ABSTRACT

THE NEW JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF JAMAICA

By

Gloria Mary Smith

In 1966 the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-
ment agreed to a loan of £3.4 million to assist the Government of
Jamaica in financing the first phase of its education expansion program.
A major part of the loan was devoted to the construction and equipment
of 50 junior secondary schools, as the first step in a plan to provide
three years of secondary education for all Jamaicans aged 12-15. The
junior secondary school is an institutional innovation in Jamaica. In
place of the older grammar school function of providing academic educa-
tion for a select few, the junior secondary school is required to
accommodate a wide range of ability; it must perform a remedial function
as well as prepare some pupils for further schooling.

There is a polarization of opinion in Jamaica about the new
schools. Much of the opposition emanates from traditional conceptions
of academic secondary grammar school education, fears of lowered
standards, and the potential development of a comprehensive secondary
school system. Other Jamaicans support the comprehensive principle as
socially democratic. Despite the controversy, little is known of what
is actually happening within the junior secondary schools. This study
endeavors to provide information by describing schools as they attempt

to achieve their aims in their socio—cultural milieux.

2 Gloria Mary Smith

The descriptive method is used to explain the similarities and
differences in implementation of the official aims in four selected
schools in different areas: a rural agricultural area, a rural small
town, an urban depressed area, and a less depressed urban area.

Bereday's four steps were employed leading to a simultaneous comparison
of the four schools.

Data were gathered from the principals and teachers in struc—
tured interviews to discover their methods and difficulties. Principals,
teachers, Grade 9 pupils, school-leavers, parents and community leaders
were further asked to select the three aims (from ten) they considered
most important to the pupils in their community, giving reasons for
their choice.

Major findings:

1. The image of the academic grammar school as the ideal-type
secondary school tends to persist quite strongly among the
pupils of the junior secondary schools, their parents, and
members of their communities.

2. Nevertheless, with few exceptions the comprehensive principle
has been firmly established among the principals and teachers
of these schools, despite their own grammar school back-
grounds.

3. The school staffs have devised innovative programs to serve
their pupils' needs, indicating that the institution is
quite flexible. Vocational programs have been more parti-
cularized in rural than urban areas.

4. The home economics programs are performing an invaluable

6.

3 Gloria Mary Smith

function in contributing toward the improvement of home and
family life.

It seems fair to conclude that the junior secondary program,
through its social and practical emphasis, represents a
positive advance toward making secondary level education
more functional to Jamaica's national development.

A major concern is the future of the school-leaver, who

is too young to work. There is a recognized need to extend
the junior secondary school course to five years. However,
there are problems of inadequate space and teacher supply.
The present government of Jamaica apparently plans even-
tually to extend the junior secondary school program to
five years, but as part of a tripartite system. .A major
question remains. Will the junior secondary schools become
a "flexible pivot of transition" toward the comprehensive
system of secondary education envisaged by the previous
government, or will the grammar schools maintain their
prestigious academic orientation, relegating the junior
secondary schools permanently to the status of second-class

secondary schools?

THE NEW JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF JAMAICA

BY

Gloria Mary Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1973

K"
'\' J
‘11 .

DEDICATION

To all those educators and policy-makers
in Jamaica and elsewhere, who are striving
to extend educational opportunities to all

children as equitably as possible.

ii

a“!

'.C
c...

 

‘V
‘\i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her indebtedness to various
individuals and groups who have contributed in important ways to the
development of this study.

Sincerest appreciation is extended to the many members of the
academic staff of Michigan State University who, as a result of their
international experience, contributed many insights into other cultures
and the problems inherent in modernization.

To Dr. Carl H. Gross, Professor and Chairman of the Department
of Secondary Education and Curriculum in the College of Education, and
chairman of the doctoral guidance committee, I owe deepest gratitude
for his careful, meticulous guidance, friendly patience and encourage-
ment.

Very valuable assistance in the form of suggestions and crit-
icism.was provided by the members of the guidance committee: Dr. David
K. Heenan, Associate Director of the Institute for International Studies
in the College of Education; Dr. Iwao Ishino, Professor and Chairman of
the Department of Anthropology; and Dr. John Useem, Professor in the
Department of Sociology.

My gratitude is extended to many Jamaicans for their contribu-
tions of information, critical judgment and time which made this study
feasible. While it is not possible to mention each individually, the

following deserve special appreciation: the Minister of Education, the

iii

the Honorable Florizel Glasspole, for officially permitting the study
to proceed; the many officers of the Ministry of Education and other
governmental agencies who patiently provided information, in particular
Mr. Rene Daley and Mr. C. S. Edwards for their interest and guidance;
Dr. L. Reid of the Department of Education, University of the West
Indies, for helpful insights and guidance; the Honorable Edwin Allen,
M.P., former Minister of Education, for an informative interview on the
initiation and early development of the junior secondary schools.

My very deepest appreciation is due the informants associated
with the four junior secondary schools: the principals who received
the writer's intrusion into their busy schedules with professional
interest, efficiency and warm hospitality, and made it administratively
possible to gather the necessary data; the teachers who gave so willingly
of their time and experience to discuss various aspects of their work;
and those pupils, parents and community members who, when requested,
thoughtfully answered the writer's questions and candidly expressed their
views.

Finally, thanks are due my husband, Colin, for his continuous
support and encouragement.

Sincere appreciation is due Mrs. Laura Cochrane for her pro-
fessional competence and attention to detail in typing the manuscript,

and for her patience and cheerful good humor.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

THE NEW JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL . . . . . . . . . . . . l
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Early British Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Social Heritage of Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Activities of the Early Missionaries . . . . . . . . 6

Breakdown of the Institution of Marriage . . . . . . 7

Mixed Ethnic and Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . 9

Differing Ideas for the Education of Upper and
Lower Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

The Insecurity of an Economy Based upon Sugar . . . . 14

Continuous Social and Political Connections with
Great Britain 0 O O O I I O O O O O I O O O O O O O 15

The Modern Challenge of a More Comprehensive
Educational Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
RELEVANT LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
LIMITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

II MANAGEMENT, GOALS AND CURRICULUM OF THE JUNIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

LE G& FMWORK O O O O O O O I O O O O O O C O O C O O 3 9

ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter

III

IV

V

Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recurrent Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CURRICULUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES . . . . . . . . . .
PUPIL ATTENDANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FURTHER EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . .
ANCILLARY SERVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE FOUR SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . .

BANANA GROVE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SERVING A
RURAL AGRICULTURAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SEASURF JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SERVING A COASTAL
RE S ORT TOWN O C O O O O O O I O C O O O O C O O C O O

INDUSTRIAL TOWN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SERVING AN
URBAN INDU S T RIAL AMA O I O O O O I O O C O O O O O 0

CITY PARK JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SERVING AN
URBAN com RC IAIJ AREA 0 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMPARISON OF FOUR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS . . . . . . .
FOUR COMMUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FOUR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Their Histories, Staffs, Pupils, Sites and Buildings.
Their Programs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . .
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE AIMS . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARIES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . .

vi

Page
41
42
44
47
53
56
57
6O
62

63

63

71

76

81
88
89
89
92
92
96
115
120

127

Chapter
SUMMARY OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DATA SUMMARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX
A OFFICIAL FRAMEWORK

A21. Long-term Educational Targets and Objectives,
1966-19 80 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Ar2. Structure of the Education System . . . . . . . . .
Ar3. Education Advisory Council . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ar4 Boards of Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES FOR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

B-l. Master Plan Report--Objectives . . . . . . . . . .

B—2. Curriculum Development Committee-~Aims of the
Junior Secondary School . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SURVEY FORMS
C—l. Questions for Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C-2. Questions for Department Heads and Subject Teachers

C—3. Questions for Students, Parents, Community Leaders
and Grade 9 SChOOl-leavers o o o o o o o o o o o

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SYLLABI--TOPICAL SUMMARIES

D—l. English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-2. Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-3. Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-4. General Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-S. Agricultural Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D-6 0 Home Economics 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

vii

Page
127
129
130

135

138
139
144

146

148

150

158

160

161

162
164
166
172
176

179

Appendix
D—7. Industrial Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-8. Art and Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-9. Religious Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D—10. Physical Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D-ll. Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E TEACHER CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING-~A SAMPLE .
G ANCILLARY SERVICES
G—l. Book Rental Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-2. School Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-3. Educational Broadcasting Service . . . . . . . . .
G-4. School Nursing Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-S. Evening Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H JAMAICA SCHOOL CERTIFICATE--SUBJECTS FOR EXAMINATION . .
I JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ACTIVITIES
I-l. 4-H Club Activities at Banana Grove . . . . . . . .
I-2. Classroom Discussion of Current Jamaican Problems .
J WORLD BANK ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS
J-1. Linear Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J-2. Court Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K STUDENT COMPOSITION OF JUNIOR SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS

K-l. Comparison of Socioeconomic Background of Students
in the Junior Secondary and High Schools . . . .

K—2. Comparison of the Racial Composition of Student
Body in Junior Secondary and High Schools . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0

viii

Page
182
184
187
193
194
196

197

200
201
202
203
205

206

207

209

213

216

219

220

221

Table

10

ll

12

13

LIST OF TABLES

Pupil Capacity of WOrld Bank Junior Secondary Schools
Capital Costs of Junior Secondary Schools . . . . . .
Recurrent Costs per Pupil--Estimated . . . . . . . .
Recurrent Costs per Pupil--Actua1 . . . . . . . . . .

Subject Area Time Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pupil & Staff Populations Banana Grove Junior Secondary

SChOOl 1971‘72 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Pupil & Staff Populations Seasurf Junior Secondary
SChOOl 1971-72 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Pupil & Staff Populations Industrial Town Junior
secondary SChOOl 1971-72 0 o o o o o o o o I o o o

Pupil & Staff Populations City Park Junior Secondary
SChOOl 1971-72 a o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Pupil & Staff Populations of Four Junior Secondary
SChOOlS 19 71-72 a o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

Relative Importance of Aims in Order of Choice of
Selected Groups at Four Junior Secondary Schools .

Most Important Aims Selected by School Principals . .

Comparison of Socioeconomic Background of Students in
the Junior Secondary and High Schools in the
Corporate Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of the Racial Composition of Student Body

in Junior Secondary and High Schools in the
Corporate Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

Page

41
42
43
43

48

66

73

78

83

94

116

117

219

220

Figure
1 The
2 The
3 The
4 The
5 The
6 The
7 The

LIST OF FIGURES

Educational Ladder in Jamaica .
Linear Scheme--Perspective . .
Linear Scheme--Ground Floor Plan
Linear Scheme--First Floor Plan
Court Scheme--Perspective . . .
Court Scheme--Ground Floor Plan

Court Scheme--First Floor Plan

Page
140
213
214
215
216
217

218

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

THE NEW JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

Secondary education was established in Jamaica in the late
nineteenth century on essentially an elitist basis, primarily for the
upper and middle classes who could afford to pay fees. The main
criterion of a good secondary education was success on the external
examinations of Cambridge University. The English academic grammar
school tradition was thus firmly established, and still persists today.

Efforts had been made to widen the base of recruitment into
academic, technical and commercial schools by means of a Common Entrance
Examination at the age of 11+, first introduced in 1958. However, it
was chiefly the children whose parents could pay for education at private
preparatory schools who secured the scholarships and free places, and it
was this same class who could afford to accept the fee-paying places or
"half-scholarships." Less privileged children, especially those living
in rural areas, had very limited educational opportunity.

In December, 1966, the Ministry of Education published its New
Deal for Education in Independent Jamaica (Ministry Paper No. 73) which
stated its new philosophy: "opportunity for the best education the country
can afford must be open to every child, because all children are equally
important." "From now on Education will be a unifying and not a stratify-

ing force in our society." The paper outlined The World Bank-Jamaica Loan

 

Agreement 1966 whose purpose was to improve and expand educational

 

facilities in Jamaica, particularly in the areas of junior secondary
education, teacher training, higher technical and agricultural education.

Of particular importance to this study is the World Bank-
Jamaica agreement to construct and equip 50 new junior secondary schools:
four in Kingston, and the rest scattered throughout the island. These
schools aim generally to provide three years of secondary education for
all Jamaicans between the ages of 12-15, to increase the educational
competency and self-esteem of all Jamaicans, to provide a junior second-
ary syllabus more relevant to Jamaica, to develop a populace better
prepared to earn a living in the performance of tasks required for the
fulfillment of the needs of the society and the economy, and to exercise
the rights and fulfill the duties of citizens in a democratic nation.

The new junior secondary school in Jamaica is an institutional
innovation. In place of the older grammar school function of providing
academic education for a select few, the junior secondary school is
obligated to offer terminal education as well as preparation for further
schooling. It is required to perform a remedial function as well as to
open new vistas for study. Specifically, it aims to develop personal
democratic citizenship, ethical values, vocational interests, good
health practices, consumer skills, communication and computation skills,
habits of critical thinking and work, an understanding and acceptance
of the scientific method and change, and appreciation of and participa-
tion in the fine arts.

There is a polarization of opinion in Jamaica about the junior

secondary schools. Many people fear a deterioration of traditional

academic secondary grammar school standards with the extension of
secondary education to include all children aged twelve to fifteen,
and the potential development of a comprehensive secondary school
system; others support the comprehensive principle as socially demo—
cratic. Many also criticize the expenditure of large sums of money on
remedial education in junior secondary schools at a time when primary
school standards are falling, thus perpetuating the problem; others
feel that both primary and junior secondary education may be improved
concurrently. Despite all the controversy, little is known of what
is actually happening within the junior secondary schools. The only
informative research on these schools has centered on their social
composition, and remedial education programs. There is need for re-
search into the successes and failures of these schools so that opinion
may be based on factual information.

The writer has taught in academic secondary grammar schools in
Sarawak and Nigeria, and is interested in studying the difficulties
involved in developing a more diversified, comprehensive secondary
education system from the traditional British grammar school model.
This study will endeavor to describe the practices of four selected
junior secondary schools in order to discover in what manner and to what
extent the educational aims and objectives are being achieved, and the
difficulties encountered which emanate from the socio-cultural milieux
of the schools.

We shall now look at some of the major social factors in the
history of Jamaican education which may help us to understand the origins

of the controversial development of the junior secondary schools.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Jamaican society and its education system have been strongly

influenced by the following historical factors:

1.

The early British occupation, characterized by absentee
landlords and transient overseers.

The social heritage of slavery.

The activities of the early missionaries: religious,
economic and educational.

The breakdown of the institution of marriage.

The mixed Jamaican ethnic and cultural heritage; the
dominance of the English language, paralleled by a minority
creole.

Differing ideas and practices for the education of the
upper and lower classes.

The insecurity of an economy based upon sugar.

The continuous social and political connections with
Great Britain.

The modern challenge of a more comprehensive educational

provision.

Each of the above historical factors will be discussed in some

detail in order to provide a socio—cultural setting for the description

of present-day Jamaican educational practices.

Early British Occupation

The few skilled British who came to Jamaica after its capture

from the Spanish in 1655 intended no lasting settlement, but only to make

their fortunes and return home. British owners of sugar estates were
most often absent from Jamaica, entrusting the supervision of their
estates to attorneys and overseers. The fact that the British pre—
ferred to educate their children in England helps to explain the late
development of education in Jamaica. " . . . outstanding grammar
schools . . . were either the result of missionary activity or the
realization that many of the elite could no longer afford to go 'home'
for education."1

By way of comparison, the pioneers of MassaChusetts settled
down to making a home and a new way of life in the new world; part of
this task was the establishment of schools. The educational fruits
of these two different outlooks may be seen in the fact that Harvard
university began in 1636, while the University College of the West
Indies was not established until 1948.

A few elementary schools were endowed by planters and merchants

for the sons of the poor whites during the late seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries.

Social Heritage of Slavery

The effects of the institution of slavery are felt today in the
retardation of the educational advancement of black Jamaicans in com-
parison with other groups in the population. Before the emancipation of

the slaves in 1833, missionaries who advocated religious education for

 

1 John J. Figueroa, Society, Schools and Progress in the West
Indies (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1971), p. 13.

slaves were stoutly resisted by most European planters, who regarded
the doctrine of "equality of all men in the sight of God" as a threat
to their own vested interests, though the British Government had in
1823 requested them to provide religious education for slaves.2 The
few missionaries who were able to establish schools drew their pupils
from.those who were able to attend, free colored children predominantly.
The foundation was thus laid for educational inequality based on color:
first the privileged whites, then the browns, and finally the neglected
blacks. These distinctions today have major implications for Jamaican

society.

Activities of the Early Missionaries

 

The Act of Emancipation of 1833 included a grant of money, the
Negro Education Grant, to promote Negro education in the ex—slave
colonies, including Jamaica. Thirty thousand pounds per annum was
offered by the British Government as a total for all the colonies for
five years, the amount decreasing each year until the grant ceased in
1845. The basic issue was whether education would best be advanced by
the local legislature or by the religious bodies who had undertaken
instruction wherever they found opportunity under slavery. It was
decided as a result of the Sterling Report of 1835 to offer the religious
bodies financial support to build schools, and later to assist with the
salaries of teachers as the best means of developing a system of educa-

tion. In the appropriation of funds, the Minister of the Crown was to

 

2 Shirley G. Gordon, A Century of West Indian Education (London:
Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., 1969), p. 10.

be guided by the principle that instruction in the doctrines and
precepts of Christianity must form the basis of any such system of
education; such moral and religious education was considered essential
for the Negro population to be emancipated.3 At the conclusion of the
Negro Education Grant in 1845, when the Jamaican Legislature assumed
responsibility for education, the missionaries had firmly established
themselves as providers of education in Jamaica:
. . . the provision of education proved to be much more expensive
than the religious bodies and the Government had realized; and
the subsidy was rather unreasonably cut off, and educational
provision left to the legislatures who could not but be, in
general, out of sympathy with the education of the cheap labour
forces they had just lost. However, there were gains from this
period of educational experiment and trial: the religious bodies
were fully involved in regular schooling, as against Sunday or
evening school; Christianity therefore became the religion of
the region. Further, popular and mass education was established.4

The effects of the early inactivity of the public sector in

education and heavy involvement of religious bodies are strongly evident

today.

Breakdown of the Institution of Marriage

Slavery in Jamaica resulted in the collapse of the institution
of marriage, and the breakdown of social sanctions controlling sexual
behavior. Within the context of slavery it was virtually impossible to
maintain African forms of polygynous marriage, or the nuclear family

which could be severed at any time according to the needs of the master.

 

3 Gordon, p. 20.

4 Figueroa, _p, cit., p. 18.

The shortage of white women and the lack of moral sanctions resulted
in the exploitation of the female slave. Slave children became the
responsibility of their mothers; fathers were relieved of any respon-
sibility for their children. The result was the demoralization of the
male slave. "Incapable of asserting his authority either as husband
or father . . . it is no wonder that the male slave eventually came to
lose all pretensions to masculine pride and to develop the irresponsible
parental and sexual attitudes that are to be found even today."5

White planters often accepted responsibility for their children
by slave women, providing for them materially, and educating them. Thus
has evolved a brown middle class.

Today Jamaica has a variety of family patterns. A.woman may
have children by different fathers; a man and woman may have several
children and then decide to get married legally. While the status-
conferring religious and legal marriage of the middle and upper classes
is now probably the ideal held by most Jamaicans, Henriques reported in
1953 that it was generally estimated that 71 per cent of Jamaican children
were illegitimate.6 This percentage has prdbably not changed signifi-
cantly since that time. Society tends to be matri—focal. The role
played by father in the European pattern is often played in Jamaica by
mother, and in many circumstances, by grandmother. Without the father's

support, many Jamaican school children are poorly fed, poorly clothed,

 

5 Orlando Patterson, The Sociology of Slavery (London: Macgibbon
& K66, 1967), pp. 167-80

6 Fernando Henriques, Family and Colour in Jamaica (London:
Macgibbon & Kee, 1968), p. 23.

and overburdened with duties at home. Much of the mother's burden is
progressively transferred to the older child, whose education becomes
curtailed accordingly:
At home he is probably doing many adult jobs, and in many cases,
if the eldest son, is being the man of the house. If there is no
father, being the "eldest boy pickney" is an important status.
His school attendance is probably spasmodic owing to work with
the crops and therefore lacks continuity and sense.7
Mixed Ethnic and Cultural Heritage
The population is of mixed ethnic origin. The proportions of
each of the various groups were given in 1963 as follows:
For every 100 Jamaicans, 76.8 are of pure African descent, 0.8
are pure European or White, 1.7 are East Indian, 0.6 are Chinese,
0.1 are Syrian, 14.6 are Afro-European (brown), 1.7 are Afro-East
Indian, 0.6 are Afro-Chinese and other mixtures add up to 3.1.8
There is a fairly clear dichotomy between the culture of the
black Jamaican majority and that of the brown and white more powerful
numerical minorities. The Culture of the black Jamaicans, while
apparently based on British culture, includes elements of the African
heritage of its people, most particularly in its language, religion,
world view, music, dance and folklore. Its family patterns are peculiar-

ly Jamaican, having evolved during the course of slavery. By contrast,

the culture of the brown and white Jamaicans, variously shared by Jews,

 

7'Madeline Kerr, Personality and Conflict in Jamaica (London:
Collins, 1963), pp. 80-1.

8 O.C. Francis, The People of Modern Jamaica (Kingston, Jamaica:
Dept. of Statistics, 1963), quoted in Rex M. Nettleford, Mirror Mirror

(Kingston, Jamaica: William Collins and Sangster (Jamaica) Ltd., 1970,
p. 27.

 

10

Chinese and Syrians, is strongly based on the British model, including
British family patterns. Most important, perhaps, is the divergence

in language usage between the groups. Paralleling the use of standard
English, there has developed a minority creole based on English with
African elements. Such a language arose naturally from the need of the
Africans of diverse tribes to communicate with each other and with their
European masters and overseers. Today, standard English and "Jamaican
dialect," as it is called, exist side-by-side. Most educated Jamaicans
can speak both languages, while the less well—educated speak predominantly
the dialect. When it is realized that the dialect has a vocabulary,
syntax, and verb structure distinctly different from standard English, and
that there are strong class connotations to its usage, many problems are
posed for Jamaican education, especially as it would attempt to provide
some measure of equality of opportunity.

The fact of color, plus the cultural dichotomy between blacks,
browns and whites would appear historically to mutually reinforce their
positions in the social structure. The powerful upper class consists
chiefly of the descendants of the white planters, with the more recent
addition of members of the Jewish and Syrian communities whose ancestors
achieved considerable success as merchants.

Those of mixed white and black physical features have commonly
striven to adhere very closely to European cultural ideals, and to reject
the African, in order to claim higher social status.

Since Jamaican educational patterns have been established on the
British model, and since the first educational opportunities were pro-

vided for whites and browns, these two groups have maintained distinctly

11

advantageous positions over the masses of blacks. Their better educa-
tional backgrounds have prepared them to engage in relatively higher
remunerative occupations. Besides this important economic factor, which
has enabled them to pay for educational opportunities for their children,
they have also been able to offer their children cultural advantages to
help them to succeed at a British-type school: a stable nuclear family
including the support and guidance of two parents; adequate nutrition,
hygiene and clothing; the use of standard English; widely accepted
religious beliefs and practices; an introduction to European songs and
folklore; and of great importance, a more rational and scientific view
of the world. These educational advantages the masses of black Jamaican

children have not had.

Differing Ideas for the Education of Upper and Lower Classes

Latrobe's report on Jamaica in 1837, during the period of the
Negro Education Grant, revealed that while the blacks were against
practical education in schools, the planters were against academic
instruction for blacks which they feared would affect their own privi-
leged position, and so they withheld support for any kind of schooling
for black children which did not include instruction in industry and
labor. On the other hand, the legislature used public moneys to provide
secondary education for poorer children of their own class in order to
produce educated leaders. Religious denominations started secondary
schools to provide an educated ministry; most catered to whites and browns.
Secondary education, separated from elementary education, became a symbol

of social superiority and reinforced class divisions. As in England,

12

attendance at secondary grammar schools, necessary for economic and
social advancement, required the payment of fees, and thus excluded

the lower classes. Certain rules which precluded illegitimate children
from attending secondary schools constituted a further barrier against
the admission of black children. Secondary school teachers came from
the most part from England; the classical curricula were based on those
of English public schools of the time. By 1882 Jamaica had established
a center for the University of Cambridge Local Examinations; thereafter,
examination results became the passport for white-collar employment.

During the 1920's government grants were allowed to most religious
secondary schools although students in secondary schools accounted for
less than one per cent of their age group. Primary schools were permitted
to provide a type of junior secondary education for their pupils up to
the age of fifteen where the teachers felt able to cope with the more
advanced instruction. In this way what is known as the "all-age" schools
developed. Fees were minimal, and thus poorer children were able to
gain a modicum of secondary-level education.

The Kandel Report in 1943 recommended that more free places
should be provided in grant-aided secondary schools to enable poorer
children of ability to gain entry to good secondary schools. However,
it was not until 1958 that Jamaica followed England's example of 1944
in an official attempt to remove the secondary education barrier to the
social advancement of the lower classes; the Common Entrance Examination
at the age of 11+ was instituted to select pupils in rank order of
achievement on the examination for full and half-scholarship places in

good secondary schools. The first 2,000 students would receive free

13

tuition out of a total of 4,500 secondary school entrants.

However, as a result of better preparation in costly private
"preparatory" schools, upper and middle-class children performed better
on the Common Entrance Examination, and won most of the scholarships,
despite their smaller numbers. Because of this fact, the first govern-
ment of independent Jamaica in 1963 decided that sCholarships to
secondary schools would be awarded on the basis of the type of primary
school which the pupils had attended; 70 per cent would go to pupils
who had attended public primary schools, and 30 per cent to those who
had attended private preparatory schools.

However, Dr. Miller indicates that the upper and traditional
middle classes have been successful in restricting and minimizing the
effects of those changes which would result in their loss of status
and privilege.9

To summarize, Jamaica has historically developed two educational
routes whose origins are inherent in the class structure of the society.
The first route took the majority of children through the elementary
school or the all-age school to the age of 13-15, with some proceeding
to teachers' colleges, and the remainder undertaking industrial and
agricultural employment. The second route led a privileged minority
through private preparatory schools, secondary grammar schools, and the
Cambridge or London Universities' external examinations in preparation

for professional or white-collar employment. The two systems have been

 

9 Errol Miller, "Education and Society in Jamaica," Savacou,
No. 5, June 1971 (Kingston: The Caribbean Artists Movement), pp. 61—3.

l4

tending to converge somewhat since the institution of the Common Entrance
(11+) Examination. Plans for the introduction of junior secondary
education for all in 1966 were intended as a further advance toward the

convergence of the two educational routes.

The Insecurity of an Economy Based upon Sugeg

The Jamaican economy, based on sugar, has for a long time placed
the country in an insecure, financially hazardous position, dependent on
the vagaries of the external market, and vulnerable to the competition of
beet sugar. (This vulnerability is particularly evident at the present
time as a result of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community).

Economy has tended to win over efficiency in educational provision.
Not until the 1960's was compulsory education in Jamaica really promoted
and then only for certain limited areas. Public expenditure on education
in Jamaica in 1960 amounted to only 2.71 per cent of the G.N.P. and in
1966 it had increased to only 2.96 per cent.10 However, Jamaica's ex-
penditure of 2.3 per cent of the national income (as reported by
Harbison and Myers in 1964) does not bear unfavorable comparison with
other Level II, partially developed countries whose average expenditure
was 2.1 per cent, and whose range was .08—3.6 per cent.11 Jamaica's
present public expenditure on education remains below 3 per cent of the
G.N.P. Public cries are for increased government expenditure at all

educational levels, depending upon interest or point of view.

 

0 Figueroa, _p. cit., p. 34.

11 Frederick Harbison & Charles A. Myers, Education, Manpower,
and Economic Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964), p. 46.

15

In order to be less dependent upon international fluctuations
in the sugar market, Jamaica is in the process of diversifying her
economy. While the economy is still basically agricultural with sugar—
cane, bananas, citrus, cocoa, coffee, pimento, ginger and their products
grown for export, and a variety of other crops grown for local consump-
tion, the contribution of agriculture to the gross domestic product has
been rapidly declining. There has been rapid development in mining,
manufacturing and tourism. The discovery in the early 1950's that
Jamaica possessed the largest known deposits of bauxite led to the
establishment of the mining industry and the construction of a few
plants for the conversion of bauxite into alumina.

The increasing effort towards the development of light industries
for home consumption and export, and of mining and tourism will surely
result in demands for greater expenditure on education, particularly in
the technical area. As a consequence of the present buoyancy of the
economy, Jamaica has been able since 1967 to raise large sums in loan
funds from the World Bank and other sources for her educational develop-
ment program which is becoming increasingly diversified at the secondary

level.

Continuous Social and Political Connections with Great Britain

Like other former British colonies, Jamaica has maintained very
strong economic, political and educational links with Great Britain.
Jamaican ties with Britain are perhaps stronger than those of other
former colonies because of the many blood ties between the two countries.
One of the manifestations of the strong British cultural allegiance has

been the perpetuation of the British educational system.

16

The main criterion of a good secondary education continues to
be success on the external examinations of Cambridge and London Univer-
sities; present plans to localize the school certificate examinations
involve advice from, and active liaison with British examination experts
so that equivalent standards will be maintained. Secondary and univer—
sity teachers are recruited annually, especially from Great Britain.

The policy, standards and certification of the University of the West
Indies have long been associated with the University of London.

Thus, there is a pervasive belief that equivalence with English
standards must be maintained, and considerable opposition to the en-
croachment of progressive ideas from North America upon Jamaican education.
Today there is a struggle in Jamaican educational thinking between those
who would perpetuate the older system, and those who would study other
avenues in order to contrive systems and methods which they consider

better suited to the development of Jamaican society.

The Modern Challengeof a.More Comprehensive Educational Provision

A more recent development, but of major importance, has been the
challenge of modern ideas, particularly in the provision of more compre-
hensive secondary education.

In 1941, a memorandum was submitted by S. A. Hammond to the
Colonial Office which recommended a critical review of the secondary
education provision in Jamaica.12 As a result of the Hammond memorandum,

a special committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Professor

 

12 S. A. Hammond, Jamaica-Education, Jamaica No. 20 (Kingston,
Jamaica: Great Britain Comptroller for Development and Welfare in the
west Indies, 23 October, 1941).

 

17

I. L. Kandel of Columbia University in 1943. The committee was a

large and representative group of educators and public pe0p1e actively
engaged in work in Jamaica. The Kandel Report13 was particularly
critical of the following traditional practices in Jamaican secondary
education: selection for entry regulated by the ability of parents to
pay school fees; too few scholarships for poor but intelligent children;
purely academic studies for all pupils, regardless of abilities or
interests; control of the syllabus by external examinations with foreign
content; cramming for examinations rather than education for life as it
is lived in Jamaica; methods of rote learning rather than discovery; the
authoritarian prefect system rather than the development of responsibility
at all age levels.

The Kandel Report recommended, among other things, the diversi-
fication of secondary education to include practical training for both
boys and girls. It suggested that the proportion of free places based
solely on ability should be gradually increased, and that the curriculum
of all schools should be adapted to the cultural and economic needs
of Jamaica, irrespective of the requirements of external examinations.

A further recommendation was that vocational counselling should be
undertaken by schools, not left entirely to parents.

