nice wife, Marilyn, for their thoughtfulness

and their kind assistance.

iii

LIST OF

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST OF MODELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . A
The Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . 10
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . 12
Limitation and Scope of the Study . . . . 13
Rationale for Application . . . . . . . . 1A
Definition of the Terms . . . . . . . . . 16
General Characteristics . . . . . . . . . 22
Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . 23
Cultural Background . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Social Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Economic Background . . . . . . . . . . . 3A
Political Background . . . . . . . . . . . 36
EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A0

Early Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . AO
Maktab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2
Madrasseh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3
Bazaar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3

Education in Modern Time . . . . . . . . . AA

The School System . . . . . A7
Pre-School and Kindergarten Education . A7
Elementary Education . . . . . . . . . . A9
Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . 55
Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Teacher Training . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . 61
Contemporary Education and its

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Literacy Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

iv

Chapter

III. Administration of Educational Systems and
Government Policies in Education
Organization of the Ministry of Education

IV. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .
Part I. Organization . .
Behavior Within the Organization
Motivation . . . .
Part II. Leaders and Leadership
Types and Functions of Leadership
Leadership Traits . . . .
Leadership Training
Summary and Conclusions . .
Part III. Process Within Organization
Communication in Organization . . . .
Summary and Conclusions
Decision Making Process .
Improving Group Decision .
Decision Making in Educational
Organizations .

Part IV. Organizational Change and
Development . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Change Process . . . . . . . .

Resistance to Change . . . . .

Change Strategy . . . . . . . . . . .

Agents of Change .

Change and Development in Educational

Settings . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . .

V. OBJECTIVES FOR ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Some Conspicuous Defects in Current
Situations of Educational Administration

of Iran . . . . . . . . . . .
Suggested Strategies . . . . . . . . .
System Analysis . . . . . .

Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . .

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . .
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommendations for Further Study . .
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9
o

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

157
169
172
175
177

196
199
202
203

20A

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
3.1 The National System of Education . . . . . . A8

3.2 A Comparison Among the Schools From 1926
to 1976 O O O O O O I O O C O O O O O O 0 50

3.3 The Estimation of the Number of Different
Level Students by the end of the Sixth
Development Plan (1982-1983) . . . . . . . 52

3.A The Estimation of the Employees of the
Ministry of Education by the end of Sixth
Development Plan (1982-1983) . . . . . . . 53

3.5 The Organization of Ministry of Education
of Iran in November 1976 . . . . . . . . . 73

vi

LIST OF MODELS
Model Page

5.1 A Model of a System Approach to Problem
Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17A

vii

CHAPTER I

Introduction

 

"Let us begin by perfecting the system.of
education as the proper foundation whereon
to erect a temple to liberty, and to
establish a wise, equitable, and durable
policy, that our country may become indeed
as asylum to the distressed of every clime--
the abode of liberty, peace, virtue, and
happiness . . ."‘

In the present age, Society assumes education to be a
kind of panacea to open the door of economic opportunities
and equalize social privileges for the people. Education
ameliorates social injustices and heightens human equality,
dignity and development. Education generates among all
humans an awareness of their potentialities and gives them
the insight and skill necessary to reshape the environment
according to their self-development.

Education in the future will need to do more than simply
cope with society's demands for quantitative change. In
addition to the demands for greater quantity, education will
have to emphasize the development of individuals potential—
ities and provide them with greater opportunities to develop
through their own initiative and creativity.

All educational activity should lead to pupils' growth
and maturation: intellectually, socially, emotionally and
physically. Educational systems will not be successful in

developing these conditions unless they are organized and

1

2

operated to advocate and create an effective learning
environment which is crucial to the total development of the
pupil. This favorable climate leading to effective education
is ultimately determined by the human conditions which exist
in the organization. Namely, better education through better
schools depends upon the ethical sensitivity of the classroom
teachers and school administrators to the trends surrounding
them. Teachers' attitudes toward their students are affected
by their relation with their colleagues and particularly with
the educational leaders who possess the capability of creating
the humanistic environment within which the staff members may
feel free to examine themselves honestly, and, through self-
realization, continue the ongoing process of education with
curiosity, initiative, and a sense of personal worth.

Nevertheless, dysfunction in educational organizations
often exist as a result of some individuals or groups not
performing their roles in keeping with these goals. Educa-
tional leaders are the crucial determiners who should diagnose
and remedy such malfunctioning within their organizations.
They identify the roles needed in the system and assist
teachers as well as other personnel to evaluate and achieve
their designated roles. Educational administrators, through
their behavior and examples, exert a tremendous influence on
teachers and personnel. They know how to transform a neutral
body of educators into a committed polity, and are able to
vary the structural dimensions so as to create an organiza-
tional environment best suited to create effective school

systems.

3

Therefore, educational leaders in coming years need to
be sure that their leadership styles are consistent with
the broader goals of education in a changing world. They
will need to create those desirable working conditions which
are conducive to effective and efficient performance.
Administrators will need to have knowledge about educational
theories and the principles of leadership in administration
as well as competence in the day-to-day management of the
school. In order for the educational administrators to
develop their potential, they must continually examine,
criticize and up-date their thinking about the educational

administrative functions.

Purpose of the Study

The purposes of the study are:

1. To describe systematically the history and
characteristics of the educational administration
of Iran.

2. To identify the characteristics of the nation such
as social classes, community power structures,
cultural values, interest groups, pressure groups,
and the impact of these factors on the educational
programs.

3. To delineate and assess the problems which vitiate
administrative effectiveness in education.

A. To review the literature to learn how the United
states has met similar problems and achieved re-

lated objectives.

 

 

u
5. To compare and evaluate the respective experiences
and research studies in the United States educa-
tional system with Iran's in the following areas:
a. Administrator's performance.
b. Strategies for role modification of educational
administrators.
c. Organizational climate that should be responsive
to future needs.
6. Based on the preceding study, the following
recommendations will be suggested:
a. Notions of how the Iranian study of educational
administration could be expanded and improved.
b. Developing and implementing an assessment
program for measuring the educational
administrator's effectiveness.
c. Providing a conceptual framework which will
enable the educational administrators to
better understand their roles within the

organizations and to function more effectively.

The Need for the Study

 

Today the Iranian nation is endeavoring to bridge the
gap of many centuries of cultural lag by a unique change
unprecedented in her history. This revolutionary, transi-
tional period is characterized by alteration from agrarian
to industrial, from traditional to rational, from parochial
to national, and from classes to masses. The society real-

izes that schools can be an accelerating factor in the

 

 

 

5
development process. In conformity with this aim, the number
of people who are exposed to formal schooling has increased
rapidly (from 3,419025 in 1966 to 7,766,102 in 1976).2
Although there has been remarkable improvement in quantity,
the quality of education has been steadily deteriorating as
a result of the inherent incapability of the administrative
machinery to provide a system of education which meets the
needs of the poeple. The injustice, structural imbalances,
content irrelevancies, learning obstacles, verbalism,
mechanical and repetitive methods, narrowness, and bookish
programs are often distorted mirror images of problems in
the whole society. Many educational objectives are un-
favorably disseminated and non-operational. An inability
exists to measure what education produces to overcome these
shortcomings. A drastic change in administrative machinery
of Iranian educational organizations is advisable in order
to propel them efficiently toward realization of education-
al goals.

There is a discrepancy between the younger generation
which has a new social philosophy, and most of the education-
al leaders, teachers, and other personnel who come from an
older generation. They sustain the imprints of a
traditional past society, which has resulted in alienation
of youth and misguided excess of powers, leading to instabil-
ity of behavior. This problem can be attributed to the lack
of preparation and the inability of educational administra-
tors to set down innovations and attune themselves to the

.rapid changes of society. the responsibility to eliminate

6
neglect, alienation and activism among the students so as
to achieve more positive attitudes toward schools rests with
thoughtful administrators who would assume new roles in the
emerging, modernized society.

Educational settings in Iran are not the central life
interests for the majority of teachers or even administra-
tors. During their participation in work they show a general
attitude of apathy and indifference which is detrimental for
the organization. Educators response to the lawful demands
is too often that of satisfying the minimum expectations of
required behavior without reacting effectively and en-
thusiastically to those demands. Their work is kept apart
from assumed-to-be more meaningful aspects of life. Their
concerns lie outside the organization which merely provides
them income necessary to maintain off-the-job satisfaction.
They sell their time and energy for a certain number of
hours per week but jealously protect the remaining time as
their own. Such prevailing and ineffective conditions call
for a new type of leadership capable of enriching and creat-
ing an emotional atmosphere in which all function and act in
close and rewarding coordination.

The Iranian society has undertaken a wide reconstruction
of the educational system to make it a more suitable instru-
ment to meet new needs and aspirations. Nevertheless,
there still exists: (1) inadequacy of favorable rapport
between teacher and administrators; (2) lack of appropriate
communication and mutual understanding between superiors and

.SUbordinates; (3) formal and impersonal liaison among the

7
educational system's constituents; (A) absence of a friendly
atmosphere wherein there is free exchange of ideas, education-
al guidance and leaderships; (5) excessive paper work and red
tape; (6) favoritism and nepotism in allocating the higher
position; and (7) discrimination against those who are dis-
favored.

These deplorable conditions have thwarted the revital-
ization of the educational enterprise, and conversely, have
led to an unproductive milieu, fraught with insecurity,
anxiety, and confusion among educators. Prevailing situations
necessitate immediate leadership action from educational
administrators at different echelons in the whole hierarchy
in order to create a climate for sharing ideas, perceptions,
needs, problems, expertise and responsibility.

The educational system of Iran is a typical, centralized
organization where the power and authority for the decision
making prcess is mostly concentrated in the Misinster and
the Higher Council of Education. To alter the authority from
hierarchy to functionalism and constructive innovation,
the Ministry of Education has tried to decentralize the
central power to rectify the previously listed deficiencies.
Nevertheless, because the lower level of administrators may
have committed the organization to undesirable courses of
action, the desired goals have not been achieved. Hence,
setting down this and similar programs requires a type of
educational leader who understands his role and the com-
plexities of the organization. He must know how the system

IJOrks and where his work fits into the scheme of things.

8

Iran today is in the process of rapid change which has
particularly affected various phases of education--instruc-
tional methods, curriculum, and teacher accountability. Now,
it is expedient to focus attention on the top--the adminis-
trator and the organization he works for--the whole educa-
tional system. In fact, the administrator standing squarely
between the organization and society is often the one most
affected by any change. Therefore, he shouls be aware of
the nature and pressure for change. He must decide if he
can cope with it or whether he is bewildered by what is
happening and would rather let things continue as they are.
Organizational ambiguity, uncertainty, and irregularities
have already become the normal state. We shall have to
build new tools and new organizational structures to deal
with that of a continuously exploding World.

Low efficiency and poor effectiveness in attaining
educational goals demands a kind of innovation and a type
of leadership which eliminates resignation, tardiness,
absenteeism, and other problems associated with low morale.
In addition, it seems advisable for the nation to look for
ways to enable the educational system to undertake research
and development on a new scale, so that investment in
education by individual, family, and the nation can be made
more attractive and productive. The educational machinery
should be re-examined for the purposes of modernizing it and
enabling it to perform its essential services and functions.
Our educational administrators have to acquire new skills

eand understanding for their leadership roles in the chang-

9
ing society of Iran. The impact of change in Iran seems to
be so bewildering that administrators need a new frame of
reference, a fine attunement to the interrelationships be-
tween education and the broader culture. This is necessary
if they are to understand their changing roles and assume
their ever-increasing responsibilities in society.

In the last decade educational organizations have be-
come very demanding. Educational leaders are the problem
solvers and they should accommodate with various expect-
ations. When requirements are not met, teachers, students
and parents will take their complaints or demands directly
to the top. Today, leadership in educational enterprise is
undergoing radical change. No longer will people blindly
follow order or directions. The educational community is
having to face this problem by selecting more capable people
as leaders who can think flexibly and apply policies and
regulations appropriately. Educational leadership must
stem from such bases as technical expertise, ability to get
a job done, values that are respected, and ability to coach
and develop others.

Iranian Society recently has exerted great effort to
change the educational system in order to respond efficiently
to nation's growing demands and keep pace with other societal
changes. But, as a result of shortage of highly trained
personnel, scarcity of resources, cultural barriers, and
inertia, changes in educational organizations have not
(accurred as rapidly as the surrounding environment. Philip

Choombs enumerates the following cases of such disparities

10

for similar developing countries:

"The sharp increase in popular aspiration for

education, which has laid seige to existing

schools and universities; the acute scarcity

of resources which has constrained educational

systems from responding more fully to new

demands; the inherent inertia of educational

systems, which has caused them to respond

too sluggishly in adapting their internal

affairs to new external necessities, even

when resources have not been the main

obstacle to adaptation; and the inertia of

societies themselves--the heavy weight of

traditional attitudes, religious customs,

prestige and incentive patterns, and institu-

tional structures, which have blocked them

from making optimum use of education and

of educated manpower to foster national

development."3
He also maintains that the main problem of the educational
system is the inefficiency of its management and teaching
techniques. Hence, Iranian educational systems in a time
of accelerated change needs to reexamine their basic
purposes; to relate educational policy and purpose to broad
social movements and issues, and to develop appropriate
operational policies to meet present and future challenges,
stress should be placed upon broadly based preparation
programs to equip those who must not only identify signif-
icant policy issues, but who must also assume important
social roles in promoting constructive solutions to major

educational and social problems.

The Design of the Study
This study is an analysis of administrative policies
and practices of Iranian educational system and a review of

pertinent literature with avciaew to identifying and suggest-

11
ing strategies to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
educational administration in Iran. Since the problem does
not lend itself to empirical or experimental research, the
study involves historical review and present analytical
explanation. The data for the study are collected from all
available sources: The Iranian Ministry of Education, Plan
and Budget Organization of Iran, and other Iranian sources,
as well as general literature in educational administration.
In addition, the researcher's experience during 17 years work
in the Ministry of Education of Iran in different echelons of
the hierarchy will be another source in this study. Hence,
to accomplish this intention the ensuing objectives are to
be pursued.

1. Revealing the impact of Iranian social, economic,
and political conditions on administration of
education.

2. Delineating the history of development of
Iranian educational administration and examine
the existing administrative performance to
identify the problems and issues that impair its
effectiveness.

3. Reviewing the relevant literature on educational
administration and related areas with special
emphasis on leadership, decision-making process,
teacher evaluation, motivation, morale,
organizational climate, and communication to

see possible products of change.

12
Suggesting what administrators need to know about
the educational system, its complexities and where
their work fits into the scheme of things.
Obtaining some criteria and yardsticks to measure
administrative performance in educational settings.
Comparing the current administrative performance
in Iranian educational organizations with
reference to these criteria.
Suggesting strategies to improve the effectiveness
in educational enterprises.
Recommending areas as basic data collection in
Iran which would improve effective decision mak-
ing.
In sum, this bears the aim of this study as it
attempts to explore the possibilities of expansion
of the study and research in the field of
educational administration in Iran on the basis
of what has been achieved comparatively in the

United States.

Basic Assumptions

 

The behavioral sciences can make a contribution

to an administrator's understanding of the way
people behave in the orginizational settings which
would generate a pleasant and invigorating climate
leading to effectiveness and efficiency.

There is increased realization that effectiveness

depends more and more on the degree of initiative

 

13
and competence within which educational systems
are designed and tested by educators.
Educational administrators can decide more wisely,
communicate more effectively, cope with change
more constructively, and handle morale problems
more skillfully if they are exposed to new results
of research studies and frames of reference from
which are generated dynamic administrative skills.
If the Iranian educational settings are to be
responsive to future needs and become more
serviceable to educational and national goals,

they should be evaluated and updated periodically.

Limitation and Scope of the Study
Thisstudy is concerned only with administrative
practices and procedures of the educational
organization of Iran.

The sheer idea of this investigation is to

propose suggestions and some strategies to improve
efficiency and effectiveness of educational
administrators in Iran and not to explore
effective means of implementing change.

The scope of this study is limited to contriving
some guidelines in which Iranian educational
administrative practices need accentuation. The
effort was madetxaidentify those methods and
techniques which are efficient and effective

practices in the educational setting in the

1A
United States, intending to apply some of them
profitably to the existing educational organiza-
tions in Iran.
This study does not intend to make substantial
suggestions for changing the administrative struc-
ture in Iran or compartmentalizing-.the prevalent
educational and administrative pattern by simply
substituting the American design. Considering
the two functioning systems of Iran and the
United States, the aim is to examine those
applicabilities for Iran in view of her educational
needs for better administration in the modern
society. The question of precedencies and
priorities in the educational development has been
taken into account. Hence, the guidelines which
have a definite utility to the changing conditions

of Iran are mainly considered for recommendation.

Rationale for Application

John and Ruth Useem believe that "a modern-
izing society is one which creates its
future rather than lives off its past,
which continuously generates its culture
both with respect to values and sub-
stantive content . . . the first domain

of modernity pertains to the global

modern third culture which sets the
expectations for the bi-national and multi-
national endeavors which take, as their
primary goals, political, economic,
scientific and technological development.
The second domain of modernity concerns

the complex organizational structures
within which most moderizers function.

The third dimension of modernity in

this content is the capacity of a

15
nation-state and world community to meet
the 'rising tide of aspirations' of and
for the masses."

Iranian society is presently striving to carry through
its modernization and national development. It achieves
maturity when it is able to evoke within itself the attitudes
of adding new ideas and discarding obsolete practices. In
this sense, therefore, one may well assert that a functional
preveauiSitee for its mature modernization is the appro-
priate opportunity for exploring the alternatives which are
available and feasible for a modern society to use in the
next stage of its development. Hence, the ultimate value of
transforming a stagnant past Iranian society into a prod-
uctive, dynamic, and economic one lie in the aims of
fostering a situation in which the masses are given
opportunities to understand and appreciate the privileges
of the modern world and different cultures through free
contacts and communication without losing their own cultural
identity and integration. It is becoming evident that a
developing nation can achieve modernization through cultural
cooperation, and derive new ideas and technologies by
modernizing its institutions, its bureaucratic organizations
and its people.

Martin Carney and Henry M. Levin paraphrase Philip
Coombs's suggestions for developing countries educational
crisis as follows:

"First he (Coombs) assumes that where social
and economic aspirations are unfulfilled, a
higher average education implies a greater

propensity to demand radical change. Second,
he assumes that in general the optimum path

16

of social change for underdeveloped
countries is in the historical foot-
steps of the developed countries,
transforming economy, polity, and
culture to conform with Western
"modern" industrial standards."5

Coombs and Hallak believe that an international educa-
tion system should be predominated all over the universe
to profit poor and rich nations equally and without
exploitation.

"In closing, we stress one further
feature of strategy--namely,
International Cooperation. We agree
that every nation must be the master
of its own educational destiny, and
that it must largely support its own
education system, however poor the
nation may be. But on the grounds laid
out earlier, we assert that no nation
given the crisis conditions affecting
all--can successfully "go it alone."
International educational cooperation
on a vastly extended scale must,
therefore, be a cardinal feature of
our educational stragegy for rich and
poor nations alike."

As a result of the above statements we recognize that
the science of educational administration in the United
States is well advanced with evidence of sophisticated
research work. There is no reason, then, why the application
of certain principles and ideas on which effective adminis-
trative strategies are based would be inappropriate or
impossible. But the applicationowill have to be gradual,
intelligent, and innovative in character, suited to the

present context of Iran's development program.

Definition of the Terms

 

Administration: Administration is a process to mobilize

human and material resources toward attainment of

17
specific goals. Monahan defines administration as "the
actualization and the operationalization of authroity
within complex organizational systems for the pursuit of

7

particular ogjectives." He also maintains that
administration is rooted in the sociocultural and
economic factors of the people. Administration has been
defined by the World Survey of Education as "the process
of coordinating the efforts of the personnel of an
organization and effectively using material resources in
such a way as to make best use of human abilities."8
Effectiveness: Effectiveness of an organization is measured
by its goal-achievement and its interaction to the environ-
ment. Argyris hold that organizational effectiveness
depends upon the achievement of three essentials: "1)
achieve its goals; 2) maintain itself internally; 3)

9 James L. Gibson et.al.

adapt to its environment."
states: "In the context of organizational behavior
effectiveness refers to the optimal relationship among
five components: production. efficiency, satisfaction.
adaptiveness. and development."10
Efficiency: Efficiency refers to the relative cost to
accomplish a given objective. James L. Gibson et.al.
present the following definition: "A short-run
criterion of effectiveness which refers to the ability
of the organization to produce outputs with minimum use
of inputs. The measure of efficiency is always in ratio
terms, such as benefit, cost, cost/output, and cost/

time."11 Herbert Simon Notes: "In its broadest sense,

18
to be efficient simply means to take the shortest path,
the cheapest means, toward the attainment of the
desired goals. The efficiency criterion is completely
natural as to what goals are to be attained."12
Strategy: Strategy refers to a skillful means for accom—
plishment of a plan or action. Ivor Morrish paraphrases
Miles's definition of strategy as: "A strategy, in
operational terms. is a set of policies which underlie
specific tactics or actions that are considered useful
in order to bring about the permanent installation of a

13

particular innovation."

19

Chapter I

Notes

1Robert Coran, "A Plan for the General Establishment
of Schools Throughout the United States," Essays on
Education in the Early Republic, ed. Frederick Rudolph
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), p. 1A5.

 

2Ministry of Education of Iran, Department of

Coordination for Educational Plan, Bureau of Statistics, A
Summary of Educational Statistics, 1976, p. 2.

3Philip Coombs, The World Education Crisis, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1968), p. A.

“John and Ruth Hill Useem, Educated Indians and
Americans in India, "A Comparison of Two Modernizing Roles",

1971, p. 1.

5Martin Carnoy and Henry M. Levin, The Limits of Educa-
tional Reform, (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1976),
p. 2A6.

6Philip Coombs and Jacques Hallak, Managing Educational

Costs (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), p. 172.

7William G. Monahan, Theoretical Dimensions of
Educational Administration, (New York: MacMillan Publish-
ing Co., Inc., 1975), p. 1.

8World Survey of Education: Educational Policy,

Legislation and Administration, UNESCO, Paris, 1971, p. A0.

 

9Chris Argyris, Integratinggthe Individual and the
Organization, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 196A),
p. 123.

10James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevish, and James H.

Donnelly, Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes,
(Dallas, Texas: Business Publication, Inc., 1975), p. A75.

111616., p. A75.

12Herbert A. Simon, Decision-Making and Administrative
Organization, (The University of Chicago, Public Adminis-
trative Review, Vol. IV, No. 1, Winter 19AA), p. A5.

 

20

13Ivor Morrish, Aspects of Educational ChangeJ (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976), p. 115.

CHAPTER II

The adaptability of an organization to change and its
capability to respond to the society's demands are enormously
influenced by sucH factors as: ecology, sociocultural, and
economic-political realities. Hasenfeld and English, in
paraphrasing Thompson's notion, maintain:

The nature of the organization's adaptation
and ability to enhance its autonomy is
determined by the power-dependence relations
that exist between it and critical elements
in the environment.

Talcott Parsons supports these facts and holds:

....a social system oriented to the attain-
ment of a relatively specific type of goal,
which contributes to a major function of a
more comprehensive system, usually the

society. Such an organization is analyzed in
terms of an institutionalized value system,
above all defining and legitimizing its goal,
and of the mechanisms by which it is articulated
with the rest of the society in which it
operates. There are three primary contexts

of this articulation: (1) procurement of

the necessary resources, financing, personnel
services, and "organization" in the economic
sense; (2) the operative code centering on
decisions which are classified as policy
decision, and coordinating decisions, and
allocating decisions; and (3) the institutional
structure which integrates the organization
with others, centering on contracts, authority,
and tbs institutionalization of Universalistic
Rules.

Based on this viewpoint, a brief statement of the
geography of the land, climate, economic conditions, cultural
life of the inhabitants and other factors having an impact on

21

22
Iran's educational system are presented in the following

sections.

I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Kingdom of Iran is situated in southwestern Asia
between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. It is bordered
by Iraq on the west, Turkey on the northwest, the Soviet
Union to the north, Afghanistan to the east, and Pakistan to
the southeast. Iran has an area of about 636,000 square
miles extending between Latitude 250 and AOON and Longitude
AA0 and 630E. Consisting of an interior plateua, 3,000 to
5,000 feet high, Iran is almost encircled by mountains of
varying height and size.

The climate is one of great extremes. In the South and
the desert regions, the summer is extremely hot and
temperatures rise over 1300?. Northwest regions are mild in
summer and very cold in winter, sometimes reaching -200F.
Other parts of Iran enjoy a mild winter and reasonably warm
summer.

Along the Caspian Sea, annual rainfall is from A0 to 60
inches, whereas desert regions and the southeast receive less
than 5 inches. Rainfall in the northwest often ranges be
.tween '5 to 35 inches per year. The humidity along the
Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf is very high, while other parts
of the country are arid all summer. Most rivers and streams
in Iran flow into the vast interior desert drainage areas.

This interior drainage feature is important to Iran's economic

life.

23

The 1976 population was estimated at 3A.8 million.
Fifty-four percent of the population live in rural districts
and small villages and A6 percent in towns and large cities.
Nearly four million people remain as tribesmen. Approximately
50,000 villages are sparsely scattered on the plateau, how-
ever, nomads spend summer in the higher altitude because
heavy snows and bitter winters make village life impossible.
Farm communities occupy the level ground more suitable for
cultivation. For centuries farmers have led isolated,
self-sufficient lives, and the barriers separating them from
the outer world have preserved historical continuity, racial
stocks, and provided comparative safety and independence
during foreign invasions.

Muslims comprise ninety-eight percent of the population,
and minority groups (Christian, Hebrew, Zoroastrian, etc.)
make up the remaining two percent. Iranians desend mainly
from the Shi'a sect of Islam, and only five percent practice
the Sunni rite.

About two-thirds of the population speak Persian, Farsi.
One-fifth of the total population, speak Turkic; the remain-
ing inhabitants speak old Persian dialects or other ancient

Indo-Aryan Languages.

II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Iran is etymologically akin to the word Aryans, Indo-
European nomadic people originally from central Asia. About
the 17th century B.C. several tribal migrations entered the

high plateau below the Caspian Sea. Before 1935 (during

2A
historic times), Iran was known as Persia, and adaptation
from her earlier tribal name Parsa, Persis. In time, this
name was changed to Pars and Ears. However, the country's
language is Persian, Farsi to the dwellers, since it was
derived over the centuries from the ancient Parsa language.

Some of the oldest settlements in the world have been
found in Iran, dating from 8,000 B.C. or earlier, but little
is known of the origin of their inhabitants.

The Achaem‘enid Empire, the first great Persian empire,
was founded by Cyrus who revolted against the Median Empire
in 550 B.C. King Cyrus, Darius I and Xerxes I established
a world empire extending between the Oxus and Indus Rivers
to the east, and Thrace with Macedonia to the west, stretch-
ing from the desert of Algeria to the border of China. It
was overthrown in 330 B.C. by Alexander, the Macedonian,
whose generals ruled the country until 250 B.C. The
Parthians, a group of Iranian nomads, then assumed power and
reigned until 22A A.D.

The Sassanian Dynasty, established with the collapse
of Parthians, witnessed the rebirth of a nationalistic
Persia, prosperous and unreceptive to foreign contacts and
influence. The language, arts and Zoroastrian religion
were revived.

Persia, weakened by the exhausting war with Byzantium
and consequent turmoil over the succession to the throne as
well as a corrupt and decaying social system, was unable
to resist Arab Muslim attacks. In 6A2 A.D. the Arabs over-

turned the Sassanian dynasty and converted many of the

25
ancient Persian people to Islamic doctrine, which emphasized
equality, justice, humanitarian treatment and honesty. The
Arabs introduced the language of the Koran, their philosophy,
customs, laws and traditions. Wilber writes:
However, the coming of Islam did produce pro-
found alternations in the political, economic,
and social structure. The age-old Iranian
ideas of divine right and autocratic control were
challenged by a democratic spirit and by the
internationalism of the new religion, while
at the same time the cultural superiority of
the Iranians and their pride in their institution
remained, to stamp the cultural and artistic
future of Islamic Iran with a character quite
different from that of any of the other Muslim
countries.3

Soon after the Arab occupation of Iran, many semi-
independent and independent dynasties arose throughout
Persia. These protected and supported the present.Persian
language, literature and arts, and were instrumental in
Iran's later revival.

