'!

 

A STUDY OF A SIMPLIFIED DRY FED
DRAIN MIXTURE FOR RAISING
DAIRY CALVES

THESlS FOR THE DEGREE OF M. S.

john Claire Swinehart
‘ 1931

 

 

A 3mm: or A smumn DR!
I'ED GRAIN mum FOR RAISING
mm! onus

5 STUDY OF A SIMPLIFIED DRY FED
GRAIN MIXTURE FOR RAISING DAIRY
CALVES.

Ehesis

Respectfully submitted to the
Graduate School of lichigan
State College of Agriculture
and Applied Science in partial
fulfillment cf the requirements
for the degree of Master of

Science.

By

John Claire Swinehart

—~

1931

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

the author of this thesis wishes to express his
sincere appreciation‘b Ir. 0. l'. Huffman. Research
Associate in Dairying, for his aid in conducting
this experiment and his assistance in preparing this
manuscript. He alse wishes to acknowledge the
assistance of Professor 3. 13. Anthony. Head of the
Dairy Husbandry Department, for his suggestions in
conducting this experiment and his kindly criticism
in preparing this manuscript.

the author also wishes to thank Ir. G. B. Taylor,
Assistant Professor in Dairying, and lir. 1.. A. lloore,
Research Assistant,£or their aid in planning and con-
ducting this experiment.

qw- >«u(
10x)“ ‘ ..

um OF CONTENTS

I Inmnonucoron
1:: REVIEW or iImERATURs
A Growth

1.
2.
3.
A.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

Growth Impulse
rectors Affecting Growth
the Period or minus Growth
flessurement of Growth
Colostrm
(1) Chemical Properties
(8’ Physical Properties
(3) Biological Properties
Protein Requirement 1.: Growth
(1) tryptcphane
(a) Lysine
(a) Oystine
(4) Arginine' and Histidine
id) ”resins -
(6) Proline
'lnergy Requirements
Water Requirement
Boughage Necessary for lomal Growth
lineral Requirements

3 Vituines

1.

Vitamin A
(l) necessary For Growth

288.

fi-IOOOIUIOOIGOPH.

2.
3.
‘e

(z) Pathological Effects of Vitamin
A Deficiency
(a) strut of Vitamin A Deficiency on
4 Disease Resitance and Length of Life
(4) Distribution
(5) Ihe Role of Vitamin A in the
' nutrition of cam.
Vitamin B
Vitamin 0
Vitamin D
(1) Sources
(8) Vitamin D Content and Hethod of
‘ Curing Legumes
(3) Significance of Vitamin D to Calves
(4) Irradiation
(5i Relation of Sunlight to Growth
' _ and Development

c calf reeling

1.
2.
3.
II.
5.
6.

Substitutes for Skim Milk

Buttermilk, Whey, and Sour Skim [ilk
Iolasses for Calves

Skimmilk Powder

Grael reeds

llinimum nilk Systems of Raising Dairy Calves

D Discussion of Review of Literature
'11! mERmENTAI. WORK
A Object
3 Plan of Experiment

”8'

25

25

26
86

25
28
28

28
29
30
31
32
38

883

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Let I
Lot II
Dot III

Ianagement

(1)
I2)
(3)
m
In

Water
Shelter
Bedding
Care

Calculation of Rat ions

Collection of Data

I1)
(2)
m
I4)
(5)
(a)

Health

Weight

Growth
Reproduct ion
reed Consumed

Photographs

13 Dxpe riment al Procedure

1.

(1)
I2)
(3)
I.)
I5)

lanagement

Shelter
Bedding
Oar.
Water

Calculation of Rations

2. Collection of Data

(1)

Growth
(a) Weight
(b) Height at Withers

'(c) Health

(I!) Peed Consumed

222222323

00000000000000
€40000000000‘00

{6) Appearance of the Animals
(f) Breeding Dates and Rstral Cycles

(8) Photographs
(h) roads and Isthods of Feeding

IV EXPERIMENTAL RESUIES

A

HOHUUOW

Growth
1., Weight
2. Reight at Withers
Health of Animals
Appearance of the Animals
Bstral Periods
reed Consumption
water
Photographs
Discussion of Experimental Results
1. Growth
(1) Weight
(2) Height at Withers
2. 15.4 consumption .

3. Health.snd Appearance of Anhmals

4. Rater Consumption

t sums!
v1 BIBLIOGRAPHY
VII APPENDIX
A fables
B Charts
0 Plates

page
57
57
57
57
so

' as
so
so
so
59
so
so
61
61
ea
52
62
oz

65
67
68
69
81
98
126
141

INTRODUCTION

Dairy herd improvement should begin with the carerJ.
selection of heifer calves that are suitable to be raised
for herd replacement purposes. At present there are approx-
imately 901,000 dairy cows over two years of age in Michigan.
Considering that six years is the average life of'a dairy cos
about 180,000 dairy heifers must be raised annually to main»
tain the present dairy cow population. Economical herd im-
provement is possible only under conditions where discarded
cows are replaced by well grown heifers of improved breeding
and type.

Ihe dairyman who maintains his hard by purchasing cows
for replacement purposes finds it extremely difficult to im-
prove or even.maintain.his present level of production.un-
less he is willing to pay a premium for animals with high
production records. Furthermore, he is confronted with the
possibility of introducing diseases into the herd such as
tuberculosis, Johne's disease, and more especially, contagious
abortion.

Pew calves are raised in whole milk areas. Fluid milk
is usually worth more in.market milk channels than it is as
a calf feed. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a satis-
factory systam using a minimum of milk.before much progress

can be made in.herd improvement in whole milk areas.

fhe purpose of this study was to investigate two
systems of raising calves cn.minimum amounts of milk which
might be used to advantage by dairymen in whole milk areas.
the minimum milk system widely advocated by the New Jersey
Experhment Station and a similar system in which skim milk;
powder was supplemented with grains were used in this

investigation.

REVIEW or LITERATURE AND GENERAL DISCUSSION

To be successful, a system of raising calves must not
only be economical but must produce healthy animals normal
for the breed by the time of the first parturation. Dermal
growth of any animal depends upon the proper relationship of
the external and the internal factors, or the effect of nu-
trition and environment upon the inherent stimulus.

o'Roer

lobster defined growth as the progressive development of
an organism or member from its earliest stages, accompanied
usually by an increase in size with the approach of maturity.
Growth as defined by Armsby (1), consists of an increase of
the structural elements of the body, chiefly by cell multi-
plication, resulting in a gain in size and weight.

The more generally accepted definition of growth is giv-
en by Eokles (2). He stated that. it is understood to include
that series of changes in size and structure by which an in-
dividual. of any species deve10pe from the fertilized egg to
maturity. lendel (3) conveyed the same idea when he said that
growth involves that series of physiological changes by which
an individual of any species develops from the fertilized egg
to maturity.

Thinking in terms of Chemistry, Robertson (4) stated that

growth is the synthesis of a variety of chemical compounds in
due proportion and) succession'to one another. Child (5), also
a chemist said that "growth is not a simple chemical reaction
and cannot be considered as such: it is a complex physico-
chemical process in'which changes in the physical character-of
_ the substratum as well. as chemical conditions are concerned.‘
Growth 13232.33

Growth is a familiar process but a complicated procedure,
the solution of which is far from being solved. It is a force
that is. set in operationupon the fertilization of the egg and
persists through a definite phase of the animal's life. ‘fhis
inherited impulse makes its possible to attain a certain size,
and even the greatest intake of food will not cause this limit
to be exceeded. '(6) Iinot ('7) stated that the growth impulse
is derived from the union of the generative cells.

Several experimentors (8), (9), (10), (ll) and (12) found
that the growth tendency is more noticeable in the skeleton
than in other parts of the body. They found that if an animal
fasts, the skeleton grows at the expense of the rest of the
body, the fatty tissues being used first and the other tissues

later, since the most important ones are also the more resistant.

Eckles (13) influenced the rate of growth and, to a cer-
‘tain extent, the size of the animals by-feeding heavy and light
rations. The animals fed a heavy ration. reached maturity ear-
lier and were slightly heavier than those fed a light ration.

Lush (14) explained the results obtained by Eckles by

I‘

 

 

 

 

stating that “in the normal develOpmenth young of the same
age and species, a definite percentage of the energy content
of the blood is required for growth irrespective of the size
of the individual. " The energy content of the blood of ani-
mals fed a heavy ration is no doubt higher than the energy
content ofpblood of animals fed a light ration, thus causing
them to grow faster and to reach maturity at an earlier age.

Kellicott (15) stated that in organisms in general the
normal growth of each tissue or of each organ is controlled
separately by a specific internal secretion. The substance
may regulate growth either through inhibition or acceleration,
and the effect produced may be due either to. the presence or
the withdrawal of the specific substance. Re attributed the
secretion of these specific substances'to the glands of in-
ternal secretion. lhile functions of these glands are not
definitely known, scientists are slowly solving their mys-
teries. Recently scientists (16) have isolated and definite-
ly identified a growth promoting substance or "hormone” loc-
ated inthe anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The dis-
covery of many secondary hormones through which this 'oentral
hormone' works will no doubt follow.
Pactors Affecting Growth

lormal growth is affected by either internal or external
factors. The latter are the only factors under the control of
man. 0f the external factors, nutrition (0), (10), (1'7), (18)
End age of breeding are the most important. Eokles and Swett

(.6) found that a combination of early. calving and light ra-
tions during the growing period are the main causes for the
majority of undersized cows.

thalpson and co-workers (18) and Osborne and co-workers
(19) found that following a period of suppressed growth,
gains are made with a smaller intake of food than is required
during a period of equal‘growth at a normal rate from the
same initial body weight.
The Period of laximum Growth

Brody (20) stated that the ”time-rate" of growth declines
at a constant rate which is principally a genetic character-
istic of the given animal and to a small extent a result of
environment. He also stated that growth consists of two per-
iods, namely: “The self-accelerating phase" or the period in
which growth increases with the increase in the size of the
animal, and the "self-inhibiting phase“ or the period in which
. the "tine-rate“ of growth decreases as the size of the organ-
ism increases. A

According to Iinot (7), a rabbit grows 1000 per cent the
first day of uterine life. However 98 per cent of the growth
impulse is lost before birth. in animal then begins ex-uter-
ine life with less than 2 per cent of the original growth
power with which it was endowed. _

The work of lumford (21) with dairy cattle indicates
that about .50 per cent of the growth in height at the withers
takes place in utero but only about '7 per cent of the growth

in weight takes place during the (same period. He also found -
that the maximum rate of ex—uterine growth in both height and
weight is realized when the animal is from 5 to 20 months of
age. Growth in height at withers practically ceases when the
animal reaches .‘50 months of age but there is an increase in
weight for a much longer period of time.

leasurement of Growth

 

Growth can be measured by body weight, height at withers,
or by body weight and height of the animal. 1 .

Iith any method used in measuring growth of cattle, it is
necessary to know what constitutes nomal for a given breed and
then coupare the measurements taken, with the normal.

Dckle's (22) normal for Holsteins, Jerseys, and Ayrshires
is the most widely used normal growth standard. He considered
both weight and height, from birth to maturity and presented his
data inthe form of a curve for each.

colostrum

 

The health and growth of calves depends on the start given
then shortly after birth. The first and most inportant con-
tributary factor in this respect is to make sure that the calf
gets a good feed of, colostrum within the first few hours of
postqnatal life.

colostrum is the yellowish, sticky fluid, rich in protein
and containing large numbers of cells, secreted the last days
before and imediately after parturation. . It differs from
110ml whole milk in chemical, physical, and biological pro-

perties (23).
G_hemical Properties. Colostrum differs from whole milk as
shown below (24).

Colostrum. Normal [ilk
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Water 730 07 87c 27
Casein 2. 65 2.95
Albumin 16.56 0.52
Fat 3. 54 3. 66
Lactose 3. 00 4. 91
Ash 1. 18 0.69

Eckles (25) also found that colostrum is lower in water,
sugar, and fat and higher in casein, albumin and ash than whole
milk. He (25) stated that “the albumin content often reaches
15 to 16 per cent.‘I ‘

Several other investigators (26), (24a), (27) and (23a)
reported the same variation in composition.) A V

According to Ragsdale and Boyd (26), associates of Rogers
(24a), Growther and Raestrich (2'7), nelson (28), Smith and
Little (29), Pamulener (30), and Wells and Osborne (31) the
globulin or colostrum is similar if not identical to blood
serum. They refer to it as serum globulin thus implying the
similarity.

Heineman (23a) in describing colostrum stated that it has
a strong odor, bitter taste, is more yellow than normal milk,
has an acid reaction, and thickens when boiled because of the
coagulation of the albumin.

Mice; Properties. Beineman (23a) found that fat glob-
‘ules in colostrum were relatively large but that they rapidly

diminished in size when normal milk was secreted. He (23a)
reported that the specific gravity ranged from.1.030 to 1.059
as compared to 1.027 to 1.034 for normal milk.

Prati (32) stated that the cell content is extremely high
and variable at first, but rapidly decreases with the onset of
normal milk secretion. He found four classes of cells always
present in varying numbers. 1. Leucocytes, consisting of lym-
phocytes, large mononuclear leucocytes, and neutrophiles.

2. Anucleated elements or the polychromatics. 3. Glandular
epithelial elements, few in number, containing fat droplets of
varying size. 4. Hacrocytes or extremely large cells round
or irregular cytoplasmic contour known as "Colostrum Corpus-
cles.‘ Their nuclei are central or eccentric in position and
stain violet, red or blue.

He is of the opinion that the tenm 'Colostrum.Corpuscles'
should be discontinued and the colostrum be regarded as a con-
centrated type of milk.

The leucocytes are normal constituents of the interstitial
tissue of the mammary gland even in the resting condition.

