THESlS This is to certify that the thesis entitled ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM RULES: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF HOW RULES WERE FORMULATED BOTH FORMALLY AND INFORMALLY IN TWO EIGHTH GRADE ENGLISH CLASSES IN A RURAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL presented by Marilynn Wiltshire Stanard has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Major professor Date EBA/J3 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution )VIESI.) RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARJES remove this checkout from .—:—. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ”a” if". CHM-4‘ Ute-5% “Jili- .oluu m «.H L- 3.33 2’ “ 6 ./A a: 1- . p.- _ . . l, . .' a ' .Q ' « ~.-‘ . $2» ‘ . t i , .‘E f " ‘ ‘ ‘ . vz. 13““ F gnu .- 2.344" bis-«i VFW-mos uni-~- flwit l4: 31 an " ,‘.‘_-r«1_.,~‘ ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM RULES: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF HOW RULES WERE FORMULATED BOTH FORMALLY AND INFORMALLY IN TWO EIGHTH GRADE ENGLISH CLASSES IN A RURAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL BY Marilynn Wiltshire Stanard A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1983 ABSTRACT ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM RULES: AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF HOW RULES WERE FORMULATED BOTH FORMALLY AND INFORMALLY IN TWO EIGHTH GRADE ENGLISH CLASSES IN A RURAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL BY Marilynn Wiltshire Stanard The purpose of this study, which employed ethnographic research methodology, was to describe how classroom rules were established both formally and informally in two junior high school classrooms. The overarching research questions which guided the data collection and analysis were: 1. What are the formal and informal rules in the classroom and how are they made visible? 2. What are the sources of influence in shaping the rules? 3. What are the effects of the rules on students' social and academic behavior? The study group consisted of two heterogeneously grouped eighth grade English classes in a rural junior high school. The researcher collected data in the mode of participant observer (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973; Agar, 1980) by attending two English classes the first twelve weeks of school and became part of the larger school populace and community as well, in the tradition of Whyte (1955) and others. The study concludes that: 1. Both teachers were "eclectics" who used a combined Marilynn Wiltshire Stanard approach in establishing formal and informal rules within contrasting psychological perspectives (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). Additionally, they used a variety of verbal and nonverbal "prewarnings" before inVoking the formal consequences. 2. Three categories of formal stated procedural rules emerged in each classroom: (a) Rules bound to the classroom (b) Rules not bound to the classroom (c) Rules pertaining to academic achievement Two categories of informal, unstated rules emerged: (a) Procedural rules and rules pertaining to academic achievement (b) Rules pertaining to the curriculum 3. Four interdependent components of a smoothly functioning classroom were identified. These included teacher's: (a) rapport (b) proficiency in establishing and maintaining classroom rules and consequences (c) academic knowledge and teaching proficiency (d) daily and weekly preparation 4. Four sources shaped the classroom rules -- the teacher; the students: the school structure and administration; and the wider socio-political community. Marilynn Wiltshire Stanard 5. An emphasis on basic education appears to lead to student-teacher alienation and to a curriculum which lacks meaning to students' lives. C0pyright by MARILYNN WI LTSHIRE STANARD 1983 DEDICATION With love and thanks to my precious family — my husband, Terry, our sons, Terry and Scott, and my mother, Dorothy Wiltshire-for their patience, encouragement, humor;and shirtsleeve assistance throughout my doctoral program and for bravely sharing me with the world, thereby allowing me to grow and change. if T0 To To T0 To To TO To ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. Patrick DeMarte, my doctoral chairman, dissertation director, mentor, colleague and buddy, for his wisdom, guidance, belief in my abilities, and for broadening my horizons, my doctoral committee, Dr. James Buschman, my methodo- logical instructor and adviser for this dissertation; Dr. Janet Alleman-Brooks, my cognate adviser; and Dr. Mary Kelly, my MSU Regional Director and loyal friend; for their efficient help, insight and encouragement, the teachers, administrator and students at Mount Vernon Junior-Senior High School, for their participation in this study, their friendship and their willingness to share, Dr. Frederick Erickson, for his assistance in the analysis of data during the pilot study, which provided the analytic framework for this work, Frank Morris and county agency workers, for their consultation regarding psychological behavior of persons in the study, my many outstanding instructors at Michigan State University especially Dr. Robert Hatfield, Dr. Christopher Clark, Dr. Susan Florio, Dr. George Ferree, Dr. Philip Cusick, and Dr. James Anderson, for their instruction which contributed to the development of this dissertation, my dedicated typist and assistant, Dorothy Thar, for her energy in putting my thoughts in print, my valued friends and colleagues, Patricia Yarborough and Maggie Gremli, for their sharing and support during our year's residency in Owen Graduate Residence Hall, my treasured "sisters" Janie Barnes and Mary Alice Kirincic, for their loyalty and encouragement throughout my doctoral program, my father the late "Bill" Wiltshire, who I know would view this dissertation with love and pride, for teaching me to seek truth, knowledge, and beauty in each new situation, And to my family to whom this work is dedicated, TO each of these special persons and to the many friends and family members who have supported me, I give my deepest gratitude, and hOpe that this dissertation and my future professional life will be a tribute to their caring and dedication. iii "In joining forces with someone, I got twice the strength to grow, with twice as many alternatives." Love by Leo Buscaglia iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 Setting and Methodology 2 Research Questions 4 Sources of Data 5 Analysis of Data 8 Site 9 Conceptual Framework 11 Importance of the Problem 16 Terms and Definitions 18 Organization of the Dissertation .18 II. THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE 20 Psychological Perspective 22 The Noninterventionists 22 Programs Reflecting the Noninterventionist Position 23 Empirical Studies Reflecting the Noninterventionist Position 25 Interactionalists 27 Programs which Reflect the Interactionalist Position 28 Empirical Studies Reflecting the Interactionalist Position 32 The Interventionists 33 Programs Reflecting the Interventionist Position 33 Empirical Studies Reflecting the Interventionist Position 39 Combined Approach of the Psychological Perspectives 43 Programs for Teachers Utilizing the Combined .Approach 43 Empirical Studies Utilizing the Combined Approach 44 Summary of the Psychological Perspective Approach44 Sociological Perspective 45 Organizational Structure of the Classroom 46 CHAPTER III. Organizational Structure of the School School Rules Administration Programs Derived from the Sociological Perspective Summary of the Sociological Perspective Socio-Political Perspective History of Socio-Political Influence in the American School Nature of Society in American Schools Empirical Studies within the Socio-Political Perspective ' Theoretical Arguments Regarding the School As a Factory Model Summary of the Socio-Political Perspective Technological Perspective Empirical Studies of Classroom Management Teacher Expectations Summary of the Technological Perspective Summary of the Literature What We Know Concerning Classroom Rule Formation What We Don't Know Concerning Classroom Rule Formation The State of Knowledge Regarding Classroom Rule Formation METHODOLOGY Introduction Sources of Data Field Notes Formal and Informal Interviews Questionnaires Tape Recordings Slide Photographs Written Documents Design of the Study Teacher Selection Students School Community Summary of the Design vi PAGE CHAPTER IV Analysis of Data Definition of Analysis Stages of Analysis The Funnel Approach Overarching Research Questions Mid-Range Research Questions Specific Research Questions Grounded Theory Summary of the Methodology DESCRIPTIVE EVIDENCE Opening of the School Year Establishing Classroom Rules First Day in Mrs. Whitson's Class First Day in Mrs. Evans' Class Second Day in Mrs. Whitson's Class Categories of Classroom Rules Procedural Rules Bound to the Classroom Formal and Informal Procedural Rules Procedural Rules Not Bound to the Classroom Rules Pertaining to Academic Achievement Summary of Formal Rules Form is the Substance of the Curriculum Examples of How Form Influenced Grades Consequences to the Rules Teacher Interventions Summary of How Rules and Consequences were Established Additional Sources that Influenced the Shaping of the Classroom Rules Community Socio-Economic Climate Summary of the Socio-Economic Factors in the Community Parents The School Board Students Class Composition Student Reaction to the Rules Summary of Student Perceptions School Structure Introduction vii 114 118 121 126 127 128 134 138 139 143 149 154 155 155 155 159 160 164 168 168 171 177 180 CHAPTER Principal School Structure School Facility Teachers Rapport Technical Proficiency in Establishing Classroom Rules Academic Proficiency Preparation Summary of Sources Who Influenced the Shaping of the Rules SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS Findings as Viewed Within the Psycholoqical Perspective Findings Within the Sociological Perspective Organizational Structure of the Classroom Organizational Structure of the School Administration Student Groups and Subgroups Findings as Viewed Within the Socio-Political Perspective Findings as Viewed Within the Technological Perspective Limitations of the Study Implications for Students Implications of the Findings to the Community Implications to Teacher Educators Implications for Research Implications for Teachers Conclusion REFERENCE NOTES LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDICES A. Student Questionnaire B. Parent Turn-Around Day Questionnaire C. Mount Vernon Public Schools Parent School Report Card D. Employee Image Questionnaire viii PAGE 180 186 191 192 197 198 198 199 200 202 203 208 208 209 214 217 219 226 229 231 233 235 240 243 245 249 251 258 258 263 265 267 CHAPTER Time Line of Key Events Teachers' Letters to Parents Describing Their Discipline Plan Field Notes: Examples of Teachers' Differing Methodologies ix PAGE 269 270 272 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5.1 5.2 LIST OF FIGURES Holistic View of Classroom Rules Formation Analysis of Data The Days on Which the Two Teachers Established Classroom Rules Typical Daily Schedule in Both Classrooms Categories of Classroom Rules Consequences to the Classroom Rules Teacher Interventions from Low Energy to High Parents' Grades for the School as a Whole Parents' Grades for Discipline in the Junior High School Nine Week Grades in Mrs. Evans' Class Nine Week Grades in Mrs. Whitson's Class Basic Floor Plan of Mount Vernon Junior-Senior High School Organizational Structure of Mount Vernon Junior-Senior High School Comparison of Variables Between Teacher Characteristics Components of a Smoothly Functioning Classroom Contrast of Opening Day Activities for Staff and Students Key Variables Having Impact on Classroom Behavior PAGE 15 98 120 134 137 146 149 162 163 169 170 187 189 193 200 216 218 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Classroom discipline is a national concern of educators, policy makers and parents. Indeed, a host of teacher groups cite discipline as their number one classroom concern (DeMarte, Sarris and Brandi, 1981, Note 1; Cruickshank, 1982). The whole issue of classroom discipline is ensnared by confusion due to conflicting beliefs and ideologies held by educators and members of our multicultural society. Implicit also is the degree of teacher control, ranging from the repressive to the laissez-faire. Conflicting educational philosophies contribute to even more confusion, with the teacher choosing from options including the open classroom and the traditional classroom. The teacher, moreover, chooses between emphasizing either content area goals, or socialization goals in the classroom. He or she does not make these decisions in isolation, but is responsive to his or her administrator, and to society which demanded "Openness" in the sixties and "back to basics" in the seventies. And finally, the classroom is filled with a changing student population which is caught in the tide of the shifting family, an economic recession, a media society, a drug culture, a future endangered by nuclear war, and an attitude that no longer gives automatic respect to authority, particularly teachers and principals. Because of the complexity of this problem, most discipline studies have focused on a single aspect of developing classroom rules and social order, but none has focused on this issue in a holistic manner. It appears unfortunate that this is the case, since the formal and informal classroom rules provide the structure for student behavior and discipline within the classroom. It is imperative that we turn to a study of classrooms to focus on how rules are formulated both formally and informally in classrooms and how discipline and order are achieved in today's classrooms. How does the teacher carry out this task, and how does she or he choose from the available Options of theory and philosophy? What categories of rules exist in the classroom, and how are they made visible to students? What are the sources of influence in shaping the rules? What indeed goes into forming and maintaining order in the classroom, and what implications does this have to the practice of teaching? Setting and Methodology This study focused on two junior high school English classes in a rural school in the state of Michigan. Teachers in this state reported discipline to be their number one classroom problem (Note 1). Furthermore, on a national survey, Michigan teachers were found to be the least satisfied with their quality of work life due to the organization of their schools (Cooke, Kornbluh and Adams, 1982). A survey by Feitler and Tokar (1982) suggest that individual student discipline problems are a major source of stress for teachers, especially at the junior and senior high school level. The teachers in this study were selected because they fit squarely into the above criteria. The focus of this study is on the way these eighth grade English teachers established rules in their heterogeneously grouped classrooms and describes the interactions of the persons and the internal workings within the setting. Additionally, the focus includes how they reacted to the school structure and how this structure in turn helped influence the shaping of classroom rules. Ethnographic methods were employed to carry out this study, thereby allowing us to view people's behavior and its meaning in light of social context. According to Frederick Erickson, ethnography is an inquiry process guided by a point of view (1973, Note 2). This method, known as "field work", is commonly used by anthropologists when they wish to find the meaning people give to everyday life within a society. Research Questions The study began with overarching and mid-range research questions focusing on how teachers and students established the formal and informal rules in the classroom. A. Overarching Questions 1. What are the formal and informal rules in the classroom and how are they made visible? 2. What are the sources of influence in shaping the rules? 3. What are the effects of the rules on students' social and academic behavior? Mid-range questions 1. How are rules developed? 2. What are the consequences to breaking the rules (warnings, positive and negative consequences, exclusion, contracts, grades, etc.)? 3. What categories of rules are present? 4. What variables determine the informal rules? 5. What is the teacher's philosophy concerning student motivation and social behavior? 6. How does the administration and school structure influence the classroom rules? 7. What influence do parents, the school board and community have on the classroom rules? As data were gathered the questions narrowed and became more specific. C. Specific Questions 1. How does the class composition influence the rules? 