A CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE - AFFILIATED GUIDANCE
CENTER FOR WOMEN

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
JERRY G. SULLOWAY~
19.69

   
 

   

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

TH F'SIS

    

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE - AFFILIATED GUIDANCE
CENTER FOR WOMEN

presented by

Jerry G. Solloway

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph .D. d Education
egree in______

Date February 27, 1970

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ABSTRACT

A CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE-AFFILIATED GUIDANCE
CENTER FOR WOMEN

By

Jerry G. Solloway

Evidence of role changes among mature women in our
society may be found in the employment statistics of
mature women. More than one out of three married women
are in the labor force today. However, the growing
number of mature women who train for re-entry into the
labor force or who are searching for meaningful employ-
ment outside the home are often in need of specialized
counseling services geared to assist women in this
transition process.

Higher education has made a substantial commit-
ment to serving the unique needs of mature women through
educational and vocational counseling services. Most
recently there has been growing interest amont some
community colleges to provide adult counseling services.
The emergence of the community college as perhaps a
logical institution to serve the educational and voca—

tional guidance needs of adults in the community has

 

Jerry G. Solloway

given rise to the necessity to learn more about the

effectiveness of such services.

Statement of the Problem

 

The study was designed for the twofold purpose of
assessing the impact a community guidance center for
women had on adult clients and to determine the relation—
ship between clinically-Judged counseling impact and
selected personal and demographic characteristics of
clients. The study also included an analysis of such
related variables as client expectations and satisfac-
tion, and the decision-making and post-counseling

behavior of clients.

Procedures

 

The sample was selected from 816 clients of the
New York Guidance Center for Women. A representative
sample of llu clients, drawn randomly from the popula-
tion stratified according to the counseling disposition
of clients, provided the source of data.

Client perceptions of entry and post-counseling
behavior were obtained from the Client Questionnaire
which consisted of forced-choice items with provisions
for free-response categories. Client attitudes toward
the Guidance Center and perceptions of the counseling
experience were measured by the Client Satisfaction

Scales.

 

 

 

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Jerry G. Solloway

More specific data on client expectations and
satisfaction, and in-depth information on post-counseling
behavior of clients were obtained by telephone interviews
with clients. Four experienced counselors, using a
Client Interview Guide, conducted the interviews, ana—
lyzed the findings, and classified clients into cate—
gories by the degrees of positive impact the Center was
judged to have had upon its clientele.

Descriptive and statistical analyses were made
involving all relevant data obtained in the study. Two
non-parametric statistical techniques were used to test
the research hypotheses. The .05 alpha level was
selected for defining the critical region of rejection

for all statistical analyses.

Major Findings of the Study

 

1. There were no differences in client-expressed
favorableness toward the Guidance Center
between clients who completed counseling and
clients who did not complete counseling.

2. No differences were found among clients classi-
fied according to the degrees of positive
impact the Center had upon them on the basis
of age, marital status, and educational and
employment background.

3. No differences were found among the four impact
groups in terms of the number of months which

elapsed since counseling was terminated.

14.

Jerry G. Solloway

A larger proportion of clients expressed satis-
faction with the services of the Guidance Center
than were Judged clinically as persons for whom
the Center had moderate or substantial positive
impact.

Counseling was perceived by many clients as a
supportive service for decisions made prior to
counseling.

Clients perceived educational and career
decision-making as a secondary outcome of

counseling.

 

 

A CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE-AFFILIATED GUIDANCE

CENTER FOR WOMEN
By

Jerry G. Solloway

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Higher Education
College of Education

1969

To my Grandmother,

the late Christine M. Kasper,

a dedicated teacher in the

Common Schools of Indiana

11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to
the many people who generously provided time, effort, and
encouragement from the planning phase of the research
project through the completion of the thesis. It is
impossible to list all those to whom the author is
deeply indebted.

In this moment of overwhelming gratitude, my
deepest appreciation to Dr. Max R. Raines--friend, out-
standing national figure in the community college field,
advisor, and director of this thesis-«for hours of patient
guidance and reflection, and continuous support and
encouragement.

The same spirit of gratitude to Professor Russell
J. Kleis for his genuine interest in the design of the
thesis and to Drs. Louis C. Stamatakos and Shirley J.
Taylor for their willingness to serve as members of my
guidance committee.

A special expression of gratitude to the late
Dr. Max S. Smith, an outstanding contributor to the
community college movement, for his personal interest
in my professional development and assistance in plan-

ning my doctoral program.

iii

To Dr. Marie R. Prahl and Miss Barbara Stephenson
for serving as interviewers and assisting with the
classification of clients; and to Dr. Natalie Sproul for
many hours of assistance with the research design and
statistical analysis of data, the writer is grateful.

To the patient and cooperative staff of the New
York State Guidance Center for Women, especially, Dr.
Esther M. Westervelt, for her guidance and insight, and
help with the data.

To Mrs. Priscilla Jackson, Mrs. Eleanor Driver,

Dr. Mildred B. Erickson who each contributed uniquely
to the thesis.

And finally, to my precious and loving wife, Sharon,
who has been a tower of strength and patient encouragement;
to Chris and Jenny for their sacrifices and amazing under-
standing, and to our loveable surprise, Sara Linn, for
her inspiration and joy which greatly helped her daddy

finally finish his Ph. D.

iv

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . X
Chapter
I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O 1
Introduction to the Problem Area . . . . . l
The Changing Role of Married Women . . . . 3
Sources of Intervention . . . . . . . . 5
Counseling and Counseling Outcomes . . . 8
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . 12
Operational Definitions of Terms . . . . . l3
Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . 14
Organization . . . . . . . . 16
II. DEVELOPMENT, ORGANIZATION, AND OPERATIONAL
PROCEDURES OF THE NEW YORK STATE GUIDANCE
CENTER FOR WOMEN . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 19
-History of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women . . . . . . . . . 19
Functions of the Center . . . . . . . . 21

The Services of the Center . . . . . . . 22
Operation of the Center . . . . . . . . 26
Present Status and Future Plans . . . . . 32
Summary . . . . . . . . .

 

 

 

 

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Chapter Page

III. A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . 39
Introduction . . . . . . . . 39
Role Ambiguities of Women . . . . . . . 42
Sources of Intervention . . . . . . . AS
Community College Intervention . . . . . U8
Counseling Outcomes and Evaluation . . . . 51

Client Demographic and Personal
Variables Related to Counseling

Outcomes . . . 61

Summary of the Review of Related Literature . 65

IV. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . 70
PART I--Definition of the Population . . . 70

The Sample . . . . . . . . . . 71
Collection of the Data . . . . . . . . 73
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . 7A
Attitude Scale Analysis . . . . . . 77
Statistical Treatment of the Data . . . . 78

PART II--The Clinical Judging Process . . . 80
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 88

V. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND FINDINGS . . . . . 90
Part I——Profi1e Analysis . . . . . . . 90

Part II—-Statistica1 Analyses . . . . . 108
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 116
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Methodology . . . . . . . . .' 117
Findings of the Study . . . . . . . . 119
Implications of the Study . . . . . . . 122
Suggestions for Further Research . . . . 12A
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 127
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

vi

Table

10.

11.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Statistical Summary of the Counseling
and Testing Services of the New York
State Guidance Center for Women . . . .

Clients Counseled by Type of Service
and Average Number of Interviews . . .

Item Analysis of Scale A by Frequency
and Percentage of Error . . .

Item Analysis of Scale B by Frequency
and Percentage of Error . . . . . .

Frequency of Clinical Ratings by
Classification Criteria and Degrees
of Positive Impact . . . . . .

Distribution of Client Decision-Making
Behavior by Degrees of Positive Impact .

Distribution of Client Post—Counseling
Action on Plans by Degrees of
Positive Impact . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of Client Information
Sources by Degrees of Positive Impact . .

Distribution of Client Expectations by
Degrees of Positive Impact . . . . .

Frequency Distribution of Client Ratings
of Criteria for Counseling Success . . .

Frequency Distribution of Client Endorsements
by Counseling Impact Categories . . . .

Distribution of Client Characteristics
by Degrees of Positive Impace . . .

vii

30

31

79

79

83

85

87

92

9A

99

100

Table Page

13. Distribution of Attitude Scale Scores by
Degrees of Positive Impact . . . . . . . 107

1“. Frequency Distribution of Clients by
Impact Categories According to the
Number of Months Elapsed between
Counseling Termination and Evaluation . . . 113

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Results of the Mann—Whitney U Test for Two
Sub-Groups Classified According to
Counseling Disposition on the Counseling
Satisfaction Scale . . . . . . . . . 108

2. Chi-Square Analysis for Differences in
Client Age for Groups Classified
According to the Degrees of Positive
Impact of Counseling . . . . . . . . 110

3. Chi Square Analysis for Differences in
Marital Status for Client Groups
Classified by Degrees of Positive
Impact of Counseling . . . . . . . . 110

A. Chi Square Analysis for Differences in
Employment Background for Client
Groups Classified by Degrees of
Positive Impact . . . . . . . . . . 111

5. Chi Square Analysis for Differences in
Educational Attainment for Client
Groups Classified by Degrees of
Positive Impact of Counseling . . . . . 112

6. Chi Square Analysis for Differences in
Time Lapse since Counseling Termination
for Client Groups Classified by Degrees
of Positive Impact of Counseling . . . . 11A

ix

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. Pre—Test and Final Client Questionnaire;
Letters of Transmittal to Client Sample;
and Pre-Test Procedures and Results. . . . . . . 137

B. Pre-Test Client Questionnaire Tabulations. . . . . 154

C. Table C-1.--Age Distribution of Sample and
Population; Table C-2.——Distribution of
Client Sample and Population by Marital
Status; Table C-3.——Distribution of Client
Sample and Population by Employment Background . 156

D. Client Interview Guide . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 158

E. Table E-1.--Distribution of Impact Categories
by Guidance Center Counselors; Table E-2.--
Distribution of Clients into Counseling
Impact Categories by a Panel of Judges . . . . . 162

F. Table F-1.-—Frequency Distribution of Attitude
Scale B Scores by Counseling Disposition . . . . 165

G. Table G-l.--Distribution of Degrees of Positive
Impact and Satisfaction by Client Character-
istics; Table G-2.--Distribution of Degrees
of Counseling Impact and Satisfaction by
Client Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

H. Free Response Statements Submitted on Client
Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem Area

 

Our society is more affluent today than at any time
in its past. Technological advancements, increased social
and economic mobility, changes in urban and family living,
increased manpower needs, and significant changes in the
world of work have produced dramatic changes in the atti;
tudes, values, and life—styles of individuals and groups
in society.

If we were to search for the one person most affected
by the social and economic changes of the last quarter
century, it would be the married woman over 30 years of
age whose family no longer demands most of her time and
who is inclined to seek enrichment of her life both in and
out of her home. She is generally aware that her know-
ledge, skills, energy, and experience could make her life
more interesting, challenging, and productive. If she
considers employment, she may know little about Job oppor-
tunities, working conditions, and the skills required in a
highly competitive economic system. She may also be
uncertain of her ability to learn new skills, or to com—

pete in educational or Job situations; or she may be

worried about managing her household responsibilities and
the reactions from her husband and children.1

Social institutions have attempted to respond to the
needs of mature women affected by social-economic changes.
One such kind of response has been provision for somewhat
specialized counseling services geared to assist women in
making a successful transition from the single role of
housewife to the dual role of housewife-worker or full
time employed person. Education, and particularly higher
education, is one social institution which is making a
growing commitment to serving the unique needs of mature
women through counseling and counseling related services.

The major purpose of this research was to determine
the effectiveness of such services offered through a
community college-sponsored guidance center for women.
The focus of the study was on the adequacy of counseling
services provided by an educational agency with particu-
lar concern on the degree of impact these services had upon
client behavior. The study was also concerned with the
role personal characteristics of clients plays, if any, in

the impact level of counseling.

 

lKate H. Mueller, "Counseling Mature Women for
Employment," Women's Education, Vol. 5, No. 1, March, 1966.

 

2New York State Guidance Center for Women, affili-
ated with Rockland Community College, Suffern, New York.

The Changing Role of Married Women

Increased leisure time, expanded educational Oppor-
tunities, increased manpower needs, and growing affluence
have provided mature women with the opportunity to explore
a broad scope of activities outside the home. Many women
now anticipate filling a large portion of their lives with
satisfying and productive experiences.

The principal change in the composition of the labor
force and the most important source of its growth has been
the increased participation of married women. Between
19A0 and 1960, the labor force increased by over 1“ million
persons. Over 56 percent of this increase consisted of
married women.3

Several factors have influenced the changing role of
married women in the labor force today. Over half of the
women in our society are married before they are 20 years
of age.“ Whereas women formerly worked prior to the
child-bearing stage of their lives, now many women have
, their children first and then enter the labor force. The

median age at which American women complete child-bearing

 

3Glen C. Cain, Married Women in the Labor Force
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 1.

“Mary D. Keyserling, "Facing the Facts about Women's
Lives Today," in New Approaches to Counseling Girls in the
"1960's. Report offithe Midwest Regional Pilot Conference
(Washington: Office of Education, 1965), p. 5.

is now 26 and four out of five young women may expect to
be employed some time during their lives.5
Also influencing the role of married women today is
increased leisure time resulting from technological
advances in the home, more widespread adherence to family
planning, and an increase in the length of the educational
period of children. The rapid rise in the standards and
costs of living is another factor which has given impetus
to the employment of married women. Today more than one
out of every three married women are in the labor force.6
For many women considering employment outside the
home or returning to some form of post-high school educa-
tion to prepare for work, several problems stand in their
way. They have lost touch with the ever wider range of
employment opportunities which modern technology has
produced. Many women who have been out of the labor force
for several years have lost confidence in their ability to
perform in new undertakings as well as to adjust their

schedules to their new dual role. Others simply may need

assistance in career planning or information concerning

 

5Committee on Education, "Report of the Committee on
Education" (Washington, D. 0.: President's Commission on
the Status of Women, October, 1963), p. 29.

6Edgar M. Hoover, "Population and Labor Force Pro-
Jections for 1985," Women's Education (Washington, D.C.:
AAUW Educational Foundation, December, 1967), p. 7.

educational and training programs to prepare for re-
entrance into the labor force.

One of the most common characteristics of middle—
class housewife-mothers is the pervasive lack of confidence

7 has observed that "American

in their own ability. Self
housewives have relatively little feedback concerning their
own real abilities, and lack external criteria for evalu—
sting themselves . . . they all too often underestimate
their competence and personal worth as they survey the

inevitable problems with husbands, children, and routine

housework."

Sources of Intervention

Numerous public and private agencies have tradition—
ally provided career guidance and placement services to
women seeking entry into the labor force. Available sta-
tistics indicate that the state employment services offer
vocational guidance or information to the greatest number
of persons. They serve nearly 750,000 women jobseekers
annually.8 Yet a survey in 1962 revealed that there were
only 3,120 counselors in various state employment services,

and only 35 percent of these were full-time counselors.9

 

7Gerald Self, "Women on the Move: Some Common Psy—
chological Problems," A paper presented to the Governor's
Commission on the Status of Women, Las Vegas, Nevada,
June 13-lh, 1969, p. 2.

8
9

Committee on Education, op. cit., pp. 27—28.

Committee on Education, op. cit., p. 28.

The Committee on Education urged that "new sources
be tapped to relieve this shortage of qualified personnel
. counselors in public employment offices do not meet
the standards recommended by either the United States
Employment Service or professional organizations in the
field."10

The U. S. Office of Education reported that in the
fall of 1967, the number of women college students was
over 2.8 million. Over 300,000 women students were
between 25 and 34 years of age. While statistics on the
number of adult guidance programs in the U. S. are not
available, a review of the Department of Labor report
on educational programs for women suggests that guidance
services for women returning to college have lagged behind
the rapid increase in continuing education programs for
women.

The American Association of University Women esti—
mated in 1967 that there were at least 300 colleges and
universities in the United States offering some form of
special educational-vocational counseling services to

12
‘women. While statistics are not available on the number

 

10Committee on Education, 0 . cit., p. 28.
11Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, Continu-

in Education Programs and Services for Women, Pamphlet 10,
I968 (Prepared by Jean A. Wells).

12Virginia L. Senders, "Continuing Education for
Wonmnr-The Third Revolution," The University in Motion:
The Status of Woman (Urbana, Illinois: Bevier Lecture
Series, November, 1967), p. AA.

of junior colleges which offer such services, the Women's
Bureau report indicates that junior and community colleges
have not adequately responded to this need.13
One of the most dramatic new developments in the
short history of the community college movement in this
country has been the emergence of community services pro-
grams. Based on the philosophy that education is a life-
long process, the concept of community services establishes
a commitment by community colleges to serve the entire
community. Harlacher has identified community counseling
services for adults as an important function of the junior
college community services program.1u In 1958, Tyrus
Hillway recommended that counseling services for adults
be provided through a "community center of guidance and
information, which could be operated by the community
college or some other agency."
Unless there are other agencies offering such

a service, the community college probably ought

to accept responsibility for a community guid—

ance program . . . There seems to be no reason,

except in a large urban center, why one guidance

program cannot be organized which will care for

all needs of this type in the area. Such a ser-

vice, of course, must be on a highly professional
level and somewhat more complete and specialized

 

13Women's Bureau, op. cit., pp. 85-92.

luErvin L. Harlacher, Effective Junior College Pro-
grams of Community Services: Rationale, Guidelines,
PracticesVTLos Angeles: University of California Junior
College Leadership Program, Sept., 1967) Occational
Report #10, pp. 29-30.

 

than the personal and social uidance included
in the usual school program.1§
Counseling and Counseling Outcomes

One of the primary tasks of educational—vocational
counseling is to assist individuals in developing decisions.
Goldman has observed that "an almost universal characteris-
tic of counseling . . . is that it deals with decisions and
plans . . . usually to give help in making decisions and
plans for the future and in choosing among alternative
courses of action in the world of reality."16

Decision-oriented counseling involves the clarifica-
tion of the client's needs or problem; provision for
obtaining relevant information, exploration and evalua-
tion of emerging alternatives, consideration of anticipated
outcomes of the alternatives, and ultimately, the assess-
ment of behavioral outcomes. Despite an emphasis upon a
cognitive approach, successful counseling cannot ignore
affect. Inasmuch as the client's perceptual ability and
attitudes will have a profound influenCe on the decision-
rnaking process, the degrees of success in counseling will
be related to the counselor's sensitivity to client feel-
ings and his insight into the client's perception of the

problem or need. A client may be attempting to resolve a

 

15Tyrus Hillway, The American ngzYear College (New
York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1958), p. 13“.

16Leo Goldman, Using Tests in Counseling (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961), p. 25.

vocational conflict or to determine an apprOpriate occupa-
tion for which to prepare or to explore job opportunities
in the community. Whether or not the problem is a
"personal" problem depends in large measure upon the
client's perception; but in any case, alternative solu—
tions are likely to have implications for the client's
future activities.

Other factors related to the assessment of counsel-
ing are the personal and demographic characteristics of
clients. While little research has been conducted into
this aspect of counseling effectiveness, it may well be
that personal characteristics, return patterns, and other
attributes of clients are important determinants of the
impact counseling may have upon clients, particularly,
mature female clients receiving specialized educational

and vocational counseling.

The Problem

Statement of the Problem

The central purpose of this research project was to
assess the effectiveness of counseling within a randomly
selected sample of adult clients from a community college-
afTiliated guidance center for women. More specifically,
this investigation proposed to assess the impact of
cusunseling upon the behavior of clients and to analyze

tflie relationship between the degrees of counseling impact

 

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and selected personal and demographic characteristics of
clients.

The study focused on the degree of client satisfac—
tion as measured by an attitude scale and on the decision—
making and post-counseling behavior of clients as assessed
by a panel of clinicians. It was the purpose of this 1
research to examine the following questions: I

1. To what extend did the guidance center have a

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positive impact upon clients and how is the degree of
impact related to various characteristics of clients
served by the center:

a. Did the center have more positive impact
on younger clients than older ones?

b. Did married clients with children at
home differ from married clients with
no children or single clients in the
degree of impact counseling had upon
them?

c. Did the center have more impact on
clients with limited employment experi-
ence than clients with extensive work
backgrounds?

d. Did the center have more impact on
college-educated clients than non-
college-educated clients?

2. Is there a significant positive relationship
between clients categorized according to the degrees of
impact counseling had upon them and

a. Scores on a counseling satisfaction scale,

b. The number of counseling sessions, and

c. The time lapse between the termination of
counseling and this research study?

 

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3. How do the modal patterns of client personal
characteristics compare for the group of clients who were
clinically judged as persons for whom the center had
"substantial" and "moderate" positive impact with the
group of clients judged to have received "limited" or "no"
benefit from counseling?

Related to these inquiries are further questions
relevant to the investigation of counseling outcomes. The
study was designed to answer the following questions:

1. To what extent are the sources of client infor-
mation about the center and client entry expectations
related to the center's impact on clients?