_ During gestation they increase, and during lactation they ac-
cumulate in the vicinity of the alveoli.

The anucleated elements represent parts of the glandular
epithelium with which the fat globules have surrounded themp
selves before desquamation. The desquamated products are epi-
thelial cells, including the I'Colostruln Corpuscles.‘

. Biologic Properties. Traum.(33) stated that it was gener-

 

filly taught that colostrum.acts as a laxative, and is nature's
provision for aiding the elimination of deletarious gastro-
intestinal contents of the newborn.

The early work of Howe (34) indicated that colostrum was
not entirely laxative to the newborn, although its ingestion
did.not delay excretion as did milk feeding.

. Ioodman and Hammond (35) after reviewing the literature,
concluded that colostral globulin is a leakage of the serum
globulin from.the blood vessels. Smith (36), Ragsdale and
Hbyd (26), associates of Rogers (24a), Crowther and Raestrich
(27), Smith and Little (30), and Wells and Osborne (32) found
that globulin or'colostrum‘is similar if not identicahwith
blood serum.

Famulener (31) was the first to discover the most important
function of colostrum. He found that it is the chief agent in
bringing about passive immunization in the suckling. The anti-
body content in the blood serum of sucklings is absent at
birfih'but soon appears after suckling. Later Nelson (29) ver-
ified his findings and showed that it posessed a bacteriolytic
action for B. Cell.

Smith.and Little (30) working on the significance of col-
ostrum and the substitution of serum.for colostrum found that
twelve out of thirteen calves fed colostrum survived, while
only four out of fifteen survived when it was withheld. Of the

serum treated calves two out of five survived when the serum

‘

9
was injected into the angular vein, and three out of five when
it was fed in the milk. When both treatments were used, all
five animals survived. ‘

These workers also found that B.Coli was always the
predominating organism in the intestinal tract of calves dying
from incomplete or absence of protection from either serum or
colostrum. Upon further investigation they (39) found that
the same bacterial flora were always present, and in addition,
scelerosis of the kidneys, transitory Joint troubles, and
rhinitis may be present in calves not fed colostrum.

Later’Smith (38) and Smith and Orcutt (39) working on the
bacterial flora and their location in the intestines divided
the small intestines into five and six segments, from anterior
to posterior, of 10 to 12 feet each. They found the greatest
concentration and change in the fifth and sixth segments.
These investigators (39) later found that B. 0011 were always
present in the lower and not the upper segments of the intsmb
ins. With the onset of scours, B. 0011 were present in greater
concentration in the lower segments with rapid spreading into
the upper segments. When death resulted, the entire length of
the small intestine was flooded with B. Coli. These workers
concluded that there is a delicate balance between.the muosus
membrane of the digestive tract and certain strains of B. 0011
which is set in operation upon the ingestion of colostrum.
When.this balance is upset scours follow and death willrssult

unless the balance is restored.

10

'_ Smith (40) found that nephritis like multiple arthritis
is a result of bacteremia brought about by the incomplete or
absence of colostrum protection.

Also Smith and Little (41) and Have (42) found that col-
ostrum feeding caused proteinurea. They found this condition
to last until the fourth day or as long as colostrum ingestion
lasted. These investigators were able to prolong proteinurea
to the sixth day by the introduction of fresh colostrum.

Howe (42) also found that high protein content of the

feces of'young calves during the first few days was due to the

ingestion of colostrum.

It is apparent that colostrum.is a necessary food for
the newborn calf. It differs from whole milk in chemical,
physical and biological properties. It is lower in water,
sugar, and fat content and.higher in casein, albumin and amh
content, and aside from this, experimenters have found the
globulin of colostrum to be identical with the globulin of
the blood.

The cell content is considerably higher than that of nor-
mal mdlk and is especially rich in "Colostrum Corpuscles' and
disquamated epithelial cells. - l

The functions of colostrum.are two-fold, namely: Laxative
effect and the means through which antibodies are transferred in
the globulim.portion to the young animal, thus creating a del-
icate balance between the animal body and invading organisms,

especially against B. Goli in the digestive tract.

11

Protein Requirement for Growth

The proteins are a class of complex chemical compounds
made up of amino acids, some of which are absolutely essential
for life and its processes. They are found only in living mat-
ter or the products of the action of living matter (43) and are
always associated in common feeds in varying proportions with
carbohydrates and fat. Proteins constitute a greater part of
the animal tissue solids, while in plants carbohydrates and
fat constitute the major part. For this reason the general
opinion of nutritional investigators and livestock feeders has
been that they play a predominant role in the processes of ani-
mal life and are therefore of major importance in nutrition.

The work of Runner and Heubner (44) confirmed by Handel
and Osborne (56) suggested that growth is not proportional to
the quantity of protein in the diet. They found that as the
amount of protein is increased a smaller percentage is utilised
for growth and the excess of the intake is merely consumed in
place of an equivalent of non-nitrogenous food.

Osborne and Iendel (45) stated that "the relative values
of the different proteins in nutrition are based upon their con-
tent of those special amino acids which cannot be synthesised
in the animal body and which are indispensible for certain dis-
tinct, as yet not clearly defined processes which.we express as
maintenance or repair.“

Iathews (43a) stated that “animals cannot make sufficient

tryptophane, tyrosine, lysine, and cystine to supply their needs,

12

.but that these amino acids must be present in the diet.‘

Hawk and Bergheim (46) bn their discussion of amino acids
listed the following as being essential for normal growth;
Lysine, tryptophane, cystine, and tyrosine, and that possibly
histidine and proline are also necessary.

Egyptophane. Osborne and Handel (45) fed rats a ration
deficient in tryptophane. They showed that this amino acid
cannot be synthesized by the animal body and that it is abso-
lutely essential for maintenance and growth. (The works of
Hogan (47), Totanti (48) and the later work of Osborne and
Kendal (.49) in feeding m. diets deficient in this amino acid
confirmed the results previously obtained by the latter exper-
imentors (45). According to Hicks (50) rats readily lose in
body weight when fed diets deficient in tryptophane.

Elaine. Osborne and lendel (51) maintained a 50 gram rat
at almost a constant body weight for 180 days by feeding a diet
containing rain as the principle source of protein supplemented
with tryptophane equal to 3 per cent of the sein. lhen.lysine
was added to the ration.nonmal growth was resumed. They con-
cluded that lysine was not necessary for maintenance.

Hogan (47) fed rats corn as the sole source of protein.
He failed to obtain growth without the addition of an adequate
supply of lysine. Hogan concluded that lysine was necessary
for growth.

Sure (52), Osborne and Kendal (45), (55), (54) and Bart,
‘ielson, and Pits (55) also concluded that lysine was necessary

13

for growth but not for maintenance.

Osborne and lendel (14) round that the addition of increas-
ing amounts of lysine and tryptophane increased the rate of
growth until the normal rate was attained, after which the ad-
diticn of larger quantities of these amino acids did not in-
crease the rate of growth, which they said was limited by the
natural capacity to grow.

gistine. Osborne and Mendel (51) found that the addition
of a 9 per cent level of cystine to casein as the sole protein
diet for rate produced normal growth. Woods (57) fed rats a
cystine free diet on which they made no gains, but when changed
to a normal diet they resumed growth and were able to reproduce
normally. Sherman and Merrill (58) found that cystine was the
limiting factor in a diet of whole milk powder diluted five
times its weight with corn starch and supplemented with yeast.

Lewis (59) showed that the nitrogen balance of dogs fed
a low-protein diet is favorably influenced by the addition
of cystine to the ration. Lewis (60) later fed dogs a casein
diet supplemented with cystine and again obtained a favorable
nitrogen balance.

Other investigators (14), (52), and (55) also concluded
that cystine is essential for normal growth and reproduction.

Arginine and Histidine. Arginine and histidine are close-
ly associated and are considered by some investigators as being
interchangeable. Ackroyd and Hopkins (61) found that in meta-
bolism, an animal is able to convert one into the other and that

14

the presence of either one of these amino acids in the ration
made it adequate.

Barrow and Sherwin (62), Rose and cox (65), and Rose and
Cook (64) definitely showed that histidine is one of the amino
acids absolutely essential for growth and maintenance and that
arginine cannot replace histidine in the diet. Sure (65) ob-
tained increased growth in rats fed a diet to which arginine
was added.

Tyrosine. Sherman (66) stated that "phenylalanine seems
to yield‘tyrosine in the body and it appears that either tyro-
sine or phenylalanine must be fed.“

Totanti (48) fed rats a diet deficient in tyrosine and
found that it did not prevent growth and therefore was not
necessary in the ration. He also said that if tyrosine was
necessary for maintenance and growfih, 'phenylalanine seams-
able to act as raw material for its formation.‘I

Lightbody and Kenyon (67) also fed rats a ration deficient
in tyrosine and found that it was not essential for growth.
These investigators cited work done by Abderhalden, where he
found that dogs readily lost weight when fed a ration deficient
in.tyrosine.' However when it was added to the ration, they
gained in weight. A

Praline. euro (65) found that the addition of proline to
a protein-free diet resulted in increased growth. Sure (68)
also stated that "proline is present in considerable amounts

'in most proteins, it was not found possible to feed a ration

15

entirely deficient of it, with the aim of ultimately making
proline additions and noting the resultant improvement-in the
growth of the animals."

It appears from the review of literature that tryptophane,
cystine and histidine are essential for maintenance and growth;
that tyrosine is essential for maintenance; that lysine is es-
sential for growth. There is apparently very little danger of
feeding a proline deficient ration. It also appears that argin-
inc and histidine are not interchangeable and that arginine
and proline may be essential for maintenance and growth.
Eggggy Requirements.

There is very little known about the energy required for
a growing calf. Armsby (la) found that 1.2 pounds of protein
per 1000 pounds live weight are sufficient for maximum possible
protein gain.

Armsby (69) developed the Armsby feeding standard. He
determined.the net energy values of eight typical feeds and
of two concentrates. Armsby then used these values and the
starch values obtained by Kellner as the basis for esthmating
the energy in.mastication, digestion and assimilation of other
feeds. He expressed the energy required of an animal in terms
of digestible true protein and therms net energy.

Armeby (lb) compiled the following table of nutrients re-
quired per day per head for growth of cattle with no consider-
able fattening.

16

 

 

 

_g Dairy_Breeds

£89 5170 D18 e n9 E
lonths Weight Protein. Energy.
fie. ‘Lbs. ‘Therms

l 100 0.40 _ 5.1

2 155 0.45 5.4

5 165 0.55 5.6

6 275 0.70 4.1

9 525 0.75 4.4

12 400 0.80 5.1

18 550 0.85 6.4

24 700 0.85 7.6

50 800 0.85 8.2

Eekles and co-workers (70) found that the net energy re-
quired to maintain a dairy hiefer at a normal weight is 90 per
cent of that set forth by Armsby. ’

There are two serious objections to the armsby feeding
standard. First, the net energy is not known for all feeds,
and second, the energy requirement for growing dairy animals
was calculated and is not the amount actually required.

The IOrrison Standard (69a) is a modification of the Wolf-
Lehman Standard. It is based‘on a chemical analysis of the
given feeds. Iorrison obtained the energy required for grow-
ing dairy by revising the requirements set forth in the Kellner,
Armsby, and Pott standards. The requirements are expressed in
pounds of digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients.
The requirements for growing dairy cattle according to the
Iorrison standard are listed in the following table (69b).

 

 

17

 

Animal

mm Dry Water Dig. 5r. T. D. N. Nutritive
Dairy Lbs. Protein Lbs. Ratio.
Cattle Lbfle

Bight T68. Tbs. 1258. Lbs.
100-200 22.0-24.0 2.9-5.2 17.0-19.0 4.5-5.2
200-500 25.0-25.0 2.6-2.9 16.5-18.5 5.2-5.9
300-400 24e0-26e0 2e3-2e6 15e5-17e5 5e9-6e5
400-500 22.0-25.0 2.0-2.5 14.5-16.5 6.5-6.8
500-600 2105-24e5 1e8-2e0 1308-15e8 6.5-7.0
600-700 21.0-24.0 1.7-1.9 15.0-15.0 6.6-7.2
700-800 20.5-25.5 1.6-1.8 12.2-14.2 6.7-7.5
800-900 20e0'23e0 le5’1e7 11e4-13e4 6e9’7e5
900-1000 20.0-25.0 1.5-1.5 10.6-12.6 7.0-7.6

Pitch and Lush (71) criticized the Horrison standard be-

cause the protein requirement of an animal weighing near the

upper limit of a given class is higher than the requirement for
an animal weighing near the lower limit of the next higher class.
later Requirement.

the water requirement of the growing calf is not known.
gggghage Necessary for normal Growth

Davenport (72) found that it was impossible to grow calves
without roughage. AReed and Hufnnan (75) also found that calves
deprived of roughage died with convulsions soon after three
months of age. They found that hay or grass furnishes a fac-
tor or factors essential for the development of healthy calves.

The results obtained by Curtis (74) and thandlish (75)
on raising calves on milk alone and Olsen (76) using self '
feeders for raising dairy calves, confirm.the findings of
Davenport (72) and Reed and Huffman (75).
lineral Requirements 7

The minerals, calcium and phosphorous, are found in all
of the body fluids, in the fleshy parts, but in the largest

 

18

amounts in the skeleton. These two elements constitute about
90 per cent of the mineral matter of the body (77).

Henry and Harrison (69c) stated that the mineral matter of
a fat calf, per 1000 pounds weight, was 16.46 pounds of lime,
15.55 pounds of phosphoric acid, 2.06 pounds of potash and 0.79
pounds of magnesia.

Henry and Morrison (69d) recommended that rations for
growing animals should contain.three times as muoh.ca1cium.and
phosphorous as the animals are storing dai1y.