In the middle of the 13th Century, Persia was overrun
for the third time and devastated by the savage Mongols.
The catastrophies of this invasion were so destructive that
Persian society never recovered. Jovayni describes the
Mongols in these words: "They came, they uprooted, they
burned, they slew, they carried off, they departed."u

One century later, Tamerlane, after frequent attacks,
dominated the country. His conquests, although less
destructive than those of the earlier Mongols, worked
considerable havoc. After so many atrocious invasions, it

is hard to believe that Iran would rise again and create

once more a mighty, glorious empire. During the 16th

 

26
Century, the country again achieved power and splendor under
the rule of Shah Abbas the Great. His reign marked one of
Persia's Golden Ages, reminiscent of Cyrus the Great and
Darius I.

The glorious Safavid period suffered attacks by Turks
and Russians, and eventually collapsed in 1722 after an
Afghan invasion. In 1729, an Iranian Patriot, Nadir Shah,
routed the enemy forces and launched a campaign against India.
defeating a huge Mongolian army north of Delhi. This was
followed by the rule of Karim Khan Zand. In 1779 the Qajar
dynasty was established and ruled until 1925. The bitter
event of this period was the defeat of the Iranian army by
Russia in two disastrous wars in 1813 and 1828.

In 1925, Reza Shah terminated the Qajar Dynasty. Dur-
ing his reign, he took many firm stands to modernize,
industrialize and strengthen the country. On September 16,
19A1, after Allied pressure, Reza Shah abdicated. His son,
Muhammad Reza Shah, took the oath required of the Sovereign
the following day. Since then, Iran has maintained a

progressive and challenging society.

III. CULTURAL BACKGROUND
During her long history, Iran was invaded by Greek,
Roman, Arab, Mongol, Turkish and Russian forces; in World
War II it was occupied by Soviet, British and American
tneoops. Nevertheless, after each devastating invasion Iran
Vfiis able to assimilate extraneous stock, and retrieve nation-

al identity through cultural and social patterns rich and

 

 

 

27
attractive to foreign invaders, who later adopted and
advocated the Iranian life- Wilber states:

Iran's civilization has its own distinctive
character. One force which moulded it--a
static one--was the geographical location

of Iran as a land bridge between East and
West, offering positive advantages to the
growth of civilization and culture while

at the same time inviting disaster. In

the course of long centuries the total number
of the newcomers far exceeded that of the
original inhabitants of the plateau, but

they were all absorbed by and became a part of
Iranian civilization, a conversion favored

by the low cultural development of the areas
in which the newcomers usually originated,

and by the force of attractiveness of the
Iranian cultural modes. Probably the most
striking example of this absorption is

that of Mongols, who entered the plateau

as barbarians reveling in slaughter and
destruction and after two generations of
settled existence became fervent admirers 5
and advocates of every aspect of Iranian life.

Iran was always apt to admit and to intermix exotic
ideas and influences, as well as specific artistic forms,
but they were never copied. Instead, they were re-studied,
re-worked and re-expressed in a characteristic fashion.
Iran was one of the most advanced societies of the world,
and with her rich culture, has contributed greatly to world
civilizations. According to the Area Handbook for Iran it
states:

Iranians were among the major contributors to
the growth of Islamic science, especially
during the golden age of Islam until the fall
of Baghdad in 1258. A number of their works
were passed on to medieval Europe through
translations and there they became textbooks.
Their contributions are found in all branches

of science but were particularly prominent in
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and pharmacology.

28

About the contribution of Iranian religions in ancient
time Edward Browne writes that "Persia gave us Zoroaster to
whose system Judaism, Christianity, and Islam alike are in—
debted in different degrees; Mazdak, the earliest philosoph-
ical communist; Babak called al-Khurami, who for so many years
defied the armies of Abbassid Caliphs; and a host of others."7

Early in the Islamic period, Iranian thinkers, scholars,
scientists and poets contributed strongly to Islam civiliza-
tion, in particular, and to the world civilization, in
general, by active participation in various schools of
thought, sects, heresies, or often by initiating and
founding them.

Iran's literature is rich in areas such as poetry,
history; geography; encyclopedia; philosophy; mysticism;
theology; jurisprudence; medicine; chemistry; astronomy;
biography; grammar; and practical wisdom. Poetry, expecially
mystic peotry, provided for considerable philosophic and
religious speculation. Poetry was not only the major art
form but, by virtue of its wide scope and rich context,
the most expressive vehicle of Iranian thought and senti-
ment. Edward Brown writes that as a literature of which
any nation might be proud, especially in the domain of
poetry and more particularly mystical poetry.8

Significant fashions and styles in architecture, music,
painting, calligraphy, carpet weaving, and various handicrafts
make Iran one of the most artistic nations in the Middle
East. In a pamphlet issued in 1930, the American Institute

for Persian Art and Archaeology made the following statement:

29

For more than fifty centuries art of high
quality has been produced in Persia, a

record of continuous activity hardly equalled
in any other region. The art of Persia
preceded that of Greece, and Persia continued
to develop new and important styles long
after the decline of both Rome and Byzantium.
Quite as important as its antiquity and
intrinsic value, is the contribution that the
art of Persia has made to world civilization,
comparable even to that of Greece. From
Persia issued a series of architectural forms
and decorative principles that entered into
both Gothic and Renaissance architecture

and ornament, and various arts of India and
China are under obligation to Persia. In
architectural ornament both in faience and
stucco, in silver and bronze, in ceramics,
textiles, carpets, in calligraphy, illuminat-
ing, and bgokbinding, Persia has set world
Standards.

IV. SOCIAL BACKGROUND

During her long adventurous history, the Iranian society
has had various social structures. In Avesta, a book
illustrating the Aryan's way of life, Iranian society was
separated into three classes: the priestly, the military
and the peasant. During Sassanian Dynasty the peasant
class was subdivided into those owning land and those who
worked for landowners.

During the Parthian's rule, the society resembled
feudalism, and military leaders and local governors con-
tolled vast areas. In Islamic times, men of pen rated
high within the society, followed by warriors, traders and
artisans, and finally agriculturists. By the 17th Century,
the: court, religious hierarchy, civil and military
autlnorities, landowners and peasants were ranked,

reslpectively. At the top of social strata, in 1906, were

30
princes and members of the royal family followed by religious
figures, nobles, bureaucrats, merchants and farmers.

Following recent reforms and changes, Islamic society
is now comprised of urban, market town, village and tribal
entities. Urban society includes upper, middle and lower
class strata, each exhibiting modern and traditional traits.
The market town group displays characteristics of both urban
and rural areas, and functions as a liaison between them. A
wide gap still remains between the members of the educated,
urban elite and the lower urban classes and villages.

Iranian villagers stress kinship and local relationship
more than membership in class or national structure. The
four million individuals living in tribal organized societ-
ies have been least affected by the forces of modernization
and social reforms, but traditional values and structures are
beginning to give way to new forms.

In the last decade villagers have become more aware of
the value of education and modern technology. They appre-
ciate and embrace it as a means of changing their life
styles and promoting economic growth. Today, education,
achievement and occupation are significant criteria in the
social mobility of the developing society of Iran.

Many factors have had an impact on Iranian thought,
social behavior and cultural phenomena. The following are

of great significance:

”lb‘.--—- - .1 -

31
Religion ’

Iranian religions, either Zoroastrianism whose persist-
ent motto is "Good thought, good word, and good deeds," or
Islam which stresses piety, honesty and righteous deeds, are
concerned with the ethical obligations of man and their
function in his redemption. Moral duties, humane conduct
and pious deed of the followers are promised reward in the
final judgment. According to Islamic tenets, establishment
of hospitals and religious schools, construction of mosques
and shrines, feeding the poor, and extermination of

heretical sects are important.

Mysticism
Sufis, or followers of mysticism, follow a variety of

doctrines not always in accordance with Islamic tenets. They
believe that for exaltation of the soul and unification with
its creator, the body suffers. Wilber states:

According to their conviction mortal flesh

suffers and the soul longs for union with

the reality, its creator, and for escape

from this realm of conflict between good

and evil to that of identification with
absolute good.1O

Poetry

Mystical attitudes, religious speculations and philos-
ophies are disseminated throughout Iranian society through
poets and popular Sufi orders. Poems composed by some of
the distinguished poets such as Ferdowsi, Khayyam, Saadi,

Hafiz,Nasir-e Khosrow, Sanaai, Attar, Mowlavi, and Jami

32
reveallranian spiritual life, thoughts and attitudes, and
the world perspective inspried by them. The authors of

the Area Handbook for Iran describe Iranian scholars and

 

poet's works as follows:

This world view, according to some scholars,
is comparable to existentialism and shows
life as a short span of time, fraught with
ignorance and vanity. The past appears out
of reach and the future unknown and perhaps
not knowable. Man is shown as guided by his
greed and ambition, driven to cruelty, pride,
dishonesty but failing to find satisfaction
in the pursuit of the demands of his baser
instincts. Love and kindness are portrayed as
keys to happiness and the reader is exhorted
to prepare for the hereafter through pious
deeds. These thoughts are followed by
metaphysical speculation regarding the real
or imagined existence of the hereafter and by
a search for the guiding purpose of the
universe. Questing moodes alternate with
exaltations of the sensuous pleasures of the
moment, praising the soothing effects of wine
and love on human faults and doubts. 1

From about the 12th Century onward, as the result of
Islam tenets, the study of methaphysics lost significance.
It became particularly suspect after Shiism became the
official religion of the country in the 16th Century. Today
Iranian poets try to show the vitality of change by glorify-
ing the past, and expressing desire or reform and future

social justice with partriotic poetry.

Events

In addition to the calamities and catastrophies in-
flicted on Iranian society by Greek, Mongol, Turkish and
Arab invasions, the permanent hazards of earthquakes, floods

and epidemic diseases have threatened the country and caused

33
severe damage and death. Furthermore, geographic barriers,
as well as the large size of the country and the interior
deserts, have all adversely affected communications within
the country and with other nations of the world.

In Iranian society, Shah was the Shadow of God on the
Earth, guardian of the prosperity and peace of his people.
This role in the life of the country, and his deeds have
had a lasting impact on Iranian social patterns, behavioral
modes and philosophy.

Since ancient times Iranian society has remained firmly
family-oriented. Individuals devoted considerable time and
energy in uplifting and supporting family members. The
father has ultimate authority and makes important family
decisions in terms of selecting an occupation and marriage
partner of his son. A child learns to obey and respect his
elders from his father.

Social status has traditionally depended on occupation
or position. Social order was confirmed by a kind of ceremo-
nial courtesy demanding submissiveness and respect. A
person's rank on the social ladder was identified by the
degree of courtesy and behavior. The genesis of the formal
courtesy was due to many phenomena. Bitter experiences
resulting from invasions by different nations have produced
a defensive behavior toward coercive world demands, and a
kind of reluctancy to become involved in other's affairs.
But traits such as dignity, selfrespect, ability to perform,
sacramental duties, integrity, hospitality, generosity, and

getting along well with others were strongly admired and

3A
followed. Wilber concludes, "Persian society preserved its
character through a deliberate emphasis on those patterns of
behavior and of social relations which could best withstand
upheavals, stresses, and strain, and keep the family aloof

from the world around it."12

V. ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

Most Iranian people survive on agriculture. Although
farming methods have been primitive and yield low, drawbacks
to efficient production--archaic land tenure systems, absentee
landlords, lack of education, shortage of capital, unavail-
ability of fertilizer and agricultural machinery-~are
gradually being overcome. Over two-thirds of the land area
of Iran is taken up by the highest mountain ranges and great
deserts and is unsuitable for cultivation.

About nine percent of the country is covered with timber,
possibly A5,000,000 acres. Five percent of the total area is
under cultivation, but of this area, A1 million acres lie
fallow each year. Less than one-half of the cultivated area
is irrigated. Cereals, including wheat, barley and rice are
the main crops grown. A large variety of fruits, vegetables
and other field crops are also produced in Iran.

The oil industry in Iran began in 1909 and has become
highly developed in the last decade. Oil income provides
about A7.2 percent of the budget of the country and, in
1976, Iran was the second largest producer to crude oil in
tfiue Middle East. Iran also possesses extensive mineral re-

SOLJrces such as coal, iron, copper, zinc, chromite and

35
uranium ores, silver, gold, chemical salts and sulphates.

The fishing industry of the Caspian Sea in the North and
the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in the South provide food
and income for the people of Iran. The best known caviar of
the world and several fish varieties are exported to foreign
countries every year.

Recently, Iranian society has been dragged rapidly along
the path of industrialization. According to Wilber in 1973,
6,000 large and small factories employed 3,000,000 workers;
225,000 smaller industrial workshops employed 1.7 million
people.

Iranians have always had a high reputation as craftsmen--
particularly in metal work and in carpetmaking. Persian rugs
and carpets represent the most important export item, and
until recently have been able to compete successfully with
the machine-woven rugs of western countries.

Economic activity in Iran has suffered from the hand-
icapps of high mountains that surround the plateau, climate,
prolonged political and social insecurity (with accompanying
pressure by foreign powers), and widespread devastation in
the later Middle Ages by Mongolian invaders. But over the
last decade the economic condition of the country has improved
drastically. One inicator of this growth is the rise in the
gross national product to 66.A billion dollars in 1977-1978.
Another indicator is the increase in per capita income--1,950

13

dOllars a year.

36

VI. POLITICAL BACKGROUND

In 1971, Iran celebrated her 25th centennial as an
established monarchy. Over the long centuries since the rise
of the Achaemenid Empire (550 B.C.) the territory has been
ruled by many sovereigns bearing the same title (Shah,
Shahinshah). In the early 20th Century the country was still
an absolute monarchy with a medieval, feudal society. Its
state administrative structure was debilitated at all levels
to the extent that social and economic stagnation prevailed.
During the early centuries a hierarchical social system had
developed, largely influenced by various geographical
aspects. Topographical barriers adversely affected commu-
nication and the nation's development.

In 1906, an Imperial decree was issued to convene a
Constituent Assembly. This assembly adopted the constitution
of Iran in the same year. It provided for a government com-
posed of three branches: 1) the executive, whose power is
entrusted in the cabinet and in government officials func-
tioning in the name of the Shah. The Shah appoints the Prime
Minister, who must be approved by the Majlis (National
Consultative Assembly). The Prime Minister then selects
the cabinet.ministers who must meet Royal approval. Finally,
the governmental program is presented to parliament for
consent. 2) the judicial power, composed of a hierarchy of
courts ranging from district courts up to a supreme court.

3) the legislative power, comprised of the Senate and the

National Consultative Assembly (Majlis).

37

No bills become law until signed by the Shah. The
number of members of the Assembly increased with population
growth, and by the July 1971 election had reached 268. The
Senate, convened in February 1950, comprises 60 Senators.
Thirty of these are appointed by the Shah, 15 are elected by
the people of Tehran, the capital city, and 15 from the rest
of the country. The Senate's role is to act, if necessary,
as a conservative check on the more exuberant Majlis.
Senators and Majlis members serve a A year term.

Parliament receives proposed legislation which may be
passed by a majority vote from cabinet ministers. Deputies
may also initiate bills if they are signed by 15 other
deputies.

The constitution gives parliament authority to control
policies and acts of the cabinet on matters vital to the
nation. It must approve any disposal of state property of
funds, internally or foreign, manage concessions and monop-
olies, government borrowing, and proposed construction of
roads and railways. The Shah may order the Majlis dissolved
during a session, but must give his reason for such action.
He may also withhold his signature from bills passed by the
parliament and return them for reconsideration. Apart from
naming and dismissing ministers, the Shah possesses only the
following constitutional prerogatives: command of the armed
forces; conferring of military rank; declaration of war and
conclusion of peace; and the convocation of special

parliament sessions.

38

Iran is presently divided into 21 administrative
provinces and two independent governate-generals. Each
province is governed by a governor-general, whose area of
authority is divided into countries, each under a governor.
A county is subdivided into urban and rural districts managed
by a bakhshdar (lower than governor). Each district
contains small towns and villages having their own headman,
known as Kadkhoda, with some responsibility to the

government.

39

Chapter II

Notes

1Yeheskel Hasenfeld and Richard A. English, Human
Service Organizations, (Ann Arbor, The University of
Michigan Press, 197A7, pp. 99-100.

2Talcott Parsons, Administrative Science Quarterly,
Vol. I, No. I, June 1956, p. 63.

3Donald N. Wilber, Iran Past and Present, (New Jersey,
Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 38.

“Mohammad Jovayni, Tarikh-i Jahan Gosha (content in
Farsi), Translated and cited by Issa Khan Sadiq in Modern
Persia and Her Educational System, (New York City: Teachers
Training College, Columbia University, 1931), p. 10.

5Op. Cit., Wilber, p. 76.

6U.S. Department of the Army, Area Handbook for Iran

(Washington D.C.: The American University Press, 1971),
p. 18A.

7George Browne, Preface to Persian Revolution,
(Cambridge, England, 1910?, p. 13.

8Ibid., p. 1A.

9The American Institute for Persian Art, 1930, cited
by Issa Khan Sadiq in Modern Persia and Her Educational
System, (New York City: Teachers Training College, Columbia
University, 1931), p.2.

10Op. Cit., Wilber, p. 8A.

11Op. Cit., Area Handbook of Iran, p. 183.

12Op. Cit., Wilber, p. 122.

13National Basic Intelligence Factbook, January 1975,
p. 99.

CHAPTER III

EDUCATION
Early Education

Education has always been an effective instrument for
the diffusion of the tenets and doctrine of any religion.
Zoroasterian tenets were the genesis of early education in
Iran. In Avesta, Zoroaster emphasized education and the
methods of teaching. As cited in Pandnameh Azarbad:

See that your wife and children pursue
knowledge and virtue. If you have
young children, boys or girls, send
them to school because the torch of
learning is the light of vision of the
age.

In the Achaemanid and Sassanian periods the society
tried to inculcate in the youth a sense of patriotism, piety
and morality. Good deeds, good words, and good behavior were
the main aspirations of Zoroastrianism. The youth were
taught not only horseback riding, shooting, archery, chariot
racing, but were taught to know the value of truth and to
distinguish between good and bad. Parents endeavored to
raise productive children who would support the family and
the country, and they requested it from God with the follow-
ing prayer:

0h, Ahurmazda, endow me with an educated
child, a child who will participate in
his community, a child who will fulfill his

duty in society, a child who will strive
for the happiness of his family, his city,

A0

A1

and his country, an honorable child
who may contribute to other's needs.

2

In acient times encultration was achieved through
family, society, kinship, peer group, games, and participa-
tion in contests. It is worth saying that individualism
was not favored and was not considered a virtue. Arasteh
writes:

Through the whole process of socialization
and training of youths, the state in old
Iran exercised considerable power. It
denied the individual natural rights and
substituted instead a thorough program of
indoctrination which emphasized physical
fitness, loyalty, obedience and unquestion-
ing sense of duty to glorify the nation.
Individualism, in the sense of the Greek
city-state or its modern usage, did not
prevail, for the system was essentially a
social hierarchy based on seniority witg
authoritative, rather than lawful rule.

The Arab invasions and the fall of the Sassanian
Dynasty in 6A2 A.D. led to the conversion of the Iranian
people to Islam and the creation of a new era. Arabs brought
new ideas, attitudes, behavior, and customs. Education was
based on the Qora'n's teachings, and only those who were
knowledgeable in Arabic could properly teach. Mosques
became the centers of learning and the Muslim religious
leaders were in charge of teaching. Nevertheless, the family
and the community still operated as the initial place for
training children. In later centruies, in addition to
mosques, Maktabs, Madressehes, Bazaars and recreational
institutions contributed to the personality development of
the individual.

The nature of Islam encouraged learning and education,

and the Prophet Muhammad has emphasized this virtue in many

A2

verses: "The search for knowledge is the duty of every
Muslim man and woman."u

However, in the Islamic atmosphere the religion and
moral training were stressed, and even before entering school
the Iranian child learned to pray. Many families also read
aloud the Qorah to instruct their children in its religious
tenets. To illustrate the ancient Iranian education more
clearly, various institutions which were responsible for it

are discussed below.

Maktab
Since the beginning of Islam, learning the Qorah,

and the reading and writing of the Persian language were
taught in a rote fashion with firm discipline by religious
leaders or those who had familiarity with the Arabic
language in places known as Maktabs. Wilber describes
Maktab as:

After the Arab invasion and the adoption

of the Muslim religion, education was

based upon the Qoran just as in Europe it

was based upon the Bible. For many

centruies Muslim priests taught, in

return for a very small sum of money from each

parent, in schools called Maktabs, where

the children memorized the Qoran by chant-

ing its verses in unison and learned to reag

and write Persian and do simple arithmetic.

It should be added that rich and affluent Iranian people

had private Maktabs and their children had the benefit of
better education and facilities.

In addition to Maktabs, there were also many religious

schools, often adjacent or attached to mosques, financed

A3
and supported by private donations and religious foundations.
In these religious schools the male students were taught
religious law, religious philosophy, and the interpretation
of the Qoran by religious scholars. No formal examinations
were given in these religious schools and the students were

usually trained for the priesthood and preaching.

Madrasseh

 

There also existed an institution called Madrasseh, in
which students were given a classical education including
studies of Islamic philosophy, literature, science, and
mathematics. Intellectual and talented students, then,
could continue their studies in higher institutions located
in a few large cities like Isfahan, Baghdad, and Neishabur.
In these institutions the students were offered a pragmatic

philosophy of life rather than religious dogma.

Bazaar

The third source which significantly contributed to
maintaining the cultural heritage was the bazaar. In such
a place the children were exposed directly to the professions
and learned how to become businessmen, tailors, silversmiths.
The Bazaar with its guild system, had a great impact on an
urban youth's life, the formation of his value system, and
his patterns of behavior both socially and vocationally.

Two other institutions, namely the Mosques and the
Zurkhanehes, were the places of public congregations and

learning. In mosques, Muslims were taught the principles

AA

and tenets of Islam by religious leaders or local preachers,
with significant influence on Iranian social life and conduct.
In Zurkhaneh,a physical and cultural society, the adults were
trained in physical activities and prepared for confronting
unwarranted forces. Arasteh states:

The Zurkhana also helped indoctrinate

the youth into the community; it

emphasized that he accept religious

and social values, and it gave youth

a series of goals by which they coulg

gain local and national recognition.

Education in rural areas of ancient Iran either did not

exist or it was restricted to a Maktab. Parents undertook
the responsibility of training their children for adjustment

of social life by giving them practical tasks in the field

such as harvesting crops.

Education in Modern Time

 

The acquisition of higher education during the ancient
and medieval period was not accessible to the masses of
Iranian people, and only a few individuals who could bear
the expenses and had a high motive for their own illumina-
tion undertook this course of endeavor. Admittedly these
individuals who followed such disciplines as political
science, history, theology, philosophy, literature and art
either entered the government service and gained recognition
or preferred to aspire for self-development and perfection.

The unfortunate military defeat of Iran by the Russians
between 1813 and 1828 was a startling incident which

awakened the nation to the great technological gap between

A5

itself and Western countries. To overcome this shortcoming
and to confront the ever-increasing political and economic
influence and the intervention of British and Russians,
some attempts were made to establish greater contact with
the Europeans by enlisting their services and by sending
Iranian students to Europe.

This attempt got momentum during the premiership of
Amir Kabir, a man of distinguished and far-sighted character.
Concomitant with the reorganization of the army by the
European military missions, Amir Kabir brought about the
establishment of a modern college in 1851. This institution
of higher education, founded in Tehran and called Dar-al-
Funun (politechnic), initially focused its attention on
military subjects, but very soon enlarged its program and
offered courses in medicine, surgery, physics, mathematics,
minerology and chemistry. A few Iranians who were educated
abroad while Austrian, English, French and German professors
taught in that college. The medium of instruction was the
French language. The students of Dar-al-Funun were selected
from the higher strata, but the school performed a vital
service in educating the Iranian youth. Since then, small
colleges have been gradually established in large cities to
keep abreast of new movements. In addition, schools for
the higher grades for both boys and girls were founded by
the Americans, Russians, British, German and French in
various parts of the country.

The revolution of 1906, came about as the result of the

dissemination of new ideas and ideologies through a group of

A6

Westernized elite, along with the constitutional movement
in neighboring countries and their impacts on the public,
particularly the Ulama (clergy), and merchants. It was a
striking step, awakening the nation from a long sleep and
took inspiration from its past dignity. With the outbreak
of the revolution in 1906, education found a new fact and
recieved more attention, leading to the creation of large
modern schools in the big cities of the country.

In 1925, when Reza. Shah terminated the Qajar Dynasty
and took absolute power in his hands, education entered
a new era and ended the period of stagnation between 191A
and 1925.

There is a good description of the education of this
period which will highlight the situation:

After my father's Coup d'etat, which took
place on February 22nd, 1921, a new era
in our country's education and culture was
innovated. Uniform syllabuses and systems
were introduced for all state schools, private
schools became subject to state control, and
regulations were laid down for foreign schools
.Every year from 1928 onward, a number
of students were sent abroad at the
governments' expense for higher education.
and training colleges for secondary
school teachers were established. Standard
textbooks were prepared and published by the
Ministry of Education and in 1933 a law
was passed making tuition in all government
secondary schools free. On February A, 193A,
the cornerstone of the first university of
Iran was laid. From 1935 onward, primary
schools for children up to ten years of
age were established and in the same year
girls were admitted to the teachers'
training college for the first time.

In summary, the urgent need for educated and trained

personnel for carrying out and effectively accomplishing

A7
modernized government programs, led to the creation of more
schools and colleges. In addition to the Ministry of Educa-
tion which established many normal schools and one teachers'
training college, other ministries such as Justice, Agricul-
ture and Foreign Affairs, opened colleges for training their
own personnel. By 1960, the educated college graduates
from Iran and abroad could provide governments' personnel

needs.

The School System

 

There are two kinds of schools in Iran--public and
private. The public schools have been established by the
government, whereas, the private schools have been founded
by the private citizens and foreign missionaries, and
financed by students' tuition. Up to 1965, the school cycle
had comprised two six-year periods of primary and secondary
education, but in this year a new cycle was added, as
illustrated in the attached Table 3.1. To clarify the

school system, each cycle will be discussed in detail below:

Pre-School and Kindergarten Education

Until recently pre-school education in Iran was not
considered important. A few kindergartens were established
by some private citizens but lack of government advocacy and
poor embracement by the public resulted in little growth.
During the last two decades the importance of preparatory
classes prior to the first grade has been taken seriously

and the government has established many kindergartens all

A8

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when» n
ounce—aw pu=o_uauo> uca —¢=o.uuuauu

«Lou» m
co.uao=vm xgaucouom

 

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.gs.e
mum—mcou

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u— amuse

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Auwaouau<v
:oauuuacm u——a=¢ mo o—uau vacuum

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lao» — can» ~
mu_»~5mguaz a uu=o_um assuaguu—a a xu—cus:=
_ _
u—u_u _ H _
mo_u—a—uaam ~_ mo_u_a—uoam o_ mecca N when» N
manage m maaogm n uu=o—um ocauagou—a
mouv>gmm ogzupau_gm< pucauaz

 

 

 

 

 

_

 

 

r _

 

.muoxgus can can m6-u—msa>—:z ugu Lou mucouaum census;

cu m. =o_uuu=um acmecouum =_ Lao» ace amu— mcu ma uncapzq ugh

 

 

 

=a_u~u=vm Logs—z

 

zc_h<u=am we subm>m 4<zc_h<z uzh
~.n u—aah

 

 

A9
over the country. According to the annual statistical report
issued by the Ministry of Education in 1976, there are 1,33A
public and A70 private kindergartens with 130,A23 and A5,001
students respectively.8 Table 3.2 also shows the gradual

progress during the past fifty years.