2. Is achievement of a "satisfactory decision"
ranked by clients as the most beneficial outcome of
counseling?

3. Were clients who withdrew from counseling less
satisfied with counseling than those who completed
counseling?

A. Which criterion, if any, had the greatest influ—
ence upon the clinical judgments of the panel of judges in
determining the degrees of impact counseling had upon

clients?

Hypotheses to be Tested

Hypothesis I: Clients who completed counseling will
express a significantly higher level‘
of satisfaction with counseling than
those who did not complete counseling.

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12

Hypothesis II: The degree of positive impact of coun-
seling upon clients over forty years
of age will be significantly greater
than for clients under forty years of
age.

Hypothesis III: The impact of counseling upon clients
who are married with children at home
will be greater than upon clients who
are single or married with no children
at home . i
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Hypothesis IV: Clients with ten years or more of pre-
vious employment experience will
experience significantly greater impact
from counseling than those clients with
less than five years of work experience.

Hypothesis V: The degrees of positive impact of
counseling upon clients with some post-
high school education will be greater
than for clients who did not complete
high school.

Hypothesis VI: The degree of positive impact of coun-
seling upon clients who terminated
counseling within the year preceding
this evaluation will be significantly
less than for those clients who termi—
nated counseling more than one year
preceding it.

Assumptions of the Study

Assumptions concerning the counseling process, the
nature of women's problems and needs, sources of interven-
tion, and the processes of evaluating counseling are
described in the review of the literature. The techniques
developed for the evaluation of the guidance center were
based on the following underlying assumptions:

1. That a reliable and unidimensional measure

of client attitudes toward the guidance
center could be designed.

l3

2. That valid and reliable information concerning
client attitudes, expectations, and decision—
making and post-counseling behavior could be
obtained by questionnaire and interview tech-

niques.
3. That an experienced panel of professional
counselors could assess, with an acceptable

degree of reliability and objectivity, the
degree of impact counseling had on the clients

in the sample.

A. That research concerning techniques to assess
counseling outcomes is essential to the
development of counseling technology and to
the administration, planning, and improvement
of counseling services.

Operational Definitions of Terms
Because of the unique nature of a community guidance
center and in consideration of the techniques employed to
evaluate the outcomes of counseling, the following defini—
tions were provided to add clarity to the study. The
definitions include:

1. Counseling. A personal, face-to-face rela—

 

'tionship between two people, in which the counselor, by
Jmeans of this relationship and with special competencies
arui human skills, assists the client in self-evaluation,
auialysis of interests and needs, and planning, to achieve

21 relevant decision (or plan) concerning educational and/or
career activities .

2. Client. Any adult who received counseling ser-
viJces including at least one interview with a professional
ccnlnselor on the guidance center's staff.

3. Guidance Services. Those services offered to

clJJents by the center which include primarily:

I.
It

 

1A
a. Educational and vocational (career)
information.
b. Counseling (see #1).
0. Testing services.
A. Counseling Disposition. Because of the experi-

mental nature of the guidance center, detailed records of'
each client case were maintained by the staff for the pur—

pose of accountability and follow-up research. The two

.r- --—.-—- "N
I I

major counseling disposition classifications were:

a. Incomplete Cases: client-initiated
termination of counseling prior to
the development of a plan.

b. Complete Cases: termination of counseling
by mutual agreement because the client
developed a plan of action, decided to
defer action, or was referred to another
more appropriate agency.

Delimitations

There were several limitations in the design of this
research. The study was confined to the client population
(761 women, 55 men) who were classified as "clients" by
the guidance center staff. The size of the sample repre-
sented only 15 percent of the total population, and while
tfliere is evidence of some homogeneity within the population,
true sample may not accurately represent the population on
zall variables included in the study.

Another limitation was the time lapse between those

cilients who received counseling-services at the time the

Geniter was opened and those clients who completed counseling

 

15

just prior to the investigation. The study encompassed
only the first twenty—two months of the center's opera-
tion. Thus there were clients who received counseling
during the early stages of the center's development when
services were not yet fully developed and the staff was
new, and clients who received the benefits of an experi—
enced staff and complete guidance services after several
months of operation.

The limitations of questionnaire studies and atti—
tude scale techniques are well established and need no
further elaboration. The use of telephone interviews, while
they enabled larger sampling than would have been possible
with personal interviews, were also a limitation to the
study. For some respondents, discussing their counseling
experience and subsequent behavior was more relaxing and
easier over the telephone; while others may have considered
the telephone interview an invasion of privacy and as
involuntary participation in the research.

Since no before-after measurements were made, no
aactual changes in client behavior were observed that could
be: attributed directly to counseling. Rather, the basic
hypothesis was that clients who have been differentially
e)qaosed to various kinds and amounts of counseling would
Vattain predetermined objectives in differential amounts
or-<degrees. The limitation posed here is that while a

cliJiical measurement was made of the impact of counseling

 

it"

‘.*A
.s-v‘
.

‘ I o. c M. . Ally .xs (\ ny n H
2» .A ~ . luv at v, a.» I . e
. v m p e 4L W 5 v a: «I. J u .l a Rb «\C
a rm P . r . . n0 BL H a U ad. AV E
J . o
S .. . a; “we .3 J. .u “I. . « AL W.
~ .~ I n . 5 fl: c v “WW IU.
ll , ..
a}. u ~ MW ”in. a):
l c

 

16

upon clients, the absence of a control group reduces
somewhat the validity of the findings which indicate the
degrees of impact counseling may have had on client
behavior.

Other less serious limitations are acknowledged in

 

the methodology and findings sections of the thesis. i
$1
Organization 5
The thesis has been organized into six chapters as 1"
follows:

Chapter l.——The introduction presents the problem,
its scope, the hypotheses to be tested, the assumptions
and definitions, and delimitations of the study.

Chapter II.--The history of the guidance center
includes a description of its origin, purposes, functions,
and objectives. The center's operational procedures,
services, and its present status and future plans are also
described.

Chapter III.—-The review of the literature includes
a description of the role conflicts of mature women,
sources of intervention, and the functions of the com-
munity college. Various counseling theories, counseling
outcomes, and the methods of evaluating counseling are
also discussed.

.Chapter IV.--The methodology and procedures section

is presented in two parts. The first part is a description

17

of the instruments, pre-test procedures, and the statis-
tical techniques used to analyze the data. The sample and
population are also defined. Part II is a description of
the interview and clinical judging process and includes an
analysis of the variables examined by the panel of
counselors.

Chapter V.—-The analysis of the data includes a
report of the interview and questionnaire findings, an
analysis of selected demographic variables related to the
impact of counseling, and a statistical analysis and
interpretation of the findings.

Chapter VI.--The final chapter presents a summary of
the findings of the study, the conclusions, and the impli-
cations for further study based on these findings and

conclusions.

CHAPTER II

DEVELOPMENT, ORGANIZATION, AND OPERATIONAL
PROCEDURES OF THE NEW YORK STATE GUIDANCE

CENTER FOR WOMEN

TTMB purposes of this chapter are: (a) to review
briefly the development of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women, (b) to examine its organizational
structure, cmjectives, and primary functions, and (c)

to describe the Center's operational procedures and major
areas of activity.
This chapter has been included for several reasons.
The history of the agency will provide relevant background
information to those not acquainted with this exploratory
project. It is also important that the organizational and
Inwcmhnel features be described in order to establish the
Cmfimr'smnnque and innovative function as part of a com-
munty mfllege's community services program. And finally,
itis‘mxmd that this chapter will enable the reader to
bamerIHMerstand the nature of the problem under investi-

gation.

l8

5..“ «we. 3,. E a .. 2‘ . .. ..
.n u I r . a.» V1 . .
s as. . . C a. .n t
A.

.. a . .
C a;

 

19

Introduction
In 196A, the Governor of New York, Nelson Rockefeller,
stablished the Committee on the Education and Employment
f‘ Women to study the needs and problems of women search—
ng for more satisfying and productive roles in society.
Among the recommendations of this Committee, published in
a report titled, New York Women, was a recommendation that

Joe State establish a network of community guidance cen-

rr n...— m- - In"

ters for women, beginning with one center which could be

used for experimental and evaluative purposes. It was on
the basis of this report that almost two years later such

an experimental guidance center was established.

History of the New York State
Guidance Center for Women

In the spring of 1966, a proposal for a model guidance

center for women was prepared by Dr. Esther Westervelt of
Teachers College, Columbia University. At his Conference

on Women in May, 1966, Governor Rockefeller announced that
the proposal would be funded and a budget of $72,000.00

was allocated for the first year of operation. Funds were

transferred to the State University of New York, which in

turn, contracted with Rockland Community College to estab—
lish the Guidance Center.

Rockland County, a rapidly growing suburb oijew York
City, was selected as an appropriate area to be served by

the guidance center because of its social and economic

2O

heterogeneity. The population of the county includes

many professional and executive men who commute to New
York City, numerous small businessmen, and a large number

of skilled and semi-skilled workers employed locally. In
contrast to this large proportion of economically-secure

individuals there is a rapidly growing population of dis-

advantaged Negroes and Puerto Ricans.

Between 1962 and
1957,

the number of welfare recipients rose 13A percent.

 

Thus the population is varied; there is a broad range of

‘n—u‘g s _
1 . I.

.
.
. I
i I

employment opportunities; and the educational resources

are generally adequate for the needs of the area.

Suffern, New York was selected as the site and the

New York State Guidance Center for Women opened on Novem-

ber 7, 1966. Due to extensive advance publicity, a back-

log of over 100 applicants for counseling greeted the
Center's opening.

The only full-time professional persons on the Cen-

ter's staff were the director and the associate director.

The major responsibility for testing and counseling'ser-
vices was carried by a staff of part-time graduate degree

counselors who had received previous training and experi-

ence in the counseling of adults. In her commentary on the
employment of part-time counselors, the director noted the

economic advantages and flexibility in scheduling of
counseling services:1

 

Esther M. Westervelt, "Report on Operation of New
York State Guidance Center for Women-~November 7, 1966 to

August 31, 1968," Suffern, New York, September 30, 1968.

21

The part-time staff made it possible to offer
counseling by appointment during evening hours and
on Saturday mornings as well as during regular day-
time hours. A part-time staff had two other advan-
tages; being numerically larger than a full-time
staff could have been, it provided greater oppor-
tunities for professional development through inter-
staff communication; and the counselors, because
they were not counseling every day of the week,
maintained a high level of interest in their work
it never seemed to become routine to them.

Functions of the Center

While the New York State Guidance Center for Women
did not provide services which were new, the agency was
nevertheless unique in several ways. First, it was estab—
lished to serve the needs of every social-economic group
in the area. Secondly, it was a community service pro-
viding educational and vocational counseling to women
(although men were not entirely excluded). It also was an
agency of a community college with only an informal rela-
tionship with the regular academic program and adult
education program at the college. And finally, the Center
was state-supported and assigned the task of providing
free counseling services on a limited budget.

In affiliating the Guidance Center with a community
college, an increased responsibility to broaden and expand
the continuing education program was thrust upon the col-
lege. Although the Center was physically separated from
the community college, its staff served indirectly in

assisting mature women to enter or return to college.

 

 

 

(J
in

AV)
U.

.(,
'J

22

The Services of the Center

The Guidance Center's services fell into two major

categories:
testixu; for individuals and small groups; and (b) educa—

tixnual and vocational information and advisory services

offered through workshops, public meetings, radio career

series, and the educational and vocational library. Dur-

ing the twenty-two month history of the Center, almost

forty—five hundred individuals are known to have used one

or several of these services according to the following

breakdown:2

Total persons using informational and advisory
services: 3608

Total persons using counseling and testing
services: 816

During the spring, 1967, there was a marked increase
in the number of clients seeking counseling at the Center.

The Center averaged forty new applicants for counseling

and testing per month. The average number of counseling

interviews for the entire client population during the
project period was 2.9 sessions; but the range in the
number of counseling interviews was from 1 to 17. The
amount of counselor time spent in direct services to

clients averaged 5.8 hours per client.3

 

(a) educational and vocational counseling and

Frrrrrnr-IF
"w

h
I

23

The principal component in the Center's information

and advisory services was the library. The resources of

the library included general occupational information,

educational information, and specific information on

employment opportunities within the service area. The

library served the informational needs of the professional

counseling staff and clients as well as non-client visitors

to the Center. The library also provided information

services to persons making inquiries by telephone or mail.

The number of requests for information grew steadily and

has averaged about one hundred per month. However, as

with the other services of the center, there was consid-
erable seasonal variation, with the months preceding the

opening of an academic term providing the peak levels of

services.
The information and advisory service offered guidance

workshops concentrating on the problems women encounter

upon re-entry into the labor force and career opportunities

in new fields for women. The service also offered public

meetings on specific career areas including one on teacher

certification, and two radio career information series were

provided.
Another important function of the Center was the
development of a working relationship with various commun—

ity agencies and organizations. Although the Center was

a new agency serving a county of over 200,000 persons, the

.1.‘5-I In.”
. I

2A

Center's association with Rockland Community College pro-

vided many avenues for the development of community

relations.
the Center established a Community

At the outset,
Advisory Committee which was broadly representative of
?"1

social agencies, educational institutions, employers, and

'1‘” 34.5 phi ‘g:
a
I 1

interested lay citizens from throughout the service area.
Meetings with the Committee provided regular contact with

community leaders and strategic segments of the population

became acquainted with the goals and services of the
Guidance Center.

It has already been noted that one of the major

responsibilities assigned to this agency at the time it

was established was to conduct evaluation and research
One of

studies on all aspects of the Center's operation.
the earliest experiments involved the effect of pre—

counseling orientation for small groups to acquaint clients

with the functions of the Center, the role of the counselor,

the use of testing, and the possible outcomes of counseling.
While the experiment involved a very small sample (ten

experimental and nine control subjects), ratings made by
both counselors and clients suggested that pre-counseling
orientation was ineffective in increasing the rapidity

with which counseling could be accomplished or in improv-

ing the quality of the counseling experience.

C

run
any

‘rn

-cov‘u

 

 

70,,“
VA

on
A
o‘...

C ~ «

at
A: .ru
0.. r:

25

During the winter of 1968, a pilot evaluation of
the mnmseling service was undertaken by a team of inter-
vimwno employed from outside the staff of the Center.

The criteria for the evaluation of counseling outcomes
included: (a) the achievement of making a decision through
counseling; (b) remaining satisfied with this decision;

(c) believing that counseling made the decision possible;
(d) believing that the decision could not have been
achieved as rapidly without counseling; and (e) not per—
ceiving the counselor as having pushed toward a wrong
decision or having failed to clarify alternatives.

The results of this interview study were quite
favorable, especially in View of the fact that some of the
respondents had received counseling in the early months of
the Center's operation when its services were not fully
developed. The results were generally as follows:5

68.5% Reported achieving a decision through

 

counseling.
83.7% Expressed satisfaction with the decision.
2A.3% Believed that they could have done so
without counseling.
91.7% Believed that counseling enabled them

 

to achieve a decision more rapidly.

78.8% Reported that they did not perceive their
counselor as having pushed toward a wrong
decision or as having failed to clarify

alternatives.

 

 

 

I
I
1
LL.

I
LE

 

26

The Center staff has also conducted research in such
areas as demographic and personal characteristics of
clients, a study of antecedent and intervening variables
affecting female client's patterns of career development,

and a comparative study of the male and female forms of

the Strong Vocational Interest Blank.

Operation of the Center
It is essential to the evaluation of counseling ser—
vices that the kind of counseling under investigation be

described. While a small percentage of clients receiving

counseling services from the Center did so in small groups,
most of the counseling was individual and short-term
(although no limitation was set on the number of counseling

sessions). Counseling focused primarily on the development

of a realistic and acceptable vocational and/or educa-
tional plan or decision, and included all appropriate
testing and use of the occupational library.

The technique employed by the professional counselors

was essentially eclectic with the constant objective of

formulating a plan of action. A coordinate objective

centered on the personal growth and development of the

client to enhance follow-thru behavior on the plan. The
important function in this relationship was that career or
*ducational plan emerged as a "mutual" or "joint" agreement

etween the counselor and the client.

27

The initial difficulty experienced by clients who

cametx>the Center was ignorance of the educational and

vocatunml opportunities available to them. This condi-

tionvnm possibly the result of the span of years devoted

to domestic activities which restricted their contact with

recent developments in educational and employing institu-

tions. It was also the result of ever increasing numbers

and variety of educational and occupational opportunities.

But for most of the women who sought the counseling

services of the Center, lack of information was a lesser

problem to them than lack of clear goals and a resistance

to undergo changes in basic life style patterns to achieve

more productive and perhaps more satisfying activities.
The registration forms used by the Center were

designed to assist prospective clients in identifying their

particular problem or need. Since many of the clients were

referred to the Center by other agencies and organizations,

additional information was available to the staff prior to

the intake interview. During the first months of opera-

tion, all intake interviews were conducted by a single

counselor» However, because of staff scheduling problems,

this pnmocedure was discontinued and intake interviews were
conducted.by the counselor assigned to the case.

All counseling and testing sessions were arranged on

a strdxrt appointment basis because of the staff scheduling

arrangement described earlier. The assignment of new

clients was the function of a paraprofessional staff member

 

 

28

whoaflso was responsible for administering and scoring all

tests. Clients generally remained with the same counselor

Inudl counseling was completed.

If testing was indicated, clients scheduled appro-

gndate time for testing followed by a testing interpreta—

tion session with the assigned counselor. A fee of $2.00

was charged for each test administration unless the client

was unable to pay. Counseling and all other services of

the Center were free of charge.

Extensive records were maintained on all clients.
Client folders included considerable background information
provided by the client when she registered, elaborate and
very detailed interview summaries prepared after each
interview by the counselor, test results and client pro—
files, and the counselor's summary report prepared for
each client after counseling was terminated.

One of the major responsibilities of the Center's
director involved the supervision of the professional

staff. Since part-time counselors were used, the staff

was considerably larger and therefore demanded extensive

communication and more personalized supervision. The

standardization of operational procedures and the mainten-
ance»<xf professional Standards within the staff was
achieved by weekly staff meetings with the director and

extensive individual contact between the counselors and

the director. Since it also had been the original plan

for the Center to provide counseling practicums for

29

gramMNe students in nearby universities, additional
snmmrvisory and training activities were required.

The operating costs during the twenty—two months of
the Guidance Center's existence averaged $6000.00 per month.

Salaries and fringe benefits accounted for approximately
80 percent of the budget with the remaining 20 percent com- I

Almost 50 percent of

mafi"'¢“l
.,

mitted to research and evaluation.

3
a

the salary budget was spent for professional counselors,
18 percent was allocated to administrative salaries and 12
percent was spent on salaries for classified personnel.
Since this study was concerned primarily with the
counseling and testing services of the New York State

Guidance Center for Women, the following statistical data

will describe only those functions of the Center. The two

major categories of guidance services were counseling and

testing, and educational and career information. Table 1

provides a breakdown of counseling and testing services

provided by the Center from November 6, 1966 to August 31,

1968.6

 

6Ibid., p. II-2.

 

30

Table l.--Statistical Summary of the Counseling and
Testing Services of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women.

 

COUNSELING:
1. Total Number of Clients Requesting Appointments . 978

2. Total Number of Clients Cancelling First

Appointment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 I
3. Total Number of Clients Placed on Waiting Fm}
List in Summer, 1968 (Not Served) . . . . . . 69 54
TOTAL NUMBER OF CLIENTS COUNSELED . . . . . 816 1
TOTAL NUMBER OF COUNSELING INTERVIEWS . . . .2366
TESTING:
1. Total Number of Tests Administered . . . . .1091

2. Total Counselor Hours Administering and
Scoring Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 7A6

 

Individual counseling interviews at the Center were
generally 50 minutes in length although counselor schedules
did permit some flexibility in the length of interview
sessions. Group counseling sessions averaged two hours in
length but the time varied depending on the needs of the

group in any given session. The length of testing sessions
ranged from one to three hours depending on the number and
type of tests administered. With the exception of tests
mi ch required individual administration, all tests were
dministered to several clients at one time.

Table 2 presents a statistical breakdown of clients

type of service and the average number of interviews.

 

31

Table 2.--Clients Counseled by Type of Service and Average

Mmmer of Interviews.
Number Average
of Clients Number of
Receiving Interviews/
Type of Service Service Client

Individual Counseling Only, at
Guidance Center 382 1.8
3.6

Individual Counse ling and
359

Testing at Guidance Center
1.A

Referred by Other Agencies,
Testing Only 5
‘ 1.6

Group and Individual Counsel-
ing at Guidance Center 5

Group and Individual Counsel-

ing and Testing at Guidance

Center 3.0

Individual Counseling in

Neighborhoods only 31 2.A
2.0

Individual Counseling and

Testing in Neighborhoods
1.3

Group Counseling in
Neighborhoods
Group Counseling and Testing
in Neighborhoods 22 5.2
Group and Individual Counsel-
ing in Neighborhoods A 5.9
Group and Individual Counsel-

7.3

ing and Testing in
Neighborhoods

32

The number of counseling interviews per client ranged from
1 to 17 and the average number of interviews per client

was 2.9. Table 2 indicates that 8.5 percent of the cli-
ents received counseling services in the neighborhood
"outreach" centers. As the table also indicates, these
clients required more counselor time per client than did

clients seen at the center.