Ruscoe, twenty years later, appeared to reaffirm Kandel's

finding that:

 

3Report of the Committee Appoigged to Enquire into the System
of Secondary Education in Jamaica (Isaac Kandel, chairman). (Kingston,
1943). Mimeographed).

18

Nowhere is there to be found any definition of the aims and

objectives of education except in terms of certain subjects

to be studied in order to pass certain examinations. . . .

Hence the emphasis is on the subjects which are examinable to

the neglect of those subjects which may in the long run have a

richer meaning in the lives of the pupils.14
Ruscoe found the high schools dysfunctional to Jamaica's development in
that they were endeavoring to produce leaders, and failing to produce
citizens capable of exercising critical judgment in relation to voca-
tional, community and national problems.

New educational policies were devised by the Ministry of Educa-
tion after Jamaica gained her independence from the Federation of the
West Indies in 1962. A strong driving force behind the innovations
was the new Minister of Education, the Honorable Edwin Allen. During
his years as the principal of a rural Jamaican primary school, Mr.
Allen had become acutely aware that many intelligent pupils were de-
prived of attending good secondary schools because of their financial
incapacity. He enrolled pupils past the age of twelve years, provided
them secondary level academic instruction, and proved their competence
by their very successful passing of external examinations.

Mr. Allen himself did not have the benefit of secondary education
within the country, but studied for external examinations by corres-
pondence. He was selected to study education on scholarship in London

in 1948. At that time Britain was democratizing her education system,

and Mr. Allen was able to participate in many stimulating discussions

 

14 Gordon C. Ruscoe,_Dysfunctionality in Jamaican Education

(Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan School of Education, 1963),
pp. 102-3.

19

on the comparative advantages of the tripartite and comprehensive

secondary education systems, and to visit different types of schools.

He came to the conclusion that the comprehensive system was better for

the following reasons:

1.

The Common Entrance (11+) Examination is not a valid
instrument for discriminating academic ability.

"Economy of scale" makes technical education less expensive
in comprehensive than in separate schools.

There are great social advantages to be gained from a
good comprehensive school in that pupils may gain in-
sights into other types of education.

A child of average or less than average ability can
achieve more in a comprehensive school than in the tri-
partite system.

There is a stigma attached to transfer from one type of
school to another, but no stigma to transfer within a
comprehensive school.

Instead of the traditional, selective question, "What
child is fit for the school?" Mr. Allen felt the question
should be asked, "What school is fit for the child?" The
comprehensive school could more readily adapt to the

child's needs.

Upon his return to Jamaica, Mr. Allen wrote articles promoting

the idea of comprehensive education. He recognized the problem of

teacher supply for such a system. By means of an experiment conducted

in five Kingston primary schools, he proved to his satisfaction that

20

good primary teachers could provide secondary education.

When his party was elected in 1962, Mr. Allen, as the new
Minister of Education, represented Jamaica at a United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) education confer-
ence in Paris. It was the policy of UNESCO and the International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (WOrld Bank) to loan money for
training, but not for building. The Jamaican Minister of Education used
"every means at his disposal" to persuade these organizations that the
policy should be changed to invest in capital construction for secondary
education. It was in the expectation that it would be possible to obtain
loans for school buildings and teachers' cottages from the World Bank
that he invited a UNESCO mission to visit Jamaica in 1964 to study its
education needs and to make recommendations for development of the
education provision. In Mr. Allen's words, "The UNESCO team accepted
the Minister of Education's ideas on comprehensive education and put
them in terms acceptable and intelligible to the World Bank."15

The report of the UNESCO Educational Planning Mission, published
in 1965, urged a reappraisal of the aims of education in general, and
the development of an integrated and smoothly articulated system. The
mission recommended top priority be given to the improvement of education
for children 6-14 years of age, entailing a major building program, the
provision of aids and instructional materials for primary and junior

l
secondary schools, and a relevant teacher education program. 6 A.major

 

15 Private interview with Mr. Edwin Allen, M.P., July 1972.

16 Educational Planning Mission, Jamaica, September-November 1964

(Paris: UNESCO, January 1965), p. 40.

 

21

recommendation was the establishment of junior secondary schools rather
than the continuation of the all-age schools for educational, practical
and financial reasons: to separate Children entering puberty from
younger children; to lead in the long-run to the discontinuance of
selection at the age of 11+ and the possibility of a wide-ranging curri-
culum; to ensure in the short-run that more potential be discovered for
entry into the various types of second-cycle secondary education; to
reduce government and personal expenditures for residential schooling;
to enable later expansion of junior secondary schools into full secondary
school facilities; and to provide practical facilities of use also for
adult education and community development.17 The alternative to the
building of junior secondary schools was the development of more all—age
schools, but this was not considered practical:

. . . the alternative would be to build more all-age schools.

If these are to offer genuine opportunities to children of

12 through 14, they must all be provided with practical facili-

ties and laboratories. The costs would be prohibitive; there

would be considerable duplication and under-utilization. Not

many of these schools arelgf the type to make additional build-

ing feasible or apposite;
It was not proposed that the establishment of junior secondary schools
should be at the expense of primary (6 through 11) places, but that funds
allocated for all-age schools in the Five Year Independence Plan be used
for primary school construction, and additional funds be made available

for junior secondary school construction.19

 

17 Educational Planning Mission, Jamaica, p. 41.

18 Ibid.

'9 Ibid., p. 42.

22

Guidelines for the new education policy were provided by the

philosophy of the Five Year Independence Plan which placed its focus

 

among other things upon comprehensive long-term planning opportunities
for the hitherto underprivileged, new outlooks, social advancement, the
promotion of mental and physical skills, and of "new and more relevant
and acceptable values."20
The UNESCO Planning Mission found that allocations to education
as a per cent of total government expenditures had declined from 14.3
per cent in 1959-60 to 12.8 per cent in 1963-64. It recommended that
expenditures for education be revised to at least 17 per cent of total
governmental expenditures, or about 3 per cent of the national income,
and that this amount be increased to at least 4 per cent of the national
income by 1975. In addition to raising tax allocations, the mission
recommended that the government begin to expand school construction

through long—term borrowing. The rationale for this long-term borrowing

is contained in the following statement:

The school-age population now outnumbers the employed labour
force, and it seems sensible to project costs of school facilities
into the future when a larger and better educated labour force
will be available to pay for the benefits.

The Government of Jamaica has in its statements shown acute
appreciation of the role of a re-organized and re-oriented edu-
cational system in the promotion of positive attitudes and desirable
skills in its citizens to permit the fulfilment of the long-term
goals of its economic and social developmental plans. The short-
term "Five Year Independence Plan, 1963-68" states 'that the

20 Proposed Ministry of Education Paper on Educational Develop-

;Eept in Jamaica, Poliey, Plane, and Programmes, Implementation and
Financing. (Kingston, Jamaica: Ministry of Education, April, 1966),
pp. 4-5. (Mimeographed).

23

achievement of the long-term goals will follow as investments in
general education, in technical education, in agricultural tech-
niques, in marketing and in specific economic projects [sic] begin
to bring in significant results.‘ The foundation for and dynamic
of development is education and training.21
Preliminary planning early in 1966 produced the following infor-
mation. In 1960, of the population over 15 years of age, 76.9 per cent
had completed the primary school course, 6.6 per cent had completed the
secondary school course, and 0.5 per cent had completed a professional
course.22 These figures revealed a critical shortage of professional
and middle-level personnel.
The UNESCO Planning Mission proposed that the government seek
a soft loan of $15 million to supplement its own resources; it further
proposed that such loan moneys should be used between 1966—70 primarily
for the construction of junior secondary schools, secondly for the
building requirements of vocational education and practical and science
facilities for teacher-training colleges, and finally for the Jamaica
School of Agriculture if other sources of funds were not made available
for it.23
Following the recommendation of the UNESCO Educational Planning
Mission to Jamaica in 1964 that priority needs be redefined, and funds

reallocated within the overall Independence Plan, the Ministry of Educa-

tion incorporated the major recommendations of the UNESCO Mission in

 

21 Educational Planning Mission, Jamaica, mp. cit., pp. 22-3.

2 Proposed Ministry of Education Paper on Educational Develop—
ment in Jamaica, _p, cit., p. 5.

23 Educational Planning Mission, Jamaica, mp. cit., p. 24.

24

its long- and short-term educational planning.24

The short-term Educational Development Programme, 1966-70,
emphasized the establishment of junior secondary school plants with
some expansion and diversification of second cycle (senior high) pro-
visions, and a holding operation in the construction of primary schools.
Emphasis on primary and second cycle secondary plant construction was
scheduled to begin with the second 5-year programme, 1971-75.25 It was
envisaged that the junior secondary school concept would be a "flexible
pivot of transition" which could be reshaped by later thinking on the
most appropriate structure for a Jamaican education system.26

The detailed formulation of the proposals for the short-term
development program was undertaken by a Project Implementation Team in
the Ministry of Education under the Project Co—Ordinator, advised by
the chief of the UNESCO Planning Mission who assisted the government
in preparing the necessary project data. Further assistance was provided
by two UNESCO experts: an architect and a technical education advisor.
By January, 1966, the Government of Jamaica was ready to submit loan
applications to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-

ment and to other external aid sources for assistance in financing the

program:

 

24 Proposed Ministry of Education Paper on Educational Develop-
ment in Jamaica. _p, cit., p. 10. (For long-term educational targets
and objectives, 1966-1980, see Appendix A—l).

25 Ibid., paragraph 59.

26 Ibid., paragraph 60.

25

As a result of these applications the World Bank has agreed
to a loan of 3.4 million to assist in financing a part of the
first phase 0 the expansion programme, complemented by a
Technical Assistance grant from US/AID of {0.464 million to
assist the Government in its teacher training programme and to
redesign and develop curricula for the Junior Secondary Schools
as well as to develop, use and evaluate instructional material.27

In December, 1966, the Ministry of Education published the
Ministry Paper No. 73, its major policy document known as the New Deal
for Education in Independent Jamaica. The foremost objective of the
new policy was secondary education for all Jamaicans between the ages
of 12-15. The New Deal outlined Government policy for an £8 million
building program which was to be supported by loans from the WOrld Bank,
US/AID and Canada. A three-phased development program was then
announced-l966-1970, 1971-1974, and 1976-1980. The objectives and
targets were set out in the document, which also includes a substantial
catalogue of educational reform. The following extract sets out a part

of the new philosophy which is the "very soul" of the New Deal:

The new philosophy is that opportunity for the best education
that the country can afford must be open to every child, because
all children are equally important. Lack of wealth should not
therefore, frustrate or handicap the education of any child. It
is the people of a country who constitute its greatest assets and
not the material things found in or produced by that country. In
the present-day world there is little place for the illiterate and
unskilled; in tomorrow's world what little place remains for the
illiterate and unskilled will dwindle and eventually vanish. The
need to educate all the people and to continue extending educational
horizons and raising general educational standards is therefore
urgent and compelling if our people are to maintain a place in the
world. If the law of the jungle is the survival of the fittest,
the law of civilization is the survival through ever-growing know-
ledge and ever-increasing skill.

 

27 Publication Branch, Ministry of Education, New Deal for
Education in Independent Jamaica (Kingston, Jamaica: Jamaica Times
(Press) Ltd., 1966), p. 8.

26

From now on Education will be a unifying and not a stratifying
force in our society. While equality of opportunity may still
remain an elusive Utopian ideal, the poverty or low social status
of parents will no longer be a barrier to a sound education nor
will it determine the social, economic or civil future of any
child. As a result of this Educational Revolution no Jamaican
child will be debarred by the circumstances of his birth, or by
his poverty from qualifying for any position in this country.28

Phase I centered on the building of primary and junior secondary schools.
Phase II includes continuation of the junior secondary school program,
the creation of a number of comprehensive and bilateral schools, further
expansion of the College of Advanced Science and Technology, teacher
training facilities and special emphasis on technical and vocational
education. The tendency was to enrich grammar schools so as to make
them either bilateral or comprehensive, to add vocational wings to
technical schools, and to develop some junior secondary schools into
comprehensive schools with senior cycle classes.

The government was fully aware that perhaps the major problem
in achieving its targets was the inadequacy of the teacher supply in
both quantity and competence. Increased enrollments at both primary and
secondary levels, including the expansion of technical and vocational
education, made the training and upgrading of teachers a parallel aim
of the government's policy to expand educational opportunities.

While urgent needs were recognized at the primary level, the
Jamaican Government acknowledged that its decision to expand opportun—

ities at the junior secondary level was influenced in large measure by

the availability of external funding:

 

28 New Deal, pp. 3-5.

27

Although the Government is increasing its spending on educar
tion the greater portion of the funds to be spent on the expansion
and reorganization of the system is being provided from external
sources. By and large external sources will not lend money or
make grants for primary education. The only source of assistance
at this level open to us is Canada and this source is now being
tapped.

In order, therefore, to make use of external financing and
at the same time to make some effort to solve indirectly the
problem of primary education . . . , the establishment of Junior
Secondary Schools was decided upon.

The removal of all pupils of from 12 to 15 years old from the
present primary schools is bound to relieve some of the pressure
which now exists. The establishment of schools with all the
necessary accommodation, facilities and equipment for involving
the adolescent in purposeful activity is bound to be of great
overall benefit to the country.2

The fifty junior secondary schools constructed under the World
Bank—Jamaica Loan Agreement of 1966 have been completed and are opera-
tional; the first group of twenty-two opened in September 1969.

In summary, the older elitist tradition of secondary education
for a selected few was seriously challenged by the first government of
independent Jamaica which successfully solicited technical and capital
assistance in planning and providing more equitable educational oppor-
tunities at the junior secondary level. The new institution of the
junior secondary school made possible the transition toward a more

comprehensive secondary educational provision to satisfy the needs of

children of diverse abilities.

 

29 New Deal, p. 57.

28
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A major educational issue arose from the policy of the Jamaica
Labour Party Government (1962-72) to expand the provision of junior
secondary education at a time when many primary school children were
still poorly housed and poorly taught. Government policy was opposed
particularly by the official opposition, the People's National Party,
and the Jamaica Teachers' Association, as well as by many citizens.
Much of the opposition to the junior secondary schools emanated from
traditional conceptions of secondary grammar school academic standards,
and fears of lowered standards and overall changes in the education
system30 which might result from this institutional innovation. These
fears persist partly because of the dearth of information about what
is happening in the junior secondary schools.

This study will endeavor to provide some of this information
by describing the practices of four selected junior secondary schools
as they attempt to achieve their aims and objectives31 in their particu-
lar socio-cultural milieux.

Some illumination of the problems of the junior secondary
schools is contained in the following summary of a few short articles
on their purpose and social composition, the achievement level of their

intake, and samples of public criticism.

 

30 For a description of the structure of the present education

system and the education ladder in Jamaica, see Appendix Ar2.
31 For the official Aims of the Junior Secondary Schools, see

29
RELEVANT LITERATURE

An article in Torch, the Journal of the Ministry of Education,
Jamaica, in 1969 reveals that a major purpose of the junior secondary
schools is to satisfy the economy's need for persons with some measure
of secondary education. While Jamaica required 227,000 secondary—
trained persons in 1960 for jobs ranging from the professions to
technicians and craftsmen, her total supply at that time was approx-
imately 66,000, leaving a gap of 161,000:

Even if the gap of 161,000 remained static, at the rate of 4,000
trained each year it would take 40 years to bridge it. But each
year as industry develops in a new nation, new job opportunities
arise, and the gap tends to widen unless the education system
provides a means of increasing the output of secondary-trained
personnel.

It is against this background that the junior secondary
school idea was conceived with the definite intention of bridging
the gap as quickly as possible between the number of jobs gyail—
able and the number of persons trained to fill these jobs.

With the conversion of 14 senior schools and the completion of 35 new
junior secondary schools, the number of children exposed to some type
of secondary education by January, 1970, was expected to double the
number enrolled in all types of secondary schools in 1969.

In an article published in June 1971, Dr. Errol Miller reveals
the findings of studies on the social composition of students in the

different types of secondary schools in Jamaica. Data collected by

Miller in the Corporate Area of Kingston and St. Andrew in 1967 revealed

 

32 "Junior Secondary Schools," Torch, Journal of the Ministry
of Education, Jamaica, Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer 1969 (Kingston: Publica-
tions Branch, Ministry of Education), p. l.

30

that the junior secondary schools studied enrolled no children from the
higher professional socioeconomic category, only 0.3 per cent from the
lower professional group, 11.9 per cent from the semi—skilled, and
18.4 per cent from the unskilled categories. No white children attended
these junior secondary schools in 1967; 18.1 per cent were brown; 77.1
per cent were black; 1.2 per cent, Chinese; 3.6 per cent, Indian.33
Miller concluded that children of the emerging middle and lower strata
predominated in junior secondary and all-age schools.34

Miller states that somewhat similar findings were reported by
Dabak from her study of student enrollment in the junior secondary
schools studied included the following proportionate representation from
the different socioeconomic categories: 1.1 per cent higher professional;
1.9 per cent lower professional; 26.4 per cent highly skilled; 39.8 per
cent skilled; 18.6 per cent semi-skilled; 11.2 per cent unskilled.35 Of
transfers from the junior secondary schools to high schools at the end
of grade nine, 3.2 per cent came from the lower professional group, 28.2
per cent from.the highly skilled, 50 per cent from the skilled, 9.3 per
cent from the semi-skilled, and 9.3 per cent from the unskilled.36
According to Miller, Dabak's data would appear to indicate that at least

in the Corporate Area the junior secondary school is the school of the

emerging middle stratum.

 

33 Errol Miller, op. cit., p. 58.
34 Ibid., p. 59.
35

Ibid., p. 57.

36 Ibid.

31

Since the overwhelming majority of entrants to junior secondary
schools come from the primary schools, it is important to know the
achievement level of primary school-leavers. Articles in Temem, the
Journal of the Ministry of Education in Jamaica, have pointed out the
low achievement of pupils who have concluded their primary school educa-
tion. To be particularly noted is their inability to read. In the
September, 1963, issue of Temem_it was reported that well over half the
number of children sitting the Common Entrance Examination scored less
than 20 per cent in English.37 An article in the December, 1963, issue
of $2522, reporting the findings of an interim survey on reading diffi-
culties in four urban senior schools catering to children aged 12-15,
revealed the following information: out of a total of 1,235 pupils
entering these schools (presumably aged 12-13), 253 (20 per cent) had
reading difficulties. Mbreover, these figures were the result of a
word recognition test only.38 Out of a total of 571 second year pupils
in the senior schools (presumably aged 13—14), 203 (35.5 per cent) had
reading difficulties.39 The chief reasons given were unpunctuality,

poor attendance, and too large classes. The need for remedial reading

was emphasized for these children.

 

37 "The Common Entrance Examination," Torch, Journal of the
Ministry of Education, Jamaica, September 1963 (Kingston: Publications
Branch, Ministry of Education).

38 Sybil Prescod, "Reading Retardation, a problem in some of
Jamaica's senior schools," Torch, the Journal of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, Jamaica, Vol. 13, No. 4, December 1963 (Kingston: Publications
Branch, Ministry of Education), p. 22.

39 Ibid. ’ p. 24.

32

An article in the June, 1965, issue of Torch again points up the
continuing problem of children moving from level to level without master-
ing the skills of reading and comprehension; "the problem was to be found

40 This article describes a

from the lowest to the highest grades."
remedial reading experiment then being conducted in eight schools in the
Corporate Area, and indicates plans for inclusion of remedial reading
courses in the curriculum of the teacher training colleges.

This generally low standard of achievement of the primary schools
poses a serious problem for the junior secondary schools to which primary
school-leavers are automatically promoted. It also constitutes a major
issue of public controversy. Policy of the Jamaica Labour Party Govern—
ment (1962-1972) was that the junior secondary schools should be
streamed to provide basic literacy skills to remedial cases, as well as
normally progressing academic instruction to more advanced pupils:

Junior Secondary Schools must accept the challenge that their

best pupils, on graduating, should be fit to enter Grade 10 at
the best high schools.

Junior Secondary Schools must accept the challenge that no
normal pupil should graduate without functional literacy and
numeracy.

Typical of criticism.of the junior secondary schools is that of

the Minister of State in the Ministry of Education in the new People's

National Party Government which took office on March 1, 1972. The

 

40 Sybil Prescod, "The Remedial Reading Experiment," Torch,
Journal of the Ministry of Education, Vol. 15, No. 2, June 1965 (Kingston:
Publications Branch, Ministry of Education), p. 11.

41 "Allen in House - Policy Statement on Education," The Daily
Cleaner, 1 July, 1971, p. 9.

33

Minister of State, who is also the Mayor of Kingston, by implication
described the junior secondary school program as a pretence at higher
education, and in the long run a sacrifice of quality:

It is . . . shortsighted to pamper the children of the poor
with what amounts to a pretence to higher education, without
providing the strong primary base necessary for them to absorb
more complicated subjects.

This system is perhaps a good short-term quantity argument;
in the long term it is a sacrifice of quality, the cause of an
increasing expression of an inferiority complex, the cause of a
greater proportion of dropouts, the accumulation of young and
strong but useless hands, and finally, the outbreak of crimes
against our country leading to parricide.42

The former Speaker of the House of Representatives has pointed

out a well-known fact, that the major problem of the junior secondary
schools is the inadequate preparation of a large proportion of their
entrants from the primary schools:

The chief failure of the Junior Secondary School is that 50 per
cent of its pupils at the point of entry can neither read nor
write . . .

Therefore, the failure of the Junior Secondary School is due to
the breakdown of the Primary School and its secondary training.43

The presently available literature offers no clear insight into

the particular achievements and difficulties of the junior secondary

schools themselves. This study will attempt to illustrate the actual

practices of four selected schools.

 

42 "Matalon: junior secondary schools' programme 'pretence at
higher education,'" The Daily Gleaner, March 27, 1972, p. 5.

43 C. M. Aitchenson, "Tasks for the new Education MHnister,"
The Daily Gleaner, March 26, 1972, p. 10.

 

34

METHODOLOGY

The study which follows is descriptive, explaining the similar-
ities and differences in implementation of the national aims and
objectives in four selected junior secondary schools in different areas
of Jamaica. These four schools may be considered to be illustrations
of junior secondary schools falling within the following categories: a
rural agricultural area, a rural small town, an urban depressed area,
and a somewhat better off urban area. Each school, which is given a
fictitious name, is described as a separate unit in its own socio-
cultural context.

Interviews with the principals and teachers were conducted on
school premises during school hours. The interviews were structured
by means of prepared questionnaires in an attempt to discover: (1) the
methods they used to achieve the different aims and objectives: (2) the
difficulties they experienced in the practical situation; (3) their
perceptions of the relative importance of the aims for their pupils.
(The interview schedule of questions for principals is included in
Appendix C-l; questions for department heads and subject teachers may
be found in Appendix C-2).

While it was the researcher's original intention to interview
each teacher alone, the principal of the first school visited suggested
that it would be administratively preferable to interview the teachers
of each subject department collectively. The resulting group interviews
stimulated discussion, and elicited varying points of view which produced
valuable insights and information. Single specialist teachers were

interviewed either in the staff common room or in their own classrooms.

35

The group interview procedure was used in three of the schools. In
the fourth, where it was not made possible to interview groups, the
researcher felt that single teacher interviews did not evoke as keen
a discussion of vital problems.

Principals, teachers, Grade 9 pupils, junior secondary school-
1eavers, parents and community leaders were asked: (1) to select the
three aims they considered most important to the pupils in their
community; (2) to give reasons for their selection of certain aims as
most important. (The questions for pupils, school-leavers, parents and
community leaders are included in Appendix C-3).

In each school the researcher administered the questionnaire
during class time to a sampling of Grade 9 pupils representative of the
various streams. Both written and oral responses were requested.
Information was similarly gathered from junior secondary school-leavers
attending evening classes, and from parents attending meetings of their
parent-teacher associations. Community leaders were interviewed
individually: either after parent-teacher association gatherings, while
they were visiting a school during the day, in their own offices, or
over the telephone.

The number of times an objective was selected by members of a
group was totalled, and was considered to be the value placed on that
objective by that group; (for example, parents). When placed in rank
order such totals provide only a very rough indication of the comparative
value accorded the different aims by the members of any one group, but
one which is nevertheless of value. The information so derived from

groups was tabulated for comparison.

36

Bereday's four steps are utilized in the description and
comparison of the four schools:

1. Description of the knowledge imparted and methods of
teaching in congruence with the official aims and
objectives.

2. Explanation within the particular socio-cultural context
of each school.

3. & 4. Juxtaposition and simultaneous comparison of similar—
ities and differences in implementation of the objectives
in the four schools.

The remaining chapters may be outlined as follows: Chapter II
outlines the management, goals and curriculum of the junior secondary
schools; Chapter III contains a description of the more unique features
of the four schools under study; Chapter IV provides a comparison of
the similarities and differences of the four schools; Chapter V pre—
sents the conclusions and recommendations of the study.

The following limitations, which are inherent in this kind of
study, must be recognized so that unwarranted generalizations may be

avoided.

LIMITATIONS

l. The junior secondary school is intended to be a rather flexible
institution so that principals and staffs may adapt their
programs to the students' achievement levels and needs, and
to the needs of the particular area in which a school is

situated. Therefore, each school may be regarded as an unique

37

illustration of the Jamaican junior secondary school. Only
tentative generalizations may be made for all the junior
secondary schools in Jamaica from these four illustrations.

2. Because of certain dangers which attend open travel in
Jamaica, particularly in the areas of the two urban schools
studied, the researcher's personal mobility had to be
restricted, with the result that the selection of school-
leavers and parents for questioning was limited to those
who came to the schools for specific purposes. Thus, the
sampling of school-leaver and parent opinion may not be
considered fully representative of these two populations
served by the schools.

3. Because the researcher is a foreign observer and not an
active participant in the schools, there are obvious limita-
tions such as shortage of time for observation, dependence
upon others interpretations, and the possibility of mis-
understanding the language or means of communication.

4. Because the junior secondary school is presently a major
political issue, the responses of informants may possibly
be conditioned by political polarity or emotion.

Nevertheless, having gained official permission from the Ministry

of Education to undertake the study, the researcher was very well re-
ceived in all four schools, and gained the impression that nearly all

informants responded with thoughtful sincerity and frankness.

CHAPTER II

MANAGEMENT, GOALS AND CURRICULUM OF
THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The junior secondary schools of Jamaica form part of a quite
highly centralized system of education. Their administration, finance,
objectives, curriculum, teachers and inspection are controlled at the
national level by the Ministry of Education. The numerical flow of
pupils and thereby the progress of the individual pupil through the
public education system is similarly controlled, both vertically between
educational levels, and horizontally between school types; this control
is exercised largely by means of age limitations and official examina-
tions, whether internal or external.

Some ancillary services to the junior secondary schools such as
the rental of textbooks, school meals, and evening classes are provided
by the Ministry of Education. Others such as educational broadcasting,
school health services and experimental subject teaching projects are
provided through the cooperation of other agencies of government and
the university with the Ministry of Education.

We shall now take a closer look at these external controls and
provisions in order better to understand the practices of individual

junior secondary schools.

38

39
LEGAL FRAMEWORK

In order to legalize the implementation of its desired new
educational policies, the Government of Jamaica passed the Education
Act, 1965, which gives the Minister of Education powers including
the following: to frame new educational policy and to secure its
execution; to establish new schools and to determine their classifi—
cation; to provide facilities, free places in schools and financial
assistance; to prescribe the management and conduct of schools, and the
registration and discipling of teachers.1 The regulations resulting
from these powers of the Minister of Education are contained in the
Education Regmlations, 1966,2 published by the Ministry of Education.
These two documents govern all categories of education: primary,
secondary and higher education, the training of teachers, the granting
of scholarships, the compulsory registration of private schools, and
the overall control of education in Jamaica.

As empowered by Section 3, Sub-section (a) of the Education Act,

 

1965, "to promote the education of the people of Jamaica and the pro-

gressive development of institutions devoted to that purpose,"

and by
Sub-section (b), "to frame an educational policy designed to provide
a varied and comprehensive educational service in Jamaica," the Ministry

of Education in 1966 issued its Paper No. 73 called the New Deal for

 

Education in Independent Jamaica outlining in detail the Ministry's

 

1 Government of Jamaica, The Education Act, 1965 (Kingston:
The Government Printer, 1965), Sections 3, 4 & 44, pp. 5-6, and pp. 36-7.

 

2 Ministry of Education, The Education Regulations, 1966
(Kingston: The Government Printer, 1966).

 

40

education expansion program, its education policy and reforms, a major
focus of which was the development of junior secondary education for

all.3

ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE

The administration and financing of all government-owned
educational institutions in Jamaica, including the new junior secondary
schools, are centrally controlled by the Ministry of Education in
Kingston. Where powers are delegated to educational boards at the
parish level, or to boards of governors of individual schools, they
rest with persons either appointed directly by the Minister of Educa-
tion, or whose nomination must be approved by the Minister. Upon the
election of a new government, members of such boards are normally
expected to resign, and then to be either reappointed or replaced.

The Education Act, 1965 authorizes the establishment of the
Education Advisory Council4 at the national level, educational boards5
at the parish level, and boards of governors6 for individual schools
at the local level. Each junior secondary school has its own board of

governors whose members are appointed by the Minister of Education.

 

3 Publication Branch, Ministry of Education, New Deal for Educa-
tion in Independent Jamaica (Kingston, Jamaica: Jamaica Times (Press)
Ltd., 1966), p. 6.

4 The Education Act, 1965, op. cit., Section 5, p. 7. (For
information on the composition and functions of the Education Advisory
Council, see Appendix AFB).

5 Ibid., Section 8, p. 8.

6 Ibid., Section 9, p. 8. (For responsibilities of the boards
of governors, see Appendix Ar4).

41

The junior secondary schools are financed entirely by means of
grants from the Ministry of Education to individual schools; the board
of governors of each school is responsible for the administration of such
grants via the principal of the school. There is no obligation on the
boards of governors to raise money to support junior secondary schools;
however, fund-raising activities are sometimes engaged in by staffs and

others associated with individual schools for particular projects.

Capital Costs
The schools range in size from 9 streams to 3 streams (9 streams

means that there are nine classes in each of grades 7, 8 and 9).7

Table l. Pupil Capacity of World Bank Junior Secondary Schools

 

 

 

 

 

Individual Schools 50 Schools
Size Pupil Capacity No. of Schools Total Pupil Capacity
9 streams 1,215 3 3,645
6 streams 810 29 23,490
5 streams 675 8 5,400
4 streams 540 7 3,780
3 streams 405 3 1,215
Total 50 37,5303

 

 

7 New Deal op. cit., p. 39.

8 The total pupil capacity of 37,530 enables the World Bank
junior secondary schools to accommodate only part of the 12-15 age group.
By January, 1971, there were approximately 150,000 12-15 year olds in the
population, of whom about 125,000 (83%) were enrolled in junior secondary
schools, high schools, all-age schools, and other educational institu-
tions. (The Daily Gleaner, January 4, 1971, p. 9).