Elementary Education

 

Since 1890, the Iranian Maktab system of schooling with
its rote fashion of learning has gradually been replaced by
modern schools. This movement was initiated and accelerated
as a result of close contact with European countries, will-
ingness to modernize, the awakening of social consciousness,
and the unresponsiveness of the old-fashioned schools to the
students and nation's needs.

The .Revolution of 1906 resulted in the establishment
of a Parliament and a Constitution by which the Supplementary
Constitutional Law of 1907, and the Fundamental Law of
Education in 1911 were enacted to stipulate the function and
the scope of the activities of the Ministry of Education.
Article XIX of the Fundamental Law proclaims:

The foundation of schools at the
expense of the government and the
nation, and compulsory instruction
must be regulated by the Ministry of
Science and Arts (this ministry
later renamed Ministry of Education),
and all schools and colleges must be
under the supreme control and supervision
of that ministry.
Although the Fundamental Law of 1911, and its amended

act in 19AA emphasized that elementary education be both

free and compulsory, and determined endeavors to attain to

50

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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me_.P o.m.e ape me: om 11 spasmospm paspe A
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omm mo, N, m. __ 11 spasmospm HmcoHpmoo>

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mmm.: 11 11 11 11 11 pmppm pocmuaso m
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som._ emm me. 0: mm 11 cpppmmpmpcae _
oem_ comp 0mm, mam. ems. 0mm. spasmospm no pass .62

asap ca omop Sonm mHoozom one wcoe< comwnmqsoo <

N.m manme

51
this end were made, not all the children in the designated age
group were attending schools. The following quotation might
be helpful for comprehending the reasons:
In spite of all efforts during my father's reign
(1925-19A1), which I continued and intensified
during my own, at the Sixth of the Bahman
Revolution (1962) more than eighty percent
of the population of Iran were illiterate.
Bearing these facts in mind we can see to
what extent the corruption and unprincipled
behavior of the government authorities of
Iran, linked with the sinister influence of
reaction, foreign interests and other
destructive factors, had brought our society
towards the depth of ignorance.

Up to 1960, in addition to geographical barriers, lack
of transportation, poor economic condition of the country
and inadequacy of administration and planning, the power
of landlords whose approval was necessary for every rural
program, precluded the growth and development of education
in rural areas. Only 15 percent of rural children attended
schools. In the last decade elementary education has reached
its apex as the result of tremendous efforts of government
and citizens, by increased urbanization, agricultural reform
and the creation of the Literacy Corps. Table 3.3 will
show this progress and the number of elementary students
since 1973.

Until 1966, the Iranian schools academic program con-
sisted of six years of primary and six years of secondary
studies. A revision of the school system initiated in that
year provided for five years of primary school training,

followed by a three-year guidance stage and a further four-

year secondary school period.

52

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00x0m 0:» mo cam 0:0 >0 00:00:00 Ho>oH 020000000 no 0008:: 0:0 mo 2000080000 one

m.m mHDMB

53

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no 020 020 00 20000030m no 0000020: 020 no 000000080 0:0 00

:.m magma

2000080000 029

54

The primary school program consisted of the study of the
Persian language and literature, writing, arithmetic, relie
gious instruction, history, geography, physical and health
education, music and art. Since 1966 science and social
studies have been added to the curriculum of all primary
schools. Students must pass three school examinations during
each academic year in order to be promoted to the next grade,
and by passing a state examination at the end of the sixth
(now fifth), grade, they could enter secondary school (now
guidance stage).

Children attended school five and one-half to six days
a week, and the school year extended from the fifteenth day
of the last month of Summer until the last week of Spring.
All schools, whether private or public, had to follow the
same curriculum.

Today the government has frequently stressed its deep
concern with elementary education, and has made an ever-
increasing effort to attract all the children to school.

As the Fifth Development Plan put it:
With regard to the expansion of primary
education all chidlren in both urban
and rural areas will be attending school
by the end of Fifth Plan period (1973-1978)
. . .During the Fifth Plan primary education
will be made free and all children attending
primary school will benefit from the free
food program.

Table 3.2 shows the gradual progress of elementary

education during the past fifty years.

55
Secondary Education
Strong incentives for the creation of Iranian high schools
were the increased demand for elementary school teachers, the
rough requirements of higher institutions for more qualified
office-seekers, the strong influence of European countries,
and the leniency of the Compulsory Military Service Law to-
wards high school graduates.
The first high school was established in 1898 in Tehran.

A few years later the Army School was founded, and this slow
start was accelerated by the Ministry of Education in 1918,
which established eight high schools and two normal schools.
In the academic year of 1924-25 there were 56 private, public
and missionary high schools with 8,346 enrollees. In 1925,
the secondary school program for girls was completed and in
1928, the boy's program was completed and adopted the French
education system, largely on the basis of Iranian revi-
sionists' recommendations who had been educated in France.
The adoption of the French educational system for Iran and
its consequences in the subsequent years, did not bring
about a fruitful result for the nation. Arasteh states:

Their blind imitation of the French system

of education, and even more, their

limited understanding of the purpose of

education severely damaged Iranian education.

They.valued knowledge per se more than its

applicability, theory more than practice,

and the lecture method in preference to the

laboratory approach. It was also more

expedient to establish schools without

laboratories than to include them. The

result was a secondary school curriculum

extremely broad in subject matter but un-

related to the life experiences of students.12

56

In 1939 another revision in curricula was made, and
according to it the number of course hours taught in high
schools reduced. Since 1925 all educational establishments,
private or public, have been under the supervision of the
Ministry of Education with similar curricula and standard
rules and regulations. The curriculum usually became
college-oriented rather than progression or work-oriented.

The secondary education program consisted to two cycles,
each of which was of three years duration. Students entered
the first cycle after passing the state examination at the
end of the sixth grade. The curriculum of the first cycle
was mainly academic, except in the few schools which offered
a terminal vocational program.

The second cycle consisted of a two or three year period,
and was split into academic, vocational and technical courses
of study. The academic curriculum was divided into three
fields: literature, mathematics, and natural science, which
were college preparatory programs. In some schools there was
a terminal home economics course for girls. The technical
and vocational programs gave technical, agricultural,
commercial and secretarial education. The graduates could
take the competitive examination and if successful, enter
the university. The students had to pass exams three times
a year, plus the comprehensive test at the end of the
second cycle which was centrally administered by the
Ministry of Education.

Between 1941 and 1966 educational progress was

Quantitatively striking, but Iranian universities could

57
admit an inadequate percentage. The job market for high
school graduates was poor; they were unwilling to do manual
work, and tradition-oriented parents were estranged from
fashion-oriented children, so that frustration and dis-
appointment led to aimlessness and alienation. Apparently
these problems prompted the reorganization of the educational

curriculum.

Adult Education
An estimate of the literacy rate was published in 1966,
illustrating that 13.7 percent of the rural population and
nearly 50 percent of urban dwellers, aged ten years and over,
were literate. The remarkably different rates of literacy
between rural and urban females are 3.u and 36 percent
respectively. These startling facts gave warning to the
nation to take firm and serious steps in eradicating illit-
eracy. Official efforts to raise the percentage of literacy
particularly in rural areas had begun before, but this time
gained momentum through the following organizations:
Education Corps: The creation of the Education Corps
was an innovative measure introduced and supported by
the government, which could carry education to the
remote villages. By the.end of 1972 nearly 554,781
adults were taught to read and write. The recent
annual statistical report issued in 1976 indicates
that 126,612 adults are under instruction of this group.
The National Committee for the Campaign Against

Illiteracy: This committee was founded in 1965 and

58
established a program to reward the literate
individuals, particularly teachers, by payment on
the basis of the number of adults who had been taught
writing and reading by them. This committee also
took a firm stand in its campaign against illiteracy.
According to the annual statistical report in 1976,
5A0,7OO individuals were acquiring literacy under the
sponsorship of this committee.

The Work Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project: This

 

project is operating under the joint supervision of
UNESCO's Experimental World Literacy Program and the
government of Iran. The main philosophy of this effort
is to find ways to improve adult education while
stressing the economic and social development through
functional strategies. Two Iranian provinces, in-
dustrial and agricultural zones, are under the purview
of this project and presently 52,761 persons are in

this program.

Teacher Training

 

Since the Maktab system of schooling was recognized as
inefficient in meeting the children's needs, the nation
started replacing it with schools of a modern type. At the
outset of this movement, because of the shortage of
competent teachers, everybody who could read and write
entered the teaching profession. The unfavorable situation
of these schools, plus poor learning environments, improper

psychological atmosphere, and severe discipline, led to the

59
inauguration of the first teacher training school in 1918.
The main purpose of this normal school was to prepare teach-
ers in new methods of teaching, and to produce competent
teachers. This normal school had two sections with different
functions: the first section accepted sixth-grade certifi-
cate students for a three-year course of study and prepared
them as elementary school teachers; the second section
admitted ninth-grade certificate students and provided them
with a four-year course of study to become high school
teachers. In the same year the Ministry of Education
initiated a similar program for girls.

In 1928 the upper level of Tehran Boy's Normal School
became the Teacher Training College, enrolling high school
graduates and awarding bachelor's degrees after three years
of study, certifying their competence as high school teach-
ers.

In 1929 an Educational Act changed the program of the
Tehran Normal School from a three-year course of study into
two years, provided that the applicants had the ninth
grade certificate in starting the school.

In 193” a legislative law authorized the Ministry of
Education to establish 25 normal schools across the nation
within five years plus a Woman Teacher's College in Tehran.
The new normal schools tried to attract more talented
students by offering them free board, room and tuition and
by following the same regular high school program, and
adding some courses in education and psychology. In return

the students had to sign a contract to teach for five years

60
in government schools.

In 1943 the government carried on another project to
correct the teacher shortage in the first four years of
elementary schools. Namely, the candidates with sixth and
ninth grade certificates were given an additional one or two
years of training respectively.

The Teacher Training College affiliate with Tehran
University was the only center which provided the nations'
high school teachers, but the Shortage of competent high
school teachers remained a subject of controversy. Hence,
the increasing demands for high school teachers, as the
result of the unprecedented rapid increase in high school
students, caused this center to expand the scope of its
activity, and it became the independent Teacher Training
University in 1975. Moreover, most of the Iranian
universities now have colleges of education which offer
programs for prospective secondary school teachers.

In 1968, due to the urgent need for counselors, the
Ministry of Education established some centers to train
teachers for this purpose. On the other hand the teacher
training curricula has been gradually expanded to include
both academic and technical subjects taught by the new,
three—year guidance trainees at the secondary level.
According to the Ministry of Education annual statistical
report, at the present time (1976) there exist 162 teacher
training institutions with 93,958 students in Iran, and a

large increase has been planned for future years.

 

61

Vocational Education

 

The striking growth in European industry in Iran during
the first half of the nineteenth century and the introduction
of foreign products was a warning to local industry. To
confront this problem, Amir Kabir, a patriot premier, opened
a new era and introduced cautiously a new idea in harmony
with the Iranian tradition-bound society by: 1) sending some
craftsmen and guilds to foreign countries for technical
training; 2) encouraging local artisans and craftsmen to
improve their skills; 3) establishing Dar-al-Funun (1951)
for technical training; and A) inducing foreign experts to
found new industries in Iran.

This movement did not last long, and was not supported
adequately by the government. It was paralyzed by: 1) the
dismissal of Amir Kabir as premier; 2) foreign intervention
in Iran's economic and commercial affairs; 3) the consti-
tutional movement and incidence of a sort of anarchy with
riots as the result of the unstable government; and U) the
explosion of World War I and its unfavorable consequences.

By virtue of Reza Shah's efforts to drag the nation
along the path of industrialization and modernization, the
need for semi-professional staff and skilled workers seemed
vital in carrying out the government's programs. Hence,
some special training institutions were created to provide
needed manpower. In addition to a variety of technical and
vocational schools, the Ministry of Education in 1925 invit-
ed a group of Germans to establish a technical center,

Imamely the Higher Technical Institute. The nation's ever

62
increasing demand for skilled manpower led the Ministry of
Education to open many vocational and technical schools
across the country during the 1930's. In 1937, the School
of Finance and in 19HO, the Higher Institute of Petroleum
Industry, with its several vocational and technical attached
schools were established.

World War II once more impeded this progress and caused
serious problems for educational expansion. The years
following World War II, which was the nation's rapid urban-
ization, made the country's need for industrialization and
development and the development of vocational and technical
education more urgent. Therefore, the Ministry of
Education made a beginning by establishing a modern industrial
institute for training industrial arts teachers. It also
established several new technical institutes; the New
Tehran Technical Institute; the Higher Institute of Business
Administration; and many agricultural normal schools. On
the other hand private enterprise played a significant role
in founding many vocational and technical schools.

In 1966 the Ministry of Education changed and reorgan-
ized its educational system in order to direct and attract
more students to vocational and technical education. At the
present time, a high percentage of students is taught in
technical and vocational schools so that, according to the
ministry's annual statistical report in 1976, there were
H75 public and 55 private vocational and technical schools

with the enrollment of 129,726 and 21, 862 respectively.

63
Table 3.2 shows the gradual progress of technical and

vocational schools during the past fifty years.

Contemporary Education and its Objectives

Inadequacies of the educational programs prior to 1966,
such as the unresponsiveness of education to students'
social needs, the impracticality of the curriculum in pre-
paring pupils for the job market and the demands of the
industrial enterprises along with the rapid urbanization
and the urgent need for efficient and productive education
led the government to look for immediate remedies.

In order to overcome such deficiencies, the authorities
made a cautious attempt to redefine the educational
objectives, reassess the curriculum, reconsider the methods
of teaching and bring about more equal educational oppor-
tunities for all, with the goal of promoting economic, moral,
political, social, and physical growth. The following
objectives were presented as the result of this endeavor
in 1968 and can be summed up as follows:

SOCIAL: To provide an equal opportunity
for all Iranians, men and women in all
classes of the population, urban or
rural to receive instruction and to take a
rightful place in society;

ECONOMIC: To train a sufficient number
of workers, technicians, engineers,
specialists, and executives able to run
the economy in the interests of national
development;

POLITICAL: To train young people to
participate actively and effectively in
political and social life, to make

judicious use of their social rights, to
respect the law and to become useful

6A
members of a free and progressive society;

CULTURAL: To deveIOp the cultural and artistic
talents of young people so that they may
contribute to the enrichment of the Iranian
cultural heritage and civilization;

HEALTH: To ensure the physical development,
health and vitality of future generations; and

ETHICAL: To instill in young people faith in a
morally sound and rational form of social
ideology, and foster in them the human
qualities and virtues inspired by spir§tual
principles and religious instruction.

To accomplish these objectives, the educational system
has been planned to provide three stages of education
instead of the two previous ones. The first stage is one
of five years of primary school training, emphasizing
reading, writing and calculation in order to prepare the
students for accommodation with a simple condition of life.

The second stage, launched in the academic year 1971-72,
consists of a three year guidance period. This stage of
schooling presents courses in the technical, vocational and

academic areas in order to prepare the students for a

productive life.

The objectives of three years guidance stage
are to increase the general knowledge of
students for better living in society, to
foster moral and intellectual virtues, and
especiallyito discover talents and potential-
ities of students in theoretical, technical
and vocational branches of the secondary
schools, and finally with consideration of
their talents and the need of the country

to guide the students to pursue their studies
in the different branches of the secondary
school.1

It is worth mentioning that the first and second stage

periods offer free and compulsory education.

65

The secondary school period (the third stage) tends
to train students in various areas on the basis of their
interests and aptitudes and in consideration of the needs
of the nation's developmental programs. According to this
schedule secondary school students may pursue one of three,
four-year programs: academic, comprehensive, or technical-
vocational.

The curriculum for the first two years includes general
courses, non-general courses, and required courses. All the
students enrolled in the secondary school period take
general and non-general courses. The required courses in-
clude technical and vocational training and are required of
those who study in these fields. The last two are in the
academic program take additional courses in arts and
literature, physics and mathematics, social science and
economics, natural science and prepare themselves for
competitive entrance examinations for the Iranian
universities.

The comprehensive program is a combination of the
academic and vocational studies and qualifies the students
as skilled workers after two years of study. This technical
and vocational program in the last two years is very
specific, stressing practical training in order to train
students for the job market or for admission to technical

college. Table 3.1 illustrated the new educational system.

66

Literacy Corps

One of the effective Iranian government's projects in
decreasing illiteracy was the creation of the Literacy Corps,
by which high school graduates of conscript age spend their
period of service teaching illiterates in rural areas,
particularly those without schools. The candidates are sent
for a six-month training in particular army centers, where
they spend half of their time learning military subjects
and the rest in instruction in the Persian language and
grammar, arithmetic, science, teaching methods, and educa-
tional psychology. Courses in health education, sanitation,
rural development, and sociology are also offered. At the
end of the course the students take an examination and,
depending on their performance, are given the rank of
sergeant-first, Second or third class. They are thereafter
assigned by the Ministry of Education to villages located,
whenever possible, in their native district, to serve for a
period of eighteen months. They may then remain in the
teaching profession if they would like to do so. This
project, started in 1962 by royal decree and the first group
of the Literacy Corps, was sent to the villages after a four
month period. From that time on the fame of Literacy Corps
increased so that in 1976, about 655,779 students in rural
areas are being taught by 22,278 Literacy Corpsmen. More-
over, in addition to their teaching duties, they implement
other developmental activities such as the construction of
schools, mosques, roads, sanitary baths and direct other

affairs pertinent to the villages. To expand the scope of

67
the program, the Women's Literacy Corps was initiated in

1968 for female secondary school and university graduates.

Administration of Educational Systems and
Government Policies in Education

A chronological description of the foundation and
evolution of Iran's educational system, including the Minis-
try of Education and other salient factors and laws affect-
ing its structure, will be highlighted below.

The first organization which undertook the responsi-
bility for the development of education was founded in
1855 and was called the Ministry of Science, Endowment and
Fine Arts (later renamed Ministry of Education). The basic
format of educational settings came in to existence in 1897
by adopting the French system of education as a prototype.

By virtue of Constitutional Revolution in 1906 and
creation of Constitutional Monarchy, the enactment of
bureaucratic and administrative law pertaining to education
came forth. According to these legislative laws, the
functions and duties from the Minister of Education,
positioned at the top of hierarchy, to the individual
subjects at the bottom, were stipulated.

Article 19 of the Constitutional Law of 1907 proclaims
that the government shall be accountable for the organization,
administration, and financing of educational settings, and
that the Ministry shall assume responsibility for their
appropriate functioning. Educational Administration Act

passed in 1910, illustrates the duties and function of the

68

Minister, his staff, the general directors, the administrative
services, the central administrative services and the adminis-
trative structure. According to this law the Minister of
Education is responsible for smooth-functioning of various
departments (public education, higher education, endowment,
inspection and supervision, business administration, the
audit division for religious endowment, etc.). His responsi-
bility also extends to implementation of rules and regulations
concerning education and endowment; advancement of secondary
and higher education; execution of compulsory education;
establishment of bureaus of the Ministry of the provinces;
and, invigoration of educational liaisons with other nations.

Organic Education Act was promulgated in 1911. By this
Act the principles of managing the organization of education;
the execution of compulsory and free public education (this
Act amended in 19““); the provisions of opening private
schools; the expansion of public schools in the Villages;
and the prohibition of corporal punishment were laid down.

In 1918 the ministry initiated a teacher training pro-
gram of its own. In 1928 the uppler*Ievel<xf the Boys'
Normal School became a separate school known as the Teacher
Training College.

The Higher Council for Education was set up in 1922
to serve the ministry in a consultative and legislative
capacity. It was concerned with the welfare of elementary
and secondary education as well as with its expansion,
including the development of scientific institutions. The

council originally consisted of 10 voting and 10 honorary

69
members with voting rights extended to 16 members by 1951.

In 1922 the Civil Service Law was promulgated. Accord-
ing to this law the teacher's employment practices, classi-
fication and promotion programs were laid down. This law
was later amended in 1934, 1966 and 1972. In accordance with
the 1972 Law, employees are categorized into two parts,
contract and permanent. Monthly paychecks are based on
classification in one of twelve grades, each grade with
fifteen steps. The education and qualification of an employee
determines his grade as he enters the service. For every
two years of work, he is promoted one step.

In 1924, the statute of standardized girls' curriculum
was made law. In 1927, the boys' curriculum and compulsory
physical education was presented to schools. In 1937, the
reorganization of high school curriculum was issued.

In 1934, the law establishing the University of Tehran
and ordering municipalities to provide part of school costs
through taxation (later fixed at five percent) was pro-
mulgated. The year 1934 also witnessed improvements in
school curriculum development at every grade level;
establishment of National Buildings; the administration of
National Examinations; the issuance of diplomas; and, the
supervision of schools and scientific centers as approved
by the Higher Council of Education.

In 1935, the order of co-educational schooling in the
primary level was given. In 1936, the anti-illiteracy
campaign and adult education were introduced. In 1937, the

Preparation of textbooks was presented.

70

In 1950 the passage of the Village Improvement Law was
enacted. By this law the landlords were required to turn over
20 percent of their crops for village redevelopment,
including the needs of education. This Law was amended in
1956 to enable the landlords to pay five percent of their
income for the above-mentioned program.

In 1962 by a royal decree of the Ministry of Education,
a Defense Education Corps was established.

In 1965, the educational goals and objectives were
redefined and issued.

In 1966, the school system was changed from a 6-3-3
arrangement to a 5-3-4 organization.

In 1968, the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
was founded as the result of disintegration of the Ministry
of Education.

In 1968, the Regionalization of Education Act was
approved. According to this Act, the Ministry of Education
would delegate some of its executive powers to regional
authorities by creating an educational council with members
popularly elected in each region. The members of these
councils are responsible for their regions' financial and
administrative affairs pertaining to education, including
pay increases, staff promotions and school construction.
The authority and responsibility for planning, curriculum
development, teacher education, general policies and guide-

lines are retained by the Ministry of Education.

71

Organization of the Ministry of Education

Before 1968 all of the educational functions of Iran
were in one ministry. All of the State's educational
institutions were administered under a single administration
that controlled everything from the selection of textbooks
to the establishment of new schools. Such a centralized
authority with a vast array of administrative responsibility
led to many problems at the local level. The passage of the
Regionalization Education Act in 1968 resulted in delegating
the financial administration, selection of staff, and the
planning of new schools to Regional Councils of Education.
However, the Minister of Education still retains authority
in curriculum development, teacher education, and major
educational policies. Local educational administrators
still are caught between bureaucratic restraints issued by
the Ministry and the political as well as administrative
control of the provincial and local governors. Moreover,
lack of clarity in policy, poor personnel practices, lack
of integrity in public administration and unethical personal
conduct by some, together with a shortage of qualified and
experienced staff make the problem more crucial.

At the head of educational bureaucracy is the Minister
who is appointed by the Prime Minister and approved by the
Shah. The Minister of Education discharges his responsi-
bilities through deputy ministers and under secretaries.
Each deputy minister heads one of the following divisions:

parliamentary affairs and district councils; finance and

72
administration welfare and social affairs; educational
affairs; technical and vocational education; general educa-
tion; development and extension of school physical and equip-
ment; and reconstruction and innovation. For educational
purposes, Iran is divided into twenty-one provinces and two
independent Governate-Generals each headed by general
directors. There are 153 counties managed by superintendents
and 461 districts and municipalities supervised by educa-
tional agents. Administrative and routine decisions are made
by the Minister of Education and his top officals, while
the legislative and innovative ones are made by the Higher
Council of Education. The organization of the ministry has
often been under review and discussion. Table 3.5 portrays
the organization framework as of 1976. It consists of the
Higher Council of Education as an advisory and legislative
body to the Minister and several major departments, each
under the direct control and supervision of an under secre-
tary. Each department has several divisions dealing with
particular functions.

The Ministry of Education is one of the most heavily
staffed government organizations. It is estimated that the
number of employees totaled 344,100 in 1977-78. All teacher
salaries, educational expenses in public schools and educa-
tional research funds are paid by the Ministry. The funds
provided to the Ministry of Education are part of the
national budget. The funds allocated to education during
Iran's Fifth Development plan (1973-1978) will reach 5.1

percent of the gross national product or 78.75 billion

73

  

        

moo—yea uu.gum.: -muzoaa —aco_uuu:um

moo—mac » czou no mu=uucuu=_gua:m

 

 
 

  
   

 

    
        

 

      

 

 

 

 

 

 

      

   

  

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

  
  

E___________________
«N Nu - om mg a" N. c— mm v~ m— mg —_ o— m m n w n v m N _
xuuguu_4 moo—«mo
u_:u< _avu=—>oga no “League—a —~Lo:ou
awn—Lu. EML .OLQ .zum :O—eauatm
o—uasoz .zuugou~4 poo—mac;
mac—ocsuoh m:o_ua=_eaxm .>—uu< La—au :9 m >goa: co u-N can;
agauzooom mo .mum=_ u.gg=u uguxm _ _ m . _ c
mg—uuu< —c—uom m__u=:ou — _
oocuu_:e mac—>Lum sea a o>_aaguao muupgum—o uouuan
no puny
zgua.gm .a_gum=u=_ pagucaw m=_uoomugu_au= _uuu< —u a; a
:uugamgou:.x can —uL=¢ m=_=.agh ucauzum absucusa.pgam
gm uuo
:o_uuu=um .mm pace—uuoo> mg.auu< nL—auu< —a_uom .caou uu_gum’a co—uugum_=_as<
.ugocuu a —uu“:=uo~ ~aco—uauzum use chum—o: use mg_aum<

 

    

    
      

 

   

 

 

 
 

 

 

  

was «acne—u

 

>ua case as

 

 

 

mu_gauoguum-gou:=

 
 

 

_

\mgaumvcax xuzaoc

 

  
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Loum_=_: he “co—uu—oz au_L=uom m=o_uu_o¢
aguuogoum .a:o.ua:gou=_ o—pn=a
co—au>a=:_ a co—uuzgamcouux
so» Loam—apt nuance .q—zcm poo—mxgmum—oazum no
co—mauuxu ecu ucosao—m>uo
_ .
can" zum2u>oz z~ z<¢_
:o_uau=um zmhm_z_: mo zc_p<u=au mo >¢hm_z.: no zo_h<~_z<u¢o mzh

so» p—uzaou saga—z

 

m.n epoch

74
15

dollars. The largest portion of the education budget is
assigned to primary education and university education.
Part of the cost of primary school construction and educa-

tion is met by a 5 percent municipal and local contribution.

75
Chapter III

Notes

1Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, White Revolution, (Tehran:
Keyhan Press, 1966), p. 104. This statement cited in
Pandnameh Azarbad and recited in the above book.

 

2Reza Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening in
Iran, (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1969), p. 3.

3Ibid., p. 6.

”Op. Cit., Pahlavi, (translated from Arabic Qorah into
English).

5Donald Wilber, Iran Past and Present, (New Jersey:
Princeton, University of Princeton, 1975), p. 202.

6Op. Cit., Arasteh, p. 17.

70p. Cit., Pahlavi, p. 107-108.

8The Ministry of Education of Iran, Bureau of
Statistics, (Iran, Tehran, 1976).

9Iranian Government, The Constitution of Iran,
Transalted by Issa Khan Sadiq, (New York City, Bureau of
Publication, Teacher's College, Columbia University, 1931),
P. 55.

10Op. Cit., Pahlavi, p. 106.

11Iran's Fifth Development Plan, (1973-1978), p. 203.

12Op. Cit., Arasteh, p. 90.

13World Survey of Education, (Paris: UNESCO, 1971),
Vol. V, p. 607.

1“The Ministry of Education of Iran, New Scheme of

Education of the Country, Preliminary Scheme of Educational
Reform, Department of Planning and Research, No. I, 1965,
P. 35.