Present Status and Future Plans

 

The funding of the New York State Guidance Center for
Women was terminated by the State University of New York on
August 31, 1968. Since that time, the Center has been
operating from funds authorized by the Rockland County
Board of Supervisors within the budget of Rockland Commun-
ity College. Although there has been no significant
reorganization of the Center since becoming the fiscal
responsibility of the community college, clients are now
charged fees for counseling services (fee schedule based on
family income), and testing fees have been increased. The
most notable effect of this policy change has been the
reduction in the number of clients seeking the services of
the Center.

The most pressing needs of the Center appear to be
the development of increased services to clients seeking
assistance in job placement and more intensive service to

community groups. Steps have been taken to identify

33

particular groups from throughout the service area who have
specific needs which can be partially satisfied through
group counseling.

Another immediate need which the Center's staff has
identified is related to the economic problems of minority
populations located in isolated areas of the ounty which
can only be served by an "outreach" approach. Many of
these persons are greatly in need of increased educational
and employment opportunities and will require more inten-
sive treatment and increased counseling time than less
deprived individuals.

One issue which has been raised by community leaders
is whether it is appropriate to expand the services of the
Center toinclude men. The Center was established on the
premise that women have a unique set of problems connected
with educational and career plans and the operation has
been geared to assist women in resolving these problems.
There is no visible evidence at the present time that the
services will attract male clients on a broad basis.

The New York State Guidance Center for Women is a
direct outgrowth of Governor Nelson Rockefeller's program
for women and his long-time concern with their problems.
It was the first state-supported Center of its kind. The
appointment of the Committee on the Education and Employment

of Women resulted in the following recommendations:

3A

It is the committee's hope that New York
State might establish a pilot Community
Guidance Center to help women explore their
needs for continuing education or retraining
for volunteer or part-time paid employment.

We believe the Guidance Center should be
equipped to evaluate a candidate's capabili-
ties, to suggest where and how she might
acquire the vocational training or retraining
she needs to become employable. It is our
hope, too, that the Guidance Center would be
well informed on community needs and be able
to channel older women into paths of useful-
ness in volunteer service as well as full—time
or part-time employment.

The State Department of Education, the
State University and the Department of Labor
should be invited to cooperate in this pilot
program which might be located in a commun—
ity college. It could well be a part of the
pilot study program under the Inter-depart-
mental Committee on Manpower. We believe
it should focus on women who have not gone
to college, as well as college-educated women.
It should be particularly helpful in directing
women to community colleges and other sources
of vocational training and should be responsi—
ble for preparing and distributing publica-
tions on vocational training and.job oppor-
tunities for women at all educational levels.

Research and experimentation are needed in
this area. If ways can be found through a
pilot program to meet the needs of the older
woman and the needs of the community, then
this knowledge should be shared and a
regional group of Guidance Centers could be
developed to serve the women and the industry
of the State.7

 

7

New York Women, Report by the Committee on the

Ekhication and Employment of Women, 196A, p. 33.

Aunt-m .
I"
I

I-

35

The basic principles underlying the operation of the

New York State Guidance Center for Women include the

following:8

Since it is both financially and institutionally
impossible to develop an indefinite number of
special programs of continuing education for
women of widely varied backgrounds, a Guidance
Center is the most efficient way to help women
of all backgrounds make better use of existing
resources and may also serve, in some cases, to
help these resources modify their programs to
give better service to women.

Affiliation with an existing educational insti-
tution in a semi-autonomous (and non-recruiting)
relationship, will increase public acceptance
of the Guidance Center. A community college,
because of the broad public it serves, is pro—
bably the ideal institution for such an

The most effective guidance enterprise will use
a variety of approaches: individual and small
group counseling, testing, group career informa-
tion guidance; opportunities for training in
group leadership; and, a library of educational
and occupational information.

A guidance Center designed to serve adults should
be staffed by counselors with professional grad-
uate training in the guidance and counseling of

A guidance center can assist both educational
institutions and employers in an area to get a
clearer idea of the reservoir of labor force
interests and skills among women, which may be
further developed in education or in employment.
To achieve this end, it is important that the
guidance center work with a Community Advisory
Committee which is fully representative of
industry, business, and education in the area,
with state-wide groups interested in recruitment,

 

1.
2.
affiliation.
3.
A.
adults.
50
8

Esther Westervelt, "Guidance Centers for Women:

Some Background and a Pilot Project," a brochure prepared
for dissemination to interested citizens and community
groups, March 6, 1967, pp. A-5.

36
as well as with lay leadership of various
socio—economic groups.

6. A guidance center can be designed to serve women
of all educational and socio-economic backgrounds
and, in this way, it can reach a far wider seg-
ment of the population than a center whose coun-
seling services are geared to only one type of
educational program.

7. If such a service proves useful for women, it
should also prove useful for men and be made
available to them.

Several features of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women make it an ideal specimen for studying
the problem under investigation. First, the Center was
unique in that it was created to serve the specific needs
of mature women. The professional staff and all services
were oriented toward mature women. Case records of clients
indicate that the Center was serving essentially "normal"
women in search of more satisfying and productive roles
and that counseling was generally educational or career
oriented. All of this made it possible to examine the
more simplistic rational approach to counseling of a
selective client population in which pre-determined coun-
seling outcomes could be assessed.

Also, as an affiliate agency of a community college,
the Center gained almost immediate identity in the com-
munity and therefore was able to provide early assistance
to women planning to continue their education locally.
Affiliation with the college also enabled the Center's

staff to utilize community resources and to benefit from

the college's relationships with community agencies and

 

37

employers. This was particularly significant in the
development of the occupational information and career
counseling services.

The commitment to research and evaluation at the
time the Center was established was still another factor
related to the desirability of assessing the Center's
counseling serVices. The establishment of definite behav—
ioral objectives, the standardization of guidance pro—
cedures, and the availability of comprehensive client
records and detailed interview summaries provided an ideal
foundation upon which to examine counseling outcomes and
to assess the impact of counseling upon the behavior of

adult clients.

Summary

The New York State Guidance Center for Women was
established on November 7, 1966. Counseling and testing
services were offered initially only at the Center but were
later extended to "outreach centers." With the exception
of a small fee for testing, all services at the Center were
free of charge. All of the counselors had graduate degrees
in guidance and counseling as well as specialized training
in counseling of adults. With the exception of the direc—
tor and associate director, all professional staff members
‘were employed on a part-time basis.

In addition to counseling and testing services, the

Center also provided information and advisory services to

38

clients, non-clients, and community groups and organiza-
tions. An elaborate educational and occupational resources
library has been developed to provide these services. Also
in connection with this service there has been a series of
radio broadcasts on women's careers, workshops for special
interest groups, and consultive services to groups and
organizations in the service area. Although much of the
Center's activities have concentrated on career development
for women, the agency does not provide placement services
other than through informal referral arrangements. Also,
while the Center is affiliated with Rockland Community
College, it does not serve as a pre-admission or recruiting

center for the College.

t‘l‘J“-J ant. ._'
I
.

CHAPTER III

A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

 

Numerous articles and books have been written since
World War II concerning the plight of adult women. The
focus of most of these writings has been on the changing
role of women, the waste of talent to our national man-
power supply, and the perplexing problems facing the
modern woman in a rapidly-changing society. The Modern
Woman: the Lost Sex, The Second Sex, The Feminine Mystique,
and many articles in professional journals and popular
magazines are symbolic of the efforts of psychologists,
anthropologists, sociologists, and in a few instances,
professional educators, to communicate the problems and
needs of women.

The role of women in contemporary society is an
ambiguous one. While male roles are generally tending to
become more clearly defined, role definitions for women
are, in many cases, becoming inadequate and unclear. Kerr

and Johnston1 have suggested three possible adaptations

 

1William D. Kerr and Robert L. Johnston, "Self—
Actualization for Women through Continuing Education,"
.Adult Leadership, Vol. 13, No. 6, December, 196A, p. 177.

 

39

 

 

 

A0

which a women may make: traditional, competitive, and
self-actualization. The traditional role asserts that
the woman's place is in the home; the competitive role
suggests that women compete with men in the world of work,
with satisfaction provided for in both roles. The self-
actualization role suggests that woman's role is best ful-
filled through education and personal development for its
own sake, whether in the home or in out-of—home activity.

Mounting numbers of women are choosing the competi-
tive and self-actualization roles. The number of women
gainfully employed outside the home and in non-farm occu-
pations has almost doubled since before World War II. Of
all women aged 18 to 6A, A5 percent are now in jobs or
actively seeking them.2

In 1965, women constituted 30 percent of those
enrolled in colleges and universities. From 196A to 1965
alone, there was an increase in the number of women in
the thirty to thirty-four age group enrolled in college
from 90,000 to 115,000 women.3

Modern educational patterns and increased leisure

time have provided mature women with the opportunity to

 

2Mary D. Keyserling, "Facing the Facts About Women's
Lives Today," in New Approaches to Counseling Girls in the
1960's, Report of the Midwest Regional Pilot Conference
(Washington, D. C:: Office of Education, 1965), p. 5.

3Virginia L. Senders, "Continuing Education for
Women-~The Third Revolution," The University in Motion:
The Status of Woman (Urbana, Illinois: Bevier Lecture
Series, November, 1967), p.

A1

explore a broad scope of activities. Technological
advances have simplified housekeeping. By the time women
reach their mid—thirties, their children are in school
which lessens even more the demands on their time. At

the age of 35, most women can anticipate at least another
25 to 30 years of active life which many of them will wish
to fill with satisfying and productive experiences outside
the home. This period will most likely expand as the life
expectancy for a girl born today is close to 75 years.“

An expanded economy has provided jobs for 7A million
Americans in the civilian labor force and 35 percent of
them are women. But the woman at work today is nearly
10 years older, on the average, than the working woman in
l9A0. Four out of five women in the labor force have been
or are presently married. Older married women are return-
ing to work to help finance their children's education,
to provide security for old age, to enhance their family's
standard of living, and for the purpose of self-fulfill—
ment.5

The educational attainment of women is directly
related to their employment patterns. For example, among
women 18 to 6A years of age who have less than 8 years of
education, 3A percent are in the labor force. The per-

centages rise to A5 percent for those who have completed

 

“Keyserling, op. cit., p. 5.

5Keyserling, op. cit., p. 6.

.= - fly.“
, .
.L '

:5

A2

high school, to 58 percent for college graduates, and to
7A percent for those who have five or more years of higher

education.

Role Ambiguities of Women

The married woman who leaves her home to pursue
career or educational activities has become a familiar, but
controversial, figure in our society. She is viewed as
a symbol of freedom by some and as the epitome of irrespon-
sibility and neglect by others. While the vieWpoint
varies, the fact remains that economic and sociological
changes have produced new role perceptions--and role con-
flicts--in the lives of American women.

One of the major sources of role conflict is inherent
in the assumption of two demanding and sometimes conflict—
ing roles. For many women, the commitment to self-develop—
ment and fulfillment of personal needs is in conflict with
domestic responsibilities. For others, there is, what
Gertrude Gass describes as a "delay in female identity
formation." For that woman, "we have to expect a depressed
and occasionally chaotic period in her emotional life as

she moves back to the world outside her home."7

 

6Keyserling, op. cit., p. 6.

.7Gertrude Z. Gass, "Identity: A Contemporary Problem
for Women," The University in Motion: The Status of Women
(Urbana, Illinois: Bevier Lecture Series, November, 1967),

13. 28.

c-ww—mm—q-r

A3

However, while mature women often are confused about

 

their direction and personal needs, the "identity crisis"
can often serve a very positive function. It is generally
recognized that the anxiety and discomfort arising out of
this condition is often the strategic force which stimu—
lates the movement toward important changes.

Until recently, it was widely assumed that married

 

women were content with their role as housewife and mother.
Men, in particular, held a popular view that women were

not motivated to excel in activities outside the home.
Today, however, new insights into the nature of human
motivations (Maslowg) and recent theories concerning the
human need for change and complexity (Demberlo) provide a
psychological basis for understanding woman's present
struggle for recognition, identity, and achievement.

For motivation to affect individual behavior, Pem-
berton maintains that goals must be perceived as appropriate
in two ways: (a) they must be at least theoretically
possible, and (b) they must be congruent with one's own

character and values.11 While ability, motivation, and

 

8Self, op. cit., p. 2.

9Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New
York: Harper Brothers, 195A), pp. lA6el5A.

lOWilliam N. Dember, The Psychology of Perception
(New York: Henry Holt and Company, 196U3.

llWilfred A. Pemberton, "Psychology of Decision—
Making," Great Expectations for Women (Newark: University
of Delaware Educational Services for Women, 1967), p. 50.

AA

opportunity are the essential ingredients to alterations
in the career development of women, one of the critical
factors is the decision to change; and fundamental to the
decision is the assessment of intellectual potential,
evaluation of previous education and experience, and an
analysis of individual interests, values, and personal
needs. If mature women in reality do, as Selfl2 maintains,
have relatively little feedback concerning their own real
abilities and lack external criteria for evaluating them-
selves, then it is incumbent upon social institutions to
provide the necessary resources to maximize women's con-
tribution to society and to enhance her opportunity for

self-fulfillment.

Summary

The assumptions and propositions concerning the
nature of women's role ambiguities may be summarized as
follows:

1. Role ambiguities of women tend to become
more significant with an increase in role
options.

2. The decision to change roles may be more
significant than the new role itself par-
ticularly for mature women experiencing the
"identity crisis."

3. The educational attainment of women is
directly related to their employment
patterns.

 

l2Self, op. cit., p. 5.

 

\ \|A!l 31.1.. {Illi‘

 

A5

A. Evaluation of previous education and
experience and an analysis of values,
interests, and personal needs are pre—
requisites to educational—vocational
decision-making.

5. Mature married women have little feedback

on their abilities and they lack external
criteria by which to evaluate themselves
for the purpose of pursuing educational
and/or career activities.

Sources of Intervention

The role conflicts of women have undergone changes
and become more complex as an increasing number of mature
women have sought more competitive and self-actualizing
roles. One of the tasks of our social institutions is to
discover the forces in society that are causing these
problems and to identify the kinds of intervention which
can assist mature women in the realization of their
aspirations.

Several public and private agencies have tradi-
tionally provided career guidance and placement services
to women seeking entry into the labor force. ,While the
state employment agencies provide such services to the
largest number of women Job-seekers, many counselors in
public employment offices fail to meet the qualifications
reconmmnded by the employment service and professional

organizations.13

Guidance services for adult women enrolled in con-

tirnxing education programs have generally lagged behind

 

13Committee on Education, op. cit., pp. 27-28.

A6

the development of new and expanded educational programs
for women.

Tinkerlu studied ten colleges and universities which
offered counseling and adult education programs for women.
She found a wide variety of programs and services among
the institutions. One served only specially gifted women
of high educational attainment while another provided ser-
vices to any women regardless of previous education. The
size of the administrative staff varied from a single
lecture-counselor to an administrative and counseling
staff in excess of twelve persons.

Tinker found three common elements in all institu-
tions:15

(a) A large majority of the women were between
the ages of 35 and 50.

(b) Most of the participants had some college
education but had not completed degrees.

(c) Most of the women came from middle or
upper middle class environments.

Although this study was limited to a relatively small
number of institutions, the results suggest that there may
be a selection bias underlying educational and counseling
programs for mature women.

The need for vocational-educational counseling among

mature women who have graduated from college appears to be

 

l“Anne Hall Tinker, "Programs for Mature Coeds,"
Adult Education, March, 1965, pp. 283-285.

lSIbid., p. 28A.

A7

no less important than for women with lesser education.
A 1962 survey by the Women's Bureau revealed that about
one-third of the women in the sample who had graduated
from college in l9A5 were employed. The most frequent
request of the surveyed alumnae was for individual coun-
seling services by qualified persons.16

Increases in specialized educational and training
programs for women will demand expansion of counseling
services. The President's Commission on the Status of
Women has reported that "the quality of counseling avail-
able to girls and women has been hampered by the failure
of programs of counselor education to give due emphasis
to the differences and similarities of the sexes . . .
The counseling of girls and women might well be developed

as a field of specialization.17

Summary

The sources of intervention for assisting women in
their pursuit of educational and career activities has
revealed the following assumptions:

1. Qualified and specially trained counselors

are needed to provide educational—voCational
guidance services to mature women.

 

l6Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, "15
Years after College--A Study of Alumnae of the Class of
l9A5," Bulletin #283, 1962, cited in Continuing Education
Programs and Services for Women, Pamphlet #10, 1968.

17Committee on Education, op. cit., p. 30.

A8

2. There is some evidence of a selection bias
operating in specialized counseling ser-
vices for mature women.

Community College Intervention

The two-year college, more than other institutions
of higher education, seeks to project a student-centered
image by emphasizing, as its primary function, the compre-
hensive concern to meet the needs of widely varying groups
of students, including mature men and women. Authorities18
in the community college field have observed that

the argument that guidance is more important in
the two-year college than in other institutions
of higher education has been substantiated by
the heterogeneity of the student body, the
variety and complexity of decisions which stu-
dents must make, and the need for nonacademic
services which support and give purpose to the
efforts of students.

The notion of community college counseling for adults
is relatively a new one. Sexon and Harbeson in describing
a "model guidance program" restricted counselor assignments
to college-age youth and "only for students majoring in

19

their particular fields." In contrast, however, Collins

has urged the community colleges, public and private, to

 

18Clyde E. Blocker, Robert H. Plummer, and Richard
C. Richardson, Jr., The Two-Year College: A Social
Synthesis (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

1955), p- 239.

19John A. Sexson and John W. Harbeson, The New
American College (New York: Harper & Brothers, l9A5),
pp. 193-206.

 

 

A9

focus more attention on educational and vocational coun-
seling for the entire student body.20
As early as 19AO, Seashore21 advocated the acceptance
of the community college as the most logical unit for the
sponsorship of adult education in the community with guid—
ance services geared particularly for career development.
Hillway22 took this notion one step further by advocating
that the community college provide a "community center of
guidance and information" for adults in the service area.
On the development of a continuing education guid-
ance center affiliated with a community college, Kleis has
observed that
the Center should serve as the 'hub' of counseling
services for the entire continuing education
system and maintain referral ties with employment,
educational, religious, financial, legal, family,
welfare, health, and psychiatric counseling ser—
vices. It should have the finest staff and
facilities in the area.2
Kleis has also outlined five principal functions of

such an affiliate model. They include:

 

20Charles C. Collins, "Junior College Counseling:
A Critical View," Personnel and Guidance Journal, February,

19653 pp. 5u6-SSO-

21Carl E. Seashore, The Junior College Movement (New
York: Henry Holt and Company, 19AO), p. 153.

22Hillway, op. cit., p. 13A.

23Russell J. Kleis, An Area Approach to Continuing
Education (East Lansing, Michigan: Educational Publica-
tion Services, College of Education, Michigan State
University, No. 16, August, 1967), p. 176.

 

50

(a) to service the counseling needs of
community college students, both youth
and adults.

(b) serve selected continuing education
students referred from other operating
centers in the system.

(c) serve as a self assessment and counseling
center for adults contemplating changes
in vocation or for other reasons desiring
objective data essential to major personal
decisions.

(d) provide in-service education and professional
consultation to counselors and other continu-
ing education personnel throughout the
system.

(e) refer its clients whin appropriate to spec—
ialized counselors.2

On the basis of head count statistics, the community
colleges are serving just about as many adults and special
students as regular freshman and sophomore students.25

One of the problems connected with the operation of
an adult education program involves the extension of
counseling services to adult students. Medsker26 reported
in 1960 that "only one-third of the junior colleges which
offered adult programs provided counseling services for

students enrolled in the evening college." He argues that

In many junior colleges the only counseling
assistance available to part-time evening

 

2nIbid., pp. 176-177.

25Ralph R. Fields, The Community College Movement (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962), p. A7.

26Leland L. Medsker, The Junior College: Progress and
Prospect (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960),
p. 76.

guthII

9"}. °

 

51

students was the over-the-counter advice given
by the administrator of the evening program or
an office clerk . . . If students in increas—
ing numbers are to seek educational services
during evening hours, either for college credit
or to increase their personal competencies, the
college offering the services has some responsi-
bility for helping them make wise educational
choices in line with their goals.