2. How does teacher rapport influence student behavior? 3. How do students perceive their teachers, peers, and school? What effect does this have on their behavior? 4. What is the effect of administrative leadership on classroom behavior of students? 5. How do social and economic conditions of the community influence the behavior of students in the classroom? 6. In contrasting the two teachers, what variables play an important part in rule formation and student behavior? Sources of Data In keeping with traditional ethnographic research methods it was necessary to use multiple sources of data to collect information on this complex problem. The primary data source was direct classroom observations which were reflected in daily field notes. The notes included a narrative of events, actual conversations, and proxemic and vocal details. A time log of events was also kept as an orienting tool and framework for activities. Observations took place during one section of each teacher's class the first twelve weeks of school. The researcher observed each teacher's English class every day the first two weeks of school and one to three times a week thereafter, for a total of sixty classroom observations. The literature suggests that rules appear stable within the first three to seven weeks (Emmer, Evertson and Anderson, 1979; Buckley and COOper, 1978, Note 3; Stanard, 1982, Note 4). The researcher in this study remained in the field five additional weeks to ensure validity and richness of data. Tape recordings and slide pictures of the first days of school were made, as well as photographs of pertinent events within the classroom as time progressed. Interviews with the teachers and students were also valuable sources of data. Class records provided written data as well, and a student survey concerning classroom rules was utilized. Since the school structure, including the building, administration and curriculum, helped shape the rules, it was important to gain an understanding of this influence. Structured interviews with the principal and subsequent numerous conversations were valuable data sources. Conversations were also held each day with teachers, the guidance counselor, the assistant principal, and auxiliary staff. These persons included the lunchroom supervisor, the secretaries, and the day maid. A survey of teachers evaluating the principal also contributed to new under- standings of the role of the administration within the classroom. The researcher attended the opening faculty meeting and breakfast when the teachers were welcomed and the discipline plan for the year was presented. The community also has an impact on the classroom rules through policy making and economic support for discipline programs. School board members were interviewed individually regarding their views on discipline. The researcher attended a board meeting as an observer and kept monthly newspaper articles which were an account of the workings of the board. Parents also influence class- room rules: hence, the researcher joined eighth grade parents as a participant observer during "turn around day" when parents followed their child's schedule for a full day of school. Results of two parent surveys assessing the school were also data. A variety of sources were again utilized to under- stand better the social, political and economic conditions of the school district. These included becoming a partici- pant observer within the community, joining in some of its celebrations, shopping in local stores and eating in restaurants. Slide photographs of the community were taken ‘to capture the range of living conditions and opportunities for its members. Demographic information was also gathered relating to population, employment and police information. Interviews with county mental health workers, the school psychologist and teacher consultant provided additional perspectives concerning the community and its members. Conversations with store owners and business persons additionally provided data. Analysis of Data Analysis of data occurred in three stages (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973; Agar, 1980). The preliminary stage was continuous and took place in the field and included working of the field notes. Secondary stages occurred after leaving the field and included coding data by classifications and its linkages to others. Final analysis occurred as data were integrated into theoretical prOpositions leading to a grounded theory of rule formation. The process involved analytic induction and testing assertions through seeking out confirming and disconfirming information (Lindesmith, 1952). An example of an assertion is that the community of Mount vernon had historically mistrusted the school board and its administrator. This assertion originated with the principal during an Open-ended interview, and was confirmed by multiple sources of data. These included newspaper accounts from both 1966 and 1982; and statements from teachers and the school board president during interviews. This cross referencing, known as triangulation (Denzin, 1978) led to findings when two or more sources agreed and the assertion was supported. The greater the preponderance of data, the stronger the confirmation of the assertion. There were occurrences when assertions were not confirmed. For example, an assertion arose that a decline in tourism had affected the school's financial state. This assertion was derived from a conversation with the principal but was not supported during interviews with city clerks, shOp owners and the harbor master. Due to the lack of supporting data, the assertion was disconfirmed. In the final stage of analysis a theoretical proposition emerged from these and other data. In this example the theoretical proposition was that the lack of economic community support for the school was not only related to the present economy, but was an outgrowth of the citizens distrust for school authority (Chapter V, page 206). This distrust appeared to create tension between the school and community and was reflected in its funding for discipline programs. Such theory is termed "grounded" theory, since it is based on actual events and their meanings to people within the setting (Wilson, 1977; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). size. Mount vernon Junior High School was an excellent site to carry out the study on rule formation for many reasons. This rural school, with a population of 167 students, like many other rural secondary schools across the state and nation, was suffering from the blows of 10 economic cuts. Mount Vernon was additionally hurt by these reductions since it was already limited economically; it held classes in a 53 year old building shared with the senior high school. Mount Vernon had also experienced serious student discipline problems in the past. School administrators and county agency workers believed this student behavior was a reflection of the "physically aggressive" nature of the wider adult community. In spite of these constraints and social conditions, the principal was refreshingly optimistic about educational Opportunities for students in this school and was proud of the many accomplishments of the staff and students in the past few years. These included curriculum programs, staff development programs, and innovations regarding student behavior. According to many teachers in the school, the staff was also encouraged by their recent progress, having worked in concert with the principal to bring about improvements. During the past three years, the staff and principal had implemented elements of two different school-wide discipline programs and had worked towards involving support staff and students to bring about an improved school climate. Additionally, the staff had been working out ways not only to prevent discipline problems from occurring, but in resolving them when they emerged. Moreover, the principal was attempting to involve the 11 parents in this process as well. While progress was being made in these areas evidenced by the principal's citing of decline in student behavior problems, the faculty and administration continued to work towards improvement regarding order in the school. The staff appeared to be committed to working on classroom rules and school-wide discipline. Due to financial limitations, the board required the administration to exclude outside consultation and an in-house suspension program they relied on in the past and to reduce the posi— tion of assistant principal to a part-time post. The creative ways the principal and staff approached changes and innovations regarding student behavior under these difficult conditions made this school year a timely opportunity for study. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study of rule formation was drawn from four bodies of work representing theoretical positions concerning student behavior and rule formation. These included psychological, sociological, socio-political and technological perspectives. "These....perspectives act as interpretative frameworks for understanding... By so framing the phenomenon, they serve as a guide to what is important... These different frameworks define the range of possible arguments that one might advance for a course of action (House, in Leming & Kane, 1981, p. 19)." 12 The psychological perspective represents a focus on the role of the individual within the classroom organization. This view has been expressed by three distinct groups of educational theorists that Wolfgang and Glickman (1980) entitle the noninterventionists, the interactionalists and the interventionists. l) The noninterventionists believe a student must learn to discipline her/himself through the facilitiation of his or her own mastery. Nonintervention- ists include Thomas Gordon, Eric Berne, Thomas Harris, Louis Raths, Merrill Harmin, and Sidney Simon. 2) The interactionalists believe a student learns discipline from the interaction of his or her desires with those of the outside world. Interactionalists' include Rudolf Dreikurs and William Glasser. 3) The interventionists believe a student learns appr0priate behavior as a result of the influences of the outer environment. Their theory is grounded in behavior modification reSearch. Interventionists include Saul Axelrod, Lloyd Homme, James Dobson and Sigfried Engelmann (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). The sociological perspective maintains a view that the environment determines rule formation and student behavior. It includes examining the school structure to see its impact on student and teacher behavior (Cusick, 1973; Jackson, 1968; Duke, 1980). Moreover, 13 teachers' behavior towards student groups and student subgroups also shapes rules and behavior (Philips, 1972, Note 5). Students also interact with each other, the teacher and school structure. Through these interactions other rules come into being (Cusick, 1973; Jackson, 1968). Those who hold social and political educational ideologies purport that the school is society and mirrors its intentions; that indeed it is this society which determines the real dogmas and behaviors and sets the parameters of all rules in the school (Duke, 1980; Pinar, 1975; Freire, 1970). According to these theorists, the school, therefore, is not the change agent it claims to be, but rather an instrument to maintain society. To understand classroom rules and behavior, we must under- stand the society which precludes what they will be. Writers of the technological perspective focus on the teacher. They represent a view that maintains through improving teacher's skills and techniques classroom rules can be developed and achieved. Through this perspective, teachers are seen as possessing competencies in establishing classroom rules and discipline. The basis for defining these competencies are derived from systematic studies of "effective" teachers -- those who are skillful at raising pupil achievement scores on standardized tests and who operate smoothly functioning classrooms, free from student behavioral disruptions. The behaviors of these effective 14 teachers are identified leading to prescriptions for other classroom teachers to employ (Gage, 1977; Peterson and Walberg, 1978). This approach is therefore a systematic, rational one in establishing classroom rules. Teachers work at improving their methods, techniques and materials, rather than focusing on personal aspects of their professional growth. It is through the technological perspective that classroom management research has been conducted and from which the largest body of empirical knowledge concerning rule formation can be found (BrOphy and Putnam, 1979; Kounin, 1970). Therefore, the conceptual framework for studying classroom rules is drawn from four theoretical perspectives. It begins with a focus on the child. It extends to viewing the interaction of groups of students within the classroom and school structure. It then turns to examining the larger society and its contribution to shaping classroom rules, and concludes with a focus on the teacher's skills and techniques in establishing rules and maintaining order in the classroom. In this study the researcher focuses on the inter- relationship of these perspectives as they came to bear on classroom life. The following synoptic chart (Figure 1.1) represents these interrelationships and hence the conceptual framework of the study. 15 HOLISTIC VIEW OF CLASSROOM RULE FORMATION (Figure 1.1) 16 Figure 1.1 represents how the students, teacher, school system, and society all contribute to shaping the classroom rules. The interrelationships of these elements depicted by interconnecting circles in the chart, are reflected against each theoretical perspective. Only through understanding these connections can we be informed of how classroom rules are formulated formally and informally and how classroom order is achieved. Importance of the Problem The literature holds a variety of conflicting perspectives concerning classroom rule formation and student behavior. And a body of empirical knowledge suggests that teacher behavior determines classroom rules. However, a classroom is a naturalistic setting, a social organization filled with daily interactions subject to certain structural constraints. To understand "what goes on here" and how rules are formed, we must look at the interactions of the persons within the context. Indeed, BrOphy states "Researchers will need to be familiar with the classrooms they are studying to understand how these classrooms operate as systems, so they can see process variables not only in isolation but as parts of a dynamic system that interrelate with one another and with other parts... (Brophy and Putnam, 1979, p. 138)." While theory abounds and represents the largest body of knowledge concerning student behavior and rule formation, 17 there is less empirical knowledge focusing on this topic. Additionally, those studies that have been undertaken have primarily been conducted in elementary classrooms, and fewer researchers have addressed the issue of rule formation at the secondary level. Moreover, empiricists studying secondary classrooms have focused more frequently on high school classrooms and less knowledge concerning behavior of junior high school students is available. Finally, each of these perSpectives has been represented by addressing isolated behaviors and theoretical viewpoints and a holistic approach examining the interaction of these perspectives has not been undertaken. The literature surveying teacher concerns indicated that discipline was a tgp concern for today's teachers. Teachers cited difficulties in dealing with both mis- behavior problems of individual students and classroom discipline problems. Moreover, teachers were dissatisfied with the structure of the school and its effect on the quality of life, especially within secondary schools. Therefore, the Eim§_was ripe for an ethnographic study on rule formation at the junior school level. Moreover, conditions at Mount Vernon indicated that this site was ripe as well. It is important we now turn to how classroom rules were formulated both formally and informally in this rural Michigan junior high school. 