1:Iran's Fifth Development Plan (1973-1978), Tehran, 1975:
p. 12 .

CHAPTER IV

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

 

The analysis of organizational effectiveness is best
understood by examining organizational behavior, organiza-‘
tional processes. Organizational behavior deals with
motivation, group activities and leadership, while organi-
zational processes refers to the activities of the people
in the organization such as: communication and decision-
making. By studying organizational structure, the behavior
of people who work in the organization can be better under-
stood. In other words in reviewing the literature we are
concerned with the various aspects of organizational effect-
iveness, structural effectiveness, decision-making effect-

iveness, motivation effectiveness, and the like.

Part I. Organization

According to Etzioni, society is constituted of many
organized institutions, each implementing distinctive
functions through the joint activities of individuals. We
are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and
most of us spend much of our lives working for organizations.
Modern society's needs and goals are carried out by the
efficient and effective cooperation and co-ordination of

76

77
organizational components such as personnel, equipment and
materials. The achievement of effective organizational
performance is the purpose of administrative process.1 He
adds: ". . .without efficient organizations much of our
happiness is unthinkable. Without well-run organizations our
standard of living, our level of culture, and our democratic

life could not be maintained. Thus, to a degree, organiza-

tional rationality and human happiness go hand in hand."2

Although the concept "organization" is basic to social
science, it is understood in different ways and is thus
difficult to define. Following definitions are the selected
ones:

Organizations are social units (or human
groupings) deliberately constructed and
reconstructed to seek specific goals.
Corporations, armies, schools, hospitals,
and prisons are included; tribes, classes,
ethnic groups, friendship groups, and ‘
families excluded. Organizations are
characterized by: (1) divisions of labor, power,
and communication responsibilities, . . .
(2) the presence of one or more power
centers which control the concerted efforts
of the organization and direct them toward
its goals; these power centers also must
review continuously the organizations' per-
formance and repattern its structure, where
necessary to increase its effic§ency; (3)
substitution of personnel . . .

In the words of Tannenbaum: "The formal
organization is the organization that is
planned and intended by its designers,
prescribed by rules, it is a kind of
official blueprint that reflects the
social, psychological and administrative
assumptions of the designers. However,

it is never fully realized in the behavior
of its members."

March and Simon take the organization as
a sociological unit and compare it to the
existence of individual organisms in

78

biology. "Organizations are assemblages
of interacting human beings and they are
the largest assemblages in our society
that have anything resembling a central
coordination system. Let us grant that
these coordination systems are not
developed nearly to the extent of the
central nervous system in higher biological
organism--that organizations are more
earthworm than ape. Nevertheless, the
high specificity of structure and
coordination within organizations -- as
contrasted with the diffuse and variable
relations among organizations and among
unorganized individuals--marks off the
individual organization as a sociological
unit comparable in significance to the
individual organism in biology."5

Talcott Parsons considers the organization
as a social system and expresses his view
as follows: "It seems appropriate to
define organization as a social system
which is organized for the attainment of

a particular type of goal; the attainment
of that goal is at the same time a per-
formance of a type of function on behalf 6
of a more inclusive system, the society."

~Warren'Bennis discussed the innovative,
rapidly changing organizations which

utilize temporary leadership, role
assignments, and democratic access to the
organizational goals. He comments: "The
social structure of organizations of the
future will have some unique characteristics.
The key word will be temporary; there will

be "task forces" organized around problem-
to-be-solved groups of relative strangers
who represent a diverse set of professional
skills. Adaptive, problem—solving,

temporary systems of diverse specialists,
linked together by coordinating and task
evaluating specialists in an organic flux--
this is the organizational form that will
gradually replace bureaucracy as we know it.
As no catchy phrases comes to mind, I call this
an organic-adaptive structure."

Ensuing in the sociological tradition of
Parsons, Getzels presented a model of
social behavior that elaborates the
Parsonian social system. According to
Getzels any social system is made up of
two dimensions: normative and personal.

79

Normative dimension is constituted of
the institutions with certain roles
and expectations that will carry out
the goals of the system. The personal
dimension which is comprised of the
individual, his personality, and need
dispositions interacts with tge system,
resulting in social behavior.

With regard to organizations, Max Weber
referred to them as bureaucracies,
emphasizing rationality, impersonality
and routinization. In addition, they
drastically increase predictability,
order, precision, while they signif-
icantly minimize human diversities,
nepotism and cruelty. In speaking of
bureaucracy Weber said: "Precision,
speed, unambiguity, knowledge of the
files, continuity, discretion, unity,
strict subordination, reduction of
friction and of material and personal
costs--they are raised to the optimum
point in the strictly bureaucratic
administration, aad especially in its
monocratic form."

The evolution of organizational theory gained momentum
through the "Classical Management School" which raised the
organization's effectiveness and efficiency. Hierarchical
authority, divisions of labor, specialization, span of
control and line and staff relationship were recognized by it
as the effective factors in promotion of productivity. The
classical approach did not recognize any conflict between
man and the organization. It assumed that by increasing
productivity and gaining more profit, the employees would
earn more money, thus leading to more satisfaction.

The classical theory of administration was modified by
the "Human Relations School". The latter emphasized the
personal and social needs of employees, informal groups,

intergroup relationships, democratic leadership, communication

80

and participation. It also suggested ways in which management
could, by paying attention to the non-economic, social and
cultural needs of the employees, increase employee's
satisfaction and productivity.’

Neither the Classical Management School nor the Human
Relations approach built an integrated and systematic
organizational model. A more complete and integrated picture
of the organization was depicted by the "Structuralist School"
approach in which the importance of both formal and informal
organizational structure was recognized. The Structuralist
School's theory stemmed from a synthesis of the Classical
Management School and the Human Relations approach and was
inspired by the work of Max Weber, and to some extent, that
of Karl Marx.

The Structuralists considered the organization as a
social unit in which employees with diverse interests, values,
and needs interact. They recognized the existence of con-
flict, strain and alienation between the organizational needs
and personal needs as an inevitable phenomenon. This
development made managers more aware of the differences of
interests and beliefs and they adjusted the organizational
system to greater reality, and thus eventually restored
organizational tranquility.

A variety of other schools such as technological,
institutional and structural-functional ones searched to
present a clear-cut strategy for organizational effective-
ness and efficiency. Nevertheless their approaches have

been under the great influences of the aforementioned

theories.

81

However, there is a general notion that if an

organization is to function effectively certain principles

must be taken into serious account. Among the most common

are the following:

1.

Continual change in technology and environment
requires a flexible and dynamic system. In
confronting this need, continual effort is
required in obtaining data and identifying

the present and future change.

Organizations are most efficient if they are
best patterned in terms of divisions of labor,
line of authority, coordination, selection
and training of employees, leadership and
decision making.

No best way exists to run an organization.
Various methods and procedures, sophisticated
knowledge, current data, and systematic
programs should be put together to gain
efficiency.

Democratic participative management, decen-
tralization of power, communicative leadership,
responsiveness and adaptability to organization's
members are the elements which contribute to the
survival of the organization.

Integration of individual and organizational
objectives are vital if the organization
is looking for effectiveness and efficiency.

Permanent reexamination and criticism of
organizational thinking is essential if the
system is to function rationally.

Placing emphasis on individuals and behavioral
relationships more than on the formal
organization leads to more satisfaction which
in turn leads to more productivity.

When routine, well-understood, predictable and
repetitive tasks are evident, the bureaucratic
organization is best; non-routine unpredictable
tasks call for organizations which encourage
experience, professionalization, autonomy, 10
multiple lines of authority and communication.

Educational systems are also social units within which

teachers and administrators interact, intending to attain

82
announced educational goals--the moral and technical
socialization of young. Owing to their complex operation,
through divisions of labor, hierarchy of offices, prescribed
rules and regulations, educational systems are being moved
or motivated by powerful forces toward bureaucratization.
Hence, the preceding principles which.are effective and
efficient in other formal organization are applicable to
educational systems as well. Therefore, educational
administrators should also search for the best alternatives
from among many conflicting alternatives for solving

educational problems.

83

Notes
(Organization)

1Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organizations, (Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964), p. 1.

2Ibid., p. 2.

3Ibid., p. 3.

“Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Social Psychology of the Work

Organization, (California, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company,
1966), p. 1.

 

5James G. March and Herbert A. Simon, Organization,
(John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1958), p. 4.

6Talcott Parsons, "Suggestions for a Sociological

 

 

Approach to the Theory of Organization," Administrative
Quarterly, September, 1956, p. 238.
7Warren Bennis, "Organization of the Future,"

Theoretical Dimension of Educational Administration,
ed. William Monahan (McMillan Publishers Co., Inc.,
1975), p. 338.

8Jacob W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social

Process," Theory in Education, ed. Andrew W. Halpin
(New York: McMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1967), p. 152.

9Hans H. Gerth and Wright C. Mills, From Max Weber:
Essay in Sociology, (Oxford University Press, New York,
1964), p. 214.

10Charles Perrow, Complex Organization, (Glenview,
Illinois, Scott, Foresman and Company, 1972).

84

Part II. Behavior Within the Organization

An individual's behavior within the organization is in
large measure the result of his cultural background, his
heredity, his past experiences, and the situation in which he
finds himself. In order to know what causes a person to
behave in a particular way, one must be concerned with those
factors which have had the greatest impact on his behavior.
In this section, the writer will focus attention on those
organizational concepts--motivation and leadership-~which.
definitely interact with an individual and result in

various levels of goal achievement.

Motivation

Many people, all with distinctive needs and personal-
ities, are attracted to an organization, remain in it, and
work toward its goals in order to satisfy their own ambitions.
To understand those organizational elements which motivate
individuals, several theories will be examined and their
contributions and implications for administration will be
discussed.

The theory of Maslow's "Hierarchical needs" is more
adaptable to today's organization and potentially useful

than: Adam Smith's "economic man."1

In the latter, man is
rational and is guided by a desire to maximize his money

conditions; or as McGregor's "Theory X"2 would express it,
man naturally dislikes work, looks for security and avoids

responsibility.

85
Maslow considers the individual and his motivational

"3

needs on the basis of "hierarchy of needs, and divides all
needs into five categories: (1) physiological; (2) safety;

(3) social; (4) esteem; (5) self-actualization. According

to Maslow when the lowest order of needs in the hierarchy
(physiological necesSities) is satisfied, a higher order of
need appears, and since it has the greater intensity at the
time, this higher order need causes the individual to strive
to satisfy it. It is clear that a need which motivates one
individual may not motivate another. It is also obvious

that no two persons have the same capacity to accomplish all
levels of needs, nor do they attach the same importance to
them. Nevertheless, failure in satisfying these needs results
in discouragement, a sense of lowness, weakness and help-
lessness, and, under certain conditions, neurosis.

The application and examination of Maslow's hierarchical
needs theory on professional educators has porved that
security, esteem, competence, autonomy, and self-actual-
ization are the great areas of need.

"Our findings from the need deficiency studies suggest
that esteem is the most powerful motivator for today's
teachers. This simply means that most of today's teachers
will work harder for rewards at the esteem level than for
other rewards. Our findings also suggest that providing
more security and social rewards will not have much payoff
in terms of increased performance from teachers.“4

According to these researchers, esteem is a spring-

board to autonomy, to self-actualization leading to teacher's

86

dedication and consciousness. This suggests that the
foremost challenge for administrators is providing an envi-
ronment which enriches the job of teaching, and thus makes
it more satisfying. Because this is the case, the higher-
order need of "satisfaction" is not available to teachers
to the same extent as lower-order need satisfaction.

Frederick Hersberg's dual factors theory is a linking
pin between certain needs and job performance having more
applicability to administrators concerned with organizational
behavior and job performance. This theory identifies two
sets of factors pertinent to the job. These factors are:

1. Extrinsic factors, or the factors

surrounding the job such as administrative
policy, interpersonal relations, salary, working
conditions, and technical supervision.

Hersberg and his associates called these factors
"hygiene,"5 because they preclude on-therjob
trouble and eliminate obstacles in the work
environment. These lower level needs have
little motivational force for most people,
however, their absence generate dissatisfaction,
while their presence do little to promote
satisfaction. Needless to say that the
existence of dissatisfiers should not be over-
looked in the organization because they

provide the necessary preparation for
facilitating satisfiers.

2. Intrinsic to the job, involving those
factors which are directly related to the

job itself such as achievement, recognition,
the work itself, responsibility and advance-
ment. These factors which are called
satisfiers are regarded as positive motivators,
the type of motivators linked with real
accomplishment on a challenging job. Accord-
ing to Hersberg this set of motivators, which
take care of approach needs contribute to
satisfaction if present but not to dis-
satisfaction if absent.

In summation, Hersberg's theory attempts to describe and

anticipate what organizational policies and practices are

87

necessary to attract and hold desirable employees who will
give a maximum contribution in meeting organizational goals.
This theory is clearly for developing effective practices
in the administration of educational settings. Based on
Hersberg's theory, a study was conducted in educational
organizations in Illinois and the following findings resulted:
"This study suggests that factors which contribute to teacher
motivation (that stimulate extraordinary performance) form
a cluster characterized by achievement, recognition, and
responsibility. The absence of these factors, however, does
not contribute to work dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction
for teachers seems to result from three clusters: (1) poor
interpersonal relations; (2) incompetent, inadequate or
unfair administrative and supervisory practices, and (3)
matters external to the school which comprise one's personal
life. These factors have the potential to lower one's
performance, but neutralizing them or improving them does not
motivate teachers to perform in extraordinary way."7

The same researchers suggest that providing adequate
opportunity for teacher's advancement within the rank of
teaching, delegating responsibility and prompt-inn based on
achieving designated responsibility, and eliminating other
sources which cause job dissatisfaction, motivational
efforts will be more effective.8

Rensis Likert's findings suggests that motivation
encompasses an individual's secure, friendly, respectful
and supportive relationship with his face-to-face group.

He states: "An examination of the result presented here,

88

and of the results from other research, shows that every
human being earnestly seeks a secure, friendly, and
supportive relationship, and one which gives him a sense of
personal worth in the face-to-face groups most important to
him. The most important face-to-face groups are almost
always his family group and his work group. If his formal
face-to-face work group is hostile, he develops new friendly
informal groups. Human nature seems to motivate each of us
to establish and maintain those friendly supportive relation-
ships in those face-to-face groups in which we spend most
of our lives. Either we successfully establish these
friendly supportive relationships or we crack up."9

Edgar Schein denotes that man's pattern of motives
is the result of interaction between his.initial.needs and
organizational experiences, and that they are subject to
change from time to time, situation to situation and
organization to organization. He declares: "Man can become
prdductively involved in organizations on the basis of many
different kinds of motives; his ultimate satisfaction and the
ultimate effectiveness of the organization depend only in
part on the nature of his motivation. The nature of the
task to be performed, the abilities and experiences of the
person on the job, and the nature of other people on the
job in the organization all interact to produce a certain
pattern of work and feeling."10

Stogdill has reviewed various surveys about manager's
motivation and reports: "in summary, there is considerable

uniformity in the findings that autonomy and self-actual-

89
ization are regarded as the most important and least satisfied
needs of managers. The important of these needs increases as
the level of the manager's position increases. Lower levels
of management place greater emphasis on job security and
working conditions than do higher level managers. Managers
who identify themselves with their superiors are more satis-
fied and more effective in their jobs than managers who do

not identify with superiors. Highly effective managers are

better satisfied than their less effective peers."11

In sum, the above studies overwhelmingly emphasize the
importance of a reward system, reinforcement, job enrichment,
advancement, and achievement by which the individuals are
well-motivated. It is particularly in the roots of a reward
system that individuals find stimulation to strive in the
ways that are most satisfying to them. This notion is best
viewed by the words of Skinner as follows:

An important group of variables which
modify behavior have to do with the
consequences of action. "Rewards" and
"punishments" are variables of this sort,
though rather inadequately identifies by
those terms. We are interested in the
fact (apart from any theory which explains
it) that by arranging certain consequences--
that is, by making certain kinds of events
contingent upon behavior--we achieve a high
degree of experimental control. Our present
'nderstanding of the so-called "contingencies
“ reinforcement" is undoubtedly incomplete,
t it nevertheless permits us to construct
forms of behavior, to bring behavior
‘r the control of new aspects of the
‘onment, and to maintain it under such
31 for long periods of time--ang all
3 often with surprising ease.

\\ ionably provision of the appropriate
\\‘ and identification of their

90

relationship to goals or levels of desired
performance, together with exertion of constant
evaluation and feedback, makes performance
standards really effective. The variety of
individual responses to an incentive system
requires a full range of rewards. Yet, some
factors such as self—respect, prestige,
recognition, advancement and achievement are
the common incentives which have great impact
on individual's performance.

To be effective, administrators must meet
the changing needs of individual employees
and their job-related goals. Through job
enrichment which involves adding meaningful
tasks and removing tasks that may cause
boredom, and establishing various incentive
systems, administrators can create an
atmosphere in which employee's growth, self-
esteem, participation, and satisfaction are
enhanced.

91

Notes
(Motivation)

1Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes
of Wealth of Nations, ed. Edwin Cannon (London,
Methven, 1904), pp. 33-40.

2Douglas M. McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise,
(New York: McGraw Hill, 1906), p. 43.

3Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, (New
York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1954), pp. 91-92.

“Thomas J. Sergiovanni and Fred Carver, The New School
Executive: A Theory of Administration, (New York: Harper
and Row, 1973), p. 63.

5Frederick Hersberg, B. Mausner, and B. Snydenman, The
Motivation To Work, (New York: Wiley, 1959), pp. 70-90.

6Ibid., pp. 70-90.

 

 

7Thoman Sergiovanni and Fred D. Carver, The New School
Executive: A Theory of Administration, (New York: Harper
& Row, 1973), p. 77.

8Ibid.

9Rensis Likert, Motivation: The Core of Management,
AMA, Personnel Series 155, p. 3-21.

1OEdgar Schein, Organizational Psychology, (Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1965), p. 60.

11Rolf M. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, (New York:
Free Press, 1974), p. 117.

123. F. Skinner, The Designs of Culture, (New York, AM MSS
Modular Publication, 1973), pp. R147§3¥4.

92

Leaders and Leadership
There are many different definition of leadership and
the majority of them revolve around the leader's traits, his
positional attitudes, and his behavior. Among the defini—
tions of leadership, the following are most common:

Tannenbaum, Weschler, and Massarik defined
leadership as "interpersonal influence,
exercised in situations and directed,

through the communication process, toward 1
the attainment of a specified goal or goals."

For Pigors, "leadership is a process of mutual“
stimulation which, by the successful interplay
of individual differences, controls human2
energy in the pursuit of a common cause."

Fiedler proposed that "we shall define the
leader as the individual in the group given
the task of directing and co-ordinating task-
relevant group activities or who, in the
absence of a designated leader, carries the
primary responsibility for performing these
functions in the group."

Hemphill has said "to lead is to engage in
an act that indicated a structure in the
interaction as part of the process of
solving a mutual problem."

Stogdill defined leadership as "the initiation
and maintenance of structure in expectation
and interaction."

Bennis maintained that "effective leadership
depends primarily on mediating between the
individual and the organization in such a way
that both can obtain maximum satisfaction."

Bogardus defined leadership as "personality in
action under group conditions. Not only is
leadership both a personality and a group
phenomenon; it is also a social process involving
a number of persons in mental contact in which
one person assumes dominance over the others."7

In.review of leadership literature, Stogdill suggested that

"a variety of concepts is brought in to play for the defini-

93

tion of leadership. Among these are the following: nucleus
of tendency, personality in action, induction of compliance,
influence relation, power differential, persuasion, in-
fluence act, influence on goal achievement, effect of
interaction, status position, role differentiation, rein-
forcement, and imitation of structure. Leadership may
involve all of these things. It is doubtful that all the
concepts are equally pertinent to a theory of leadership."8
Any or all of the concepts noted by Stogdill might apply
to a particular circumstance, but no single definition is
universally applicable. However, leadership is clearly the
complex dynamics which results in goal achievement. It
involves interaction and influence, and usually leads to
some form of change in the structure or behavior of individ-
uals, groups, or organizations. Strength of personality and
ability to persuade are critical variables in the effective-
ness of leaders, but their relative influence depends on
time and circumstances. Other leadership variables are
more directly applicable to behavior in group situations.
These might be classified as functional definitions of the
leadership role. Anyone who performs these functions is
fulfilling a leadership role, regardless of his formal

status in the group.

Types and Functions of Leadership
Much research has been conducted to explain various
leadership styles in an effort to identify the degree of

leader directiveness, group participation, and organizational

94
effectiveness. Writing in 1918, Bogardus expounded four
kinds of leaders: (1) the autocratic type who rises to office
in a powerful organization, (2) the democratic type who
represents the interests of a group, (3) the executive type
who is granted leadership because he can get things done,
and (4) the reflective intellectual type who may find it
difficult to recruit a large following.9
In the words of Kincheloe the prophet is considered as
a leader, capable of influencing the followers in accepting
his words and goals and supporting him zealously in order
to get release of inhibited impulses.10
Lewin and Lippitt suggested three kinds of leadership
styles: (1) democratic, (2) autocratic, and (3) laissez-
faire.11
Weber proposed three types of legitimate authority,
each associated with a specific type of leadership: (1) the
bureaucratic leader who functions on the basis of rational-
ity, impersonal relations, prescribed rules and regulations;
(2) the traditional leader who operates with concrete rules
based upon usage for legitimacy; he also exercises his
authority on the basis of personal relations and legitimacy
of status; (3) the charismatic leader who exerts his
authority through prophecy, heroism, revolution, inspirational
character and other seemingly super-human acts.12
Getzels and Guba suggested three types of leadership:
(1) "Nomothetic" style (normative dimension) in which the

leader emphasizes the organizational demands and role

expectation, (2) "Idiographic" style (personal dimension)

95
in which the leader supports the individual needs and
dispositions, and (3) transactional style in which the leader
functions as a mediator between organizational demands and
individual needs.13
During the years 1915 and 1951 many other researchers

have recognized two or more types of leadership, but recent
theorists have been primarily concerned with two types of
leadership which are: (1) the authoritative leader who is
now called "task-oriented" or structure, or (2) the
democratic leader who is classified as "person-oriented" and
uses a considerate type of leadership. Halpin's inter-
pretation of these two dimensions of leadership behavior
concerning superintendents of school indicates that:

1. Initiating structure refers to the

leader's behavior in delineating the

relationship between himself and the

members of his work group, and in

endeavoring to establish well-defined

patterns of organization, channels of

communication, and methods of procedure.

2. Consideration refers to behavior

indicative of friendship, mutual trust,

respect, and warmth in the relationship

between the leader and the members of

his staff.1u

It should be noted that the agreement of empirical

researchers is that ideal leaders are described as scoring
high on both dimensions. According to Stogdill, effective
leaders are rated high in these two dimensions since
initiating structure is related to group unity, and
consideration: is associated with low absenteeism,

grievances, turnover, and bureaucracy. He maintains that

the instrumentality of these two dimensions of leadership

96

behavior is because of their effects on the behavior and
expectation of followers not because they are demonstrated
by the leader. Finally, he concludes that by virtue of
hidden complexities of leader behavior it would seem desirable
to explore the possibilities of a multifactor approaches
rather than rest content with a two-factor solution.15

Several authors have classified leaders as to the kinds
of functions they perform. In reviewing the literature,
Stogdill divides them into two groups: (1) classical
theorists who propose that the primary functions of leaders
are planning, organizing, and controlling; and (2) behavioral
theorists whose beliefs about the leadership functions are

best summarized by Stogdill:

a. Defining objectives and maintaining
goal direction

b. Providing means for goal attainment

0. Providing and maintaining group structure

d. Facilitating group action and interaction

e. Maintaining group cohesiveness and member
satisfaction 16

f. Facilitating group task performance

In sum, due to the complexities of the leader's behavior
and the individual's responses, it is difficult to draw
specific conclusions concerning certain types of leadership
in order to reach the desirable, productivity and group
satisfaction. However, as a result of research studies a
number of guidelines have been recommended. Among the
most important are the following:

Stogdill indicates that "it can be concluded
that the degree to which a leader is accepted
and the degree of member satisfaction under
authoritarian and equalitarian leaders is

highly dependent upon a matching of leader
personality and follower personality along

97
with a congruent group structure."17

Tannenbaum concludes that: "a successful leader
is one who is keenly aware of those forces
which are most relevant to his behavior

at any given time. He accurately understands
himself, the individuals and group he is
dealing with, and the broader social
environment in which he operates. Certainly

he is able to assess the present readiness

for growth of his subordinates. This
sensitivity or understanding is not enough,
which brings us to the second implication.

The successful leader is one who is able to
behave appropriately in the light of

these perceptions. If direction is in order,
he is able to direct; if considerable
participative freedom is called for, he is

able to provide such freedom. Thus successful
management can be primarily characterized
neither as a strong leader nor as a

permissive one. Rather, he is one who maintains
a high batting average in accurately assessing
the forces that determine what his most
appropriate behavior at any given time should
be and actually being able to behave accordingly.
Being both insightful and flexible he is less
likely to gee the problems of leadership as a
dilemma."1

Leadership in educational settings is as complicated as
in other institutions. Educational leaders exercise lead-
ership with a social system constituting a hierarchy of
authority, responsibility, status, and positions aiming at
both effective goal attainment and group maintenance
activities. Success in this way rests on educational
leaders who sense the needs, values, attitudes, expectations,
and forces involved in order to encourage compatibility
and integration between individual's goals and organiza-
tional ones in such a way that both can obtain maximum
satisfaction. Creating and fostering an innovative atmos-
phere with intrinsic rewards and minimal group conflict is

critical.

98
Leadership Traits
Great attempts have been made by various groups of
scholars and researchers to determine the traits and
characteristics of leaders. The major conclusions to be
drawn from these stuides purport that patterns of acceptable
behavior in leaders differ with the situation, time, and
culture. The comparatively large number of findings on
leadership traits characterize leaders with certain general
qualities such as: courage; fortitude; conviction; superior
judgment; decisiveness; knowledge; fluency of speech; alert-
ness; originality; personal integrity; self-confidence;
high need of achievement and responsibility; high motivation;
drive and persistence; and cooperation. They found the
above characteristics grant the leaders the ability to
evaluate the situation; gain insight to influence others
and have advantage holding the leadership position.
Stogdill, in an extensive review of the literature on
leader's traits, reports:
The leader is characterized by a strong drive
for responsibility and task completion,
vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals,
venture-someness and originality in problem
solving, drive to exercise initiative
in social situations, self-confidence and
sense of personal identity, willingness to
accept consequences of decision and action,
readiness to absorb interpersonal stress,
willingness to tolerate frustration and
delay, ability to influence other persons'
behavior, and capacity to structure social 19
interaction systems to the purpose at hand.
The same author made a comparative analysis of factor-

ial studies of leadership traits in order to determine

whether researchers have identified common factors. As a

99

result of this comparison he concluded that:

If the order of frequency of factors is
significant, it would appear that leadership
involves certain skills and capabilities--
interpersonal, technical, administrative,

and intellectual--enabling the leader to be
of value to his group or organization. Those
skills allow him to maintain satisfactory levels
of group cohesiveness, drive and productivity.
He is further assisted in execution of the
above functions if he possesses a high degree
of task motivation, personal integrigg,
communicative ability, and the like.

Leadership Training
Training for leadership has been practiced in various

organizations in order to describe the programs, to discuss
the problems, and finally to build an effective leadership.
In addition to numerous methods of training such as role
playing, psychodrama, sociodrama, case studies, etc., the
most widely used procedure is the group dynamics laboratory
or sensitivity training groups. The rationale for this
method is based on a course of training in the laissez-
faire pattern of behavior and development of democratic
leadership in terms of accomplishment of the following
purposes:
Greater Sensitivity to follower needs and desires
Greater openness and sharing of information
Greater sharing of decision-making responsibilities
with followers
. More intimate, friendly, and equalitarian interaction

with followers

. Less structuring, persgnal dominance, and pushing
for productive output.