Eckles and Swett (6) found that a Jersey herfer fed a rat-
ion low in calcium and phosphorous made growth equal to a httfer
fed a ration containing approximately three times as much cal-
cium.and phosphorous. The heifer on the low mineral ration
developed a stiffness at 18 months of age.

Solmen.and Eaton (78) fed each of four dairy heifers two
ouncesof bone meal daily. They found that there was appar-
ently no beneficial effects from the addition of the bone meal
to the ration.

Reed and Huffman (79) fed five growing dairy calves a ra-
tion of whole milk to sixty days, then skimmilk supplemented '
with equal parts (by weight) of corn and oats to six.months
of age, when a ration of timothy hay, silage and a grain mix-
ture of three parts ground yellow corn, one part ground oats,
one part cottonseed meal and one per cent salt was fed. The
results indicated that there was sufficient calcium and phos-

phorous in these rations to produce normal growth, good repro-

19

' auction, and liberal milk production. The addition of steam
bone meal did not materially affect growth. However there was
a slight difference in favor of this group in both weight and
height of withers at five years of age.

According to Reed and Huffman (80), roughages are high
in calcium and low in phosphorous while concentrates are high
in phosphorous and low in calcium.

They listed the common dairy feeds which are high, medium
and low in calcium as follows:

 

 

Feeds high in calcium pounds per ton '
.Bone flour 479.8
00w pea hay . 56.5
Soy bean hay 24.6
clover hay 22.8
Alfa1f a hay ‘ 20.9

Feeds medium in calcium

 

Beet pulp (dry) ‘ 15. 2

Feeds low in calcium

 

Corn 0.2
Wheat 1.0
Iheat middlings 1.9
Oats 2.0
Wheat bran 2.5
Timothy hay 5.5
Wheat straw 4.1

' Gluten feed 4.9

Cottonseed meal 5.5
Linseed oil meal 7.2
Corn stover 9.4

They also present a similar table showing the high, med-

ium.and low phosphorous content of the common dairy foods.

 

 

Feeds high in phOSphorous Pounds Per>Ton
Bone flour 298.8
Cottonseed meal 27.0
Iheat bran 22.2
lheat middlings 17.5
Linseed oil meal 14.1
Soy beans 11.8
Gluten feed 10.8

Feeds medium.in.phosphorous

Oats 7.9
Wheat 7.5
Navy beans 7.5
Corn 5.2

Feeds low in phosphorous

 

Wheat straw ‘ 0.7
Beet pulp (dry) 1.2
Corn stover “ 1.9
Timothy hay 2.5
Glover hay 5.4
Alfalfa hay 4.4

Young calves obtain sufficient calcium and phosphorous

21

from whole milk or skimmilk, since both are rich in these

elements.

It appears from the review of literature that calcium
and phosphorous are indispensible for growth. However if the
growing calf consumes a sufficient amount of feeds rich in
these elements, there is no need to add to the ration a min-
eral supplement containing calcium and phosphorous.

Calves raised on a minimum milk system do not consume
enough grain or roughage to supply the sufficient minerals for
normal growth during the period in which they are transferred
from milk or skimmilk to a dry grain ration, thus making it
necessary to add a mineral supplement containing calcium or

phosphorous to the grain mixture.

VITAHIHS

Besides the previously mentioned elements essential
for growth there are certain vitamins that are also essential
for maintenance and growth of dairy cattle.

iillaman (81) defined them as being "substances whose
presence is necessary for normal metabolism but which do not
contribute to the requirements of the organism as regards in-
organic constituents, nitrogenous substances, and energy pro-
ducing food constituents." Lush (14a) stated that the name
FVitamin is now commonly used to express the group of as yet

unidentified substances which at present cannot be classified

22

'iith.the familiar nutrients, proteins carbohydrates, inor-
ganic salts, and water, but upon which the hormonious behavior
of the organism depends and which are ordinarily injested in
traces in the food." Mathews (45b) referred to vitamins as the
”necessary food substances."

The number of these substances in existance is unknown.
Seven or eight have been definitely recognized and designated
by letters of the alphabet.

Vitamin 'A"

Necessary for Growth. This vitamin is absolutely essential
for normal metabolism and growth. Burrows and Jorstad (82)
concluded from their work with rats that Vitamin A is one of
the essential substances used in the building of intercellular
substances of the body, in the storage of fat, and in the func-
ion of tissue cells.

Pathological Effects of Vitamin A Deficiencyg' IcCollum
and Simmonds (85) stated that when animals are restricted to
a ration deficient in Vitamin a, they will develop after a few
weeks a.non-contagious pathological condition of the eyes known
as ophthalma. The first noticeable effects of this disease are
manifest when the lacrymal gland ceases to produce tears which
causes a dry condition of the eyes. As a result of this con-
dition, cornification takes place followed by blindness unless

——the vitamin deficiency is corrected.

'25

Icessler, laurer and Laughlin (84) produced an anemic
condition in rats fed a ration deficient in Vitamin A. They
concluded that blood regeneration cannot take place in the ab-
sence of this vitamin from the diet.

Falconer (85) and Stommers (86) found that the changes in
the cell and platlet content of the blood are not constant
-enough to constitute a specific lesion of Vitamin A deficiency
in rats.

Osborne and Mendel (87) found calculi of calcium phosphate
in the urinary tract of rats fed a diet deficient in Vitamin a.
Van.Leersum (88) made chemical microscopic examinations of the
kidneys from rats fed a Vitamin A deficient diet and found that
they showed deposits of calcium in the epithelial cells. He
suggested that the calculi found in the bladders of Vitamin A
deficient rats originate in the kidney deposits which are washed
into the bladder where they increase in size.

Beach (89) produced a condition resembling roup, in
chickens fed a ration deficient in Vitamin A.

Effect of Vitamin A Deficiency on Disease Resistance and,
Length of Life. Sherman and Burtis (90) found that rats fed

 

a Vitamin A deficient diet were much more susceptible to in-
fection.than those fed a diet containing this vitamin.
Sherman and HacLeod (91) found that rats fed a ration
deficient in Vitamin A lived only half as long as rats fed
”an abundance of Vitamin A. These investigators also found that

24

when.rats were fed such a diet they were especially suscept-
ible to lung diseases, particularly pneumonia.

Distribution. Steenbock and Bontwell (92) thought that
Vitamin A is associated with the yellow pigment of corn.
Steenbock and Cross (95) found that green alfalfa plants con-
tain relatively large amounts of the fat soluable vitamin.
They concluded that Vitamin A production is closely associated
with chlorophyl formation.

Jones, Eckles and Palmer (94) reported that any good qual-
ity roughage contains Vitamin A.

The Role of Vitamin A in the Nutrition of Calves. Jones,
Hckles and Palmer (94) found that Vitamin A is indispensible
for the normal growth of calves. Eckles (2a) stated that
"almost any. mixture of feeding stuffs will be low in Vitamins
A and C."

From the review of literature it appears that Vitamin A
is indispensible for maintenance and growth of most all ani-
mals. .

Animals fed diets deficient in Vitamin A are more sus-
ceptible to infection, especially lung diseases and pneumonia
than animals fed rations adequate in this vitamin.

Rats fed a diet deficient of Vitamin A lived about half as
long as those fed an abundance of this vitamin.

‘

25

) Vitamin l'B”

 

Eckles and co-workers (95) fed calves from 20 to 180
days of age on rations in which the Vitamin B content was
supplied in the form of dried yeast. They observed no de-
finite effect on the health of the calves.

Later Eckles and Williams (96) fed cows a ration low in
Vitamin.B and obtained results equal to those in which.yeast
was supplemented. They concluded that cattle do not require
Vitamin B in the ration.

Bechdel (97), (98), (99) raised 11 calves from birth to
first calving on a Vitamin B deficient ration. These animals
showed normal growth and reproduction. Bechdel explained his
results by stating that probably bacteria and micro-organisms
in the digestive tract synthesized Vitamin B.

Later Bechdel and co-workers (100) definitely showed that
cattle synthesize their own needed supply of Vitamin B through

bacterial synthesis in the rumen.
From the review of literature it appears that Vitamin B
is synthesised by bacterial action in the digestive tract of

cattle and need not be supplied in the ration.

Vitamin “C"

 

Hpneywell and Steenbock (101) found that Vitamin C is
..synthesised in considerable amounts during the germination of

26

'barley kernels, even when they are germinated in the dark.
Thurston, Eckles and Palmer (102) and (105) grew four
calves normally for one year on a ration which produced scurvy
in guinea pigs in 20 to 50 days. Normal gestation and part-
uration occured when a hiefer was fed from birth on a Vitamin
C deficient ration. Appreciable quantities of Vitamin C were
found in her milk. It was concluded that Vitamin 0, like Vit-
amin B is synthesized in the body but from all indications the

digestive tract is not concerned in this synthesis.

Vitamin 'D'

 

This vitamin is known as the anti-rachitic vitamin or
the factor which influences the deposition of minerals in the
bones.

Sources of Vitamin D. The common source of Vitamin which

 

is practical for dairymen is good hay, legumes in particular.
'”his vitamin is also found in cod liver oil, sunlight, and
ultra violet light. The cost of supplying it in the form of
ultra violet light is prohibitive under ordinary conditions.
Vitamin D Content and Method of Curing Legumes. Hart,
Steenbock and co-workers (104) found that green alfalfa was
somewhat superior to cured alfalfa in maintaining the calcium
balance in milking cows.
Russel (105) fed rats alfalfa hay artificially cured out
_ of the sunlight and found that it contained much less Vitamin D

1‘

 

-

27

than similar hay cured in the sunlight. He also found that the
Vitamin D content of the artificially cured hay was increased
upon exposure to ultra violet light.

Steenbock, Hart and co-workers (106) cured hays by three
different methods in testing their anti-rachitic properties.
The three types of hays used were cured by; (1) drying in the
dark on the floor of an attic with a fan; (2) drying in diffused
light in the laboratory and then exposed to the weather and
sunlight for 14 days; (5) hay was allowed to lie in the field
exposed to sunlight, dew and rain for 14 days. When these hays
were fed with raohitic producing diets, the one cured in the
dark was ineffective in preventing rickets. The hay cured in
diffused light and then irradiated with an ultra violet light
from a quartz mercury vapor lamp proved to be effective. The
hay cured in direct sunlight and exposed to rain and dew was
partially effective in preventing rickets.

Hart, Steenbock and co-workers (107) found that hays
cured in Colorado where there is an abundance of sunlight were
no more effective in maintaining positive calcium balances in
heavy lactating cows than hays cured under Wisconsin conditions
where there is less sunlight.

Jest and Koch (108) stated that rickets is a very common
disease among pigs, puppies, lambs, and kids, but is less com-
:mon among colts, calves, and rabbits.

‘Falkenheim (109) observed that rats exposed to quartz

28

'lamp irradiation responded by increased growth and bone- calci-

0‘-

fication. He irradiated a cow fed a vitamin-free ration and
found that it had no effect.

From all indications cattle can assimilate Vitamin D
only when it is supplied through the ration.

Windaus and Hess (110) who worked with quartz lamp rays
suggest that probably ergpsteral is the provitamin of Vitamin
D.

Rosenheim and Webster (111) after experimenting with
quartz rays concluded that the natural parent or precursor of
Vitamin D is ergosterol or a highly unsaturated sterol of sim-
ilar construction, which is converted into Vitamin D by ir-
radiation.

Significance of Vitamin D to Calves. Bechdel and Hill (112)
found that calves are susceptible to a Vitamin D deficiency,
and such calves have less ash in their bones than those fed a
normal ration.

Irradiation. Steenbock and Black (115) found that by ir-

 

radiating rat rations with the quartz mercury vapor lamp they
could activate them and make them.grthh-promoting and bone-cal-
cifying to the same degree as when the rats were irradiated.
They suggested that "both light and the anti-rachitic vitamin
may represent the same anti-rachitic agent - possibly a form

of radiant light.‘

Relation of Sunlight to Growth and Development. For cen-

29

.turies sunlight has been known to exert a beneficial or stum-
ulating effect on growth (85a). Investigators have recently
found that light does not affect growth in all animals.

Gullickson and Eckles (114) grew calves from birth to two
years of age in a darkened room and found that they grew and
reproduced normally. They concluded that light had no effect
on the growth of dairy hiefers.

Results of the Kansas (115), (116) and the South Dakota
(117) stations confirm the results obtained by Eckles and
Gullickson.

Huffman (118) found that calves fed a rachitic diet and
allowed access to sunlight did not develop rickets but calves
fed a similar diet without sunlight developed rickets.

From the review of literature it appears that the vitamins
A and D are essential for growing calves while B and C are not
essential.

Since Vitamin D is found in hay cured in the sunlight,
there is very little danger of feeding a vitamin D deficient
ration, especially when plenty of good quality hay is fed.

CALF FEEDING
The problem of raising dairy calves was given very little
consideration until after the development of the cream separator

and the creamery. Then for a number of years the vital question

5’

50

’was whether or not skimmilk with supplementary grain feeds
could successfully replace part of the whole milk in the
ration of dairy calves. Experimental results showed that this
system was successful. It became the standard system with
most dairymen.

The dairy industry then passed into the fluid milk stage
where skimmilk was no longer available on a majority of the
farms in whole milk areas. This created an economic problem
which finally became one of finding either the minimum amount
of milk required to raise a dairy calf, or developing a milk
substitute.

Considerable progress has been made in developing min-
immm milk systems for raising calves, however no satisfactory
milk substitute has yet been developed.