Summary 1
The community college, in its commitment to be fl
responsive to the needs of the community, has a responsi-
bility to provide educational opportunities to both youth
and adults. This responsibility therefore imposes upon
the college the demand that counseling services be pro-
vided to adults. In fact, the community college is a
logical institution to provide guidance services to all

adults in the community.
Counseling Outcomes and Evaluation

Counseling Theory

There are in every approach to counseling some
theories or implicit assumptions. Of the five fundamental
approaches identified by Patterson,28 the rational approach
is the only one which has developed essentially from a

vocational counseling base, with particular emphasis on

 

271b1d., p. 76.

280. H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Psycho-
therapy (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966), p. 6.

52

the problems of educational and vocational adjustment of
clients.

The emphasis in the rational approach is upon coun-
seling as a cognitive process. The counselor is perceived
as a teacher who applies a rational, problem-solving
approach within a client—teacher relationship. Counseling
as seen from this perspective is problem—centered behavior

change.29

Although the rational approach has lacked the
sound theoretical foundation associated with other coun-
seling theories and has not been subjected to the rigorous
scrutiny of evaluation research found in other approaches,
it has received wide acceptance among the practioners of
vocational and educational counseling. One of the most
prolific contributors to this approach, E. G. Williamson

has concluded, that "every counselor is, with clear or

fuzzy results, his own theorist."3O

31 32

Super and Pepinsky and Pepinsky have developed
what is commonly labeled the trait-and-factor theory. By

matching occupational requirements and characteristics

 

29Henry Weitz, Behavior Change Through Guidance (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 196A), p. 211.

30E. G. Williamson, Vocational Counseling; Some
Historical, Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 175.

31Donald E. Super, The Psychology of Careers (New
York: Harper & Brothers, 1957).

32H. Pepinsky and P. Pepinsky, Counseling Theory and
Practice (New York: Ronald Press Company, 195A).

to..." Tifluml l
.3

53

with individual traits, certain basic decisions can be made
relative to career planning. One of the underlying
assumptions of the theory is that occupational choice tends
to take place in a certain way.33

There is no evidence that any specific counseling
theory or approach is superior to another. The dominant
factors in the counseling situation seem to be the indi-
vidual differences among counselees, and the individual
personality characteristics of the counselor. These appear
to be the ingredients that determine the counselor's selec-
tion of theory and the appropriate techniques to be applied
3A

in the interview.

Outcomes of Counseling

 

One of the primary purposes of educational and voca-
tional guidance services is to assist individuals to real-
ize maximum development of their potential. Such a purpose,
however, provides practically no direction to the organi-
zation and systematic evaluation of counseling functions.

Counseling and guidance appear to be functioning in
most settings without specific behavioral objectives or a

theoretical framework by which to assess its effectiveness.

 

33Martin Katz, Decisions and Values (New York:
College Entrance Examination Board, 1963). p. 11.

3“Franklin N. Zeran, John E. Lallas, and Kenneth W.
Wegner, Guidance: Theory and Practice (New York: Ameri-
can Book Company, 196A), p. 2031

 

“
A
A

5A

35

Ginzberg concluded after a comprehensive study of voca-
tional guidance literature that the guidance movement has
been severely handicapped because investigators and prac-
titioners were working without the help of any theory at
all or with severely limited theories. Metzler concluded
after reviewing the research literature on counseling
evaluation that there is no agreement as to what consti-
tutes the goals of guidance; that previous research has

made only minimal contributions to existing programs, and

that the primary acceptable criterion by which we measure

 

counseling effectiveness is that of expert judgment and
opinion.36
There is considerable disagreement on what consti-
tutes an acceptable criterion for judging the success of
counseling; Krumboltz, for example, defines counseling as
any ethical activity a counselor undertakes which leads
to a resolution of the client's problems. He suggests that
"the criteria for judging the success of counseling for any
given client must be based on the requests of that

client."37

 

35E. Ginzberg, "Toward a Theory of Occupational
Choice," Occupations, Vol. 30, 1952, p. A91.

36John H. Metzler, "Evaluating Counseling and Guid-
ance Programs," Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Vol. 12,
Summer, 196A, p. 288.

37John D. Krumboltz, "Behavioral Counseling:
Rationale and Research," Personnel and Guidance Journal,
Vol. A3, No. A, December, 1965, p. 383.

55

Several counseling theorists, Goldman,38 Tyler,39

A0 and Wrenn,“l maintain that a primary task of

Krumboltz,
counseling is to assist individuals in developing deci—
sions. And vocational decision-making for most persons is
a process rather than a behavioral act. Selecting a career
involves the definition of objectives, the collection of
data and an analysis of its relevancy, the review of
possible alternatives, and an evaluation of the conse-
quences. BrossL‘2 postulated that the decision-making
process consists of a "predictive system" which assesses
the possible alternative actions and possible outcomes, a
"value system" which weighs the desirability associated
with outcomes, and a "decision-criterion" by which appro-
priate action is integrated and selected.

Gelatt applied this decision theory to three basic

A3

assumptions underlying counseling and guidance practices.

 

38Leo Goldman, Usipg Tests in Counseling (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961), pp. l7-32.

39Leona E. Tyler, The Work of the Counselor (New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), p. 276?

 

uoKrumboltz, op. cit., pp. 383-387.

ulCharles G. Wrenn, The Counselor in a Changing World
(Washington, D. C.: American Personnel and Guidance
Association, 1962).

A2

Irwin D. F. Bross, Design for Decision (New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1953):7pp. 25-27.

“3H. B. Gelatt, "Decision-Making: A Conceptual
Frame of Reference for Counseling," Journal of Counseling
Psychology, Vol. 9, No. 3, Fall, 1962, p. 2AA.

56

The first assumption is that the collection and utiliza-
tion of relevant and reliable information is essential for
realistic decision-making. Another assumption is that the
broad, general purpose of counseling would be to utilize
decision-making opportunities for developing the client's
capacity for subsequent decision-making. The final
assumption is that client decision-making provides a
criterion for the assessment of counseling outcomes.

There is, however, a serious dilemma between the
process and outcome of decision—oriented counseling. Dilley
has observed that:

We are not always sure what reality is; it

is changeable, in many respects it is unknow-
able, yet it must be sought and its possibili-
ties considered . . . Improving the congruence
between reality and statements about reality is
not the sole purpose for counseling nor does it
really answer the question as to what a good
decision is. It is, however, an impfifitant way
counselors can help decision-makers.

One important aspect in the decision-making behavior
of clients is the influence of the counselor on the cli—
ent's effort to deliberate and analyze alternatives and to

A5

reach a decision. Ryan and Krumboltz conducted an
experiment with sixty students at Stanford University

involving counselor reinforcement of decision and

 

ouosiah S. Dilley, "Decision-Making: A Dilemma and
a Purpose for Counseling," Personnel and Guidance Journal,
Vol. A5, No. 6, February, 1967, p. 550.

“ST. Antoinette Ryan and John D. Krumboltz, "Effect
of Planned Reinforcement Counseling on Client Decision-
Making Behavior," Journal of Counseling P§ychology, Vol.
11, No. A, 196A, pp. 315—323.

57

and deliberation responses of clients. The investigators
concluded that counselors have the power to influence the
client's tendency to make either decision or deliberation
responses; and that decision—making behavior does general-

ize to a non—counseling setting.

Evaluation of Counseling

 

The current emphasis in counseling research is more
on the processes than on the outcomes of counseling. The
assumption appears to be that either (a) if we can learn
more about what happens during the course of counseling,
we will then be able to predict and explain whatever the
outcomes might be; or (b) since we know that we are help-
ing and producing changes in our clients, the proper
focus of the study is on the process of achieving these
effects.“6

Traditionally, evaluation studies of counseling have
relied heavily upon client—reported satisfaction or mea—
surements of client attitudes toward counseling. While
there are limitations in the use of client satisfaction
as an index of desirable counseling outcomes, advocates“?

of this position argue that client satisfaction is an

 

“6Theodore Volsky, Jr., Thomas M. Magoon, Warren T.
Norman, and Donald Hoyt, The Outcomes of Counselingfiand
Psyphotherapy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1965), p. 26.

u7Leonard D. Goodstein, Austin E. Grigg, "Client
Satisfaction, Counselors, and the Counseling Process,"
Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 38, 1959, pp. 19-2A.

 

E n—_—-——- Q—g-II-N
« -nl'

58

important factor in any comprehensive evaluation of coun—
seling outcomes. For the most part, the critics of
evaluation studies which focus on client satisfaction have
been concerned with the preponderance of research which
has been based on client satisfaction as the single varia-
ble under investigation.

We do know that studies of client satisfaction have
generally found a consistently high degree of client
favorableness toward counseling. This is supported by

studies conducted during the past twenty-five years by

 

Forgy and Black,148 Porter,l49 Nelson,50 Form,51 Patterson
and Clark,52 and Yates.53 The results of these studies,
A8

Edward W. Forgy and John D. Black, "A Follow-up
After three Years of Clients Counseled by Two Methods,"
Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 1, 195A,

99- 1-7.

”9E. H. Porter, "Clients' Evaluation of Services at
the University of Chicago Counseling Center," Journal of
Counseling Psychology, VOl- A, pp- 27A-282, 1957-

50A. Gordon Nelson, "Vocational Maturity and Client
Satisfaction," Journal of Counseling Psycholggy, Vol. 3,
No. A, 1956, pp. 25A-256.

51Arnold L. Form, "Student Attitudes toward Counselors
and the Counseling Center at Michigan State College"
(unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State Univer—
sity, 1952).

52D. G. Patterson and K. E. Clark, "Student Judgments
of Counseling," Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 1A, l9A3,
p. lAl.

53J. W. Yates, "An Evaluative Follow-up of Clients of
the University of Missouri Counseling Bureau," (unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, 1951).

59

however, revealed other important findings concerning
specific counseling-related variables.

For example, in the Porter study of clients who
had received the services of the University of Chicago's
Counseling Center during its first four years of operation,
client ratings of favorableness were consistently high.
But the results further revealed that favorableness of
ratings by clients was significantly related to the num-
ber of interviews.514

In another investigation of client satisfaction,
Nelson found a significant difference in client-expressed
satisfaction between younger and older clients. The
results of this study further suggested that female cli-
ents tend to express greater satisfaction with counseling
than male clients.55

In an attitude study of counseled and non-counseled
students at Michigan State College, Form reported that
younger students and those who were unmarried generally
'were more favorable in their evaluation of counseling.56

Yates conducted a follow-up study of clients of the
. University of Missouri Counseling Service in 1950. In

this investigation, a questionnaire was used to obtain an

index of client satisfaction with counseling. In addition,

 

5A
55
56

Porter, op. cit., p. 282.

Nelson, op. cit., pp. 25A-256.
Form, op. cit.

60

each client was interviewed by a panel of professional
"judges" to determine to what extent counseling had been
helpful to the client. The results, which supported the
research hypothesis, indicated that while about three-
fourths of the clients were satisfied with counseling,
only about half of the cases were clinically judged as
clients for whom counseling had been helpful.57
In summarizing the reports of a number of counseling
evaluation studies, Tyler58 concluded that "of the sub-
jects who send in questionnaire replies, from 80 to 90
percent report full or partial satisfaction with the
service." While there is evidence of client satisfaction
with counseling services in general, the findings of the
above studies suggest that client satisfaction may be
more valuable to our knowledge of counseling-related vari—
ables. While client satisfaction is not an objective of
counseling, it does serve as one of the criterion vari-
ables, either directly or indirectly, in the assessment of
counseling outcomes. While client expression of satisfac-
tion with counseling does provide some evidence of the
desirability of the process, it cannot be conceded that
client self-reports of satisfaction with counseling, by

itself, can be considered either a major goal of counseling

or proof of success.

 

57Yates, op. cit.

58Tyler, op. cit., p. 276.

61
Client Demographic and Personal Variables
Related to Counseling Outcomes

One final concern in the evaluation of counseling
outcomes, although it has provoked relatively little
research interest, is the relationship between personal
and demographic characteristics of clients and the process
and outcomes of the counseling experience. In light of
the preoccupation of counseling researchers with the
counseling process, it is not surprising that more
investigation into the personal characteristics, return
patterns, and other attributes of clients have not been
undertaken. Of importance in this regard is to determine
to what extent, if any, these factors are related to the
effectiveness of counseling. If such factors can be
demonstrated to be determinants of the impact counseling
may have upon clients, prediction of counseling outcomes
could be enhanced.

There has been some research interest in the counsel—
ing duration and return patterns of clients. Sullivan,

59 found that the client who terminates

Miller, and Smelser
counseling early (relative to the client who continues)
tends to be lower in socio-economic status, older and less
educated, and more likely to be male than female. Although

these findings suggest a relationship between certain

personal characteristics of clients and their return

 

59F. L. Sullivan, Christine Miller, and W. Smelser,
"Factors in Length of Stay and Progress in Psychotherapy,"
Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 22, 1958, pp. 1-9.

 

62

patterns, they do not answer the empirical question of
what constitutes a realistic time period for achieving
desired treatment effects and the corollary question of
the relationship between treatment time and the impact
counseling may have upon clients. Some counseling ‘
theorists60 have observed that

Typical counseling cases are not pointedly

structured or limited (even tentatively) to
three, four, or five interviews; rather,

they tend to 'come out' that way. Counseling
might achieve the same degree of change in
fewer interviews if the limit was known when
the interaction began.

In another study of client characteristics, Cart-
wright61 used the clinical judgments of counselors from
the University of Chicago Counseling Center to rate the
success of counseling for seventy-eight former clients
of the Center. The results, which also supported Seeman's
findings,62 indicated that within the age limits of the
sample (18-A3), the age of the client was unrelated to the
degree of rated success of counseling. The sex of the
client was also found to be unrelated to the degree of

rated success. The results also revealed that there were

no significant differences between the mean success ratings

 

60

61Desmond S. Cartwright, "Success in Psychotherapy as
a Function of Certain Actuarial Variables," Journal of Con-
sulting Psychology, Vol. 19, 1955, pp. 357-363.

62Julius Seeman, "Counselor Judgments of Therapeutic
Process and Outcome," in C. R. Rogers and Rosalind F.
Dymond (ed.), Psychotherapy and Personality Change (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 195A), pp. 99-108.

Volsky, Magoon, Norman, and Hoyt, op. cit., p. 170.

63

of short-case and long-case clients. The number of coun-
seling sessions was not a determining factor in the success
or failure of counseling. It must be pointed out, however,
that this research was conducted with clients receiving
psychotherapeutic treatment. There is no evidence that
similar findings would be found in agencies providing

other counseling services.

‘471V.I.__..‘——‘ I.
-

Personality characteristics of clients may also be
related to counseling outcomes. In a study of mature
women clients at the Oakland Continuum Center, Oakland
University, Collie63 found that clients in the 30 - 39
year old age group were significantly different in their
need for achievement than any of the other groups classi-
fied by ten year intervals. She also found that dependency
and the need for accepting the leadership of others
increased with age.6u These findings suggest that age is
a factor related to the needs of clients and therefore
may be a factor related to the outcomes of counseling.

It would be logical to assume that the more educated
an adult is, the greater will be his ability to solve pro-
‘blems or make decisions. It could be further assumed that
clients with more education will experience more success

with counseling than clients with less education. The

 

63Rosalie M. Collie, "Personality Characteristics of
Mature Women Seeking Interests Beyond the Home" (unpub-
lished masters thesis, Detroit: Wayne State University,

6“Ib1d., p. 31.

6A

Collie study revealed that the need for achievement
increases with the amount of education a client has
attained. Non-high school graduates demonstrated the
least need for achievement; college graduates had the
highest need to achieve. These findings suggest that
educational attainment is related to client need for
achievement and therefore may possibly be related to the
effectiveness of counseling on clients with varied educa—
tional backgrounds.

65

Driver has expanded on the assumption that educa-
tion is a relevant factor in the outcomes of counseling by

observing that the more resources (education, previous

 

employment experience, socio-economic level, etc.), a
client "brings to the counseling situation," the greater

is the likelihood that counseling will be successful.
Driver has also observed that the A0 - 50 year old female
client seems to receive the most help from counseling.

She claims that women in this age group are most responsive
to personal counseling which focuses on the reduction of
anxiety experienced by women planning to pursue an educa—
tional program or seeking gainful employment and the
removal of guilt associated with activities outside the

home.

 

6SEleanor Driver (Counselor, Oakland Continuum
Center, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan), Inter-
view, August 20, 1969.

65

Follow-up studies of former clients at the Oakland
Continuum Center suggest that the minimum amount of time
required for client action on their decisions or plans is
one year.66 One possible explanation for this relatively
long time period may be that a dual role for most adult
women may demand more time for implementation of plans

and resolution of schedule conflicts.

 

The final personal characteristics of clients which
may be an important factor in counseling outcomes, parti-
cularly among mature women, is maternal status. While no
counseling impact studies have examined the maternal sta-
tus of clients, Collie found that clients with young
children including pre-school children, expressed the
greatest need for achievement. Women with no children

showed the least need for help and encouragement.

Summary of the Review of Related Literature

Counselors have been so engrossed in practice that
little attention has been given to the advancement, formu-
lation, and testing of formal counseling theories. Each
counselor is, as Williamson suggests, his own theorist.
It is also apparent that counseling objectives generally
have not been defined in behavioral terms; thus much
counseling research has been weakened by the lack of an
assessment of the impact counseling has upon client

behavior.

 

66Ibid.

 

that:

66

In reviewing the related literature, it is apparent

10.

11.

Mature women are seeking competitive and
self-actualizing roles in increasing
numbers.

Married women have little feedback on
their abilities and lack external cri-
teria by which to evaluate themselves
for the purpose of pursuing educational
and/or vocational activities.

The community college is a logical unit
to sponsor adult guidance services for
the community.

Very limited research has been undertaken
to assess the impact educational-voca-
tional counseling services have upon
adult clients.

Decision-making behavior is a professionally
acceptable criterion variable for judging

the success of counseling.

There is little agreement as to what
constitutes the goals of guidance.

The primary acceptable criterion by
which we measure counseling effective—
ness is that of expert judgment and
opinion.

The general purpose of counseling would

be to utilize decision-making opportunities
for developing the client's capacity for
subsequent decision-making.

Counselors can influence the client's
tendency to make decisions.

While client satisfaction provides a
limited index of the effectiveness of
counseling; nevertheless, it is essen-
tial to a comprehensive evaluation of
counseling outcomes.

Studies of client satisfaction have generally
shown a consistently high degree of client
favorableness toward counseling.

Lulu ;

67

12. Client ratings of favorableness toward
counseling is significantly related to
the number of interviews.

13. Little research has been conducted on
the relationship between the impact of
counseling in affecting decision-making
behavior and such client characteristics
as age, marital status, and educational
and employment background.

1A. The number of counseling sessions may not
be a determining factor in the success or
failure of counseling.

15. There is no evidence that termination of
counseling is indicative of client
dissatisfaction.

16. For mature women, the minimum amount of
time required for client action on
decisions or plans is one year.

A review of the literature has revealed several impor—
tant propositions which can be translated into the
assumptions, hypotheses, and limitations of this investiga-
tion.

On the basis of the concept that mature women lack
external criteria for self-evaluation in order to prepare
for competitive and self—actualizing roles, it was assumed
that the community college is a logical unit to sponsor
adult guidance services. To what extent is such inter-
vention effective and for what categories of clients?

These studies suggest that while there is no agree-
ment as to what constitutes the goals of counseling,
decision-making is an acceptable criterion variable for

judging the success of counseling. Client satisfaction

also provides an index for assessing the effectiveness of

68

counseling. Few researchers have addressed themselves
to the assessment of the impact of counseling and its
relationship to the return patterns of clients.

While it appears difficult, if not impossible, to
ascertain the most effective and accurate method of mea-
suring counseling effectiveness, it has been assumed that
the clinical judgment method is acceptable. Other assump-
tions and hypotheses have been presented in Chapter I.

Much of the review has focused on decision—making

E -- arm‘s-Fwy,

as the primary outcome of counseling. While decision
theories and the results of studies indicate the impor-
tance of client decision—making in counseling, little
attention has been given to subsequent follow—up behavior
of clients.

There is abundant evidence suggesting that clients
are generally satisfied with counseling. However, in
much research on client satisfaction, the findings were
not subjected to an analysis of counseling effectiveness
or impact on client behavior. There is also little con-
cern expressed with regard to client satisfaction as it
relates to premature termination of counseling.

The review has also revealed that there is some
evidence linking counseling effectiveness with certain
personal characteristics of clients. However, the
limitations of these studies prohibits an adequate expli-

cation of the nature or extent of these relationships as

69

they might be operating within a community guidance center

for women.