U1 423 DUN-J

The early research on training for leadership may be
summarized that effective training results in greater

warmth, openness, awareness of others, improved inter-

100
personal relation, and receptivity to subordinate, initiative
and responsibility.22
The results of a small body of research suggest that
group cohesiveness and esprit increase after sensitivity
training of the leader, but productivity declines.23
Reviews by House (1967, 1968) reveal that training brings
about change, particularly in attitude. It also causes
anxiety, confusion, and uncertainty.2u
Stogdill, in summarizing Odiorne's conclusion, reported
that: "Odiorne analyzed 51 books and 58 journal articles
published between 1948 and 1961. Odiorne found not a single
study during this period demonstrating that laboratory
training changes behavior back on the job. He found weak-
nesses in both theory and method of laboratory training,
which trains for leader softness: rather than coping with
the tough realities of the world. The training method
creates stresses and interpersonal animosities that often
get out of control. The training does nothing to relieve
or correct such tensions and emotional upsets."25
From an extensive review of literature Stogdill also
concluded: "Leadership is defined in terms of interaction
and influence relationships between leader and followers.
It is meaningless to consider the leader in isolation from
the follower group. Research which demonstrates that it
is possible to change the attitudes and behavior of
leaders tells us nothing at all about the effects of

training for leadership. It is necessary to demonstrate

that change in leader behavior is related to change in

101

group productivity, cohesiveness, esprit, or satisfaction
in order to claim that leadership is improved or worsened
by training."26

From the above studies, it must be concluded that lead-
ership training should be responsive to the organizational
climate in which the leader's behavior is conditioned.
Leaders must understand their followers to better adapt
their leadership to member satisfaction and group product-
ivity. In addition,after the training one must match
each individual's leadership style with an appropriate
situation to give him a challenging assignment.

In the complex social system of educational enterprises
training programs must enable shcool leaders to confront
the demands of enormously large and difficult educational
problems. A major national task is that of discovering and
developing leaders for the job of reconstructing the educa-
tional system to fulfill new purposes. Shaping the future
may be the most important role of the leaders of the
educational enterprise during the balance of this century.
Above all, training should include a profound and sympathetic
understanding of the real dynamics and forces at work, in

society and community.

Summary and Conclusion
"Leadership is defined as the initiation and mainten-

27 The

ance of structure in expectation and interaction."
leader is expected to furnish role structure, maintain goal

direction, facilitate task performance, ensure group

102
cohesiveness, and resolve interpersonal problems. The
real test of leadership lies not in the personality or
behavior of the leader, but in the performance of the group
that he leads. According to Stogdill structuring expect-
ations is the single pattern that contributes positively to
group productivity, cohesiveness, and satisfaction.28
Fiedler maintains that "effective group performance depends
upon the proper match between, a) the leader's style of
interacting with his subordinate, and b) the degree to
which the situation gives control and influence to the

leader."29

He also adds that the climate of the group has
a substantial impact upon the effectiveness of leadership
styles. If the group situation is either highly favorable
or highly unfavorable for the leader, a task-oriented
leader does best; if it is in between, a leader skilled in
interpersonal relations is best.30
A competent leader unites the efforts of members and
strengthens group cohesiveness around a common purpose.
He manipulates the reward structure, changes the premises
of the decision makers through finer control on information
received and the expectation generated. Effective leaders
will have greater senses of responsibility, and will bring
growth and success for those involved while emphasizing upon
effective decision making and problem solving. In addition
they must select from a number of theories of leadership
which are available and utilize these theories in as

judicious a manner as possible in the particular circum-‘

stances.

103

Notes
(Leadership)

1Robert Tannenbaum, Irving Weschler, & Fred Massarik,

Leadership and Organization, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961,
p. 24.

2Paul J. Pigors, Leadership and Domination, (Boston:
Houghtom-Mifflin, 1935), p. 16.

3Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effective-
ness, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1967), p. 8.

”John K. Hemphill, "Administration as Problem Solving,"

Administrative Theory in Education, ed., Andrew W. Halpin
(Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, 1958), p. 98.

5Ralph Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, (New York:
Free Press, 1974), p. 15.

6Warren Bennis, "The Problem: Integrating the Organ-
ization and the Individual," Theoratical Dimensions
of Educational Administration, ed. William G. Monahan
(New gork: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975),
p. 31 .

7Emory Bogardus, Leaders and Leadership, (New York:
Appleton-Century, 1934), p. 57.

8Stogdill, Op. Cit., p. 16.

9Bogardus, Op. Cit., p. 24.

1OS. C. Kincheloe, The Prophet as a Leader, (Social.
Soc. Res., 1928), 12, p. 461-468.

11Kurt Lewin & Ronald Lippitt, An Experimental Approach
to the Student of Autocracy and Democracy: A Preliminary
Note, Sociometry, 1938, 1 pp. 292-300.

12Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic
Organization, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1947).

13Jacob Getzels and Egan Guba, Social Behavior and
Administrative Process, (School Review, 1957), 55, pp. 423-441.

 

104

1“Andrew W. Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration,

(New York: The MacMillan Company, 1966), p. 86.

15Stogdill, Op. Cit., pp. 140-141.

16Ibid., p. 3-

17Ibid., p. 111.

18Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt, "How to

Choose a Leadership Pattern," Leadership and Social
Change, ed. William R. Lassey and Richard R. Fernandez
(LaJolla, California, University Associates, Inc., 1976),
p.. 25.

1gstogdiii, Op. Cit., p. 81.

20Ibid., p. 90.

21Ibid.., p. 182.

22Ibid., p. 182.

231bid., p. 199.

2”Robert J. House, Leadership Training: Some

Dysfunctional Consequences, (Admin. Science Quarterly,
1958) 12, Pp. 556-571.

ZSStogdill, Op. Cit., p. 197.

26Ibid., p. 199.

27Ipid., p. 411.

28Ibid., p. 419.

29
Fred E. Fiedler, "The Trouble with Leadership Train-
ing is that it does not Train Leaders," Leadership and
Social Change, ed., William R. Lassey and Richard R.
Fernandez (California, University Associates, Inc., 1976),
p. 2 1.

 

30Fiedler, Op. Cit., p. 8.

105

Part III. Process Within Organization
This sectionjxsrelated to the two essential processes
which are vital to the effective functioning of every

organization: communication and decision-making.

Communication in Organization

Communication is a process through which human beings
convey their intention to affect and change each other's be-
havior. One of the more widely used definitions of communi-
cation is: "the transmission of information, ideas, emotions,
skills, etc., by use of symbols--words, pictures, figures,
graphs, etc. It is the act or process of transmission that
is usually called communication."1 Hartley and Hartley
maintain that "the communication process is the basis of
all that we call social in the functioning of the living
organism. In man, it is essential to the development of the
individual, to the formation and continued existence of
groups, and to the interrelations among groups."2

There are abundant definitions by which communication
is interpreted as social interaction through messages,
process of influence with intent of changing behavior,
adaptation of the individual to his environment, and
exchanging ideas through speech, writing, or signals.

Communication is a focal point in the development and
maintenance of organizational purposes. By it members
motivate and inspire each other toward goal accomplishment.

Barnard put it: "In an exhaustive theory of organization

106

communication would occupy a central place, because the
structure, extensiveness, and scope of the organization are
almost entirely determined by communication techniques."3

The importance of communication in the functioning
of individuals in the organization has been accentuated by
Simon many years ago. He maintained that: "the question to
be asked of any administrative process is: How does it
influence the decisions of these individuals? Without
communication, the answer must always be it does not in-
fluence them at all."u

Communication problems often result in the failure to
accomplish organizational goals. In a cross-cultural study,
74 percent of managers samples from companies in Japan,
Great Britian, and the United States cited communication
breakdown as the single greatest barrier to corporate
excellence.

Blake and Mouton stated that communication difficulties
was as the result of malfunctioning of management by
saying "the underlying causes of communication difficulties
are to be found in the character of supervision. The
solution to the problem of communication is for men to
manage by achieving production and excellence through sound
utilization of people."6

Organizational communication is a form of interpersonal
communication which involves face-to-face interaction, while
making use of all the senses in order to provide immediate
feedback. Hovland defines interpersonal communication as

an interacting situation in which an individual transmits

107
stimuli to modify the behavior of other individuals in a
face-to-face setting.7

In organizational communication, messages are trans-
mitted from one person to another, then to still another.
The official routes of organizational communication are
formal channels which serve not only organization but also
the public as well. The fact that different messages arrive
in different parts of the organization at different times
has implications for the functioning of the individuals in
their relation to each other.

Harold Guetzkow summarized his contention about the
communication system: "Thus, more or less formal character-
istics of the communication system--the multiplicity of
its sources and destinations, whether messages aceirelayed
serially or simultaneously, and whether the communication
contents are in transitory or storable form--interact in
important ways with qualities of the organization itself,
such as its size, its differentiated structure, and its
ability to handle decisions in a coordinated manner."8

Communication processes seem to be characterized by
regular initiation--response tendencies. Those who put in
more acts tend to be reciepents of more output. These
customs of exchange within the communication process reflect
the operation of basic reward and punishment mechanisms.

As an organization increases in size, one might expect
disruption of communication. Simon, Smithburg, and Thompson
asserted: "The maximum size of an effective unit is

limited by the ability of that unit to solve its problem

108

of internal communication."9

Communication systems become effective when they employ
languages which carry amounts of meaning with relatively
fewer symbols. The major transmission form in organization
communication is oral. However, print in the form of
memos is frequently employed. Dale A. Level, Jr. has con-
ducted research to identify which kind of communication
method--oral or written--is the more effective. He
summarized his findings by saying that "it would seem
appropriate to use the specific combination method of oral
followed written for most situations--especially those
requiring immediate action and also where follow up and/or
documentation is desired, and communicating information
of a general nature. Single methods are most effective for
specific situations; written for future action or general
information where no personal contact is deemed necessary;
and oral where interpersonal contact and immediate feed-
back are desirable and when the purpose of the communication
is behavioral change."10

Communicators have varying purposes, whether they tran-
smit their messages through the informal channel of face-to-
face conversation or through the formal channels of a
newspaper or magazine.

According to Rogers and Svenning, when the communicator
is perceived as credible, and empathic effective communi-
cation takes place and behavioral change in an advocated

direction is more likely to occur.11

109

Effective communication involves an interaction between
the speaker and listener if the speaker can solicit feedback
and adjust his message accordingly. Rogers and Svenning
indicate that the message receiver is under the significant
influence of such factors as participative decision making;
compatibility of the message content with his existing know-
ledge, attitudes and beliefs; persuasiveness of the message
for that group who are not withdrawn or aggressive; group
values which maintain his membership in the group. They also
maintain that messages are more influential if they rouse
motivation rather than feelings of anxiety and stress.12

A message can transfer from communicator to communicates
only through some medium. A communication channel is the
medium utilized to convey a message. Among various channels,
interpersonal channels induce more lasting and deep change
in attitudes and beliefs. In addition face-to-face channel
of communication tends to facilitate feedback and offers the
greatest possibility for involvement.

The amount of reliance on and trust in a medium of
communication experienced by message receivers probably is
related to (1) the degree to which the medium and channels
reduce uncertainties, (2) the extent to which feedback is
invited, and (3) the freedom from message garbling "noise".13

The only way in which a message sender can know whether
his messages are being comprehended is through feedback.
Often feedback does not occur unless specifically requested

and provided for. Rogers and Svenning's findings about

feedback have been paraphrased by Boles and Davenport as

110

follows:

1. Communication that gives a receiver a
sense of participation tends to ensure some
involvement with the message

2. Feedback from receiver to sender is
essential to the integrity of the
message.

3. Communication in the formal organization
tends to be downward. (Messages go down
through a bullhorn, but those that go up
must pass through a series of almost
independent filters.)

4. In informal organization, feedback received
by the upper echelons of the organizational
hierarchy tend to be positive in content.1

There seems little doubt that feedback often improves
groups performance. Not only feedback is useful for messages
about the substances of the task, but it seems also helpful
for the development of organizational relations.

The official processes of organizational communication
are formal communication which are authoritative and serve
as the standards against which reports attributed to all
other sources are checked. Informal channel of communication
networks built up around face-to-face interaction of persons
with common interests or purposes. Overtime, these networks

tend to become highly stable and reliable sources of inform-

ation.

Summary and Conclusions
Organizations are social institutions consisting of
individuals with various kinds of attitudes, values, and
beliefs while interacting with each other, occupying different

positions, and playing social roles. The value system of

111

any individual or organization is perhaps the most important
element in determining the styles they employ interpersonally.
The individuals take serious actions toward those activities
and messages which have importance for them and which some-
how reduce their uncertainties about any sanctions against
them that may follow. The individual sees what his purposes
require, senses what his organism will admit, associates
signs according to the dynamics of his own personality.

Individuals can and do change their interpersonal styles
only through effective communication. The key to effective
communication among all segments of the organization is a
central process of effective leadership. Effective leadership
grows with communication in depth. If the educational leader
would desire to bring about changes in the personality of
individuals in order to achieve organizational goals and
objectives he should:

1. Consider his own behavior as well as the
behavior of others.

2. Understand the processes within himself and
within the situation that will have impact
on his potential for exerting positive and
productive influence.

3. Obtain some feedback from his listeners re-
garding the effectiveness of his communication
in order to adjust his messages accordingly.

4. Listen with empathic understanding in such
an approach to interact effectively with the
speaker.

5. Establish interpersonal relationships
based on mutual understanding and increased
effectiveness if he will engage in exposing
and feedback soliciting behavior to an optimal
degree.

112

Seek individual's opinions regarding
organizational goals, and develop the means
to be used to reach such goals.

Place high emphasis upon the use of
face-to-face communication while
recognizing both formal and informal
communication.

Finally, "encourage the development of an
emotionaly free, nonthreatening atmosphere

in the organization where information will
flow freely and the threat of power struggles
and interpersonal conflicts will be reduced,
promoting more effective decision making in
the organization."15

113

Notes
(Communication)

1Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior,
(New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1964), p. 527.

2Eugene Hartley and Ruth E. Hartley, "The Importance
and Nature of Communication," Fundamentals of Social
Psychology, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc,,1961), p. 18.

 

3Chester I. Barnard, The Function of the Executive,
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938), p. 91.

“Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior 2nd ed.,
(New York: MacMillan, 1957), p. 108.

5Richard R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, Corporate
Excellence Through Organization Development, (Houston, Texas:
Gulf Publishing Co., 1968), p. 4.

6Ibid., p. 5.

 

7C. I. Hovland, "Social Communication," American
Philosophical Society, Vol. 92, (1948), p. 371.

8Harold Guetzknow, "Communications in Organizations,"
Handbook of Organizations, ed. James G. March (Chicago:
RauiMcNally College Publishing Company, 1965), p. 539.

9Herbert A. Simon, D. W. Smithburg, and N. A. Thompson,
Public Administration, (New York: Knopf, 1950), p. 131.

1ODole A. Level, Jr., "Communication Effectiveness:
Method and Situation," Reading in Organization, ed. James
L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, James H. Donnelly, Jr.
(Dallas, Texas, Business Publication, Inc., 1976), p. 306.

11Everett M. Rogers and L. Svenning, Managing Change,
USOE Grand Operation PEP: A Statewide Project to Prepare
Educational Planners for California, September, 1969.

12Ibid.

13Harold W. Boles & James A. Davenport, Introduction to
Educational Leadership, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers,
1975), p. 185.

114

1nEverett M. Rogers and L. Svenning, "Managing Change,"
paraphased by Harold W. Boles and James A. Davenport, Intro-
duction to Educational Leadership, (New York: Harper and
Row, Publishers, 1975), pp. 187-188.

15Robert G. Owens, Organizational Behavior in
Schools, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 100.

115

Decision Making Process

Decision making in organizations is a dynamic process
through which potential efforts are utilized to attain a
desirable outcome--rational alternative of action, and is
the key function of administrators. Simon highlights this
point as follows: "The anatomy of the organization is to
be found in the distribution and allocation of decision—
making functions. The physiology of the organization is to
be found in the processes whereby the organization influ-
ences the decisions of each of its members--supplying these

decisions with their premises."1

Chester I Barnard characterizes the organizational
action in terms of rational decision making as contrasted
with individual action. He also maintains that the process
of decision making is a means rather than an end. "What is
important here, however, is the superlative degree to which
logical processes must and can characterize organizational
action as contrasted with individual action, and the degree
to which decision is specialized in organizations. It is
the deliberate adoption of means to ends which is the

essence of formal organization."2

Simon specifies two types of decisions within organiza-

tional practices:

116

1. Programmed decisions through which
problems will be solved by routine
repetitive rules and regulations.
2. Non-programmed decisions for which
there are no existing prescribed
rules and procedures for handling the
problems. Instead, such decisions
require a concerted effort to search
for a logical alternative of action
plus judgment, intuition and
creativity on the part of decision
maker.3
Principles of nonprogrammed decision making within
organizations have not been developed as much as programmed
decision making, and as Gibson et. al. point out it is
vested in a particular level of management. "Ideally, the
main concern of top management should be non-programmed
decisions, while first level management should be concerned
with programmed decisions. Middle managers in most organi-
zations concentrate mostly on programmed decisions, although
in some cases they will participate in nonprogrammed
decisions. In other words, the nature, frequency, and
degree of certainty surrounding a problem should dictate at
what level of management the decision should be made."u
A cogent factor in decision making processes within
organizations is the search for rational alternatives of
action leading to a constructive and productive consequences.
Hence, in the following lines some of the researchers'
efforts, their contradictory perspectives in finding

effective ways for increasing the rationality of behavior

in decision making processes will be elucidated.

117

According to Simon human behavior in organization is
"intendedly rational"; and it is because of his limited
knowledge of the result of his act, his failure to reexamine
and evaluate all available alternatives, his incapability to
rank those alternatives according to their preference and
to select the best one.5

"The capacity of the human mind for formulating the
solving complex problems is very small compared with the
size of the problems whose solution is required for‘
objectively rational behavior in the real world--or even
for a reasonable approximation to such objective rationality."6

Simon also maintains that such shortcomings cause the
individual decision maker to look for a simplified model
of the real situation in order to deal with it. Thus,
rather than being an optimizer, he is a satisfier, select-
ing the alternative that meets a minimal standard of
acceptance.

‘Charles Perrow paraphrases and explains the above
argument in this manner: "Given the limits on rationality,
what does the individual in fact do when confronted with
a choice situation? He constructs a simplified model of the
real situation. This "definition of the situration," as
sociologists call it, is built out of past experience (it
includes prejudices and stereotypes) and highly particu-
larized, selectiVe views of present stimula. Most of his
responses are "routine"; he invokes solutions he has used

before. Sometimes he must engage in problem solving. When

he does so, he conducts a limited search for alternatives

118

along familiar and well—worn paths, selecting the first
satisfactory one that comes along. He does not examine
all possible alternatives nor does he keep searching for the
optimum one. He "satisfies" instead of "optimizes." That is,
he selects the first satisfactory soultion rather than search
for the optimum. His very standards for satisfactory solut-
ions are a part of the definition of the situation. They go
up and down with positive and negative experience. As
solutions are easier to find, the standards are raised; as
they are harder to find, the standards fall. The organization
can control these standards and it defines the situation;
only to a limited extent they are up to the individual."7

Decision making, of course, is a deliberate action for
selecting a better choice of available paths. One can take
the first course of action that appears, or one can consider
every possible alternative and thus never make a decision.
Naturally, it is desirable to seek a balance that will be
effective in a given situation. Owens in paraphrasing
Simon's and March's ideas says: "An organization does not
search endlessly and relentlessly for better ways for
achieving its goals, but normally utilizes its decision
making procedures to find rational alternatives for
achieving goals only when the organization's performance
seems to be falling below an acceptable level. It is un-
realistic to expect an organization to continue to sift
alternative courses of action until it achieves near-perfect
rationality between its behavior and its goals or objectives.

Rather than strive for an optimum solution or decision, an

119
organization will tend to accept a satisfying solution, one
that is good enough to fit the organization's perception of
reality and values."8

So far, the organization is viewed as a system for
making rational decisions and the individual decision maker
23 the element of this process who has limited knowledge
of the consequences of his action in selecting a desirable
alternative for the problems involved. We shall now turn
to a discussion to clarify the importance of participative
decision making -- whether or not shared decision making
produces better decisions, and what are the ways in which
this process increases rationality and productivity within
the organization.

According to Likert involving people in decisions that
affect them will increase the participatn's feeling of
responsibility for getting the job done, for the promotion
of organizational productivity and for improvement of work-
ing conditions.9

Holder maintains that the participative program
produces more favorable attitudes, a close relationship
between administrators and employees, greater upward
communications, and greater employee satisfaction. In
addition,it is an effort to get full benefit from the
technical resources and knowledgeability of other
participants.10

March and Simon also support participative decision

making by virtue of this fact that all those individuals

who implement decisions should have a voice in the decision

120

to be taken. "Where there is participation, alternatives
are suggested in a setting that permits the organizational
hierarchy to control what is evoked. Participative
management can be viewed as a device for permitting manage-
ment to participate more fully in the making of decisions as
well as a means for expanding the influence of lower
echelons in the organization."11

Odiorne's contention toward participative management
and its relationship to increased productivity and morale is
amenable to a cluster of factors rather than mere partic-
ipation. "The conclusions to be reached is that neither
tightness of supervision nor looseness is a sole controlling
variable, and that participation of itself has no claim
to being the core of a new pattern of managing that will
guarantee high productivity if universally adopted by manag-
ers. There is some evidence, however, that a strong
orientation towards goals, coupled with leader enthusiasm,
ample rewards for achieving them, and the uniting of people
in moving toward them does have a beneficial effect."12

Although participative decision making has brought about
gratification, commitment, improved achievement, and mitigated
some of the problems created by hierarchy, it also generates
some problems, too. Strauss has summarized the problems as
these:

1. Individuals whose opinions have been
rejected by the group may become
alienated from it.
2. Participation may lead to greater

cohesion but it may be cohesion against
management.

121
3. Participation may set up expectations
of continued participation which
management may not be able to satisfy.
4. Participation often takes a great deal
of time, can be frustrating to those
involved, and frequently results in
watered-down solutions.

The seriousness of such problems rests upon a number of
situations, including the human relation skills and
sophistication of the organizational leader.

A number of organization members are not quite in-
terested in participative decision making. Jacob reports
that all subordinates do not strive for participation but
they are willing to use the opportunity to do so when the
occasion arises.1u

Vroom found that differences in the performance of
employees was based on the personality and perceptions of
the degree to which the supervisors were participative.

He also alluded to this point that not all organization
members respond positively to participation.15

Unquestionably, the willingness of organization members
in participative decision making and the quality of their
decisions are under the influence of two clusters of
factors: (1) external factors such as social, political, and
economic environment of the organization and its members, and
(2) internal factors such as individual's value system,
attitudes, beliefs, needs and aspirations. "Man also
internalizes the goals of the organziation and seeks
affiliation with his group. He has a number of needs

that require satisfaction. His social characteristics--age,

sex, status, etc., --influrnce his decision. Finally he has

122

aspirations. If his aspirations are satisfied, his effort
is released, and if they are not, it is increased."16

For participative decision making to be successful,
administrators will have to understand the behavioral
influences upon themselves and other participants, and in
order to improve individual's quality of decision making
.they should improve and change the "premises" of their
decisions. Perrow makes explicit this point. "Thus, from
Simon welflfinnlthat it is the premises of decisions that are
important, rather than the decision making capabilities of
individuals--once it is established that they are not
superhuman. The organization does not control the 'process
of decision making', as he says at several points, but the
premises for decision making, as he says occasionally.
These premises are to be found in the 'vocabulary' of the
organization, the structure of communication, rules and
regulations and standard programs, selection criteria
for personnel, and so on--in short, on the structural

aspects."17

Improving Group Decision
There are also some techniques which, when properly
utilized, has been found to be useful in increasing the
creative capability of a group in generating ideas and
understanding problems in order to arrive at better group
decisions. Such techniques are:
1. The Delphi Technique.

"This technique involves the solicitation
and comparison of anonymous judgments on

123

the topic of interest through a set

of sequential questionnaires inter-
spersed with summarized information and
feedback of gpinions from earlier
responses."1

2. The Nominal Group Technique.
"A group of individuals (seven to ten) sit
around a table but do not speak to each
other. Rather each person writes ideas
on a pad of paper. After five minutes
a structured sharing of ideas takes place.
Each person around the table presents one
idea. A person designated as recorder
writes the ideas on a flip chart in full
view of the entire group. This continues
until all participants indicate they have
no further ideas to share. A structured
discussion follows before a vote is taken.
The next stage involves independent voting
in which each participant, in private,
selects priorities by ranking each idea.
The group decision is the mathematically19
pooled outcome of the individual votes."

3. Planning-Programming-Budgeting System (PPBS).
PPBS is a decision making technique which
is ultimately related to the principle of
management by objective, aiming to
increase organizational achievement. The
outstanding characteristics of this system
are: "(1) a comprehensive data base about
the organization's resources and the effects
of their application; (2) a goal structure
that is integrated with specifically
stated objectives and then with the programs
that are intended to meet them; (3) a
systematic review of the total costs and
benefits of existing and projected
activities; (4) a procedure for the system-
atic generation and consideration of altern-
ative activities; (5) multiyear planning
horizons; and (5) continuous review of
existing programs."20

Decision Making in Educational Organizations
The study of decision making processes in administrative
and industrial organization has had a great impact on think-

ing in educational administration; its practices, its

124

research, and its teaching. Thus, the same principles which
pervade the human services in other organizations are
applicable to educational settings, too. Educational systems'
staff will also expect to be effectively involved in the
decisions which affect them. They want to have the privilege
of contributing their ideas to the formation of general
policy structure of the system's operation. But the educa-
tional administrators should bear in mind dissimilarities
of organizations in staffing and application of decision
making strategies. They should review and clarify their own
understanding of the kind of organization theytufiflnugto and
to spell out the strategies by which the best decisions
may be made in their own system.21

Sergiovanni and Carver summarize their views about the
selection of appropriate strategies in decision making
processes within the organizational setting as the following:
"A number of approaches to;planning and decision making
are appropriate in educational settings--depending upon time,
nature of the problem, the distribution of ability, and the
desirability of centralized or decentralized decision making.
In most cases, however, the pure types such as a scientific,
rational decision strategy or an artistic, intuitive decision
strategy--are not satisfactory in school settings. Educa-
tional decision making as an applied science is dependent
upon hybrid strategies which can mesh and synthesize

scientific and intuitive approaches."22

125

Summary and Conclusion

Decision making is a dynamic process within organization
aiming at the selection of a rational alternative of action
which leads to a constructive and desirable result. The
quality of decision is influenced by numerous forces, and
serious consideration of behavioral influences and external
pressures are of great significance. "Note the environment
in which the game is played: inordinate uncertainty about
what must be done, the necessity that something be done, and
the crucial consequences of whatever is done."23

The individual decision maker is not capable of re-
examining and evaluating all available alternatives in
order to presage the outcome of each so he selects the
first satisfying one that comes along to achieve his goals.
Thus, the premises of an individual's decisions should be
controlled and evaluated to make sure that actual results
be consistent with the planned-for results when the
decision was made.

Participative decision making through which the
organization can get full benefit of participant's knowledge,
experience, and technological skills increases productivity.
Moreover, it creates a favorable attitude; a sense of
responsibility and commitment, and improved performance on
the part of the employees.

Supportive participative management; recognition of the
importance of shaping the premises of decision; training

and indoctrination programs in order to enable the individual

126

to make reasonable decisions; creation of a humanitarian

aatmosphere in which the individual is highly motivated and

eaxpresses his ideas openly; strong orientation toward goals;

21nd ample rewards for effective achievement the decisions

tiaken are the salient factors which contribute to decision

:niaking process and productivity.