42

As well as the school buildings themselves, some of the junior secondary
school sites contain new staff housing units for the purpose of retain—
ing good teachers in rural areas where accommodation is not easily
available. Forty-six staff housing units have been constructed which
should accommodate 14 per cent of the staff of the schools constructed
in rural Jamaica.9

The capital costs of building the 50 schools have been con-

siderably greater than those estimated in 1966, as the following

figures will show ($1 Jamaican = $1.20 U.S.):

Table 2. Capital Costs of Junior Secondary Schools

 

 

Year Costs of Building 50 Schools 46 Staff Housing
1966 Cost at appraisal $ 6,119,032 $ 633,422
1968 Cost at contract $ 8,555,168 $ 853,514
1972 Estimated final cost

(reported March 1972) $ 13,570,000 $ 1,344,000

 

It is important to note that no account is taken in these figures of

expenditure on minor additional works, drainage or playing fields which

were not adequately covered in the World Bank financial program.10

Recurrent Costs

Recurrent costs for the junior secondary schools were estimated

in 1966 at £35 (approximately $105 U.S.) per pupil per annum as follows:1¥

 

9 New Deal, op. cit., p. 30.

10 Information provided by Project Architect, Ministry of Education.

11 New Deal, op. cit., p. 36.

43

Table 3-A. Recurrent Costs per Pupil--Estimated

 

 

Total staff f 22
Other staff 5
Materials 3
Utilities and Office Supplies 0.5
Maintenance 3.5
Loan of Textbooks and other 1.0
Total £ 35 I($105 U.S.)

 

 

In fact, recurrent costs to date have not exceeded the original estimates.

Table 3-B. Recurrent Costs per Pupil--Actua1

 

 

 

 

Financial Years Cost Per Pupil
1969 - 71 $ 71 Jamaican ($ 88.75 U.S.)
1971 - 72 $ 84 Jamaican ($105.00 U.S.)
A 10 per cent increase was expected over the years 1972-75.12 The

above increases are due mainly to the regrading of teachers' salaries
in April 1970; teaChers' salaries are gradually increasing over a

3-year period.

 

12 Information provided by the Financial Section, Ministry of

Education.

44

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

A general statement of the purpose of the concept of the junior
secondary school is provided in the preface to the Master Plan Report

of the junior secondary school program:

It is the recognition of the crucial importance of education
that has motivated the Government to embark on this vast
program of Junior Secondary Schools. This represents a new
development in the nature and organization of the educational
pyramid in Jamaica. The Junior Secondary School is to be the
pivot around which the educational system will develop. It

is the point where corrective action is taken to remedy defec—
tive starters; to arouse the interest of students and challenge
their abilities; to acquaint students with various occupational
skills which will make them more equipped as they enter the
labor force, and to raise the level and standard of education
to those who move into upper secondary and higher educational
institutions. In the words of the Long-Term Development Plan:

The Government affirms its belief in education not
only for its inestimable social value in enabling
every individual for its own sake to develop his
personality and his talents to the fullest extent,
but equally that each individual might be enabled
to make a maximum contribution to Society in every
respect.13

This statement summarizes the basis on which the junior secondary school
idea was conceived and developed.

More specific but comprehensive aims of the junior secondary

schools are stated in the New Deal for Education in Independent Jamaica:

 

13 Caudill, Rowlett, Scott, Architects, Planners & Engineers,

Master Plan Report, Junior Secondary School Program Ministry of Educa-
tion, Jamaica, west Indies (Houston, Texas - New York, N.Y., December
1967), p. iv.

 

45

To provide -

(1) opportunities for all pupils to progress according to
attainment, aptitude and ability. Remedial work will
be provided for the very weak while the very promising
pupils will be given every opportunity for rapid
advancement;

(2) a wide range of subjects which will stress the basic
subjects while exposing all pupils to a variety of
practical subjects.

It is felt that it is essential that each pupil by the

age of 15 should have a good groundwork in the use of
English as a communication skill and to be able to do

the calculations necessary to hold his or her own in every-
day life and which is now necessary for employment in all
but the most unskilled labour opportunities. The practi-
cal subjects are thought to be necessary as a part of
physical development and to help to overcome the phobia
which many people have for activities which involve the

use of the hands;

(3) opportunities for the proper development of those children
who will go on to the second cycle of secondary education
while providing opportunities for prevocational education
for those who will not continue formal education but who
will expect to be acceptable to employers for employment
and training;

(4) the provision of facilities for the use of the community
and for young people who wish to continue their studies on
a part-time basis outside the formal system.14

The New Deal stresses the importance of remedial work to compen-

sate for the deficiencies of the primary school:

It is the policy of this Ministry to develop efficient
remedial work wherever the need arises. The Ministry is con-
vinced that the success of the Junior Secondary Schools is
dependent on effective and properly run Remedial classes at
the lat and 2nd year-levels. These classes will ensure that:

 

14 New Deal, op. cit., pp. 57-8.

in the

46

Every fifteen-year old child leaving school should be
functionally literate, and should be able to do simple
calculations.

The standard of children's reading and comprehension
should be so improved that they develop a love for
reading as a means of enjoyment and as a form of research.

Every fifteen-year-old school-leaver should be able to
communicate in good basic English. This is necessary
because the Jamaican dialect has not currency outside of
Jamaica except among Jamaicans abroad.15

The educational aims of the junior secondary school as provided

Master Plan Report place emphasis upon future employment needs

of the pupils, and on the need to correct the imbalance between the

16

national supply of and the demand for secondary school graduates.

A.more detailed statement of aims has been prepared by the
17

National Curriculum Development Committee, specifically to direct the

activities of the teaching staffs of the junior secondary schools. The

aims fall into the following general categories:

A.

B.

Personal Development

Citizenship

Ethical Values
Vocational Interests
Health Practices

#WNH

Acquisition of Skills

5. Fundamentals of communication and computation

 

15 New Deal, p. 104.

16 Master Plan Report, op. cit., pp. 3-4. (For further objec-

tives in the Master Plan Report, see Appendix B—l).

17 Aims of the Junior Secondary School (Kingston: National

Curriculum Development Committee) (Mimeographed).

47
6. Habits of critical thinking
7. Work Habits and Attitudes toward Work
C. Involvement in His World
8. Consumer Skills
9. Relation to Environment
10. Appreciation of Fine Arts

Each of these categories is further analyzed into more specific opera-

tional terms for teachers. (See Appendix B—Z).
CURRICULUM

The curriculum of the junior secondary schools, as provided in
the New Deal for Education in Independent Jamaica, includes the follow-
ing subjects:18

English

Mathematics

Social Studies (History, Geography, Civics)
Spanish or French

General Science

Agriculture (Rural)

Home Economics

Industrial Arts

Arts and Crafts

Religious Knowledge
Physical Education and Games
Music

The essential elements of the curriculum are English, mathematics
and general science which claim the major share of class time. What is
desired in the curriculum is a balance of academic and practical subject-

matter within one institution, rather than the older reliance on a balance

being achieved among various types of institutions.

 

18 New Deal, 0p. cit., p. 61.

48

The timetable consists of forty periods of forty minutes each

per week. The four schools studied are providing approximately the

following proportionate allocations of time for the different subject

are as 3

Table 4. Subject Area Time Allocations

 

Subject Area

Z Time Allocation

 

 

 

Arts subjects (English, social studies, Spanish) 35
Mathematics - science - agriculture 27%
Practical subjects (industrial arts, home
economics, art and crafts) 17
Physical education 4
Library 5
Music 4
Religious education 2%
Clubs 5
Total 100

 

However, these percentages must be interpreted liberally, as there are

rather wide variations between schools, and within schools to accommodate

different grades and streams at the discretion of the principal. One

noticeable trend is to increase time allocated for academic subjects for

upper stream Grade 9 pupils at the expense of practical subjects; con-

versely, time allocated for practical subjects for lower stream Grade 9

pupils is increased at the expense of subjects such as Spanish.

49

The schools devote Friday afternoons to club periods which
include a great many artistic activities such as art and crafts, music,
drama and dance.

Since Jamaican dialect is the language spoken in the homes of
most of the pupils, the teachers must face the problem of teaching
standard English and differentiating the two languages in the pupils'
minds, particularly in remedial classes.

The first year of the junior secondary school is essentially
diagnostic-—a period of orientation and assessment. While there is a
curriculum common to all, pupils are streamed to enable them to work
at levels appropriate to their own achievement; some receive remedial
help in English and arithmetic while others do more advanced work.
Policy is to encourage each child to work at his own level:

There will always be a policy of transfer so that pupils who
improve may move to a faster moving group and 'vice versa.‘

Under no circumstances however will a bright pupil be

held back to wait for slower pupils to catch up with him.

The methods used during this first year which is a diagnostic
period, must specially aim at ensuring this, as otherwise a
convoy system will develop where the slowest sets the pace of
all. A child who is good academic material should not advance
at a Junior Secondary School any slower than he would in high
school.19

All the junior secondary schools are well equipped to teach
home economics; these facilities are to be used fully in day and evening
classes. Home economics is considered vitally important because of the
demands of good home—making, and because of "the necessity to put to

19 New Deal, p. 58.

50

economic and nutritional use as much as possible of the material which
now goes to waste or is sold in the raw." It is suggested that boys
might show an interest in this area as a result of the demands of the
growing tourist industry.20

Industrial arts courses in the day school are intended to be
pre-vocational, designed to orient the learner and make him more fit
for vocational training. Evening classes for young persons and adults
are encouraged to provide largely vocational education, direct preparer
tion for production or specific employment.21

All junior secondary schools located in rural areas teach
agriculture. In siting these schools, consideration is given to
suitable lands and other provisions necessary for offering agricul-
tural education.

The Curriculum Planning Committee, which was created specially
to plan curricula for the junior secondary schools, was expanded in
1968 to form the National Curriculum Development Committee whose
activities are directed at all levels of education in Jamaica--early
childhood, primary, junior secondary, senior cycle, technical-voca-
tional--including an overview of teacher training, though this last
mentioned area is essentially controlled by the Institute of Education,
U.W.I. The paramount aim of the National Curriculum Development Committee

is the achievement of a meaningful, articulated education system with

smooth "dovetailing" from one level to another.

 

20 New Deal, p. 77.

21 Ibid., p. 76.

51

The committee consists of a body of people chosen for their
particular competencies; it includes teachers at all levels including
the College of Arts, Science and Technology, and the university, as
well as people from such institutions as the church and business. The
committee is intended to be a microcosm of the society which is expected
to express its views on education.

The National Curriculum Development Committee is concerned with
overall educational philosophy, planning and change, and gives direction
and guidance to thirteen curriculum sub-committees which operate in the
areas of mathematics, general science, English, physical and health
education, religious knowledge, art and crafts, music, social studies,
agriculture, business education, home economics, industrial arts, and
Spanish.22'

The Curriculum.Subject Sub-Committees, which are constituted
almost entirely of practising teachers at all levels, have completed
syllabi for all the subject areas of the junior secondary school.
(Topical summaries of the junior secondary school syllabi may be found
in Appendix D). These syllabi are to be revised every three years. As
well, continuous revision is undertaken as each sub—committee gets feed—
back on the effectiveness of its syllabus, and as comments and suggestions
are received from teachers during summer courses.

Syllabi are explained to teacher trainees in teachers' colleges,

and to practising teachers by means of seminars on a continuous basis--

 

22 "The National Curriculum Development Committee and the
Curriculum Subject Sub-Committees," p. 1, Performance Report 1970-1971
(Kingston: Ministry of Education) (Mimeographed).

52

on week-ends and at summer courses; as well, education officers conduct
in-service training when they visit schools. The syllabus provides
scope for the improvisation and initiative of individual teachers, as
well as for experimentation such as that presently being undertaken by
the Science Centre at the U.W.I. in the area of science teaching.

The Book Rental Service of the Ministry of Education necessi-
tates the selection of textbooks for certain grades by the subject
sub-committees. However, it is not the intention of the committee to
confine teachers to one textbook. Schools are encouraged to purchase
reference books to supplement those prescribed. It is the intention
of the National Curriculum Development Committee to encourage the
production of textbooks by local authors; the aim is to develop a group
of people who can find time to write books relevant to the syllabi they
have produced. A number of books have already been prepared in English,
science and social studies. The prOposed Caribbean Examinations
Council23 will of necessity foster the production of textbooks with a
Caribbean orientation.

Within the committee, groups form for each educational level;
the constant interaction between these groups facilitates for each one

a view of the continuous progress of the pupil through each level of

 

23 Consideration has been given to the establishment of an
independent examinations council to serve either Jamaica alone, or most
of the English-speaking Caribbean countries. Its responsibilities would
include establishing a local General Certificate of Education (GCE)
examination to replace the external examinations of London and Cambridge
Universities, as well as assuming responsibility for the various examina-
tions conducted by the local Ministry of Education, so that examination
subject syllabi and textbooks could be adapted to local needs. Equiva-
lent standards with other GCE examinations would be secured by including
representatives of Cambridge and London Universities on the council.
Plans have not yet been completed.

r‘fi

('2

53

the education system. It is planned that each subject sub-committee
'will develop a Grade 10 program which will ensure continuity from the
Grade 9 program of the junior secondary school into the second cycle
school program, and which will provide the subject matter basis for
the Jamaica School Certificate examinations.

Finally, an important linkage is usually maintained between
the subject sub-committees and the preparation of educational tele-
vision programs. For example, ETV science programs constitute the
core of the science syllabus for junior secondary schools.

The ultimate responsibility for gaining value from these plans
and programs rests with the teachers and the pupils. Because of
limited resources, unfortunately, the Ministry of Education is not
yet able to control fully the quality of teachers nor the attendance

of pupils in the junior secondary schools.
TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES

The Registration Board for Teachers, which includes representa-
tives of professional teachers' associations, controls the registration
of teachers, and ensures the maintenance of proper standards of conduct
by registered teachers.24 All teachers in junior secondary schools must
be registered teachers. (The various grades of teachers are described
in Appendix E).

It is the policy of the Ministry of Education that junior

secondary schools be staffed entirely by trained teachers who are

 

24 Education Act, 1965, op. cit., Section 32, p. 30.

54

specially prepared for them. "The Training Colleges are providing
special courses to produce teachers who will each be competent in two
subject areas. Every effort is being made to recruit trainees for
these courses at not less than G.C.E. '0' level."25 Policy also is to
attempt to recruit teachers of agriculture from among the graduates

of the Jamaica School of Agriculture, and to pay them salaries
commensurate with what they would normally have received in other
branches of government service.26

University graduates may be employed in junior secondary schools
to teach English, mathematics, general science and Spanish. The
principal normally should be a university graduate except where a non-
graduate has given outstanding service to education. A vice-principal
may be expected to have a university certificate in education.

The policy of staffing all junior secondary schools with fully
trained teachers does not always work out in practice, especially in
rural areas where trained teachers are less willing to take up positions.
For this reason, it is the policy of the Ministry to give teachers in
remote and difficult areas priorities in connection with amenities
such as housing and electricity.

In the year 1969-70 there were 884 trained and 44 pre—trained

teachers in the junior secondary schools. Included in these totals

 

25 New Deal, op. cit., p. 83. In a subsequent effort to induce

students with GCE Ordinary Level academic qualifications to enter the
teaching profession, the Minister of Education established a pilot pro-
ject in September, 1970, at Excelsior High School, offering GCE Advanced
Level courses concurrently with a teacher training program. By 1972 this
innovation had been adopted by some leading Jamaican teacher training
colleges.

26 Ibid., p. 77.

55

were 27 university graduates, 143 specialists in practical subjects and
the arts, and one foreign volunteer.27

The New Deal for Education in Independent Jamaica called for
a teacher-pupil ratio in junior secondary schools of 1:45 for normal
classroom subjects, and 1:23 for practical subjects. Each school was
to be staffed at first with a principal and assistants at the rate of
one teacher to 35 pupils; it was planned to reduce the size of classes
gradually so that after 1970 the class size would be 40 and the teacher-
pupil ratio accordingly reduced.28

In a 5-day week consisting of forty periods of 40 minutes each,
junior secondary teachers are to carry a work-load of 35 periods. The
deputy principal is to carry a full teaching load, and the principal is
to assume some teaching periods. Classes are to be conducted on the
basis of the official curricula for the junior secondary schools.29

Schools are inspected every 3-5 years. A panel of inspectors
in specialist areas goes into a school for a week or so to see what is
being taught, how it is being taught, and the reaction of the teaching
on the pupils. The tone and discipline of the school are assessed as
well as the administration. During the year 1972, inspection began of
the first World Bank junior secondary schools which opened in 1969.

As well as inspection, the Ministry of Education provides a

supervisory staff whose general responsibility is to advise principals

 

27 Digest of Statistics 1969/70, (Kingston: Ministry of
Education) (Mimeographed), pp. 121-4.

8 New Deal, op. cit., p. 58.

29 Master Plan Report, op. cit., p. 25.

56

on such questions as curriculum, school organization and administration,
time-tabling, and staff allocation. Supervisory staff also advise
teachers on class organization and management, syllabus construction,
and general teaching methods, together with specialized help in specific
subject areas of their own competence. They participate in in-service
training courses, provide professional leadership and inspiration,

give demonstration lessons, and provide the Ministry with feed-back

information from the field.30

PUPIL ATTENDANCE

All children who have completed the sixth grade at the age of
12 years are eligible to enter junior secondary schools, where they
are available, on a non-selective basis for a three-year course. (Those
already selected for admission to an academic high school would normally
prefer to attend that institution unless they could not afford to accept
a fee-paying place). No person may be admitted as a pupil to a junior
secondary school before he has attained the age of twelve years or be
retained in such a school after the end of the school year in which he
has attained the age of fifteen years.31 Undesirable pupils may be
suspended or expelled.32

It is not yet compulsory by law that children attend school in

Jamaica except in a few parishes designated "compulsory education areas";

 

30 New Deal, op. cit., p. 99.

31 The Education Regulations, 1966, op. cit., Section 47(c),

p. 24.

32 Ibid., Section 47 (3-5), pp. 24—5.

57

even in these areas, the law is ineffectual because of a shortage of
truant officers. In fact, there are insufficient places in junior
secondary schools for all the children who would like to attend. Many
are over-enrolled so that if all pupils attend regularly, the capacity
of the schools would be seriously taxed. For the school year 1969-70
the average attendance in all junior secondary schools was only 72.4
per cent.

What provision is made for the further education of the fifteen

year-olds who leave the junior secondary schools?

FURTHER EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

At the conclusion of their course at the age of fifteen years,
a relatively small number of junior secondary and all-age school pupils
are eligible for transfer to academic high schools by means of the Grade
Nine Achievement Test. There is no direct cut-off point on the Grade
Nine Achievement Test; it is a means used to select the best candidates
for the openings available in academic and technical high schools and
comprehensive schools. (Such Openings are occasioned by pupils leaving
school because of poor performance, or because they are unable to afford
further their fee-paying places). In 1971, out of a total of 13,368
candidates sitting the examination, 1,298 (9.7%) were transferred, in-
cluding 544 boys and 754 girls. The majority of these pupils were
awarded free places to academic and technical high schools and compre-

hensive schools.33

 

33 Information provided by the Examinations Section, Ministry

of Education.

58

Transferees from junior secondary schools to high schools rarely
enter Grade 10 (Form IV) of the high school: because of different
academic standards it is nearly always necessary for them to repeat
Grade 9 (Form III) in the high school before proceeding. Further, the
curricula of the different types of school at the Grades 7-9 level may
differ considerably.

A potential problem exists for pupils who enter academic high
schools from junior secondary schools because of their age. Since they
are usually required to repeat Grade 9 (Form 111) in the high school,
they are one year older than pupils who entered high school in Grade 7.
While they may complete Grade 11 (Form V), they must not be over the
age of 18 on September 1 of the year they enter Lower Sixth Form, and
they must not be over the age of 19 on September 1 of the year they
enter Upper Sixth Form. It is quite possible that some academically
good students from the junior secondary schools will find themselves
a few months too old to be able to pursue Sixth Form studies in the
high schools when they finally reach that level.

The vast majority of pupils who complete Grade 9 have no
opportunity to continue their education full-time during the day. Each
junior secondary school is free to provide Grade 9 school—leavers with
its own school-leaving certificate. A school may provide no certificate,
or it may provide a certificate generally stating that the pupil
attended the school for a length of time. Some schools include a more
personalized statement about the individual pupil's areas of competency.
One junior secondary school provides certificates only to those who

have a record of at least 75 per cent attendance. It is recognized

59

that a school-leaving certificate from a junior secondary school has

no official status; furthermore, a fifteen—year old is too young to

enter grainful employment in Jamaica. Thus, pupils who terminate their
formal education at the end of Grade 9 in junior secondary or all-age
schools are urged to return to the evening classes of the junior secondary
schools where they are provided instruction in preparation for the
Jamaica School Certificate Examination (JSC), which is rated at approx-
imately Grade 10 level.

The Jamaica School Certificate Examination is the largest
examination conducted by the Ministry of Education, and the numbers of
candidates are increasing rapidly each year. In the July 1970 examinap
tion, 36,687 candidates were processed; 44,254 in 1971, and 59,751* in
1972.34 (*This number includes absentees, a category deducted from the
1970 and 1971 figures). A list of subjects which may be written sepa-
rately for the Jamaica School Certificate are to be found in Appendix
B-l.

The full certificate of the J.S.C., besides being recognized
for lesser jobs in the business sector and private industry, qualifies
one for entry to the civil service, nursing training, police school,
and teacher training. Thus, the evening classes leading to the Jamaica
School Certificate are important in enabling the Grade 9 school-leaver
to make the transition from school to employment via an officially

recognized certification.

 

34 Information provided by the Examinations Section, Ministry

of Education.

60

ANCILLARY SERVICES

Ancillary services to the junior secondary schools include the
rental of textbooks, the provision of low-cost school dinners, educa-
tional television and radio broadcasts, and a school health service, as

35

well as the evening classes already mentioned.

The Book Rental Scheme is a means whereby textbooks are rented

 

to pupils in junior secondary schools in order to lessen the financial
burden on parents and to enable pupils to make the most of the educa-
tional opportunity available to them. Each pupil pays $4.00 rental per
year, plus $1.00 caution deposit. A minority of parents expect junior
secondary education to be completely free including textbooks; children
who do not pay the rental fee are unable to take the books home, and
their progress in school is thereby retarded. Principals must there-
fore undertake to change the attitudes of some parents in introducing
this idea of participation.

Each junior secondary school is fully equipped with a kitchen

and staff to provide hot school meals for pupils at the minimal cost

 

per pupil of five to ten cents. The chief purpose of the program is

to supplement the diets of needy children. It is estimated that among
junior secondary schools there is a 10-95 per cent range in pupil con—
sumption of school meals, with a greater consumption in the rural than

the urban schools.36

 

35 More detailed descriptions of these services may be found
in Appendix G.

36 Estimate provided by the Home Economics Officer, Ministry
of Education.

61

Program planning for educational radio and television is closely
related to curriculum revision and development. The National Curriculum
Development Committee gives advice on program content and participates
in program presentation. Programs for the junior secondary schools have
been chiefly concentrated in the subject areas of social studies,
science, Spanish and agriculture.37 Television sets, provided by the
Government of Jamaica and by USAID, have been supplied to each of the
junior secondary schools.

Public health nurses from the Ministry of Health visit schools
to give smallpox vaccinations, and conduct the ECG program against
tuberculosis. The Family Planning Unit, endorsed by the Ministry of
Health, conducts a Family Life Education program.which sends speakers
to talk to pupils in the junior secondary schools throughout Jamaica.

Evenimg classes in the junior secondary schools provide for
continuity in the education of Grade 9 school-leavers in that they
study subjects at the Grade 10 level leading to the Jamaica School
Certificate Examination, and continue under the influence of the princi-
pal and teachers of the school. Each student pays $2 per term ($6 per
year) to take as many subjects as he wishes.

Projects of an experimental nature are being undertaken in
selected junior secondary schools. Particularly important are the pro-
jects in remedial reading, science, and mathematics. These experiments

are generally undertaken with the close cooperation of the Ministry of

 

37.A sample of educational television and radio programming at
the junior secondary level for the Summer Term 1972, April-June, may
be found in Appendix F.

62

Education, the University of the West Indies, the National Curriculum
Development Committee and its subject sub-committees, as well as the

principals and teachers of the schools concerned.

SUMMARY

The management, goals and curriculum of the junior secondary
schools are centralized under the authority of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, which also provides ancillary services such as the rental of
textbooks, a school meals service, and evening classes. However, the
Ministry of Education has succeeded in obtaining rather widespread
assistance from individuals, voluntary agencies and other public bodies
in the management of individual schools, in advising the Minister,
developing curricula, and providing ancillary services such as educa-
tional broadcasting, subject teaching experiments, and health services.

We shall now study four of the World Bank junior secondary
schools in an attempt to assess the product of these educational

policies and provisions.

CHAPTER III

UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE FOUR SCHOOLS

Despite the many provisions common to all the junior secondary
schools, there are features which distinguish one school from another.
Such differences result in large part from the sensitivity of the
principals and staffs to the needs of the children of the quite differ-
ent communities in which the schools are situated. Salient distinguish-
ing features of each school will now be described within its community.

BANANA GROVE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
SERVING A RURAL AGRICULTURAL AREA

Banana Grove is a mountainous agricultural community of small
farmers, most of whom gain their livelihood entirely from the continuous
cultivation and sale of bananas. The village of Banana Grove is sit-
uated seventeen miles from a large sea-coast parish center, and
approximately 1,200 feet above sea level. There is a narrow, winding,
paved road extending from Banana Grove to the parish center, good
telephone communications and mail service, and prompt, early delivery
of the daily newspaper from Kingston.

The size of individual farms ranges from one-half to twenty-five
acres; most are between three to five acres. The gross annual earnings

from a ten—acre farm, which provides full—time employment for the farmer,

would amount to approximately $1,200 Jamaican ($1,440 American) from

63

64

which must be deducted the costs of hired labor during reaping and
fertilizing periods, fertilizers, and spraying trees against disease.
The Government Banana Board in 1972 assured the farmer of a stable,
basic price of 1.6 cents per pound for his produce. The board co-
operates with the All—Island Banana Growers' Association for the welfare
of the farmer. Encouraged by the Minister of Agriculture, nearly all
the farmers of Banana Grove buy shares in their own cooperative banana
boxing plant.

A government agricultural officer observed first, a tendency
for farmers to abandon too quickly an older crop when they see their
neighbor producing a different one successfully, resulting in over-
production of a single crop in the area and a reliance upon it. Second,
there is the continuous risk of loss through hurricane. Third, pro-
duction of food for home consumption is sacrificed to the production
of the cash crop. The agricultural officer would like to see Banana
Grove farmers reduce their areas of banana cultivation in favor of
diversification, and is beginning an experimental poultry project on
his own land which he hopes will be useful for demonstration purposes.

There is a strong religious commitment throughout the community
to various Protestant churches. Most children receive moral and ethical
training at home and at church. There is grass-roots involvement as
lay preachers and lay leaders, many of them also leaders in agriculture,
conduct most services, supported occasionally by visiting clergymen.

The average family size is about six. Parents make sacrifices
to send their children to school. A major problem for the schools is

the regular attendance of the children, especially on days when they are

65

needed at home for farm work. Non—attendance is most pronounced on
Fridays when many children carry loads of bananas from the fields to
the trucks and some go to market.

The National Baptist Convention of America had established a
secondary educational institution in the area which closed in 1964-5.
Some of its former pupils gained entrance to high schools in the sea-
coast parish center, while others were to be found aimless on the
streets. The principal of the local primary school added a special
class to accommodate these pupils, and prepared them for the Jamaica
School Certificate examinations; lacking sufficient accommodations,
many of these classes were conducted under the trees. The school re-
mained an all-age school until the Ministry of Education opened the
Banana Grove Junior Secondary School in 1969 to satisfy the need for
secondary education. The principal of the all-age school spent the
year 1967-8 studying in the United States, and the following year he
supervised teachers in their internship year. When the Banana Grove
Junior Secondary School opened in 1969 he became its first principal
and is continuing in that role.

The junior secondary school staff has the important function
of sharing in community leadership. In this integrated community, where
leaders in the local branch of the Jamaica Agricultural Society and the
All-Island Banana Growers' Association are also lay leaders in the
churches and in educational development, the principal of the junior
secondary school is himself a leader in agricultural and religious as
well as educational institutions. The people like school staff members

to assist at religious services, Sunday School, social events and concerts.

66

Here the old Jamaican tradition is still evident where the village
teacher was expected to be lay preacher, cultural example, and social
organizer. A striking illustration of the social unity of Banana Grove
leading to worthwhile community action was the "rally" organized by the
Basic SChool Committee of interested citizens and held in the junior
secondary school to raise money for two basic schools in areas where pre-
school education was considered vitally necessary. (The "rally" is an
older Jamaican money-raising institution which is fast disappearing in
other areas of the country). Important is the fact that the principal
of the school was a major organizer of the rally, and that the chairman
was a teacher on the staff as well as an ordained clergyman.

The pupils and staff for the school year 1971-72 are described
in Table 5 below.

Table 5. Pupil and Staff Populations Banana Grove
Junior Secondary School 1971-72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Populations Number
Maximum enrolment intended 810
Pppils enrolled

Grades 7-9 762*

Grade 10 50
Streams in grade

Grade 7 6

Grade 8 6

Grade 9 6
Averege class size 45
Teaching staff

Total number 26

University graduates l

Untrained 2

Expatriates 1**

 

* 247 in Grade 7; 229 in Grade 8; 286 in Grade 9.

** American

67

Many students have to walk long distances to school. Some
living near central road communications pay to travel on buses.

The junior secondary school is adjacent to the small business
district of the village of Banana Grove. The school is sited on
difficult, hilly terrain which necessitated the construction of three
building units, horizontally placed on different levels.1 The hillside
on the northern boundary forms an interesting agricultural experimental
area to demonstrate the wiser utilization of hill slopes for cultiva-
tion; here bananas, fruits, vegetables, poultry and rabbits are cared
for by the school's agricultural department. Because of the shortage
of level areas, the school has a reduced playing field.2

Interesting projects of the Banana Grove school are its agri-
cultural program, its Thrift Club, and a student parliament.

The agriculture classes are of direct vocational interest to
many of the pupils. Boys and girls follow the same program, which
attempts to apply a scientific approach to farming in the local area,
and demonstrates the possibilities of food production for home con-
sumption. The scientific method is promoted by means of experiments.
For example, pupils will test to discover whether one or another type
of fertilizer is more beneficial for tomato plants. Some pupils put
the results of such experiments into practice at home. They sometimes
ask the teacher's advice about their parents' agricultural problems.

Consumer skills are developed as each Grade 7 pupil keeps a

book in which he records his observations and costs of materials which

 

For diagrams of the ”linear scheme," see Appendix J-l.

2 The standard playing field size is 165 feet by 300 feet.

68

he uses in agricultural projects. Grade 9 pupils make a more detailed
recording. The school farm is really tutorial rather than commercial,
but pupils do have an idea of whether or not it is profitable. While
it is not officially in the syllabus, the teacher feels that pupils
should know how to budget costs, and estimate accurately the returns
gained.

The elected class representative has the responsibility of leader-
ship; at the beginning of each class he assigns tasks on a rotational
basis to each pupil, and he provides a good example by working as well
as supervising.

The teacher reports that at first pupils are not very interested
in studying agriculture which they expect will be the old method of
planting and reaping which most of their parents follow. After the
teacher shows that his approach is experimental, both practical and
theoretical, and that everything done in the class is meant to prove
something, the pupils take more interest.

Active community support has been enlisted for the school's
agricultural program from organizations such as the Jamaican coffee
industry, the Jamaican Agricultural Society, and the All-Island Banana
Growers' Association.