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the
particular techniques and procedures which were designed
to realize the purposes set forth in Chapter I. The
chapter has been divided into two parts. Part I consists
of a description of the population and sampling technique,
and a description of the instruments and the statistical
methods used in the treatment of data. Part II contains
an analysis of the clinical judging process and of the
criterion variables involved in the classification of

clients.
PART I

Definition of the Population
The population in this study consists of 816 former
clients of the New York State Guidance Center for Women
who received counseling services during the period from
November 7, 1966 to August 31, 1968. The population has
been limited to only those adults who received counseling
because counseling was the principle function of the

Center and other services were considered to be supportive

70

 

i
.1
r
I
i

2
_I

71

1r] nature. While some 15 percent of the total client
:3c43ulation received counseling through the outreach
ffixriction of the Center, most of the clients received
CHDLLnseling and testing at the Center, located in

Suffern, New York .

The Sample

A preliminary sample of 122 clients was selected
.fzscnn the population for participation in the study. This
:saanle constitutes approximately 15 percent of the popula-
‘tixon under investigation.

The population was stratified according to the
<3i.sposition of counseled clients into incomplete and
COtmplete counseling categories. The sample was drawn
1"andomly using the stratified sampling technique1 to
efisure equal representation of the "complete" and "incom-
Fflete" clients in the sample. A total of seventy-eight
Slabjects were included in the "completed counseling"
Enroup and forty-four subjects were included in the "incom-
Ffilete counseling" group. Both groups in the stratified
Séimple were proportionally representative of the total
DOpulation.

Letters of introduction and questionnaires2 were

scent to the 122 selected respondents. First returns

k

1Walter R; Borg, Educational Research (New York:
1David McKay Company, 1963), pp. 170-171.

2See Appendix A.

72

indicated that five subjects had moved and left no for-
warding address. Three subjects returned the questionnaire
indicating their refusal to participate in the study.
Initial correspondence with the sample yielded fifty-five
usable returns. A follow-up letter and questionnaire were
sent to non-respondents.

A total of seventy-six questionnaires were obtained
from both sets of correspondence. The response repre—

3

sents a 66.7 percent return of the revised sample. An

 

additional three questionnaires were mismarked or incom—
Dlete and were not used. To determine to what extent the
revised sample was representative of the total population,
Comparisons were made using age, marital status, employ-
ment background, and number of counseling sessions. The
tables showing comparisons between the sample and the
population are presented in Appendix C. Findings reveal
that any differences between the sample and population
may be considered due to chance. The percentage of cli-
eTits in the 30 to 39 age group were identical for the
Sample and total population. The largest differential was

between the group of clients 50 years of age or over.

‘1

3

A total of fifty-five questionnaires were returned
Within a two—week period after the initial mailing. The
follow-up correspondence produced twenty-four additional
questionnaires. The moderate number of non-respondents
Can be attributed to the large volume of evaluation mater-
ials which were sent to clients one week after the initial
cOrrespondence in connection with another phase of the
research. This explanation was confirmed by several
clients during the interviews.

73

The sample contained 76 percent married clients
'wfxile the population consisted of 79 percent married
clgients. Over 57 percent of the population had worked
Zleess than five years, and for the sample, 53 percent of
triE? clients had similar employment backgrounds. The
giverrage number of counseling sessions for the population
vvais 2.9. The average number of counseling sessions for
I316? sample was 2.7 sessions per client.

While a two-thirds response to the questionnaire
its Inoderately acceptable, it does impose some limitations
(nu the generalizability of the results. Nevertheless,
<3Cunbining the questionnaire responses with the high per-
Céintage of subjects interviewed, and in consideration of
‘tlie demographic comparisons between the sample and the
FHDpulation, it is reasonable to conclude the following
cOncerning the client sample:

a. That the distribution of client character-

istics indicates a high probability that
the sample is representative of the popu-
lation from which it was drawn; and

b. That a sufficiently large number of clients

were interviewed and responded to the
questionnaire to permit a statistical ana-
lysis of the data.
Collection of the Data
Data regarding the variables under investigation were

CCJllected by mail correspondence and telephone interviews

Vflith the sample. This correspondence took place between

r. “and.“

I
‘ V
1
l l
,1

7A

p433; 8, 1969 and May 23, 1969; telephone interviews were

ccndducted from May 20 to May 23, 1969.
Instrumentation

TTQEB Interview Guide

 

It was considered essential to this research that
czlj;ents in the sample be contacted personally to obtain
nuoxae qualitative data on the variables under investiga-
tzican and to provide more "in depth" information on behav—
ixaléal outcomes of counseling. A panel of three judges“
vvaxs selected to assist the investigator in conducting the
(zlxlent interviews. All panelists were professionally
tI‘ained and experienced counselors. It should also be
I’1<>ted that with the exception of the investigator, all
Jlldges were former colleagues in a community college
Ccaunseling center.

A pre-interview orientation session was conducted by
true investigator to acquaint the clinicians with the pur-
Fnoses and procedures of the interview process. A semi-
Stzructured interview guide5 was used for this phase of
true study. The instrument was designed to assess, on the
'béisis of self-report data, four dimensions considered on

811 a priori basis to be related to the degree of impact

¥

“The judges were Miss Barbara Stephenson, Flint Junior
Cchlege Counseling Center, Flint, Michigan, Dr. Marie R.
IEPalfl, Associate Professor and Dr. Max R. Raines, Professor,
COllege of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing.

5Appendix D.

75

counseling had on client behavior. The criterion vari-
ables were as follows:

a. level of client satisfaction;

b. number of counseling sessions;

c. development of a plan of action; and

d. implementation of a plan or development
of alternatives.

The level of client satisfaction was not identified
specifically within the interview guide. Each clinician
judged the level of client satisfaction on the basis of
all responses during the interview and the expression of
attitudes toward the guidance center. Information concern-
ing the number of counseling sessions and the development
and implementation of a plan of action was obtained directly
from the interview guide. It was a responsibility of the
judges to make clinical judgments of client counseling and
post-counseling behavior on the basis of client self-
reports and information made available through the counsel-
ing protocols on each client. Because of the similarity
between the interview guide and the questionnaire, the

interview guide was not pre-tested.

The Questionnaire and Attitude Scales

The items for the client questionnaire, including the
attitude scales, were developed to achieve the following
set of objectives:

1. To identify the important sources of informa-

tion and/or referral which initially linked
the client with the Guidance Center.

76

2. To assess client perceptions of the Center
as reflected in their entry expectations and
evaluation of counseling services.

3. To determine the client's *eneral attitude
toward the Guidance Center.

A. To determine the client's attitude toward
specific aspects of the counseling experience.

5. To ascertain the client's perception of
decision-making (or planning) and post-
counseling behavior.

Both scaled and non-scaled items were developed to
achieve the preceding objectives. The questionnaires used
in pre-testing and on the final sample are presented in
Appendix A.

A review of several attitude scales reported in the
research literature revealed that no standardized measure
of client attitudes toward counseling or a counseling
agency was available. However, in a study of the Coun-

seling Center at Michigan State College in 1952,6 the

7

attitude scale methods of Guttman and Likert8 were employed
to develop an instrument using the scale discrimination

method to measure student attitudes toward the counseling
center and staff. The instrument consisted of twenty-two

items which represented the final selection from 122 items

chosen because of their high discriminatory power. The

 

6Form, op. cit.

7Louis Guttman, et al., Measurement and Prediction
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950).

8Rensis Likert and Gardner Murphy, Public Opinion
and the Individual (New York: Russell & Russell, 1938).

77

items selected for the attitude scale in this study were
revised to correspond with the goals of the New York
State Guidance Center and the clientele served by the
Center.

A second attitude scale, using a semantic differen-
tial technique, was devised to measure a related but
different variable—-client attitudes toward their coun-

seling experience. A list of twenty bi—polar adjectives

I I». 1..- hi ’I
..

which describe various features of the counseling experi-
ence was compiled from basic textbooks on counseling. The
list was reduced to seven adjectives by eliminating those
which have similar connotations and those which were
inappropriate for adult clients. Copies of the question-
naire and attitude scales were reviewed by three directors
of women's guidance centers9 and the instrument was subse—
quently revised on the basis of their recommendations.

Pre-test procedures and results are reported in Appendix A.

Attitude Scale Analysis
Of the total of seventy-six respondents, several
subjects failed to complete all items or mismarked the
questionnaire. A scale analysis was carried out for both

scales using Guttman's Cornell Technique.lo

 

9The directors included: Mrs. Priscilla Jackson,
Continuum Center for Women, Oakland University, Michigan;
Dr. Esther Westervelt, New York State Guidance Center for
Women, and Miss Stephenson.

10Guttman, op. cit.

78

A coefficient of reproducibility for client attitudes
toward the Guidance Center, Scale A, was computed for
sixty—eight subjects. There were sixty-five usable
responses on Scale B, client attitudes toward their per-
sonal counseling experience. Tables 3 and A indicate the
frequency, percentage of error, and the coefficient of
reproducibility for each scale. Although both scales met
the minimum requirements for unidimensionality, the "error
factor" in Scale A was considerably smaller which suggests
that this scale provided a more accurage measurement of
client attitudes than did Scale B.

Findings on the non-scaled items of the questionnaire

are tabulated, analyzed, and described in Chapter V.

Statistical Treatment of the Data
The statistical techniques employed in the analysis
of data are non-parametric. This mode of analysis was
selected because the following assumptions regarding the
use of parametric statistics could not be met:

a. Responses of the representative sample for
the variables, client satisfaction and
degrees of impact of counseling, were not
known to be normally distributed. Thus,
there is no guarantee that the population
is normally distributed on these two
variables.

b. The variables under investigation were
measured on an ordinal scale. There is no
guarantee of equal distance between the
points of value included in the measure-
ment devices and methods.

 

79

TABLE 3.-—Item Analysis of Scale A by Frequency and

Percentage of Error.

 

 

Item No. of No. of Percentage Coefficient of
No. Errors Responses of Error Reproducibility
# 9 2 68 2.94% 1 - (gagg) =
#10 A 68 5.88% '
#11 A 68 5.88%
#12 O 68 1.00% 1 _ ( ) =
#13 1 68 l.A7% 612
#1A 2 68 2.9A%
#15 8 68 11.76% 1 _ (.039) =
#16 2 68 2.9A%
#17 l 68 1.A7% .96
Totals 2A 612

 

TABLE A.--Item Analysis of Scale B by Frequency and

Percentage of Error.

 

 

Item No. of No. of Percentage Coefficient of
No. Errors Responses of Error Reproducibility
#18 A 25 6.§6% (76 5)

#20 9 65 13.85%

#21 17 65 26.15% 1 _ ( ) =

#22 8 65 12.31% E%

#23 8 65 12.31%

#2A 8 65 12.31% 1 - (.138) =
Totals 63 455 .86

 

r 4-:- a... an rnarrPS~
.
i.

80

The Mann-Whitney test of significant differences between
two groups was used to test hypothesis 1. The Chi Square
analysis was used to test the remaining hypotheses.
Corresponding contingency coefficients were computed to
determine the degree of association between each demo-
graphic variable and the "impact" variable. The .05 alpha
level was selected for defining the critical region of

rejection for all statistical analyses.
PART II

The Clinical Judging Process

This part contains a description of the procedures
followed in the clinical judging process. Because the
judging process is so inextricably interwoven in the
revealed characteristics of the sample, this section also
includes a breakdown of the impact classification by
various criterion categories.

A total of ninety-five subjects, representing 83
percent of the revised sample, were interviewed by the four
judges. Each interviewer was aSsigned approximately one-
fourth of the sample and the interviews were conducted
over a four-day period. An effort was made to contact
every client in the sample, and several calls were made at
different times during the day and evening to reach every

client in the sample.

81

The time of interviews ranged from 15 to A5 minutes.
All responses to the interview guide were recorded during
or immediately following each interview. Although the
interview guide was intended to standardize the collection
of relevant data, each interviewer exercised discretion in
obtaining more "in depth" responses to the items on the

guide. This feature of the interview process was parti-

 

cularly important in obtaining reliable clinical judgments
of the degree of impact the Center had on clients. The
judges also relied upon the counseling protocols of
clients in formulating a clinical judgment of each client.

Following a review of the interview data and counsel-
ing protocols of the assigned clients, the judges classi—
fied clients according to the degree of positive impact
the Center had upon them. The four "impact" categories
were: substantial positive impact, moderate positive
impact, limited positive impact, and no (or negative)
impact. The decision to consider primarily the "positive"
side of the impact continuum was based on the return pat-
terns of clients and evidence obtained through earlier
research findings conducted by the Center, which indicated
that the agency had a generally positive influenCe on its
clientele.

Because of the desirability of evaluating the Center's
impact upon clients based on a relatively large sample, it

was impossible to obtain multiple ratings of each client.

82

In view of this factor, and in consideration of possible
variations in the interpretation of the criterion variables
among the panel of clinicians, six subjects from each of
the clinicians' sub-sample were selected randomly for the
purpose of determining the interjudge reliability of the
classification technique. The counselor's summary report
and interview data for each case were reviewed and ana-
lyzed independently by each clinician and subjects were
classified into the "impact" categories for all twenty-four
cases. The test for interjudge reliability, using Snedecor's
formula,11 resulted in a reliability coefficient of .78.
The distribution of clients by categories of positive
impact is reported in Appendix E-2.

Table 5 presents the distribution of clinical
ratings by classification criteria and degrees of positive
impact for the client sample. The table indicates that
over 75 percent of the clients interviewed expressed
moderate to high satisfaction with the counseling services
‘Uuey received. In contrast, 58 percent of the subjects
Vfiare judged by the panel of clinicians as clients for
whom the Guidance Center had moderate to substantial
positive impact. Approximately one-fourth of the clients

expressed dissatisfaction with the services and A2 percent

 

llWilliam A. Mehrens and Robert L. Ebel, Principles:
0f Educational and Psychological Measurement (Chicago:
Rand McNally and Company, 1967), p. 120.

 

 

 

83

 

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of the sample were judged by the panel as persons for whom
the Center had limited or no positive impact.

An examination of the frequency distribution also
reveals that the "moderate" categories under "client
satisfaction" and "degrees of positive impact" were the
largest with A5 percent and 30 percent, respectively. A

total of thirty—seven clients (39%) were judged to have

a -d weahIQV-‘E—w

formulated a clear plan of action or decision while twenty-
six clients (27%) were judged as having fully implemented
their plan of action. A total of thirty clients or 31
percent of the sample interviewed were judged to have made
no plan or decision while ten subjects reflected no post—

counseling behavior resulting from counseling.

Client Decision-Making Patterns

Table 6 shows the distribution of client decision-
making or planning behavior by degrees of positive impact.
Of the thirty—seven clients who were judged to have made a
clear plan or decision, thirty-five subjects were considered
tc: be in-the moderate or substantial positive impact cate-
gories. Eighty percent of the sample who made no decision
were clinically judged as clients for whom the Center had
limuted or no positive impact. However, six clients who
made no decision nor developed a plan of action were judged
to have been in the moderate positive impact category.

Client decision-making or planning behavior was not

always a.critica1 factor in the clinical assessment of

 

 

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OOH OO OOH OH OOH Om OOH Om OOH Om nHoeoe
H.Hm Om HO O eO OH Om O O O ccoz
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0.0m. Hm O O O m em HH OO em HOOHO
a z u z a z a z u z pogonmm
Hepoa oz oopHEHH mumnopoz HmHucmumnsm wCHccmHm no wcmez

 

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acoHnHooo OOOHHO

 

.uomQEH

w>HuHmom mo momhwom an L0H>m£om wcmezlconHoom ucmHHo we COHHSDthmHQII.m mam<B

86

the Center's impact on clients. For example, two clients
with a plppp plan of action were judged to be in the
limited impact category and four clients with a yggpg
plan of action were clinically judged as persons for whom
the Center had substantial positive impact. Over 38 per—
cent of the total sample were judged to have made clear
decisions or plans regarding career or educational acti-
vities. The number of clients who developed no plans was
only slightly higher than those who developed vague plans

of action.

Post-Counseling Action on Plans

Table 7 shows the distribution of client post—
counseling behavior by degrees of positive impact. All
clients who were judged to have fully implemented their
plan of action were assessed by the panel as persons for
whom the Center had moderate or substantial positive
impact. Only one client who partially implemented her
.Plan of action was judged to be in the limited and no
:hnpact categories. Forty-seven clients representing
alnmet half of the total sample were judged to have imple—
mented their plan either partially or completely.

A total of twenty-nine clients either took positive
action unrelated to the plan or rejected or deferred
follow-up action. Almost two-thirds of this group were
clinically judged by the panel as clients for whom the

Center'had limited or no positive impact. One client who

87

 

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m.O O OH m m m m H n H cmHm no name

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m.:m mm mm a a: HH mm m o :mHm on coumHohca
coHooe ochHmom

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IwucoEoHQEH Hmepwm

:.mm ON 0 o OH m as mm :me no
COHumpcoEoHQEH HHsm

 

a z a z u z u z a z GOHpo<
Hocoe oz oocHsHH ocoaoooz HOHcoococom wcHHonoooO
xenon OOOHHO

 

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.powaeH o>HpHmom _
mo moopwom an mcmHm co COHpo< wcHHmmcsoonpmom pcoHHo mo QOHHSQHHpmHQII.> mqm<e

88

deferred action was judged to have been in the substan-
tial positive impact category.

A total of nineteen clients were judged to have taken
no action as a result of counseling. Almost 90 percent of
this group were judged by the panel of clinicians as per-
sons for whom the Guidance Center had limited or no posi-
tive impact. One inconsistency should be noted with regard
to the "no action" classification. While thirty clients

were judged by the panel as having made no decision or

H

plan, only nineteen subjects were classified in the no

action" classification. Combining those who rejected a
plan of action does not satisfactorily account for those
clients who made no decision or developed no plan of
action. This inconsistency can be explained partially

by the fact that a relatively large percentage of clients
did not perceive decision-making, p33 pg, as an outcome
of counseling. Interview data revealed that, in fact,
many clients did develop a plan of action as a direct

and sonnetimes indirect result of their counseling experi-

ence .

Summary
In this chapter, the methodology and procedures of

the research were described. The chapter also included a
description of the questionnaire and attitude scale
deSign. Part I also contained a summary of the statisti-

cal analysis employed in treating the data.

 

. 1......“ her“-

 

89

Part 11 described the interview and clinical judgment
process. An analysis of the process and a statistical
description of the impact classifications were also pre-
sented. Chapter V will contain an analysis of the data
and both a statistical and descriptive treatment of the

re s earch findings .

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND FINDINGS

The analysis of data is presented in two parts. 1
Part I contains an analysis of client responses to the ;
questionnaire and interviews within the framework of the J
classification of clients according to the degrees of
positive impact the Guidance Center had on them. Part II
includes an analysis of client characteristics within

each of the "impact" categories and an analysis of findings

related to the research hypotheses.

Part I—-Profile Analysis

One of the assumptions stated in Chapter I was that
a panel of professionally trained and experienced coun—
selors not connected with the Guidance Center could make
1"elircible clinical judgements of the positive impact the
CeTiter had on the behavior of its clientele. Four indices
Were selected to serve as criteria by which clients could
be Classified according to the degrees of positive impact
the Center had on clients. No attempt was made to attach

“Weights" to the variables being rated and judges were

permlitted to exercise discretion in their consideration of

90

91

those factors judged to be most closely indicative of
"impact."

The findings denote a pattern of positive and signi-
ficant outcomes of counseling relative to the objectives
of the Guidance Center. Over half of the sample were
judged to have made some plan or decision and to have
carried out some level of post-counseling action on their
plans. Nearly 75 percent of the clients were judged by
the panel of clinicians as being generally satisfied with
the counseling services they received from the Center. In
general, the experiences of most of the clients with the
New York Guidance Center for Women resulted directly or
indirectly in some degree of positive impact on their lives.

The data reported and analyzed in the following sec-
tion were obtained from responses to the client interviews
and questionnaires. It has already been noted that the
relatively small response (66%) to the questionnaire posed
a limitation on the generalizability of the data. Because
of the significantly larger response to the client inter—
views and in consideration of the extensive duplication of
items found on both instruments, the findings reported
below will generally reflect data obtained from client

interviews. Questionnaire data is reported in Appendix A.

Sources of Client Information
Table 8 provides the frequency distribution of client

sources of information about the Guidance Center by impact

t—‘ .‘Mn

92

 

 

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0.0 O O H O O O O m czocxca
0.0 O O O H O OH O nmzuo
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0.0 O O H O H OH O O H OOOHHoO
OHHCBEEOO Osmeoom
0.0 O O H O H OH O O H .mp0 .Oocow<
.oOH>Hom .0H>Ho
O.O O O H O m m H OH O Osmpwonm oHOOm
O.Om Om OO O OO HH OH O OH O opoamonsoz,
0.0m Om OH O Om O OO OH mm HH pcoHHo Honpoc<
Ho OHHEmm\UcoHHm
a z O 2 O 2 O z a z QOHumELOHCH
mHmpos oz oopHqu opmnoooz HOHpcmumnsm mo moonsow

 

pomdsH o>HpHmom no moopwoa

 

.pomQEH o>HuHmom

mo moopwoa On moopsom coHmeLomcH pcoHHo mo :oHuanHumHQII.O mHm<B

93

categories. It shows that friends, family, and other
clients were the primary sources of information about the
Center for over one-third of the clients. Over 28 percent
of the clients indicated that newspapers were their pri-
mary sources of information about the Center. Clients for
whom newspapers were the major source of information
represented the largest percentage of subjects classified
into the limited and no impact categories, although all
three clients who reported the Guidance Center as their
primary source fell into the same categories of positive
impact.