Substitutes for Skimmilk

 

It is generally conceded from experimental evidence that
whole milk cannot be entirely replaced in the ration. 0b-
servations show that when feeds other than milk are fed to
the young calf, digestive troubles develop. There is so lit-
tle known about the digestive tract of the growing calf that
no one knows definitely what changes take place when feeds other
than milk are fed. Schalk and Amadon (119) found by making
rumen fistulas in young calves that the esophageal groove
functions only in the nursing calf and in animals on an ex-

”elusive milk diet. Its edges contract at eating time, foming

51

‘s tube through which milk drunk at a normal rate, passes dir-
ectly into the abomasum. .When drank rapidly and in large
swallows, the groove spreads and lets milk escape into the
rumen which may cause digestive trouble due to the undevel-
oped condition of the rumen. Milk can only be digested in the
abomasum. Iilk that escapes into the rumen eventually reaches
the abomasum, but after some delay during which time ferment-

‘ation probably takes place.

Buttermilk, Whey and Sour Skimmilk.

' Otis (120) fed calves buttermilk and obtained slightly
less returns than with skimmilk. He also successfully fed
calves whey but found that it had a tendency to cause scours
and that gains were slower than when skimmilk was fed. The I
findings.of Horrison and co-workers (121) and Peterson (122)
agree with those obtained by otis.

Eckles and Gullickson (125) and Ellington.(l24) found that
powdered buttermilk when remixed at the rate of 1 pound of
powder to 9 pounds of water produced calves which were normal
at six months of age. The calves were not troubled with dig-
estive disturbances when care was used in feeding and all
changes were made gradually.

Woodward (125) fed calves sour skimmilk. He found that
milk fed to calves soon after souring, and when it was always
at about the same acidity, did not produce scours or other

‘\ digestive disturbances after the calves were accustomed to it.

 

 

 

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52

These experiments show that buttermilk, buttermilk pow-
der, whey or sour skimmilk can be successfully fed to young
dairy calves when the changes from whole milk or skimmilk to
the one used, are made gradually.

lolasses for Calveg.

 

Ioodward (126) and Mead and co-workers (127) found that
blackstrap molasses was extremely laxative for growing calves.
They attributed it to sugar fermentation in the digestive tract.

Conrad (128) claimed to have successfully fed molasses to
calves without producing harmful effects. Brentnall (129)
found that molasses can be used in the grain mixture as a sub-
stitute for corn with calves over two months of age. He stated
that it is important that the calf should have free access to
water at all times. Galloway (150) added varying amounts of
blackstrap molasses to the grain mixture of calves at varying
ages and concluded that from one to two ounces of blackstrap
molasses can be fed with each feed of grain given daily to
calves four weeks or more of age.

It is therefore apparent that molasses may be used as a
source of energy in calf rations.

Skimmilk Powder

The associates of Rogers (24b) gave the following as the

average composition of separator skimmilk and skimmilk pow-

der e

“‘03 )Illmmlfla '10 Jilin 91.3th ("01: .:fi,i:;.n:: (21:, he- I.I:'~'£" _- - J

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
     
  
     
   

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35.021 10 4:93:35 Drain .

 

 

 

55

Skimmilk Skimmilk Powder
Water 5.89 90.55
Protein 55.42 5.72
Fat 1.74 0.15
Lactose 48.74 4.98
A311 8.08 00 80

Eckles, Combs, and Macy (25a) stated that five per cent
moisture is the maximum legal moisture content for skimmilk
powder.

Schaars (151) found that the cost of drying buttermilk or
skimmilk varies from 2.5 cents to 5.5 cents per pound for the
dried.product.

Eckles and Gullickson (152) fed re-mixed skimmilk in the
proportion of 1 pound of powder to 9 pounds of water and fed
it at the same rate as skimmilk is fed. They obtained results
equal to those produced by liquid skimmilk.

Other experimentors (155), (154), (155), (156), (157) and
(158) obtained results comparable to those of Eckles and
Gullickson. These workers also found that skimmilk powder of
either the roller or spray process was more economical as a
calf feed than whole milk but less economical than liquid
skimmilk.

Bechdel (159), Williamm and Bechdel (140) and others
(155), (154), (155), (156) and (141) fed skimmilk powder in the
dry grain ration. They obtained the best results when the
dry grain ration consisted of 55 to 40 per cent and not over
a maximum of 45 per cent skimmilk powder. They also found

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34

.that the calves should not be changed to the dry grain ration
before they are six weeks of ago.
Mel Feeds

Cruel feeding is becoming less popular among dairymen
because of the labor involved in the preparation of gruel.

Iichels (142) stated that a milk substitute must be "very
palatable and digestible, rich in muscle and bone-forming mat-
erial and contain little crude fiber." He found that 12 ounces
of rolled oats cooked in one gallon of water and fed at body
temperature gave excellent results.

Hayward (145) developed 'Haywards Calf leal', one of the
first and most successful and widely used calf meals of its
time. It was composed of the following ingredients:

30 pounds flour

25 ' cocoanut-meal

20 " nutrium (8. H. P.)
10 " Linseed oil meal
2 " dried blood

This system called for whole milk for 'I to 10 days,
then a gruel made by mixing 1 pound of 'Haywards calf Heal"
to 6 pounds of water so that by 14 to 15 days of age the -
calves were fed gruel alone. The change was made gradually.

Iaynard and Norris (144) replaced milk at about four
weeks of age with a mixture composed of the following mater-

:. ials fed as a gruel:
250 pounds corn meal

35

. 250 pounds red dog flour
150 ' ground oats
150 ' linseed oil meal
100 ' ground.melted barley
100 ' soluble blood flour
10 ' precipitated calcium carbonate
10 ' precipitated bone meal
10 & salt
the gruel was made byimixing one pound of the above mixture
with five pounds of water at 1000 r. This was fed three times
per day. The gruel was supplemented with alfalfa hay and a
dry grain mixture consisting of:
50 pounds of hominy
30 u ' ground oats
50 u ' wheat bran
lO " ' oil meal
Ground and cooked carrots were fed to supply vitamins. These
also stimmlated the consumption of dry grain. Iaynard and
lorris found that calves grown by this system made gains equal
to skimmilk fed calves. However.they did not recommend that
this system replace skimmilk in the ration of calves but to
be used only where skimmilk was not available.
Davis and Cunningham.(l45) fed whole milk for 10 days,
then whole milk and gruel made by mixing one pound of the

.. following grain.mixture to one gallon of water.

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. 2 parts corn meal
4 ' wheat middlings
2 ' oat flour
1 '3 linseed oil meal
.5 “ blood meal
.2 a bone meal
.2 ' salt
Ihole milk was replaced at 40 days of age by gruel, alfalfa
hay and a dry grain.mixture composed of equal parts of wheat
bran, rolled barley and linseed oil meal. ~
These workers concluded that calves fed on this system
were more subject to digestive trouble than whole milk or
skimmilk fed calves and that they were less thrifty at 2 to 3
months of age than whole milk or skimmilk fed calves but were
normal at 5 to 6 months of age. Davis and Cunningham did not
recommend this method of raising calves when either whole milk
or skimmilk was available.
Harrison and Rupel (146) found the following grain.mix-
ture, fed as a gruel was fairly satisfactory.
250 pounds com
250 ' flour middlings
250 5 ground oats (hulls sifted out)
120 ' linseed oil meal
lOO ' soluble blood flour
10 ' salt

  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
  
  

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10 pounds steam bone meal
’ 10 '5 Wisconsin brimstone

The gruel was supplemented with alfalfa hay and a dry grain
mixture composed of x

30 pounds corn

30 ' bran

lO " linseed oil meal
The calves raised on this system were normal at six months of
age, compared with Eckle's normal.

Rupel (147) later found that a grain mixture composed of
equal parts—of corn, oats, bran and linseed oil meal, fed in
the milk and supplemented with alfalfa hay, produced animals
that were normal at six months of age.

Lindsey and Archibald (148), (149) concluded after working
with many different calf meals that the method which was most
satisfactory, from the standpoint of economy and growth, was
a limited amount of remixed skimmilk with a good quality hay,
supplemented with the following grain mixture:

50 pounds ground cats
50 " red dog flour
25 " corn meal
15 “ linseed oil meal
5 * salt
These investigators recommended that the. skimmilk powder

-— be supplemented with a mixture of equal parts of red dog flour

58

.end hominy feed when an extra good calf is desired. One and
oneqhalf ounces of this grain mixture should be added to one
and one-half ounces of skimmilk powder and mixed in one quart
of water. Bay was fed in addition to gruel, and the above dry
grain mixture.

Hunxiker and Caldwell (150) developed the “Purdue Calf
Heal” consisting of equal parts of hominy feed, linseed oil
Imal, red dog flour, and dried blood. They fed it as a gruel
made by mixing one pound of the calf meal to seven pounds of
water, supplemented with alfalfa hay and equal parts of ground
corn and oats, dry fed. Satisfactory results were obtained
when.the calf was left with the dam for 4 to 5 days, then buc-
ket fed whole milk with the addition of a small amount of the
meal when the calf was 7 days of age. The meal was then mixed
with water (1 part to 7 parts of water)_and increased as the
amount of milk was decreased until at seven weeks of age, it
was receiving approximately 18 to 20 ounces of meal daily.
This rate was maintained constant until the calf was six.months
of age when it was increased to 24 ounces per day supplemented
with.equal parts ground corn and oats, alfalfa hay, and a small
amount of silage.

Spitser and Carr (151), (152) found that 12 parts liquid
blood, eight parts corn meal, and one part linseed oil meal,
fed according to the system followed by Hunsiker and caldwell
(150) was slightly inferior to skimmilk. They found that
calves fed the "Purdue Calf Heal" made an average daily gain

"O

4.

39

~of 1.18 pounds, as compared to 1.24 pounds for skimmilk and
1.16 pounds for whole milk. They concluded that it was a 'suc-
cessful skimmilk substitute.‘

uni-ml [ilk Systems of Raising Dairy Calves

Solun (153) fed calves the same total.amount of milk
but varied the rate of feeding and the length of the feeding
period. He obtained the best results when milk was fed in
rather large amounts at younger ages with a gradual reduction
of the milk as other feeds were consumed.

Fraser and Brand (154) and Eckles and Gullickson.(155)
found that when whole milk and skimmilk were supplemented
with.grain and alfalfa hay, approximately 150 to 170 pounds
of whole milk and 550 to 500 pounds of skimmilk.were required
to raise a dairy calf to six months of age.

Eckles and Gulliokson (155) and others (156), (157), (158),
(159) found that when whole milk was fed to a calf for 50 to
60 days, supplemented with grain and alfalfa hay, it required
350 to 800 pounds of milk, depending upon the breed and
strength of the individual animal. These authorities concluded
that milk can be safely removed from the ration when the calves
are from 50 to 60 days of age.

La Master and Elting (158) weaned calves from their dams
at 60 days of age and then fed the following dry grain mixture:

44 pounds ground oats
4O ' ground yellow corn

4O

15 pounds white (Haddock) fish meal
1 ' salt
The calves were fed all of the grain they would consume up to
amaximum of five pounds daily, supplemented with soy bean
hay.

The results of the first experiment were not satisfactory,
consequently the second group was fed on the following dry
grain.mixture:

40 pounds ground oats

59 ' yellow corn

lO " white (Haddock) fish.mea1

10 " skimmilk powder

1 “ salt
The calves fed this mixture were also weaned from whole milk
at 60 days of age and fed a maximum.of five pounds of the '
grain mixture daily, supplemented with soy bean hay.

La Master and Elting reported that all of the calves
grew well and showed no abnormal symptoms, but were slightly
below normal at six months of age, although at nine months of
age they were normal. The grain mixtures were not as palatable
as was desired. The calves did not readily eat these mixtures
until about four months of age.

Bond (159) recommended the use of the following dry calf
meal supplemented with alfalfa hay and a free access to water:

2 parts (by weight) of linseed oil meal

3 ' ' ' ' crushed oats

41

1 part (by weight) of bran
} " u " " fish meal
Ragsdale and Turner (160) showed that calves weaned from
milk at 60 days of age were approximately 70 per cent nor-
mal in weight at six months of age when fed alfalfa or soy bean
hay and the following grain mixture:
4 parts (by weight) corn chaff
l ' ' ' wheat bran
l '.‘ 5 i' soy bean meal
lead and co-workers (11) were the first to demonstrate
that calves can be successfully raised by weaning from milk
to a dry grain mixture and alfalfa hay at 30 to 50 days of age.
,They fed the following grain mixture supplemented with al-
falfa hay:
6 parts (by weight) hominy

6 ' " ' wheat bran
4 ' ' ” linseed oil meal (0. p.)
4 " " ' ground oats

2 per cent salt

2 ' ' raw rock phosphate
The calves were watered twice daily throughout the experiment.
They were below normal in both height at withers and weight at
six months of age, but were normal according to the Eckle'e
normal, at first calving.

Bender and Bartlett (161), (162), (165), (164), (165),

(165a), (165b), (166) developed the New Jersey system of rais-

”

42

-ing calves. The procedure is as follows: Allowed the calves
to suckle until 48 hours of age. The calves were then weaned
from the dams and fed a maximum of 5 quarts of milk a day in
three feedings per day for the first 10 days, then twice daily
until the calves were 50 days of age or a total of approximate-
ly 150 pounds. Grain and alfalfa or clover hay were placed
before the animals after they were a week of age. When the
calves were three weeks old, the milk was reduced by diluting
with water so that by the end of 50 days, they were getting
the dry-fed.mixture, legume hay and fresh water. At 50 days
of age, they were eating approximately one pound of grain.
These workers stated that six pounds of grain is the maximum
amount to feed regardless of breed and age.
When the calves were six months of age, the first grain

mixture was replaced by the following grain.mixture:

100 pounds corn meal

100 ' ground oats

100 ' wheat bran

50 pounds linseed oil meal.
The animals were allowed free access to alfalfa hay and
water. Silage was also added to the ration after they were
six.months of age.
Excellent results were obtained with this system. When

compared with Eckle's normal, the calves were below normal

at six months of age but were 100 per cent normal at nine

45

months of age.