Complementary to the agricultural program, the 4-H Club, con—
ducted under the specific leadership of the teacher of agriculture and
assisted by eight other teachers, is probably the most important extra-
curricular activity in this school. Its major purposes are to encourage
young people to develop skills useful to the farming community. Four-H

means the all round development of the head, the hand, the heart and

69

health. These purposes, and the activities which they encourage,
help to advance several of the objectives of the junior secondary
school.3

The school has organized a Thrift Club in order to encourage
pupils to develop consumer skills. Each class keeps its own account.
Pupils may deposit or withdraw their money weekly. Each pupil has
his own pass book. Homeromm teachers collect the money, record it,
and deposit it with the bursar for banking. 'Most deposits come
from pupils' pocket money; some pupils make deposits for their parents.
Towards the end of June, 1972, some class accounts amounted to
approximately $30 for a class of twenty children; a total of over
$1,000 was on deposit for the whole school, a sumpwhich had accumulated
over a rather long period. Withdrawals occur chiefly over the festive
season or when books or clothing are needed. The principal comments
that in most cases there is careful handling of money in the pupils'
homes. The school is therefore supporting parents' efforts to teach
their children the value of money.

In an effort to teach pupils the Jamaican democratic parliar
mentary system which is based upon the British model, social studies
teachers have conducted a parliament with senior pupils. They were
introduced to legislative, judicial and executive functions of govern-

ment. Their classes have discussed and debated questions such as

 

3 For a fuller description of 4—H activities at Banana Grove
Junior Secondary School, see Appendix I-l.

70

"lowering the voting age" and "we are the children of slaves"; the
latter topic is a manifestation of current interest in Jamaican
identity. A particularly interesting discussion developed in a

Grade 9 class which was studying Jamaica's trade in relation to the
value of money. Reference was made to the 1967 devaluation of the
pound. The teacher explained how devaluation affected trade, and out-
lined the unfavorable balance of payments Jamaica had been experiencing
for some time. Since Jamaica had a considerable amount of trade with
Great Britain, and her currency was tied to British currency, it

was natural to devalue Jamaica's currency as well. Pupils then
discussed whether or not it was better for Jamaica to produce her

own products rather than to use valuable foreign currency on imports.
Some pupils felt that the Jamaican dollar was not valuable. The
ensuing discussion gave pupils an opportunity to take a critical look
at their own judgment in relation to a national problem. Pupils
suggest topics for discussion and debate such as "whether hippies

" "a second bus service in Jamaica,"

should be allowed into Jamaica,
and "the tinned milk problem."
Thus, the Banana Grove Junior Secondary School endeavors to

prepare its pupils as active, aware participants in both local and

national life.

71

SEASURF JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
SERVING A COASTAL RESORT TOWN

Seasurf is an attractive small tourist resort town on the north
coast of Jamaica, famed for its golden sandy beaches and lovely water-
falls. It has one of the best public natural recreational areas in the
country. Most residents are involved in occupations related to the
tourist industry: in hotels, restaurants, building construction, chauf-
feuring, or supplying objects for sale. A bauxite plant on the edge of
town employs a few people. The community of Seasurf may be said to
include the surrounding agricultural area which supplies fresh food-
stuffs to the town.

There is good communication with Kingston and other coastal
resort areas.

Although there is quite a strong traditional religious commit-
ment in Seasurf, the influence of materialistic values is increasing.
While tourism provides worthwhile Opportunities for local residents to
enlarge their experiences by meeting foreign nationals, it also
emphasizes disparities in income, and false impressions of life abroad
as foreigners are observed chiefly on holiday. The principal of the
junior secondary school is very much aware of this social influence on
her pupils.

There are a number of voluntary organizations which contribute
to a rather strong community spirit. They manifest their interest in
the welfare of the pupils by making their own unique contributions to

the school.

72

The seven acres of land on which the school stands were given
by a prominent citizen to the Church of England to build a parochial
high school to receive children leaving the local Anglican preparatory
school. However, because they lacked funds to build, Anglican offi-
cials gave the land to the Ministry of Education. On this site the
Ministry built the Seasurf Junior Secondary School which opened in
September, 1969.

Parents of children in the preparatory school will send their
children to Anglican private grammar schools rather than to the junior
secondary school. Other parents are concerned that their children be
prepared to earn a living. Since the junior secondary school is a new
institution in Seasurf, and people are skeptical about what they do
not understand, the school must prove its worth to the community.

From the inception of the school, its principal embarked upon
a program to enlist the support of "all walks of life" in the community
for the welfare of the pupils. She organized the Friends of Our
School Association which includes not only parents and teachers, but
also clergymen, and representatives of service clubs, and the bauxite
industry. The purpose of the association is "to form a bond between
parents, pupils, teachers and the whole community." In a special effort
to reach parents in rural areas, "zone meetings" of the association are
held in different rural areas on a rotational basis. A special function
of the association has been assisting the principal in providing for
needy pupils in the form of hot school dinners and clothing.

The pupils and staff for the school year 1971-72 are described

in Table 6 below:

73

Table 6. Pupil and Staff Populations Seasurf Junior
Secondary School 1971—72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Populations Number
Maximum enrollment intended 810
Pppils enrolled

Grades 7-9 765

Grade 10 20
Streams in grade

Grade 7 6

Grade 8 6

Grade 9 6
Average class size 45
Teachingrstaff

Total number 26

University graduates 4

Untrained 1*

Expatriates 4**

 

* Art specialist

** One American, one English, two Canadian

The pupils come from the homes of working class parents in the
town of Seasurf, and from the surrounding agricultural community.

The seven-acre school site is approached from a major thorough-
fare. The iron gate entrance is usually open during school hours. The
compound is beautifully fringed on its northern boundary by coconut trees.
Towards the southern boundary rise steep slopes at the foot of which has
been improvised a rough, inadequate cricket field. Like Banana Grove,
the "linear scheme" is utilized.4 Large, colorful murals, painted by the
art department, decorate the walls of the school buildings, adding con-

siderably to their general attractiveness. Because the steepness of much

 

4 See Appendix J-l.

74

of the land limits its use for recreation, supplementary land across
the street has been made available for playing fields.

Unique aspects of the Seasurf school are its vocational programs
related to the tourist industry, experimentation in the area of remedial
reading, and endeavors in the arts. These programs are described in the
comparison in the following chapter.

The need is recognized to make the school's programs more
functional to prepare pupils for participation in the economic life of
their own community. The principal conducted a study of her pupils'
vocational aspirations, and found that, in general, their vocational
interests were fairly realistic in terms of their abilities. Many
children of higher academic ability aspired to continue their education
to the professions. While some pupils in the lower streams hoped to
become teachers or nurses for which they would have to achieve the
Jamaica School Certificate (Grade 10), the rest wanted to enter trades.
In fact, the principal asserts that more parents are now demanding
full-time trades training for a longer time for their children rather
than academic education, as they can see many opportunities in this
community in the trades area. Therefore, the practical subjects assume
major importance in the school.

The school has a very strong social emphasis; the principal
considers it a "life situation" in which pupils learn the values of
good citizenship. In her endeavors to develop programs functional to
the social life of the community, she is assisted by interested community
organizations who sponsor the school's Red Cross Club, Boy Scouts,

Youth Club and Key Club (Kiwanis), all of which help to develop good

75

citizens and to overcome "deficiency of values in home life." The
Cadet Corps, led by the vice-principal, is noteworthy for its attractive
new uniforms and insignia, marching drills and discipline. The program
includes Studies in map-reading, and aims to produce disciplined, loyal
Jamaican citizens. The high visibility of this group as a result of
its uniforms, together with the attractions of possible summer camps
and tours, have created some competition for enrollment in the other clubs.
A community leader of one of the groups Observed that since school is the
"most prestigious organization," the "chief motivating force," and "the
springboard" for young people's participation, the school's official
recognition of these outside organizations is important for their accept-
ance by the pupils, so that they become part Of the whole school program.
In a further effort to make the program socially functional, social
studies classes have gathered their own information about mining development
in their community, cattle-raising and housing, together with related human
prOblems and their solution. While the study centered on occupational spe-
cialization in their own community, it was devoted to the whole of Jamaica.
Despite these efforts, the junior secondary school in Seasurf is
striving for acceptance by the community. The grammar school image
persists, and passing examinations indicates success with the result
that many "scoff at the school's cultural and social activities."
Divergence of Opinion is revealed in the following two statements. One
informant expressed the view that "the school could well prove to be a
stepping-stone between primary and secondary school, a sort of glorified
primary school," and that "it might be better to have a trades school

for these pupils." On the other hand, another commented, "It is a shame

76

that with these facilities everyone isn't coming here; then after
three years some could go on to senior high schools. Everyone should
go to the same common school. There is no sense in separating the
cream from the rest. These pupils need the influence of more intelli-
gent children; all must learn from each other and benefit from each
other."

INDUSTRIAL TOWN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

SERVING AN URBAN INDUSTRIAL AREA

Industrial Town is one of the most depressed, densely populated
areas in the western part of Kingston. This working class community
consists predominantly of unskilled laborers, kitchen helpers and
maids. The already overcrowded small houses are further swelled by
young relatives coming from the country to the city to seek employment,
pleasure, and "better educational Opportunities." Rather attractive
low-rental government housing schemes of two-bedroom apartments and
cottages with children's playgrounds have been established to alleviate
somewhat the housing problem. In the home the mother is dominant, often
the sole support of her family. In this area of chronic unemployment
and alienation, violence is the "normal" way of solving problems, and
has become a social problem of extreme magnitude.

A large number of people in the community believe that they have
ancestral and religious connections with Ethiopia; they call themselves
Rastafarians. As well, there are fairly large numbers of Jamaicans of
Indian origin.

In 1965 the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, visited Jamaica

and contributed to the building of a junior secondary school. The

77

Emperor laid the cornerstone of Industrial Town Junior Secondary School,
and its first pupils were admitted in September, 1969.

The Parent-Teachers' Association is vitally interested in the
welfare of the pupils. A major effort of this organization during
the year 1971-72 was to raise money by means of such things as tea
parties to build a new school wall where it had been broken by vandals
and goats. In fact, security precautions are vitally necessary at
this school; the iron entrance gates are kept locked twenty-four hours
a day, and opened only for officially designated persons. The necessity
of concern for the pupils' physical welfare may be illustrated by the
following incident which occurred during the writer's visits to the
school. A younger pupil had his comic book snatched away by a young
man who had come in through the gates to attend evening classes. One
of the finest pupils of the school, upon asking the young man to return
the book, was stabbed in the back and sent to hospital in critical con-
dition.

The pupils and staff for the school year 1971-72 are described
in Table 7.

Most pupils come from within an area of four to five square
miles. Ninety per cent come from the previously described low-income,
overcrowded, mother-dominated homes. Moral responsibility is often
indifferent. Children are accustomed to beatings at home and expect the
same at school. This creates a problem for the teaching staff who try
to develop self-discipline in their pupils.

The approximately six-acre level school site is approached from

a minor residential street just three hundred yards from the major

78

Table 7. Pupil and Staff Populations Industrial Town
Junior Secondary School 1971-72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Populations Number
Maximum enrollment intended 810
Pupils enrolled

Grades 7-9 1,013

A Grade 10 25
Streams in grade

Grade 7 8

Grade 8 6

Grade 9 6
Average class size 50
Teachimgpstaff

Total number 35

University graduates 3

Untrained 0

Expatriates 3*

 

* A Trinidadian, an American, and an Australian

industrial area of Spanish Town Road. Inside the locked gate is an
attractive lawn and adequate parking space. In order to gain entry
to the school buildings, one must pass through a second set of iron
gates which are kept locked outside of school hours. The flat terrain
has permitted usage of the "court scheme."5 The inner court is a
bright garden of grass, tropical flowers and plants, and in the center
is a concrete dais used for school performances, backed by a large,
colorful mural.

Programs important and relevant to the Industrial Town school
are its competitive merit point system to encourage good work habits,

a student court and games.

 

For diagrams of the "court scheme,‘ see Appendix J-2.

79

The principal states that the staff has a continuous struggle
to get pupils to study and work effectively. Merit points as well
as an academic cup are Offered as incentives to houses and classes to
encourage good work habits.

The concept of the student court arose from the need of the
school to teach its pupils to solve their problems without violence.
When a pupil had done something wrong and the principal asked, "What
shall I do with you?" the usual reply was, "Beat me." The principal
was quite aware that punishing a child physically for fighting was
teaching him nothing about the rational, peaceful solution of problems.
What alternatives were there to strapping, kneeling, or sending a child
out of the room? It was decided to experiment with the student court,
presided over by five prefects from Grades 9 and 10 elected by the
body of prefects, and supervised by two teachers. The court's respon-
sibility is to try such minor offenses as leaving school without
permission, throwing stones, stealing, and rudeness to teachers. The
principal and teachers send cases which are posted on the school's
notice board one day before they are to be tried. Witnesses are called
when necessary. The court has power only to recommend punishments to
the principal; the secretary submits a written record of the proceed-
ings the morning after a court session.

During a court session the writer attended, the prevailing mood
was solemn. Two cases were tried. The second involved a boy who left
school without permission to go to Hope Gardens and the University of
the West Indies. The punishment recommended was three days suspension

from school together with a composition, "How important is it to come

80

to school every day?" The student chairman Of the court "lectured"

the accused on the importance of school rules; he said, "GO to Hope
Gardens every day until you get sick of it; then you'll be glad to

come to school." The accused was to be given an explanatory letter
from the principal to carry home to his parents. Compositions assigned
were to be handed in to the chairman of the court.

This school is fortunate in having a fine, large playing field,
and three male physical education teachers, two of whom also teach
science. (Mbst junior secondary schools have only one male teacher for
physical education). These teachers consider their role very important
in providing a "male image," personal counselling and healthy recrea-
tional interests. They state that all pupils are interested in games,
and remain late after school "which they find more pleasant than their
own homes." The teachers themselves are often at the school as late
as 7 p.m. and on weekends as well. They commented that pupils in the
lower streams can "ease their frustration by working at their own levels";
they can "achieve and prove they can do something" which results in
"boosting morale." Individual pupils "can get to know a physical educa-
tion teacher better in a more relaxed personal situation" and the teacher
is able to "see them as individuals" and better understand their "problems
at home." Through competition in games after school they encourage
"clean, healthy habits toward their fellowmen, being considerate of
other people, winning well and losing well." Mathematics teachers,
who also play games regularly with pupils, feel it helps to "establish

a healthy relationship with the mathematics class."

81

The contrast between the orderliness striven for at the school
and conditions outside are poignantly expressed in the following letter

written by a pupil to the editor of the school magazine:

Dear Editor,

It is horrible to see what happens to people's clothes when
they come off the J.O.S. buses in the mornings. The uniform
that children spend hours getting ready for school on Monday
mornings is badly crushed, shoes get dirty, hair is pulled up,
and lunch money is sometimes lost. If Jamaicans would learn
to form a line as we do at schools then all this would stop.

At school we queue up as some teachers call lining up. We
do so when we move from class to class and when we go for lunch.
There are many more people in my school than I see at the bus
stops on Spanish Town Road. If things can go smoothly at my
school why can't it go smoothly at the bus stops?

Come on adults, line up!

Yours truly,
Carlton Cuthbert

CITY PARK JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
SERVING AN URBAN COMMERCIAL AREA
City Park is a relatively depressed, thickly populated community
in the southern part of Kingston. It is largely a commercial area of
car and hardware companies, small shops and an ironworks. The people
are predominantly engaged in lower middle level occupations and there
are also many unskilled and casual workers. It is an overcrowded area
of small, privately owned homes and rented rooms. There are many
religious denominations represented, including some Rastafarians.
It was a government decision to provide a junior secondary school
for City Park. There had been little parental demand. The first pupils

were admitted in September, 1969.

82

There are two major aspects of the relationship of the wider
community with the City Park school: assistance from the Home and
School Association, and experimentation within the school by outside
educational agencies.

The Home and School Association of parents and teachers has
raised funds to build a shed for ping pong and indoor recreational
activities. Further, they held a special tea party and fashion show
to raise money to print the school magazine and to defray expenses for
the 1972 Grade 9 graduating exercises including rental of a church hall,
achievement prizes, and school-leaving certificates. The graduation
exercises were very impressive; it is the experience of the principal
and staff that prizes awarded for achievement in many areas of the
school's program are a strong incentive to pupils to strive for greater
achievement.

The school is used for experimental purposes by several out-
side agencies. For example, during the writer's visits to the school,
groups from the University of the West Indies were experimenting with
new approaches to the teaching of mathematics and science, and students
from the university were practice-teaching there. Further a re-
searcher from the University of the west Indies had gathered data
on "self-image" from pupils of the school. The principal welcomes
this continual flow of new ideas which she and her staff find stimu-
lating.

The pupils and staff for the school year 1971-72 are described

in Table 8 below:

83

Table 8. Pupil and Staff Populations City Park
Junior Secondary School 1971-72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Populations Number
Maximum enrollment intended 1,215
_Pmpils enrolled

Grades 7-9 1,380
Streams in grade

Grade 7 10

Grade 8 9

Grade 9 9
Average class size 48
Teachimgestaff

Total number 44

University graduates 5

Untrained 1*

Expatriates 4**

 

* Art specialist

** One American, one English, two Canadian

Pupils come from an approximate radius of three miles. The
principal estimates that in any one year about thirty children come
from rural areas. Small numbers of pupils represent both the Indian
and Rastafarian communities.

The 8.7 acre site originally planned has not yet been fully
provided so that the present four acre site is considerably smaller,
and the playing field space is inadequate. While the school is situated
within a relatively densely populated area, the visitor gains the im-
pression almost of being in the open country. One enters inauspiciously
from a major thoroughfare into a narrow dirt road, past a public play-
ing field on one side and an abandoned graveyard on the other. At

last, with the open playing field of a primary school to one side, one

.84

enters the grounds of the junior secondary school through iron gates
which are usually kept locked. Spacious green lawns and ample parking
space provide a very attractive entry to the buildings. It is a tree-
less, flat site permitting usage of the "court scheme."6
In the distance may be seen houses, trees, and the mountains
beyond. The inner court is a lovely green lawn bordered with tropical
plants. For recreational purposes, pupils use the public and primary
school playing fields.
The principal states that the school program emphasizes and
caters for the practical areas and science in an attempt to try to
provide skills for the pupils to go out to work eventually, and to
teach them to analyze and solve problems.
Industrial arts teachers comment that "some boys do not value
industrial arts as much as academic subjects." Therefore, teachers
try to explain the value of these subjects: "they are a part of the
occupations of many people's lives; many will have to earn their living
by some craft or other. We try to get them interested in some area
and to put some dignity into it. The way the teacher approaches it is
important so that students will place some value on themselves. Some
students feel they cannot make a living in these fields. We cite
examples of successful people, men who may have started life in their
situation, for example, a local man who now has a successful woodwork-
ing industry." By Grade 9 the boys tend to value industrial arts more
as they begin to understand its theoretical base; for example, electricity

uses principles involved in science and mathematics.

 

6 See Appendix J—2.

85

Home economics teachers have taken their pupils to visit a
cloth mill as well as garment factories so that they can see the demand
for girls to stitch and make garments. The head of the home economics
department has been asked to recommend girls to the factory because,
with their general background, they are easier to train. Teachers say
that their pupils can also do dressmaking, and could even open boutiques
with assistance from a small loan society. Members of the Home Improve-
ment Club, from all streams, make things for different areas of the
home. If a girl is good at such things as crocheting or strawdwork,
the teachers "try to foster it because there is a market for it."

Grade 9 pupils have requested permission to return to the school on
Friday afternoons after they leave to do work on a commercial basis.

Important among the experimental projects conducted at the
school is the project of learning science by methods of investigation
supervised by the Science Centre at the University of the West Indies,
details of which are included in the following chapter. Two examples
here will illustrate. When studying "air," Grade 7 pupils make their
own airplanes, windmills or kites, and try to explain how they work.
The teacher may provide books with explanations, or may explain finally
when asked, if pupils cannot deduce the principle for themselves. When
studying "space," the teacher suggests that the class is going to "find
out a little bit about astronauts." She asks them to bring clippings
and questions about Apollo XVI. Pupils' imaginations soar, speculating
what it would be like on the moon. They learn to read a compass, to
understand sunrise and sunset, and make their own charts. Educational

television provides additional information and activities.

86

The administration of the City Park school encourages pupils
to participate in fine arts activities because they "are a part of
developing their personalities and help to develop community spirit."
In fact, so many pupils have enrolled in clubs that some have had to
be restricted in size, and pupil attendance is no longer compulsory
on Friday afternoons when clubs meet. While all four schools reveal
an interest in this area, there appears to be a special enthusiasm for
the arts at City Park. Particularly outstanding are the dance and
music programs. The Dance Club, whose membership consists equally of
boys and girls, emphasizes popular and modern creative dancing. Pupils
express themselves in both western and Jamaican folk music idioms. The
music program is described in more detail in Chapter IV.

For many reasons, City Park teachers considered the arts important.
"The children are very creative and this may be vocationally profitable;
if a child is good in drama, he should be steered in this direction."
Pupils also were enthusiastic; "we do not know of our talents until we
use them, so a child who can do art could go on to it when he leaves
this school, and place himself in society. And also music, drama and
dance. Who can tell what they can do with this little teaching of
these subjects?"

A most interesting and important aspect of the emphasis on the
arts is the interest in expression through the folk culture. A group
of teachers agreed that "most problems of the junior secondary schools
are sociological in origin." "Adults have just started to appreciate

Jamaican music" (as distinct from European or American music). "The

87

biggest problem is that they don't know enough about the country;
they become frustrated and drop out. It is important to provide the
culture of the country in school so that pupils learn at an early age
to accept these things" such as Jamaican popular music, and good
Jamaican plays and folksongs. This acceptance of Jamaican artistic
culture "is an incidental objective of this school; it comes out in
concerts." This group of teachers was emphatic that "teachers must
accept this as a must," that is, they must help their pupils to accept
Jamaican artistic culture and to express themselves via this medium,
as an acceptable form. The interest so expressed in Jamaican cultural
identity is further evident in art and crafts expressions, and in
English classes where Jamaican dialect is recognized as a separate
language, and has an occasional place. For example, Grade 9 pupils
enjoy making their own cartoons and advertisements in both the dialect
and standard English; an advertisement for a car might include in the
caption "fire in she wire" or "zip in de hip." Further, dialect is
Often hears spoken among teachers informally in the staff common room.
In sum, major emphases of the City Park Junior Secondary School
would seem to be practical, scientific, and broadly speaking, cultural
in that staff members are attempting to help pupils discover their own

Jamaican identity.

88
CONCLUSION

The examples presented above illustrate four different commun—
ities, in each of which the junior secondary school principal and
staff have initiated unique programs to accommodate the special needs
of their pupils. They have also enlisted the support of parents and
community members in diverse ways for the welfare of their pupils.

The simultaneous comparison which follows will endeavor to
bring the commonalities and unique features of the four schools into

sharper focus.

CHAPTER IV

COMPARISON OF FOUR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The fifty new WOrld Bank junior secondary schools in Jamaica
have been established in communities which are Often quite different
socially, and therefore have different needs. Apart from.the common
facilities and curricula prescribed for all these schools, principals
and staffs are encouraged to develop their programs so that they are
relevant to the needs of their particular locales. Four schools were
selected for study, and their unique features are described in Chapter
III. A summary comparison will now be made of these four communities,
the distinctive programs and practices of their junior secondary
schools, and the relative importance of the official aims of the junior

secondary school to the needs of the pupils.

FOUR COMMUNITIES

Banana Grove is an isolated, mountainous, agricultural community
of independent, small banana farmers, while Seasurf is a popular sea?
coast resort town most of whose inhabitants earn their livelihood from
occupations related to tourism, including some agricultural producers
and supplies of food on the outskirts. Industrial Town and City Park
are both depressed, heavily populated communities in Kingston, the
capital city; the working class community of the industrial area called

Industrial Town consists predominantly of unskilled laborers, kitchen

89

90

helpers and maids, while the inhabitants of the slightly more affluent
commercial area of City Park engage in such low income occupations as
government clerk, bus-driver, nurse, policeman, artisan, housekeeper,
fireman, retail clerk, or unskilled and casual labor. Banana Grove's
geographical isolation has helped to protect its strong, traditional
Protestant religious values; while these values are still quite strong
in Seasurf, they are becoming increasingly eroded by materialistic
values as a result of the tourist industry. In both Industrial Town
and City Park traditional religious values have become considerably
weakened, and because of poverty and feelings Of rejection, the number
of followers of Haile Selassie who call themselves Rastafarians is
steadily increasing.

The economic interaction of independent Banana Grove farmers
through their cooperative banana boxing plant, together with their
common religious values, has developed a social cohesion which is
evident particularly when community effort is called upon for a worthy
community project. Most of the residents of Seasurf, on the other
hand, are employees of various businesses catering to tourists; the
resulting division of labor which the more modern society demands re-
sults in mobility and competition. The weakening social cohesion creates
a need for the social and charitable activities of the modern service
organizations. In common with Seasurf, both Industrial Town and City
Park participate in the division of labor, competition and mobility
characteristic of modernization, though stronger in the large city than
in the small town. The greatly weakened social cohesion is further

complicated in the two urban areas of congestion and poverty leading to

91

the use of violence as a means of solving problems. Particularly in
Industrial Town, chronic unemployment and alienation have helped to
create the subculture of Rastafarians owing alien religious and politi-
cal allegiance. Low-cost government housing schemes in Industrial Town
constitute a public effort to alleviate economic distress in the latter
community.

While Banana Grove children are closely influenced by the
stability of the strong moral and religious values of their families,
Seasurf children are increasingly attracted by the materialistic influ-
ences of foreign tourists. In City Park and to a greater degree in
Industrial Town, traditional religious values and family stability are
considerably weaker than in the two rural communities. Communication
between parents and children is generally poor; family problems are
normally settled by physical conflict so that children receive many
beatings. In the home the mother is dominant, often the sole support
of her family. A "male image" for boys is most often lacking except
in a few instances where it may be provided by a Rastafarian father-
figure. Poor school attendance is a factor in all four communities:
in Banana Grove because of the real need of children to help their
parents with farming activities, and in Seasurf because of a similar
need on the part of some parents engaged in agriculture, but also
because of an historical cultural lag on the part of families living
in the town. The same cultural lag is evident in the two urban schools
where by custom and tradition large numbers of pupils stay away from
school on Fridays. Pupil attendance in Industrial Town was also seriously

affected during the 1972 elections by increased violence in the area.

92

FOUR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Their Histories, Staffs, Pupils, Sites and Buildinge

All four schools in this study were among the first group of

World Bank junior secondary schools to be opened in September, 1969.
The junior secondary school at Banana Grove has helped to satisfy a
need left by the closing of an American Baptist secondary school, while
the school at Seasurf occupies land on which the Church of England had
planned to establish a secondary school. Thus, there was a need
recognized by these two rural communities for some kind of secondary
school. On the other hand, the two urban schools resulted from a
government decision to establish secondary schools in these two areas.
Notable is the fact that when the Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie,
visited Jamaica in 1965, he contributed funds toward the construction
of a junior secondary school and he laid the cornerstone of Industrial

Town Junior Secondary School.

As might be predicted, the two rural schools have a closer re-
lationship with their surrounding communities than do the urban schools.
The Banana Grove school fulfills a community leadership function of
participation and leadership in community religious and social activities
such as helping to organize the Rally of the Basic Schools to raise
money for necessary pre-school education. The Seasurf school also
reaches out into the community, but with a somewhat different emphasis;
the principal makes a deliberate effort to solicit community support
for the school by means of the Friends of Our School Association, holding
zone meetings to meet parents in rural areas, and inviting the participa-

tion of voluntary agencies and industry for the welfare of needy pupils

93

especially, and inviting other schools to participate in inter-school
cultural activities. The two urban schools' contact with their
communities, on the other hand, consists almost entirely of formal
associations for parents and teachers. Industrial Town's Parent-
Teachers' Association has devoted its fund-raising activities to secur-
ing the broken school wall against intrusion by vandals and goats, an
indication that security precautions are more important for this school
than interaction with the surrounding community. Less concerned about
security, City Park's Home and School Association has devoted its fund-
raising activities to providing the school with extra amenities such as
recreational facilities and defraying school magazine and graduation
expenses. An unique feature of the City Park school is its utilization
by the University of the West Indies and teachers' colleges for experi—
mental purposes.

Pupil and staff populations of the four schools for the school
year 1971-72 are described in Table 9.

A comparison Of the pupils and teaching staffs of the four
schools as described in Table 9 reveals that the two rural schools Of
Banana Grove and Seasurf as well as the urban Industrial Town school were
all planned to accommodate a maximum of 810 pupils; considerably larger,
the City Park School was designed to accommodate 1,215 pupils. Each of
the three smaller schools enrolls a special Grade 10 class not normally
included in the junior secondary schools. The two rural schools are not
over-populated, even with the addition of their Grade 10 classes; how—
ever, the facilities Of the two urban schools are very much over-taxed
particularly at Industrial Town, which explains the larger average class

sizes in the two urban schools.

94

Table 9. Pupil and Staff Populations of Four
Junior Secondary Schools 1971-72

 

 

 

 

 

 

School
Industrial City
Populations Banana Grove Seasurf Town Park
Maximum enrollment intended 810 810 810 1,215
NO. of pupils enrolled
Grades 7-9 762 765 1,013 1,380
Grade 10 50 20 25 -
No. of streams in Grade
Grade 7 6 6 8 10
Grade 8 6 6 6 9
Grade 9 6 6 6 9
Average class size 45 45 50 48

 

Teaching staff

 

Total number 26 26 35 44
No. university graduates l 4 3 5
No. untrained 2 1* 0 1*
NO. expatriates l 4 3 4

 

 

* Art specialist

A school of 810 pupils was intended to enroll six streams
(classes) in each grade, and a school of 1,215 was to have nine streams
in each grade. The data reveal that both urban schools have additional
Grade 7 streams. Some of this over-population results from.the mobility
of families, or pupils, from the country to the city in search of
better educational opportunities. Both urban schools experience con-
tinuous fluctuation in enrollment, including the departure of some City
Park pupils for America.

The increased enrollment at Industrial Town is accommodated by
a larger teaching staff then either of the rural schools. It would
appear that, proportionate to pupil enrollment, Seasurf has the largest

percentage of university graduates among its staff members, and Banana

95

Grove has the least; this might be explained by the fact that it is
difficult to keep the best qualified teachers in the most remote
rural areas.

Both rural schools are located on hilly or steep sites necessi-
tating utilization of the "linear scheme" of building arrangement,
while both urban schools are located on level sites which permit

1 The two rural sites are consider-

utilization of the "court scheme."
ably more spacious than the two urban sites. The Banana Grove school
has fifteen acres and Seasurf, eight compared with Industrial Town's

six and City Park's four acres. Some of the extra space on the two
rural campuses is occupied by staff housing accommodation including a
house for the principal and flatlets for teachers. The urban Industrial
Town school is the most fortunate in having a large flat playing field
adequate for all kinds of recreational activities. Because of hilly
terrain, Banana Grove's playing field is of reduced size to that con-
sidered desirable for junior secondary schools. Less fortunate, neither
Seasurf nor City Park has a good playing field of its own; they both

use nearby public playing fields for most Of their physical education
and recreational activities, and have contrived only small, inadequate
playing areas on their own campuses for such games as netball and table
tennis.‘ Banana Grove utilizes a large section of its hilly site for
agricultural experimentation, while Seasurf has constructed some most
attractive outdoor picnic lunch tables on its tree-sheltered slopes.