A total of twenty-five (73%) of the clients who
reported a friend, a member of their family, or another
client as their primary source of information were judged
as clients for whom the Center had moderate or substantial
positive impact. The largest percentage of clients in the
substantial positive impact category were clients who
reported learning of the Center by observing its location

or through the telephone directory. Only six clients

reported Rockland Community College as their primary source

of information and five clients were unable to recall how
they learned of the Center. All data concerning client

sources of information about the Center were obtained from

client interviews.

Client Expectations

Table 9 presents a statistical description of client

expectations reported to the interviewers. The distribution

-‘ -:=.-_~..__E.

9A

Onllré;iaiO

 

 

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O.O O O O O H O N O H coHeOspoucH ence
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OHOOoe oz OccHsHH ocenoeoz HOHOOOOOOOO OcoHHO

 

pomqu o>HuHmom mo moopwom

 

.uomQEH o>HuHmom mo woopwom On mcoprpoodxm pcoHHo mo coHOSQHmeHQI|.m mqm<e

95

of client expectations within the four impact categories
reveals that over one-fourth of the sample expected career
counseling and over 15 percent of the subjects sought edu—
cational counseling. A total of 60 percent of the sample
reported expectations involving educational—career coun-
seling and information. I

Clients who expected to receive educational counsel- 1
ing represented the largest percentage of all expectation 3
groups in the moderate and substantial impact categories. 1
Clients who were uncertain of what they expected to receive
at the Guidance Center had the largest percentage of cli-
ents in the limited and no positive impact categories.
The group of clients who came to the Center for educational
and career information contained the largest percentage of
clients who were clinically judged as persons for whom the
Center had no positive impact. Clients seeking personal
counseling and test information were uniformly distributed
among the four impact categories.

More than half of the clients who sought help in
finding a job were judged to have been in the substantial
and moderate impact categories. Sixty percent of the sam-
ple who expected to receiVe personal counseling from the
Center were clinically judged as persons for whom the
Center had moderate and substantial positive impact. Two
clients who sought assistance with a high school completion
program were judged as clients for whom the Center had no

or limited positive impact. One client who sought

96

information on volunteer activities was judged to be in
the substantial impact category. About 73 percent of the
sample interviewed expressed counseling expectations which
were congruent with the stated functions and objectives
of the Center.
Client Rankings of Criteria for
Counseling Success

Table 10 shows that over 50 percent of the subjects
who ranked the criteria for counseling success ranked
"encouragement to plan and puruse educational and/or
career activities" as the aspect of counseling which was
most beneficial. This item was ranked first and second by
BA percent of the respondents. One-third of the subjects
ranked as the second most beneficial aspect of counseling
services the "opportunity to talk about yourself with
someone." "Support for a decision already made" received
the smallest number of second place rankings. Three clients
submitted "more personal rewards of counseling" as the
most beneficial aspect under the "other" category.

Decision-related criteria of counseling success
received lower rankings from the respondents and the dis-
tribution was negatively skewed. These findings suggest
that clients tend to value counseling more for its explor-
ative and self-assessment benefits rather than for its
outcome as reflected in decision-making behavior.

Further evidence of client perceptions of decision—

oriented behavior was revealed on the client questionnaire.

97

 

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.OIOO mEopH .mHHmccoHpmozo ucoHHo*

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.mwooozm

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COHuanppmHQ mocosvonmna.OH mgm<e

98

Of the subjects who reported their educational and employ—
ment follow-up activities, over A0 percent of them indi-
cated that their field of study or career area was one
chosen ppipp to counseling. These findings suggest that
for many clients, a decision or plan of action was not
developed as a result of counseling. It would appear

that such clients were seeking support for a decision they

had already made rather than searching for new alternatives.

'MOAO- hgfl‘. 4:th 1

Client Endorsement of the Guidance Center

Table 11 shows that A0 of the 57 clients who responded
to this item on the questionnaire would use the counseling
services of the Guidance Center again if they need them.
Nine clients (16%) reported that they would definitely not
use the services again and eight clients (1A%) were uncer-
tain. The table shows further that all of the clients
classified in the "substantial impact" category would use
the Center's services again if they needed them. While
over half of those clients classified in the "limited
impact" category would use the services again, five of the
six clients in the "no impact" category were uncertain or
definitely would not use the counseling services again if
they needed them.
Characteristics of Clients
py Impact Catpgories

Table 12 presents the frequency distribution for each

of six client characteristics by degrees of positive impact

99

 

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100

1‘1... . 1‘1!

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101

_a
-
I253! 1L

 

 

 

 

 

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whoEOOHQEm

 

102

judged by a panel of clinicians. The table shows that the
distribution is heavily skewed. Over 61 percent of the
clients were judged to be in the "moderate" and "substan-
ti a1" impact categories. Nearly 13 percent of the clients
were judged as persons for whom the Center had no or
negative impact. A total of nineteen clients were not
interviewed in the revised sample.

§p§.--A total of 108 clients (95%) in the sample

were women. Exactly 60 percent of these clients who were
classified by the panel into the four categories of posi-
tive impact were judged to be clients for whom the Center
had moderate or substantial impact.

Agg.--The frequency distribution for the age variable
reveals that over Al percent of the total sample were in
the age interval, 30-39. Seventy-five percent of the
Client sample were between 30 and A9 years of age. Of the
twenty-eight clients classified into the substantial impact
category, twenty-one clients were in the 30 to A9 age
group. That age group also contained 8A percent of those
Clients who were classified in the "no impact" category.

Over half of the clients classified in the moderate
and substantial impact categories were between 30 and 39
years of age. Over one—fourth of the clients in those
1mPact categories were in the A0-A9 age interval. Clients
between A0 and A9 years of age represented one—third of

the sample who were classified into impact categories but

103

they accounted for A3 percent of the clients in the
"limited" and "no impact" categories.

Over 50 percent of the clients in the AO-A9 age group
were judged by the clinicians as clients for whom the
Center had limited or no positive impact. Over A6 percent
of the clients under 29 years of age were classified into

the same impact categories. The clients over 50 years of

“v-Iur
-Ii

age were uniformly distributed with no clients classified

1- .§f~ 82.4... 1" ."
a

in the lowest impact category.

Marital Status.--The number of clients who were

 

single or married without children living at home represent
approximately 12 percent of the clients in the sample who
were classified into positive impact categories. Over
half of the clients in this group were judged to be in the
moderate or substantial impact category. A total of 85
percent of the clients in the sample were married with at
least one child living at home. Fifty-two clients (61%)
who were married with children were judged as persons for
whom the Center had moderate or substantial positive
impact. The table shows that there was a proportional
distribution of clients in the four impact categories.

Employment Pattern.--Table 12 shows that over half

 

of the clients in the sample had been employed for less
than five years. Two-thirds of the clients who had been
employed for less than five years were judged to be in
the moderate or substantial impact categories. Approxi-

mately 18 percent of the client sample had been employed

10A

for ten years or more. Fifty-nine percent of this group
were judged by the panel as clients for whom the Center had
limited or no positive impact. A total of nineteen cli-
ents (63%) who had been employed between 5 and 10 years
were classified into the moderate and substantial impact
categories. The client group which had been employed over
ten years were judged to have experienced the lowest

degree of positive impact.

Educational Background.-—The frequency distribution

 

on the educational variable reveals that clients with
post-high school education comprised the largest propor-
tion of the sample. A total of forty-three clients
representing A5 percent of those classified into impact
categories reported some post—high school education. The
educational levels attained by clients ranged from a few
college courses to course work beyond the masters degree
level. Over 65 percent of the clients with some college
education were classified in the moderate and substantial
impact categories.

A total of forty—one clients classified by the panel
possessed a high school diploma. Nearly 60 percent of
this group were judged to be in the moderate-and substan-
tial impact categories. A total of eleven clients repre-
senting 12 percent of the classified clients reported that
they had not completed high school. While there were no
significant differences between clients in the four impact

categories on the educational variable, the group of

 

105

clients who did not complete high school had the highest
percentage of persons in the limited and no impact cate-
gories.

Number of Counseling_Sessions.—-Nearly half of the
clients in the sample had two to three counseling sessions.
Approximately one-third of the clients classified into
impact categories had one counseling session. Almost
68 percent of those with one counseling session were judged
to be in the limited and no positive impact categories.
However, three clients with only one counseling session
were judged as persons for whom the Center had substantial
positive impact.

A total of thirty-one clients (69%) in the 2 to 3
counseling sessions interval were classified in the sub-
stantial and moderate impact categories. Clients with over
three counseling sessions had the highest percentage of
representation in the moderate and substantial positive
impact categories.

Client Attitudes Toward the
Guidance Center

It was noted in Chapter IV that while the two atti-
tude scales administered to the pre-test sample had
comparable reliability coefficients, there was a large
difference in the coefficient of reproducibility between
the two attitude scales. Because the scale which measured
the attitudes of clients toward the Guidance Center (Scale

A) had fewer "errors" than the measurement of client

106,

attitudes toward their personal counseling experience,
(Scale B), and because of the assumed greater unidimen-
sionality of Scale A, the statistical tests were conducted
using the data from Scale A.

Table 13 describes the frequency distribution and
percentages of attitude scale scores by degrees of positive
impact. Of the fifty-six clients who completed the atti-
tude scale and who were also interviewed, twenty-four of
them, representing A3 percent of the sub-sample, had
scores on the attitude scale ranging from A1 to A5. On a
nine item scale with unfavorable to very favorable responses
weighted from 1 to 5, scores in the Al to A5 interval
reflect very favorable attitudes toward the Center. Almost
80 percent of the clients in this score interval were
clinically judged as persons for whom the Guidance Center
had moderate or substantial positive impact. Five clients
whose scores reflected very favorable attitudes were judged
to be in the limited positive impact category. Of the
nineteen respondents who had scores in the 36-A0 interval,
twelve clients (63%) were judged to be in the moderate and
substantial impact categories. Clients who were judged
by the panel of clinicians as persons for whom the Center
had limited or no positive impact generally expressed the

greatest level of dissatisfaction.

FEES?

twawm‘. «IQ-fl

107

 

 

 

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.OoOOsH O>HchoO Oo moopmoa Op mmnoom OHOoO OOOOHOOO Oo coHOOOHnOmHOIn.OH mHOOO

108

Part lI--Statistical Analyses

 

hypothesis I

Clients who completed counseling will express a
significantly higher level of satisfaction with counseling
than those who did not complete counseling.

The results of the Mann Whitney U Test (corrected
for ties), Figure 1, reveal a U value of 432.5. The
corresponding 2 value, .82, fails to equal or exceed the
.05 level of significance.

These findings indicate that although there is a
slight differenCe between the counseling disposition sub-
groups on the satisfaction index, this difference is not

statistically significant.

 

 

 

U 2 Correction Level of
for Ties Significance
“32.5 .82 3UO.5 .19

 

Figure l.--Results of the Mann-Whitney U Test for Two Sub-
Groups Classified According to Counseling

Disposition on the Counseling Satisfaction Scale.

Source: Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw—Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1955), pp. 116-127.

 

 

109

Hypothesis II

The degree of positive impact of counseling upon
clients over “0 years of age will be significantly greater
than for clients under 40 years of age.

The findings are presented in Figure 2. The results
of the Chi Square analysis revealed no significant differ-
ences among the four "impact" categories on the basis of
client age. Obtained Chi Square value (X2) failed to
equal or exceed the .05 level of significance. Corres-
ponding contingency coefficients (C) were not found to be
statistically significant.

All data concerning client characteristics are

included in Table 12.

hypothesis Ill

The impact of counseling upon clients who are married
with children at home will be greater than upon clients
who are single or married with no children at home.

The results of the Chi Square analysis, Figure 3,
revealed that differences in the degrees of positive impact
of counseling upon clients are not significant for those
groups of clients classified according to marital status
and children at home. Obtained Chi Square value (X2)
failed to equal or exceed the .05 level of significance
and corresponding contingency coefficients (C) were not

significant.

 

 

110

 

 

a Level of
Client Characteristic x‘ C d.f. Significance
Age of Clients .041 .02 3 .99

 

Figure 2.--Chi Square Analysis for Differences in Client
Age for Groups Classified According to the
Degrees of Positive Impact of Counseling.

 

 

2 Level of
Client Characteristic x C d.f. Significance
Marital Status .115 .04 l .80

 

Figure 3.--Chi Square Analysis for Differences in Marital
Status for Client Groups Classified by Degrees
of Positive Impact of Counseling.

hypothesis IV

Clients with ten years or more of previous employ-
ment experience will experience significantly greater
impact from counseling than those clients with less than
five years of work experience.

The findings are presented in Figure A. The results
of the Chi Square analysis revealed no significant differ-
ences among the four categories of positive impact for
those groups classified according to the number of years

of previous work experience. Obtained Chi Square value

 

 

lll

(x2) failed to equal or exceed the .05 level of signifi-
cance and corresponding contingency coefficients (C)

were not found to be statistically significant.

 

 

2 Level of
Client Characteristic x C d.f. Significance
Employment Pattern .401 .06 2 .90

 

Figure U.—-Chi Square Analysis for Differences in Employ-
ment Background for Client Groups Classified by
Degrees of Positive Impact.

Hypothesis V
The degrees of positive impact of counseling upon
clients with some post-high school education will be
greater than for clients who did not complete high school.
The results of the Chi Square analysis, Figure 5,
revealed that differences in the degrees of positive
impact of counseling upon clients are not significant
for those clients grouped according to educational attain—
ment. The obtained Chi Square value (x2) failed to equal
or exceed the .05 level of significance. Corresponding
contingency coefficients (C) was also found not to be

statistically significant.

 

112

 

 

2 Level of
Client Characteristic x C d.f. Significance
Educational Attainment .093 .03 3 .99

 

Figure 5.--Chi Square Analysis for Differences in
Educational Attainment for Client Groups
Classified by Degrees of Positive Impact
of Counseling.

 

Hypothesis VI

The degree of positive impact of counseling upon
clients who terminated counseling within the year preced—
ing this evaluation will be significantly less than for
those clients who terminated counseling more than one year
preceding it.

Table 14 shows the frequency distribution of clients
classified according to the degrees of positive impact on
the basis of the number of months which elapsed between
termination of counseling and the evaluation. Clients
were uniformly distributed among the "impact" categories
on the time lapse variable.

The results of the Chi Square analysis, Figure 6,
revealed that differences in the degrees of impact of
counseling upon clients were not significant for the cli-
ents classified according to the time lapse since counsel-
ing was terminated. The obtained Chi Square value failed

to equal or exceed the .05 level of significance and the

 

113

 

 

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mnp op wcHULoOo< mmfipowopmo pomQEH an mucoHHo mo soapsnfipumfim mocmsvopmnu.OH mAmOB

114

 

 

2 Level of
Time Lapse Variable x C d.f. Significance
Time Lapse .031 .02 3 .99

 

Figure 6.-—Chi Square Analysis for Differences in Time
Lapse since Counseling Termination for Client
Groups Classified by Degrees of Positive Impact
of Counseling.

r7. :‘T—Tf’r‘w
u I7) '

corresponding contingency coefficient was not statistically
significant. These findings suggest that impact groups do
not differ on the basis of the time lapse by number of

months since counseling was terminated.

Summary

This chapter has been devoted to a descriptive ana-
lyses of data obtained from client interviews, a ques-
tionnaire, an attitude scale, and from client records of
the New York State Guidance Center for Women. The analysis
involved statistical descriptions and comparisons of
variables considered to be related to counseling outcomes.
Such factors as sources of client information, client
expectations, and client rankings of criteria for coun-
sueling success were analyzed on the basis of their rela—
tionship to the four "impact" categories.

Part II included a statistical description of client

<flmaracteristics within each of the categories of positive

115

impact. Results of the tests of the research hypotheses
indicated that there were no differences in client-
measured satisfaction between clients who completed
counseling and those who did not complete counseling.

No significant differences were found among clients
classified by degrees of positive impact and client age,
marital status, employment background, and educational

attainment. Differences did not occur between clients

in: “A unfit-.I'V ”Wm

classified by degrees of positive impact and the time

lapse since termination of counseling.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

S ummarv E

Purpose of the Study s 3
The purpose of this study was to assess the impact 2

a community guidance center for women had on its clientele;

and to analyze the relationship between the degrees of

impact and selected variables: client expectations,

client-expressed criteria of counseling success, the

decision-making and post-counseling follow—up behavior

of clients, and client endorsement of the Guidance Center.
The approach to this study involved two distinct but

related concerns. First, the Guidance Center was estab—

lished and funded by the State of New York in response

to the unique problems encountered by mature women in

their identification and pursuit of educational and/or

career objectives. The task of the Center was to provide

counseling and other supportive services to meet the needs

of this client population and then to perform necessary

evaluative functions to determine to what extent and for

iMhom such intervention was effective in generating decision-

making and follow—up behavior on behalf of clients.

116

117

The second concern emerged from the realization that
little effort has been exerted in counseling research to
[evaluate counseling in terms of its behavioral impact upon
clients. Related to this concern for behavioral outcomes
of counseling was the recognition that such personal char-

acteristics of clients as age, marital status, educational

and employment background, act as "inputs" to the counsel-

ing process which serve as determinants of the impact

’1 .‘nud .-;L..:h3|- 0W

counseling will have on clients. Several hypotheses were
developed to empirically examine the relationship between
the degrees of impact of counseling upon clients and
these personal characteristics.

It was also hypothesized that client satisfaction
was an important outcome to be evaluated. Guidance
centers providing counseling services for the entire adult
community must depend upon client satisfaction for their
continued support and complete utilization. Client sat-
isfaction was therefore viewed as an important index
of the effectiveness of the Center, not only for those who
visited the Center ten times but for those who terminated

counseling after one visit.

Methodology
The population under investigation consisted of 816
clients of the New York State Guidance Center for Women.

11:5ample of 11“ clients, drawn randomly from the population

118

stratified according to the disposition of counseled
clients, provided the respondents for the study.

In order to assess the degree of impact counseling
had upon clients, it was necessary to collect data which
were considered, on an a priori basis, to be relevant to
the determination of impact. These data were collected
by a panel of clinicians employed from outside the Center
using a semi-structured interview guide. Interview data
were analyzed independently by each clinician and clients
were classified into categories by the degrees of impact
the Center was judged to have had on each one.

A questionnaire consisting of two attitude scales
and a number of forced-choice items was also employed in
the study. However, because most of the data obtained
from the interviews were duplicated by the questionnaire,
and in consideration of the high percentage of clients in
the sample who were interviewed, the data which were
analyzed came primarily from interviews. The attitude
scales included in the questionnaire were pre—tested on a
sample of clients from a comparable guidance center and
were found to be reliable and unidimensional. A coeffi-
cient of reproducibility using Guttman's Cornell techni-
que was obtained for each scale and analyses were com-
pleted for client-favorableness toward the Center because
of its high coefficient of reproducibility. Additional
personal information and counseling interview data were

obtained from client records at the Center.

I
-

“ J R (2.2!.
i;

119

 

Findings of the Study
The first hypothesis stated in Chapter I, that
clients who completed counseling will express a signifi-
cantly higher level of satisfaction with counseling than
those who did not complete counseling, was rejected.
While slight differences between the two counseling dis-
position sub-groupsvmnwaobserved, the differences were not

statistically significant. These findings suggest that

{for WW
"1

counseling closure is not a significant factor in client
satisfaction and that termination of counseling by cli-
ents is not necessarily an expression of dissatisfaction
with counseling services.

Findings from the second, third, fourth, and fifth
hypotheses revealed that clients in the four positive
impact categories do not differ on the basis of age,
marital status, employment background, and educational
attainment. While differences were observed between
impact categories on the basis of these four variables,
the differences were not statistically significant.

The final research hypothesis, that the degree of
positive impact of counseling upon clients who terminated
counseling within the year preceding this evaluation would
be significantly less than for those clients who termin-
ated counseling more than one year preceding it, was
rejected. It was theorized that because most mature women
clients would assume a "dual role," post-counseling

behavior or follow-up action on the decision or plan would

120

necessarily be slower and somewhat delayed. Thus, the
assessment of impact conducted within a few months follow-
ing termination of counseling would reveal generally only
partial implementation of the plan of action, at best.

The findings, however, revealed that the number of months
which elapsed since counseling was terminated was not a
significant factor in the degrees of impact the Guidance
Center was judged to have had upon clients.