They found that the calves developed a cough soon after
being placed on the dry-fed ration, which persisted for most
of the six month period. They concluded that it was due to
the fineness of the grain ration.

Cains (167) fed calves the following dry grain mixture
based on the New Jersey system;

20 pounds yellow corn meal

10 “ wheat bran

20 “ skimmilk powder

' 50 “ ground oats

20 " linseed oil meal

1 pound finely pulverized bone meal

1 “ finely pulverized limestone

l “ salt
The calves were approximately 98 per cent normal for height
and 92.4 per cent normal for weight at six months of age,
when compared with Eckle's normals.

The results of other experimenters (166), (169), (170)
indicated that with the nature of the present dry-fed rations
the age at which calves are changed from milk to grain cannot
be safely lowered below that advocated by the New Jersey
system.

Caldwell (168) found that the nitrogen elimination of

— calves on a ration of milk, ground corn and oats and alfalfa

44

.hay, was eliminated equally through the urine and feces. The
nitrogen excretion of the calves fed a dry grain mixture was
mainly through the feces.

Norris (169) fed calves a cereal-gruel rich in starch.

He found that there was a greater production of volatile fatty
acids and alcohols in the intestinal tract, on such a ration
than with a whole milk ration.

He concluded that calves cannot completely digest rations
relatively rich in starch. The undigested food furnishes an
ideal media for bacterial growth, which takes place, and is
responsible for the production of the fatty acids and alcohols.

Shaw and co-workers (170) fed whole milk and four grams
of corn starch per feeding to four day old calves for three
successive days followed by a 5 day rest period during which
only whole milk was fed. Starch feeding was then repeated for
three days. The same procedure was again repeated and the
feces were collected and analyzed for both periods throughout
the experiment. 4

These workers found that calves 4 to 7 days of age digest
about 20 per cent of the quantity of starch consumed. When
12 to 15 days of age, the amount of starch digested reached
approximately 40 per cent of the amount consumed and when
three weeks of age nearly 60 per cent of the starch was di-
.gested. At four weeks of age, the calves digested.more than

90 per cent of the starch consumed.

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The experimental results show that the ration of young
calves should be restricted to whole milk for a week to 10
days after birth, when a supplementary grain mixture especially
rich in starch, may be introduced and the amount fed rapidly

increased as the animal grows older.

From the review of literature, it is evident that calf
feeds should be listed in the order of their food value as
follows: Whole milk, skimmilk, skimmilk powder, the success-
ful dry-fed meals, buttermilk, whey, sour milk and molasses.

There is some indication that the reason for the failure
of dry-fed meals is because they go to the rumen instead of
the abomasum. The rumen in the young calf is undeveloped.

YOung calves that are fed a dry grain mixture are subject
to‘a cough that some experimentors think is caused by the fine-
ness of the grain mixture.

There is some indication that calves fed a dry-grain ration
and allowed free access to water, make better growth and are
less subject to digestive trouble than calves fed a similar
ration but not allowed free access to water.

Usually calves which were grown on any ration other than
whole milk, skimmilk, or skimmilk powder, were below normal in
growth at six months of age, but were normal or above by nine
to twelve months of age. They were usually normal in height at

both six and nine months of age.

- From the review of literature it is apparent that the
New Jersey system of raising dairy calves is the most suc-

cessful minimum.milk or dry-fed grain system yet developed.

46

47
DISCUSSION OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The growth impulse is very persistant. Following
a relatively long period of adverse conditions there is a
tendency for the animal to recover and make a greater rate
of growth per unit intake of food than a similar animal
under normal conditions.

Colostrum is essential to the new born calf because
it is the media through which antibodies are transferred
from.the mother to the offspring.

it appears that tryptophane, cystine, and histidine
are essential for maintenance and that lysine is essential
for growth. it also appears that arginine and histidine are
not inter-changeable and that arginine and proline may be
essential for maintenance and growth. There is apparently
very little danger of feeding a proline deficient ration
since this amino-acid is so widely destributed.

Boughage is indispensable in the ration of growing
calves.

s.nnmber of minerals are essential for growth. however,
a ration is more liable to be deficient in calcium and phosphor-
um than.1n the other mineral elements. This is because of
the large amounts required and the proportions in which they
are found. Steamed bone meal is an excellent source of both
of these mdnerals and should be included in the dry grain
mixtures fed young calves. However, when plenty of good
quality hay, alfalfa in particular, is fed there is apparently

no danger of a mineral deficiency.

 

48

It appears that vitamins A and D are essential
for growing calves. Vitamins B and C are apparently not
essential. Experimental evidence indicates that vitamin
B is probably synthesized by bacterial flora in the rumen.
There is apparently very little danger of feeding a ration
deficient in vitamins A and D when plenty of good quality
hay is fed.

It is apparent from the review of literature that no
satisfactory minimum milk system has yet been developed.
However, the most successful system of this type is one
that is widely advocated by investigators of the New Jersey
Experiment Station. They found that calves raised according
to this system did not make as much growth during the first
180 days of life as calves fed liberally on whole milk and
skhm milk. They also reported that such calves were
especially subject to digestive troubles and a cough during
the first six months of life or while they were fed the dry
grain mixture. However, they stated that the digestive
troubles were minimised when the calves were allowed a free
access to water. They also stated that the calves appeared
shabby and under nourished during the early.months of dry
grain feeding» However, after the calves were six months
of age they rapdily recovered in appearance and size and

were shut normal by one year of age. The gains made after

49
they were six months of age were made at a greater rate

per unit intake of feed.

From the review of literature it is evident that
more investigation is needed to determine the best system

of raising dairy calves on a minimum amount of whole milk.

5O
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

A OBJECT ‘

Ehole milk is usually too expensive in whole milk
areas to be used for raising dairy calves. Consequently,
dairymen in these areas frequently do not raise their best
heifer calves for replacement in their dairy herds.

However, to improve the herd and keep it free from
disease it is desirable for dairymen to raise calves from
their best cows.

The object of this experiment is to determine a more
satisfactory system of raising calves in areas where whole
milk is sold. Two systems of raising cakes with a minimum
of whole milk will be compared with the system of feeding
calves in the college dairy herd where liberal amounts of
milk are fed. The system of raising calves on a minimum
amount of milk recommended by the new Jersey Experiment
Station which has been widely advocated and a similar systes
in which skim milk powder is supplemented with grains will
be used in this investigation.

51
PM
lhree lots of calves, with five in each lot will be

used. The calves will be placed on experiment as near after

birth as possible and continued to first freshening time.

The calves in each lot will be placed on experiment so as to

make the lots as even as possible in respect to health, size

and strength of the separate individuals.

Let I. 5 calves. This lot will be raised on the present

 

system of raising calves at the I. S. 0. dairy barn.
not I or the Check m. "

 

1e
3e
3e

4e

6.

Ineave the calf with the dam for 12 hours.

reed ( hand) whole mik. (9% of body weight)

(a) lother’s milk 1 days ( c feeds per'day)

(b) Whole milk to 30 days of age. ‘

reed skim milk after 30 days of age to six months ofage.
{a)~Up to 16 pounds for Guernseys and Jerseys.

(b) U.) to 20 pounds for Holsteins and Ayrshires.

whole corn and oats up to 60 days of age.

Grain fixture after 60 days of age, all calf will clean up
te six pounds daily.

100 pounds ground corn, 100 pounds ground oats, 100 pounds
meat bran, 100 pounds linseed oil meal. one percent bone
meal. and one percent salt.

Good quality alfalfa hay all calf will clean up.

hot II. g5 calves. this lot will be raised on the New Jersey

 

‘System of raising calves.

52

lew Jersey system:

1. Leave calf with dam for two days.

4.

Bed (hand) a maximum of three quarts of whole milk, three
feeds per day for ten days. Then twice daily for thirty days.
Place the grain mixture in the feed box after the first week.
Grain mixture: 100 pounds yellow corn meal, 150 pounds ground
cats, 50 pounds wheat bran, 50 pounds linseed oil meal, 60
pounds soluble bleed flour, 4 pounds finely pulvcrised steamed
bone meal, d pounds finely pulverised limestone, 4 pounds salt.
Place good alfalfa, clever, or mixed hay before the calf after
the first week.

At end of third week the milk should be diluted with water so
that by the end of the thirtieth day they will get the grain
mixture, legume hay, and water.

By the thirtieth day one pound of dry grain mixture and plenty
of hay placed before the calf in the morning should be enough
to take care of the calf for 24 hours. l'ree access to water
at all times. $fter the calf is six months old gradually
replace the first dry grain mixture with the following grain
mixture:

100 pounds yellow earn, 100 pounds ground oats, 100 pounds
wheat bran, 30 pounds linseed oil meal, and feed six to

eight pounds daily with all the alfalfa hay they will eat.

53
Int III or the H. S. 0. Lot. 5 calves. Experimental method.
Igot III will be raised the same as Lot II except -
1. Whole milk up to 45 days of age.
2. the following grain mixtun will be used up to six months
of age: '
’ 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds wheat middlings, 150 pounds
skim milk powder, one percent salt, one percent bone meal.
3. After six mmths of age, grain mixture up to four to five
pounds daily. A ‘
200 pounds corn, 100 pounds oats,100 pounds cottonseed meal,
one percent salt, one percent bone meal.
Silage will be introduced into rations of all lots after six
months of age. ‘fter six months of age calves will be allowed
to run on pasture during pasture season. In all lots the Judg-
ment of the feeder will be exercised in changing the animals
from one ration to another. The times set for changing feeds
should be followed as closely as possible but not to the extent
of sacrificing the animal in question. the feeder will be
guided by the health and strength of the individual and the
feces which they pass. In case the feces become odorous and
watery the Judgment of the feeder should be exercised as to the
rate of changing the ration.
Easement
‘ W523: All animals in Beta II and III up to six months of
age will have free access to water at all times.
Shelter. All animals will be kept in the new dairy barn.
Individual calf pens will be used while the calves are small.
After the calves are five to six mnths old they will be placed

in pens.

64

Bedding. Wood shavings will be used throughout the
experiment for bedding.

‘9552;. !he animals will be cared for by the calf herds-
man.

Oalculation of nations. The nutrients consumed will be
kept as close as possible to the Armsby Standard especially the
protein intake. Rations will be calculated each month. The body
weight to be used in calculating requirements for the ensuing
month will be that obtained the first of the month plus 20 pounds.
collection of Data

Health. Hates will be taken daily by the calf herdsman
in charge if any abnormalities appear. Special care will be
taken.to note the occurrence of scours, pneumonia, and lice.

Weight. All animals will be weighed every 10 days up
to six months of age and for three consecutive days every thirty-
day period during the experiment. Heifers freshening will be
weighed immediately after calving.

Growth. All animals will be measured every thirty-days
for body development.

ggproduction. An accurate record of all breeding data
‘will be kept including occurrence of all estral periods. The
health and strength of all calves dropped will be noted. Birth
weights and gestation.periode will also be noted.

geed Consumed. An accurate record of all food consumed
by each individual will be kept. In case where several animals
are kept in a pen the hay will be weighed for all the animals

and the amount consumed by each individual calculated.

55
Photographs. Photographs of the calves to be placed
on experiment will be taken as soon after birth as poss ible,
at six months of age, and at first calving time.

56
EXPERIMENTAL PRO CEDUkE

the animals used in this experiment were purebred
calves from the college herd. They were divided into three
lots of five calves each. age Ayshire, two Guernsyes, four
Jerseys and eight Holsteins were used. The summary of this
information is given in. Table A.

Ianagement.

Shelter. All animals were kept in the new dairy barn
in individual pens until they were five months of age when
they were grouped according to lotsand placed in larger pens.
After about eight months of age they were placed in stanchions.

Beddg‘. As planned.

9933; As planned.

Water. lrho calves in Lots II and III were watered
twice daily at first, but later, as the water consumption in-
creased, they were watered three times daily until they were
placed in pens according to lots. Thereafter they had free
access to water at all times. The animals of Let I were
offered water after they were fed skim milk which was twice
daily.

Calculation of Rations. .It was not necessary to cal-
culate the rations in advance as called for in the plan. The
calves were fed 11 the grain they would eat up to the maximum
amount called for by the system. {Ih'ey were also allowed all
of the good quality alfalfa hay they would eat.

Cellection of Data
Growth
m. As planned.
Eight at Withers. As planned.

 

Health As planned.

fl

gbed Consumed,‘As planned.

Appearance of the Animals. COndition cf hair coat and the
amount of flesh carried.
Breeding Dates and Estral Cycles. As planned.

Photographs. A photograph was taken of each animal as seen
as possible after birth, at 180 days of age, and at'the close
of the experiment.

_r_eeds and Methods of feeding. As planned.

5 8
EXPERIIEMAI: RESULTS

eases

Weiggt. fhis experiment took into consideration mainly
health andgrowth of the animals from birth te one year of age.
fable A shows the birth weight and height for each of the three
lots of calves. Table No. XXXIII is a summary of the growth
in weight made by the animals from birth to 360 days of age.
these tables and charts 1 to 15 show that at 180 days of age
animals in the check group gained 273.6 pounds, those on the
lee Jersey system gained 207 pounds as compared to 213.0 pounds
gain for the annmals on thelu. S. 0. system.