At all four schools, the modern school buildings are surrounded by

 

1 For illustrations of the "linear" and "court scheme" designs,
see Appendices J-l and J—2.

96

well-kept lawns, tropical flowers and potted plants; Seasurf is
particularly attractive with its fringe of coconut palms, and painted

rmurals on the outside walls visible upon entrance to the campus.

Their Programs and Practices

 

As a consequence of their prescribed curricula and the rather
frequent meetings of principals and teachers, the four schools are
engaged in similar activities directed toward the achievement of the
ten official aims of the junior secondary school.2 In addition, as a
result of the peculiar needs of a particular area or of the special
talents of a teacher or principal, imaginative and creative utiliza-
tion Of resources is evident in aspects of the programs of individual
schools directed toward the achievement of specific goals.

The practices common to the four schools in pursuance of each
objective will now be presented in summary form, followed by comparison
of the more unique aspects of the programs of individual schools, or
priorities in relation to their social settings.

Citizenship

 

The four schools display in the library or some other public
place photographs of prominent Jamaicans. Pupils are both elected
and appointed to positions of leadership responsibility, and healthy
competition is promoted through the "house system." Social studies
classes study the Jamaican system of government and discuss and debate

current social issues. Religious education classes discuss good

 

2 For the Aims of the Junior Secondary Schools, see Appendix B—2.

97

citizenship and human rights, and home economics pupils learn acceptable
social behavior.

Two unique projects are the "student parliament" at Banana
Grove and the "student court" at Industrial Town. Banana Grove social
studies teachers had their senior pupils form two parties, canvass for
membership, nominate candidates and elect representatives by secret
ballot, performing all the roles necessary in such processes. The pupils
then conducted a model session of parliament discussing a current
national government bill or controversial issue of current interest with
demonstrated competence and enthusiasm.

A very important experiment is Industrial Town's weekly "student
court" during which pupils accused of committing minor Offenses are
tried by their peers. Solving problems by means of physical violence
has been a major behavioral pattern of pupils of this school. There-
fore, a major effort is directed toward the development of the rational
solution Of problems. The student court is an experiment in an effort
to reduce corporal punishment, and to teach citizenship, honesty,
justice, responsibility, and thoughtful acceptance of punishment. The
proceedings are conducted with dignity and solemnity, supervised by two
teachers. Witnesses are called, and the accused speak in their own
defense. Punishments are recommended by the student court to the prin—
cipal who is the final judge.

It is most interesting that from the most remote school, Banana
Grove, pupils have been taken by social studies teachers to see a session
of the national parliament and to their parish center to visit the court

house. Social studies teachers at Seasurf, much closer to Kingston, would

98

like to take their pupils to visit parliament but find it too difficult,
and the two urban schools have not taken advantage of their proximity

to these institutions to conduct pupil visits. Industrial Town teachers
find it too dangerous to take their pupils out on many excursions. In-
stead, the latter three schools rely on speakers to come to their schools.
Industrial Town experiences difficulty in this respect, feeling that
outside speakers prefer to visit more prestigious schools.

Leadership responsibility is developed at City Park by allowing
prefects and class captains to hold meetings and discuss problems in
private, calling on the principal for guidance only when necessary.
Competition is invoked between houses at Industrial Town to encourage
high standards of pupil participation in service, cleaning and beautify-
ing the school, as well as behavior in and out Of class; merits and
demerits are awarded weekly for revolving duties. At Seasurf, coopera-
tion is expected in such activities under the direction of teacher
committee chairmen; a strong social emphasis pervades the school which
is considered a "life situation" in which pupils learn the values of
good citizenship and social control through high standards for pupil
elections, the care of school property, personal appearance and behavior.

Organized clubs assist with citizenship training particularly
at Seasurf, and to a lesser extent at Industrial Town. Seasurf has a
Cadet Corps, Boy Scouts, Youth Club and Key (Kiwanis) Club, while
Industrial Town has a Jay-teens Youth Club and Girl Guides. The 4-H
Club at Banana Grove is a very dynamic organization involving most of
the pupils and staff, and devoted to the general purposes of developing

skills useful for citizenship in this rural agricultural community; its

99

activities extend to the parish level. Both Seasurf and Industrial
Town have small 4-H clubs, but without the community significance of
the Banana Grove club.
Ethical Values

All four schools stress Christian ethical values in morning
devotions and religious education classes. In Banana Grove the teaching
at school reinforces the strong Protestant religious commitment of the
surrounding community. While some discussion takes place on themes such
as "kindness," religious education lessons are more often based upon the
telling of Bible stories which teach a lesson. At Seasurf there is a
wider representation of Christian denominations including Roman Catholics,
Anglicans, Jehovah's Witnesses and other Protestant groups, as well as
the intrusion of materialistic values emanating from the tourist indus-
try. Taking their inspiration from the Bible, teachers and pupils
discuss topics related to everyday life in which they are involved and
ask questions about their own particular problems. Both Industrial Town
and City Park school staffs feel they must compensate for the inade-
quacy of moral and ethical training and personal guidance in a large
proportion of their pupils' homes. Like Seasurf, religious education
classes in both urban schools are devoted primarily to the discussion
of topics and problems directly related to everyday life. In both schools
there are children of Rastafarian parents who question the teachers'
interpretations of the Bible in such areas as the creation of the world
and worship of an invisible being. Teachers report that their behavior
is good, but they take little further part in religious education classes.

A sympathetic teacher at the City Park school stated that he Observed a

100

growing interest among the boys in the Rastafarian movement in which
they see "a serious commitment to life." They use a reasoned approach,
see wholesome values in it, discuss behavior and its symbolic impor-
tance, and he feels they impress other pupils as an example of settling
problems in ways other than by physical conflict.

Vocational Interests

 

In the four schools, vocational interests are developed through
preparations for external examinations, industrial arts and home
economics programs, career weeks and guidance periods.

Both rural schools offer boys simple specialization in one area
of industrial arts in Grade 9, either woodwork, metalwork or electri-
city. At Seasurf such practical subjects assume major importance since
the principal states that parents are demanding full-time trades train-
ing for a longer time for their children as they can see many Oppor—
tunities in this growing tourist community in the trades area; more
practical courses are planned including motor mechanics. Both urban
schools provide general rather than specific training to the end of
Grade 9. Industrial Town teachers would like to offer specialization
in one area in Grade 9 to help the boys' employment opportunities. 0n
the other hand, City Park teachers are satisfied to provide basic
general educational experiences to the end of Grade 9 so that boys will
be better prepared to specialize later. The fact that City Park parents
are, on the whole, somewhat more affluent than Industrial Town parents
may be significant here.

While girls' home economics classes in the four schools are

basically preparation for homemaking, in Seasurf they are also basic

101

preparation for the tourist industry. Girls in the two urban schools
are advised about vocational Opportunities in such areas as dietetics,
in garment factories, dressmaking, basketwork and crocheting. An
unique home economics class for boys has been projected at the Seasurf
school to prepare boys for such jobs as waiter, chef or barman since
job opportunities are so favorable in the tourist industry.

In the four schools instruction in art and crafts is of poten—
tial vocational interest. Banana Grove pupils are made aware of
opportunities in batik and screen printing design, and Seasurf teachers
encourage pupil production of such artistic productions as woodcarvings
for sale to tourists. Some Industrial Town pupils have gone on to the
Jamaica School of Art; a few from City Park have found employment
making signs and posters and as store decorating clerks.

Unique to the Banana Grove school are the classes in agriculture
which are of direct vocational interest to the many pupils who will
take up farming as their career. Emphasis is placed on application
of the scientific approach to farming in the local area. Agriculture
classes are complemented by the many activities of the 4-H Club which
are designed to promote efforts to make rural life more attractive.

Industrial Town appears to be the only one of the four schools
whose pupils watched the Grade 7 educational television series on
occupations in 1971-2. However, it must be remembered that the tele—
vision sets at Banana Grove were not operational that year, and
television reception at Seasurf is less than satisfactory.

It is noteworthy that both rural schools have occasional contact

with potential employers of their school-leavers; the principal of

102

Banana Grove himself goes out to find places for his pupils in trades
or other areas of training, and the principal at Seasurf is advised
by employers, particularly in the tourist industry. On the other
hand, apart from the home economics department at City Park, the two
urban schools maintain little, if any, contact with employers.

Health Practices

The four schools encourage good health practices by means of
assistance from various outside agencies such as the public health
nurse and the National Family Planning Board, as well as providing
instruction in home economics nutrition classes, health science and
physical education. Hot cooked lunches are available at the minimal
cost of ten cents per pupil per day.

While all four schools provide after-school games activities
for their pupils, particularly outstanding in this respect are the
schools at Banana Grove and Industrial Town, both of which have their
own playing fields. In these two schools many teachers assist with
games and in the process get to know their pupils and provide a fair
amount of personal guidance. Male teachers at Industrial Town who
participate in games consider their role particularly important in
providing a "male image" and personal counselling for their pupils.
Physical education teachers at City Park perform a similar role. Both
urban schools find that pupils like to remain after school to play, or
even to watch, since it is "more pleasant at school than at home." City
Park games continue until 5:30 p.m., and those at Industrial Town often

until 7 p.m. and on weekends.

103

An unique project of the City Park school extending over two
and one-half months was their provision of weekly swimming lessons
for forty pupils in a hired swimming pool. All learned to swim.
Unfortunately, despite the fact that the Seasurf school is so close
to an excellent public beach, no swimming instruction is provided by
the school because no lifeguard is available.

Fundamentals of Communication and Computation

Approximately one-third of the pupils in each of the four
schools are given special instruction in reading by specially trained
remedial reading teachers. The same pupils whose ability to solve
mathematical problems is inhibited by their reading difficulties, are
given instruction on fundamental mathematical calculations in practical
situations. Some academically capable pupils in each of the four
schools write Jamaica school Certificate subject examinations at the
end of Grade 9. Thus, the four schools are attempting to provide for
a wide range of pupil ability.

In all four schools the remedial reading teachers seem devoted,
industrious, concerned, and appear to be making some worthwhile progress.
Seasurf has a noteworthy experimental program under the direction of
its principal who is a specialist in the area of remedial reading. She
has developed a test to assess the reading levels of Grade 7 entrants
which is used in all junior secondary schools. Classes in her school
are identified by the initial of their homeroom teacher in order to
avoid the adverse psychological effects of numbering classes according
to ability stream. Three experiments were underway during the year

1971-2. First, as far as possible, pupils in all streams wrote the same

104

examinations, again in order to avoid possibly damaging psychological
effects of ability grouping, and to discover whether or not remedial
reading pupils do well in other subjects. Second, the slowest Grade 7
stream.was given one experienced teacher for the "core subjects" of
English, mathematics and social studies instead of the usual three
teachers; the effects of this concentration of attention were to be
assessed. Third, a pilot project was underway to develop testing pro-
cedures in reading for Grade 9 pupils at the end of the junior secondary
course to see what progress was made in the reading program.

Libraries in the four schools are bright, attractive rooms which
are well-stocked with more or less the same graded reading materials,
fiction, biography, books on science, adventure and travel, reference
encyclopedias, periodicals and teachers' reference books. Each class
has a weekly library period. Only the City Park school library is open
both at noon and after school; however, it is the only one of the four
schools whose pupils may not borrow books to take home. On the other
hand, the Industrial Town library is closed both at noon and after school
but its pupils may borrow books during a special period each week.
Similarly, the Banana Grove library is closed both at noon and after
school, but all pupils are permitted to borrow books except those in
Grade 7 and the two lowest Grade 8 streams; as well, the school librarian
assists pupils upon request to join the parish library one mile away.
The Seasurf school library is open only after school, and then only when
necessary for Grades 9 and 10 pupils' research. Seasurf pupils are per-
mitted to borrow books only when one asks for a special book and the

librarian considers him responsible. This deficiency is partly made up

105

by the weekly Library Club when pupils listen to story-telling records,
write short stories, and read them.
Habits of Critical Thinking

All four schools attempt to develop critical thinking by means
of the problem approach in mathematics, social studies discussions and
debates, religious education discussions, and constructive criticism
of work in industrial arts and art and crafts.

It is of interest to note that mathematics teachers in both
rural schools find that their pupils seldom are sufficiently interested
to bring problems to the class, while some interested pupils in both
urban schools bring mathematical problems to the teacher and to the
class. For example, Industrial Town pupils formulate problems for
themselves and for other classes. A small group of good pupils gathers
around the teachers after school with mathematics problems. Teachers
are identifying some "very good mathematicians" in higher streams who
point out teachers' mistakes and bring special problems to test the
teacher. Similarly, City Park pupils Often come to the teacher at
noon asking to be shown how to do a particular problem. Brighter pupils
sometimes help weaker ones, or explain to the class.

In all the schools, physical education teachers try to teach
their pupils to make thoughtful, quick decisions. Notably, a girls'
teacher at City Park sets up situations in games such as volleyball where
pupils have to think out the problem for themselves, and look beyond the
practice of a skill to its application in a game.

Work Habits and Attitudes Toward Work
Negative attitudes toward work, engendered during slavery, persist

today in Jamaica partly because of inadequate remuneration. Such attitudes

106
are recognized as a major problem throughout this modernizing society,
and are very evident in all four schools. These schools stress neatness,
accuracy and responsibility in all classes; considering fellow workers'
safety in industrial arts and science activities; individual and group
responsibility in social studies projects; and caring for equipment and
cleaning up working areas in the practical subjects.

Individual teachers at both Banana Grove and City Park schools
stress the functional importance of work in society. At Banana Grove,
science teachers assume a personal responsibility for this task, talking
to pupils about the "realities of life," "what we are all about as a
people," that "work is necessary at all levels," that "each person has

a role to play,‘ and that they "can't talk peace and love while not doing
work, or while performing poorly." At City Park, social studies teachers
explain the kinds of jobs available in the sugar industry and the dignity
of manual work. Crafts teachers talk about what takes place in a factory,
and how a worker must do a certain amount of work for his pay. The
religious education teacher points out the importance of putting value
into work and society, of doing work within the range of one's ability,
and of being the best at whatever work one does.

Banana Grove pupils have a very practical situation in their
agriculture studies in which they are taught to approach farm work with
regularity. They are responsible for caring for their plants, animals
and agricultural experiments regularly under the teacher's supervision.

Opportunities for voluntary service in the school library are

accepted by pupils and discharged responsibly in both Banana Grove and

Industrial Town. The volunteers, mostly girls, assist the librarian at

107

Banana Grove by cataloguing books, signing them out on loan, and keeping
pupils quiet when the librarian is absent; at Industrial Town they loan,
reshelve and repair books, dust and tidy the library, and keep scrap-
books.

The Seasurf school has a problem with the occasional disappear-
ance of industrial arts and crafts tools, and the Industrial Town staff
has a continuous struggle to get pupils to study and work effectively.
Individual teachers in both these schools are interested in child
development. The art and crafts teacher at Seasurf continually talks
to his pupils about the problem of stealing, is very interested in
them, and "does a lot of reading in the area of child psychology."
Physical education teachers at Industrial Town work hard to develop
team spirit in order to develop good habits, punctuality, confidence
and self-reliance; through competition with other schools, the team
begins to feel that it is working for one purpose. Both Seasurf and
Industrial Town invoke competition as an incentive to get pupils to
study and work effectively. Seasurf's four houses compete for points
awarded weekly for attendance, achievement in class, sports, and
cultural activities; a cup is presented at the end of the year to the
winning house for overall achievement. At Industrial Town, merit
points are awarded weekly to the houses for the performance of duties
in making the compound clean and attractive and for behavior out of
class; points are also awarded to each class for academic achievement,
attractiveness of the classroom, and deportment in class. Among re-
wards are "a cup of the week" to the best class, and a "special treat"

for the best class at the end of the year.

108

Consumer Skills

 

All four schools teach consumer skills to girls in home manage-
ment classes, to boys in the estimating of costs for making items for
the home in industrial arts classes, and to both as part of "being a
citizen" in social studies classes. The major part of this prescribed
curriculum content for the teaching of consumer skills is directed to
the girls, since women assume a large measure of the responsibility for
the economic management and support of Jamaican households.

The two rural schools engage in additional activities directed
toward both girls and boys. Both Banana Grove and Seasurf schools
conduct Thrift Clubs by means of which pupils are encouraged to defer
gratification and save their money. Banana Grove pupils have the further
experience in their agricultural projects of studying the budgeting of
supplies, and the comparative economic advantages of different approaches
to agriculture through experiments with such things as poultry.

In the two urban schools, little extra is done to teach consumer
skills except that Grade 9 pupils at Industrial Town watch weekly educa-
tional television broadcasts on occupations and the wise use of money
after they leave school.

Relation to Environment

Science teachers in the four schools teach the scientific method,
but by different approaches. During the school year 1971-2, both Banana
Grove and Industrial Town schools followed the prescribed syllabus for
the junior secondary schools, employing methods of teacher demonstration
followed by pupil experimentation. Selected Grades 7 and 8 classes at

Seasurf and all Grades 7 and 8 classes at City Park participated in the

109

second year of an experimental science project of the Science Centre
at the University of the West Indies, employing methods of pupil investi—
gation; the remaining classes in these two schools followed the prescribed
syllabus.

Science teachers at Banana Grove commented that their pupils
learned by rote memory in primary school; although they were living in
a rural environment, they had not learned to observe and record what
they saw. Therefore, the teacher of Grade 7 pupils must teach them
what to look for and how to record it. Under the direction of a science
teacher, the school's Explorers' Club, the majority Of whose members are
Grade 7 pupils, exposes pupils to such activities as cave exploration,
fossil and rock collecting, and helps them to develop inquiring minds in
an effort to overcome the deficiency of their primary school science
background. Banana Grove classes like to be taught by means of experi-
ments. However, because the classes are too large for the laboratory
facilities, pupils must do their experiments in groups; the teachers
are therefore not satisfied that their pupils are sufficiently involved
in the practical work. Nevertheless, practical, scientific experiments
undertaken by pupils in agriculture classes reinforce and supplement the
efforts of the science teachers.

Science teachers at Industrial Town find their task very difficult
because of extreme over-crowding; their taSk is further complicated by
the dearth of biological specimens in their urban industrial area. With
limited equipment and laboratory space, only one-half of the pupils do
the practical work for each lesson. While the pupils know something about
engines and mechanical things, they know less about plant and animal life,

and those pupils who have come to the school from rural areas are

110

reluctant to share their experience because they feel it is socially un-
acceptable. However, they enjoy studying about human biology. To circumr
vent some of their difficulties with lower stream pupils, science teachers
at Industrial Town have pupils study the lives and work of scientists in
the expectation that pupils will at least remember the stories attached to
the scientific principles. Upper stream pupils understand the scientific
principles better, and sometimes ask stimulating questions.

On the other hand, the classes at Seasurf which participate in the
experimental project of pupil investigation do all their own experimentar
tion which involves planning, observation, concluding and recording. Their
teacher feels the pupils are "developing inquiring minds." Similarly, in
City Park classes which use methods of investigation the emphasis is on
practical experimentation by pupils where the teacher guides, but answers
questions only when pupils have exhausted their own resources. Examination
questions are set so that pupils cannot rely entirely on background know-
ledge, but must use their reasoning ability. Because the average Grade 7
class size at City Park is fifty, pupils must do experiments and report
together in groups of three or four. However, the teacher is enthusiastic
about her pupils' interest. Having been exposed to the method of investi-
gation in Grade 7, Grade 8 pupils at City Park "do not bother listening if
the teacher lectures." Grade 9 classes sometimes use this newer method
which they prefer. Science teachers at City Park find that under the
method of investigation their pupils cover more ground, have freedom to
question, and nearly all are generally interested.

In order to acquaint pupils with the modernization of their
country, each of the four schools in 1971-2 took groups of pupils on a

small number of excursions to industries and to communications and

111

government centers. Because pupils usually have to pay their own
transportation, the number of trips and the size Of groups are necessarily
limited. While both rural schools have taken groups of pupils to the
national capital, the urban schools did not take their pupils to the
country, except that the City Park school took a group to the historic
site of Port Royal. Paradoxically, while the most remote school, Banana
Grove, took pupils to Kingston to see the national parliament and radio
and television stations, and Seasurf pupils visited the meteorological
station at Kingston, neither of the urban schools took advantage of these
opportunities. Similarly, while Banana Grove pupils travelled a long
distance to visit bauxite and aluminum industries, Seasurf pupils were
not taken to visit the bauxite industry in their town. Banana Grove
pupils have also been taken to a rum production factory, Seasurf pupils
to the Jamaican Manufacturers' Fair, Industrial Town pupils to various
industries, a museum and post office, and City Park pupils to a nearby
orphanage and home for delinquent girls. The teachers integrated these
visits with their school studies.
Appreciation of Fine Arts
All four schools promote appreciation of the arts through classes
in art and crafts, music, applied art in home economics, dramatizations
in English and social studies classes, and Friday afternoon clubs.
Interest in the arts is universal in the four schools. All do fine,
creative work in art and crafts, particularly in batik and tie and dye
fabric design. Music and dance groups are quite outstanding for the junior
secondary level. Each school reveals its own unique artisitic expressions.
Banana Grove has a particularly fine collection of music records

for listening, and a most interesting drama club which emphasizes creative

112

drama and self-expression through the indigenous culture.

A major artistic undertaking of the Seasurf school is its annual
Eisteddfod3 when the school's houses compete for prizes in speech, music,
dance and drama. As well as the colorful murals previously mentioned,
the art and crafts department produces lovely things from local materials
such as driftwood, coconut and shells. Pupils sell some of their art
objects, especially wood-carvings, to tourists.

Industrial Town music groups have prepared some very fine
rhythmic folksongs, some of them Rastafarian songs, with authentic, local
costuming and accompaniment. They have performed publicly in their own
neighborhood, on radio and television, and at a public schools concert
organized by the Ministry of Education. The art and crafts department
has produced a large, attractive colorful mural which decorates the
inner courtyard of the school. It is unfortunate that this department
is unable to display regularly its products, as the other three schools
do, because of the likelihood of their disappearance or destruction;
however, very fine work was displayed for visitors at the graduation
ceremonies.

The City Park school has a very dynamic music program directed
by a tutor Of music teachers at residential summer courses. Two pupils
of the school who belong to the National Volunteer Orchestra play the
trumpet and clarinet, and teach other pupils to play these instruments

during school hours. Guitar players also teach fellow pupils. The music

 

3 Eisteddfod: a popular annual Welsh festival at which a wide
variety of competitions are held in vocal, choral and orchestral music,
as well as poetry and literature, drama, arts and crafts.

113

room is a lively place throughout the day with choral and instrumental
groups practising, and other pupils listening outside. Many public per-
formances have been undertaken by these groups, and pupils have heard
other groups perform, including a military band whose players demon-
strated their instruments. City Park is the only school of the four
where a few pupils take private music lessons.

In summary, all four schools include in their programs similar
activities designed to contribute toward the achievement of each of
the ten Official aims. In addition, individual schools have developed
special strengths as a result of the needs of particular areas or the
creative talents of interested teachers or principals.

The Banana Grove school, through its agricultural program
directly related to the local area together with the complementary 4-H
Club, develops pupils' vocational interests, good work habits, consumer
skills, and practical understanding of the scientific method. Its
Thrift Club also promotes consumer skills. A student parliament and
excursions to quite distant places to acquaint pupils with the Jamaican
parliament, court system, radio and television broadcasting and indus-
tries all contribute tO good citizenship and understanding of the
country. The broad teacher-involvement in the after-school games program
contributes to good health practices, and provides many opportunities
for informal personal counselling. Thus, the vocational, practical and
social needs of this rural agricultural community are served by the
Banana Grove school.

Citizenship is a major aim Of the Seasurf school as expressed

in its strong social emphasis and its enlistment of several community

114

agencies to assist with clubs such as the Boy Scouts, Cadet Corps,

Youth Club and Key Club. The school has an unique experimental program
in remedial reading under the direction of its principal who is a
nationally recognized specialist in this area. Some of the science
classes, using methods of investigation, participate in the experimental
science project of the Science Centre, University of the west Indies.
Aspects of some of the home economics and art and crafts programs are
directly related to the local tourist industry to serve pupils' voca-
tional interests. Thus, important focuses Of the Seasurf school

serving a coastal tourist resort town are social, academic and vocational.

The Industrial Town school develops citizenship and critical
thinking through its student court. Good work habits are fostered
competitively through merit points to houses, team responsibility in
games, and voluntary service in the library. Good health practices are
promoted by means of the active involvement of many teachers in after-
sehool games and informal personal counselling. Critical thinking is
further developed as good pupils become actively involved in solving
mathematical problems. Thus, the Industrial Town school, serving an
urban, depressed area places major emphasis on social and practical
objectives, and on critical thinking.

The City Park school develops critical thinking through the
active involvement of prefects and class captains in privately discuss-
ing and solving their own problems, as well as the lively interest of
good mathematics pupils in solving mathematical problems. All Grades 7
and 8 science classes participate in the experimental project of the

Science Centre Of the University of the West Indies using methods of

115

investigation. Good health practices are stressed through swimming
instruction, after-school games and informal counselling. Noteworthy
among the many activities of the school in the arts is its extensive
music program. Thus, major emphasis at the City Park school is placed
upon academic, practical and artistic goals, as well as thinking

critically.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE AIMS

An important question is the following: to what extent are the
major emphases of the schools, as described above, in accord with the
perceived needs of the pupils? In an attempt at least partially to
answer this question, groups and individuals most interested in the
progress of the pupils were asked to select the three aims they con-
sidered most important to the pupils in their community. The number of
times an objective was selected by members of a group was totalled, and
considered to be the value placed on that objective by that group. When
placed in rank order,4 such totals provide only a very rough indicar
tion of the comparative value accorded the different aims by the members
of any one group, but one which is nevertheless of value. The informa-
tion so derived from groups is contained in Table 10 and from individuals
in Table 11.

Certain clear trends may be distinguished from the data in Tables
10 and 11. First, there is overwhelming agreement among the groups and

individuals consulted that a primary need of the pupils of the four schools

 

4 Number 1 indicates the most popular choice; 10, the least popu-
lar choice.

Table 10.

116

Relative Importance of Aims in Order of Choice of
Selected Groups at Four Junior Secondary Schools

 

 

 

 

 

Aims Groups
Parents &
Grade 9 School— Community
Teachers Pupils leavers Members
O EE 0 g g g
. . H as as
o O o .4 O .4
u '3 .2 u '3 ,2 u m .a u m .2
:5 .H H :5 -H H c: -H H (5 -H u
‘H u m tH w m ‘H n o ‘H n m
”’5:°*“‘3$°*“§‘5°*“’5$°‘
aggfigg'gfiggamgmnza
a...a...a.a:a$2:
a: a: #4 c) a: a: #4 L) a: a: P4 L) d: a: #4 L)
Citizenship 3 4 3 3 6 3 7 7 2 8 4 6 1 3 9 5
Ethical values 8 1 5 2 9 6 9 10 8 10 8 9 8 4 8 4
Vocational
interests 2 l 3 4 10 10 9 9 10 5 9 6 3 8 10 8
Health
practices 6 8 7 9 3 9 6 6 5 6 3 3 4 5 4 7
Fundamentals of
communication
& computation 8 4 8 7 2 2 1 1 l 3 l 1 4 2 l 2
Habits of
critical
thinking 3 6 2 4 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 5 10 8 2 5
Work habits
& attitudes
toward work 1 1
Consumer skills 8 10 4 3 5
Relation to
emdnmmmt 5 8 8 8 8 7 5 8 4 4 710 8 5 410
Appreciation of
fine arts 8 6 6 4 6 7 8 4 8 8 10 8 4 8 4 9

 

 

 

 

Table 11.

117

Most Important Aims Selected
by School Principals

 

Aims

Principals

 

Academic

Jr. Sec. High
Schools Schools

Technical
Institute

Technical
High School

 

Citizenship
Ethical values

Vocational
interests

Health
practices

Fundamentals of
communication
& computation

Habits of
critical
thinking

WOrk habits
& attitudes
toward work

Consumer skills

Relation to
environment

Appreciation of
fine arts

I II III

Banana Grove
Industrial Town

Seasurf
City Park

 

+
++
++

+

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note:

Three principals selected four objectives as most

important, instead of three as requested.

118

is good work habits and positive attitudes toward work. It is most
revealing that even the pupils themselves recognize this need. This
is simply further evidence of the need recognized by government and
many segments of Jamaican society that the country will not be able
to progress as rapidly as most would like until all are willing to
contribute to the best of their ability.

A second important trend is the major importance placed upon
competence in the fundamentals of communication and computation, standard
English and mathematics, with the surprising exception of the teachers
and two of the four principals. The educational institutions which
receive a selected few of the pupils at the end of Grade 9 may be
expected to give priority to their academic competence. So also may
the pupils and their parents since the prevailing image in Jamaica of
good secondary education is the successful passing of external examina-
tions, and the consequent certification is normally required for
desirable employment opportunities or further education. Further, as
several pupils pointed out, activities of the ordinary Jamaican worker
or housewife now require competence in English and arithmetic. Why did
most of the teachers, who spend the largest part of their time in the
classroom, not select this as one of the three most important objectives?
The answer may lie not so much in their non-recognition of the importance
of this objective, but rather in a reaction against the traditional
academic image, since they are realistically aware that most pupils will
not continue their formal education, and have other needs that the school

may help to satisfy.

119

One of these needs recognized by principals and teachers alike
in all four schools is the social goal of good citizenship. It is Of
interest that parents and community leaders as well as some pupils and
school-leavers in the two rural communities shared the school staffs'
emphasis on citizenship; perhaps this is an indicator of the closer
social relationships commonly found in rural areas. Ethical values,
related to citizenship, is another need given high priority by some
teachers and principals. This need is expressed particularly by those
at Seasurf, perhaps as a result of the encroachment Of materialism on
traditional values in this tourist resort town.

Teachers in the four schools also considered the development of
vocational interests an important need of their pupils. This view is
quite naturally shared by the principals of technical educational
institutions. However, it is most important to note that pupils, school-
leavers and parents did not share this view; no doubt they maintain the
traditional image of academic education as essential for social mobility.
The parents and community leaders at Banana Grove would appear to be
more realistic in recognizing their children's needs for vocational
guidance.

It is not unimportant that critical thinking, considered a major
need by high school principals, was accorded relatively high priority
by teachers as a means of achieving the other Objectives, and by the
young people themselves and urban parents, because of the strong tendency
of the young to copy their fellows without questioning. Urban-rural
cultural differences are revealed by the fact that parents in the de-

pressed urban area of Industrial Town thought pupils must learn to think

120

for themselves in order to avoid trouble through "following the crowd,"
while parents and community leaders in isolated Banana Grove gave much
higher priority to citizenship which they interpreted as conformity to
community norms.

It is worth considering the fact that the very practical needs
of learning good health practices and consumer skills were given rather
high priority by varied groups of pupils, school-leavers and parents
for all schools except Seasurf. Particularly noticeable is the urban
school-leavers' mention of health practices, and their parents' selec-
tion of consumer skills as very important needs. However, none of the
schools' staffs considered these needs Of major importance. Immediate,
practical needs were apparently subordinated to what they considered
larger social and vocational goals.