127

Notes
(Decision Making Process)

1Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior, (New York:
'The McMillan Company, 1959), p. 220.

2Chester I. Barnard, Functions of the Executive,
(Cambridge:‘ Harvard University Press, 1938), p. 186.

3Herbert A. Simon, The New Science of Management
IDecisions, (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), pp. 5-6.

”James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, and James H.
IDonnelly, Jr., Organizational Behavior, Structure, Processes,
(Dallas, Texas: Business Publication, Inc., 1976), p. 343.

5Herbert A. Simon, Models of Man, (New York: Wiley,
1957), p. 196.

6Ibid., p. 198.

7Charles Perrow, Complex Organization: A Critical
lEssa , (Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company,
1972), p. 149.

8Robert G. Owen, Organizational Behavior in Schools,
(Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 100.

9Rensis Ligert, New Patterns of Management, (New York:
Pchraw-Hill Book Co., 1971), p. 65.

10Jack J. Holder, Jr., "Decision Making by Consensus,"
IReading in Organizations, ed. James L. Gibson, et.al..
(CDallas, Texas: Business Publications, Inc., 1976). p.
307-319.

11James March and Herbert Simon, Organization, (New
York: Wiley, 1958), p. 54.

- 12George S. Odiorne, Management by Objectives, (New York:
F’JL tman Publishing Corporation, 1970), p. 145.

13George Strauss, "Some Notes on Power-Equalization,"
Th SOC°_ ‘4 ’ o 0 2:04. 01' 0- P5 9‘ ° ‘ , ed.,
*1 - Leavitt (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall,
7 963), p. 70.

128

1”T. G. Jacob, Leadership and Exchange in Formal
(Organizations, (Alexandria, Va., Human Resources Research
(Organization, 1960), p. 198.

15Victor Vroom, Some Personality Determinants of the
IEffects of Participation, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
IPrentice Hall, 1960).

16Perrow, Op. Cit., p. 147.

17Ibid., p. 155.

18Gibson, et.al., Op. Cit., p. 358.

1918id., p. 359.

20Dale Mann, Policy Decision Making in Education,
(New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University,

1975), p. 88.

21Thomas J. Sergiovanni and Fred D. Carver, The New
:School Executive: A Theory of Administration, (New York:

Iiarper & Row, 1973), p. 232-233.

22Graham T. Allison, The Essence of Decision:
Explaining the Cuban Missile Crises, (Boston: Little, Brown,

1971), p. 171.

129
Part IV. Organizational Change and Development
Unstable, dynamic, and changing organizational society
will generate vigorous pressures on the organizations to
modify their existing programs in order to be responsive:
to new needs and adaptive to changes. Corwin notes: "the
capacity of modern man to control his destiny in a changing
organizational society hinges on his collective ability
to deliberately change the key formal organizations."1
Changes within organization are usually carried out by
structural alternations, and utilization of human and mat-
erial resources aiming at the attainment of higher level
of achievement for the defined groals and objectives.
Savill holds that educational changes are brought about
through four categories of change: (1) new technical advances;
(2) new processes: (3) new goals; and (4) new curriculum
advances.2 Leavitt typifies change according to three
basic categories: structural change, technological change,
and behavioral change.3
A group of innovators change the structure--modifying
the formal role definition; introducing new technology, new
tdritten policies, and new division of labor in order to
(shange people to improve task performance. Another group
aseeek to change people through process interventions——
c:<>unseling, consultation, and encounter group attempting to
cztuarge structure and tools to.change task achievement,
and also to make life more fulfilling for people. Robert

CDFvNans notes that "organizational changes are generally

1:5><3'.1:"‘ceived (by rationalist-oriented administrators) as a

130
process of reorganizing, redefining, and realigning these
parts of the structural whole so that they will perform
more satisfactory. "Human relations" becomes an important
appendage to the central concern and must be reckoned
with because it is clear that the informal organization--if
too badly violated--can ruin the best-laid plans of
administrators. Thus, new work processes that should be
more productive turn out to be less productive than their
predecessors; reorganization produces further confusion.
Behavior-oriented administrators tend to view (i.e. try to
understand) their organizations primarily as open social
systems. They feel that organizational changes are best
accomplished by changing the behavior in the organization--
the behavior both of individuals and of the group which
comprises the social system." The change-direction most
frequently sought by behaviorists is toward the development
of highly motivated, self-fulfilling individuals who make
the greatest possible use of their talents and capacities and
at the same time are skilled contributors to the dynamic
interpersonal relationship of the social system which com-
Larises the organization."u
Clearly. the endeavors to accomplish change, whether
tzkaey begin with people, technology, or structure soon must .
cieeal with the others. All of them are normative, sharing
611:1 expressed interest in improving organizational behavior
through improved performance of tasks.5
The relationship between the type or kind of change

and its dissemination has been tested by many researchers.

131

Corwin in reviewing the literature about organizational
change concludes that an organization can be more easily
changed "if it is invaded by a liberal, creative and
unconventional outsider with fresh perspective..if those
outsiders are exposed to creative, competent, flexible
socialization agents . . . if it is staffed by young,
flexible, supportive, and competent boundary personnel, or
'gatekeepers' ... if it is structurally complex and
decentralized . . . if it has the outside funds to provide
the 'organizational slack' necessary to lessen the cost
of innovation...if its members have positions that are
sufficiently secure and protected from the status risk
involved in change...if it is located in a changing, modern
urbanized setting where it is in close cooperation with a
coalition of other cosmopolitan organizations that can
supplement its skills and resources."6

Rogers and Shoemaker found that a change was diffused
and adopted more readily if it were understood as (1) more
advantageous over the present program, (2) less complex,
(3) more congruous to the individual's value system, (4) more
capen to experiment and (5) more capable in producing end

results.7

ITkle Change Process

The process of change may be analyzed meaningfully by
thf1<e following approaches: (1) a problem-solving approach;
C 22.) a research development and diffusion (RD & D) approach;

('33 3 an organizational development (OD); and (4) a linkage

132
process approach that incorporates elements of the other

three.

Problem-solving approach tends to mobilize individual

participants abilities in the solution of the problem through

attitudenal changes, readjustment of interpersonal relations,

and methods of communication associated with restructuring
the organization. Jung and Lippitt characterize this

approach with the following components: (1) identification
of the problem, (2) diagnosis of the problem, (3) collection

of the relevant knowledge and analysis of its implication

for surmounting the problem, (4) construction of alternatives

to action, (5) examination of the feasibility of the
alternatives, and (6) adoption and implementation of the
selected alternative.8
The second model, research development and diffusion
(RD & D) includes identifiable stages in the approach to
change. Havelock elucidates his model in the following
emphatic statements: (1) there should be a logical contin-
uation in the evaluation and application of an innovation;
(2) research and development of a program change should
take place before diffusion of it; (3) there should be
Lalanning a comprehensive scale; (4) there should be a
Izaational differentation of labor and coordination of jobs;
alrad (5) the supporter of change should be eager to admit
k1:i.gh primary development costs prior to any diffusion act-
-i-‘91ity.9 He also maintains that the innovation will be
nl<=>r‘e acceptable if it is offered in the right place, in the

1"Tight form, and at the right time.

133

The third approach is organizational development (OD)
through which an attempt is made to promote organizational
effectiveness by integrating individuals and organizational
objectives. Alexander Winn states that "organizational
development. . . implies a normative, re-education strategy
intended to affect systems of beliefs, values, and attitudes
within the organization so that it can adapt better to the
accelerated rate of change in technology, in our industrial
environment and society in general. It also includes formal
organizational restructuring which is frequently initiated
and reinforced by the normative and behavioral change."10

He also identifies the three subobjectives of organi-

zational development as "changing attitudes or values,

modifying behavior, and including change in structure and
11

policy."
The final approach of change, defined by Havelock in
1970, is the linkage process model.12 This model incor-

porates some of the phases and strategies of the three
preceding approaches. That is, at the outset new
knowledge and information relevant to the problem is examined
:and reestablished. Then the process of research development
sand diffusion is carried on. In the third stage, the
z°<elationship and communication system between and among the
treasearcher, developer, and employees is investigated.
TIane final phase is the linkage process model through which
EBEBAzh role functionary is assisted in observing what other
‘f‘Llllctionaries are achieving in their respective section of the

process of changing. In short, the actual process of change

134
is viewed as a well-regulated and rational endeavor which
begins with the identification of a particular problem,
continues through the development of possible solutions, and
ends with the dissemination of the outcome to a designated
group. This process is more accelerated if the organization
possesses an information system to substantiate the change.
Most effective means of diffusing information pertaining to
any change is that of personal contact. Thus the key to
adoption of change is the social interaction among member
of the organization. All individuals pursue the same pattern
in adopting the change characterized as follows:
1. Awareness.
An individual should acknowledge the necessity
for change and the feasibility of an innovative
method to accomplish this change.
2. Interest.
In this stage, the individual should make a
concerted effort in gathering information
pertaining to change, and considering their
applications.
3. Evaluation.
The individual assesses thoroughly the various
aspects of proposed ideas in order to apply
them to his particular situation.
4. Trial.
The individual applies the innovation on a
small scale to find out whether, in his
restricted situation, it has any actual
value.
5. Adoption.
The individual considers the results of the
trial of the innovation. If they are promising,
the innovation will be adopted, otherwise it
will be rejected.
In all cases the relation of the individual to the
leeaéider and to his affiliated group plays an important role

1.x) dissemination of new ideas, since people will accept and

135
support attitudes and behaviors which they have already

associated with their reference group.

Resistance to Change
Changes are resisted by the individual employees as well
as managers, since they are afraid that any change will be to
their disadvantages or loss of something they value. Ivor
Pdorrish states that "individuals tend to resist most strongly
sit the point where the pressures of change are greatest; they
<3<3me to see change as a threat and will, therefore, react
cieefensively, often by using former practices and secretly,
<:>zs by modifying the new practices in such a way that they are
made increasingly to resemble the old."1u
The individual usually dignifies his own consistency and
his reliability, so he presistently looks for a secure,
I:><3rmanent, familiar and nonthreatening milieu. He admits
Ea-Ind supports such new ideas as will fit, or be in accordance
V«iithhis past experiences and his established beliefs, and
1"Wininhclosely relate to his personality traits. He leans
v’esry much upon his peers and colleagues who enjoy a common
t><:ndy of knowledge or acceptance of similar ideas and methods.
H€31.13 afraid that innovation threatens his personal compe-
tiéaznce and privileges, so he seeks to preserve and defend
against all external threats. As a result, in order to
nu€3..‘:i.ntain those images he tends to distort new information
Eilfixd consequently resist changes. Morrish further notes that
"1i-t is naturally true that there is frequently a very good

r‘eason for resistance, since all changes are nOt necessarily

136
warranted or desirable, resistance may clearly be justified.
The value, quality, relevance or even feasibility of the
proposals may be judged to be deficient at the outset, of
even at any point in their implementation; and this is most
probably the case when the planners of change are alienated
from the world of those for whom they have been planning,"15
According to Gross, et. al. barriers to organizational
members implementing innovations are: (1) lack of clarity
about the innovation to be implemented; (2) lack of capacities
required to carry it out; (3) lack of tools and equipment
to fulfill the innovation; (4) incompatibility of organiza-
tional conditions prior to and during the innovation's in-
troduction; and (5) mismanagement in implementing the
Dirtunovation.16 They conclude that management's success in
surmounting barriers rest on conformity of organization
(3- emand with the following individual rights: "‘. . . sub-
c3-‘Ir"dinates have a right to expect management (1) to take the
S teps necessary to provide them with a clear picture of
their new role requirements, (2) to adjust organizational
a~‘l:"‘r-angements to make them compatible with the innovation,
C 3) to provide subordinates with the resocialization
experiences required to develop the capabilities needed to
QC>12>e with the difficulties involved in implementing the
innovation, (4) to provide the resources necessary to carry
01.11; the innovation, and (5) to provide the appropriate
8L1pports and rewards to maintain subordinates willingness to

Ina-l:<e implementation efforts . "17

137
Fulfillment of these conditions will be a function of
the performance of management. Management is in the best
position to clarify the situation, to establish training
programs, to provide appropriate materials and tools, to make
change in organizational arrangement compatible with the
innovation demands, to offer the type of rewards and punish-
ments that can motivate the staff to expand the time and
effort required to implement innovation.18
In discussing the failure of the community action
programs, Hasenfeld feels that the precariousness of such
programs can be attributed to the following organizational
problems: "(1) the inability to develop stable basis of
Support in the community; (2) failure to establish crucial
and systematic service linkages with other social service
agencies, (3) lack of an information system to guide the
S ervice functions; and (4) difficulties in developing
effective staff-client relations.19
Resistance to change and the methods to overcome it
have been the major preoccupation of a large group of social
8 cientists. The underlying premise of such an approach
is that organizational change can be achieved through
cll'ianging the behavior of the organization's members. Eliot
CIna-apple and et al. hold: "to obtain lasting change one
ClcDes not try to change people but rather to change the
Organizational constraints that operate upon them."‘20
Zander found that resistance to change might be mitigat-

ed if careful attention is devoted ahead to the nature of

Qflange, the fulfillment of it, and the determination of the

138
group of decision makers.21
Argyle states that "it may be impossible to bring about
change in the teeth of such resistance, and it is usually
possible only if the new scheme can be shown to be advanta-
geous. This may be achieved by means of financial incentives,
honorific ranks, training courses, or by sheer persuasive
skill."22
It is a common notion that resistance to change will be
sstrongly reduced if the management shares its power with
eernployees, by letting them participate in decisions about
tzkae change to be made. Furthermore, through consultation
and psychological support, not only resistance to change
tarziLll be lessened, but a sense of commitment in implementing
li.‘t: will be created. Leavitt, in his review of the power-
equalization approaches to organizational change notes that
"?EDower equalization has thus become a key concept in
53 several of the prevalent people theories, a first step in the
13.1":leoretical causal chain leading toward organizational change.
:Eitz has been construed as an initial sub-goal--a necessary
EDGr‘edecessor to creative change in structure, technology,
tT-ask-solving, and the titask implementation. Although the
C{Ellstance is unmarked, there is no obscurity about direction:
5* Inore egalitarian distribution is better."23
In sum, successful implementation of change in the
C’I‘éganization will be accomplished through the mobilization
C>1?' various factors such as power-equalization, participative

leaixnagement, supportive leadership, human relations training

3‘11 sensitivity, and associated with positive rewards,

139

orientation and reinforcement.

Change Strategy

There is no single strategy which might be applied to
various types of innovation, but the combination of some
will accomplish successful organizational change. Watson
indicates that all strategies should have enua’l consideration
:for the resisting forces in the adopter and for the tactics
Ifor effecting adoption.2u In summarizing Watson's pre-

czonditions for any successful attempt at institutional
czrrange, Morrish notes that "(1) the participants must feel
tzliat the project is essentially their own and not wholly
cinevised by outsiders; (2) the project must be whole-
}:leartedly supported by the senior officials of the system;
(.3) the project must be in reasonably close accord with the
‘\7alues and ideals of the participants; (4) the participants
isshould experience support, trust, acceptance, and confidence
jLn their relations with one another; (5) the participants
Innust feel assured that their autonomy and security are not

jLn any way threatened."25

Miles has identified six interaction approaches which
Eijre most appropriate to education, aimed at bringing about

Organizational change and development.

1. Team training. Application of this
technique helps the participants to
improve their abilities in expressing
themselves openly, listening to as-a
understanding each other, and examining

their own effectiveness and problem-
solving team.

140

Survey feedback. In this stage, data
concerning the attitudes, opinions, and
beliefs of members toward organization

are obtained. Each work group, assisted

by the consultant, will then examine its
own summarized data and relate its
conclusion to those for the organization
and the whole. This technique contributes
to mitigate feelings of being misunderstood
and isolated and makes problems more suscep-
tible to solution rather than retaining
them as a focus for blaming, scape-goating.

Role workshop. This approach accentuates role
clarity, effectiveness and the improvement

of the "fit" between the person and the role.
By sharing common role problem alternative
solution may develop which result in better
performance of that role.

"Target setting" and supporting activities.
In this stragety the superior and subordinate
set agreed-upon goals which will be reviewed,
corrected and developed through consultation,
role meeting, and workshop activities during
the course of action.

Organizational diagnosis and problem-solving.
In this phase the emphasis is on the
identification of the problem, invention of the
possible solution, making decisions on c
necessary changes through both regular and
newly-constructed channels.

Organizational experiment. This approach
includes a feedback stage, in which the
members fulfill a controlled experiment
and the results are examined carefully and
implications are finally drawn for the
more efficient functioning.2

In the following, Greiner enumerates a six-phase

ES‘tLrategy which has been associated with many instances of

=31"..1ccessful organizational change. They are pressure and

adr‘ousal, intervention and arousal, diagnosis and recognition,

'l-rlvention and commitment, experimentation and search, and

I"‘Eeinforcement and acceptance.

27

Pressure and Arousal.
There are some potent sources of pressures

141

such as environmental and manpower forces
which often arouse managers to bring about
change and development.

2. Intervention and Arousal.
The intervention of various types of
change agents--external, internal, or
external-internal is necessary to give a
momentUmp to existing situations with
his new perspective aiming at challenging the
status quo.

3. Diagnosis and Recognition.
It comprises accumulating information relating
to the problems and analysis of them in order
to discover areas for improvement.

4. Invention and Commitment.
It envolves the encouragement of inventing
a new solution to diagnosed problems and
invoking the employee's commitment to
change efforts.

5. Experimentation and Search.
In this stage the selected alternative
is implemented on a small scale to test
the validity of the diagnosed solution, and
in the case of failure, the search for new
information will continue.

6. Reinforcement and Acceptance.
This approach is the conclusion of the five
above phases, that is, when the result of
experiment is positive, the personnel
will be encouraged and reinforced to
accept the change required of them and
to enlargg the scope of their own
efforts.

In sum, the sheer essence of most of these organizational
C211ange and development strategies focus on basic and common
tieechniques such as sharing authority among managers and
€52Inployees; job enrichment; re-education and positive
3r‘eeinforcement; management by objectives; managerial grids;
a~1'1d human relation training in sensitivity. The main purpose
‘C’I? such approaches is in creation of a climate of full

$3labordinate's participation, openness, and trust in order to

142
integrate individual and organizational objectives resulting

in higher performance and productivity.

Agents of Change

 

An important consideration in the process of organiz-
ational change and development is the kind of role assumed
by the agent of change. The change agent whether designated
;from within the organization or external consultant, is
eaxpected to solve organizational problems and conflicts,

eaxamine the causes of organization's inefficiency or lack of
.j.ts responsiveness to environmental demands, and provide
manageable approaches for transferring the proposal to
aixation. Thus the change agent's role is complex when the
jL:ssues at hand are general problems that do not have
£3.traightforward solutions.

Below we initially investigate some of the change
Eigent's traits and then we will offer a set of general
I:>rinciples which may be useful for effective institution-
Ea.lization of change.

From his investigation of research on the diffusion of
jLnnovation, Rogers concludes that "innovators are venture-
«SB<>me individuals; they desire the hazardous, the rash, the
Eauvant-grade, and the risky. Since no other model of the'
ii-rlnovation exists in the social system, they must also have
title ability to understand and use complex technical infor-
InEition. An occasional debacle when one of the new ideas
Eldopted proves to be unsuccessful does not disquiet

jLnnovators. However, in order to absorb the loss of an

143

unprofitable innovation, they must generally have control
of substantial financial resources."29

In summarizing Miles's viewpoints about the innovators,
Morrish notes that "the innovative person as strong,
benevolent, high in intelligence and verbal ability, less
bound by local group norms, more individualistic and
creative, revealing authenticity and enthusiasm when attempt-
ing to persuade others. frequently rebellious. alienated.
(excessively idealistic. and prone to resentment. resistence
sand defiance in the face of adversity of disillusionment."3O

Other researchers characterize the innovator as a
g><arson who possesses a sense of personal competence and
IFEEith in his own capacity to control the environment; great
‘EiJDility to move out of the existing situation for purpose
<:»f comparison and perspective, more freedom to analyze
I:>roblems and provide solutions without any fear of punish-
rtlent; a strong desire to seek information, exploratory
1:»ehavior, considerable risk-taking and strong independence;
t2>elief in scientific knowledge in the scientific objective
Eind approach; receptiveness of new thought, ideas, and
e Xperience . 31
In addition to preceding characteristics, the change

a. 3 ant should also:

1. Develop a feeling of belonging and commitment
to overall process of change in order to
perform successful institutionalization of
change within the organization.

2. Analyze the nature of change to find out
which things will succeed and which will

fail, and then utilize procedures suitable
to that change.

144

3. Marshal interest groups and external
constituencies for support to influence
the internal process.

4. Stress behavioral imperatives such as
genuineness, authenticity, and open
communication, as well as training
in how to achieve these imperatives in
organizational life.

5. Find a means of providing participants
with an opportunity to experiment, to
reflect on themselves and their situations,
to work together on these matters in an
atmosphere of openness and trust.

6. Strive for a better understanding of how
task demands influence the behavioral
process.

7. Reward the people whose behavior helps
promote the change.

8. Give emphasis to humanistic values in
organizational life, help participants
gain perspective on an insight into
themselves and the organization.

9. Make an effort to incorporate a close
connection between formal and informal
organization and how it can be used to
complement and reinforce change in
their behavior.

10. Evaluate his own ideas objectively as
possible and listen carefully to the
evaluation of others.

11. Provide the participants continuous training
program similar to the actual workplace
environment, and support and reinforce
them throughout the period of change.

In summarizing the orgnaizational change and the
consultant's rule, Baldridge holds that organizations can
make better use of consultants if they observe a few basic
rules when dealing with change process. He enumerates:
"(1) set up the consultant's task to maximize internal and

external expertise; (2) assess needs and problems seriously;

145
(3) take into account the organization's unique history,
strengths, and weaknesses when making changes; (4) take
the environment into account when considering organizational
changes; (5) realize that serious changes alter the organiza-
tional structure as well as individual attitudes; (5) make
changes that are both politically and economically feasible;
and (7) use effective changes to solve the diagnosed prob-

lems."32

Change and Development in Educational Settings

Educational systems like other organizations exist in
an environment that is very dynamic. Changes in that
environment create compelling pressures which require
reéponses, modification and alteration in the complex of
units and relationships that make up in educational
enterprise. They also need to increase their ability to
cope with the changing environment as well as anticipating
changes and even in creating changes. Educational settings
are organizations which have much in common with other kinds
of organizations, and administrative theory, if well develop-
ed in any field of human endeavor, could apply to them.
Educational administrators also have been given the way other
organizations have tried to solve their problems, and must
of what they know about organizational health comes from
the experience of business and industry, for which the need
of the organization to survive and develop in rapidly
changing and highly competitive society conditions have

shown that a matter of high priority for some years.

146

In undertaking a planned approach for change in
educational systems, the administrator should carefully
consider the implication for his role and function in any
arrangement that is essentially designed to facilitate
change in the organization. He should plan the process in
such a way as to ensure that changes made are more durable,
measurable and similar to the original version of the
innovation proposed. Admittedly, the whole subject of
educational change is a very complex and there is no
blueprint for effective innovation. Morrish in summarizing
aspects of educational change notes that "since, up to the
present time at least, it does not seem possible to produce
blueprints for effective innovations in education, we have
to concentrate upon the factors which appear to favor or to
impede any durable change. Positive factors would include
the following: proven quality, low cost, divisibility into
parts, ease of communicability, low complexity, strong
leadership or sponsorship, a favorable rather than neutral
or inhibiting school or other institutional environment,
compatibility with the values and existing practices of the
adopters, an effective mixture of rewards and punishments,
readiness for change in the target system or group, and the
appropriateness of the proposed innovation to the surrounding

33

community."

Summary and Conclusion
The enviornment is a major compelling force for change,

as new environmental demands create new ideas, new procedures,

147
and new activities. Any organization's viability and
creative vigor are contingent upon the constant inflow of
new ideas and its responsiveness to environmental needs.
Any change attempt which contradicts the individual's
existing values, beliefs, attitudes, past experience, and
structure of organization, has very little chance of
success. People generally adopt changes more easily if
they perceive them, respect them as appropriate to their
particular situation, and also assist to design them.
In addition, properties of the organization such as 00mmue
nication adequacy and the equalization of power among
managers and employees, have a powerful effect on the
acceleration and durability of adoption of any particular
innovation.

Successful, durable, and productive change will be
more likely implemented if organizations and agents of
change harness their potentiality to create a non-
threatening, open and trustful atmosphere which encourage
mobilization of external and internal power and support;
participation and development of more expertise and
commitment between experts and managers; incorporation of
close connection between formal and informal organization;
providion of intensive training programs similar to actual
workplace; establishment of reward system for those who
promote innovation; continuous evaluation, reinforcement,
and correction of adopters of change; development of a
feeling of belongingness and commitment to the overall

process of change; and emphasis on humanistic values.

148

Notes
(Organizational Change and Development)

1Ronald G. Corwin, "Strategies for Organizational
Innovation," Yeheskel Hasenfeld and Richard A. English,
eds. Human Service Organizations, (Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 1974), p. 698.

2Anthony Savills, "Topography of Change", Clearing
House, 42 (January, 1968), p. 27-73-

3Harold J. Leavitt, "Applied Organizational Change
in Industry: Structural, Technological and Humanistic

 

Approaches," James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organization,
(Skoki, Ill.: Rand McNally, 1965), pp. 1144-1168.
A

Robert G. Owen, Organizational Behavior in Schools,
(Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1970),
pp. 223-224.

5Robert L. Kahn, "Organizational Development: Some
Problems and Proposals," James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevish,
and James H. Donnelly, Jr., eds. Reading in Organizations:
Behavior,Strugture, Process, (Dallas, Texas, Business
Publications, Inc., 1976), pp. 341-354.

6Corwin, Op. Cit., pp. 698-699.

7Everett M. Rogers and F. Floyd Shoemaker, Communication
of Innocation: A Cross-Cultural Approach, 2nd ed. (New York
Free Press, 1971), pp. 22-23.

 

8Charles Jung and Ronald Lippitt, "The Study of Change
As a Concept in Research Utilization," Theory into
Practice, (February 1966), p. 25-29.

 

9Ronald G. Havelock, "Experimental School Networks,
Theory and Reality," Journal of Secondary Education,
46 (April, 1971), p. 179.

10Alexander Winn, "The Laboratory Approach to
Organizational Development: A Tentative Model of Planned
Change," Paper read at the Annual Conference, British
Psychological Society, Oxford, September 1968, p. l, and
cited in Robert T. Golembiewski, "Organizational Development
in Public Agencies: Perspective on Theory and Practice,"
Public Administration Review, (July/August 1969), p. 367.

149

11Ibid., p. 367.

12Havlock, Op. Cit., pp. 183-184.

13Rogers and Shoemaker, Op. Cit., pp. 100-101.

1nIvor Morrish, Aspects of Educational Change, (New

York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976), p. 87.

15Ibid., p. 97.

16Neal Gross, Joseph B. Gidequinta, and Marylin
Bernstein, "Failure to Implement a Major Organizational
Innovation," J. Victor Baldridge, Terrence E. Deal and

Morry Zieg Ancell, eds. Managing Change in Educational
Organizations, (Berkley, California: McDutch Publishing
Corporation, 1975), pp. 415-120.

17Ibid., p. 241.

18Ibid., p. 423-424.

19Yeheskel Hasenfeld, "Organizational Dilemas in
Innovating Social Services: The Case of Community Action
Center," Yeheskel Hasenfeld and Richard A. English, eds.
Human Service Organization, (Ann Arbor: The University
ETIMichigan Press, 1974), p. 686.

20Eliot D. Chapple and Leonard R. Sayles, The
Measure of Management, (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1964), pp. 242-243.

21

 

Alvin Zander, "Resistance to Change--its Analysis and
Prevention," Advanced Management Journal, 15 (January,
1950), pp. 9-11.