Prom 180 to 360 days of age these animals in the check
let gained an average of 242.8 pounds. the New Jersey group
gained 270.3 pounds and the animals in the M. S. C. group gained
263.3 pounds.

the total gain from birth to 360 days of age amounted to
516.4 pounds for’Lot 1, 447.3 pounds for let II and 477.1
pounds for Lot III.

m at Withers. Charts 1 to 5 slow that from birth to
180 days of age the animals in the check let gained on an average
31.2 cms., the New Jersey group 24.03 cms.. and the I. S. C.
group 26.1 cms. in height at withers. '

Prom 180 te 360 days of age the check lot or Let I. gained
14 cma, the I. 3. C. group or Lot III 15.8 ems. in height at
withers. ~ '

rho total gains in height at withers from birth to 360
days of age was 46.2 ems. for the check lot, 41.6 ems. for'Lct
II or the New Jersey group and 41.3 ems. for Lot III or the

I. 3. C. Group.

59
Health of Animals ,

During the first 180 day period the calves in Let I
were decidedly healthier than the calves which were fed by
the I. s. C. system or the New Jersey system. This was
especially true in case of digestive disturbances which were
particularly noticeable among the calves fed according to
the II. S. C. and New Jersey systems at the time they were
weaned to the dry grain mixture.

the calves raised according to the New Jersey and
I. S. 0. systems were subject to a "dry cough" while those
raised by the check system were unaffected.

the cough was followed by pneumonia in case of animals
lo. 24 and 162 raised on the I. S. 0. system and animal 'No.
163 on the lew Jersey system. i‘wo of the three animals, No.
162 and 163, died as a result of pneMonia.

Icet'of the calves used in this investigation, re-
gardless of the ration fed, were affected by a swelling of _
the Jaws. rhis condition also occured among the calves in
the Ii. 3. C. calf herd during the same period that it appeared
among the experimental calves. It was impossible to determine
the cause of this condition. i'he calves usually manifested
scours for two or three days following the disappearance of
the swelling. During the second 180 day period there was no
difference in the health of the rwo lots.

Appearance of the Animals

After the calves on the New Jersey and it. s. 0. systems

were weaned to the dry grain mixtures there was a period of

about 90 days when the animals had a rough coat of hair,

60
earried less‘flesh, and made less growth than animals in
Let I fed skim milk. However, at about 160 days of age
these calves also became smooth in the hair coat, took on
more flesh, and grew at a faster rate so that by 360 days
of age there was no apparent difference between the animals
of the three lots in these respects.

Ant-a1 No. 131 of the check lot became masculine in
appearance or became coarse about the neck and withers and
developed a high tail head and a coarse coat of hair.
lstral Periods

three of the animals on the experiment, Ho. 24 of
Inst III and 131 and 181 of Let I, had estral periods pre-
vious to one year of age. Animal 131 of Let I developed
cystic ovaries following the first estralflperiod.

Peed Consumm

During the first half of the experiment there was con-
siderable difference in thefeed intake between the three lots
of calves.

Ehe individual feed records are shown in Tables I to 11:.
inclusive. fable XIII is a summary of the individual feed re-
ccrds. It shows that the calves in check lot consumed 289.!
pounds of mole milk, 2,156.9 pounds of skim milk, 336 pounds
of grain, and 455.4 pounds of hay.

' Considerable difficulty was encountered in getting the
calves of the H. 3. 0. lot to eat their grain mixture. this
as due to the fineness of the mixture and the stickiness of
the skim milk powder when wet.

the calves in the New Jersey Lot cmsumed 149 pounds of
whole milk, 438.? pounds of grain and 647.8 pounds of hay.

61
Let III or the It. 3. C. group consumed 272.3 pounds of whole
milk, 404.4 poundsqof grain and 533.. pounds of hay.
£212.!

while the calves were young they were watered twice
daily. gihey were watered three times daily from about 80 te
90 days of age after which they were grouped according to lots
and placed in larger pens where they had free acces to nter.
Photogram

Photographs were taken as soon after birth as possible,
at 180 days of age, and as near as possible to the time of re-
porting the results. !!he pictures, therefore, do not show the
shaggy appearance and emaciated condition of the animals which
were mentioned under Appearance of Animals. Plates 1 to 3 show
the calves of the check I.ct as they appeared at birth, plates
16 to 20 as they appeared at 180 days and 29 to 33 as they
appeared at the end of the'experiment.

{the appearance of the calves in the new Jersey Lot, at
birth, is shown in plates 6 to 10, at 180 days in plates 21 to
24 and at the end of the experiment in plates 34 to 36.

the calves in the H. S. 0. Lot appeared at birth, as
they are shown in plates 11 to 13, at 180 days plates 26 te
20, and at the end of the experiment, plates 37 to 40.

62
DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

growth
The calves in Let I which received whole milk until

thirty days of age and skim milk to 180 days of age supple-
mented with a grain mixture containing equal parts of whole
corn, whole oats, linseed oil meal, and wheat bran, made an
average daily gain of 1.52 pounds during the first 180 day
period, and 1.35 pounds per day during the second 180 day
period. While the calves fed according to the New Jersey
system which received whole milk for thirty days, then weaned
to a dry grain mixture made an average daily gain of 1.15
pounds during the first 160 day period, and 1.50 pounds per
day during the second 180 day period. The calves fed accord-
ing to the ii. 3. 0. system, which received whole milk to forty-
five days of age and at that time weaned to a dry grain mixture
averaged 1.19 pounds per day for the first 180 day period, and
1.46 pounds during the second 180 day period.

During the first 180 day period the calves in the Check
Inet gained on an average of 67 pounds more per animal than the
animals of the New Jersey system and 60 pounds more than those
of the it. S. 0. system.

The slonr rate of gain made by the calves fed according.
to the New Jersey and H. S. 0. system was probably due to the
lack of feed intake after changing the calves from milk to the
dry grain mixtures. For a period of ten days to two weeks

following this change they did not readily eat the grain mixtures.

a

 

 

63

During the second 180 day period, although they were
fed liberally, the animals in.not I gained less than during
the first period. This indicated that a greater percentage
ef the growth impulse was used during the first period corn-
sequently there was less remaining to be used during the
second period.

The feed consumption of the calves in the three lots
was approximately equal during the second period as shown in
Table XXIIII. However, during this period the animals on the
New Jersey system gained 27 pounds each and those of the
I. 3. 0. Lot gained 20 pounds more per calf than those of the
checkinta Thegreater growth of the calves fed according to
the New Jersey and H. S. 0. systems during the second 180 day
period may have been due to the presence of a greater per-
centage of growth impulse. The results of Osborne, Thompkins,
waters, and lckles showed that animals stunted during the
growing period.have the ability to reach normal size if fed
liberally before the growth impulse has died.

'fhe results shawthat during the second period the
animals raised according to the New Jersey and l. s. 0. systems
made a greater gain per unit intake of feed than the animals
in Let I. Thompson.and co-workers and Osborne and.Hende1 found
that following a period of suppressed growth rats made greater
gains per unit of food intake.

Mt at Withers. The calves in Let I gained 29.7 ems.
in height at withers from birth.to 180 days of age. During the
same time the calves raised according to the New Jersey system

gained 24 cms. and the calves in Lot III gained 26.11 ems. These

64

figures show that the gains in height at withers of Let I
surpassed those made by Lots II and III.

At 360 days of age the calves in Let I were approximately
113.4 cms. at height at withers, Lot II was 112.3 cms., and Lot
III was 112.4 cms. in height. This represents a gain of 14 cms.,
I 17.5 cms., and 15.2 cms., respectively, for the animals in
Lots 1, II and III for the second 180 day period.
' The results from the standpoint: of growth as measured
in body weight and height at withers indicate that growth ims
pulse is not easily destroyed but tends to persist for a
relatively long period of time.
Peed Consumption

There was considerable difference in the feed intake of
the three lots of calves during the first period as shown in
Table XXXIII. During the first period.Lot I consumed on an
average of about 2,200 pounds of skim milk, 230 pounds of whole
milk, 335 pounds of grain and 456 pounds of hay. In comparing
the feed consumed by the calves in.Let II with that consumed
by those of Let I it was found that Lot II consumed about 100
pounds less whole milk but 100 pounds more grain and 90 pounds
more hay than.the animals in.Lot I.

When the animals in Lot II were 30 to 40 days of age
and those of Lot III were 45 days of age they did not consume
enough total digestible nutrients, according to the Harrison
Standard, to maintain body weight as shown in TablesVI to XIV.
Considerable difficulty was encountered in.getting the calves
of’Lots II and III to eat the grain mixture immediately after

65
weaning from whole milk. This was especially pronounced
among the calves in Let III. Both grain mixtures were fine
in texture. The grain mixture fed to the calves in Lot III
was the finest and would become sticky and pasty upon eating.
This was due to the presence of skim milk powder in the
mixture and also due to the fineness of the mixture. These
two factors may have been responsible for the small feed con-
sumption.

During the second 180 day period there was approximately
no difference in the total amount of feed consumed by the three
lots of animals as shown in Table XXIIII.

Health and Appearance of the Animals

' 1 During the first 180 days of the experiment the calves
in Let I were decidedly healthier than the calves in either of
the other two lots. The calves in Lots II and III were subJect
to secure and had a chronic "dry cough”. This was probably due
to the fineness of the grain mixture since it was more pro-
nounced among the calves in Lot III that received the more

. finely ground grain mixture. It was present to a less extent
in Let II where a slightly coarser mixture was fed and was en-
tirely absent from Let I where whole grains were fed.

Investigators at the New Jersey Experiment Station re-
ported similar results with calves fed the New Jersey Grain
Iixture. They attributed this condition to the irritation
caused by inhaling the fine particles of grain.

The cough was followed by pneumonia in case of animals

No. 163 of Lot II and animals He. 24 and 162 of Lost III. Two

a

 

65
of these animals, No. 162 and 163 died as the result of
pneumonia. However, the cause of pneumonia among these
calves was not definitely known.

Following the weaning of the calves to the dry grams
mixtures, the calves in Lots II and III had a rough coat of
their, carried less flesh, and made less growmh than animals
in.Lot I. At about 130 to 150 days of age the calves in
Beta II and III improved in the hair coat, and begun to grow
at a faster rate, so that by 360 days of age there was very
little difference between the animals of the threelots in
these respects. During this early period the calves were
especially subject to secure indicating that the feeds were
probably responsible for'this condition. Schalk and co-
workers of the North Dakota Experiment Station reported that
the digestive system of calves at 30 or even 50 days of age
was not sufficiently developed to digest dry grain mixtures.
They found that the temperature of the liquids fed1Ias also
an.important factor in causing the "lips" of the esophageal
groove to close. When dry feeds or cold liquids were fed
the groove did not close and thus permitted the feed to enter
the rumen where fermentation took place and caused digestive
troubles.

These results are in accordance with many workers who
also showed that young calves fed a dry grain.mixture always
pass through the same stages of appearance, delayed growth,
and finally an accelerated rate of growth so that by one year
of age or at most by the first calving date they are normal

or above for the breed.

 

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_ 67

Iater Consumm

The animals did not have free access to water until
they were about 150 days of age. This may have been re-
sponsible for the difficulty in.getting the calves in.Lots
II and III to eat the dry grain mixtures. Bender of the
New Jersey'Dxperiment Station reported better results when
calves fed the New Jersey dry grain mixture had free access

to water at all times.

68
SUMMARY

1. The calves weaned from whole milk to a dry grain
mixture at an early age were especially subject to secure.

2. The fineness of the dry grain mixture may be re-
sponeible for the "dry cough" prevalent among calves fed
such a ration. . _

3. The animals in the Check Lot made greater gains
and were healthier throughout the experiment than the animals
in either of the other two lots. This was especially notice-
able during the first 160 day period.

4. The calves in the New Jersey and II. S. '0. lots
were stunted during the first 180 day period but they re-
covered and showed a greater rate of growth during the second
180 day period than the calves in the Check Iact. However, at
360 days of age the animals in the Check Lot were but slightly
superior in size to those in th. other two Lots. The New
Jersey and M. S. 0. lots were unable to overcome the lead
gained by the Check Dot during the first 180 days.

6. There was approximately no difference in the size
of the animals raised according to the New Jersey and II. S. C.
systems. 1

6. The animals raised according to the New Jersey

system were healthier than those raised by the H. S. 0. system.

5.

5.

6.

7.

69

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me Relative Values of Certain Proteins and Protein
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Jour. Biol. Chm. Vol. 31 (1917) p 69.

Hart, 3. B., Nelson, v. s. and Pita, w.

Synthetic Capacity of the Mammary Gland. I Can This
Gland synthesise Lysine?

Jour. Biol. chem. Vol. so (1918) pp 291-307.
Osborne, 2. s. and Mendel, 1.. B.

The Amine Acid Minimum for Maintenance and Growth as
hemplified by Further Experiments with Lysine and Tryptophane.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 23 (1916) pp 1-12.

Moods, 311a. .

Rats - Some Observations Upon the Rate of Cystine and Certain
Mineral Elements in Nutrition.

sour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 65 (1925) pp 57-51.

shaman, H. C. and Merrill, A. T.

Cystine in the Nutrition of the Growing Rat.

Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 63 (1926) pp 331-337.

. ..
O 0
e
C O
O
O
' 7
O O
O
s
C 4 a
0
fi

50o

61.

64.

66.

. 77
Lewis, M. B.
The Metabolism of Sulphur II. The Influence of Small
Amounts of Cystine 'on the Balance of Nitrogen in Dogs
Maintained on a Low Protein Diet.
Jour. Biol. Chem. 31 (1917) pp 363-370.
Lewis, N. B. j '
The Nutrition of Sulphur. III The Relation Between the
Cystine Content of Proteins and Their Efficiency in
The Maintenance of Nitrogenous Equinbriwm in Dogs.
Jour. Bio1. Chem. Vol. 42 (1920) pp 289-296.
Ackroyd, Harold and Hopkins, P. G.
Feeding Experiments with Deficiencies in the Amino Acid
Supplyz- Arginine and Histidine as Possible Precursors of
Purines. '
Biochem. Jour. Vol. 10 (1916) pp 661-676.
Harrow, BenJiman and Sherwin, C. P.
Synthesis of Amino Acids in the Animal Body. 17 synthesis
or Histidine.
Jour. Biol. Chem. 791. 70 (1926) pp 683-696.
Rose, 3. C. and Cox, G. J.‘- A
The Relation of Arginine and Histidine to Growth
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 61 (1924) pp 747-773.
Rose, w. o. and Cook, 1:. c. ‘
The Relation of Histidine and Arginine to Creative
and Purine Metabolism.
Sure, B.
Amino Acids in Nutrition. mi Proline is Indispensable
for Growth.

Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 69 (1924) pp 677-686.

66.

67o

70e

71o

72o

. ‘ 78
Sherman, H. C.

Chemistry of Food and Nutrition (Third Edition).
Macmillan Company (1928) p '79.

Lighthou, H. D. and Kenyon, M. B.

feeding Experiments with a Diet Low in Lyros ine.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 80 (1928) pp 149-163.

Sure, B. ' -

Amino Acids in Nutrition. I Studies of Praline: Is
Prolins a Growth-Limiting Factor in Araohin (Globulin
from the Plant)?

Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 43 (1920) pp 445-455.

Henry, N. A. and M,crrison,AP. B.

reeds and Peeding (Eighteenth Edition)
Mona-Morrison Company (1923)

(a) pp 134-139. (b) p 747. ((0) p 17. (C) PD 82-83.
Bokles, c. B., Gulliokson, r. w. and Neal, N. M. '
Maintenance. Requirement for Calves Tested by The

Live Weighthethod

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 10 (1927) pp 431-439.

reteh, J. B.~and Lush). a. a. '

An Interpretation of The reading Standards ror
Growing Dairy Cattle.

Jour. Dairy Sci. 701. 14 (1931) p 116.

Davenport, I: .

MOsults of An Attempt to Grow Cattle Without Course reeds.

111. Exp. Stle Bul. ‘6 (1.897) p 362.

73.

74o

75o

76.

77.

78.

79o

80o

79

Reed, 0. B. and Huffman, C. F.

Heavy Feeding of Concentrates Without the Proper
Quality of doughages Detrimental to the Animal.
Michigan Quarterly Bul. e (1926) pp 118-122.
Curtis, C. F.

Restricted Ration‘) for Calves.

Self-Feeders for Calves.

Iowa Sta. Rspt. 1920 p 27.

McCandliah, A. C.

Studies in Growth and Nutrit in of Dairy Ca1ves..
VI The Addition of Ray and Grain to a Milk Ration for Calves.
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 6 (1923) pp347-372.

Olsen, T. M.~ |

Self Feeders in Dairy Calf Feeding.

8. M. Exp. Sta. Bul. 36 (1929)

Martin, I. O. and Weymouth, F. 3.

Elements of Physiology

Lea and Febiger (1928) p 230.

Salmon, W. D. and Baton, N. H.

lifect of Bone Meal on Growth of Dairy Heifers.
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 8 (1926) p 312.

Reed, 0. s. and Huffman, c. r.

The Results of a Five Year Mineral Feeding
Investigation with Dairy Cattle.

Mich. nxp. Sta. Technical Bul. 106 (1930).

Reed, 0. B. and Huffman, C. F.

Feeding Minerals to Dairy Cattle

Mich. bxp. Sta. Cir. Cul. 95 (1926) pp 5-8.

81o

33.

I4.

87.

80

Iilliman, J. J.

The Function of Vitamins in Metabolism of Solerotinia
Cinerea.

Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. Vol. 42 (1920) p 649
Burrows, m. r. and Jorstad, 1.. a.

Sources of Vitamin A in Nature.)

An. Jour. Phys. vol. 77 (1926) p as.

MoCollum, s. v. and Simmonds, wine.

The lower Knowledge 61 Nutrition (Fourth Bdit ion)
MacMillan coupon (1929) pp 168-192.

(a) pp ass-sol '

Koessler, K. 1., Maurer, S. and Laughlin, R.

The Relation of Anemia, Primary and Secondary, to
Vitamin A' Deficiency.

Jour. Am. Med. Assoc. Vol. 87 (1926) p 476.
Falconer, F. H. D

Blood Counts in Vitamin A Deficiency Disease.

Am. Jour. Physiol. Vol. 76 (1926) p 146.
Steamers, A. D.

On the Effect of Deficiency of Vitamin A on the
mood Platlet Count in Rats.

Brit. Jour. Exp. Path. Vol. 6 (1926) pp 312, 313.
Abstract Exp. Sta. Rec. Vol. 66 (1920) p 294.
Osborne, 2. B.'and Mendel, 1.. B. ‘

The Incidence of Phosphatic Urinary Calculi in Rats
Fed on Esperimental Rations.

Jour. Am. Med. Assoc. Vol. 69 (1917) p 32.

Van 10.01.“, 3e 0e

Vitamin A Deficiency and Calcification of the

90.

91.

98o

94o

81
Fpithelium of the Kidneys.

Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 79 (1928) pp 461-463.

Beach. J. B.

“Vitamin A" Deficiency in Poultry.

Science Vol. 68 (1923) p 542.

Sherman, H. c. and Burtis, a. 9.

Vitamin A) Deficiency and Infect ion.

Proc. Soc. Exper. Bul. and Med. Vol. 26 (1928) p 649.
Sherman, H. C. and MacLead, F. L. A

The Relation of Vitamin A to Growth, and Longevity.
Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. Vol. 47 (1926) pp 1668-1662.
Steenbock, H and Bontwell, P. I.

Fat-Soluble vitamin. 111 The Comparative Nutritive
Value of White and Tallow Maize.

Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 41 (1920) pp 81-96.

Steenbock, H. and Cross, 3. G. ‘

Fat-Soluble Vitamin IV. The Fat-Soluhh Vitamin Content
of Green Plant Tissue Together with Some Observations
on Their Water-Soluble Vitamin Content.

Jour. Biol. Chem. 41 (1920) p 149.

Jones, I. B., Ickles, c. H. and Palmer, 1.. s.

The Role of Vitamin A in the Nutrition of Calves.
so... Dairy Sci. Vol. 9 (1926) pp 119-159.

son... 9. 11., Williams, v. 1., Wilbur, .1. w.. Palmer, 1.. 3.,
and Harsaw, H. )1.

Yeast as a Supplementary Feed for Calves.

Jour. DairyfiSci. Vol. 7 (1924) PP 647-664.

96.

97.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

62

Bckles, C. H. and Williams, V. M.-

Yeast as a Supplementary Feed for Lactating Cows.
Jour. Dairy'Soi. Vol. 8 (1926) PP 89-93.

Bechdel, s. I. A

Vitamin B'Requirement of Dairy Calves.

Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 196 (1926) p 19.

Bechdel, 9.1., Eckles, c. a. and Palmsr, 1.. s. .

The Vitamin B Requirement of the Calf.

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 9 (1926) p 409.

Bechdel, s. I. '

The Vitamin B Requirement of the Calf.

Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 204 (1926) pp 18-21.

mohdel, S. 1., Honeywell, H. B., Dutoher, R. A., and
Knutsen, M. H. ' ' .
Synthesis of Vitamin B by Bacteria in The Rumen of Cattle.
Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 215 (1927) p 17.

Honeywell, Edna and Steenbooka.

The synthesis of Vitamin a by Germination.

Am. Jour. Phys. Vol. 70 (1924) p 322.

Thurston, L. M., Eokles, C. H. and Palmer, L. S.

The Role of the Antisoorbutio Vitamin in The Nutrition
of Calves.

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 9 (1926) pp 37-49.

Thurston, 1.. "11., PalmerpL. s. and Eokles, c. 9.
Further Studies of the Role of Vitamin c in the
Nutrition of Calves. '

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 12 (1929) p. 394-404.

104 .

106.

106.

107.

100.

83
Hart, 3. B., Steenbock, H., Hoppert, C. A. and
Humphrey, G. C.
The Comparative Efficiency of Dry and Green Alfalfa
in Maintaining Calcium and Phosphorous Equilibrium
in Milking Cows.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 63 (1928) pp 21-30.
Russel, W. C. 1
Effect of The During Process Upon the Vitamin A and D
Content of Alfalfa.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 63 (1922) p 289.
Steenbock, H., Hart, 3. B., Blvehjem, C. A., Klutsen,
S. W. F. and Busing, B. M.
The ‘Anti-Raohitio Properties of Hays as Related to
Climatic Conditions with Some Observations on the
Bffect of Irradiation with Ultra Violet Light.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 66 (1926) pp 425-440.
Hart, 2. B., Steenbock, rent, a. 3., and Humphrey, 9.0.
A Study of the Influence of Hays Cured with Various Bx-
posures to Sunlight on th. Calcium Metabolism of Milking
Cows. '
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 84 (1928) p 367.
a... and Koch. '
Hand. (1. allg. u. d. path. anAt. d. Kindeeol Ideal
(1914) i 2 abst. 666. ‘
Citeiby MoCollum, s. v. and Simmonds, Mina.
The Newer mowledge of Nutrition (Fourth Edition)
Macmillan Company (1919) p 274.

J

6

IO’e

110.

111.

112e

113.

114.

hlkenheim, 0.

Quart: Lamp Irradiation of Cows.
Klinisohe Wochenschrift, Berlin‘Vol. 6 (1926) p 2071.
Abst. Jour. A. M. A. Vol. 89 (1927) p 352.
Iindans, and Hess.
Nochr. Ges. Wiss. Gottengen, Math. Physik. Klasse
(1926) p 185.

Cited byx-Mboollum, E. V. and Simmonds, Nine.

The Newer.Knowlodge of’Nutrition ( Fourth Edition)
Macmillan.Company (1929) p 340.

Resenheim. 0. and Webster; T. A.

The Parent Substance of Vitamin D.

Biochem. Jour. 7.1. 21 (1927) p 299.

Bechdel, s. I. and Hill; 0. .1.
The Deposition of Minerals in.the Bones of Calves de
Rsohitic and Anti-Raohitic Rations.

Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 268 (1930) p 26.

Steenbock, H. and Black, A. '

The Induction of Growth-Promoting and Calcifying
Properties in.a dation.by'Exposure to Ultra Violet Light.
Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 61 (1924) p 406.

Gulliokson, r. w. and an... e. a.

sh. Relation of Sunlight to ma. Growth and Development
of Calves. q

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 10 (1927) pp 87-94.

~

e
C
C
. 7
, . 1 m
0 C -

7
e
t
0
t

.....
- - o
e

116.

116.

117.

118.

119e

120e

121a

123.

185.

124.

65

Sunlight in Relation to the Growth of Calves.
Kansas Exp. Sta. Rept. (1924-26) pp 96-96.
Sunlight in Relation to the Growth of Calves.
ran... Exp. Sta. Rpt. (1927029) p 132.

Effect of Sunshine on the Growth of Dairy Calves.
South Dakota Exp. Sta. Annual Rept. (19:37-28) pp 13,14.
Huffman, c. r. ' '
Unpublished work.

Schalk, A. F. and Amadon, R. S.

Physiology of The Ruminant Stomach ( Bovine).
North Dakota Exp. Sta. 3111.216 (1928) pp 30-33.
Otis, b. s. ' ' ' '

Bxperiments with Hand-Fed Calves.

Kansas Exp. Sta. Bul. 126 (1904) p 163.

Merrison, F. B., Humphrey, 0. C. and Huloe, R. S.
New Pages in Farming.

Wisconsin Exp. Sta. Bul. 339 (1922) PP 113,114.
Peterson, W. GJR. '

Report in Calf-Feeding Experiment Conducted at the
College Fan, Kilmarnooh {1916-1917)

west of Soot. Agr. Col. Bul. 84 (1918) pp 13-23.
Bckles, 0. H. and Gullickson, T. I. A

Condensed and Powdered Buttermilk for Dairy Calves.
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 7 (1924) pp 213-221.
Ellington, E; v. and Knott, J. c.

Powdered Buttermilk and Semi-Solid Buttermilk

For Dairy Calves.

lash. Exp. Sta. ml. 208 (1926) pp 18-20.

~.

 

185e

126.

127.

.128e

129.

130.

131.

132.

86

Woodward, T. B.

Feeding Sour Milk to Young Calves.

Hoards Dairymen, Vol. 49 (1916) pp 248-266.

Woodward, T. s. and Lee, Jr., J. c.

Feeding Blackstrap Molasses to Young Calves.

La. Exp. Sta. Bul. 104 (1908) pp 3-38.

Mead, s. w., Regan, williaa, M., and Bartlett, J. N.

A study of the Factors Affecting the Gran th of Daily Heifers.
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 7 (1924) p 440.

Conrad, H. ~ .

Studies and Experiments with Molasses as a Feed, with
Special Consideration of the Effect of the Strontium
Content of Molasses.

Inoug. Diss. Born. (1909) p 36.

Brintnall, Earle ‘

Dairy calves, Consumtion of Food and Grain by Different
Breeds.

Miss. ”xp. Sta. Bul. 200 (1921) p 1-16.

Galloway, s. c. ‘

Feeding Blackstrap Molasses to Young Calves.

La. Exp. Sta. Bul. 180 (1921) pp 1-22.

Schaars, M. A. -

Buttemilh Drying Proves Profitable For Many Creameries.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 406 (1929) DP 12-14.

Eokles, C. IR. and Cullickson,‘T. W.

Powdered Skimmilk for Calf Feeding

Hoards Dairyman Vol. 66 (1923) pp 154, 166.

134.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

87

Lindsey, J. B. and Archibald, J. G.

Skim Milk-Powder in the Roaring of .Young Calves.
Mass. Exp. Sta. Bul. 250 (1925) p 147.