Unique is the fact that the City Park principal, teachers and
pupils gave relatively high priority to appreciation of fine arts for

socio-cultural, recreational and vocational reasons.

CONCLUSION

The question remains, "to what extent are the programs emphasized
at the schools in accord with the perceived needs of those groups and
individuals interested in the welfare of the pupils?" 'In attempting to
answer this question, no effort will be made here to evaluate the compara-
tive quality of the schools' endeavors. For most of the aims, objective
evaluation is virtually impossible. Where such evaluation is possible,
for example reading levels, appropriate testing procedures are not yet

complete. (As previously mentioned, the principal of the Seasurf school

121

developed a test to assess the reading levels of entrants to Grade 7,
and in 1971-2 was working on procedures to test reading levels at the
end of Grade 9; it should then be possible to make more objective
statements about the qualitative achievements of individual schools
in remedial reading). It therefore is not the purpose of this writer
to state that the Official aims are, or are not being fully achieved,
or that, comparatively, some schools are better than others. Rather,
it is intended here to point out areas in which there is perceived
need which schools are, or are not attempting to satisfy by means of
special programs.

The Banana Grove school has developed special programs to meet
all the major needs expressed within the context of its own rural,
agricultural community. Its scientific agricultural program helps to
meet the need for the development of vocational interests, good work
habits, and consumer skills. The student parliament and visits to
government institutions as well as the vital 4-H Club all contribute
to citizenship education. Through the after-school games program
involving many teachers and a good deal of personal counselling, good
health practices are encouraged. The school's Thrift Club helps to
develop consumer skills. It is apparent that the junior secondary school
in Banana Grove is quite closely in touch with the needs of the community,
and has been accepted by that community. The most noticeable conflict
is the fact that pupils and school-leavers seem to adhere to an image
Of academic education without vocational guidance, while the school staff,
parents and community leaders recognize a need for the development of

their vocational interests.

122

The Seasurf school, too has developed programs in accord with
all its perceived needs. In order to satisfy the need for citizenship
education the school has a strong social emphasis on good behavior;
assistance in this endeavor is provided by many community organiza-
tions. Vocational interests are served by special home economics,
industrial arts and art and crafts programs relevant to the tourist
industry. However, there appears to be a conflict of perceived need.
While the principal stated that many parents were demanding more trades
training for their children to satisfy vocational interest, those
parents consulted by the writer did not so indicate. The image of the
academic grammar school persists more strongly in Seasurf than in Banana
Grove; Seasurf has rather prestigious grammar schools, and the junior
secondary school in this town is striving for social acceptability.
Much of the school's emphasis on good behavior and public department
may be attributed to this drive.

Special programs at the Industrial Town school help to satisfy
all but two of the perceived needs. The student court helps to develop
good citizenship. The many teachers involved until late in the evening
in games and personal counselling assist with good health practices.
Active involvement in mathematical problemrsolving and participation in
the student court stimulate critical thinking. House competitions,
teamwork in games, and voluntary service in the library all contribute
toward good work habits. In these ways the Industrial Town school's
program satisfies in part the perceived needs of this very depressed,
urban community. However, the very practical need for education in con-
sumer skills expressed by pupils and parents is apparently not being

fully met; girls receive instruction in the management of domestic

123

finances in their home management course; the boys receive little help
in the management of their financial affairs, except for the viewing

of an educational television series in Grade 7. This would seem to

the writer inadequate preparation for a boy leaving school at the end

of Grade 9 in this community where financial problems are continuous

and gambling is common. Further, though the development of vocational
interests was perceived as an important need of pupils by their teachers
and the receiving educational institutions, no specific vocational
programs were developed, and the school had no contact with possible
future employers. In fact, the school maintains what can only be
considered a defensive position against the values of the surrounding
community. Teachers view their role most often as substituting for

the parents in promoting social values in defiance of locally accepted
norms. The double set of locked gates to the school buildings testi-
fies to this attitude. The fact that parents and the young people
themselves did not consider vocational interests very important implies
a rather strong persistence in the community of the image of the
academic grammar school by means of which Jamaicans have for generations
risen from humble beginnings to higher status employment.

The City Park school is attempting to meet all the perceived
needs of its community, with the possible exception of instruction in
consumer skills for the boys. Physical education teachers help to meet
the need for good health practices by remaining late after school for
games when they get to know pupils and do personal counselling; they
also have provided special swimming instruction. The active involve-
ment of pupils in solving mathematical problems, and the methods of

investigation used in science classes stimulate critical thinking. The

124

special, perceived need of City Park pupils for appreciation of the
fine arts is met in many ways, particularly by its extensive music
program. School-leavers and parents in City Park, like those in
Industrial Town, express a need for instruction in consumer skills;
girls are well provided for in this area at City Park, but it appears
that the boys' needs are unsatisfied.

Similar to Industrial Town, the need expressed by teachers at
City Park to develop vocational interests was, apart from the possible
exception of the home economics department, not supported by specific
programs, and the school had slight contact with future employers.
However, parents of children at the City Park school are somewhat more
affluent than those at Industrial Town, and so the possibilities of
paying for further education or specific training upon leaving the
school are greater. Also like Industrial Town, pupils, school-leavers
and parents at City Park did not place high value on the development
of vocational interests, but would seem to maintain strongly the
grammar school image as a means of social mobility. While the City Park
school cannot be described as closely integrated into the local commun-
ity, it is considerably less defensive against its surrounding community
than the school at Industrial Town. However, City Park teachers too
considered their teaching of social and ethical values important as
substitution for parents where the home failed.

To what extent is the comprehensive principle, as distinguished
from the traditional academic grammar school, accepted and practised in
the four junior secondary schools? Mest of the aims of the junior secondary

school are also those inherent in the academic grammar school; those which

125

distinguish the junior secondary school are the development of voca-
tional interests as evident in the practical areas of industrial arts,
home economics, and art and crafts, as well as the practical teaching
of consumer skills. Thus, the above question may be answered by a
consideration of the importance accorded to the development of voca-
tional interests, and to a lesser extent to the practical aim of
teaching consumer skills.

The grammar school image appears to be very strong among pupils
and school—leavers in all four schools, and among parents and members
of the community for all schools but Banana Grove. 0n the other hand,
the comprehensive principle appears to be accepted by teachers in all
four schools, and the principal, parents and community leaders in
Banana Grove, all of whom stressed the importance of developing pupils'
vocational interests.

While practices of the four schools may be said to be compre-
hensive in that they cater to a wide range of ability in developing
communications and computational skills, and they provide prescribed
courses in the practical areas Of industrial arts, home economics and
art and crafts, some have been more innovative than others in developing
their own practical programs. The two rural schools have both developed
special programs to serve the vocational interests of their pupils: in
Banana Grove they serve the needs of an agricultural area, and in
Seasurf, the tourist industry; both have contact with employers; both
permit Grade 9 pupils to specialize in one area of industrial arts. On
the other hand, the two urban schools have developed no specific voca-

tional programs, have little or no communication with future employers,

'126

and provide general instruction in three areas of industrial arts in
Grade 9 rather than specific instruction in one area. While all four
schools teach the prescribed curricula for consumer skills for girls

in home economics classes, the two rural schools have added programs

in consumer skills for boys; there is little such instruction for boys
in the urban schools. Thus, one may conclude that the two rural
schools have adapted the comprehensive idea to satisfy the practical
needs of their pupils more readily than the urban schools, and that

the junior secondary school is more acceptable in the isolated agrarian
community of Banana Grove than it is in the small resort town of

Seasurf.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARIES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY OF THE PROBLEM

When Jamaica gained full independence in 1962 she had inherited
a secondary education system which was academically oriented in the
British tradition, and which was limited to a small proportion of the
population. Several factors explain this development. The early
British sugar estate owners and overseers were slow to develop secondary
schools since they preferred to educate their children in England. Be-
cause Of the inactivity of the public sector, religious bodies became
increasingly involved in providing education, and continue that function
today. The institution of slavery retarded the educational advancement
of black Jamaicans in comparison with other groups in the population.
The collapse of the institution of marriage during slavery has led to
a variety of family patterns; the matri-focal pattern may be said to
predominate today among black Jamaicans, resulting in a heavy burden
upon the mother, and comparatively inadequate support for the child which
has adversely influenced his educational advancement. The mixed racial
and cultural origins of the Jamaican population have resulted in social
classes distinguished by their color and cultural characteristics; since
Jamaican educational patterns have been established on the British model,
and since the first educational opportunities were provided for whites

and browns, these two groups have maintained increasingly advantageous

127

128

positions over the masses of blacks. European cultural ideals have been
considered socially acceptable, and the African rejected. Ideas govern-
ing the education of the ruling white and brown classes have been
oriented toward academic studies unrelated to the immediate needs of

the economy, while education for the lower black classes has been con-
ceived of in terms of practical class function, of industry and labor;
thus, academic secondary grammar education became a symbol of social
superiority reinforcing social class divisions.

While the Common Entrance Examination at the age of 11+ to
academic high schools increased Opportunities for black Jamaican children
after 1958, they continued at a disadvantage because of their inadequate
primary school preparation.

Modern developments toward a more comprehensive secondary educa-
tion provision have resulted, in large part, from the needs of an
agricultural economy increasingly diversifying in the areas of mining
(especially bauxite), manufacturing and tourism. These economic develop-
ments have led to a demand for technical education, and to the ability
of the government to borrow large sums in loan funds from agencies such
as the World Bank for educational development.

In an initial step toward a more comprehensive secondary educa-
tional provision, the first government of independent Jamaica in 1966
successfully solicited technical assistance from UNESCO and US/AID, and
{3.4 million capital assistance from the International Bank for Recon-
struction and Development for planning and providing fifty new junior
secondary schools in order to satisfy the needs of children of diverse

abilities between the ages of twelve to fifteen years. A major

129

educational issue arose from the policy of the Jamaica Labour Party
government (1962-72) to expand the provision of junior secondary educa-
tion at a time when primary school standards were falling, with the
inevitable result that the junior secondary schools would have to provide
remedial instruction in basic skills where the primary schools had failed.
Further, black Jamaicans feared that these schools would provide their
children with an inferior type of secondary education. Despite the
controversy, little is publicly known of the practices and achievements
of the junior secondary schools.

The problem of this study is to provide some of this information
by describing programs and practices of four junior secondary schools
as they attempt to achieve their official aims in their particular
socio—cultural milieux: a rural agricultural community, a rural small

town, an urban depressed area, and a somewhat better off urban area.

DATA SUMMARIES

Data presented in Chapter II explain that the management, goals
and curriculum of the junior secondary schools are centralized under
the authority of the Ministry of Education, which also provides ancillary
services such as the rental Of textbooks, a school meals service, and
evening classes.

Data in Chapter III reveal that unique programs and practices
have been devised by the principal and teaching staff of each of the
four schools to satisfy the needs of their pupils within their own
socio-cultural environment.

A simultaneous comparison of the four schools in Chapter IV

brings into perspective the relative emphasis placed upon the various

130

aims by the staffs of the four schools, and the perceived importance

of these objectives to the pupils. It was concluded that the junior
secondary school is more adaptable and accepted by parents and community
leaders in the isolated agricultural community of Banana Grove than

it is in the small town and urban areas studied.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The image of the academic grammar school as the ideal-type
secondary school tends to persist quite strongly among the
pupils of the junior secondary schools, their parents, and
members of their communities. The programs and practices
of the schools themselves also reveal this tendency:

(a) the Grade 10 extension in three of the four schools
studied provides a purely academic program;

(b) all pupils in the four schools, even the lowest streams,
study some Spanish in order not to eliminate possible
academic opportunities later, though the time might
more profitably be spent on practical subjects;

(c) grammar school practices are employed, such as the
"prefect" system.whereby supervisory power is invested
in appointed senior pupils.

2. Nevertheless, the writer must conclude that with few excep—
tions the comprehensive principle has been firmly established
among the principals and teachers of the schools. It is
quite suprising to the writer that the staff members have

been able to adopt the new ethos and following practices so

131

different from their own grammar school background:

(a) coeducation;

(b) remedial instruction in English language and arith-
metic in order to cater to a wide range of abilities;

(c) the practical areas of industrial arts, home
economics and agriculture;

(d) the teaching of social studies rather than separate
history and geography;

(e) the teaching of consumer skills;

(f) acceptance of Jamaican dialect as an acceptable means
of communication in the arts, occasionally in classes,
and very commonly among teachers in staff common rooms.

The principals and teachers have devised innovative programs

to serve the needs Of their particular pupils quite success-

fully in all four schools, an indication that the institu-
tion is quite flexible. Programs to cater to pupils'
vocational interests have been more particularized in rural
than in urban areas. (It should be noted that 46 of the

WOrld Bank schools are in rural areas; 4 in urban areas).

The home economics facilities and programs are performing

an invaluable function in contributing toward the improve-

ment of home and family life for the masses of Jamaicans.

A major concern is the future of the school—leaver, who at

fifteen years of age is too young to work. While he is

strongly encouraged to return to the school's evening

classes, there is a recognized need to extend the duration

132

of the junior secondary school course to five years. How-
ever, the shortage of space and the dearth of suitable
teachers does not make such an extension a strong possibility

within the near future.

6. As a result of comparison with Ruscoe's statements in 1963

about the dysfunctionality of high school education in the

economic, social and political development of Jamaica, it

seems fair to conclude that the junior secondary school

program is a positive advance toward making secondary level

education more functional to national development. The

dichotomy which follows serves to illustrate:

Dysfunctional Aspects of High

C.

School Education 1963

 

Purpose to produce leaders.1

No statement of aims except
the passing of examinations.

Meaning limited to passing of
examinations unrelated to needs
of any particular community.3

Emphasis on concrete, examin-
able subject matter to neglect
of less examinable subject
matter such as:

 

Arbor, Michigan:

1

More Functional Aspects of
Junior Secondary School
Education — 1972

 

 

Purpose to educate the mass of
Jamaican citizenry.

Detailed statement of aims.

Programs adapted, at least in
part, to needs of particular
communities.

Emphasis on social and practical
goals as well as concrete,
academic subject matter:

Gordon C. Ruscoe, Dysfunctionality in Jamaican Education, Ann

 

2 Ibid., p. 103.

3 Ibid., pp. 97-8.

university of Michigan School of Education, 1963, p. 98.

(i)

(ii)

(111)

133

social skills and
attitudes;4

development of informed
voters;

guidance of vocational
interests;7

social and ethical values
involving discussion of
current Jamaican social
problems;5 home economics
courses to promote family
well-being;

study of structure of
Jamaican government; dis-
cussion and evaluation of
current national problems;
election of student repre-
sentatives (in addition to
appointments of prefects);

development of vocational
interests attempted (but
insufficient vocational
guidance).

The junior secondary school program is, therefore, more

functional to Jamaican society in that it constitutes

an attempt to open the structure of secondary education

to provide a school capable of accommodating the needs of

a wide range of ability and interest.

Further, the fact

that the aims and curricula have been determined for their

relevancy to Jamaican life, without concern for external

examinations, has made possible the following: attempts to

compensate for deficiencies of family life by providing

nourishing food, personal adult images and friendly counsel-

ing, as well as classroom discussions of the values and

 

ayysfunctionalityin Jamaican Education, pp. 100-8.

 

For examples of discussion of current Jamaican problems, see

6_stfunctionality in Jamaican Education, p. 116.

 

7 Ibid., p. 53.

134

problems of family and community life; study and exercise
of the rights and duties of democratic citizenship in the
practical school social situation; pupil exploration of a
rather wide range of occupational skills in the hope of
discovering vocational preferences. Locally determined
aims and curricula have also made possible acceptance
of Jamaican cultural expressions, particularly in the arts,
as well as sharing European cultural expressions. Accept-
ance of the integrity of the pupils' own Jamaican culture,
including its African components, would seem to this writer
to encourage development of their self-esteem and positive
self-image, as well as useful, continuous relationships
with their own communities rather than rejection of them.
7. The junior secondary schools are doubtless "here to stay."
It would be politically very hazardous to cease providing
for the wide range of ability now accommodated by them.
Therefore, though the junior secondary schools may be
improved, they may not be eliminated.8 These schools will
have to continue their practical programs since the equip-
ment is available; further, the teachers of these subjects,
and those who trained them, have a vested interest in the

practical subjects. Remedial instruction will have to

 

8 The Minister of Education, the Honorable Florizel Glasspole,
in July, 1972, publicly announced that his Ministry was working out a
plan "calculated to put a two-year extension on the school life of junior
secondary school students who fail to reach the admission level to
technical, vocational or secondary high schools." (The Daily Cleaner,
21 July 1972, p. 20).

135

continue indefinitely until primary school-leavers have
achieved adequate standards. An important question remains
to be answered. Will the junior secondary schools become a
"flexible pivot of transition" toward the comprehensive
system of secondary education envisaged by the previous
government of Jamaica, or will the grammar schools maintain
their prestigious academic orientation, relegating the junior
secondary schools permanently to the status of second-class
secondary schools, similar to that of English "secondary
modern" schools before the development of comprehensive

secondary schools in England?

RECOMMENDATIONS

From a study of the data, and upon the advice of informants, the

following recommendations are advanced:

1.

that the Ministry of Education make available to the

schools information on job opportunities and qualifications
necessary for particular occupations, and as far as possible,
provide the schools with assistance in vocational counseling.
that Spanish not be a compulsory subject for all pupils, so
that lower streams especially may devote more time to prac-
tical subjects.

that specialization in one area of the industrial arts be
permitted Grade 9 pupils when deemed advisable by a particu-
lar school.

that the findings of the experimental project of the Science

Centre, University of the West Indies, be carefully studied,

136

and if judged successful, be extended to all junior

secondary schools.

that the National Curriculum Development Committee develop

appropriate materials to teach boys consumer skills, and

that urban schools particularly take note of a possible
deficiency in this area of their curriculum.

that all schools, particularly urban schools, take advantage

of the many opportunities to familiarize pupils with their

social environment by conducting them on tours to public
institutions.

that urban schools seriously consider the possibility of

taking their pupils on visits to the countryside, with

particular relationship to science classes.

that when possible, the junior secondary school program

be extended to five years and integrated with other types

of secondary schools into a comprehensive system for the
following reasons:

(a) The junior secondary schools have demonstrated that
some of their best pupils are capable at the end of
Grade 9 of proceeding successfully to academic high
schools, and some have passed Jamaica School Certifi—
cate (Grade 10) examinations. The ability of the
Common Entrance Examination to distinguish academic
ability at the age of 11+ is therefore brought into
question.

(b) Aspects of the junior secondary school program which

might be considered more functional to the development

137

of Jamaican society and its culture could be readily
adopted in a comprehensive system not controlled by
external examinations.

(c) Despite the fact that many poorer black Jamaican
children are now attending academic high schools,
there is not a comparable representation of white
and brown upper and middle class children in the
junior secondary schools. The junior secondary schools
enroll predominantly the children of the black and
Indian lower classes,9 with the result that they are
not necessarily helping to overcome class divisions.
A comprehensive system.would bring all Jamaican
children together into one institution; it would help
to eradicate fears of black Jamaicans that their
children are receiving an inferior type of secondary
education, and would contribute substantially toward
achievement of the national motto, "Out of many, one

people."

 

9 Miller in 1967 found that in the urban area of Kingston-St.
Andrew, the junior secondary schools enrolled predominantly children of
the lower strata as well as what he called the emerging middle strata,
the artisan class which has developed over the past 30-40 years as a
result of industrialization, urbanization and modernization. (Miller,

op. cit., p. 59).

For comparisons of the socioeconomic backgrounds of students
in junior secondary and academic high schools in urban Kingston—St.
Andrew, and the racial composition of these two school types, see
Appendix K).

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

OFFICIAL FRAMEWORK

Long-term Educational Targets and Objectives, 1966-1980
Structure of the Education System
Education Advisory Council

Boards of Governors

APPENDIX Arl

LONG-TERM EDUCATIONAL TARGETS AND OBJECTIVES,
1966-1980

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iV)

(V)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(iX)

APPENDIX Ael

LONG-TERM EDUCATIONAL TARGETS AND OBJECTIVES,
1966-19801

Provision of a system of free education for 90% of the children
in the age group 6-15 on a compulsory and non-selective basis;
(allowance is made for 10% of the group to be enrolled in
private schools and in special schools).

Gearing the education of the 12-15 age group to the needs,
abilities and aptitudes of the age group.)

Increased and diversified provisions for the education of a
selected 36% of the 15 and 16 year olds and for 8.5% of the
17 and 18 year olds,

Diversification of the educational services for the 15-19 year
old age group (academic, science, technical vocational, agri-
cultural, commercial and industrial).

Opportunities and facilities for young people moving out of
the system at 15 for further education and for training.

Articulation and integration of the system to ensure mObility
within the system but also to permit re-entry into the system
of children who moved out at the age of 15.

Distribution and location of the educational resources on a
rational and just islanddwide basis for continuous utilization
by the young and by adults.

A teaching force relevantly and fully qualified academically,
professionally and technically.

Provision of appropriate, functional school plant and of
relevant and adequate-quantitatively and qualitatively--
supplies of instructional materials--books, equipment,
apparatus, machines, aids, etc.,—-for effective learning and
skillful teaching.

 

1 From the Prgposed Ministry of Education Paper on Educational

Development in Jamaica. Policy, Plans, and Programmes, Implementation
and Financing. Kingston, Jamaica: Ministry of Education, April, 1966,
Pp o 1.6-7 0

138

APPENDIX A92

STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

APPENDIX Ar2

STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

At present the Jamaican Government accepts full responsibility
for education; however, church authorities and private enterprise
continue to provide Infant, Preparatory, and Secondary education, and
Teacher Training, often assisted by Government grants.

Although there still exist some private schools which are
attended by children whose parents are able to pay fees, Jamaica has a
system of free education which begins at the age of 6 for most children
and at the age of 4 in a few cases where there are infant schools and
infant departments. A rapidly expanding program of junior secondary
schools is intended to provide 3 years of free secondary education for
all Children from the ages of 12-15. At the age of 15 the most promis-
ing students are transferred to senior cycle grammar, technical or
vocational schools.

Let us now take a look at the ladder of education in Jamaica,
(see diagram, p. 140). The Jamaican educational ladder has four major
rungs--Early Childhood, Primary, Secondary and Further.

Schools for Early Childhood education are run mainly by private
agencies, though Government is assuming greater responsibilities in-
creasingly at this level. It has been estimated that the total number
of such schools is over 2,000. The Ministry of Education awards grants
to 604 of them to assist with operational expenses. Government itself

operates 26 Infant SChools and 41 Infant Departments of Primary Schools.

139

140

 

 

UNIVERSITY (UWJJ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A
AGE
TEACHERS TECHNICAL THEOLOGICAL SIxTH FORMS
F RTH R 11 AN R
U E COLLEGES COLLEGES COLLEGES D owe
SENIOR
JAMAICA UPPER PORMS OF HIGH SCHOOLS AGE ,5. 11
SCHOOL AND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.
CERTIFICATE VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS.
BY ATTENDING
EVENING
INSTITUTES ‘
SECONDARY
JUNIOR T
JUNIOR SECONDARY JUNIOR : : 1.5mm“
L
DEPTS. OF ALL AGE secoquRv I HIGH SCHOOLS . HIGH SCHOOL AGE
SCHOOLS SCHOOLS ' I '2 ' '5 Yams
__________________ l FORMSI‘3 ' YEARSI—Z
GRADES 7 — 9 l I
COMMON ENTRANCE EXAMS
JUNIOR SCHOOLS. JUNIOR DEPARTMENTS OP ALL AGE SCHOOLS. AGE
PRIMARY PREPARATORY SCHOOLS 6 _ '2 YEARS
GRADES I - e
EARLY AGE
CHILDHOOD BASIC. INFANT. NURSERY. PLAY. KINDERGARDEN 3 -6 YEARS

 

 

Figure l. The Educational Ladder in Jamaica

Source: Errol Miller, "Education and Society in Jamaica," Savacou
(Kingston: The Caribbean Artists Movement, June, 1971), p. 54.

141

Of 187,000 four to six year olds in the population, about 130,000 (69%)
were reported to be in school in January, 1971.1

Primary schools cater to children aged six to twelve years. In
January, 1971, it was estimated that there were about 350,000 six to
twelve year olds in the population. Of this number 267,000 were enrolled
in Government primary schools, and about 10,000 in private preparatory
schools. Thus, approximately 79 per cent of this age group were enrolled
in school in 1971. Education is not yet compulsory in Jamaica.

The Public Schools which cater to this age group are of two
types—-Primary schools and All-age schools. The Primary schools have
children between the ages of six and twelve years, while the All-age
schools have students up to the age of fifteen. That is, the All-age
school has a junior secondary department. With the establishment of
junior secondary schools, many All-age schools have become Primary schools
as their 12—15 year olds have been absorbed into the junior secondary
schools.2

Secondary education is divided into two sections: junior secondary
(often termed "first cycle") and senior secondary (often termed "second
cycle"). Some form of junior secondary education is offered in four
types of secondary schools: the junior secondary departments of All-age
schools, the Junior secondary schools, the first three Forms (Grades
7-8) in high schools (academic grammar schools), and the first two years

of Technical high schools.

 

1 "The Educational System," The Daily Gleaner, January 4, 1971,

 

2 Ibid.

142

Senior secondary education is provided in the upper forms
(grades) of high schools, Technical high schools, Comprehensive high
schools, Vocational schools, and in Evening Institutes in various
schools.

In moving from the primary to the secondary stage, some children
sit the Common Entrance examinations. Some are thereby selected to
attend High schools or Technical high schools; the remainder may attend
either All-age schools or Junior secondary schools. In Technical high
schools, first year is equivalent to Grade 8. (Students sit the entrance
examination to Technical high schools while they are in Grade 7). Be-
tween 70 and 80 per cent of Jamaican children finish their formal
education at Grade 9.

At the end of the Junior secondary, or first cycle, about 20 to
30 per cent of the students go on to some form of senior secondary
education. Those continuing in the evening institutes of Junior secondary
schools sit the Jamaica School Certificate examination (approximately
Grade 10). Those in Vocational schools may also sit the Jamaica Sdhool
Certificate examination, but they also learn trades and receive appro-
priate certificates. Students in high schools and Technical high
schools sit the London or Cambridge G.C.E. examinations at Ordinary
level (Grade 11) and Advanced level (Grade 13 approximately).

In January, 1971, there were approximately 150,000 twelve to
fifteen year olds in the population, of whom about 125,000 or 83% were
enrolled in school. At the senior secondary level only about 13 per
cent of the fifteen-eighteen year age group were enrolled in the Public

education system. There were approximately 22,000 students in high schools,

143

2,500 in Comprehensive high schools, 3,500 in Technical high schools,
1,000 in Vocational schools, and about 3,000 in Evening Institutes.3

Further Education includes institutions such as Teacher Training
colleges, Technical colleges, (such as the College of Arts, Science and
Technology), the Jamaica School of Agriculture, Commercial colleges,
Theological colleges, Sixth Forms in high schools (grades 12-13), and
the University. Entry to institutions of Further Education is dependent
on some combination of passes in J.S.C. or G.C.E. examinations. Only a
very small percentage of the total population actually receives the
benefit of education at this level.

Government-owned and -aided institutions for Further Education
are: 8 teachers' colleges, 1 teacher training pilot project, 1 junior
teachers' college, 1 technical college, 1 agricultural college, 2 nurs-
ing schools, and 1 university. In January, 1971, there were approximately
3,200 Trainee Teachers including Interns (those practising before certi-
fication). The College of Advanced Science and Technology had approxi-
mately 1,300 students including part-time and evening students. The
University of the West Indies had approximately 1,900 Jamaican students
out of a total enrollment of 4,600 West Indian students.4

Aside from the above formal education levels, there are 6 Special

schools for handicapped Children which are aided by Government.

 

3 "The Educational System," The Daily Gleaner, January 4, 1971:

4
Ibid.

APPENDIX Ar3

EDUCATION ADVISORY COUNCIL

APPENDIX Ar3

EDUCATION ADVISORY COUNCIL

At the national level, Section 5 of the Education Act, 1965
authorizes the establishment of an Education Advisory Council whose
duty it is "to advise the Minister on such matters connected with
educational theory and practice as it thinks fit and upon any question
referred to it by the Minister."1 As stated in the First Schedule of
the Education Act, 1965, the Education Advisory Council is to consist
of twenty-two members; eleven are to be appointed by the Minister, six
are to be representatives nominated by professional teachers' associa-
tions recognized by the Minister, and five are to be representatives
nominated by the owners of aided educational institutions. Members
are appointed for a period not exceeding three years, after which time
they are eligible for re-appointment.2

In practice, members of the Education Advisory Council have
embodied a fairly wide cross-section of opinion; individual members
have been representative of such varied occupations as primary school
teacher, secondary school teacher, principal, librarian, home economist
and industrialist. The membership has also been geographically dispersed.

The Council meets four times a year to discuss a broad area of

educational interest; a sample of topics discussed includes curriculum,

 

1 Government of Jamaica, The Education Act, 1965 (Kingston:
The Government Printer, 1965), Section 5, p. 7.

2 Ibid., First Schedule, p. 39.

144

145

discipline, pornographic literature, and United Nations education year.
Sub-committees form to discuss special aspects of education. A stand-
ing committee of the Council advises the Minister on the appointment
of principals whose nominations have been forwarded by the Boards of
Governors of all types of educational institution--from training
colleges to primary schools, including grant-aided institutions.

While the Education Advisory Council may have some influence
indirectly on Ministerial decision-making, its function is purely
advisory. The Council makes no public statement. It is respected

as the highest advisory body to the Minister of Education.

APPENDIX A-4

BOARDS OF GOVERNORS

APPENDIX Ar4

BOARDS OF GOVERNORS

At the local level, Section 9 of the Education Act, 1965,
prescribes that every public educational institution shall be adminis-
tered by a Board of Managers or a Board of Governors of not less than
three persons.1 In the case of the government-owned junior secondary
schools, all the members are appointed by the Minister of Education for
a period not exceeding three years, after which time they are eligible
for re-appointment. More than one public educational institution may
be administered by the same Board when the Minister is satisfied that
the general interests of education in the area will be best served by
a single Board.2 Responsibilities of the Board of Governors as pre-
scribed in the Education Regulations, 1966, are the following:

(1) Every Board shall, as respects the public educational
institution which they are appointed to administer, be

responsible to the Minister for--

(a) the conduct, supervision and efficient maintenance
of the institution;

(b) the expenditure of grants tO the institution;

(c) dealing with serious charges of breach of discipline
against pupils of the institution;

(d) submitting to the Minister such returns and such state-
ments and other documents relating to the conduct and

 

1 Government of Jamaica, The Education Act, 1965 (Kingston:
The Government Printer, 1965), Section 9, p. 8.

2 Ministry of Education, The Education Regulations, 1966
(Kingston: The Government Printer, 1966), Section 5, p. 3.

146

147

maintenance of the institution, as the Munister may from
time to time require, and if they are aware of any serious
contravention of the Act or these Regulations in the
institution the Board shall forthwith report such contra-
vention to the Minister.

(2) For the purposes of paragraph (1) the supervision of a public
educational institution includes the making by at least one
member of the Board of not less than one visit in every period
of three months to that institution during working hours.

(3) If it appears to the Minister that there is serious defect
in the work of any public educational institution he may request
the Board to make such investigations into the matter as he
thinks fit and report to him, and he may, after consideration
of the report and consultation with the Board, give them suCh
directions as he may consider necessary for providing a remedy
for such defect and the Board shall comply with those directions.