22

M. Argyle, "The Social Psychology of Social Change,"
T. Burns and S. B. Saul, Eds. Social Theory and Economic
Change, (London: Tavistock Publication, 1967), p. 95.

23Leavitt, Op. Cit., p. 1159.

2”G. Watson, "Toward a Conceptual Architecture of a

Self-renewing School System," Change in School Systems, ed.
G. Watson (Washington, D. C., National Training
Laboratories, NBA, 1967), pp. 106-115.

150

25Morrish, Op. Cit., pp. 115-116.
26Matthew B. Miles, "Planned Change and Organizational
Health: Figure and Ground," J. Victor Baldridge, Terrence

E. Deal and Mary Zieg Ancell, eds. Managing Change in
Educational Organizations, (Berkley, California: McDutchan
Publishing Corporation, 1975), pp. 243-245.

 

27Larry E. Greiner, "Pattern of Organizational
Change," Harvard Business Review (May-June 1967), pp. 119-130.

28Ibid., pp. 119-130.

 

29Everett M. Rogers, "What are Innovators Like?",
In Carlson, R. O. et. al., Change Processes in the Public
Schogls, (Eugene, Oregon, University of Oregon, 1965 ,
P. 5 .

 

30Morrish, Op. Cit., p. 98.
31Ibid., pp. 98-99.

32J. Victor Baldridge, "Organizational Change and the
Consultant's Role: Rules for Effective Action", In J.
Victor Baldridge, Terrence E. Deal, and Mary Zieg Ancell,
eds. Managing Change in Educational Organizations, (Berkley,
Califgrnia: McDutchan Publishing Corporation, 1975),
p. 29 .

33Morrish, Op. Cit., p. 164.

CHAPTER V

OBJECTIVES FOR ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Organizations are instituted for the attainment of
certain goals. The success and effectiveness of an organiz-
ation are determined by its power in goal-achievement.

Valid and reliable assessment of the organization's effec-
tiveness is very difficult, particularly when it does have a
continuous end-result and the appropriate controls over
inputs and outputs are hard to achieve. Hasenfeld et.al.
states that "a key derivative of the technOlogical problems
encountered by human service organizations is their
difficulty in developing reliable and valid measures of
effectiveness. These difficulties arise from two sources:
(1) lack of clear and operative definitions of the desired
outcomes and (2) inadequate knowledge about cause-effect
relations ."1

The same authors maintain that as the result of lack
of criteria to measure effectiveness and the limitation in
assessing consequences of the actions it takes, the organiz-
ation will resort to extrinsic measures of effectiveness
which result in undermining legitmacy and increasing goal
displacement. "Consequently, human service organizations

tend to develop extrinsic rather than intrinsic measures of

151

152
effectiveness. Such measures can embrace several types:
(a) measures of means rather than ends, (2) measures of
efficiency rather than effectiveness, (0) measures based on
the subjective evaluation by staff and testimonies of
clients; and (d) measures that are indirectly related to
the product goals of organization."2

Since accurate information and valid means are relativ-
ely unavailable, employee's effectiveness is also assessed
more in terms of response to organization expectations and
relations with other personnel than in terms of capacity
for conventional social role behavior. Therefore, various
staff members may wish to control the nature of the infor-
mation about their own activities in order to maintain or
advance their positions. However, some objective assess-
ments of effectiveness have been identified in terms of
improved production, satisfaction,adaptivenessand develop-
ment.

Etzioni makes no distinction between organizational
effectiveness and efficiency as he maintains that they tend
to go hand in hand. "Organizations are constructed to be
the most effective and efficient social units. The actual
effectiveness of a specific organization is determined
by the degree to which it realizes its goals. The efficiency
of an organization is measured by the amount of resources
used to produce a unit of output. Output is usually
closely related to, but not identical with, the organiza-
tional goals."3 He also states that, "human resources are

among the major meands used by the organization to achieve

153

its goals. Generally the less the organization alienates its
personnel, the more efficient it is. Satisfied workers
usually work harder and better than frustrated ones. Within
limits, happiness heightens efficiency in organizations and,
conversely, without effecient organizations, much of our
happiness is unthinkable.“4

In the perception of Tannenbaum et.al., the exertion of
permissive leadership promotes effectiveness. He notes that,
"permissive leadership leads to maximum self-realiZation.by
subordinates of their productive capacities and, therefore,
contributes significantly to organizational effectiveness."5

Fiedler, in his contingency model, explains that group
effectiveness is dependent as much on the group situation
as on the leader. "The effectiveness of a group is
contingent upon the relationship between leadership style and
the degree to which the group situation enables the leader
to exert influence."6

Likert believes that the individual's loyalty and
identification with the organizational goals, the open
channel of communication, the incidence of teamwork, and the
extent of confidence and trust among employees are criteria
for effective operation.7

Chester I. Barnard relies upon two factors for achieving
efficiency and effectiveness within the organization:
cooperation and satisfaction of the employees. He notes that,
"the persistence of cooperation depends upon two conditions:

its effectiveness and its efficiency. Effectiveness relates

to the accomplishment of the cooperative purpose, which is

154

social and non-personal in character. Efficiency relates
to the satisfaction of individual motives, and is personal
in characters."8

According to Getzels and Guba, effectiveness is the
extent to which observed social behavior is congruent with
expectations held for the role, and efficience is the extent
to which the observed behavior is congruent with the need-
disposition of the individual.9

Drucker accentuates participative decision making and
reinforcement for effectiveness. He holds that, "the basic
principles of effective organization are beginning to emerge.
The worker and work-group need to take responsibility for
job design and for work-group structure as well as for the
fringe benefits that influence the working community. It
is destructive folly to assume, in the name of creativity,
that they do not need knowledge that is generally unavail-
able to them . . . . .management can encourage the achieving
worker, make his efforts productive, provide him constant
feedback and allow for constant learning that transcends the
immediate job."1O

Robert N. LaBonte, industrial director of Fellows
Corporation states that, "effectiveness, I suppose, is
measured in morale, labor turnover, the reaction from.
employees, supervisors, and management as a whole. A
measurement of how satisfactory they seem to be doing their
jobs, the usual breaks that every company uses. But the
union thing is often a good measurement of how good a job

you are doing. If they are trying to get in, and they try

155
and don't get in, this is at least a reflection that we are

.holding our own."11

The authors of Organization believe that effectiveness is
obtained through achievement of desirable ends and efficient
use of resources. They indicate:"in the context of organiza-
tional behavior, effectiveness refers to the optimal relation-
ship among five components: production, efficiency, satisfac-
tion, adaptiveness, and development. A short-run criterion
of effectiveness which refers to the ability of the organiza-
tion to produce outputs with minimum use of inputs. The
measures of efficiency are always in ratio terms, such as
benefit/cost, cost/output, and cost/time."12

The same authors maintain that the indicators of
organizational effectiveness: production, efficiency, sat-
isfaction, adaptiveness and development have the same
application and meaningfulness at the levels of groups and
individuals.

Argyris reports that organizational effectiveness is
dependent on its ability to accomplish these principles:
(1) achieve its goals: (2) maintain itself internally:

(3) adapt to its environment.13

Although the forgoing formulations for organizational
effectiveness are not precisely equivalent, they have many
similarities which emphasize a number of goals such as
productivitiy, growth, employee's satisfaction, and

society's interests. However, these objectives may be

translated into several following action variables:

156

1. The establishment of an organizational
climate in which employee's growth,
development, satisfaction and adaptation
will be enhanced. This means, among
other things:

a. A democratic organization.

b. An open and multi-lateral communication
system.

c. A management based on participative
decision making and problem solving.

d. A constant amplification process on the
job and job enrichment.

e. The provision of maximum opportunity
for advancement and development.

2. The creation of an ideal interpersonal
relationship that would, in addition to
meeting the employee's motivational needs,
permit the employee to take pride in the
organization for which he works, in the
job he holds, and in the way he performs.

3. The provision of good jobs, wages, working
conditions, work satisfaction, stability of
employment, and opportunities for advancement,
in return for their loyalty. initiative.
skill, care, effort, attendance and team
work.

4. Meeting the organization's social, civic,
and economic responsibilities with
imagination and with voluntary action
which will merit the understanding and
support of all concerned among the public.

5. Creating and maintaining a warm and
friendly atmosphere for clients to
cultivate in public officials, community
leaders, and the public at large, an
attitude of respect, confidence, and pride in
the organization.

6. Maintaining employee's morale, training
supervisory staff, and observing
organizational rules.

7. Seeking new developments that accelerate
attainment of specific goals and objectives.

In sum, organizational effectiveness thoroughly depends
upon clarity and meaningfulness of goals; multilateral and

open channels of communication; cooperation and collaboration

157
versus intimidation and coercion; full utilization of
employee's potential; integration of individual and
organizational objectives, satisfaction and employee's
morales; goal achievement; maintenance; and adaptability

to environmental change.

Some Conspicuous Defects in Current Situations
of Educational Administration of Iran

 

The major purpose of this section is to highlight those
problems which impair effective educational administrative
practice throughout Iran and to present insights as well as
to suggest possible solutions for those problems. In addition,
suggested strategies will likely enable administrators to
utilize their leadership potential to the fullest. While
admittedly speculating on the basis of little evidence and
research, the observations of the writer during seventeen
years of service in various levels of Iranian educational
enterprises will buttress and support the following state-
ments.

1. The public administration, including educational

administration of Iran, has been plagued with many

problems and inefficiencies which frequent reform
attempts have failed to change. It is asserted that
these problems include: inadequacy of research,
problem-solving techniques, poor planning, red tape,
lack of cooperation, and cultural obstacles. For
example, the present Prime Minister, Jamshid Amuzgar,

told the Imperial Commission that administrative

158
deficiencies, petty officialdom, buck-passing, a let-
things-slide attitude, lack of cooperation, and
burning desire for power are the most crippling
diseases of our government. He also added "Why should
bureaucratic inefficiencies be allowed to deter the
achievement of the desired pace of progress in various
projects? We should all come to our senses and realize
what golden opportunities can be lost because of such
cases of negligence and lack of conscientiousness."1u
2. The majority of high ranking officials have
entrenched themselves behind strong organizational
structure which enhance their status, reward them
financially, and work more to benefit themselves than
to serve the public. However, formal obligations
of administrative duty are effectively undermined
by the personal interests of bureaucratic power-holders.
They have become defensive and react to stimuli
primarily in terms of promoting their own safety,
security and status. Thus, it is clear that this
critical situation will preclude the educational
organizations from meeting their economic, social and
civic objectives.
3. There is still a strong willingness to accept the
traditional administrative practices and perpetuate
the familiar conduct wherein innovative ventures and
modern methods of organizational theory are not work-
able or influential. Consequently, prevailing attitudes

reinforce a lack of receptivity to change and have

159

vigorously weakened another element of effectiveness,
that is adaptiveness.
4. Low salaries, traditional supervision, and
unfavorable climate for development are fundamental
characteristics of educational organizations which
have resulted in employee's withdrawal, apathy,
disengagement, turnover and taking outside jobs.
Obviously, the existence of these elements within the
organization have attributed to the lack of employee's
satisfaction.
5. As a result of centralized structure of the
Ministry of Education, and the expectations that public
organization should do everything, top officials are
overwhelmed with work. The masses of paper which deal
with more or less unimportant problems, results in
neglect of policy formulation and planning. This
situation can be observed in the following comments:

"It does not require great intelligence to

discern the lack of logic in the myriad

signatures, stamps, approvals and endless

shuttling of pieces of paper from desk to

desk, and office to office, that is such

a typical feature of securing any official

permission or authorization. Much of the

red tape results from overcentralization.

Government departments and ordinary citizens

alike must refer to Tehran for practically

everything, even such mundance things as getting

160
an import license, hiring a civil servant,
to more major things like establishing factor-
ies or plants."15
It is without saying that the above situation drastically
lessens the organizational effectiveness and ability
to meet the objectives of decentralization.
6. Interpersonal relations in educational settings
are generally subjected to status and authoritarian
conduct. The employee's performance is measured not
in terms of productivity but by the degree of loyalty
toward superiors. Naturally, employees in such an
environment are more loyal to their superiors than to
organizational goals. Furthermore, educational
organizations reward dependency and submissiveness
at the expense of creativity and independency. Hence,
the administration does not meet one of the most
important objectives of effectiveness by providing a
democratic leadership.
7.~ Owing to the lack of delegation of authority, poor
participation in decision making, and limited rewards
for achievement, the employee's personal needs are
not identified with the organizational goals. As a
result, there exists a negative attitude toward
cooperation and coordination. This has resulted in
duplication and prevention of the attainment of
economic developmental goals. As pointed out in
preceding sections, one of the major objectives of

organizational effectiveness is participative

 

161
decision making and power-equalization which the
educational organization has over-looked.
8. The existing educational settings do not provide
a nonthreatening atmosphere in which the employees
can express their opinions openly, use their knowledge
and skills effectively, and share their information
freely. Such an organizational climate has hindered
effective communication and can be attributed to the
multiplicity of departments, identification of employees
with one particular department, staff insecurity, fear
and lack of confidence. Research in organizational
behavior makes it clear that this present situation
cannot provide the organizational effectiveness where
employees cannot engage in honest and open discussion
of problems.
9. Maintaining the status quo is more supported and
favored than innovative attempts because present
officials and staff are afraid that any change may upset
the state of equilibrium, create stress, and threaten
their safety, security, and status. Little attention
is given to long-range goals and directions. Thus,
while the elimination of uncertainties and stress is
important for today, tomorrow's problems are guaranteed
since no careful attention is given to the future.
10. The large organization of the Ministry of Education
with its various departments, stereotyping structure,
and uncertainty of main mission, serves past needs better

than it provides for the critical demands of the present

162
and future. The lack of clarity in goal accomplishment
is not because of the absence of goals, but can mostly
be attributed to administrative malfunctioning such as:

(a) The personnel's potential and services
are not fully utilized to turn out
efficient work. either from incompetency
or from lack of proper supervision.

(b) Role-expectations are not explicitly defined
and are insufficiently coordinated.

(c) Lack of an effective yardstick to evaluate
employee's performance and work output in
order to maximize organizational effective-
ness.

(d) Lack of an efficient reward system to
reinforce and motivate the employees in
the case of demonstrated merit and
achievement.

(e) Absence of rigid rules and procedures to
penalize inefficient and uncooperative
people and reward conscientious ones.

(f) Lack of proper procedures for appointments,
promotions and transfers result in political
considerations, bureaucratic patronage,
favoritism, and nepotism.

(g) The ambiguity of tasks and the'lack of
evaluation criteria cause officials to
depend on "social valuation" for judgment
of success.

(h) Ignorance of organizational objectives
creates conflict or incongruency between
organizational and individual goals.
(1) Little formal training in research design
and methods, coupled with poor application
of organizational behavioral research in
recent years.
11. The evaluation strategy is a principal factor in the
effectiveness through which the organization can assess
its performance as well as its employee's role

expectations and need dispositions. The educational

163
organizations in Iran not only are incapable of
establishing an effective yardstick to measure total
performance, but they are even overburdened with two
major sets of problems in evaluation: At one extreme,
poor criteria for evaluation, shortage of scientific
methodology, maladministration of evaluation and
multiplicity of goals threaten the validity of the
evaluation. At the other extreme, limited visibility
of staff-client transaction, the heavy reliance on
staff judgment, the strong dependency on the clients as
a source of information, difficulties in developing
objective monitoring devices, lack of resources to
introduce efficient data processing equipment, and
distortion of information by staff, all cause the
organizations to resort to very crude measures which
are not valid to the nature of the service endeavors,
and often results in displacement of goals. In brief,
a lack of clarity concerning what causal actions should
be measured and the primary problem which cripples the
evaluation programs.
12. The Ministry of Education was one of the first
agencies to be subjected to political pressure. The
quality of the staff was poor and supervisory personnel
were unable to remedy the situation because of these
outside pressures.
13. The ministry made many efforts to rationalize its
work. They emphasized the separation of their agency

from the political and used long-range planning to

164

divert attention from current difficulties. The
ministry did not resolve its problems of inter-regional
communications and poor administration. Their unwill-
ingness to employ qualified persons of known ability and
special training is evidence of their widespread
incompetence.
14. The organization of the Ministry of Education is
both understaffed and overstaffed. There is a shortage
of experts and specialists for key positions, yet an
over-abundance of secretarial and lower echelon
positions. The Iran Training and Management Institute
concluded after a 1973 study:

The shortage of specilaist personnel is one

of the great obstructions of the existing

educational system which is en orced with

inadequate experienced staff.1
15. Before 1968 when the Ministry of Education was
divided into a number of ministries and agencies, and
prior to passage of the Regionalization of Education
Act in the same year, education was highly centralized
and all of the State's educational institutions were
ruled by a single administration with similar curricula,
textbooks, rules and regulations. Inevitably, the
red tape of such a bureaucracy caused long delays in
processing applications and in other dealings with the
Ministry. It also made modernization of the ministry
more difficult. Ayman states that "such a highly
centralized and rigid administrative system not only

widened the gap between orthodox practices in Iran and

165
educational developments in the rest of the world but
placed an increasingly heavy strain on the management
of the ministry)"r7 Nevertheless, decentralization was
not a panacea, and educational institutions still suffer
from centralization, lack of coordination among the
units, duplication of tasks, and poor division of
labor. In responding to a questionnaire developed by
the Ministry of Education in 1973, the majority of
the educational administrators declared that the major
stumbling blokcs for their offices were: one-sided
decision-making based on imperfect data; lack of
delegation of authority; duplication of the tasks;
incongruency between budget and educational programs;
lack of long-range planning and production; selection
and approintment of the incumbents by the ministry
without the concerned administrators' knowledge and
advice; lack of coordination among the local and
central units; and, the frequent intervention of
central units in the affairs of local and regional
units.18
16. Lack of coordination. difficulty in delegating
responsibility. the absence of professional spirit
and inadequate salaries have caused reluctancy and
hesitation in assuming responsibility. Those who have
courage to accept responsibility often encounter
difficulty from their inadequate training and lack

of information. They often become suspicious of

strangers, withhold information to ingratiate them-

166
selves and enhance their importance, manifest extreme
formalism and show a tendency to favor friends and
relatives. They have a propensity to arbitrate rather
than rule in cases of conflict among applicants and
accept bargaining over substantive decisions with
agency or division directors at their same administrative
level..

There is a great deal of non-cooperation within the
ranks of bureaucracy, partially due to an unwillingness
to accept responsibility.

17. Favoritism and nepotism have been frequently
criticized in the Iranian administrative system. but
not until recently have these practices been deemed at
fault. In earlier times the staffing of an agency was
considered purely the affair of the minister concerned.
He wisely employed those whom he could trust to
cooperate with him and keep his confidence. Nepotism,
wherepossible even under modern conditions, is a strict
family obligation. Very influential families must
accommodate clients referred by relatives. There are
families who, by placing members of their families in
'key governmental positions, exert tremendous and lasting
influence on the government. Cooperating individuals
remain obligated to one another. Advancement to
posistions of authority and success in discharging
assignments depends on sustaining loyalties and build-
ing obligation credits. To refuse to participate in a

clique or to do favors is to avoid the only means of

167
effectively working in the system. Common effort for
a common objective has become an involved procedure of
bargaining and mutual favor-doing. holding these groups
together. Favors done by officials for officials.
establishes obligations which are usually honored when
occasion demands.
18. 'Instability. lack of communication and lack of
rational operating procedures in the Ministry of Educa-
tion have bred insecurity and alienation among Iranian
officials. When they are pressed to accept reform
or reorganization. they cannot be certain how their
acceptance will affect their positions. Rather than
accept or reject a proposal. then. the officials
procrastinate. Their lack of cooperation carries
over into the everyday functions of the Ministry.
Officials show their alienation and discontent by
delaying licenses. losing applications and omitting
required signatures on forms and letters. Some
officials show their antagonism by refusing to cooperate
with clients they dislike for personal reasons or
clients who are members of a higher social class.
Officials may also try to bolster their own importance
by giving their clients the bureaucratic run-around,
ensuring that the clients must return to see them
several times to complete a simple request or task. In
these cases administrative personnel may protect them-
selves to a certain degree by insisting they are acting

in accordance with the requirements of their jobs.

168

They insist that they are neutral civil servants comply-

ing with laws which, in most cases, are not clearly

defined.
Such indirect resistance is the only means by

which the administrative staff may safely protect the

inefficiencies and injustices they see or experience in

the ministry. To speak openly is to risk their jobs or
at least their ability to work in the system since
cooperation-~via the system of favors and debts--is
essential. Thus the stability of the system, which is
already threatened by poor communication, disorganiza-
tion and lack of planning, is further undermined by the
psychological stress of alienated, unhappy employees.

In sum, the administrative analysis of educational sett-
ings of Iran leads us to the conclusion that the present system
has not been as effective and responsive to societal needs
as it should be. The examination of the structure shows
such as division of labor, task specialization, system of
communication, decision-making, and delegated authroity at
one extreme; and interpersonal relationships,individuals'
attitudes, cluture, sentimental values at the other extreme
proved to us that these patterns deviate from an ideal type,
and therefore, are incongruous and inconsistent. In other
words, they fail to respond to the needs of the public.

They are ill-organized and inconsistent, falling short of
showing effectiveness in achieving the desired service out-
come. They are insensitive to individual needs by exerting

dehumanizing and degrading behavior. They are inefficient,

169
ill-managed, and wasteful, thus consuming an ever-in-

creasing share of public private resources.

Suggested Strategies

Educational organizations are under social pressures
to keep pace consistently with other developmental factors.
In order to be adaptive and responsive to societal demands,
they need to have a comprehensive understanding of organiza-
tional subsystems and processes, coupled with the mobiliza-
tion of appropriate strategies that can be used to facilitate
educational innovation. Any strategy of innovation must be
used carefully and in view of possible interconnections such
as political, environmental, financial and structural con-
siderations. Admittedly, there is no single strategy which
guarantees a clear-cut solution to all administrative mal-
functioning, but there are some specific characteristics of
a good change strategy that provides a set of useful criteria
to improve the quality and quantity of administration.
Moreover, structural change should be buttressed by
attitudinal change if the educational change is to be
successful. The existence of some methods, such as sensi-
tivity training, participative management, management by
objectives, and the managerial grid, are some alternative
methods for integrating individual and organizational
objectives. In other words, three strategic issues--
participation, learning, and evaluation--are the main

strategies for implementing development methods.

170

19

Miles . has suggested a set of strategies which can

encourage employees to mobilize their own energies more
effectively. Following is a general description of
some of the key aspects of these strategies:

1. Team Training. In this strategy, the
administrator and his immediate key personnel
lead by a consultant hold a meeting for a few
days away from the work situation. They function
as a problem-solving group by taking into

serious account each individual's perspective,
experience, and technical skills toward solving
organizational problems. The main purpose of
this strategy is to encourage open communication;
to release energies and skills toward organizational
betterment; to foster employees ability in
decision making and problem-solving; and, to
bridge the gap between top officials and the
client system-

2. Survey_Feedback. In this approach, a
questionnaire is developed to gain insight

about employee's attitudes, opinions and beliefs
concerning organizational as well as personal
problems. Later the summarization of data is
supplied to the group and the organization by

a consultant for discussion and remedy. The
philosophy of this procedure is mainly the
identification of the problem and discrepancies;
utilization of feedback, involvement of the
employees in problem-solving issues; improvement
of organizational behavior; and, intensification
of communication.

3. Role Workshop. This method involves all
employees who function in the same role. the
participants are required to delineate their

roles in relation to organizational expectations
as well as their need-dispositions and actual

role performance. Then this information is
summarized and shaped into a set of organizational
activities. The ultimate intention of this maneuver
is the clarification of individual's role, the
establishment of a sort of conformity between
individual and his role, and heightening the
organizational effectiveness.

4. Target setting and support activities. By
employing this approach, the superior and
subordinates make a contract on a set of
objectives to be carried out in a certain time.

171

During the course of action, the operation is
supervised, reviewed, revised and improved,
through consultation, role playing and workshop
activities. The aim of this strategy is to
develop a cooperative, trustful, and supportive
working relationship between top officials and
employees.

5. Organizational diagnosis and problem-solving.
This approach involves the congregation of a group
of high-ranking officials or entire work force in
order to identify the organization's problems and
formulate possible key alternatives for solution.
The chief goal of this method is the development
of problem-solving capabilities and communication
sufficiency.

 

6. Organizational Experiment. This strategy
relies on the collection of accurate and
reliable data and experimentation of change
attempt by using a control group. Along the
course of action, results are examined carefully
and the implication for the continuing function-
ing of the organization is made.

These strategies include the presence of a
consultant whose main functions are to facilitate,
provoke and support the efforts of the system to
understand itself, free up communication, and
engage in more adequate problem-solving.

 

Another set of strategies has been suggested by Harrison
which emphasizes interpersonal relationships and elevation of
performance. These include:

1. Rational assignment of tasks. This strategy

is to redistribute the task, resources, and
power among the jobs in the organization.

 

2. Direct influence on performance. This
strategy evaluates the performance of individuals
and directly manipulates these.. Particular
techniques include appraising the skills an
employee brings and placing him in an appropriate
job; giving promotions; increasing or decreasing
salary or wages; transferring employees; and
uSing the techniques of management by objective.

3. Direct influence on the interpersonal inter-
actions through which work is accomplished. This
strategy opens to negation those instrumental
(task-oriented) acts that individuals direct
toward others: delegating authority or

reserving decisions to onself; communicating or

 

172

withholding information; collaborating or
competing with others on work-related issues.

4. Interpersonal emotional rearrangements. At

this level, the consultant deals with feelings,
attitudes, and perceptions and the quality of

human relations. "Interventions are directed toward
helping trainees to be more comfortable in being
themselves, and the degree of mutual caring and
concern is expected to increase,"20 says Harrison.
Sensitivity training and "T" group is a typical
technique, though not the only one.

5. Therapy. This deepest level focuses on the

individual relations and on increasing the range
of experience which can be brought into awareness.

System Analysis

 

A model of system approach to problem-solving which

has appeal to educational administrators and emphasizes goal-

achievement, performance, evaluation, and feedback mechanism

is delineated by Miller as the following stages:

1.

The assessment and justification of needs in terms
of valid criteria leads to the structuring of
new and/or redefinition of existing goals.

The definition of goals stimulates policy
formulation and the resulting policy decisions
establish performance requirements which are
assigned to management.

Management must analyze performance requirements
in order that it can define a complete array of
performance specifications which can be used to
explain the performance requirements.

The specifications are classified and categorized

according to levels of organization and a

10.

173
hierarchy of performance objectives can be
defined in measurable terms.
Performance objectives are the fundamental
basis of plans, Each plan outlines a course of
action and details appropriate management controls.
Plan must be verified in terms of the performance
content and the action sequency (strategy) which
has been developed to accomplish the objective.
It should be noted that a plan is the best
alternative solution which will fully satisfy
the specifications. A strategy, on the other
hand, embodies the communication elements
(information, education and motivation) required
to make the plan work in terms of required
compromises, adaptations, adjustment and concessions.
A strategy which has been validated through feed-
back and control is a reliable management procedure
for the achievement of objectives. '
The establishment of a management procedure
facilitates the achievement of performance
consistency in spite of the internal and external
constraints on performance.
The resulting performance can be evaluated
to determine the effectiveness of performance
in terms of previously specified criteria and
specifications.
The achievement of desired levels of performance

proficiency produces change. Such change will

174

A Model of a System Approach to Problem Solving

1.0
Develop an awareness
of change and/or
a need for change

4%
.0 2.0
Evaluat performance Establish new
effectiveness of solution and/or redefine
method and strategies existing goals

 

/;.o \ w

Select and imple- Feedback
ment priority
solution methods and

and strategies Qr-->

 
   
   
          
 

3.0
Identify and
define prob-
lems and

Control change con-
tents
7.0
Test and verify feasibility Select and
and practicality of solution analyze a
methods and strategies priority prob-

lem and its
change content

V/

Select and/or generate erive performance re-
alternative solution quirements for problem
methos and strategies resolution

Source: From Donald R. Miller, "Policy Forumlation and
Policy Implementation in Education System, Strategies
of Educational Planning," Richard H. K. Kraft, ed.
(Tallahassee: Educational Systems Development
Center, Florida State University, 1969), p. 37.