18 Terms and Definitions In general terms will be defined as they appear in the dissertation. However, at this point it is important to define the key terms to ensure clarity of understanding. The definitions are those of the researcher. Formal Rules -- the stated (manifest) rules which establish the parameters of student behavior. Informal rules —- the subtle adaptations of the formal rules and the unstated (latent) rules that come into existence as the result of the interactions of all persons within the setting. Discipline -- the students' ability to meet their needs within the group without violating the needs of others. Other writers have contrasting terms and definitions for the key terms. These will be presented at appropriate places within the dissertation. Organization of the Dissertation In the first chapter of this dissertation the researcher has explored the background of the problem regarding student behavior and rule formation in junior high school classrooms. She has explained the conceptual framework for the study and outlined the research questions, sources of data and the setting and methodology. In Chapter II the researcher provides an indepth look at the literature pertaining to rule formation, exploring the 19 four perspectives and summarizing what we know and do not know about rule formation and student discipline. In Chapter III the methodology utilized in the investigation of this study is discussed. The researcher presents an explanation of the ethnographic research method which was employed, the sources of data and their contribution and the way this data were analyzed leading to a grounded theory. In Chapter IV, the findings are made known. These include viewing how the teachers and students developed rules in their classrooms and what meaning this had for the participants. The researcher reports how the structure of the school and its administrators contributed to the rules. Moreover, the influence of the community in establishing the rules is also presented. This includes the role of the school board, the parents and the social, political and economic impact of'the community on the classroom rules and student behavior. In Chapter V the researcher examines the significance of these findings and the implications they have for people in the setting. Additionally, she discusses the implications this study suggests for teacher educators, empiricists and theorists in the broader educational community who are concerned with student behavior and its implications to society. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The following review of the literature is derived from the conceptual framework posited in Chapter I. This framework includes focusing on the four different theoret- ical perspectives. These include the psychological, the sociological, the socio-political and the technological perspectives. It is from these perspectives that teachers develop philosophy and establish practice in the classroom. Moreover, it is important to view all the parties who con- tribute to shaping classroom rules. These include not only the teacher, but also the students, the administration, and the school structure. It also includes those in the larger community who dictate policy and who represent the culture from which the rules are derived. Through this holistic view, we can better understand the issues concerning establishing classroom rules. The synoptic chart on page 15 depicts the interaction of the four perspectives and the parties involved in shaping classroom rules. Through understanding this interaction, we can better understand how social order is established in today's classroom, and why the term "discipline" has so many different meanings for educators, administrators, and parents alike. While theoretical information abounds concerning 20 21 classroom rule formation and student behavior, little empirical information is available concerning rule formation and few researchers have focused on the junior high school classroom. This is indeed unfortunate, since Brophy states the need for such a focus: "Students enter adolescence and are more interested in pleasing peers than pleasing teachers. Many become resentful and at least questioning of authority, and disruptions due to attention seeking, humorous remarks, and adolescent horseplay are common. The task facing teachers is not so much as instructing students about what to do as it is motivating or controlling students who know what to do but are not always willing to do it. Also, individual counseling becomes more prominent, as the relative quiet and stability most students show in the middle grades gives way to the adjustment problems of adolescence... (1982, p. 2, Note 6)." Due to the lack of sufficient empirical information focusing on junior high school classrooms, the review of literature will require inclusion of pertinent empirical studies of elementary and high school classrooms as well, since the largest number of studies concerning classroom behavior and rule formation has been carried out at this level, and since "Advanced planning and preparation, clarity about rules, routines, and procedures, care in installing these at the beginning of the year and following up thereafter, and regular use of techniques used by Kounin are important in any classroom (Brophy, 1982, p. 40, Note 6)." This review will examine four theoretical perspectives concerning rule formation and student behavior. It will 22 focus on their arguments, writers, supporting empirical research and programs derived from each perspective. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE The psychological perspective is a view which focuses on the role of the individual within the classroom organization and his/her interactions with others and the environment. This perspective is held by three distinct groups of theorists which WOlfgang and Glickman have labeled the noninterventionists, the interactionalists and the interventionists (1980). The Noninterventionists The noninterventionists believe that the student must learn to develop self-discipline through his or her self mastery. Noninterventionists include both the humanists and the psychoanalysts. The humanists believe in the inherent strength and goodness of the child and that the child is always seeking to succeed and grow in positive ways. The most noted humanist is Carl Rogers who states, "Human beings have a natural potential for learning...this potentiality and desire for learning, for discovery, for enlargement is a tendency that can be trusted and the whole approach to education builds the student's natural desire to learn (WOlfgang and Glickman, 1980, p. 12)." Another group of noninterventionists that regard the working of the inner person are the psychoanalysts. They view the child's nature differently than the humanists, 23 however: "They believe that instinctual inner drives can be destructive and must be raised to the conscious level in order for the person to channel these forces in a constructive manner (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1982, p. 12)." Both Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of the "inner person" and the humanists, view behavior as symptomatic of the person's inner processes. Noninterventionists, moreover, believe that misbehavior occurs when obstacles block the full range of rational thought. The goal is therefore to minimize and eliminate the obstacles that may occur. Programs Reflecting the Noninterventionist Position A number of writers have addressed this task through a variety of programs for the classroom teacher. Thomas Gordon has developed Teacher Effectiveness Training (1974), which emphasizes the teacher's warmth, acceptance and openness to the student and moreover prescribes communication and problem solving methods to be used in the classroom. These include using acceptant language, reflective listening, and "I" messages to help students reflect on their thoughts, actions and feelings. Gordon also stresses that teachers should learn to identify if the student misbehavior is a problem for the student or for the teacher. He terms this concept "problem ownership." 24 Transactional Analysis as conceived by Eric Berne (1964) and Thomas Harris (1969) is another communication model that focuses on the inner workings of the person. In Transactional Analysis, the writers code the messages that individuals send to each other. These codes are termed the child, the parent, and the adult, and correspond to Freud's id, ego and superego. The goal of the program is to help the teacher and student to understand the communication pattern that exists between them, the meanings of these patterns, and to foster the ability to evaluate their communication. The third popular humanistic program for classroom teachers is Louis Raths', Merrill Harmin's, and Sid Simon's values Clarification (1972). These authors believe that student misbehavior is due to a lack of personal values and codes of ethics. It is their aim to bring these values to light and to reflect on their impact and implications. This process helps students to learn to make choices and to evaluate the outcomes of those choices as well as to explore other alternatives. The teacher's role is to be acceptant of the student's values and to serve as clarifier of the student's beliefs. Other writers who represent the noninterventionist approach include Virginia Axline, Play Therapy (1969); A. S. Neill, Summerhill (1960); Clark Moustakas, The Authentic Teacher (1972). 25 Empirical Studies Reflecting the Noninterventionist Position While the noninterventionists seek to promote personal growth through valuing and acceptance of the individual, as yet there is little research to support their position. In part, this is because these programs are both new to many teachers and few have received training in order to implement them in the classroom (Brophy, 1982; Pigge, 1978). This lack of training was evident in a study conducted by Brophy and Rohrkemper who worked with 54 teachers from large innercity schools and 44 teachers working in smaller city schools. Few of these teachers had inservice or preservice training in dealing with management and discipline problems in the classroom and learned their skills on the job and from other teachers. Learning to cope with problem students came largely from trial and error and drawing from teacher "legend" and "bags of tricks." The researchers found that Gordon's concept of problem ownership was a useful one in predicting teachers' response to classroom problems. Teachers were presented with vignettes depicting student misbehavior and were interviewed to determine how they would respond to the student in the situation. When the teacher viewed the student as owning the problem for disruptive behavior, the teacher was largely sympathetic. However, when the teacher owned the problem caused by the disruptive student behavior, the teacher reacted unsympathetically and was often punitive. 26 According to these researchers, effective teachers were willing to deal with the students' problems and assume some responsibility for them. These teachers dealt with the problem personally, rather than referring the student to the principal or other specialist in the building. Effective teachers also worked with other personnel to help resolve the problem as well. These teachers sought long term, rather than short term solutions to the problems and worked with the students to understand the underlying cause of the problem, seeing misbehavior as symptomatic. These teachers would often spend time with the student, developing a personal relationship and employ Gordon's techniques of active listening. According to the researchers, effective teachers developed a caring, personal relationship with misbehaving students rather than a punitive rejecting approach. A study by Saba (1977) involving adolescents also supported the theory that the teacher's ability to communicate and accept students' feelings can have a result on classroom discipline. In a study of 15 secondary teachers, Saba found that teachers who were given a train- ing program in communications had success in dealing with problem students. Teachers in this study were trained in reflective listening and also in listening to the meaning inherent in the student's message. Treatment consisted in identifying a misbehaving student, contacting that student 27 whenever feasible and employing the listening strategies from the program. Incidents Of misbehavior dropped from 202 to 106 per week for grades 10-12 and 355 tO 110 per week in grades 7-9. Additionally, teachers said that they felt more optimistic and skillful in dealing with problem student behavior and also more Optimistic about students once termed "incorrigible." While the noninterventionists concern themselves with understanding students, they have not dealt specifically with rule formation in the classroom. This topic area is more specifically dealt with by the interactionalists who build on the ideas and theories Of the noninterventionists. Interactionalists The noninterventionists stress improved communications, development Of rapport between the student and teacher and acceptance Of the students' ideas and feelings. The interactionalists value these ideas as well, but see the child developing as the result Of the integration Of internal and external forces and conditions. Their approach is that Of John Dewey, who examines external Objective conditions as well as the internal conditions Of the individual. "Objective conditions cover a wide range. It includes what is done by the educator, not only words spoken, but the tone Of voice, in which they are spoken. It includes equipment, toys, books, apparatus, games played. It includes the materials with which an individual interacts and most important of all, the total 28 social setup Of the situations in which a person engages (Dewey, 1963, p. 5)." The interactionalists include those holding the view Of the whole child and his/her development. The growth Of the child is seen in the relationship to his/her society and it is the function Of the teacher to provide the correct environment to enhance this growth. Gestalt and social and developmental psychologists subscribe tO this notion, although they may emphasize different aspects Of it. The role Of the teacher is seen as interacting with the child and stimulating his/her growth. This growth is viewed as a push and pull Of internal and external forces. The teacher accepts the child's behavior tO a limit Of specified acceptability. When the child exceeds that limit both the teacher and the child adopt a mutually acceptable resolution. "The teacher is seen as clarifier, a boundary delineator and finally as an enforcer (WOlfgang and Glickman, 1980)." The teacher remains warm and supportive Of the child and either alone or together they decide on a remedy tO the problem. Children take responsibility for their actions under the teacher's direction and solutions to problems must be mutually agreed upon. Programs Which Reflect the Interactionalist Position Two writers who best represent the interactionalists are Rudolph Dreikurs (1968) and William Glasser (1975). Both have developed programs for the classroom teacher. 