 

3 Miniatry of Education, The Education Regulations,'1966 (Kingston:
The Government Printer, 1966), Section 18, p. 7.

APPENDIX B

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES FOR JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

B—l. Master Plan Report--Objectives

B—2. Curriculum Development Committee--Aims of the Junior Secondary School

APPENDIX B-l

MASTER PLAN REPORT--OBJECTIVES

APPENDIX B-l

MASTER PLAN REPORT--OBJECTIVES

The educational aims of the junior secondary school as provided

in the Master Plan Report place emphasis upon future employment needs:

 

To provide a form of education that will acquaint students with
various occupational skills, so that they may discover their
vocational interest and increase their desire to pursue further
educational avenues in those disciplines.

To raise the level of students entering second-cycle secondary
schools in order that the level of these outputs may in turn
be raised.

To equip children in the age group 12 to 14 with a minimum degree
of skill to be better able to service man-power needs, and in this
regard to expand the employment horizons of persons entering the
labor force at the age of 15 and to make that education immediately
functional on entering the labor force.

To challenge the abilities and attract the interest of students.

To establish a more balanced education program which would integrate
man-power needs with skills offered through the educational facili-
ties, and to correct the imbalances in the educational facilities
offered through the existing educational institutions.1

The Master Plan Report elucidates on the need to correct the imbalance

between the supply of and the demand for secondary school graduates:

In 1960, the total number of persons employed in occupations rang-
ing from persons of professions, business managers, senior execu-
tiVes to technicians and craftsmen, amounted to 227,000. The view
of the educationists is that in all of these occupations, the
minimum of secondary education is desirable. The supply of

 

1 Caudill, Rowlett, Scott, Architects, Planners & Engineers,

Master Plan Report, Junior Secondary School Prggram, Ministry of Educa-
tion, Jamaica, West Indies, (Houston, Texas-Ne 'York, N.Y., December
1967), p. 3.

148

149

secondary-trained persons in Jamaica in that year was 65,900, or
161,000 short of the desired number. The gap has continued to
increase as the annual incremental need exceeds the annual supply.
The output of secondary graduates averages 4,000 per annum and
the demand for such graduates between 1960 and 1965 has been
estimated at just over 50,000.

The Junior Secondary School program is formulated against this
background to try in the shortest possible period to bridge the
gap and to establish some equilibrium between the supply and the
demand for secondary graduates.

 

 

2 Master Plan Report, Junior Secondary School Proggam, pp. 3—4.

APPENDIX B-2

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE--AIMS OF
THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

1.

APPENDIX B-2

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE--AIMS OF
THE JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

Need for Aims:-

 

The Junior Secondary School Jamaica's most recent educational
venture, will require careful direction if it is to be successful.
Although it is the first phase of secondary education, it is
obligated to offer terminal education as well as preparation for
further schooling. It needs to perform a remedial function as
well as to Open new vistas for study. Its responsibilities, there—
fore, appear overwhelming. It is vital that there should be a
well-considered set of aims, which clearly identifies these responsi-
bilities, assigns priorities and suggests a program for disCharging
them.

The aims of schools should grow out of the needs of the society
which they serve. At the same time individuals in the society have
needs that must be satisfied if the society is to be strengthened.
Societal and individual needs are usually two sides of the same
coin. However, both areas need to be identified and catered for

in order that serious gaps do not occur in the educational process.

‘Responsibilities of School Personnel for Realizing Aims:-

All Junior Secondary School Personnel need to understand the
aims of the school in order to organize programs for achieving these
aims, and to modify them if and when they seem inappropriate or

unattainable.

150

151

It is expected that some aims of the school will be achieved
through the way the school is organized and administered rather
than through subjects taught. It is not enough for children to
hear about democracy, to read about co—operative action, or to
study about community service. Abundant opportunities to partici-
pate in democratic decision making, to work together on common
projects, and to serve the community, should be provided. Pupils
involved in meaningful community and school work will inevitably
achieve many aims of the program, and at the same time build school
morale, develop skill in team work and inspire respect from the
public.

Provison must be made in the organization of the school for
teachers to handle efficiently the wide range of individual differ-
ences which populate the Junior Secondary School. Pupils of low
abilities must be identified and appropriate instruction provided
for them. Similarly, the able student must be provided with
challenging activities. In the long run public and professional
support for the Junior Secondary School will be generated only if
an increasing number of those leaving these schools subsequently
perform satisfactorily.

Teachers and administrators must examine the aims with concern
for the selection of subject material, as well as for how this
material is to be presented. Development of self-respect, communi-
cation skills, and initiative rarely evolve from listening to
lectures. Methods of teaching that provide for individual differences,

that foster open mindedness, permit reasonable dissent, and promote

152

creativity, must be developed by all teachers if the schools are
to succeed.
Characteristics of the Set of Aims:—

. This set of aims envisions a school situation where pupils
can develop their potential, follow their natural inclinations
of study, and achieve the standards of literacy required of
effective citizens.

The interest in growth of Jamaican youth towards responsible
citizenship is clearly discernible in the statement Of aims. The
democratic process demands a universally shared willingness of
each citizen to act intelligently on matters of public concern.

Since the Junior Secondary School will be a terminal educational
experience for many students, the curriculum must give consistent
attention to vocations. Although it is too early for pure vocational
training, it is important that teachers survey with their classes the
fields of work related to their subjects, concurrently attempting
to mould proper attitudes toward work and provide prevocational
experiences.

Evaluation an Integral Part of Program Building:-

The school must develop evaluation procedures to determine the
extent to which the aims are being realized. It must be noted,
however, that some aims cannot be evaluated through the use of
normal written instruments. The teacher skills involved in evaluae
tion are of a high professional character. This implies that the
skills of evaluation need to be included and emphasized during the

teacher training process.

153

5. Igrganization of the Statement:-

The order in which the aims appear does not necessarily
indicate priority. Each aim has its place in the scheme of the
school.

There is an attempt to group them into a pattern that suggests:

(a) personal development of the individual,

(b) the skills the individual needs to become an effective

individual, and then

(c) the involvement of the individual as he interacts with

his world.

Thus in general terms the Aims fall into these categories:

A. Personal Development
1. Citizenship
2. Ethical Values
3. Vocational Interests
4. Health Practices
B. Acquisition of Skills
5. Fundamentals of communication and computation
6. Habits of critical thinking
7. Work Habits and Attitudes toward Work
C. Involvement in His WOrld
8. Consumer Skills
9. Relation to Environment

10. Appreciation of Fine Arts

154

The Graduate of the Junior Secondary School -

. . . understands the rights and duties of a citizen, the necessity
for participation in the democratic process and possesses the
skills for so doing.

(1) He knows the principles of democracy.
(2) He knows the processes of democratic decision making.

(3) He accepts his responsibility for contributing to the effective
working of the democratic process.

(4) He knows the history and traditions of Jamaica and can use them
to understand current problems better.

(5) He can identify the leading problems facing a developing demo-
cratic society and can offer tentative rational solutions to
them. (For example: over-population, inequality of opportun-
ity, etc.).

. . . has developed insight into his system of ethical values
including the origin of this system.

(1) He has developed a respect for other persons and their rights,
understands that all people have equal rights, and is tolerant
of other people's opinions.

(2) He has developed an understanding of and a respect for himself.

(3) His own conduct is based on a personal code of ethics and
morals which he is thoughtfully working out.

(4) He knows ethical and moral principles relating to community
life and is willing to discuss them.

(5) He has demonstrated his respect for law and government in
compliance to school rules, orderly participation in the modifi-
cation of such rules, respect for school prOperty, and by
exhibiting high standards of integrity.

. . . is prepared to undertake an on-the-job training program which
is consistent with his interests and abilities, and contributes to
the nation's welfare.

(1) He knows the vocation opportunities which exist in Jamaica,
knows the trend of modern employment, and is willing to adjust
to the changing economic scene.

(2) He knows the relationships which exist between vocations and
disciplines studied in school.

4.

155

(3) He knows his own interests and abilities and will have identi-
fied them with specific vocations.

(4) He is self-motivated to extend his knowledge to the vocations
for which he holds an interest and the requisite abilities.

(5) He demonstrates suitable proficiency in skills fundamental to
on-the-job training that will support his job success. For
example:

(i) He can make basic arithmetic computations

(ii) He can communicate ideas and information both orally
and in writing

(iii) He can follow specific directions.

. . . will consider personal, community, and national implications
in developing his pattern of health practices.

(1) He keeps himself informed relative to the conditions of his
personal health.

(2) He participates in exercise and play activities which are of
interest to him and which may be carried over to adult life.

(3) He maintains a condition of personal physical fitness appropri-
ate to his bodily limitations.

(4) He is willing to play his part in the development of personal
and community health and sanitation practices which reflect
a concern for community and national welfare.

. . . has a mastery of the fundamental academic skills requisite
to the development of his full educational potential.

(1) He communicates orally and in writing at a level appropriate
to his age and ability.

(2) He reads the comprehension at a level appropriate to his age
and ability.

(3) He performs the fundamental operations of mathematics at a
level appropriate to his age and ability.

. . . has developed his ability to think critically and is acquainted
with the models of rational thinking related to the major disciplines.

(1) He understands and can use the "if-then" approach to problem
solving as studied in mathematics.

(2)
(3)

(4)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

156

He understands and can use the scientific method of thought.

He understands and can apply the mode of inquiry as practised
in the social sciences.

He understands and can be critically analytic of language.
. has developed desirable work habits and attitudes toward work.

He can identify those habits necessary for success in the
world of work.

He accepts the idea that work is a central function of human
life.

He exhibits desirable work habits (promptness, initiative,
responsibilities, etc.), in his acceptance and completion
of assignments.

He has demonstrated the ability to organize and use his time
efficiently.

He has achieved sufficient success in his school experiences
that he is willing to risk failure in his personal efforts to
aChieve.

. can purchase and use goods, services, and credit with a

knowledge of alternatives and their consequences.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)
(5)

He knows the kinds of goods, services and credit which are
available for his use.

He knows the financial consequences implied by the use of
various goods, services and credit.

He understands the nature of investments, savings, thrift, and
work and their inter—relationships.

He is able to develop and use a family budget.

He knows the general relationships between consumer behavior
and national developmental goals.

. is oriented to his physical environment, possesses basic

laboratory skills, the habits of scientific thought, and understands
the relationships between scientific advancements and modern life.

(1)

(2)

He can identify and explain common scientific phenomena and
can reproduce some of them using laboratory equipment.

He knows basic scientific principles and concepts and where
appropriate can express the principles quantitatively.

10.

157

(3) He can explain the role of science in transforming man's
living conditions.

. . . shows growing enjoyment of beauty in art, music, literature,
drama and dance; utilizing his talents and participating in art
activities.

(1) He can identify leading contemporary Jamaican artists and
their work.

(2) He uses his knowledge of contemporary art, music, etc., to
study the widely accepted cultural expressions.

(3) He has identified his talents in the arts and participates
in those fields in which he has talent and interest.

(4) He recognizes creativity as exhibited in the arts and adapts
this creativity to his own activities.

APPENDIX C

SURVEY FORMS

C—l. Questions for Principals
C-2. Questions for Department Heads and Subject Teachers

C-3. Questions for Students, Parents, Community Leaders
and Grade 9 School-leavers

10.

APPENDIX C-l

QUESTIONS FOR PRINCIPALS

How long has your school been operating?

How wide an area does it serve?

Where do your students come from?

Are there any important facts about your school's history and
sponsorship?

What are the important economic, famdly, religious, cultural,
social or political influences which affect the operation
of your school?

How many teachers have you on staff--full-time and part-time?

How many teach each subject?

What are the qualifications of the teachers of each subject
(academic, teacher training, experience)?

What is the total number of students in the school; in eaCh grade;
in each stream?

What is the student-teacher ratio for the whole school; for each
subject area?

What student-teacher ratio would you consider desirable for your
school? Why?

Have you department heads? For what subject areas?
What are their responsibilities?

Have you found that it is possible to achieve some of the aims
and objectives for the junior secondary schools by means of
your overall administrative policies and practices? How have
you been able to achieve specific objectives?

Do extra-curricular activities in your school help to achieve
specific Objectives?

Which subject areas in your school are best suited for the
aChievement of specific objectives?

Do agencies outside the school assist in the achievement of
specific objectives?

What functions do they perform in conjunction with, or in support
of your school?

Do some agencies outside the school seem to be working against
the achievement of your school's specific objectives?

158

11.

12.

13.

159

Perhaps you have had to modify, at least temporarily, some of
the objectives of the school in favor of others, in view Of
the special conditions of the community in which your school
is situated (economic, family, religious, cultural, social,
political, educational tradition). WOuld you care to explain
any of these modifications, and the reasons they are necessary
at this time?

What is your assessment of the aims and objectives of the junior
secondary school in light of your practical experience?

What do you consider to be the three most important objectives?
Why?

Where have your students gone at the end of Grade 9 for employ—
ment or further training?

APPENDIX C—2

QUESTIONS FOR DEPARTMENT HEADS AND SUBJECT TEACHERS

APPENDIX C-2

QUESTIONS FOR DEPARTMENT HEADS AND SUBJECT TEACHERS

What is the student-teacher ratio in your Classes?

Are you familiar with the aims and Objectives of the junior secondary
school?

Which of the Objectives is your subject area best able to help
further?

What specific methods have you found successful in helping you to
achieve any of these Objectives, which might be useful to
other teachers?

What specific difficulties do you find in trying to reach the
objectives?

Do you participate in any extra-curricular activities which would
help to achieve any of the objectives?

Do you make use Of any agencies outside the school in order to
achieve any of the objectives?

Is the overall administration of the sChool important in the
achievement of the objectives? How?

What do you consider to be the three most important objectives of
the junior secondary school? Why?

160

APPENDIX C-3

‘ QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS, PARENTS, COMMUNITY LEADERS
AND GRADE 9 SCHOOL-LEAVERS

APPENDIX C-3

QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS, PARENTS, COMMUNITY LEADERS

AND GRADE 9 SCHOOL-LEAVERS

Which of the following do you consider to be the three most important

objectives of the junior secondary sChool? Why do you consider each

of these to be important?

a.

t0

t0

t0

to

to

to

to

to

t0

to

prepare pupils for democratic citizenship.

develop moral and ethical values.

provide vocational guidance.

teach good health practices.

teach academic subjects—-especially English and mathematics.
teach pupils to think clearly and critically.

develop good work habits, and responsible attitudes towards
work.

teach pupils how to use money wisely—-buying, budgeting
and saving.

teach pupils to think scientifically.

help pupils to enjoy and participate in art, music, liter-
ature, drama and dance.

161

APPENDIX D

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL SYLLABI--TOPICAL SUMMARIES

D- 1.

D- 2.

English

Mathematics

Social Studies
General Science
Agricultural Science
Home Economics
Industrial Arts

Art and Crafts
Religious Education
Physical Education

Music

APPENDIX D-l

ENGLISH

APPENDIX D-l

ENGLISH

We must strive to make Jamaican children highly competent in
the language widely spoken in the world, while teaching them to apprec-
iate the local creole.

Teachers should apportion time to the various aspects of
language according to the range of ability of their pupils, but it
is recommended that about a quarter of the time for English be spent
on literature.

Language is firstly speech, so that the emphasis throughout
should be on oral work, with writing employed mainly as a consolidation
of this. Language emerges from one's experience of his social reality
and is the chief mode of social intercourse. Every conceivable device
must be used to bring the children in contact with their real social
life when language is being taught in the classroom. Hence formal and

informal language should be introduced via the situational method.

ORGANIZATION OF SYLLABUS

All topics and activities which make up the English syllabus are
to be considered as parts of a whole subject. For organizational pur-
poses, however, the subject is here broken down under the following
headings:

1. Reading and library work
2. Dramatization

3. Literature

162

163

5. Structure, usage and punctuation
6. Presentation of written language

In planning lessons we must preserve a unified approach and
students must gain from our presentation that the study and use of
language are never compartmentalized. Each of the language arts must
be used to reinforce the others.

English is such that it lends itself especially to development
along concentric lines, the core being more or less the same at all
levels, but development or deepening taking place according to the
child's age, ability and previous mastery. Hence, in all grades of the
junior secondary school the same topics comprise the syllabus, but
certain aspects of eaCh receive more attention at one level than another.

Each of the six topics is introduced separately, with sugges-
tions on how it should be approached. The content of the syllabus
under each topic follows the introduction and is so arranged that the
work for the three years can be viewed together. The appendix gives
lists of novels, poems and plays to aid the teacher in selecting material

for literature study.

APPENDIX D-2

MATHEMATICS

APPENDIX D-2

MATHEMATICS

The syllabus is divided into three years. It is not expected,
however, that all students will be able to cover the whole of each
year's syllabus in the time suggested, nor are they expected to proceed
at the same pace. It is not intended that each topic will be dealt
with "once and for all" as the subject headings tend to suggest in the

syllabus, but the spiral approach will be used in the classroom.

Grade 7
The language of sets
The system Of whole numbers and the four operations
Different shapes-—planes, lines and points
Introduction of algebra
Fractions
weights and measures
Angles and triangles

Consumer arithmetic

Grade 8
Locus
Multiplying and dividing
Congruent and similar shapes
Perimeters and areas

Simple graphs

164

165

Directed numbers
The distributive principle

Simple equations and inequations

Grade 9
Ratio and proportion
The straight line graph
Simultaneous equations
Formulae
The properties of simple polygons
Pythagoras' theorem

Quadratic expressions

Grade 9 students (non-academic streams)

 

Mensuration

Simple plans and elevations

Money

Elements of statistics

Uses and interpretation of formulae in:
(i) mensuration;
(ii) commerce;

(iii) the technical subjects.

APPENDIX D-3

SOCIAL STUDIES

APPENDIX D-3

SOCIAL STUDIES

Grade 7
Our School Community--Orientation and Community Initiation
This unit provides opportunities for the pupils to practise
various social studies skills by exploring their immediate environ-
ment from a new viewpoint. The community survey suggested in this
unit may be regarded as an introduction to the next unit--Our Island

Communigy--Land and Living.

Grade 8
Pegple With Whom We Have Links

In Grade 7, the junior secondary school student learns something
about his country: the physical environment, the occupations of the
people, the different racial groups who live in the country, the history
of the country, the ways in which people work together to solve their
problems.

In Grade 8 he must go further afield to increase his understand-
ing of life in his country. Our motto, "Out of Many, One People,"
emphasizes the fact that our people are descended from a variety of
racial and national groups. Even though many of these people came to
Jamaica many decades ago, their habits and customs have contributed to
the great variety in Jamaican life. To understand our own society we
need to know more about the peOple in the countries from which our ances-
tors came and the countries with whom we form new social, political and
economic links every day.

166

167

Improvements in transportation and communication have placed
all the countries of the world within close contact with one another.
The resulting mobility has meant that most people have some relative
or friend in other parts of the world. Some of the students in our
classrooms have parents abroad; some have themselves lived in other
countries; a large number will go to other countries as students, job-
seekers or tourists. It becomes increasingly Obvious, therefore, that
a good social studies program must include a study of the ways of life
of people of other lands, for only by understanding one another, can

the peoples of the world learn to live in peace.

Skills--grows in the ability:
(a) to do research;
(b) to use original sources;
(c) to record data;
(d) to make oral and written reports;
(e) to plan;
(f) to read and use maps;

(g) to read and use charts, graphs and cartoons.

(a) to listen;

(b) to take turns in discussion;

(c) to discuss rationally;

(d) to react intellectually rather than emotionally;
(e) to work harmoniously in a group;

(f) to show appreciation of others' efforts.

grows in the ability to use information creatively.

168

Xanadu--one of the peoples with whom.we have links.

Who are the people of Xanadu?

In what sort of place do the peOple of Xanadu live?

How do the people of Xanadu make a living?

How do people and goods travel from one part of Xanadu to
another and to other parts of the world? (routes, trade)

How do people get in touch with other people in Xanadu and
with other parts of the world? (communications)

What is life like in Xanadu? (culture)

What was life like for the people of Xanadu many years ago?
(history)

How does life in Xanadu differ from life in Jamaica?

What are the links between Xanadu and Jamaica?

The People of Latin America

Grade 9

At this stage, students should tackle the field of "human
problems" at the local as well as at the world level. After the
students have divined the problems, they need opportunities to discover
and analyze the causes, incidence and effects of the problems in Jamaica
and the rest of the world. Then they can investigate solutions that
are being or might be tried, both locally and internationally.

The Social Studies Outline Syllabus lists a number of possible
problems around which units could be developed: Health, Over-population,
Water, Natural Disasters, etc. While it would be impossible to do an

in-depth study of each of these, it is possible in a unit on Food to deal

169

with all these other topics since they all have links to the food
problem.

The teacher should try to bear in mind that the human element
is the most important in a social studies unit and particularly in a
unit on "human problems." In this study of food as a human problem,
the students will be finding out why some people have a balanced diet,
why some suffer from diseases of malnutrition, why many young people
in Jamaica are leaving the land, how ocean pollution may affect people,
what problems food processors are having, why the cost of our food
imports is rising, how much a housewife paid for various foods a genera-
tion or more ago, etc.

The best way for the children to come to understand these issues
is for them to collect information; draft questionnaires; interview
farmers, housewives, health nurses, health inspectors; collect pictures
and articles; draw; compile statistics; make graphs; and carry out other

learning activities on their own as much as possible.

‘Eggd

What foods do we eat and how are they prepared?

How does the food we eat help our bodies?

Where does our food come from?

Why does each kind of crop grow best in certain places?

How does our food get to us?

What are some of the problems which the people involved in
food production in Jamaica are having?

What is being and can be done to solve these problems?

How was food produced long ago?

170

Why are so many people in Jamaica and the rest of the world

hungry and malnourished?

Sgger in Our Lives

The topic "Sugar in Our Lives" is a particularly interesting
social studies topic: a study of sugar calls for an examination of
the physical environment and of our historical background, and it also
allows us to investigate a variety of present-day social, economic
and political phenomena. In other words, the sugar story touches
virtually all aspects of life throughout the West Indies.

The development of the West Indian sugar industry in the middle
of the 17th century had tremendous effects on the racial composition
of the islands and hence on our cultural heritage. It influenced pro-
foundly the social structure of the West Indies, and, as a consequence,
created enormous problems for the future; it helped shape the political
system; and it established, at once, great potential for wealth and for
poverty. An in-depth study of "Sugar," therefore, could give the
Grade 9 student a clear insight into our heritage and also present him

with an opportunity to examine some of our current problems.

How and when did sugar-cane first come to the West Indies?
Of what importance was sugar in Jamaica when it was first introduced?

How was the sugar-cane cultivated in the 18th century? How
was sugar made in the 18th century? How'was it sold?

How did the sugar planter in the 18th century meet his need
for a large labor force?

What was life like on a sugar estate in the 18th century?

171

How did the decline of the sugar industry affect the lives of
Jamaicans in the 19th century?

What is the condition of the sugar industry today?

APPENDIX D-4

GENERAL SCIENCE

APPENDIX D-4

GENERAL SCIENCE

The program should:

1. foster creativity and encourage flexibility of mind,
developing an attitude to change disciplined by the scientific method;

2. further develop problemrsolving techniques, encouraging
students to consider the long-term effects of proposed solutions and
to test predictions;

3. provide a basis for understanding the technical aspects of
modern life, by developing an understanding of the environment both
natural and man-made;

4. develop some basic technical and scientific manipulative
skills;

5. provide ground work for later training in depth in

scientific disciplines.

Grade 7

Livignghings

 

Characteristics
Plants and animals
Food and animals

Food for plants

Air and living things

New plants and animals (reproduction)

172

173

Earth and Universe

 

The earth's atmosphere

The gases of the air

Using air

The earth as part of the universe
More about the sun's family

Earth and gravity

Earth and time

Man and space

Matter and Energy

 

Matter

Matter and energy
Matter and molecules
Measurement

Density

Solutions

Change of state

Atoms, elements and compounds

Grade 8

Earth and Universe

 

Weather and climate

The sun and the weather
.Moisture in the air

Air pressure and the weather

Air masses and the weather

174

Matter and Energy

The

Energy

Heat and molecules

How heat travels (conduction, convection, radiation)
Temperature and the thermometer

Using and producing heat

Magnetism

The earth's magnetic field

Electromagnets and their uses

Electricity

The electric circuit

Producing current electricity from chemical energy

Grade 9

Human Body

 

How the human body is made up

Food for energy and growth

How food is digested

How the body gets oxygen

How food and oxygen reach the cells
How the body gets rid of waste matter
Growth and development

The story of reproduction

Some diseases of the body

More about Matter and Energy

Evidences for atoms and molecules

175

the structure of atoms
How atoms combine
Mixtures and compounds
Acids, bases and salts
Light and shadow
How to bend light
Light and seeing
Sound
How we hear

Machines and Eneggy
Force
Work and power
Machines-how they help us
More about machines
Energy and work
The internal combustion engine
Energy

Energy in industry and agriculture

APPENDIX D-S

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

APPENDIX D-5

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

Objectives

1. To put agricultural education on a new basis in schools
which will give the youths a new approach to agriculture; a new
philosophy of agriculture which will awake in them a respect for the land.

2. To establish a viable economic operation at any school where
a minimum of five acres cultivable land is available.

3. To teach and practise agriculture in both a scientific and
economic way; so that more young Jamaicans will not only acquire some of
the right skills for modern agriculture, but will also be convinced to
accept agriculture as their life's vocation.

4. To provide a basic agricultural background for people who
live in an agricultural society.

5. To develop an appreciation of the importance of agriculture

in Jamaica.

Grade 7
The plant
Germination and growth
The soil
The animal
The plant
Weeds, collection and classification

Weed control

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177

Pests and diseases

The soil—-water relations
Poultry

Housing and equipment
Brooding and rearing
Plant life

Tillage

The animal--feeding, sanitation and disease prevention,

marketing
Grade 8
The plant
The animal
The soil

Farming according to land capability

Altering land capability, terracing

The plant-the flower

Plant husbandry--methods of propagation

The animals--mammals

The plant--leaves

Permanent crops

The animal--mammal project (breeds, care of young,

judging of animals)

Grade 9
The plant and soil--elements necessary for plant growth

The animal--mamma1 project—-housing and feeding

The

The

The

The

178

plant--factors affecting farming in the locality

animal--mammals--feeding, production, milking techniques

plant

Simple accounts (single crOp grown)

Planning for profit

Introduction to agricultural organizations and programs

animal--parasites, diseases and disorders

Recognition

Prevention (methods)

Control (in cooperation with livestock or veterinary
officer)

Marketing

APPENDIX D-6

HOME ECONOMICS

APPENDIX D—6

HOME ECONOMICS

Every effort should be made to relate classroom activities to
real home situations. Students should be encouraged to transfer the
knowledge gained at school into their homes. Every lesson should be
built around the activities of the family, and should include all areas
of home-making for the welfare of the family. Two-thirds of the time
allotted for home economics education should be spent on activities, and
one-third of the time for developing appreciations, values, attitudes

and knowledge.

Foods, Nutrition and Home Management

 

Grade 7
Why people eat
Use and care of household equipment and furnishings
Breakfast dishes
Assisting in the purchase of the family's food
Safety at school and at home
Use and care of household equipment and furnishings
Management of time and energy in home activities
Social acceptability within the home
Getting along in the family
Use of leisure time

Foods, good health and good looks

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180

Grade 8
Nutrition and food preparation of family meals
Hospitality--social graces
Furnishing the home attractively
Sharing in the care of the home
Management of money for home and personal use
Getting along with others
Use of leisure time--family recreation

Good grooming

Grade 9

Nutrition and food preparation of meals for special occasions

Government agencies that safe-guard food and disseminate
information

Principles of cookery and processes involved in preparation

Planning for spending the family income

Housing the family

Living happily with family and friends

Recognizing ways of making the home safe and hygienic for
children and other members of the family

Sharing the care of the young child--food needs and eating
habits, clothing

Recognizing teenager's influence on younger children

Good health for the girl and her family

Illnesses and emergencies in the home

181

Sewing--will involve primarily the following work:
Grade 7

- construction of two garments: cotton blouse; cotton shirt

Grade 8 and Grade 9

 

- construction of other garments for everyday wear;

Processes

Girls may in addition sew more elaborate household articles,
such as dresser sets, and do decorative work to include crochet and
knitting.

Study of: the sewing machine; using and caring for the sewing
machine; theory of fabrics; overview and classification; the different

kinds of fabrics; simple tests for identification; care of clothing.

APPENDIX D—7

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

APPENDIX D-7

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

The course is deveIOpmental in nature, so that while its
objectives are valid for all grade levels, the relative emphasis given
will vary from grade to grade. Thus in the 7th and 8th grades pupils
should be exposed to two or three areas to provide learning situations
in which they will recognize their individual aptitudes, abilities and
interest, and allow to concentrate on one area in the 9th grade.

At all levels, industrial arts must be considered an integral
part of general education, rather than a specific training in a skill
subject. Nevertheless, the nature of the experiences provided in any
course of industrial arts may have avocational or vocational values.
The industrial arts program in the junior secondary school should prepare
students to meet the increasingly complex challenges of an industrial

society.

Specific Aims

 

1. To develop the capacity to analyze, plan, construct and
evaluate useful objects through the media of tools and materials.

2. To develop an appreciation for high standards of good
design and craftsmanship.

3. To develop competence in the use of hand and machine tools
and in the use of various materials.

4. To motivate interest in and increase knowledge of the

principal mechanical professions and fields of industry and their related

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183

educational and occupational opportunities.

5. To develop leisure-time interests.

6. To provide opportunities for certain pupils who may terminate
formal education at the end of the 9th grade to acquire such skill as

may make them employable.

General Areas of Study
(a) General woodwork
Hand
Machine
Finishing
(b) General metals
Bench metal
Art metal
Machine shop
Sheet metal
(c) General electricity
(d) Leathercraft
(e) Technical drafting
(f) Home mechanics
WOodwork and carpentry
Upholstery
Painting and finishing
Electricity
Metalwork

Plumbing

APPENDIX D-8

ART AND CRAFTS

APPENDIX D-8

ART AND CRAFTS

General Aims:

To create an atmosphere in the classroom which will be a sure
invitation to use mind and hand in creative work; to provide leisure
time activity and lay the foundation for vocational training and
pleasurable and lucrative hobbies.

While it may not be desirable to hand down a set syllabus for
art, the following detailed syllabus is intended, until teachers are
well-trained and have more experience, to be a guide for the majority
who might find it helpful in giving a varied, balanced, and progressive

training to pupils.

Grade 7
53E
All drawing is to be freehand
Introduction to color mixing
Imaginative compositions
Pictorial compositions
Drawing from Object (still life)
Measurement
Crafts
Pattern planning; group children according to the medium
they excel in

Lettering

184

185

Grade 8
.éEE
Plant study in a vase
Still life
Illustrative
Drapery
Woodcut-picture
Vegetable cut--picture
Outdoor sketch
Mounting a picture
Line cut picture
Crafts
Two more crafts should be introduced--bookbinding and one
other craft which may be basketry, depending on the
availability of material.

Pattern planning and lettering.

Where children show special aptitude for crafts and little taste
for academic subjects, it would do well to allow them more periods to

perfect their skills in the crafts in which they excel.