175
produce new needs, which, when justified, will
stimulate the formulation of new goals, and

the cycle phenomenon will continue.21

Training Programs

 

In order to improve employee's skills, knowledge, and

competencies, or develop specific objectives, the organization

should design some temporary or permanent training programs

through which communication and decision making skills are

facilitated. Following are some of the more representative

programs:

1.

Organizational Training. The philosophy of
Organizational Training rests upon the notion of
institutionalization which includes established
norms and conduct, establishment of new functions,
roles, policies, or improvement of task perfor-
mance through teaching new skills to the working
groups. Training programs are expected to create
a. humanitarian atmosphere in which openness and
confidence are encouraged. Communication is freed
up, and the individual participant is entitled

to express his feelings as well as understand the
feelings of others. In addition, during training
programs the employees learn how to develop

their problem-solving skills, to collaborate, to
cope and adapt to change. They learn how to
acquire leadership skills for handling problems

while they gain a deeper insight about the

176
organizational objectives. However, communication
appraisal, role definition, goal analysis,
reasolution and decision making are the chief
elements of organizational effectiveness which are
stressed in continuous training programs.

2. Sensitivity Training. This strategy attempts to
bring about change in the organization as well as
in the individuals. In a humanitarian, open, and
trustful atmosphere, a group of participants,
directed by a permissive facilitator and resourceful
trainer, identify their problems, analyze them,
and look for solutions. In addition, the partic-
ipants are persuaded to learn about their needs and
attitudes as they make them clear through inter-
action with others in the group. They also can
experience power, influence, and leadership styles
while learning about human differences in the
organization. In brief, the_main objective of
sensitivity training is to induce change in
individuals by increasing the level of trust,
openness, cohesiveness, and commitment. All of
this is aimed at increased organizational effect-
iveness.

Although research has not shown that the sensitivity

training will bring about increased efficiency and effective-
ness, it does stress behavioral imperatives such as
"genuineness," "authenticity", and "open communication."

This is good training for maximizing potentials in

177
organizational life. In order to minimize the loss of what
was learned at a training site, the administration must make
the training situation similar to the actual work place

environment.

Recommendations

 

In light of all the problems enumerated earlier, the
following recommendations are made, not because they can be
universally applied, but because some of them might be use-
ful in specific situations.

1. The long history, old traditions, and cultural
values of the Iranian nation have had a significant
impact on the structure of educational system since
its genesis. Hence, if any innovative attempt is
to be successful, it must take into account the
organization's history, strengths, and weaknesses.

2. To lessen organizational uncertainties concerning
employee traits and performance, the ministry
should develop tight screening methods to select
the most qualified person for a given job. In
addition, the establishment of a set of criteria
for each employee group and determination of
performance standards is of great importance. It
is essential that the right people be hired, and
be given clear understanding of what is expected
of them.

3. The citizen no longer should sit back and remain

silent observer in the hope that the government

178
will do everything. Active and purposeful
participation of the public in educational decision
making is essential and must be encouraged.
The response of the individual employee to
organizational demands is strongly dependent on his
social background, needs, cultural values, attitudes,
and group affiliation. Hence, the organization
should be fully aware of the human considerations
and individual career needs of employees.
Consequently, it should make serious efforts to
integrate the individual and organizational goals
if it is to be effective.
Educational organizations become more responsive
when decisions are made by the persons who have
accurate information. Instead of looking to those
who have the legitimate authority. emphasis should
be placed on seeking those individuals who can
make the best possible decisions. Good decision-
making requires adequate information and. unfor-
tunately. too often those in authority lack
information or have it in a distorted form.
An attempt must be made to establish achievable,
understandable, and applicable goals to replace
the current ones which are vague, confusing, and
complex. The Ministry should direct its attention
to those areas which are most promising for
meeting social needs. At the same time, it must

eliminate redundant policies and activities which

179
have little future promise. In addition, there
ought to be an accurate and reliable assessment
of where the educational system is going and what
the future efforts should be. On the other hand,
it is imperative to take effective action to
accomplish those valid goals already established.
The public is concerned about the ability of
educational organizations to adapt in the face
of new demands. Hence, the appointment of strong,
competent and conscientious personnel at every
level is essential. These persons must utilize
all resources and a planning system patterned
after MBO concepts if significant change is to be
realized.
The structure of educational settings should be
reorganized in order to provide more flexibility,
service, and collaboration. This is also needed
to eliminate administrative confusion, duplication,
malfunctioning.
The economic development of Iranian society
strongly depends upon rapid and continuous
technical advance and alteration of some cultural
values which impede advancement. Moreover,
technical advance also depends on a supply of
educated people who demonstrate flexibility,
adaptability and enthusiasm for a change
process. A review of people's values and

behavior suggest that the traditional elements

10.

11.

180
of the culture are now more often questioned and
sometimes rejected. Hence the ritualistic
authority of top ranking officials as
ligitimated by tradition is now, more than ever
before, questioned. Consequently it will go
through some strong modification in the near
future.
Educational programs and projects should be
organized along principles similar to a program
planning and budgeting system (PPBS). In this,
objectives are defined with respect to limited
reSources, personnel, and time. New objectives
can be arranged by priority and performance
standards developed. Alternative courses of
action are then generated and evaluated;
decision rules are formulated, and sample
solutions are developed.
Evaluation. The main purpose of evaluation is to
determine how well goals are being achieved,
expectations met, and employee's needs fulfilled.
Moreover, the evaluation process tends to identify
educational problems or needs, to devise a treat-
ment to cope with these, and to provide information
to make decisions. Hence, a new evaluation strategy
is necessary through which the employees may
gain more satisfactions as well as intrinsic
rewards in job performance. Guba suggests that

an evaluation strategy should have the following

181
characteristics if it is to be successful:

1. Level of control. Typical experimental
controls must be eliminated. The evaluator
must be concerned with how things occur
in the field rather than in the laboratory.
Hence the kind of control that we have been
accustomed to in laboratory experimentation
will be sharply different, perhpas non-
existent.

2. Non-intervention. The evaluator cannot
arrange the inquiry situation but must
accept it as it occurs. Data collections
must be carried on in a non-intervention
mode, i.e. without disturbing either the
context or the subjects.

3. Continuing of data collection. Data are
not collected simply at pre and post-
experimental periods (or at some particular
check points) but continuously throughout
the evaluation. The baseline of data must
be dynamic rather than static.

4. Treatments. Treatments cannot be regarded as
invariant but as susceptible to continuous
change (improvement). Content conditions
must also be alterable.

5. Scope. Attention must be given not only to
particular variables which have been
identified and operationalized beforehand,
but to try any emergent variables which appear
to be of concern.

6. Assumptions. The evaluation system cannot

be cause to conform to traditional assumptions,

but rather the assumptions must be formed to

meet the reality of the situation. It is

only on such reality-oriented assumptions

that a useful theory of evaluation can be

based.22

In addition to the preceding principles which educational

organization in Iran should take into serious account, the
following points are also worthy of attention in planning
for the cooperative and constructive evaluation of its

professional staff.

182

1. Evaluation should be a cooperative endeavor in
order to minimize organizational problems and
render effective service.

2. Evaluation programs should be flexible enough
to meet changing conditions.

3. Evaluation should be considered as an important
means toward achieving goals--not an end in itself.

4. Evaluation should provide a basis for sound
administrative decisions concerning various aspects
of organizational activities such as hiring,
firing, and promotion.

5. The program of evaluation should lead to more
effective utilization of the skills and abilities
of the employees.

6. Evaluation program through which employee's special
strengths and weaknesses are identified, should
lead to upgrading employee's skill, and moral
and growth.

12. Re-education. Educational settings in Iran need an

 

ever-increasing and continuous effort to re-educate
employees in order to alleviate organizational
weaknesses, problems and institutionalize innovative
endeavors. To be successful and effective, training
programs should be constructed on the basis of the
following principles:
1. Training situations should be similar to the
actual work place to minimize the loss of
what is learned at a training site when

transferring the employee to actual work
situration.

183

2. Newly-learned behavior and skills must be
rewarded and reinforced to be perpetuated
in the new way.

3. Administrators should be trained and motivated
before other employees in order to serve as
reinforcers and feedback sources for sub-
ordinates who have left the training program
and return to the job.

13. Participation: A fundamental determinant of

 

organizational effectiveness, satisfaction, and
productivity is the degree of employee participation in
decision making and developmental programs. By involving
employees in the process of decision making, management
can mobilize its full potential toward goal achievement
and satisfaction. Although all employees do not react
positively to participation, most earnestly look for
opportunities to do so. Hence, organization should
create a democratic, trustful, and sincere atmosphere
where the employee's participation is encouraged and
suggestions are rewarded. Administrators must feel
secure enough to allow employee participation and not
regard it as a threat to their authority or as a sign
of weaknesses.

In the following, there are some principles which
enumerate the advantages of participative decision
making and sharing of authority:

1. Through participative decision making, the
organization can better use employee's
intellectual, technological, administrative,
and human relation shills. By involving

employees in decision making, they may apply

184
their knowledge and abilities to the develo-
ment of new and better ways of doing things.

2. Participation creates a sense of commitment
and responsibility concerning the performance
of the job. The group, because it is involved
in the entire decision process, will have
increased insight into understanding the
program which is finally implemented.

3. Participation reduces the organizational
conflict; promotes performance; increases
satisfaction, contributes to efficiency;
improves working conditions; and decreases
turnover, absenteeism, and alienation.

4. Sharing authroity among administrators and
employees results in reduction of hostility
and oppostion in the organization.

5. Participation involves the employees in a

process which not only minimizes resistance
to change, but which also maximizes acceptance

through exchange of feelings, ideas, and the
application of basic learning principles.

6. Through participation, the organization can
broaden its supervision and control by yielding
some of its power.

Considering the noted advantages of participation, it
is imperative to educational organization in Iran to revise

the administrative activities through power-equalization

and participative decision making. As Drucker suggests:

185

"Authority and responsibility may well be the wrong principles

of organization. It may be that we will have to learn to

organize not a system of authority and responsibility--a
system of command--but an information and decision system--

a system of judgment, knowledge, and expectations."23
14. Decentralization. "Organizations. if they are to
survive. must become decentralized, practice particip-
ative management, and be adaptive and responsive to
their members."y1The increasing prefessionalization of
administration, the rapid technological change, and
the ever-increasing environmental turbulences are
compelling forces demanding a new style democratic
organization in which the individual plays a more
active role. Educational development programs are
more likely to be effective and successful when the
employees help to evaluate and reevaluate their
objectives, methods, activities, and the total context
in which the programs are developed and implemented.
Through the decentralized pattern, administrators are
able to exercise more authority, and this satisfies the
desire to participate in problem-solving activities.
Moreover, the delegation of authority is assumed to lead
to administrative creativity and ingenuity which
contributes to the adaptiveness and development of the
organizations.and administrators. Decentralization of
power also gives to local regions the opportunity to
develop techniques and procedures to cope with their

problems and to make them function more effectively.

186
Under a decentralized pattern, the decision making
process is placed near to the personnel responsible
for carrying out a decision. Local personnel
can handle practically all the problems of day-to-
day operations without having to clear decisions with
central offices.

Some progress has been made in administratives
decentralization of Iranian educational organization,
however, the factors of organizational size, geographical
expanse and diversity of ethnic groups have minimized
impact. In order to reduce "red tape," duplicate and
overlapping responsibilities, there should be an immedi-
ate study to further delegate responsibility and
authroity from the ministry to the heads of educational
offices and regional councils.

However, if the Ministry of Education desires to
increase the effectiveness of the local educational
systems, including educational administrators, the
decentralized patterns of administration should be
expanded within the following guidelines:

1. Local educational organizations should be
given more authority to determine their own
objectives, to establish measures of
performance, and improve their conditions,
while at the same time retaining a strong
central administration to perform those
functions that require resources and

coordinated efforts.

187
The ability of local and central administrators
to develop and introduce innovative programs
should be reinforced through training, workshops,
laboratory experiments and other types of
leadership devices.
The methods of selecting as well as the scope
of the activities of the regional councils should
be revised and constructed on the basis of more
involvement, commitment and participation in
educational decision making.
Obsolescence of local educational organizations
may be a primary reason for lack of development.
It is extremely important for administrators
to have a clear understanding of organizational
alternatives and possible new organizational
design to utilize on the basis of their
appropriateness to the particular situation.
Educational administrators should assist local
members in recognizing problems and opportunities
for the improvement of programs. They can
directly assist the community most effectively
by sharing their understanding and abilities.
It would be appropriate to seriously consider
such organizational factors as availability of
manpower, the organization size, and control
mechanisms before reaching decisions concerning

decentralizations.

188
7. Consideration must also be given to the
financial resources necessary for the
transition period. Funds will be needed for
consultation and staff in service for carrying
out the educational objective in local commu--
nities. The cultural norms, educational levels
of the local unit's leaders, and the personality
of the top administrators must all be recognized
in planning the change process.
15. Training. A major part of Iranian educational
organization's inefficiencies.is due to the scarcity of
trained administrators and other personnel. As a result,
many problems, including environmental ones, go without
adequate solutions. Hence, in order to improve
administrator's technical skills and to deepen their
knowledge, competence, social understanding, as well as
self-confidence, special training sessions must be
employed. To be successful, training programs should
be constructed to replicate the actual workplace. After
training, the newly-learned behaviors should be rewarded
and reinforced through refresher courses. Moreover,
the training of top administration officials should
be accomplished before lower ranking managers. It
should be kept in mind that the creation of a better
society depends upon educational changes. The educa-
tional reforms require the best of determination and
creativity of educated men. A broad perspective and a

general understanding of organizational behavior and

189
innovation are essential for Iranian educational
administrators if they are to promote and successfuly
manage the diffusion and implementation of new
educational ideas. As a consequence. there should be
mandatory. life-long education in order to keep the
administrators current in their knowledge of organiza-
tional effectiveness.
16. Change. Educational settings in Iran have been
altered less in comparison with other sectors of society.
Extensive and compelling force from the central govern-
ment is needed to modify organizational practices and
to adopt to new changes. There is generally a tendency
to resist novel or new methods and undertakings.
Resistance to change can generally be attributed to
some deep-rooted obstacles such as individual's fear of
losing the status, power and resources. The inherent
inertia of a large educational system, the traditional
attitudes, religious customs, institutional structures,
and contradiction of educational goals are all
obstacles in the face of change. Educational organi-
zations should be dynamic vehicles designed to meet
critical human needs and problems. Good systems have
resulted in significant if not drastic improvements in
the welfare and well being of people. As a consequence,
educational leaders should be committed to facilitating
the effectiveness, efficiency, and responsiveness of
their organizations to meet the new needs of a changing

society. Hence, it is the responsibility of the central

190
administration to stimulate and reward fruitful and
constructive change in all parts of the organization
and to evaluate these changes for their effectiveness
in furthering organizational goals. In addition,
important changes that the Ministry desires to bring
about in individual attitudes must be supported by
corresponding change in the authority structures, reward
systems, technology, and personnel relations.

In brief, for creating any long-lasting change,
Iranian educational systems must supply the following
principles which have been suggested by Ivor Morrish
as favorable and positive factors to any durable
change. "Proven quality, low cost, divisibility into
parts, ease of communicability, low complexity, strong
leadership or sponsorship, a favorable rather than
neutral or inhibiting school or other institutional
environment, compatibility with the values and existing
practices of adopters, an effective mixture of rewards
and punishment, readiness for change in the target
system or groups and the appropriateness of the
proposed innovation to the surrounding community."25
17. Leadership. Political, social, and cultural changes
require a new style of leadership in order to help people
achieve their own goals while at the same time direct-
ing their efforts toward organizational objectives.

Some styles of leadership do not appeal to individual
employees or contribute to the organization's goals.

The choice of leadership pattern is usually complex

191

and depends on the leader, the followers, and the

situation which gives control and influence to the

leader.

Nevertheless, educational organizations in

Iran have to search for the qualities of leadership

which bring optimum effectiveness and growth. Some

outlines which may be fruitful for leadership

effectiveness and recommended to be considered in

Iranian educational settings:

1.

Educational administrators of Iran need to
review their theories of organizational
behavior and utilize research in their
administrative affairs. It is necessary

that each administrator assess the
applicability of new organizational theories
to his particular situation and search

for the best alternatives which promote
change with satisfactory results and yield
the least unpleasant reactions.

Educational administrators must try to develop
a climate conducive to employee security and
adaptiveness. Creating a flexible, open,

and trustful environment in which individuals
can reach full potential and participation is
essential.

Educational administrators should harmonize
their behavior with various forces and under-
stand themselves better as they work in the

organizations.

192
Educational administrators must be aware that
there is more then one way of getting the job
done. For optimizing organizational effective-
ness and performance, they should involve as
many members of the group as possible in all
activities.
Educational administrators must neither be
strong leaders nor permissive ones. Due to this
fact that different situations demand different
types of leadership, they should be able to
confront and direct, if it is necessary, and
support and provide safety and freedom if it is
needed.
Educational leaders have to show more respon-
siveness and accountability to public and
environmental changes. They should know that
obsolete solutions are no longer enough for
new problems. They will, therefore, have to
seek both new goals and better means to
achieve these goals. They will have to recruit
new kinds of personnel and find innovative
ways to tackle both old and new situations.
Executive officers should obtain employee's
consensus as to the course of action to be
taken through their involvement, participation
and commitment.
Educational leaders must define their

objectives sharply, to set high standards of

193
excellence, to establish a culture
characterized by high commitment, to organize
teamwork and technical know-how if they are in
favor of productivity and employee's
satisfaction.
Educational leaders should challenge and
question for continual reassessment of
activities. They have to search for personnel
with new ideas, and help them bring these
ideas to fruition. This task is connected with
the leader's ability to collect valid data,
feed it back to the appropriate individuals,
and develop action planning on the basis of

information.

194

Notes
(Objectives for Organizational Effectiveness)

1Yeheskel Hasenfeld & Richard A. English, Human Service
Organizations, (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, 1974): 21.

 

2Ibid., p. 21.

3Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organization, (Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964). 8.

”Ibid., p. 2.

5Robert Tannenbaum, Irving R- Weschler, and Fred
Massarik, Leadership and Organization: A Behavioral Science
Approach. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, In.. 1961).
403.

 

6Fred E. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness,

(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), 15.

 

7Rensis Likert, "Measuring Organizational Performance,"
Harvard Business Review, XXXVI, No. 12 (March-April, 1958)
8

Chester I. Barnard, The Function of Executive,
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), 60. (Originally
published in 1938).

 

9Jacob W. Getzels and Egon Guba, "Social Behavior
and the Administrative Process," School Review, 65 (1957),
92.

 

10Peter F. Drucker, "Beyond Stick and Carrot: Hysteria
Over the Work Ethic", Psychology Today, 1973, 92.

11Robert N. LaBonte, "Interview;Content". in John J.
Weger. Motivating Supervisors. American Management
Association. Inc., 1971): 127.

12James L. Gibson. John M. Ivancevich, and James H.
Donnelly, Jr., Organizational Behavior. Structure,
Process. (Dallas, Texas: Business Publications. Inc.,
1976). 475.

 

13Chris Argyris, Integrating the Individual and the
Organization, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), 123.

 

195

1uKayhan International "Opportunities Lost Through
Bureaucratic Squabbling," (Editorial), Kayhan International,
October 22, 1977, p. 2.

15Ibid., p. 4.

16IRAN, Training Management and Planning Institute,

Ministry of Education of Iran, Research about Public
Problems of Educational Administration (Tehran, 1973), 114-
115.

17Iraj Ayman, Educational Innovation in Iran, The
Unesco Press, Paris, 1974, p. 6.

18Ministry of Education, Ibid., p. 51.

19Matthew B. Miles, Change Processes in the Public
Schools, (Eugene Oregon: Center for the Advanced Study
of Educational Administration, University of Oregon, 1965),
PD- 30-33.

20Richard Harrison, "Choosing the Department of
Organizational Intervention", Journal of Applied Behavioral
Science 6, (1970), 181-202.

 

 

21Donald R. Miller, "Policy Formulation and Policy
Implementation in an Educational System," Strategies
for Educational Planning, ed. Richard H. P. Kraft
(Tallahassee: Educational Systems Development Center,
Florida State University, 1969), p. 36.

 

22Egon G. Guba, "Development, Diffusion and Evaluation,"
Theoretical Dimensions of Educational Administration, ed.
William Monahan (New York, McMillan Publishing Co., Inc.,
1975), 394.

23Peter F. Drucker, "Managing the Educated,"
Management's Mission 19 a New Society, ed. Dan Fenn (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1956), p. 147.

2“Charles Perrow, Complex Organizations: A Critical
Essay, (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1972),
p. 172. '

25Ivor Morrish, Aspects of Educational Change, (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976), p. 164.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study has revealed that the organization of the
Ministry of Education of Iran is characterized by political
authority, centralized decision making, rigid management
and control. Furthermore, it is coupled with the
hierarchical ordering of offices, uniform and detailed
rules, curriculum, recruitment and budgeting systems. All of
this constitutes a large government bureaucracy in education.
The size and complexity of the Ministry, accompanied by
institutional bottlenecks, bureaucratic inefficiencies,
cultural barriers, and traditional practices, have been the
chief institutional impediments to the development of
structural and functional arrangements for meeting the
rising demands of the nation.

The above realities were the paramount impetus and
basic reason for undertaking this study. It was hoped to:
(a) conduct a comprehensive diagnosis of the organizational
problems of Iranian education; (b) provide a conceptual
framework and reference of those organizational factors
leading to effectiveness and efficiency in developed
countries, particularly in the U.S.A.; (c) present selected

administrative strategies that have been used by others

196

 

197
to reform educational organizations and to apply these to
the Iranian educational system.

To complete this study, the ecological, sociocultural,
historical and economic-political factors in Iran were
scrutinized to determine their impact on the administration
of educational organizations- Then, the evolution of the
educational administration was pursued, and the current
situation probed to determine the problems which permeate
administrative effectiveness.

A review of current theories and research was conducted
dealing with organization, leadership, motivation, decision
making, communication, change and development. This was
done to determine various objectives and aspects of organi-
ational effectiveness. The present educational administra-
tive condition in Iran was analyzed and compared with known
objectives of organizational effectiveness. The outcome of
the research study, coupled with this writer's own personal
experience and development as an Iranian teacher, led to a
set of proposals and recommendations for those Iranian
educators who wish to make changes and to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency of administrative activities
in the educational organization of Iran.

The most striking conclusion drawn from this investi-
gation revealed that the following deficiencies are the
greatest stumbling blocks to organizational effectiveness:

1. The wide gap between growing societal demands

and the shortage of highly trained personnel.

 

10.

198
The lack of motivation among employees to take
on innovative roles as well as the lack of a
reward system to stimulate and facilitate such
motivated behavior.
The absence of activated and enthusiastic pressure
groups to accelerate organizational change and
development.
The communication gap coupled with the lack of an
effective information system to monitor and assess
the effectiveness of a change process.
The lack of coordination and consistency among
various departments and activities of the members
in the organization and their external relations.
The lack of appropriate organizational mechanism
for involving and supporting talented and insight-
ful individuals in planning and decision making.
The existence of a highly centralized administration
which overlooks the local creativity with its
ingenuity and exigent demands.
The use of authoritative leadership practices
through which employee's dependency, submissive-
ness, alienation and frustration are perpetuated.
The lack of esprit de corps within the educational
organizations.
The lack of economic incentive for being innovative
coupled with the lack of challenging and meaningful

jobs for achievement of self-actualization.

__.____._‘ .__..

 

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

199.
The strong tendency of individual employees to
serve their self-interests, enhancing their status,
and rewarding themself financially in lieu of caring
about the attainment of organizational objectives.
The inadequacy of national educational leadership
in improving the overall quality of educational
organizations.
The existence of high inertia and low salience
which reduce the opportunity to change and
advocate the status quo and stagnation.
The lack of a trustful, open and direct communica-.:
tion system.
The lack of valid criteria in appointing and

promoting top officials.

Recommendations

In view of the major deficiencies enumerated above in

the educational organization of Iran and a review of the

literature regarding organizational effectiveness, the

following are the essential needs of the Iranian educational

organizations:

1. A sharper definition of organizational
objectives with identification of local
and national priorities.

2. Implementation of democratic tenets within
the entire educational structure.

3. Proper coordination of imaginative and

practical efforts which promise to advance

10.

11.

200
education.
Full mobilization of individual employee's
capabilities by involving them in inter-
organizational relationship and decision
making.
A cooperative leadership with the full
commitment of every member of the organization
to be productive.
A broad-and clear understanding of how the
various organizational subsystems relate.
This recognizes the dynamic nature of educa-
tional organizations as a complex system.
Establishment of advisory and supervisory staff
in guiding the professional work.
Provision for continual organizational train-
ing to foster joint decision making, problem
solving and effective communication skills.
Establishment of a rewards and sanction system
that can motivate staff to spend the time and
effort required to implement innovation.
Decentralized authority and responsibility
with the guidance of competent and experienced
educators and citizens in order to allow the
consideration of both the need for new programs
and their appropriateness to the local situation.
Continual evaluation to measure total
organizational performance as well as the

performance of staff activities.

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

201
A means of providing employees with an
opportunity to experiment, to reflect on
themselves and their situation, to work
together on these matters in an atmosphere
of openness and trust.
Development of feelings of belonging, and
commitment to overall organizational
objectives.
Provision for different administrative skills
and approaches in doing what works in a
particular situation.
Use of a valid, reliable, and impartial
criteria for employee's appointments and
promotion in order to identify the right
administrators for the jobs.
Sensitivity to prevailing attitudes, values,
and conflict interests as well as to human
relations under stressful circumstances.
Support of leaders who are intellectually
competent, imaginative, vigorous, and who
will assume control of the organization with

commitment to positive purposes of the

organization rather than the negative functions.

Strategies such as participative management,
management by objectives, managerial grids,

sensitivity training, feedback,reinforcement,

counselling and group therapy in order to unify

the individual and organizational objectives.

 

202

Recommendations for Further Study

This study is understandably limited in its scope, and

does not address itself to all of the variables which

influence organizational effectiveness and efficiency. There

still exists many other problems which necessitate further

research to determine possible alternatives or solutions.

Hence, the following recommendations are made for consider-

ation and for further research:

1.

The effectiveness of strategies suggested

in this study for change and reform in
educational behavior need to be examined at
various levels of Iranian educational
organization.

Research should be conducted to provide data
on how well the educational administrators
fulfill their legal responsibilities of the
particular positions.

A study should be done to identify which
competencies are lacking in order to improve
performance.

An investigation should be made to find out
what kinds of communication will help or hinder
the development of the condition desired.
Research needs to determine the influence of
cultural aspects of organization, particularly

on the role of the administrator.

 

203

6. A study should be conducted to determine
and direct the desired leadership which
is workable and productive in educational
organizations.

7.~ Research must be undertaken to identify
what kinds of reward systems, what kind of
political. coalition, what kind of authority
structure, what kind of evaluation program
and what kind of interpersonal relations
should be harnessed to facilitate change
and development in educational organizations

of Iran.

Epilogue

The recommendations and suggestions proposed in this
study have been sought and organized to contribute to
educational organizations in Iran and to those administrators
who are planning, or who are engaged in, reforming educa-
tional organizations. This writer should confess that the
approaches suggested are not the panacea for all the
administrative problems facing educational organizations in
Iran. Moreover, he feels obliged to emphasize the barriers
and pitfalls that clutter the course of study. However, this
writer will be pleased if the proposals presented here could
constitute one small step down the long road toward dealing
with change, development and excellence in the educational

system of Iran.

 

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