29 Dreikurs' program is based on the social theory Of Alfred Adler, who believed that the central motivation for all human beings is to belong and to be accepted by others (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). Dreikurs believes that the child possesses this basic need and desire but needs the help Of an adult to reach this aim. Moreover, Dreikurs believes that all misbehavior is purposive and has a goal Of its own. He identifies these goals as attention, power, revenge, and a sense Of inadequacy. The teacher determines which goal the child is trying tO fulfill based on the teacher's own emotional reaction to the child's misbehavior. For instance, a teacher may feel annoyed. This is a sign that the child's behavior is a need for attention. Once this is recognized the teacher intervenes with a specified set Of strategies. In calmer moments the teacher establishes a plan with the child to shape new behavior that will be socially acceptable to the group. This plan may include logical consequences for continued misbehavior. The teacher builds this into the plan and then assists the child through encouragement to achieve the desired behavior. According to Dreikurs, this combined approach supplies the support the child will need in achieving new apprOpriate behavior. However, the child may have tO experience the consequences for misbehavior during the period Of growth towards socially, appropriate behavior (Dreikurs, 1968). William Glasser, a psychiatrist, also adheres to the 30 notion Of logical consequences in forming classroom rules and in resolving individual problems Of misbehavior. Glasser believes that children and adults can become overly dependent upon therapists who engage in Freudian techniques and play therapy. In getting young people to accept responsibility for their behavior, he developed a model to deal with present behavior rather than seeking the causes for it. He terms this approach “Reality Therapy" (1975). He believes that human beings live in a world with other human beings and must not be allowed to interfere with their healthy behavior. Each individual must satisfy his/her own needs without violating the needs Of others. Moreover, Glasser believes that each individual is responsible for his/her actions and cannot excuse them for mental illness or ineptness. Glasser's model is built on success. When a child experiences success in academics and social behavior, the child is encouraged and will grow in positive ways. Therefore, it is important for the teacher to provide experiences that will lead to success. Glasser also proposes that the teacher must be a warm, caring, individual who involves him/herself with caring for the welfare Of the student by supporting them in a nurturing environment where they can grow and develop. Glasser worked with delinquent girls in a California school and discusses his work with them in the book Reality Therapy (1975). He also worked with public school children and his reflections Of schools and his work with students 31 is discussed in Schools Without Failure (1969). In his film "Glasser on Discipline" (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980) he states that there are certain principles tO adhere tO when establishing classroom rules. Students should know what the classroom rules are, should agree to those rules, have some say in making and changing those rules and know what will happen if those rules are broken. Moreover, Glasser believes that rules should be few in number and stated in positive language. Glasser also adheres tO Dreikurs' notion Of logical consequences rather than punitive behavior for those who break the rules. TO maintain classroom rules, Glasser recommends group discussions through meetings to discuss concerns Of the teacher and the group. These meetings may be problem solving meetings, Open-ended meetings, as a way to increase involvement and communication.and diagnostic meetings to determine what student needs are pertaining to the curriculum. These meetings are democratic in nature and students and teacher sit in a circle during the discussion. The teacher serves as the facilitator Of the meeting, guiding the discussion through a series Of questions. Glasser works with the nature Of the individual focus- ing on present behavior and commitment tO appropriate behavior. MOreover, he asks the teacher tO first lOOk to the environment tO see what may be bothering the student or group Of students. The teacher focuses also on his/her 32 present behavior. The teacher therefore looks at the importance Of the interaction Of inner and outer forces in determining behavior Of the student. Other writers who reflect the interactionalist approach are: John Holt, Freedom and Beyond (1967); Herbert Kohl, The Open Classroom (1969); Maria MOntessori, The Montessori Method (1964); Blessington, Let my Children Learn (1975); Don Dinkmeyer and Rudolf Dreikurs, Encour- aging Children tO Learn: The Encouragement Process (1963); and Al Mendler and Richard Curwin, Taking Charge Of Your Classroom (1983). Empirical Studies Reflectipg the Interactionalist Position Due to the relative newness Of the programs which have been cited, there is little systematic empirical research tO support them. However, a survey reported by Glasser (1977) indicates that teachers in schools where his program was adopted had fewer Office referrals, and that fightings and suspensions had decreased. A related study by Williams (1972) supported the position that students attain higher rates Of appropriate behavior when they are provided with the opportunity tO assist in classroom management. In this study students established both rules and contracts for their behavior. 33 The Interventionists The interventionists also support the notion of con- tracting. However, they rely on the concepts Of reward and punishment based on behavior modification principles. According to interventionists, the emphasis for shaping behavior relies on positive and negative sanctions administered by an adult. While the noninterventionists believe that the child develOps from the unfolding Of inner forces, and the interactionalists believe that the child develops from the interaction Of internal and external forces, the interventionists believe that the child evolves primarily as the result Of environmental influences alone. It is the belief Of Skinner (1971) and other behaviorists that all behavior is the result Of external stimuli from the environment. According tO these writers there is no rational man, that he is the result Of the shaping Of his environment. If a student misbehaves, it is because he/she is reacting in accordance with the reinforce- ments he/she has received for that behavior. Either the student has been rewarded for appropriate behavior or punished for inappropriate behavior from an adult. Programs Reflecting the Interventionist Position A number Of writers have addressed this notion when writing for the classroom teacher. It is their belief that students will seek appropriate behavior when it is 34 associated with pleasure and move away from inapprOpriate behavior when it is associated with discomfort. Based on this premise, behaviorists are not concerned with the inner workings Of the child and internal causes for the misbehavior. Instead, they concern themselves with the isolated behavior they seek tO extinguish and replace it with apprOpriate behavior. TO accomplish this goal they engage in a series Of reinforcements for appropriate behavior. According to Blackman and Silberman these include; 1. Token reinforcement - a value that can be exchanged for a reinforcing event or material. 2. Social Reinforcement - the use Of teacher praise, approval and attention after a student exhibits a desired behavior. 3. Primary reinforcement - an item that satisfies a biological need, such as candy, popcorn or other treats after a desired behavior is exhibited (1975). While many behaviorists encourage an emphasis on positive reinforcements, these may be negative as well (Axlerod, 1977; Bandura, 1979; Homme, 1970). Negative reinforcements may include happenings and activities that a student does not enjoy, such as staying after school, extra assignments, being scolded and being isolated. They are viewed as punishments for misbehavior, whereas positive reinforcements are viewed as rewards for appropriate behavior. In his bOOk, How tO Use Contingent Contracting in the 35 Classroom (1970), Homme states that the emphasis should be on positive reinforcement. In applying the reinforcer the teacher should take the following steps: 1. Immediately reward correct behavior. 2. Keep the rewards on small steps Of correct behavior. 3. Reward the behavior frequently. 4. Reward the accomplishment, not the Obedience. 5. Reward after the performance. Like Glasser, Homme recommends contracting with the student. However, in this case the teacher directs the nature Of the contract and the positive and negative reinforcers. For instance, the teacher may tell the student that for every hour they do not disturb the class they will receive a token. Ten tokens may be exchanged for a library pass or for free time. Behaviorists also recognize that students may be disruptive in the classroom. In these cases, "time out" areas Of isolation may be recommended or saturation principles applied. For instance, if a student has been throwing paper airplanes, he/she will be encouraged tO do so until he tires Of this activity and reaches a saturation point for this behavior. According tO these interventionists, inappropriate behavior should be ignored and appropriate behavior reinforced positively whenever possible. Those holding this view include Axlerod, Behavior Modification for the Classroom Teacher (1977); Blackman and Silberman, 36 Modification of Child and Adolescent Behavior (1975); Bandura, Social Learninngheory_(l977); and Madsen and Madsen, Teaching Discipline: Behavioral Principles Towards a Positive Approach (1970). Other behaviorists have stressed a model relying on punishment. Both Sigfried Englemann, Teaching Disadvantaged Children and Preventing Failure in the Primary Grades (1969) and James Dobson, Dare to Discipline (1970) have advocated the use Of corporal punishment tO gain control over student misbehavior. They reserve such punishment for young children. Englemann concerns himself with disadvantaged youth who have not had the advantages Of parenting found among other classes Of children. His only avenue for seeing that these children "make it" is through strict and Often physical enforcement Of proper rules Of behavior. Dobson draws upon the Old Testament Of the Bible for his example seeing it as the key to God's value system for mankind. It is from the Bible that he derives his position on corporal punishment. Assertive Discipline is a behavior modification program for the classroom teacher tO implement. Developed by Lee Canter and Marlene Canter (1979) the program aims tO return power to the teacher and is a "take charge" approach. This program is applicable both tO elementary and secondary teachers and is designed to include the principal and parents as well. Basically, the program 37 cites that both teachers and students have rights within the classroom and that neither is entitled to violate the rights Of each other. The teachers' rights include "1. The right to establish a classroom structure and routine that provides the Optimal learning environment in light Of your own strengths and weaknesses. 2. The right tO determine and request appropriate behavior from the students which meet your needs and encourage the positive social and educational development of the child. 3. The right to ask for help from parents, the principal, etc., when you need assistance with a child (1981, p. 8)." The student has rights tOO. Canter and Canter list those rights as "1. Have a teacher who is in a position to and will help the child limit his inappropriate behavior. 2. Have a teacher who is in the position to and will provide the child with positive support for his appropriate behavior, and 3. Choose how tO behave and know the consequences that will follow (1981, p. 8)." The primary belief Of Canter and Canter is that students have run away with power and it is time for the teacher tO regain the power that is inherent to the role Of teacher. "We believe that all students have a respon- sibility tO behave in a manner that prevents neither teachers from teaching nor students from learning or violates the best interest Of anyone in the school community (1982, p. 58)." The Canters are prescriptive about how teachers should establish classroom rules. Rules derived and stated by 38 the teacher should be few in number, and posted in a place where they can be seen. Consequences, both positive and negative should also be posted. Sample rules include 1. Follow directions the first time. 2. Bring all materials tO class. 3. NO hitting, fighting or throwing. They recommend a four step approach in dealing with disruptive students who violate classroom rules. Consequences that are recommended include 1. Name on the board 2. 15 minute detention 3. 30 minute detention and call parents 4. One hour detention and meet with the principal. Canter and Canter also recommend having confrontations with students who continually misbehave. "In an assertive confrontation you send the student the following message. I am the boss in this classroom. There is no way I will tolerate you from stopping me from teaching or someone from learning. You will behave in my classroom (1981, Follow-up Guide, p. 34)." Confrontations are to take place in private when the teacher is calm. The teacher is tO tell the student what he/she demands, why it is important and what will happen is he/she does not comply. The student is tO repeat each statement tO ensure that he/she understands. This is tO be followed by a behavioral contract determined by the teacher. 39 Teachers are also to set positive rewards or conse- quences for appropriate student and class behavior. These may include free time, parties, and special privileges. The Canters advise teachers tO praise every student every day, give certificates for good behavior that can be redeemed for special privileges. Peer pressure is recommended tO change an individual's misbehavior. For instance, if the class enforces that a student remain in his seat and work for an entire day the class will earn a popcorn party on Friday. The teacher is tO be specific about his/her demands. Teachers are advised tO enlist the help Of parents as well in enforcing classroom rules. A printed letter stating what the rules and consequences are is to be sent home tO the parents to be read, signed and returned to school. Principals are also tO receive a COpy Of the rules and are encouraged to back the teacher in his/her discipline plan. Students are to be tested on the rules to ensure that they understand the rules, even though they may disagree with them. The law and order nature Of the program is to be balanced by positive approaches Of teachers towards students who comply. Empirical Studies Reflecting the Interventionist Position While many studies on the effects Of behavior modification have been carried out in clinical settings and some studies have been conducted in elementary class- rooms, fewer studies Of this nature have been carried out 40 with secondary students. Perhaps the reason for this is that Older students do not respond as readily to primary reinforcements, such as sweets, or are any longer motivated tO work for grades alone. Even teacher praise appears tO be powerless in motivating many adolescent students (Note 7). This was shown clearly in a study by Vernon (1972) working in high school English classes. In the first phase Of the study teachers were told to reward appropriate student behavior with praise and to ignore student mis- behavior. By the end Of three weeks, undesirable behavior had increased. In the second phase Of the study, students were rewarded with good grades for improved behavior. While this was received favorably at first, its appeal soon wore Off, except with the most conscientious students. In the third phase Of the study, teachers rewarded students with tokens for appropriate behavior that could be used towards early dismissal on Fridays. This was immediately success- ful with students earning high rates Of tokens. Additionally, classifications Of behavior termed inapprOpriate drOpped from 34% to 8%. Students increased their academic performance as well; they were more motivated to work and spent less time in disruptive activities. It appears that the students in this study were motivated towards exhibit- ing appropriate behavior when free time was issued as a reward. Teacher praise and grades appeared tO be ineffective in stimulating appropriate student behavior. 41 Another study Of secondary students also indicates that students were willing to work towards appropriate behavior when free time was used as a token for gOOd behavior. A study by Sapp and others (1973) found successful outcomes when students were allowed to indicate both desirable and undesirable behaviors in the classroom and design a positive outcome for students who exhibited desirable behaviors. In the first Of three studies thirty disruptive SOphomores were asked tO name what behaviors they found to be disruptive. Students named talking out Of turn, inattentiveness and making noise as undesirable behaviors. They indicated that favorite activities were walking around the room, listening to records and talking to friends, all Of which were free time activities. When a contract was given to students indicating free time activities would follow desirable behavior, inappropriate behavior declined from 75% tO 15%. Setting goals and consequences proved to be effective when both the teacher and students worked together towards this end. While this proved to be effective as a short range intervention, it was not effective over time. When the reward Of free time was eliminated students returned to their former misbehavior. A study with different results was carried out by McAllister and others (1969). In spite Of the findings by Vernon that students will not reduce misbehavior contingent 42 on teacher praise, McAllister found that the teacher in his study was effective in motivating students towards appropriate behavior through praise. The difference in the studies is that McAllister's teacher had already established rapport with her students prior to the study, and that she also verbally reprimanded students for mis- behavior as well. It appears that students may respond to praise when the teacher is known to them and his/her regard is valued. While the effects of public praise were made known in these studies among adolescents, the effects of private praise among teenagers have not been researched. It is interesting to note that such praise was found to be effective among children in upper elementary grades. Brophy found that praise was effective when certain prin- ciples were followed and led to encouragement Of students to respond in appropriate ways. Such praise was private, specific, and attributed to ability and accomplishment, rather than effort alone. This praise was an authentic expression by the teacher and not viewed as manipulative. Public praise that was spontaneous appreciation Of out- standing and surprising accomplishment was also effective (1981). The effects of this type of praise among adoles- cents remains tO be studied. 