Grade 9
.éEE
Plant form in color
Object drawings--still life
Portraiture (a real person) in charcoal

Outdoor sketch

186

Composition on paper for line cut; transfer to line and cut
Draped life (person in everyday dress)
Composition from abstract shapes
Crafts
The third year should be a continued progression of the second year work
with the addition of two more crafts, one of which should be lighter
and which demands less practice to become skilled in it. For ex-
ample, shellcraft.
By the end of the third year it is expected that all pupils will have
acquired skills in at least three crafts, that some will even have
had what amounts to vocational training in at least one craft and

others pre-vocational training.

APPENDIX D-9

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

APPENDIX D-9

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

It is acknowledged by those who have studied religious educa-
tion seriously that the traditional approaches have caused many people
to think of the subject as something unrelated to life, for the simple
reason that many teachers have omitted from it many things that interest
young people; many of the things which would satisfy their basic needs;
many of the questions for which they are seeking answers.

The feeling is growing that instead of the Bible-centered approach,
a child-centred/thematic approach should be adopted. This does not mean
that the Bible will be discarded. The Bible is given the central place
which belongs to it by right. The Bible is used, however, in what we
believe is a more realistic and relevant manner in that the stages through
which individuals pass in their religious development have been taken
into consideration.

The formal operational thinking stage (age 12 onwards) is when
it is possible for the adolescent to reason hypothetically and deductive-
1y, and to understand symbolic and abstract terms. Thus in discussing
the Bible narrative they are able to consider both what actually happened
and what it signified. Not until this stage can the intellectual factor
in religion be adequately dealt with, or the Bible reveal its spiritual-
ized meaning, and a religious education which does not lead the pupils to
this way of thinking is inadequate and likely to give the pupils an

erroneous idea of what religion is about.

187

188

Grade 7
Communit

Aim - To give a deeper insight into the community in which they
live as they join a new school and begin their progress towards
adult life. To develop an understanding of how they share with
Christ the task of building a worthwhile community for everyone.

Belonging

Aim - To realize that our inborn desire to be accepted as a friend
and member of a social group is a start toward becoming a
friend, with others, of Christ--who calls us to be God's People.

Leadership

Aim - To help the children to discover for themselves the relevance
of Christ's leadership in their own lives and/or in the world
of today.

Teamwork

Aim - To help the children to see that "No man is an island unto
himself"; the need for cooperation in the community and the
importance of good organization under carefully chosen leaders.

ems.

Aim - To establish the place we have in our community on the level
of our individual gifts and how we each make our own contri-
bution to the group. To study how Christ shows us how to spend
our lives using our opportunities not only to benefit ourselves
but also to benefit others.

'Communicating

 

Aim — To help the students see that listening and working with one

another is central to our human and Christian lives.

189

anlities of Christ
Aim - By studying what He did and said to arouse admiration for
Jesus and a desire to be like Him.

Reverence for Life

 

Pentecost: the Holy Spirit at work
Presence
Aim - To show how the life of a community depends on the whole—
hearted way in which people share their lives and problems;
being present to each other means we are aware of everyone as
individuals with good and bad points. To deepen the under-
standing of how the Holy Spirit is present in the world and in
our hearts to guide us.
Belief
Aim - To help the students to reflect on how we reach Christ (God)
by that kind of knowing called faith.

Progress--Life is onegoing

 

Aim - To help the students to realize that the power of Christ did
not end with his resurrection.
1. Progress: life is growth
2. Progress in personal relationships
5 3. Progress in community living
4. Progress to life
5. Progress today

6. Progress in world brotherhood

190

Grade 8

Tryigg to Solve Our Problems

Aim - To show how the problems we have as human beings are not new

ones, that we are sharing the experience of human beings
throughout the ages-throughout the world. Our problems have

a spiritual importance for ourselves and others. We can benefit
from discussing them and getting insight from other people, who

share our search for the truth about life and about God.

Happiness

Suffering

Who is God?

Choices

Aim - To establish that we are free to choose in all areas of life.

We need to be able to make right choices, or we will be unhappy
and cause others unhappiness. How do we learn to make the

right choices for love of God, ourselves and our neighbor?

Conscience

Kinds of choice

Which factors influence our decisions most?

Links With the Past

Aim

- To establish that from the beginning of time, Christ has

been aware of our problems and that he has always been with

us to guide us. We have the record of how people have experienced
this and come to understand it in the Bible and in the life of

the Christian churches. Other religions too have something to

show us about how people look for God and how he gradually shows

191

them who He is and the truth about themselves. Today, God is
speaking to us, in the lives we are living, and we can be
guided by the past experience of others. Christ's spirit will
guide us also.
The Old Testament
The New Testament
What is the Bible?
God is near
The big view (sacred history)
A collection of books (division of books in scripture)
How to understand what the Bible means
Man's early history (Genesis l-ll)
Our God is a God of love (the Covenant)
The true God manifests Himself (historical books)
God calls for witnesses (the Prophets)
Some wise sayings (the Wisdom Writings)
Four views of Christ (The Gospels)
How Jesus taught (Parables)
Worship
Worship in the Bible
Elements of worship
The culmination of worship (service for others)
The Church in Jamaica
Courage
Heroes of the church in Jamaica

Moral courage

192

Prayer
Speaking and listening, as friends

Christ shows us how to pray
Qualities our prayer should have

Christianity values the Quality not the duration of Life

APPENDIX D-lO

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

APPENDIX D—lO

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

The syllabus is intended to serve as a guide. Sections selected
to formulate the program of a particular school will vary with facili-
ties, staff and students. Whatever sections are selected, it is hOped
that the basic principles of movement will be taught and that scope
will be given for the particular demands of the group.

This is a period of adult interests, often of intellectual
interests and a period of emotional self—consciousness.

There is an awareness of skills and techniques. Therefore, the
program should provide for the learning of skills, should challenge
abilities and satisfy the need for adventure.

Rapid growth in height causes posture faults and posture train-
ing becomes a necessity.

The syllabus contains detailed instructions for progressive

 

development in modern educational gymnastics, modern educational dance,

folk dance, developing own dances, athletics, games, and swimming.

193

APPENDIX D-ll

MUSIC

APPENDIX D-11

MUSIC

Children should be given the opportunity to develop the necessary
musical taste, appreciation and skills, so that their lives may be en-
riched through this worthwhile and important cultural medium.

There should be at least two music lessons a week in junior
secondary schools, one devoted to the teaching of rudiments, aural
training, and sight reading, the other to choral music, alternating
with appreciation by listening to music, and being exposed to history
of music.

The teaching of instruments, e.g., recorders, melodicas, bamboo
pipes, fifes, guitars or harmonicas, should be arranged as an extra-
curricular activity. A selected school choir is desirable and could
be organized as one of these activities.

Aims of Teacher

1. To help and encourage the children to make and interpret
good music, and so provide expression for their emotional and spiritual
nature, particularly by song, instrumental work, spontaneous melody-
making and rhythmic movement.

2. To give knowledge of music and to train listeners. This
will develop taste, and give a cultural background for later life and
enable pupils to make full use of leisure in appreciation of the music.
A wide and intimate acquaintance with music, in the classroom and through

various musical functions could be achieved through performances by

194

195

visiting artists, attendance at important suitable recitals, and
listening to records, tapes, etc.

The syllabus which develops progressively through Grades 7-9,
includes rudiments, aural training, choral music, appreciation, and
folk music. The teaching of musical rudiments should always be related
to music-making. The importance of folk music should be emphasized

and the children encouraged to learn about their own folklore.

APPENDIX E

TEACHER CLASSIFICATIONS

APPENDIX E

TEACHER CLASSIFICATIONS

The grades of teachers in public educational institutions are

the following:

(a)

(b)

(e)

(d)

(e)

principal, that is a teacher who has served for not less than
four years as a teacher after obtaining a certificate of a
trained teacher awarded by a teaChers' college or a recognized
university or a degree from a recognized university and is
appointed as the principal of a public educational institution.

graduate teaCher, that is a teacher who has obtained a degree
from a recognized university in subjects approved by the
Minister; teachers in this grade are classified into those
with and those without the certificate of a trained teaCher.

trained teacher, that is a teacher who has satisfactorily
completed the final year of a course in a teachers' college,
and possesses a certificate of a trained teaCher awarded by
a teachers' college or a recognized university.

specialist, that is a teacher who has obtained from a technical
college or any other institution reCOgnized by the Minister a
diploma in a practical subject offered in the school curriculum
and has passed the Higher Schools Certificate examination or
the General Certificate of Education examination or any other
examination accepted by the Minister as equivalent thereto.
(This grade of teacher is now being kept only for those on
strength, and is being phased out).

pre-trained teacher, that is a teacher who has not completed

a teachers' course, but who may have completed the first year,
or the second year, or who may have passed the Higher Schools
Certificate examination or the General Certificate of Education
examination.

(Information provided by the Ministry of Education).

196

APPENDIX F

EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING
A SAMPLE

APPENDIX F

EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING
A SAMPLE

The Educational Broadcasting Service--Summer Term 1972
at the Junior Secondary Level

The following sample of programming of the Educational Broad-
casting Service for the junior secondary level was produced during the

Summer Term (April-June) 1972:
TELEVISION

Grade 7
Social Studies-—Land Use and Occupations (This series was repeated twice).

The Many Uses of the Land

Bringing up the Bauxite

This Little Pig Went to Market

Buy Yu' Coconut

Eggs--Handle with Love

Group Farming

How Does Your Garden Grow?

From Fritters to French Fries--the Potato Way
Preserving Our Products

Spanish—-Let's Speak Spanish (This series was repeated twice).
Science--Living Things (This series was repeated twice).

Is It Alive?

Of What Are Living Things Made?
Plants and Animals

Food for Animals - Part I

Food for Animals - Part II
Food for Plants

Air and Living Things

New Plants and Animals

New Plants

New Animals

197

198

Agriculture

Tillage - Part I
Tillage - Part II
Tillage - Part III
Farm Equipment

Pig Rearing - Part I
Pig Rearing — Part II
Pig Rearing - Part III
Farm Records

Grade 8

Social Studies--How We Live Together in the World
(This series was repeated twice).

Who Cares About People?

Who Cares About People? (continued)
UNICEF .

UNESCO

The WOrk of the WHO

The FAQ

The ILO

The UNDP

ICAO

Spenish-—Adelantemos (This series was repeated twice).
Science-eMegnetism.and Electricity (This series was repeated once).

Magnets and Their Behavior

How Magnets are Made

The Earth's Magnetic Field
Electro—magnets and Their Uses
Electricity

The Electric Circuit

More about Circuits

Producing Electricity from Chemicals
Producing Electricity from Magnets
The Electric Motor

Grade 9
Social Studies--Makigg Ends Meet (This series was repeated twice).

Earning Money

Managing Money

The Budget

How to Shop--Value for Money (Part I)
Food-—Value for Money (Part II)
Clothes--Value for MOney (Part III)

A Roof Over Your Head

199

Making Money Grow (Part I)
Marking Money Grow (Part II)
What Have We Learnt About Money?

Spanish--Asi se Aprende (This series was repeated once).

Science--Machines and Energy (This series was repeated twice).

 

Force

Gravity, Friction and Inertia

Work and Power

Machines and How They Help Us

More about Machines
Energy and WOrk

Internal Combustion Engine

E = mc
Waves and Energy

Energy for Industry and Agriculture

Teacher's Seminars
Grade 9 - Spanish

Grade 8 - Spanish
Grade 7 - Spanish

was: Indian Literature

 

Tell Freedom (Part I)
Tell Freedom (Part II)

Tell Freedom (Part III)

RADIO

Grade 9

West Indian Poetry (Part I)
West Indian Poetry (Part II)
West Indian Poetry (Part III)
West Indian Poetry (Part IV)
West Indian Narrative (Part I)
West Indian Narrative (Part II)

Religious Service

Vocational Guidance-Careers for Young Citizens

Introduction
Agriculture

Beautician and Caterer
Industry

Printing

The Plumber

WOrking in an Office

Mechanic Repairman

Motor Vehicle Mechanic
Conclusion--"Another Point of View."

G-l.
G-Z.
G-3.
G—4.

G-5.

APPENDIX C

ANCILLARY SERVICES

Book Rental Scheme

School Meals

Educational Broadcasting Service
School Nursing Services

Evening Classes

APPENDIX G-l

BOOK RENTAL SCHEME

APPENDIX G-l

BOOK RENTAL SCHEME

Books are selected by the subject sub-committees of the National
Curriculum Development Committee, and are then ordered through the
Publications Branch of the Ministry of Education, treated against ter-
mites and sent to the schools. There are three categories of textbooks:
(1) those loaned to the pupil for a year for such subjects as Mathematics,
Spanish and Science, which he may take home; (2) those loaned for a
shorter period of time, and which rotate in each grade, such as litera-
ture books; (3) class sets retained by the teacher for classroom use,
such as certain Music and Social Studies books.

An initial grant is made by Government to each school to
establish the Book Rental Scheme; thereafter the Scheme becomes self-
supporting, as each pupil pays $4.00 rental per year, plus $1.00
caution deposit. Students must pay for lost books. The life span of
most textbooks is anticipated to be three years, or up to five years
where bindings are exceptionally strong. Thus, the Scheme is a revolv-
ing one, whereby the rental cost is used to replace stocks every three
years. The Art and Crafts departments in Junior secondary schools are
encouraged to teach book repair and book binding in order to repair

damaged books.

200

APPENDIX G-2

SCHOOL MEALS

APPENDIX G-2

SCHOOL MEALS

Government provides a monetary grant for the purchase of meat
and vegetables, and US/AID provides supplementary foods in the form
of flour, powdered milk, Oil, high protein Wheat Soya Blend (WSB),
oats, Cornmeal Soya Milk solids (CSM), and bulgar. These supplementary
foods are distributed through three central stores at Kingston,
Williamstown, and MDntego Bay.

The school meals program is centrally supervised through the
Home Economics Officer at the Ministry of Education, and in each school
by the Home Economics department. Home Economics officers and teachers
meet periodically to discuss nutritional aspects of the program, and to
develop new recipes in order particularly to utilize the supplementary
foods in a way that is palatable for the pupils.

There are problems of inadequate grants in the face of increas-
ing enrollments, and delays in distribution of supplementary foods to
schools. However, the school meals program is providing a vitally

important service in supplementing the diets of poor children.

201

APPENDIX G-3

EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE

APPENDIX G-3

EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING SERVICE

The Educational Materials and Aids Centre was established in
1968 as an integrated service to combine the following functions:

1. Educational Broadcasting (Radio and Television).

2. Publication of reading books and reading cards, work books,
work cards for pupils' use, charts, pictures and other
teaching aids for teaCher's use.

3. Correspondence courses for use among school-leavers aged 15 and
over, in preparation for the Jamaica School Certificate Examin-
ation.

The purpose of the Instructional Materials and Aids Centre is
to provide a gradual deveIOpment to a National Production Organizae
tion for preparing materials for direct use in the Nation's schools
as well as to provide facilities for a multi-modia approach to
communication in education in relation to the curriculum and the
associated educational goals.

The Art Department of the Educational Materials and Aids Centre
is responsible for the illustration and production of guides and work-
books to accompany the TV programs, as well as posters and charts for
seminars and audio-visual demonstrations, and the setting up of displays.

The Television Maintenance Section of the Educational Materials
and Aids Centre, equipped with three transit vans and three driver-
technicians, repairs, loans and installs TV sets for schools. Between
1964-1972 a total of 700 television sets were acquired and maintained by
the Centre; 400 of these were supplied by the Government of Jamaica, and

300 by us /AID.2

 

1 "Educational Materials and Aids--l970-7l," p. 1. Performance
Report 1970-71 (Kingston: Ministry of Education). (Mimeographed).

 

 

2 "Educational Broadcasting Service," p. 15. Performance Report
1970-71 (Kingston: Ministry of Education). (Mimeographed).

202

APPENDIX G—4

SCHOOL NURSING SERVICES

APPENDIX G-4

SCHOOL NURSING SERVICES

The Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation (KSAC) maintains its
own School Nursing Department of eleven school nurses who are respon-
sible for junior secondary and all-age schools, as well as primary
and infant schools. The most important task of these school nurses
is the ECG program against tuberculosis, small-pox vaccination, and
immunization against polio. Immunization against tetanus, diptheria
and measles, while desirable, is not yet possible. This department
trains health inspectors in small-pox vaccination for schools.

The KSAC audiometry service to schools includes screening of
children by the teacher for defective hearing, referral to the school
nurse, and then referral to an ear, nose and throat specialist. In
cases where a hearing aid is required, it is provided by the Association
for the Deaf which is supported by government.

All children within the Corporate Area are screened by the
school nurse for defective eyesight after they enter primary school.
They may then be referred to an Optician who has a clinic for school
children one day a week. Glasses and the optician's fees are provided
by the KSAC through the School Nursing Service. In 1971, 126 pairs of
glasses were so provided; and from January-July 1972, 71 pairs.

There is one dentist attached to the School Nursing Service of
the KSAC who goes to junior secondary and primary schools, sets up his
equipment, and extracts teeth. Approximately twelve pupils may be treated

per day.

203

204

The School Nursing Department has its own health education
program. It works with the Bureau of Health Education in the Ministry
of Health to provide teaching aids, posters and pamphlets on foods,
cooking and feeding for infants and schools. It cooperates with the
Home Economics Officer at the Ministry of Education, assisting where
requested on the nutritional aspects of junior secondary school meals.
The service also works with the Family Life Education program of the
Family Planning Unit, a voluntary organization which is endorsed and
assisted heavily by the Ministry of Health, and sends speakers to talk
to pupils in the junior secondary schools throughout Jamaica.

Three of the KSAC nurses are involved with child guidance
clinics, part of the Psychiatric Department at the University of the
West Indies. When a school principal refers a child to the Child

Guidance Clinic, the nurse works with the family in the home.

APPENDIX G-5

EVENING CLASSES

APPENDIX G-S

EVENING CLASSES

The supervisor of the Evening Classes is normally the principal
of the junior secondary school in which classes are held, and the
teachers are normally the full-time teachers of the school. Both
supervisor and teachers are paid extra for their services to Evening
Classes out of a special provision of the Ministry of Finance. In
addition, the supervisor is given $50 per evening class per annum in
order to buy materials in such subject areas as home economics,
industrial arts, and art and crafts.

Two junior secondary schools in 1971-72 offered GCE '0' level
(Grade 11) courses with the permission of the Ministry of Education.
However, because the Ministry must first be satisfied that the teachers
are capable of providing instruction at '0' level, this practice has
not yet been greatly extended. (GCE '0' level evening classes are

conducted in many academic high schools).

205

APPENDIX H

JAMAICA SCHOOL CERTIFICATE--SUBJECTS FOR
EXAMINATION

APPENDIX H

JAMAICA SCHOOL CERTIFICATE--SUBJECTS FOR

EXAMINATION

English Language
Mathematics

Civics

Agricultural Science
Biology

General Science A
General Science B
Health Science
Preliminary Technical Science
Additional Mathematics
Agriculture

Art

Crafts

Art and Crafts

Bible Knowledge

Spanish

206

Auto Mechanics
Commercial Practice
Cookery and Nutrition
Electrical Installation
English Literature
Geography

History

Home Management

Metal Work

Needlework & Dressmaking
Plumbing

Principles of Accounts
Shorthand

Technical Drawing
Typewriting

Woodworking

APPENDIX I

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL ACTIVITIES

I-l. 4-H Club Activities at Banana Grove

I—2. ‘Classroom Discussion of Current Jamaican Problems

APPENDIX I-l

4-H CLUB ACTIVITIES AT BANANA GROVE

APPENDIX I-1

4-H CLUB ACTIVITIES AT BANANA GROVE

The 4-H Club chooses its leadership democratically. Members
nominate candidates for president, vice-president, secretary, assistant
secretary, and treasurer, and then vote to elect these officers. The
leadership and membership are a mixed group of boys and girls, lively
young people who work together participating in things that will be
useful later in their lives.

Club members engage in sports activities such as races, netball,
volleyball, football and cricket assisted by physical education teachers.
Both boys and girls, with the support of the agriculture teacher, raise
vegetables and flowers on the school farm. The girls sew, cook, bake,
launder, and do needlework, embroidery and crocheting under the direction
of the home economics teacher. Boys do woodwork and picture-framing
and leathercraft using the industrial arts facilities. Using common
materials, and advised by art and crafts teachers, boys and girls work
with their hands to make things to beautify the home; such items include
screen-printing, tie and dye, leathercraft and basketmaking. Members
also made costumes for a dance group participating in Education Week
activities in the large parish centre.

In March, Achievement Day is held in the parish centre. Club
members have entered competitions against all other 4-H Clubs in the
parish with such items as crocket-work, cushions, antimacassars, dresses,

tables, leather belts and handbags, straw hats, live rabbits, cakes,

207

208

preserved food (pickapeppa sauce, marmalade, jams, jellies), puddings,
biscuits, breadfruit baking, coconut cakes and drops, coconut puffs,
muffins, donuts, meal planning and table setting. The ideas come from
the club members, both boys and girls. In AChievement Day inter-club
competitions, members of Banana Grove Junior Secondary School 4-H Club
won several competitions: one boy won a prize for replacing a zipper
in a pair of pants; other prizes and trophies were won for picture-
framing, dressmaking, cakemaking, races, athletics, and maypole and
folk-dancing. These trophies and cups are proudly displayed in the
school library.

On Achievement Day a "Boy and Girl of the Year" were Chosen by
judges from among those 4-H Club members in the parish who had entered
exhibits, and who had passed at least three Jamaica School Certificate
subject examinations. On the basis of a quiz contest of questions
about 4-H, a boy and a girl were chosen "Boy and Girl of the Year," and
were awarded a free trip to Miami for one week. The "Girl of the Year"

for 1972 was a former pupil of Banana Grove Junior Secondary School.

 

llrl 1111.! .
llll.lc|l.lf [III-Ill LIIII'..II.

APPENDIX I-2

CLASSROOM DISCUSSION OF CURRENT JAMAICAN PROBLEMS

APPENDIX I-2

CLASSROOM DISCUSSION OF CURRENT JAMAICAN PROBLEMS

Ethical Values

 

Seasurf Junior Secondary School

 

In religious education Classes at Seasurf, a study of the
Bible has central place, but pupils learn to understand themselves
as they discuss topics related to the everyday life in which they are
involved. The teacher expresses her opinion; pupils express theirs;
there develops a deeper understanding and respect for differences of
opinion. Themes in the syllabus such as "Preparation for Love,
Marriage and Parenthood," "Decisions," or "Service in Society" give
pupils an opportunity to go deeply into "the problems and joys of human
existence. They are chosen because they appeal to the children and
are valuable to them at their stage of development." The pupils take
part actively in reading, discussion and drama, and by means of a question
box, they ask questions about their particular problems arising from
topics studied. Pupils prepare papers which they present to the class,
and discussion follows. The teacher tries not to answer pupil questions
directly, but redirects questions back to the class. "Through discussion
pupils are made aware of what God wants them to be, how they can respond
to His love through worship and how they can perform tasks that face

them in their communities."

209

210

Industrial Town Junior Secondary School

In teaching about love and marriage, the teacher at Industrial
Town begins with a Bible reference such as the story of Adam and Eve.
She gives examples of good marriages, and then examples of "situations
which they have noticed, and would not like to get themselves involved
in." The pupils contribute well, especially the top Grade 9 pupils
who are preparing to leave school. At the conclusion of the lesson,
the teacher gives her own advice. She feels the strong emphasis on
morals and ethics might tend to produce a more dissatisfied citizen

but a.better man.

Banana Grove Junior Secondary School

At Banana Grove, the teacher uses Bible stories to illustrate
different kinds of love: love for mother, love for a friend. The
story of Joseph is used to illustrate filial love; the Good Samaritan
represents love for people; Hosea, romantic love. The teacher will
ask pupils how they felt when they first came to the school, and how
they would treat a new boy or girl at school. She also asks pupils
to tell about their favorite character from the Bible, and to explain
what appeals to them about this character; classroom discussion follows

of personal characteristics they admire.
Social Attitudes

Social studies teachers find that their pupils "tend to use
ideas they pick up at home or on the street." Teachers attempt to get

them to think independently.

211

In the City Park area, public attitudes toward the police
are often contentious. In one class a boy, who did not have a good
relationship with the police, usually expressed strong emotion when
the police were mentioned. In an attempt to change his attitude the
teacher suggested the following situation. One night a thief came
into his home when only he and his mother were present. The teacher
asked the boy what he would do. He replied that he would call the
police, try to "ease himself out" and show the police where the thief
was. The teacher suggested, "The thief might have a gun and kill the
policeman; the policeman, a husband and father, died protecting you
and your mother. Is this the man you hate so much?" The class then
discussed the duties of the policemen; the teacher felt that the boy
"came around and changed his attitude."

Situations are dramatized in the classroom to help pupils
gain social insights and understanding.» For example, while studying
the tourist industry, Banana Grove pupils prepared their own dialogues
between Jamaicans and tourists and dramatized them.

In English classes, Industrial Town pupils created scenes
from poems studied; for example, they dramatized scenes of Jamaican
emigrants leaving Jamaica and landing in England, describing what
they saw and felt.

Discussions and debates are conducted encouraging pupils to
think critically on social issues. For example, particularly success-
ful discussions have been conducted at Seasurf on slavery, and the

national motto, "Out of Mbny One People."

212

Banana Grove pupils debated the moot "We are the children
of slaves"; this topic is a manifestation of current interest in

Jamaican identity.

APPENDIX J

WORLD BANK ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS

J—l. Linear Scheme

J-2. Court Scheme

APPENDIX J-l

LINEAR SCHEME

 

213

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APPENDIX J -2

COURT SCHEME

216

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217

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Source: Master Plan Report, p. 262.

 

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Source: Master Plan Report, p. 263.

APPENDIX K

STUDENT COMPOSITION OF JUNIOR SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS

K-l. Comparison of Socioeconomic BaCkground of Students
in the Junior Secondary and High Schools

K—2. Comparison of the Racial Composition of Student Body
in Junior Secondary and High Schools

 

APPENDIX K-l

COMPARISON OF SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS
IN THE JUNIOR SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS

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APPENDIX K-Z

COMPARISON OF THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF STUDENT BODY
IN JUNIOR SECONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS

220

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES

A. Government Publications

Aims of the Junior Secondary School. Kingston: National Curriculum
Development Committee, Ministry of Education. Pp. 6. (Mimeo-
graphed).

 

Caudill, Rowlett & Scott, Architects, Planners & Engineers. Master Plan
_Report, Junior Secondary School Prggram. Ministry of Education,
Jamaica, West Indies, Houston, Texas - New York, N.Y., December
1967. Pp. vii + 279.

Digest of Statistics 1969/70. Kingston: Ministry of Education.
(Mimeographed).

 

Education Act, 1965;' Kingston, Jamaica: The Government Printer. Pp. 47.

Education Regulations, 1966. Kingston, Jamaica: The Ministry of Educa-
tion. The Government Printer. Pp. 39.

Education Statisticsi Jamaica, Year 1968/69. Kingston: Ministry of
Education, Planning Unit, Statistic Section. Pp. 58. (Mimeographed).

 

Five Year Independence Plan,il963-l968. A long term development pro-
gramme for Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: The Government Printer, 1963.
Pp. 240. "

Hammond, S.A. Jamaica-Education, Jamaica No. 20. Kingston, Jamaica:
Great Britain Comptroller for Development and Welfare in the West
Indies, 23 October, 1941. Pp. 20.

 

Performance Report 1970-1971. Kingston: Ministry of Education. (Mimeo-
graphed).

Performance Report 1971-1972. Kingston: Ministry of Education. (Mimeo-
graphed).

Proposed Ministry of Education Paper on Educational Development in
Jamaica, Policy, Plans, and Programmes, Implementation and Financing.
Kingston, Jamaica: Ministry of Education, April, 1966. Pp. 102.
(Mimeographed).

221

222

Publication Branch, Ministry of Education. New Deal for Education in
Independent Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: Jamaica Times (Press)
Ltd., 1965. Pp. 108.

Report of the Committee Appointed to Enquire into the System of Secondary
Education in Jamaica (Kandel Report). Kingston, Jamaica, 1943.
Pp. 24. (Mimeographed).

 

B. UNESCO Publication
Educational Planning Mission, Jamaica, September-November 1964. Paris:
UNESCO, January 1965. Pp. 64 + 59.

SECONDARY SOURCES

A. Books

Figueroa, John J. Society, Schools and Progress in the West Indies.
Pergamon Press, 1971. Pp. xxi + 208.

Gordon, Shirley C. A Century of West Indian Education. London:
Longmans, Green and CO. Ltd., 1969. Pp. viii + 312.

Gordon, Shirley C. Reports and Repercussions in West Indian Education,
1835-1933. London: Ginn & Co., Ltd., 1968. Pp. x‘+ 190.

Harbison, Frederick & Charles A. Myers. Education, Manpower, and
EcOnomic Growth. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1964.
Pp. xiii + 229.

 

Henriques, Fernando. Family and Colour in Jamaica. London: Macgibbon
and Kee, 1968. Pp. 208.

 

Johnston, Franklin A.J. Education in Jamaica and Trinidad in the
Generation after Emancipation. Oxford University, 1970. (Un-
published D. Phil. thesis). Pp. vi + 500.

 

Kerr, Madeline. Personality and Conflict in Jamaica. London: Collins,
1963. Pp. xii + 220.

 

Murray, R. N. Nelson's West Indian History. London: Thomas Nelson
& Sons Ltd., 1971. Pp. 190.

 

Nettleford, Rex M. Mirror Mirror, Identity, Race and Protest in
Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: William Collins and Sangster (Jamaica)
Ltd., 1970. Pp. 256.

 

Patterson, Orlando. The Sociology of Slavery. London: Macgibbon and
Kee, 1967. Pp. 310.

223

Ruscoe, Gordon C. Dysfunctionality in Jamaican Education. Ann Arbor,
Michigan: University Of Michigan School of Education, 1963.
Pp. v. + 144.

B. Articles in Periodicals

 

Miller, Errol. "Education and Society in Jamaica," Savacou, Vol. 5,
June 1971. Kingston, Jamaica: The Caribbean Artists Movement.
Pp. 51-70.

 

Torch, Journal of the Ministry of Education, Jamaica. Kingston:
Publications Branch, Ministry of Education:

"Junior Secondary Schools," Vol. 19, No. 2, Summer 1969. Pp. 1-6.

Prescod, Sybil, "Reading Retardation, a prOblem in some of Jamaica's
senior schools," Vol. 13, No. 4, December 1963. Pp. 22-27.

Prescod, Sybil, "The Remedial Reading Experiment," Vol. 15, No. 2,
1965. Pp. 11-15.

"The Common Entrance Examination," September 1963.
Grant, Trixie, "From Theory to Practice in Vocational Guidance,"
Summer 1968, Pp. l3—l8.

C. Articles in Newspapers

Aitchenson, C. M., "Tasks for the new Education Minister," The Daily
Cleaner, 26 March, 1972, p. 10.

"Allen in House - Policy Statement on Education," The DailyeGleaner,
1 July, 1971, p. 9.

 

"Matalon: junior secondary schools' programme 'pretence at higher
education,'" The Daily Gleaner, March 27, 1972, p. 5.

"The Educational System," The Daily Gleaner, 4 January, 1971, p. 9.