In addition to the research hypotheses there were
other relevant concerns to which this study was addressed.
The following represent the more important findings:

1. The group of clients for whom the Center was
judged to have had the greatest amount of positive impact
were those persons who reported a friend, a member of the
family, or another client as their primary source of
information about the Center.

2. Clients generally revealed expectations which
were congruent with the stated functions and objectives
of the Guidance Center.

3. Clients perceived educational and career decision—
making as a secondary outcome of counseling. These find-
ings supported the theory that women lack external criteria
for evaluating themselves and that they tend to value
counseling more for its self-assessment benefits than for
its outcomes as reflected in decision-making or planning

behavior.

121

A. Counseling was perceived by many clients as a
supportive service for decisions (or plans) made 2319;
to counseling.

5. While decision-making or planning behavior was
clearly an outcome of the counseling process, client
decision-making was not always a critical factor in the
clinical assessment of the Guidance Center's impact on
clients; however, client decision-making can serve as an
objective and reliable criterion for assessing the behav- EO
ioral outcomes of counseling when it is considered with
client satisfaction, and the return patterns and post—
counseling behavior of clients. I

6. Most (75%) of the clients interviewed were judged
to have been satisfied with the results of counseling; and
over half (58%) of the sample were clinically judged as
persons for whom the Center had moderate or substantial
positive impact. (These results were very similar to
those in the Yates Study, University of Missouri, see
pp. 59-60).

7. While it was beyond the scope of this investiga-
tion to analyze the counselor's influence on the client's
tendency to make a decision, the findings concerning the
decision—making patterns of clients indicates that nearly
70 percent of the clients sampled were judged to have made
a decision concerning an educational and/or career

objective.

122

Implications of the Study

 

The primary objective of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women was to provide counseling services to
mature adults planning to pursue educational and/or career
activities. The Center's information, testing, and
counseling services were designed to achieve one major (and‘
measurable) objective-~to assist clients in the development
of a plan of action or a decision concerning educational—

career related objectives.

 

The major focus of the study described in the pre—
ceding chapters was on the clinical assessment of the
impact of counseling using a multifactor criteria approach
to determine the impact the Center had on clients. The
evaluation included not only the decision-making criteria
but the return patterns and satisfaction levels of the
Center's clientele. Also included was a clinical assess—
ment of the degree to which clients implemented their
plans of action. It has already been noted in this regard,
that some clients developed a plan of action but failed to
implement their plans.

It can be argued that to judge counseling on the
basis of post-counseling behavior, when the counselor's
influence may have dissipated, is inappropriate and based
on faulty assumptions. While the immediate outcomes at
counseling termination may in no way serve as predictors
of future client behavior, a substantial portion of the

effectiveness of counseling must be based on the

123

counseling-related behavior of clients during the period
following termination of counseling. This prOposition pro-
vided the rationale for using post-counseling behavior as
a criterion variable in the determination of the degrees
of positive impact the Center had on clients.

The important implications drawn from the findings

of this study are as follows:

 

1. Because of the critical relationship between
client expectations and counseling outcomes, it is impor-
tant that the Center develop a closer working relation-
ship with public and private referral agencies and the
community college.

2. Findings on the post-counseling behavior of
clients suggest that the Center's staff may appropriately
focus more attention on client follow-up activities. Some
clients classified as "incomplete" reported making a
decision or plan sometime after terminating counseling.
Others who completed counseling with a plan of action
either deferred action or were unable to adequately pur-
sue their plans.

3. The analyses of client characteristics indi-
cates that the New York State Guidance Center for Women
attracted a generally homogeneous clientele and that
a selection bias reported in earlier studies of women's
programs was also operating in this Center.

A. The results of this investigation indicate that

the age, marital status, educational, and employment

124

background of clients were not important determinants of
the impact of counseling upon the post-counseling behavior
of clients.

In concluding this section, it is important to the
evaluation and implication of these findings that some
general statements be made concerning the extent to which
the Guidance Center achieved its objectives. In accord-

ance with the limitations of this study, it seems reason—

:1 ;‘ ... :7ow

able to conclude that: (a) not all clients achieved a «—,
satisfactory decision concerning educational and vocational
objectives; (b) a large majority of clients were satisfied
with the services of the Center although there was evidence
of limited behavioral change among many of the clients;

(c) a significant majority of clients were clinically
judged as persons for whom the Center had moderate to sub—
stantial impact; and (d) while educational and vocational
decision—making was not rated as the most beneficial

aspect of counseling, the results of this study demonstrate
that a significant majority of clients did, in fact,
develop an educational and/or vocational decision or plan

of action.

Suggestions for Further Research
The most apparent problem revealed in this study is
the need for more precise criteria by which to evaluate
the outcomes of counseling. While decision—oriented coun—

seling does provide a theoretically sound basis for

125

assessing the behavioral outcomes of counseling, future

 

research should focus on additional decision-related
effects of counseling. Particular attention should be
given to the learning theorists' approach to counseling
to determine whether decision—making behavior generalizes
to non-counseling—related activities.

Related to the problem of counseling outcomes is the
question of how outcomes are reflected in overt human
behavior and the determination of the degrees of impact
counseling actually has on client behavior. Counseling
is essentially a catalytic process intended to bring about
changes in the behavior of clients. Does the client per—
ceive behavioral changes more accurately than the coun-
selor? Are client perceptions of behavioral change or
satisfaction with counseling related to actual outcomes and
real changes? And can we exclude the possibility that a
professional counselor could "observe" changes in clients
which may not be occurring?

Additional experimentation should be conducted with
modifications of the clinical approach to evaluation used
in this study. Personal rather than telephone interviews
should be used and a different interview guide format might
be employed. In addition to using counseling protocols
for background information, each of the client's counselors
might also rate the impact of counseling at the point of

termination.

 

126

Other variables such as personality factors should
be examined to determine the effectiveness of various
counseling methods on outcomes. The investigator would
also suggest that a similar future study include an
assessment of the client-counselor relationship. It may

well be that the quality of the client-counselor relation-

 

ship is an important determinant of counseling outcomes.

This study involved a clinical appraisal of the
impact of counseling upon client behavior using a multi-
factor criterion approach. Would further investigation
reveal more important variables than those examined in
this research? Are there, for example, several possible
interpretations to such client responses as "deferred
action on plans," "decided to make no decision," and
other examples of reality testing by clients? Are these
responses indications of behavioral change?

Finally, there is the question concerning the gen-
eralizability of the findings. Would a replication of the
study on a comparable community guidance center reveal
similar results? Would similar findings also be revealed
1J1 a study which included agencies operated and supported
gnmivately or ones which charge fees for counseling ser-
vices? These and many other questions merit further
investigation if the problems associated with the evalua-

tiCHl of counseling and counseling outcomes are to be

fully explicated.

127

Conclusions

 

One of the assumptions stated earlier was that mature
women are seeking competitive and self-actualizing roles in
increasing numbers but that many of them lack external
criteria by which to evaluate themselves for the purpose
of pursuing educational and/or career activities. It was

further assumed that the community college might be a

 

logical "agency" of intervention to sponsor counseling ser-
vices for adults in the community.

The findings of this research indicate that such
services can be effective in assisting women in the
decision-making process, particularly in educational and
vocational-related activities. While decision-making is
clearly one outcome of educational/vocational counseling,
there is no evidence that counseling expands the client's
capability for subsequent decision-making.

Mature women may value counseling more for its self-
assessment and supportive functions to decisions made
prior to counseling than for its outcomes as reflected in
decision-making or planning behavior.

Clients generally express a high degree of satis—
faction with counseling. Client satisfaction, however,
provides a limited index of the effectiveness of counseling.
Clients for whom counseling was judged to have limited or
IND impact may express a high degree of satisfaction with

counseling and vice versa.

128

The age, marital status, educational, and employment
background of clients is not a significant factor in deter-
mining the degree of impact counseling has upon clients.
The amount of time lapse between the termination of coun-
seling and action on plans, and the number of counseling
sessions are not significant determinants to the impact
counseling is judged to have had upon clients.

It has already been noted that the Guidance Center

r: ew—n— 1*...”
1
‘.~ ,

was unique in several ways. Perhaps the most serious
limitation to the generalizability of the findings was the
uniqueness of the Center.

While the conclusions presented above represent the
major inferences from the findings of this study, there
are other concerns which deserve further investigation.
Our present research on innovative forms of counseling
services to adults needs to be supplemented by additional
inquiries into the influence of technology on child-
parental relationships, feminine perceptions of vocational
counseling, longitudinal career studies of successful
women, and additional "impact" studies of adult or com-
munity guidance centers and other counseling services.

Recent trends in this country to provide continuing
education and counseling for adults pose new and exciting
challenges demanding the best that scientific method,
professional resources and skills, and human understand—
ing can bring to bear. The challenge of helping

individuals relate more effectively to their time can be

129

met only by the concerted effort of all those individuals,
agencies, and organizations committed to helping people—-

men and women--fulfill their potential.

I :7: ...‘r—
‘

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1
4
I

130

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Borg, Walter R. Educational Research. New York: David
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Bross, Irwin D.F. Design for Decision. New York: The
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Cain, Glen G. Married Women in the Labor Force. Chicago:
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Committee on the Education and Employment of Women. New
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Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personalipy. New York:
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Medsker, Leland L. The Junior College: Progress and
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Pepinsky, H. and Pepinsky, P. Counseling Theory and
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Sexson, John A. and Harbeson, John W. The New American
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Volsky, T., Magoon, T. M., Norman, W. T., and Hoyt, D. P.
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5 .
i

‘1 .

 

APPENDICES

136

 

APPENDIX A

PRE—TEST AND FINAL CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE
LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL TO CLIENT SAMPLE

PRE-TEST PROCEDURES AND RESULTS

137

‘ .l:.9\“_'#—’. .’
l
._‘|

 

 

138

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY am LANSING- MICHIGAN 48323

 

CW COLLEGE COOMTION - OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR 0 KILLOGG cm

April 18, 1969

Since World War II, an increasing number of women, particularly I
married women, have returned to school or have sought careers in the
labor market.

- ’ .03-"'1 J‘s-9 Aurl': ’

In;
. .L.

Accompanying this trend has been an increased concern among
educational institutions to provide counseling services to women
interested in continuing their education and/or preparing for a career.

Because you received such services from the Flint Junior College
Counseling Office, Miss Barbara Stephenson has provided me with your
name and address in the hope that you would be willing to assist me
in an important research project.

Enclosed is a short questionnaire which has been designed to
obtain opinions and attitudes of women toward counseling services.
I would appreciate very much if you would complete the questionnaire
prior to April 23 and return it in the stamped, self—addressed envelope
enclosed. I am particularly desirous of obtaining your responses
because your experiences with the women's counseling program will
contribute significantly toward future improvement in counseling
services for women. You will notice on the questionnaire that
reference is made to "the guidance center." This refers to the
counseling service for adult women provided by Miss Stephenson or
‘Hrs. Jordon at Flint Junior College.

I am hopeful that you will be honest and frank in your opinions.
Your completed questionnaire will not be seen by the counselors at the
College and your comments will be held in strict confidence. Since
other phases of this research cannot be carried out until I have
analyzed the questionnaires, I am hopeful that you can find time in
your busy schedule to complete it and return it to me within the next
day or so. I would welcome any comments you wish to make concerning
items in the questionnaire.

Please accept in advance my sincere thanks for your assistance
with the study. With.warmest personal regards, I remain,

Sincerely,

J. G. Solloway
Resident Director of the Study

3.

Other (specify):

139
CLIENTjggESTIONNAIRE

How did you find out about the services of the Guidance Center for women?
(Check the one most important source.)
Newspapers Relatives/friends Radio Program

Another client The Guidance Center Other (Specify):

 

Which one of the following best describes what you had hoped to receive from the
Guidance Center? (Check only one.)

Help in solving personal problems Help in finding a job
Help in making a decision about Career planning/sources of job
continuing my education training

 

In general, did you receive what you had expected from the Guidance Center?

Yes No Uncertain

Comments:

 

 

A list of the principal services of the Guidance Center is given below. Rate
your satisfaction/dissatisfaction with those services you received on the
5-point scale.

Encircle #l ... If you were very satisfied
Encircle #2 ... If you were satisfied
Encircle #3 ... If you are uncertain

Encircle #4 ... If you were dissatisfied
Encircle #5 ... If you were vegy dissatisfied

MAKE ougr ONE RATING FOR EACH SERVICE

 

 

 

 

 

Educational Information Satisfied l 2 3 4 S Dissatisfied
Career Information Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied
Personal Counseling Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied
Testing Services Satisfied 1 2 3 4 S I Dissatisfied

 

Comments:

 

 

 

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

140

Directions: We are interested in your feelings about the following statements

concerning the Guidance Center for women. Read each statement
and decide how you feel about it. Encircle the response which

best describes your feelings.

If you strongly agree, encircle SA ....
If you just agree, encircle A .........
If you are undecided, encircle ? ......
If you disagree, encircle D ...........
If you strongly disagree, encircle SD .

Talks with counselors at the Guidance Center are helpful in
makingadec181on 0.0...OOOOOOOOOOIOO......OIOCOOOOOOOOOOCO

I regard the Guidance Center as a "helping" agency serving
people with various problems ..............................

I feel the Guidance Center is totally unable to assist
persons in making an educational/career decision ..........

I think more women should take advantage of the services
of the Guidance Center ....................................

I feel that it is a complete waste of time to go to the
Gu1dance center .....IOOOOOOO.......IOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOIOCOI.

I believe that the Guidance Center does enough good work
to deserve continued support ..............................

The Guidance Center is not effective in assisting persons
in solving personal problems ..............................

I recommend the services of the Guidance Center to anyone
who needs help in educational and/or career planning ......

I think the Guidance Center is a great asset to this

county .....OOOCOOOCOOOOOOOOOOO......OOOOIOOOOOOOOOCO......

Comments:

{-3

O
SA
SA
SA
SA

SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

 

 

 

 

141

Directions: we are interested in your general impressions and feelings about
your counseling experience at the Guidance Center. In the box
below are listed several alternatives which describe various
aspects of the counseling experience for the client. Carefully
examine the examples given below and then encircle the number
:hich expresses your rating of each alternative of items

14 - 20.

 

Example: (I found the counseling experience to be:)

Stimulating 1 Q.) 3 4 5 ‘ Unstimulating

 

 

 

ENCIRCLE ONLY ONE RESPONSE FOR EACH ITEM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I FOUND THE COUNSELING EXPERIENCE TO BE:

14. Interesting l 2 3 4 5 Uninteresting

15. Unrewarding l 2 3 4 5 Rewarding

16. Satisfying l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfying

l7. Tense l 2 3 4 5 Relaxing

18. Unhurried l 2 3 4 5 Rushed

19. Confusing l 2 3 4 5 Clear

20. Helpful 1 2 3 4 5 Hindering '

21. Did you make a decision (or plan) as a result of counseling? ___Xes ___No

Comments:

 

 

22. If you have continued your education since receiving counseling services at
the Guidance Center, are your studies in: (Check only one response)

The field you chose as a result of the decision you made during
counseling.

A different but related field.
An unrelated field.

Comments:

 

 

 

 

23.

24.
25.
26.
27.

28.

29.

30.

142

If you have been employed since receiving counseling services at the Guidance
Center, is your work in: (Check only one response)

The field you chose as a result of the decision yOu made during counseling.
A different but related field.

An unrelated field.

 

Comments:

 

 

Directions: In an earlier evaluation of the counseling services of the
Center, clients reported several criteria for counseling success.
0n the basis of your experience with the counseling service,
rank the following in terms of their pgrsonal benefit to you.
(Rank #1 the item which was most beneficial, # 2 the next most
beneficial, etc.) In the event that you wish to list an item
which you rate above the four listed, use item 28 (other) and
specify.

Achievement of a satisfactory decision.

Support for a decision you had already made.

_____Opportunity to talk about yourself with someone.
Encouragement to plan and pursue educational and/or career activities.

Other (specify):

 

would you use the counseling service of the Guidance Center again if you
needed it?

Yes No Uncertain

 

Comments:

 

 

You are encouraged to use the following space to make any additional comments,
suggestions or recommendations which, in your opinion, would be helpful to
the Guidance Center staff in the evaluation of their services.

 

 

 

 

 

 

143

an agenCy of

Rockland Common-ty College

 

‘- 2 Campbell Avenue

' \
New York State Gundance Center for Women Super". New York 1090,

 

. ~-_O_——_——_—.—._.u—. —_..-..-_._...-- __—.—_

telephone 357-5225
area code 914

We need your help. We have been asked to evaluate the Rockland County
Guidance Center. As one who has used its services, we need your judg-
ment about the assistance you received. We have enclosed a questionnaire
and a self-addressed stamped envelope. Please complete the questionnaire
and return it at your earliest convenience.

As a consultant from Michigan State University, I assure you that no one
but masters of w team (all from Michigan) will read your responses.

Your answers will be combined with others to determine how the Center has
helped and how it can be improved.

Early in June More of the evalua team will be placing telephone
calls to former clients of the Center like yourself) to obtain follow-
up information. Each interviewer will introduce himself (herself) on the
phone and if you have aw doubts about the caller, tell him (her) to hang
up. Dial the Guidance Center, 357-5225 and ask for the interviewer by
name. The following team members will be participating as callers:

Dr. Marie Prahl, Research Associate Miss Barbara Stephenson, Director

Michigan State University Women's Guidance Center

Flint Commmity College, Michigan

Mr. Jerry Solloww, Research Associate Dr. Max Raines, Professor
Michigan State University Michigan State University

It will help us considerably if you will provide your name and phone number
on the enclosed card and return it with your questionnaire. If you prefer

to be called at a particular time, you W indicate it on the card and we
will tryto oomplywithyourwishes.

Thank you for your assistance.
Sincerely,

Max B. Raines, Professor
Michigan State University

 

14 4
ROCKLAND GUIDANCE CENTER FOR WOMEN

SUFFERN, NEW YORK
CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE

1. How did you find out about the services of the Guidance Center for Women?
(Check the <_>_n_e_ most important source).

22 Newspapers 21 Relatives/friends 7 Radio Program
9 Another client Lt The Guidance Center 10 Other (Spec-11V):

1 No Response

 

2. Which one of the following best describes what you had hoped to receive
from the Guidance Center? (Check only one).

11 Test Information about myself 7 Help in finding a job

1"" Help in making a decision about 12 Help in planning a career
continuing my education
26 Educational and/or Career
information
4 No Response

Other (specify):

3. In general, did you receive what you had expected from the Guidance Center?

 

 

 

38 Yes 2’4: No 12 Uncertain
Comments:
Directions: In an earlier evaluation of the counseling services of the

 

Center, clients reported several criteria for counseling
success. On the basis of your experience with the counseling
service, rank the following in terms of their personal
benefit to you. (Rank #1 the item which was most beneficial,
#2 the next most beneficial, etc, etc). In the event that
you wish to list an item which you rate above the four
listed, use item 8 (other) and specify.

Achievement of a satisfactory decision.#1-6; #2-11;#3-8; flat-17; #5-1
. Support for a decision you had already made.#1-9;#2-8 ;#3-17;#1+-6;#5-1

Encouragement to plan and pursue educational and/or career activities.

I;
5
6. Opportunity to talk about yourself with someone#1-16;#$§1g;#3-8 ;#’+-11;
7
8 #1-27 ;#2-15 ;#3 -6 ;#’+-2 ;#5-0

Other (specify): #l-B‘fi‘Z-Z; 643-st
#‘+-0; #5-0

Form: C-225

145

.Directions: ‘We are interested in.your feelings about the following statements
__- concerning the Guidance Center forlJomen. Read each statement
and decide how you feel about it. Encircle the response which

best describes your feelings.

 

If you strongly agree, encircle SA. . 65* A ? D SD
If you just agree, encircle A .. -.. . A<§> ? D SD
If you are undecided, encircle ? ..... SA A (i) D SD
If you disagree, encircle D .......... SA A ? ® SD
If you strongly disagree, encircle SD. SA A ? D

9. Talks with counselors at the Guidance Center are
helpful in making an educational/career decision.. SA

:9
o
U
8

10. I feel the Guidance Center is totally unable to
assist persons in making an educational/career
decision ............................... .... ....... SA A ? D SD

11. I think more women should take advantage of the
services of the Guidance Center ...... . ........... SA A ? D SD

12. I regard the Guidance Center as a "helping"
agency serving those in need of assistance in
planning a career ................................ SA A ? D SD

13. I feel that it is a complete waste of time to go
to the Guidance Center ..... . .................... SA A ? D SD

lb. I believe that the Guidance Center does enough
good work to deserve continued support ........... SA A ? D SD

15. The Guidance Center is not effective in assisting
persons in solving problems related to educa-
tional and vocational planning ................. SA A ? D SD

16. I recommend the services of the Guidance Center

to anyone who needs help in educational and/or

career planning ....... ..... ................... SA A ? D SD
17. I think the Guidance Center is a great asset

to Rockland County .......... ...... ...... ...... SA. A ? D SD

Comments:

 

 

 

 

r... ..---

.-...-_—._—A-...n

 

1&6

Dirggtiggs: We are interested in your general impressions and feelings about
your gpunseling experience at the Guidance Center. In the box
below are listed several alternatives which describe various aspects
of the counseling experience for the client. Carefully examine
the example given below and then encircle the number which
expresses your rating of each alternative of items #18 - 21:.