43 Combined Approach Of the Psychological Perspectives The three schools Of thought regarding discipline include the noninterventionists, the interactionalists, and the interventionists. Each regards the nature Of the individual as primary in explaining classroom discipline. While the authors differ in their emphasis and approach, they share many themes in common. According tO Brophy these include "...respect for student individuality and tolerance for individual differences, willingness to try to understand, and assist students with special needs and problems, reliance on instruction and persuasion rather than power assertion, and humanistic values generally. However, they also recognize that students have responsibilities along with their rights, and that they will have to suffer the consequences if they persist in failing those rights to fulfill those responsibilities (Brophy, 1982, p. 47, Note 7)." Programs for Teachers Utilizing the Combined Approach While these theories have been presented as separate concepts, writers, researchers and teachers have been combining these concepts in the classroom in an eclectic approach. Many writers are calling for such an approach by viewing the teacher as a professional rather than a technician alone - an educator capable of making appropriate decisions. These writers include Wolfgang and Glickman (1980); Brophy (Note 6); Pattavina and Gotts (1981); and Leviton (1981). 44 Empirical Studies Utilizing the Combined Approach Empirical studies also reflect the effectiveness Of such combined approaches. For instance, Mary Rohrkemper (1981, Note 7) found that in a followup study Of teachers dealing with problem behavior type students, that a combination Of behavior modification techniques and inductive controls was more effective as an approach than either approach used alone. While this study was carried out with elementary students, combined approaches also seem effective with adolescents. Tobin and Capie (Note 8) found that group counseling along with educational performance contracts was effective in dealing with serious behavior problems among junior high schOOl students. Stevenson (1980) had similar findings and recommends a treatment model which allows latitude within a framework Of rules, group counseling and individual educational performance contracts. "These ideas appear to mesh nicely with the role Of the teacher as a professional with particular expertise and specific but limited responsibilities to students and their parents, and with certain rights as instructional leaders and authority figures in the classroom (Brophy, 1982, p. 47, Note 6)." Summary Of the Psychological Perspective The psychological theories include three individual schools Of thought. Additionally, empiricists cite that many teachers draw upon these schools Of thought in a combined or eclectic approach when establishing and 45 maintaining classroom rules. While those holding psychological perspectives focus on the nature Of the child in explaining student behavior, others lOOk at how the social and physical structure Of the school shape individual behavior within the classroom. This view is represented within the sociological perspective. Sociological Perspective When considering how rules are formulated both formally and informally, many writers have focused on the structure Of the classroom and the school. These writers view the student within the group and structural environ- ment. They employ ethnographic methodology and concern themselves with roles, customs and status' Of group members. In this section Of the review, we will include empirical studies Of the social interactions within classrooms and the wider school structure, and the ways that the rules shape the behavior Of the participants within the setting. Moreover, we will include writers who have addressed the role Of the administration and school policy and its subsequent effects in shaping class- room rules as well. While the sociological perspective is represented in empirical studies Of rule formation, to date few programs for the classroom teacher have been derived from this view. Those pertinent programs which have emerged will be presented. 46 Organizational Structure Of the Classroom Writer and researcher Phillip Jackson (1968) suggests that a true body Of latent rules exist in the classroom that are the result Of the structure Of both the classroom and school organization. While his studies focused on early elementary classrooms, the implications can easily be drawn to secondary classrooms as well. Indeed, he refers tO the continuous pattern Of school and schooling that is developed at an early age. Jackson's work took place over a two-year period Of time and involved him as an ethnographic researcher in four classrooms. He suggests that students learn a hidden curriculum or set Of latent rules, that Operate within his classroom realm. These he calls the three facts Of life —- crowds, praise and pgygr. Students come tO view the teacher as gatekeeper Of discussions, timekeeper and supply sergeant. The student does not share in this power and subsequently learns the meaning Of self-denial, delay, interruption and social distraction. In other words, students must learn to behave and perform within a crowd in such a way, that they set aside their own interests and desires, subjugating them to the teachers. The student will learn to do this since she/he is primarily in an evaluative setting and "good" evaluations also carry with them "good" rewards. These evaluations are both public and private and come from the teacher, peers and the student's self-judgement as well. The 47 evaluations pertain to not only academic achievement, but also to social behavior. "Although the student's task in adjusting to evaluation is made easier by common teaching practices, he still has a job tO do. In fact he has three jobs. The first, and most Obvious, is to behave in such a way as to enhance the likelihood Of praise and reduce the likelihood Of punishment. In other words, he must learn how the reward system Of the classroom Operates and then use that knowledge to increase the flow Of rewards to himself. A second job, although one in which students engage with differing degrees Of enthusiasm, consists Of trying to publicize positive evaluations and conceal negative ones... A third job... consists Of trying to win two audiences at the same time. The problem for some is how to be a gOOd student while remaining a good guy, how to be at the head Of the class, while remaining at the center Of the group (Jackson, 1968, p. 26)." Organizational Structure Of the School Studies Of both senior high schools and junior high schools support the findings Of Phillip Jackson. They examine the school structure in order to explain rules and student and teacher behavior. Indeed, Cusick states in Inside High School, "The lesson may be that if one is dissatisfied with the way schools are run, rather than examining individual teacher behavior, perhaps he should begin to think about the school's basic organizational structure (1973, p. 76)." In his ethnographic study Of a secondary high school, Cusick states that the goal Of maintaining the organization generates a body Of latent and manifest rules, and that these rules may serve as a substitute for teacher—student 48 interaction. Moreover, teachers in this study were more firm in enforcing Obedience tO organizational rules and less concerned with issues Of student achievement and situations which were hazardous to individuals. In a classroom study on rule formation in an urban junior high school, Stanard (Note 4) had similar findings. The teacher in this study enforced procedural rules and rules pertaining to academic achievement, but did not concern herself with individual problems of her students related to drug usage, illness, and even the positive problem Of student giftedness. These were left tO other specialists in the school. Cusick addresses this notion Of specialists within the school organization and states that the organizational structure Of a large comprehensive high school is vertical in nature. The characteristics Of this structure are "1. Subject matter specialization 2. Doctrine Of adolescent inferiority 3. Downward Communication flow 4. Batch processing Of students 5. Routinization Of activity 6. Future reward orientation 7. Supporting physical structure (1973, p. 208)." Cusick suggests that these characteristics led students in his study tO form student groups and subgroups to meet the needs Of human interaction, since little meaningful 49 interaction existed within the structure. However, this interaction was seen as an adaptation, a compensation tO the intended goals Of education. Stanard had similar findings. Junior high school English students who finished their work early had literally nothing tO do in the classroom in her study. These students interacted with each other planning drug activities for the day, talking about social activities, and apending at least 60% Of their time in non-academic activities. The teacher in this study spent an equal amount of time in record keeping, correcting papers, and tending to the goals Of the organization. In both studies latent rules came into existence. Students learned to fulfill the goals Of the organization by following the procedural rules Of the classroom. These rules took precedence over academic goals and meeting their individual concerns . School Rules Duke argues that schools are rule-governed organizations and that students have historically been barred from creating rules that govern their lives on a daily basis. Yet several studies Of secondary schools indicate that behavior problems tend to diminish when students and teachers share the responsibility for developing and enforcing rules (Duke, 1980). Moreover, Duke states that schools which have fewer behavioral rules for students 50 tend to have fewer discipline problems in the building (Duke, 1980). A brief list Of expectations concerning student behavior appears to assume that students will behave appropriately. Duke also identified a latent set Of rules within the school that stressed competition rather than cooperation. Schools tend tO reward competitive athletics and individual student achievement, rather than group achievement and service to the school. Thus a student learns to work with him or herself rather than working for the mutual benefit Of the group (1980). Since both these latent and manifest rules exist, Duke argues that students should have input into the rules. "School and classroom rules as well as their consequences should be decided upon collaboratively among teachers, students and administrators (1980, p. 47)." Both the White House Conference on Youth and the National Panel on High School and Adolescent Education endorsed the belief that students have a right and a responsibility tO be involved in decisions concerning school rules, curriculum and teacher evaluation (Duke, 1980). "Creating in students a sense Of feeling that they share in the Operations Of schools is a key element in the encouragement Of productive student behavior (Duke, 1980, p. 47)." 51 Administration Student behavior and rule formation may additionally be affected by other organizational characteristics Of the school including administrative policy, administrative behavior, and enforcement problems. In California high schools, students cited a number Of factors that led to student misbehavior "1. Uneven application Of discipline by the staff and favoritism towards student government cliques 2. School smoking regulations 3. Unfair and authoritarian administration practices 4. Poor counseling services 5. Lack Of a student role in decision making 6. Tracking 7. Oppressive school policies (suspension, clothing codes and so forth) 8. Discrimination against low income students through the assessment Of fees for participation in school activities (California State Department of Education, 1973, p. 9)." In reviewing empirical studies Of secondary school structure, Duke also states that effective administrators who work cooperatively with the staff in policy making create a more favorable environment for teachers and students. The authors, moreover, state that the size Of the school has not been correlated with student behavior, although it appears that large secondary schools carry 52 with them the potential for alientation which may contribute to student misbehavior (Duke, 1980). Duke firmly maintains that Organizational characteristics can be extremely important influences on student behavior problems and can be minimized through organizational change... It would be well to investigate the handful Of schools where comprehensible organizational change has been attempted. Such schools include alternative schools and Individually Guided Education schools. Other studies could compare conventional public schools to private or parochial schools, which frequently are organized differently (Duke, 1982, p. 160)." Programs Derived from the Sociological Perspective Some writers have developed programs for varying the learning environment. They stress pro-social activities by having students work in cooperative groups (Johnson and Johnson, 1975) and other methods involving grouping Of students in interdependent ways. Brophy states "Prosocial Outcomes can be expected when students from different groups are not merely brought together but involved in cooperative activities, especially inter- dependent activities that require the active participation Of all group members tO insure successful accomplishment Of the group mission (Brophy, 1982, p. 19)." An example Of these programs are The Jigsaw Approach (Aronson and others, 1978), The Teams-Games Tournaments (Devries, 1980) and Cooperative Learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1975). Slavin (1980) found that cooperative groups Often led to increased contacts among students inside and outside Of class, led to improved achievement 53 and improved interpersonal relations as well. Johnson and Johnson had similar findings (1975). TO have an understanding of student behavior within the classroom, it is important to understand the social organization Of the classroom as well. While these programs have not addressed formal rule formation, they have focused on shaping the environment which leads to shaping the informal rules. Summary Of the Sociological Perspective Writers within the sociological perspective have focused on ways in which the structure Of the classroom and the school shape student behavior. Indeed, they state that students come to know not only the manifest or formal rules, but also the latent and informal rules which govern their lives in schools. Writings within the sociological perspective represent a smaller body Of knowledge than writings within the psychological perspective Of student behavior. Their importance lies in providing an insight to latent or informal classroom rules. A third perspective on rule formation is the socio-political perspective. Within this view, writers state that classroom and school rules are a mirror Of the larger society from which schools are derived. 54 Socio-political Perspective Many writers utilize a socio-political perspective in explaining rule formation and student behavior in the schools. This perspective, closely related to the sociological view, argues that rules in the school and classroom take their form from the larger society and reflect the goals Of the social and political system which support education. Indeed, schools are not the change agents they claim to be, but are actually subsystems Of a larger organization that seeks to maintain itself. In this section Of the review Of the literature, we will focus on the history Of this pattern in American schools, on the nature Of the social political system which repeats itself in the schools and on the outcome of the latent rules that determines the behavior Of both teachers and students within the school. Writings will include both philosophical and empirical studies. History Of Socio:political Influence in the American School Many writers have focused on the development Of educational philOSOphy over the centuries concerning the nature Of the child. According to these writers it is not educational philosophy that determined how schools were conducted and how the child was educated. "The dominant metaphor for educational theory in the early twentieth century was not drawn from the educational philosophy Of John Dewey or even from romantic notions Of child- hood, but from corporate management (Kliebard, in Pinar, 1975, p. 51)." 