.Krauss, W. E. and Crawford, 0. H.

Powdered Skimmilk as a Feed for Dairy Calves.
ohio Exp.”Sta. Bi-Mo. Bul. 14 (1929) pp 49-55.
Kruass, 17.8. and Crawford, 5. H. ’

Powdered Skimmilk as a Feed for Dairy Calves.
Ohio Sta. Bi-Mo. 137 (1929) p 49.

Rnppl, I. W. and Bohstedt, G.

Calves Grow Well on Dried Skimmilk.

vie. Exp. Sta. Bul. 41o (195m p 81.

Morrison, P. B. and Rupel, I. W.

nations for Dairy Calves.

Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 388 (1925) p 111.
Culliokson, r. w. '

Raising The Dairy Calf When Whole Milk is Sold.
Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91 (1924)

Bechdel, 3.1. .

lxperiments with Shinilk Powder in The Ration
of Dairy Calves.

Penn. rxp. Sta. Bul. 215 (1927) p 19.
Williams, 1. s. and Boondol, s. I.

The Use of skimmilk Powder inThe Rations of Dairy Calves.
Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 243 (1929) p 16.

savage, B. S. and Tailby Jr., C. W.
Substitutes for Ski-m Milk in Raising Calves.
Cornell Exp. Sta: Bul. 269 (1909).

148.

145.

144.

146.

145e

147.

148.

a 149.

Michele, J.

Rolled Cats as a Substitute for Milk for Calf Feeding.
No. Carolina Exp. Sta. Bul. 199 (1908) pp 12-15.
Hayward, Harry ‘

The Hearing of Calves on Milk Substitutes

Ponn. Exp. Sta. Bul. (1901-2) 50.

Maynard, 1.. A. and Norris, 1.. o.

A Systwi or Rearing Dairy Calves With Limited Use of Milk.
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 6 (1925) pp 483-499.
Davis, a. N."and Cunningham, W.S.

Raising Calves on the Minimum Amount of Milk.
Ariacna JSap. Sta. Bul. 111 (1925) pp 93-101.
Morrison, F. B. and Rupel, I. W.

Rations For Dairy Calves.

Wis. 1fixp. Sta. Bul. 396 (1927) p 37.

Rupel, l. W. -

RaisingThe Dairy Calf.

Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 404 (1929).

Lindsey, J. B. and Archibald, J. 9.

Milk Substitutes in The Rearing of Young Calves.
Mass. 'Exp. Sta. Bul. 223 (1926)

Lindsey, J.'B. and Archibald, J. e.

mi. Substitutes for Calves.

Mass. 'sxp. Sta. 391 255 (1929)

.1 .1

 

160.

151.

153e

133.

1046

165.

166.

157e

89

Hunaiker, 0. F. and Caldwell, R. E.

Skim Milk and Milk Substitutes for Calf Feeding.
Ind. Exp. Sta. Bu1.'193 (1915). '
Spitser, Geo. and Carr, 2. H.

The Efficiency of Milk Substitutes in Calf Feeding
Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 3 (1920) p. 316.

Spitaer, Ge0. and Carr, R. H.

m. Efficiency of Milk Substitutes in Calf Feeding.
Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 245 (1920)

Solun . '

Much. Agron. th. ( Jour. Lundev.Wiss)

a (1925) No. 19 pp 786-804.

Abstraotx-Exp. Sta. Rec. Vol. 66, p 674 (1926)
Fraser, W. J. and Brand, R. B.

Milk Required To Raise a Dairy Calf.

111. sxp. Sta. Bul. 154 (1913) pp 437-468.

Ickles, 0.11. and Culliokson, 'r. w.

Raising The Daily Calf When Whole Milk is Sold.
Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 215 (1924). ‘

Morrison, F. B., Julce, 4.8. and Humphrey, G. C.

Economical fictions For Dairy Calves.

vie. Sta. Bul. 539 (1922) p 133.

Crawford, o. s. andkrauos, w. a.

Row Long Should Holstein Calves Receive Milk?
chie:sxp.‘9ta. BidMo. Bul. 14o (1950) pp 195-197.

168.

169.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

163.

90

Meter, J. P. and Bliing, E. C.

The Value of Fish Meal as 6 Supplementary Feed for
Dgiry Calves.

Se. Carolina Exp. Sta. Rept. (1930) p 52.

Band, J. n. ' A '

November on the Fan. Calf Raaring.

Ministry of Agr. Jour. Vol. 36 (1928) p 768.
Ragsdale, A. C. and Turner, C. W.

The Minimum Milk Requirement For Calf Raising.
Jour. Agr. Res. Vol. 26 (1923) pp 437, 446.
Render, 5. B. and Bartlett, J. w.

A Study of The Factors Affecting the Growth

of Dairy Heifers.

Jour. Dairy Sci. Vol. 12 (1929) pp 37-48.

Bender, 9. B.

me Minimum Milk Required for Raising Dairy Calves.
New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept. (1926) pp 217-219.
Bartlett, J. W.

The Minimum Milk Required for Raising Dairy Calves.
New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept. (1926) p 136.

Bender, C. B. °

The Minimm Milk Requirement fer Raising Dairy Calves.
New Jersey 1"up. Sta. Rept. (1927 ) pp 101-103.
Bender, C. B. '

Rations For Dairy Heifers During Winter Months.
New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept. (1928) p 109.

(a) p 119 (b) p 115.

166e

157a

168.

159e

170.

91

Bender, C. B. and Perry, E. J.

The New Jersey Dry-Fad Calf Mixture

New Jersey'Exp. Sta. Bul. 73 (1929).

Cains, c. B.

Raising Daily Calves.

Utah Exp. Sta. Cir. 87 (1950)

Caldwell, R. B.

A Further Study of Milk SubstitutesMaterials
inFeeding Dairy Calves.

Jour. Dairy sci. Vol. 2 (1919) p 312.

Morris, Leo Chandler

The Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in
The Intestinal Tract of Calves Fed Whole Milk or
Cereal Cruel. * ‘

Cornell. Memoir 7.1. so (1925 ).

Shaw, R. H., Woodward, e. r.'and Norton, 2. r.
Digestion of Starch By the Young Calf.

Jour. Agr. Red. Vol. 12 (1912) pp 676-679.

APPENDIX

92

TABLE A showing animals used in this experiment.

 

    

     

 

Let I
iff- fte Above Birth Above
mal Breed . of Birth Normal Below Height Formal Below
No. Birth Withers Height Nomi
e e .e
97 Jersey 12-4-29 66 66 O 69.0 66.1 2.9
66 Jersey 12-27-29 64 66 -1 67.0 66.1 .9
131 Ayrshire 11-22-29 73 69 4 73.0
160 Holstein 1-4-30 90 90 O 74.6 71.8 2.7
181 Holstein 4-10-30 86 9O -4 74.0 71.8 8.2
Total 356' m
Average per chi-.1 71.6 71.6
Lot 11
9's h mernsey 12-7-29 71 69.7
90 Jersey $1.30 55 55 1 57e0 66.1 0.9
163‘ Holstein 34-30 90 9C 0 73.0 71.6 1.2
164 Holstein 3-4-30 100 90 10 75.0 71.8 3.2
Total 166 36976
Average per animal 81 71.6
' Died during experiment.
Lot 111
24 Guernsey 4-7-30 66 70.0
69 Jersey 1-24-30 63 66 -3 66.0 66.1 -.1
161 Holstein 2-3-30 84 90 -6 73.0 71.6 1.2
1620 Holstein 2-27-30 86 9O -4 71.3 71.8 -.6
ibtal 3663'
Average per animal 77.2 71.3

2 Mod during experiment.

 

 

 

 

     
   
   
  
   
   
   
  

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151 Aynhiro 800 1,520
160 Hal-tain 855 1,626
191 Hal-tain 819 1 605
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166 301-66111 942.0 1 519
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161 30159011: 762 1,676
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86 Jereey 66 507 255 1.41 695 186 1.05
151 ”1‘5th 73 358 285 1.58 ‘ 821 253 1.45
150 80151501! 90 405 315 1.76 679 273 1.52
181 80155018 85 578 292 1.58 m 252 1.45
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1.68 301550111 88 302 214 1.19 590 288 1.50
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105 111
84 Guernsey 85 270 205 1.14 555 255 1.87
99 Jersey 52 257 185 1.05 666 227 . 1.26
159 301550111 89 538 237 1.52 597 851 1.45
181 80155013 84 512 228 1.27 612 500 1.57
162“ Holetein 96
mot-,1 m“ 1:155 '53 W 17563
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““81 'Oe 57o ‘5 Birth
Let I. or me check Let

PLAID II

 

Animal lo. 88. 1'! Birth
1.91 I. or Ihe Check Lot

1‘8

PLAID III

 

Animal [Ce 131m ‘5 Birth
not I. or me Check not

2511! IV

 

Animal lb. 160. At Birth
not I, or lhe Check Let

145

mg“

    

.' {55‘1- >

finial” no. 181. “-31%“-
not I, or the Check not

   

 

“in“ n00 9'8 Bull. ‘5 Birth.
not 11 lid According to the
New Jersey system.

14‘

 

”“81 ’0e ’0e ‘8 313811.
not 11 led According to
the Jew Jersey system.

' mu VIII '

 

 

‘31.“ '0e 168. ‘5 niflh.
net 11 led According te
the lee Jersey system.

145 ’

- \ 13:. :v \ a. r." ‘

 

n..“16£.’
Lot II Fed According to
the New Jersey System.

PLAEE X

 

m '00 166. ‘5 31m.
Lot II led According to
the new Jersey SYatom.

146

 

 

Animal lo. 2.. H mm.
not III lid According to
th. lo Se 0e S’I‘OI.

mu XII

   

5111.81 lo. 89. A‘ Birth.
Let III led According to
th. I. Se Ce System.

PLAID XIII

 

Animal lo. 159. At Birth.
tot III led According to .
th. I. So Ge 3’58“.

25113 XIV

’ Alli-(1. 16 . I n mm.
but III led According to
th. I. 3e 0e 3’85051.

 

148

PLAIIXV

 

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Allin]. lo. 168. At Birth.

130“ III red According to
the I. s. 0. System.

PM!!! HI

so :00 120 MOA

’ 1mm in. 1.87. “Vino my. '
of Age .
hot I, or The Choc]: Lot.

 

149

PLAID XVII

 

Animal lo. as at 100 my. .1 13.. 7
hot I. or the check Lot.

3511] 17111

 

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Animl lo. 131 at 180 Days of Age
not I. or rho Check Let.

 

150

mu XII

 

Anincl lo. 160 at 180 Days of Age.
lot I. or the check Iot-

man

‘59»- -—:

 

Anion lo. 181 at 180 Days of Age.
not I. or the Check not.

 

 

Animal No. 9': Ball at 180 Days of Ag. '
Lot 11 red According to the N. J. system.

PLAEI XXII

 

Animal no. 90 at 180 Days 01 A30
not II rad According to the H. J. Systen.

152

"A“ YYTTT
20 40160-80 IOO 120 I40 160 I80 2
$

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Annual No.‘ 1645““ 180 Days of Ash.
not II Fed According to the N. J. sysfom.

ELAEI XXIV

 

 

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Animal lo. 166 ct 180 Day: or Ago.
not II red According to tth.J. system.

153

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Annual lo. 24 at 180 My: of As.
not III I“ According to tho
I. s. c. sylt’m!

'mm: m:

 

Animal No. 89 at 180 Days .01 A80. .,
50% III ’0‘ According.“ th.
I. 30 Go System.

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15¢

PLAEE XXVII

 

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Animal lo. 159 at 180 Days of Age
Lot III red Accorning to tho
I. 80-00 3yat.m~

‘ ELLE! XXVIII

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Animal lo. 161 at 180 Days of Age
Bot III 19! According to tho
I. 3. 0. system.

    

165

PLATE XXII

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Animal Io. 8'! at fill Days of Ag.
hot I, or 611ch Lot.

PLATE!!!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Aninnl lo. 88 at 489 Days of A30
not I, or check Lot.

‘ 156

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Animal Io. 151 ct 588 Days of Ago.
not I. or chock not.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PSAII XXIII
mm “" *./ no "50 200 220 240 2
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Animal lo. 160 at 480 Days of Ago
hot I, or Chock Lot

157

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2111! XXXIII
:6 7 720 _ 746‘ -60 60 ioo 120 we w of It} 772907 :go .‘40 2:10
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120

 

 

 

 

Animal lo. 101 oi 884 days of Ago.
not I, or Chock not.

PLAII XXIIV

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Animal lo. 90 at 393 Days 01 Ago.
Lot II rod According to floJ. Syston.

 

158

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PLAT} XXIV
[—35 20 40 6f 3 V i m, _ V # :5 £20 2
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40 —‘ ‘
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): ‘ . -:!?E:fi‘553 E;t*f' 35—-

Animal lo. 164 at 421 Days of Ago
Lot II rod According to tho N.J.systom.

PLATE XXXVI

I60

 

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and; lo. 7155 at 392 Days at Ago.
Bot II Jed According to N.J. System.

159

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HEAT! XXXVII
20 40 60 80 100 '20 I40 11 O IQ -Ok €20 ”‘40
I60 . _?_I_—.— 7 ‘
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Animal lo. BA at 587 Days of Ago.
not III lid According to tho
I. So 0o System.

PLATE XXXVIII

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Animal lo. 89 st 460 Days of Ago.
not III rod According to tho
I. 8. 0. System.

160

 

 

 

 

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Animal lo. 159 at «3m; $733? ‘
Lot III red According to the It. s. c.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

systom
' PLAT! XI.
0 20 4O 60 BL; I09 lcu
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magi lo; 121* st 456 Days 7;: Igof
Lot In no According to the u. s. c.
Systom.

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