 

 

Example: (I found the counseling experience to be):
Stimulating 1 © 3 I: S Unstimulating

 

 

ENCIRCLE ONLY ONE RESPONSE FOR EACH ITEM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I FOUND THE COUNSELING EXPERIENCE TO BE: , ; l
. - ~ I -
. ‘ ‘ I .
18. Interesting ; l ' 2 . 3 )4 5 i Uninteresting IF
L A L - l _J —‘ - r.-
19. Unrewarding i l 2 § 3 l: i 5 Rewarding L1
20. Satisfying % 1 2 i 3 l h S T Dissatisfying '
__L L L :1: .... .4
21. Tense ' 1 2 7 3 L: S f Relaxing :
_+ ; L ‘ 1+ -..—.4
22. Personal ‘ 1 g 2 3 h S 5 Impersonal L
1 - L ,3 3
23. Confusing } l 2 L 3 h ' 5 3 Clear L
L E WTL L '
t . ’ '7
2h. Helpful J 1 5 2 l 3 h is I Hindering
1

 

 

 

 

25. Did you make a decision (or plan) as a result of counseling: 39Yes 12310 3 No Resp

If Yes, briefly. describe:

 

26. If you have continued your education since receiving counseling services at
the Guidance Center, are your studies in: (Check only 9339 response)

15_ The field you chose prior to counseling.
7___ The field you chose as a result of the decision vou made during
counseling.
2 .A different but related field.

6 An unrelated field.

#1 No Response
Comments:

 

 

 

27-

28.

29.

1&7

If you have been employed since receiving counseling services at the
Guidance Center, is your work in: (Check only one response)

_MIJL_The field you chose prior to counseling.

7 The field you chose as a result of the decision you made
during counseling.

_ 9_ A different but related field

___ZL_An.unrelated field

36 No Response
Comments:

 

WOuld you use the counseling service of the Guidance Center again if
you needed it?

__ 53 Yes __ 9 No 1Q Uncertain

N s onse
Contents: 2 0 Re p

 

 

You are encouraged to use the following space to make any additional
comments, suggestions or recommendations which, in your Opinion, would
be helpful to the Guidance Center staff in the evaluation of their
services.

 

 

 

 

 

 

”WW

.—

1511 I

 

PRE—TEST PROCEDURES AND RESULTS

Two guidance centers for women, the Flint Junior College
Counseling Center and the Continuum Center for Women at Oak-
land University, were considered for pre-testing the ques-
tionnaire and attitude scales. The Flint Center was selected
because both the services and the client population more
closely approximated those of the New York State Guidance
Center for Women.

A list containing 230 names and addresses of clients
who had received counseling during the past two years was
provided by the Flint Center. A total of 50 clients was
selected randomly for participation in the pre—test. The
questionnaire and attitude scales, a cover letter explaining
the purposes of the study, and a stamped, self-addressed
return envelope was mailed to all 50 subjects.

Within a two-week period, a total of 32 questionnaires
had been returned as well as two original letters which the
post office returned because of no forwarding address. The
total return represented 67 percent of those who were reached
by mail. No follow-up questionnaires were sent out and no
attempt was made to analyze the non-responding subjects in
the sample.

The results of the non-scaled items (items #1-3, 21-29)

on the questionnaire pre-test were compiled and are reported

1&8

1A9

in Appendix B. The above items were reviewed for clarity,
correctness of response, and to determine the need for
additional categories and/or possible deletions. The
results of the pre—test revisions can be examined on
pages 1AA—1A7.

The scoring of attitude scale items (items #5-13)
was done using the Likert technique. Weights from one
through five were assigned to the five categories (strongly
disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree). A
weight of l was assigned to the "strongly agree" responses

for items expressing unfavorable opinion toward the Guid-

 

ance Center and a weight of 5 was assigned to the "strongly
agree" responses for items eXpressing favorable opinion, and
so on. A total score was then obtained for each subject
which ranged from S to #5.

The scoring of attitude scale items (items #lA-20) was
done in a similar manner. Responses which were fayprable
toward the counseling eXperience were asSigned a weight of
5 while responses which were unfavorable were assigned a
weight of l. A total score, which ranged from 5 to 35, was
also obtained for each respondent.

Both attitude scales were then subjected to a test of
reliability using the total scores on each scale for the
entire sample. Because of the preponderance of favorable
responses on both scales, comparability of the two halves

of the scales was lacking and therefore the Spearman-Brown

 

-.....”
I

a
. “A..-
.r. "

150

formula was considered inappropriate. For scales which

7

appear to possess unidimensionality, Guttman advocates

the application of a lower bound reliability test. He
states:

The split-half lower bound, LA’ resembles somewhat

the traditional Spearman split-half formula, corrected
for test length . . . The lower bound, LA’ assumes

only that the two half sample scores are experimentally
independent of each other and that the computations are
based on a large population of individuals. It does

not assume that the two halves belong to the same scale
or anything else of the kind . . . For the scale scores
then, as well as for the qualitative responses to the
separate items, we have assurance that if the items are
approximately scalable, then they necessarily have very
substantial test-retest reliability. Scalogram analysis
provides as an automatic by product the assurance that
responses to individual items and total scores both have
relatively little error of measurement if the reproduc-
ibility is high.

The lower-bound reliability coefficient (LA) was com-

puted for both attitude scales for the 32 subjects in the
sample and it was found to be as follows:

1. Attitude Scale A Lu = .70
(Guidance Center)

2. Attitude Scale B L4 = .84
(Counseling Experience)

For the nine attitude scale items in Scale A, the
reliability coefficient for the total score is not less than
0.70. It may be anywhere between .70 and unity. For the

seven attitude scale items in Scale B, the reliability

 

lLouis Guttman, et al., Measurement and Prediction
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), p. 311.

 

coefficient for the total score is not less than 0.84 and
may be anywhere between .84 and unity.

Following the determination of the reliability co—
efficient, it was then necessary to determine whether the
items formed a scale for the pre—test sample. The measure-
ment of an attitude(s) is considered scalable for the

population if it is possible to rank subjects on the basis

0

f total response scores in such a fashion that from a sub-
ject's rank alone, it is possible to predict his response
to any item on the scale. While such perfect scales are
seldom achieved, items are considered sufficiently scalable
if they are 85 percent reproducible.

The item analysis for both attitude scales was con—
ducted by the Cornell Technique2. By means of this technique,
it is possible to obtain the coefficient of reproducibility
and thereby affirm the unidimensionality of the attitude
scale. To obtain this coefficient, the total scores of all
subjects were ranked from high (most favorable) to low
(least favorable) for each attitude scale. The number of
"errors" for each item was determined by establishing "cutting
points" in the rank order of total scores thus separating
individual responses according to categories in which they
would fall if the scale were perfect.

Table A-1 indicates the frequency and percentage of

"error" for each item on Scales A and B. Since it is

 

2Ibido, pp. 91—121.

 

 

 

 

152

permissable to "collapse" data into fewer categories to
reduce the frequency of "errors", the table provides the
coefficient of reproducibility using data in both its
original and collapsed forms.

Attitude Scale A had a coefficient of reproducibility
of 0.86 and 0.94 respectively, and attitude Scale B had a
coefficient of reproducibility of 0.84 and 0.92. The ob—
served value of the coefficient is moderately high and
suggests that the scale is measuring a single attitude
variable. Although the coefficient for Scale B represents
less value than the minimum of 85 percent stipulated by
Guttman, there is ample evidence to indicate, on the basis
of reproducibility alone, that the scale tends to be uni-

dimensional.

 

 

 

153

 

 

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APPENDIX B

PRE-TEST CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE TABULATIONS

154

 

 

155

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APPENDIX C

TABLE C—l.--AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE AND POPULATION.

TABLE C—2.-—DISTRIBUTION OF CLIENT SAMPLE AND POPULATION
BY MARITAL STATUS.

TABLE C—3.-—DISTRIBUTION OF CLIENT SAMPLE AND POPULATION
BY EMPLOYMENT BACKGROUND.

156

 

 

 

157

TABLE C-1.--Age Distribution of Sample and Population.

 

 

Age Intervals

N

Client Sample
%

Total POpulation
N %

 

Under 30
30-39
40-49
Over 50

17
47
41

9

41
36

115 14
333 41
272 33
66 12

 

TABLE C-2.—-Distribution of Client Sample and POpulation By

Marital Status.

 

 

Marital Status

Client Sample

Total Population

 

N % N %
Single 8 7 50 7
Married 68 76 596 79
Widowed 8 7 39 5
Divorced 4 4 36 5
Separated 6 6 35 5

 

TABLE C-3.--Distribution of Client Sample and Population By
Employment Background.

 

 

 

Employment Client Sample Total Population
Background N % N %
Less than 5 years 60 53 424 52
5-10 years 35 30 232 29
Over 10 years 19 17 155 19

 

 

APPENDIX D

CLIENT INTERVIEW GUIDE

158

 

159
NEW YORK STATE GUIDANCE CENTER FORUNOMEN

CLIENT INTERVIEW GUIDE

 

 

 

CLIENT: iINTERVIIMER:

 

 

 

 

 

 

I j 2
CITY: STATE: {INTERVIE-J DATE: j‘,
TELEPHONE N0.: ;
COUNSELING DISPOSITION: l__1 COMPLETE [j INCOMPLETE
"Hello, this is (Interviewer) ..... I'm helping in the evaluation of the

Rockland Guidance Center forVWomen. I believe you received a recent letter
from Dr. Raines along with a questionnaire. Have you returned the
questionnaire?" (If not) “Mould it be convenient to fill it out now?"

"In the letter, Dr. Raines indicated that if you had any doubts about

the caller, hang up and call the Guidance Center number . .and ask for
me ... . Please feel free to do that nowu...or at any time during the
interview".

"I want to ask you to recall some of your experiences at the Guidance
Center and also to learn what you have been doing since your last visit".

1. DO you recall how you first learned Of the Center?

 

2. 'What prompted you to come to the Center?

 

 

 

3. About how many times did.you visit the Center?

 

h. Did you come to the Center for any assistance other than counseling?

YES ._No

(If Yes), what was it?

 

5. Did you find it difficult to come to the Center the first time?
YES' NO

 

(If Yes), how was it difficult? __

CIG: 175

160
CLIENT INTER‘J'ILW GUIDE Page 2

6. How did other people (husband, family, friends, etc.) feel
about your coming to the Center?

 

O -0 _..—.- D-‘ —~. — ~— ‘

 

 

7. Did you develop a plan of action with the counselor?

YES NO

--- ‘-- ----

(If Yes), what was the plan?

 

 

 

 

 

 

8. What kinds Of things have you been doing since your last visit
to the Center? (Ascertain the approximate time Span of each
activity beginning with the most recent).

 

 

 

 

 

 

l. ________
No. of months
2. __ LL
__ NO. of months _________‘_
3
A NO Of months ___ ---.1 _
h.

 

NO. of months

.._ -~-m‘.—'
.—

(USE ONLY IF CLIENT HAS BEEN WORKING)
”It is not necessary that you answer this question, but it would
help us to know how much your employment has meant economically.
By combining your total income since your last visit to the
Center with the incomes of other clients, we can get some
picture Of the economic impact the Center has had on the

community. "

 

 

161
CLIENT INTERVIEW GUIDE Page 3

9. 'Hhat has been your monthly earning since your last visit to

the Center? $_m__~/month The total earnings since your last
visit to the Center then would be $ ’_b_ (amount times number
of months).

10. 'Were you working during the year preceding your first visit
to the Guidance Center? 1- .YES _~___ N0

11. Now .. .. tell me how you generally felt about the Guidance
Center?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12. DO you have suggestions or recommendations that might help to .
make it a better Guidance Center? 1

 

 

 

 

M-‘-—‘i

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX E

 

TABLE E—l.--DISTRIBUTION OF IMPACT CATEGORIES BY GUIDANCE
CENTER COUNSELORS.

TABLE E-2.--DISTRIBUTION OF CLIENTS INTO COUNSELING IMPACT
CATEGORIES BY A PANEL OF JUDGES.

162

 

163

 

 

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164

 

 

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APPENDIX F

TABLE F-l.--FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ATTITUDE SCALE B
SCORES BY COUNSELING DISPOSITION.

165

 

 

 

TABLE F-l.--Frequency Distribution of Attitude Scale B
Counseling Disposition Sub-Groups.

Scores By

166

 

 

 

 

Scale B Scores Incomplete Complete Total
Group Group

N % N % N %
32-35 4 16 15 3O 19 26
28-31 8 34 15 3O 23 31
24-27 1 5 12 24 13 18
20-23 A 16 5 10 9 12
Below 20 3 13 1 2 4 5
NO Response 4 16 2 4 6 8
Totals 24 100 50 100 74 100
Total Favorable
Response (Over 28) 12 50 30 60 42 57
Total Unfavorable
Response (Under 28) 8 34 18 36 26 35

 

 

APPENDIX G

TABLE G-l.--DISTRIBUTION OF DEGREES OF POSITIVE IMPACT AND
SATISFACTION BY CLIENT CHARACTERISTICS.

TABLE G-2.--DISTRIBUTION OF DEGREES OF COUNSELING IMPACT
AND SATISFACTION BY CLIENT CHARACTERISTICS.

167

 

168

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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171

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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APPENDIX H

FREE RESPONSE STATEMENTS SUBMITTED
ON CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE

172

10.

ll.

l2.

13.

14.

15.

FREE RESPONSE STATEMENTS SUBMITTED

ON CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE

"It was much more than I had hOped for!"

The Center is geared too heavily to educated, middle
class women (2).*

"The Center didn't have what I was looking for."

" . . . Center is for younger women——at the age of 50,
it is hard to accomplish much."

"I had been a plain bored housewife . . . it helped me
find a way to brush up on my skills."

Made a decision to pursue part-time coursework at
college (22).

Family changes did not permit follow—thru on decision (2).
The library was particularly helpful.

"At the time I visited the Center, I was not in a
position to pursue educational or career plans."

"Helped to decide that I should not continue my educa—
tion at this time."

"Still working at same Job--counseling helped me to
reassess my present attitudes toward my Job."

"Perhaps it could be somewhat of an employment agency."

(A)

More publicity is needed-—most people have not heard
of the Center. (A)

"Just one person who believes you can make it makes all
the difference."

The college (Rockland Community College) guidance
department does not have the time or processes necessary
to truly "guide" or give such intensive services as the
NYSGC. (2)

173

 

 

16.

17.
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.
31.

17A

"I most emphatically want to stress the point that
even if one doesn't come to an immediate decision,
being faced with answering such a variety of
questions and examining one's personality and nature
is illuminating in itself."

"Helped me to make a decision."
Provided me with information and encouragement. (A)
Center needs a program for alumni . . . provide

opportunities for occasional meetings to review
developments and share experiences with others. (2)

u.

"Women who were helped by the Center could and should
help others thru the Center."

"Services should be extended to men."

Staff should be aware of s ecific Job and career
Opportunities open to women in t e area. (2)

The Center needs a file on day-care services, financial
aids, and career requirements.

Counselors need to be more knowledgeable of local
resources (some staff members were not local persons).

"Center must alert women of problems they encounter
at home as a result of outside employment and education."

Center needs more specific information concerning part-
time educational and employment Opportunities. (2)

Tests are most important and should be a basic part of
the counseling process. (3)

Center is geared to heavily toward the housewife--
working women need such services as well. (2)

Counselors need to "push" some clients to plan and
act.

More follow-up of clients is needed. (2)

The center is too research-oriented--made clients
feel like guinea pigs. (2)

(Several clients expressed commentaries on the Guidance Center
to the effect that their's was a unique problem and while the
Center did not help them, they were certain that it helped
many others.)

*Frequency

Help in solving personal problems Help in finding a job

Help in making a decision about Career planning/sources of job

Other (specify):

175
CLIENT QUESTIONNAIRE

‘How did you find out about the services of the Guidance Center for WOmen?
(Check the one most important source.)

_____Newspapers Relatives/friends Radio Program

_____Another client The Guidance Center Other (specify):

 

Which one of the following best describes what you had hoped to receive from the
Guidance Center? (Check only one.)

continuing my education training

 

 

In general, did you receive what you had expected from the Guidance Center?

Yes No Uncertain

— . “

Comments:

 

 

A list of the principal services of the Guidance Center is given below. Rate
your satisfaction/dissatisfaction with those services you received on the
S-point scale.

Encircle #1 ... If you were veg! satisfied
Encircle #2 ... If you were satisfied
Encircle #3 ... If you are uncertain
Encircle #4 ... If you were dissatisfied
Encircle #5 ... If you were very dissatisfied

MAKE 0va ONE RATING FOR EACH ssnvgcs

 

 

 

 

Educational Information Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied
Career Information Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied
Personal Counseling Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied
Testing Services Satisfied l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfied

 

 

Comments:

 

 

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

176

Directions: we-are interested in your feelings about the following statements

concerning the Guidance Center for WOmen. Read each statement
and decide how you feel about it. Encircle the response which

best describes your feelings.

If you strongly agree, encircle SA ....

If you just agree, encircle A .........
If you are undecided, encircle ? ......
If you disagree, encircle D ...........
If you strongly disagree, encircle SD .

Talks with counselors at the Guidance Center are helpful in
makingadeC1Sion ......OOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOIOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

I regard the Guidance Center as a "helping" agency serving
peOple with various problems ..............................

I feel the Guidance Center is totally unable to assist
persons in making an educational/career decision ..........

I think.more women should take advantage of the services
of the Guidance Center ....................................

I feel that it is a complete waste of time to go to the
Guidance center O...........OOOOOO0.0.0.000...0.0.0.0000...

I believe that the Guidance Center does enough good work
to deserve continued support ..............................

The Guidance Center is not effective in assisting persons
in solving personal problems ..............................

I recommend the services of the Guidance Center to anyone
who needs help in educational and/or career planning ......

I think the Guidance Center is a great asset to this

county 00.0.00...00.0.0.0......O0.0.0..........OOOOOOOOOOOO

Comments:

SA
SA
SA
SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

177

Directions: We are interested in your general impressions and feelings about
your counseling_experience at the Guidance Center. In the box
below are listed several alternatives which describe various
aspects of the counseling experience for the client. Carefully
examine the examples given below and then encircle the number
which expresses your rating of each alternative of items
#14 - 20.

 

Example: (I found the counseling experience to be:)

Stimulating 1 ® 3 4 s ' Unstimulating

 

 

 

ENCIRCLE ONLY ONE RESPONSE FOR EACH ITEM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I FOUND THE COUNSELING EXPERIENCE TO BE:
14. Interesting I 2 3 4 S Uninteresting
15. Unrewarding l 2 3 4 5 Rewarding
l6. Satisfying _——l 2 3 4 5 Dissatisfying
17. Tense l 2 3 4 5 Relaxing
18. Unhurried l ‘ 2 3 4 5 Rushed
l9. Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 Clear
20. Helpful 1 2 3 4 S Hindering '
21. Did you make a decision (or plan) as a result of counseling? ___Xes ‘___No
Comments:

 

 

22. If you have continued your education since receiving counseling services at
the Guidance Center, are your studies in: (Check only one response)

The field you chose as a result of the decision you made during
counseling.

A different but related field.
An unrelated field.

Comments:

 

 

 

 

23.

24.
25.
26.
27.

28.

29.

30.

178

If you have been employed since receiving counseling services at the Guidance
Center, is your work in: (Check only one response)

The field you chose as a result of the decision you made during counseling.
A different but related field.

An unrelated field.

 

Comments:

 

 

Directions: In an earlier evaluation of the counseling services of the
Center, clients reported several criteria for counseling success.
On the basis of your experience with the counseling service,
rank the following in terms of their personal benefit to you.
(Rank #1 the item which was most beneficial, # 2 the next most
beneficial, etc.) In the event that you wish to list an item
which you rate above the four listed, use item 28 (other) and
specify.

_____4Achievement of a satisfactory decision.

.____ Support for a decision you had already made.

____,Opportunity to talk about yourself with someone.

_____Encouragement to plan and pursue educational and/or career activities.

Other (specify):

 

would you use the counseling service of the Guidance Center again if you
needed it? ‘

Yes No uncertain

 

Comments:

 

 

You are encouraged to use the following space to make any additional comments,
suggestions or recommendations which, in your opinion, would be helpful to
the Guidance Center staff in the evaluation of their services.

 

 

 

 

 

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