55 Indeed, Cubberly, and later Taylor, argued for efficiency in the school, and Taylor set out to reform it with his principle Of scientific management. The education Of the child was tO be uniform in practice and was to deliver a uniform product. Under Taylor's notion, productivity is central and the child is merely one step in the productivity system (Kliebard, in Pinar, 1975; Callahan, 1962; Tyack, 1974; Perrow, 1979). The "cult Of efficiency" (Callahan, 1962) soon spread to include the form Of management within the school. School administrators took pride in adapting the language and practice Of their industrial counterparts and adopted their practices in the education Of the young. "Products" in terms Of test scores and economic efficiency were revered not only by the administrators, but also by the school boards who paid their salaries. These boards were typically composed Of members Of the business community (Callahan, 1962; Perrow, 1979; Tyack, 1974). Not only did the efficiency doctrine effect the way schools were run, but it affected the curriculum itself. Bobbitt stressed that the child was "raw material" to be shaped and develOped by the teacher according to the child's means and ability (Kliebard in Pinar, 1975). Children were assessed by guidance departments and their program Of study was determined by setting the direction Of the individual for life. Thus, the society had uniform 56 products in each area for which it needed a supply. Schools produced "good" factory workers, laborers, managers, and clerical workers (Kliebard, in Pinar, 1975). Nature of Society in American Schools Many writers argue that American schools proclaim to reflect democratic principles, but in fact more closely reflect a capitalistic social system. Within this system there is a boss who "owns" the power and the goods and there are workers who exist to please him and enjoy the fruits Of their labor through shared profits in the form Of salaries (Pinar, Apple, Kliepard, Mann, in Pinar, 1975). "...we have the contradiction between certain democratic political rights and our subjugation to racist, sexist and economic exploitation. ...The same contradiction controls the condition Of democracy in the schools. While teaching about the principles of democratic rights, schools routinely violate those rights in order to prepare the young to be docile functionaries in a capitalistic social system... Since schools serve to ratify the social structure rather than change it, social reconstructionistic efforts to transform society through the school are doomed to failure (Mann and Molnar in Pinar, 1975, p. 171)." » Thus Jackson (1968) states that the student learns to wait, tO squelch self desire in order to please the teacher, who in essence is his first "boss" preparing him for the later world Of work. Apple (in Pinar, 1975) concurs, stating that the student quickly learns to abandon his/her own interests and learns to "fit the subject" being taught. 57 Thus, the latent rules Of schools and schooling are drawn from the larger soceity and reflect themselves not only in the organization Of schools, their management, but moreover, in the very subject matter being taught. Empirical Studies Within the Socio-Political Perspective Researchers have also noted this existence in their writings. Cusick in his conclusions on Inside High School (1973), states that schools are indeed a maintenance subsystem a larger society - a society formed by organi- zational systems. He cited Katz and Kahn as saying "The primary duties Of the maintenance subsystem in any organization are tO (l) socialize new members, (2) teach and enforce society's reward structure, (3) give the society permanence, and (4) insure that the mechanisms designed to implement the productive structure Of society are carried out smoothly and their disruption prevented (Cusick, p. 222)." Cusick's study overwhelmingly affirms that the school did carry out these functions. It taught its students how to get along in an organizational society and tO be the kind Of people organizations need. "If we ask, 'Did Horatio Gates do these things?’ I think that the answer would have to be 'Yes.‘ It did what it was supposed to do. It taught its students how to get along in an organizational society and to be the kind of peOple that organizations need. Those students who adjusted so well and with so much sophistication to Horatio Gates will have little difficulty adjusting equally well and with an equally acceptable degree Of com- pliance to their jobs at General Motors, Sears, the U.S. Army, the New York State Electric and Gas Corporation, the A & P Company, Bell Telephone, or any of the large, impersonal, 58 bureaucratic, future-reward-oriented organ- izations that make up the bulk Of America's economic and social life. Horatio Gates, like those other organizations, demanded only a part Of the whole person. Specifically, it demanded that students (1) accept a limited role, which required only part Of their faculties for a set number Of hours each day, (2) promised them future-oriented rewards in return, and (3) provided a not- unpleasant environment where they were free to exercise other faculties in search Of other rewards as long as that activity did not interfere with the organization. They will be similarly free to do the same at work, and those who adjust well tO the school-defined role Of 'student' will have little trouble adjusting tO the factory- defined role of 'worker', or the store- defined role Of 'salesman' or 'consumer', or the state-defined role Of taxpayer, voter, and law-abiding citizen (Cusick, 1973, p. 220-221)." Philips' study takes note Of another aspect Of society which formulates rules governing institutions. It is the ruling class Of the organizational structure that determines what culture will be represented in the schools. Since ours is a white man's culture with a white man's tax base, it is this culture which dominates. She states "Because it is difficult to envision a social system in which there is true cultural pluralism without pluralistic economic bases to support them, and few people are willing to turn over their economic basis to minority or poverty groups freely (that is, without a 'revolution'), full-scale adaptation of school systems to children from culturally diverse backgrounds is rarely considered. Rather, it is assumed we must somehow make it possible for the minority-poverty children to 'catch up'; i.e., to be given special remedial, develOp- mental sequences (Philips, 1972, p. 99, note 5)." 59 Philips notes the failure Of the school at Warm Springs to have involvement with the Indian population, its staffing Of all white personnel except in lower- Ordered maintenance jobs, its assumption that Indian children were deprived rather than culturally different, all pointed tO an attempt at obliterating their culture and regarding them as inferior persons. She concludes, "The teacher-student relationship, however, is one which regardless Of ethnic and age differences the expectation holds that it will be the teacher who ultimately authorizes or determines what is right or wrong, meaningful or meaningless, true or false... The teacher in our public schools, then, derives her authority to define what is meaningful from sources that are given considerable validation and support in our society. And because Of the extent to which the teacher has the far greater power in determining the meaningful system of communication in the classroom, in the American public school system. Indian children who experience cultural conflict in the classroom also experience efface- ment or obliteration Of their culture in that context (Philips, 1980, p. 12, Note 5)." It would appear these two researchers found the guiding elements shaping American schools tO be a white man's society composed Of organizations and bureaucracies. Furthermore, their data suggest schools have been patterned after a white man's factory model. Theoretical Arguments Regarding the School as a Factory 229221. In Education and the Cult Of Efficiengy, Callahan (1962) concurs that the school is not merely based on the factory model: its governing board is usually 60 composed of elected Officials who come from the business community and reinforce the notion Of economic efficiency and product accountability. Thus test scores Of student achievement take precedence over socialization goals and the limited amount Of time teachers are expected to spend on personal development and social development Of their students vanishes in the press for a show Of academic achievement. The results Of this type Of thinking have consequences not only for student behavior but for their academic achievement as well. Callahan states that educational goals are not reflected in the goals Of a factory organization that serve as a model for schools. "...America will need to break with its traditional practice strengthened so much in the age Of efficiency, Of asking how our schools can be Operated most economically and begin asking instead what steps need to be taken tO provide an excellent education for children. We must face the fact that there is no cheap, easy way to educate a human being and that a free society cannot endure without educated men (Callahan, 1962, p. 264)." And finally philosopher Willis Moore in his work Indoctrination and Democratic Method (SnOOk, 1972) states that many educators truly do not want students to question and evaluate the system which they are a part Of but to accept it in order tO maintain its continuation. Kliebard also cites the need to reexamine the practice Of efficiency in order tO preserve the integrity Of the student. 61 "...The price for worship at the altar Of efficiency is the alienation Of the worker from his work - where the continuity Of wholeness Of the enterprise are destroyed for those who engage in it (in Pinar, 1975, p. 66)." While Kliebard warns of the destruction Of intellectual activity, Freire discusses the phenomenon in more political terms. "The oppressed suffer from the quality which has established itself in their inner- most being... They are at one time themselves and the Oppressor whose consciousness they have internalized (in Pinar, 1976, p. 364)." Additionally, Freire sees that schooling that prohibits the student from inquiry and exploration is actually inviting the student to become less than human. "Knowledge emerges only through invention, reinvention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful, inquiry men pursue in the world, with the world and with each other (in Pinar, 1975, p. 361)." Summary of the Socio-Political Perspective Thus when we discuss how rules are formed both formally and informally in junior high school classrooms, writers who reflect the socio-political perspective state that it is prudent to keep in mind that these rules may be a reflection Of the expectations Of the larger society which determines what and how information will be dis- seminated. Moreover, according to these writers, society may also cue teachers how tO conduct classrooms due tO selection Of these same teachers, grievances brought 62 against them for noncompliance with society's goals (Cusick, 1973; Peshkin, 1982; Note 5) and through the economic rewards and structure Of the school. "...human groups in all societies seek...to maintain an unbroken continuity between the generations. They desire this continuity in order to survive in physical terms and, of course in cultural terms, i.e., to perpetuate particular behavior and norms (Peshkin, in Spindler, 1982, p. 64)." Writers of the socio—political perspective view the school as adopting a "factory model." A derivative or extension Of this view can be found in the tech- nological perspective. Technological Perspective Writers who reflect the technological perspective focus on the teacher's behavior and on student behavior as well. In particular, isolated teacher behaviors, or clusters Of behavior are studied in relation to student performance on measures Of academic achievement. Teacher behavior is therefore viewed as a "process", and student behavior a "product." The goal of process-product research is to identify those behaviors that relate to improved student achievement, and replicate those behaviors for other teachers. The technological perspective con- cerning classroom rule formation is reflected in the research on classroom management and is reflected in studies on praise and teacher expectations. It is from these studies that the most definitive work can be found 63 concerning how classroom rules are formulated both formally and informally. Thus, these teacher behaviors are seen as "prescriptions" that are both desirable and replicable in other contexts. from The technological approach is therefore derived the larger socio-economic system. As House states "...the technological perspective remains strong today, and is by far the most dominant Of the perspectives. For example, the current competency testing movement is derived from such a perspective. Learning is conceived Of as being reducible to a set Of tasks. These tasks can be identified as learning Objectives and measured by test items. Teaching can be focused on these particular Objectives, using techniques and materials that most efficiently achieve these tasks. The process is analogous to a task analysis Of a job in industry. The efficiency engineer analyzes the job into separate tasks, then times the performance Of those tasks. This is called efficiency engineering or scientific management. What is significantly different about competency testing, as compared to previous technological approaches, is that rewards and punishments are attached to successful performance Of these tasks, a situation closer to that in industry. What characterizes the technological perspective, however, is the way that formulating and addressing problems is approached. Teaching and innovation are technologies (or should be). Solutions are techniques that are replicable and transferable to other situations. Technological thinking selecting the most efficient means to a given end is the mode Of rationality (House, in Leming & Kane, 1981, p. 23)." 64 Empirical Studies Of Classroom Management "The growing complexity Of the job Of teaching is reflected in changes in terminology. Shiavkov and Redl wrote about discipline, 'Classroom management now constitutes a more effective term... the term encompasses the provisions and procedures necessary tO establish and main- tain an environment in which instruction can occur' (Duke, 1982, p. v11)." It is from the body Of classroom management studies that the most definitive research on developing classroom rules in junior high schools can be found. It is important to note that the focus Of each Of these studies is on the teacher's responsibility to the group or class Of students entrusted to his/her care rather than to the individual student. Tanner states "At the heart of the teacher's concern is the classroom group. Most Of what we do in classrooms is undertaken to promote the achievement Of the classroom group (1978, p. 12)." The importance of smooth functioning Of classroom groups is summed up in this statement by Dunkin and Biddle "It seems to us that adequate management Of the classroom environment also forms the necessary condition for cognitive learning, and if the teacher cannot solve problems in this sphere, we can give the rest Of teaching away (1974, p. 135)." The area Of classroom management therefore appears to be a useful one to study regarding establishing classroom rules. In his review Of the literature on classroom management, Brophy suggests that there are certain basic 65 assumptions inherent in the investigations "One is that the teacher is both the authority figure and the instructional leader in the classroom... A second basic assumption is that good classroom management implies good instruction and so forth... A third basic assumption is that...Optimal classroom organ- ization and management strategies are not merely effective, but cost effective (1982, p. 4)." Jacob Kounin was one Of the earliest researchers to investigate the notion Of what constitutes effective classroom management. In his book Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms (1970) he and his colleagues discuss the characteristics Of effective managers. These include, the general characteristics Of "withitness" and overlapping. Teachers who exhibit these traits continually monitor the classroom and its activities and are able to perform more than one function at the same time. These teachers also demonstrate the variables Of smoothness, momentum, signal continuity, challenge arousal, group alerting and accountability during their lessons and group recitations. Moreover, they use variety in their teaching and are able to assign appropriate levels Of work for their students. These same teachers are unobtrusive in their confrontations with misbehaving students in order not to call other students' attention away from learning in a "ripple effect" Of disturbance. Effective teachers intervene and stop misbehavior before it escalates. 66 While Kounin's work focused on maintenance Of classroom rules and procedures, the first major study Of the establishment Of classroom rules was carried out by Anderson, Evertson and Emmer in elementary classrooms (1980). The researchers found that effective classroom teachers devoted the first day and much Of the first three weeks Of school to establishing classroom procedures and rules. The first few academic activities were simple and enjoyable, allowing for early success for the students. The teachers engaged in whole group instruction and did not introduce small group instruction until after basic routines and rules were established. They instructed students on what to do in clear behavioral terms and monitored their students carefully, intervening when necessary. While these studies focused on elementary classrooms, Evertson and Emmer later studied rule formation and classroom management in junior high classrooms. Their findings were similar to the study Of classroom management in elementary classrooms, but differed in some respects. In general, junior high school teachers did not have to spend as much time establishing rules and procedures as elementary teachers did. However, specific clusters Of behavior characterized the most effective managers in the junior high school group. (1) Effective teachers had more complete systems 67 Of rules and were more explicit about what constituted correct behavior than ineffective teachers. (2) Effective teachers monitored behavior, gave feedback for misbehavior and were consistent in enforcing classroom rules. (3) Effective teachers had detailed systems Of accountability and kept careful track of student work. (4) Effective teachers had clear understandings Of their students learning skills. They were able to communicate material clearly and were able to break down complex learning tasks into small steps. (5) Effective managers had more on-task behavior and engaged students in learning (in Duke, 1982). In Helping Teachers Manage Classrooms (Duke, 1982), Evertson and Emmer suggest that teachers engage in three phases Of preventive discipline before beginning the school year. These include "(1) determining expected behaviors, (2) translating expectations into procedures and rules, (3) identifying consequences (in Duke, 1982, p. 11)." Based on their research, Evertson and Emmer suggest that junior high school teachers state and post classroom rules so that both the teacher and student can see them and refer to them when necessary. Posted rules may covertly curb inappropriate behavior. Moreover, they suggest that the posted rules are a clear expectation Of what is viewed 68 as appropriate or inappropriate behavior in the classroom. While many elementary teachers involve students in rule formation, the researchers state that junior high school teachers Often do not, since these teachers meet with five different classes Of students each day and could end up with different sets Of rules for each group. While procedures are usually specific, the classroom rules point to mOre general ways to behave. For instance rules might state, "Respect your neighbor. Listen while others speak. NO hitting, running or shoving". The researchers state that teachers should also prepare ahead Of time to allow for consequences for misbehavior. Such penalties could include time out, warning systems followed by checks leading to detentions or repetitive activities like laps in the gym (in Duke, 1982). Teacher Expectations The literature on Teacher Expectations additionally contributes to knowledge Of classroom discipline. Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson's controversial study Pygmalion in the Classroom (1968) cites how teachers' beliefs about students are visible through verbal and non- verbal cues tO the student who then reacts in behaviors to confirm the teacher's belief - thus completing a self- fulfilling prophecy. Good and Brophy confirmed these findings and later examined the function of praise in 69 the classroom (1980) as an additional aspect Of self- fulfilling prophecies. Some teachers appear to hold differential expectations for the behavior Of boys and girls in their classroom and subsequently shape student behavior to fulfill these same expectations. Girls are rewarded for passivity, neatness and compliance. Boys are rewarded for exploration and thought content. Therefore, classrooms may be filled with children who comply with their teacher's expectation (Brophy, 1981) and the same expectations Of society as well (Podegrin, 1980; Fox, 1977). Summary Of the Technological Perspective The technological perspective, therefore, appears to be an outgrowth Of the socio-political system and has contributed knowledge Of rule formation through studying specific clusters Of teacher behavior. Results Of these studies have led tO "prescriptions" for other classroom teachers tO utilize in establishing classroom rules. A large body Of current research continues within this perspective since "It is not likely that the technological perspective will disappear in such a technological society (House, in Leming & Kane, 1981, p. 22). Summary Of the Literature What We Know ConcerninngIassroom Rule Formation The literature concerning how classroom rules are formulated both formally and informally contains the 70 writers Of theory, empirical studies, and educational program developers. It is a vast amount Of work in the theoretical realm. The literature reflects four bodies Of writings representing distinct theoretical positions. These are the psychological, the sociological, the socio- political, and the technological. The psychological perspective informs us Of individual behavior and is represented in the writings Of the noninterventionists, the interactionalists and the interventionists (Wolfgang and Glickman, 1980). The majority Of these writings have been in the realm Of theory. However, studies Of individual behavior have been carried out as well, and the largest number of these have concerned themselves with behavior modification theory. Two leading discipline programs have emerged from the psychOlOgical perspective. These are Glasser's Reality Therapy (1970) and Lee Canter and Marlene Canter's Assertive Discipline (1981). Both programs deal specifically with rule formation at the junior high school level. The sociological perspective focuses on the social and structural environment Of classrooms and its subsequent effect on student behavior. Additionally, the school administration affects rule formation as well and impacts student behavior. This perspective was reflected in school studies by Duke and Cusick who focused on secondary schools. Leading programs which reflect this perspective 71 are Johnson and Johnson's Cooperative Learning (1975); DeVries' Teams-Games Tournaments (1980) and Aronson's The Jigsaw Approach (1978). Additionally, the socio-political perspective maintains that schools are not independent entities Operating on educational principle alone, but are a reflection Of the larger society which creates and maintains their existence. While this is a theoretical position, empiricists support it as well. And finally, the technological perspective is represented through process-product studies Of classrooms. Empirical studies from classroom management have informed us Of the characteristics Of effective teachers in establishing classroom rules and maintaining prosocial behavior in the classroom. This work has focused primarily on elementary classrooms and only recently has a definitive study on junior high school classrooms emerged. Studies Of teacher expectations and praise suggest that teachers help shape pupil behavior as well. What We Don't Know Concerning Classroom Rule Formation While theory abounds concerning student behavior and rule formation and discipline programs are developed for the classroom teacher, there is a disappointingly small body Of empirical data to support these positions and programs. In part, this is due to the relative newness Of such programs, but also it is due to the 72 complexity Of the issue Of student behavior. While some empiricists have focused on individual aspects Of student and teacher behavior, fewer have looked at the issue in a holistic manner. Additionally, each perspective has been viewed independently and an interdependent view has not been addressed. Those studies that have taken place have focused primarily on elementary classrooms and very little information is available on life in junior high school classrooms. The State Of Knowledge Regarding Classroom Rule Formation The state Of knowledge regarding how classroom rules are formulated both formally and informally in junior high school claSsrooms is in its infancy. Little systematic Observation has taken place at this grade level, although educators report adolescents to be a challenging age group in terms Of student behavior. Additionally, classroom studies which have been carried out have focused on isolated variables and no holistic empirical data exist to explain rule formation and student behavior. Empiricists, moreover, have not viewed the perspectives as interacting, but have treated them as separate entities. Only by looking at such interactions can we truly come tO understand "what goes on here" and what meaning this has for the participants. In this study the researcher has addressed the issue Of rule formation by viewing such an interaction among all 73 the participants in the setting through an ethnographic approach. The following chapter describes the methodology used tO carry out the study which led to a comprehensive understanding Of how rules were formulated both formally and informally in two classrooms in a rural junior high school. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY In order to understand how rules are formulated both formally and informally in classrooms, it is necessary to view the daily lives Of all the participants within the setting. The best means for carrying such an investigation is the ethnographic research method which aims at understanding what occurs in the natural setting of everyday lives Of people and the meaning they bring to it. Philosophically, ethnography is based in phenomenology (Ihde, 1979) and methodologically it is based upon a field work approach that had its roots in anthropology (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973; Agar, 1980). In his 1975 address tO the American Psychological Association, Lee Cronbach stated, "to know man is no mean aspiration (p. 247)." It is this knowing Of what goes on and its meaning to participants that ethnographers strive for. In this chapter the researcher explores the aims, and assumptions Of the ethnographic research method. She additionally views the sources Of data and the design for carrying out the study on rule formation. Finally, she concludes with the method Of analysis Of data which led to a grounded theory concerning how rules were formulated both formally and informally in two eighth grade English classes. 74 75 Sources Of Data In order to answer the research questions presented in Chapter I, the researcher used multiple data collection tools over a twelve week period of time. Six sources Of data were used in this study; field notes, questionnaires, interviews, slide photographs, tape recordings and written documents. These sources included Wilson's (1977) categories for relevant data. "1. Form and content Of verbal interaction between participants 2. Form and content Of verbal interaction with the researcher 3. Nonverbal behavior 4. Patterns of action and nonaction 5. Traces, archival records, artifacts, documents (in Anang, 1982, Note 8)." Zeldich (in McCall and Simmons, 1969) states that different methods Of data collection are best suited to particular Objectives. For frequency distributions, enumerations and distributions are the best form. Incidents and histories are best studied through participant Observation and interviewing informants. For understanding institutional norms and statuses, enumerative samples and participant Observation are adequate but inefficient - the interview is the most efficient and best form. Yet, the superior method for the researcher is tO combine the data gathered in multiple ways to cross check, verify and 76 validate the findings. This process is known as triangulation (Denzin, 1978). In this study, the triangulation of findings occurred when two or more sources Of data were found to be congruent and therefore served to support an assertion. The findings Often led to new assertions and data collection. The ongoing process required the researcher tO constantly gather information, make inferences about it and to check out these inferences through other data sources. This required decision making on a daily basis in the field. On some occasions, certain assertions were not supported and the assertion or inference was proved to be false. Although the data gathering process was not prestructured, since the re- searcher could not anticipate all the events that would arise, there was daily planning and structuring Of the questions and persons who would be addressed in sub- sequent days in the field. Wilson sees this process as a systematic one, "Ethnographic researchers methodologically plan the forms Of data they will collect, the settings in which they will gather the data, the participants with whom they will interact, and the questions they will ask. They will be Open to new information, but they do so in a calculated fashion, for example, by seeking out places that are likely tO present this new information (Wilson in Anang, p. 38, Note 9)." 77 Field Notes "Field notes are considered the traditional core Of data for ethnographic research (Agar, 1980, p. 111)." The field notes are central tO anthropological and ethnographic studies and "are a record Of the ethno- grapher's Observations, conversations, interpretations and suggestions for future information to be gathered (Agar, 1980, p. 112)." In this study three different types of notes were kept, Observational notes (ON), theoretical notes (TN) and methodological notes (MN). Schatzman and Strauss define the function Of each Of these types Of notes: "ON - Observational notes are statements bearing upon events experienced principally through watching and listening. They contain as little interpretation as possible, and are as reliable as the Observer can construct them. TN - Theoretical notes represent self-conscious, controlled attempts to derive meaning from any one or set Of Observation notes. The Observer as recorder thinks about what he has experienced and makes whatever private declaration Of meaning he feels will bear conceptual fruit. He interprets, infers, hypothesises, conjectures; he develops new concepts, links these tO Older ones, or relates any Observation to any other Observation. MN - A methodological note is a statement that reflects an Operational act completed or planned: an instruction tO oneself, a reminder, a critique Of one's own planning (Schatzman and Strauss, 1980, p. 101)." The researcher in this study took field notes in her personal shorthand. She used time as an orienting device noting activity every ten minutes. She focused alternately 78 on teacher behavior and student behavior, noting both nonverbal and verbal interactions, incidents and events. Notes were also made regarding the physical climate Of the room, such as heat and cold, and other significant environmental factors. These included sounds Of the outdoor physical education classes, heavy equipment being Operated and bees within the classroom. Sights and sounds were therefore part Of the data. The "shorthand" field notes were transcribed into a detailed account within 24 hours in order to preserve the accuracy of the events. Most notes did not take verbatim form but captured the main speeches and events. Yet when an accurate complete account was necessary a verbatim narrative was included. Once the shorthand notes were written into a more complete and detailed account, the researcher reflected on them, making theoretical notes as well. These led to methodological notes which gave direction to the next day's activity within the field. Formal and Informal Interviews Formal and informal interviews were essential to understanding the philosophy and life history Of key participants within the setting. (Gordon, 1980; Agar, 1980; Zeldich in McCall and Simmons, 1969). The junior high school principal was interviewed in the beginning Of the study and later in the collection period to gain 79 insight into the programs with the school and his plans for the future. The interview was also powerful in gaining knowledge Of the particular problems he faced and served as a check on other data leading tO a triangulation Of findings. Formal interviews were conducted with the teachers in the study at the beginning, middle, and end Of the study. These served as a history Of how their thinking changed during the process Of establishing classroom rules. Informal conversations and interviews were ongoing. Students were also interviewed to determine their needs, interests and how they perceived the classroom rules and their school. Formal interviews were con- ducted with six students in each Of the classrooms being Observed. The classroom teachers and the researcher chose students who represented a cross section Of the class composition to participate in the interview process. School board members were interviewed as well to determine their philosophy Of discipline and where it originated. Additional interviews were conducted with county agency workers who worked in the Mount Vernon School district. These led to new information and also served as a cross check to data that had already been gathered. 8O Questionnaires Frequently in ethnographic research, questionnaires are utilized to gain depth from a broader population within the study group (Zeldich, in McCall and Simmons, 1969). In this study, four questionnaires became data. The first questionnaire was written during the process of the study and related to specific events that were occurring in the field. The researcher designed the questionnaire after three weeks Of Observation and two student interviews. Students in each class were asked to answer the questionnaire on a voluntary basis. In order to ensure a sincere response, the researcher distributed the questionnaires individually to students over a two day period Of time. She spoke briefly with each student in the study group, and after they filled out the questionnaire, she gave each an MSU pencil as a small gift for participating in the study. All Of the students in each class being studied, participated in responding tO the questionnaire and several discussed their answers with the researcher at later times. Many students thanked the researcher for asking their Opinions concerning school life (Appendix A). The principal designed and distributed two question- naires which surveyed parent Opinion regarding the school and its programs. These questionnaires were intended to inform him and the staff, but he shared the results with 81 the researcher. One Of the questionnaires was distributed to parents during a coffee hour on parent turn around day (a day when parents followed their child's schedule for the day) (Appendix B). The second questionnaire was distributed to parents who attended the parent-teacher conference day following the first nine week period (Appendix C). The principal, moreover, distributed a third questionnaire to teachers which asked them to evaluate him as an administrator. This questionnaire was designed by the Educational Administration Department at Western Michigan University (Appendix D). The results Of this survey served as a guide for the principal with his interactions with the faculty and became useful data as well for the researcher. Tape Recordings Tape recordings were made for two specific reasons. The first reason was to capture the exact words and intonations of the speaker during pertinent interviews or other events. Tape recordings of structured interviews Of the teachers and principal were made and later trans- cribed into a verbatim record. Since transcribing is a laborious process, lasting up to six hours for a one hour interview, tape recordings were used for only the most pertinent information. The second purpose Of the tape recordings was to record "teacher talk" in order that the researcher could freely focus on student reaction 82 to the teacher's message. In this way, two documentary accounts could be made simultaneously. The researcher recorded on the days when rules were presented and on the day when the assistant principal explained the school rules to the student body. The tapes served as a record Of the adult behavior and the field notes served as a written record Of the student behavior. The researcher used two tape recorders for each event in case one tape recorder broke down. This backup was worthwhile because once a recorder did experience mechanical difficulty. Slide Photographs Slide photographs fulfilled two purposes and focused on two subject areas within the study. The slides served to record a history Of events which became base line data. They also served as new information regarding patterns Of student behavior leading tO more questions and assertions. Slides were taken on the first day Of school. These served tO note the structure and condition of the building, the layout Of the classroom and the students themselves. They focused on student groups, the nonverbal behavior Of the students, and their location within the classroom. Slides were made Of the community as well. These included viewing the institutions within the community and the homes where people lived. Slides Of the business section, the boat harbor and people engaged in weekend recreation were also made. The 83 community slides served as base data and raised interesting questions regarding the economy Of the school district. The slides, however, were supplementary data and not used as a primary resource. Written Documents Written documents were important data sources informing the researcher about students, the school and the community. They took many forms. Zeldich (in McCall and Simmons, 1969) recommends the use Of written records, citing that enumeration samples provide the best form for understanding frequency distributions. The researcher was careful to Observe the students' privacy when Obtaining information based on standardized test scores and family information found in their cumulative records. To accomplish this, she asked the guidance counselor to give her an anonymous list Of standardized achievement scores for each student within the two classrooms being studied in order to understand the academic composition Of the classes. Additionally, teachers in each class within the study group also made the nine week grades available. One teacher gave bonus points for behavior that were included in averaging the students' academic grade. The list Of bonus points was also data. In order to understand the social background Of the students, the principal provided anecdotal information for students in each class in a similar manner. In this way, 84 the researcher came to know the number of one-parent homes and the number Of students with histories Of behavior problems within each class. Occupation Of parents was also indicated. Lesson plans, handouts and student work were also part Of the written data pertaining to students. The school had many pertinent written documents as well. These included the school student handbook, notices to teachers, the school calendar and records from the former student in-house suspension program. To understand the community, the researcher sought out the archives which contained historical information regarding the community and the school district. These appeared in newspapers and a bOOk on local history. Demographic information was gathered from four govenmental bodies. While this information was easy to Obtain, information regarding the economy was conflicting and written data were not available. This was due in part to the multi-governmental bodies which feed the school district as well as tO the lack Of a local chamber of commerce. Additionally, this is a resort area, and the fluctuation Of the summer population makes it more difficult to validate the state of the economy. However, newspapers did reveal the unemployment figures within the school district and provided current business, social and school news. The researcher subscribed to two local papers and kept clippings Of pertinent articles for data. 85 Police records also became supportive data which reflected the nature Of the adult behavior within the community. This appeared tO be important since this adult behavior helped to shape the student behavior within the school. Design of the Study The study began with a structured design, but was also flexible to allow the researcher to shift the focus, raise new questions and seek evidence as questions arose in the field (Becker, 1961). The researcher Observed the two classrooms being studied every day the first two weeks Of school, and one to three times a week during the following ten weeks. This allowed her to Observe how classroom rules were formulated both formally and informally within the classroom. She Observed within the wider school and community as well, to determine what influenced the shaping Of the rules. The basis of the design Of the study came from both a pilot study carried out in the preceding winter (Stanard, Note 4) and from combining approaches used in classroom management studies of rule formation (Brophy, 1982, Note 5). The researcher Operated as a participant Observer within the classroom in the tradition as described in Agar, 1980; Whyte, 1955; and Schatzmann and Strauss, 1973. A detailed description Of the design follows, including site and teacher selection as well as an account of how the 86 researcher gathered data concerning the school, students, and community. A time line Of the key events Of the study will be presented in Appendix E. Teacher Selection During the summer Of 1982, the researcher interviewed three principals in rural secondary schools in an attempt to find two teachers who were "effective" and whose discipline programs were similar. The teachers were also to be matched by subject and grade level and who taught heterogeneously grouped classes Of students. After searching for these teachers and conversing with the principals in three school districts, the researcher was able to locate a pair Of teachers who fit the criteria and who were willing to participate in the study. She interviewed each Of these teachers at the beginning Of the study tO gain biographical information and to under- stand their approach tO discipline. Arrangements were made to Observe each Of these teachers in one section of their 8th grade English classes tO View how rules were established both formally and informally. Permission was also gained to tape record the Opening day of each Of the teacher's classes to allow for a verbatim account how the rules were established. The taping also allowed the researcher to note student reaction tO the presentation as well. She took slide photographs during the Opening week of school and on subsequent occasions to further 87 allow for a cross check Of data. Classroom Observations were made every day the first two weeks Of school and once to three times a day thereafter. She also made occasional Observations in other sections Of each teacher's class to see if the teacher's behavior was similar or different depending upon the subject matter and class composition. Students Students were also observed and interviewed. After the first two student interviews, the researcher gained impressions that led her to survey all the students within the two classes being Observed through a question- naire. This type Of survey responded to the particular issues in the site (Agar, 1980; Gorden, 1980). As a cross check tO the questionnaire, interviews were held with six students from each class, which also led tO new information and insights. The issue of the class com- position Of each teacher's class became central to the study. The researcher sought more definitive data by requesting achievement scores for each class Of students, a sketch of their personal lives from the principal, and grades and records of behavior from each teacher's classroom being Observed. This triangulation Of data was important in determining the nature Of the student body within each class. 88 School The researcher also became a participant Observer within the school. She attended the Opening day of school for the faculty, ate lunch in the school, and met in the teacher's lounge both in the morning and during conference periods. Two teachers in the adjoining high school became informants. These teachers were students of the researcher who were studying for their Master's degree. The principal was also a valuable source Of information and participated in weekly formal and informal interviews. Auxiliary staff were interviewed informally as well. These included the day maid, the lunchroom supervisor, and the secretaries. Other teachers in the building also were valuable resources, and specialists such as the assistant principal, the librarian, the special education teacher and the guidance counselor provided useful information. The researcher talked with these people informally on a daily basis and would join them for lunch and coffee in the teacher's lounge and in restaurants. She attended a key school event, which was the Opening assembly for junior high school students. This was led by the assistant principal. The researcher tOOk both slide photographs and tape recordings Of the session, since it pertained to school rules and set the tone for the beginning Of the school year. 89 Community In order to gain knowledge Of the community, the researcher became part Of the community (Whyte, 1955; Agar, 1980; Schatzman and Strauss, 1973; Moore, 1973). She took over a hundred slide photographs Of the community as well, noting the socio-economic level Of the community, the industry, churches, other schools and forms Of recreation. These slides became an important base for further inquiry and also were used as a cross check Of data. TO gain understanding of the parents in the community the researcher followed a parent group Of eighth graders as they spent a day visiting in the school. She did this in the mode Of participant Observer. The parents filled out a survey on this day and also during parent conferences. The results Of these surveys captured their views of the school. An additional source Of community data came from Observing a school board meeting and interviewing two Of its members. This provided background on how policy makers viewed discipline within the school. And finally, to provide even more breadth Of information, the researcher interviewed county mental health workers, the school psychologist, and the teacher consultant for the school. These interviews both led to new information and served as a cross check to other information already gathered. When some Of the new information regarding adult behavior in the community could only be substantiated through statistical and enumeration figures, police records and 90 records from mental health agencies were gathered. These records were not personal in nature, but served tO give a statistical profile for the community. The two local papers documented community life and attitudes, and were an indicator Of the economic nature Of the community as well. The researcher spoke briefly with the city clerks in the three governmental bodies which compose the consolidated school district and gained background information on populations and the state Of tourism. Summary Of the Design The design Of the study began with the selection Of school and teachers. It focused on.the Opening days of school for both faculty and school and progressed to Observations within the classrooms. As notes were compiled and led to new hypotheses additional data was gathered through student questionnaires and interviews. Interviews with the teacher, principal, other teacher community members and support staff continued during the twelve week period Of time. Written data were also collected. These included class grades, achievement scores, demographic information, and student work. All these data led to a cross check Of findings on how rules were formulated, who influenced the rules, and what was the effect Of these rules on student behavior. 91 Analysis of Data Most field researchers agree that the analysis Of data is one Of the most challenging aspects Of ethnographic methodology. In this section Of the dissertation, the researcher defines analysis, examines the stages Of analysis used in this study, and describes the funnel approach which was utilized leading to a grounded theory Of rule formation within classrooms. Definition of Analysis When confronting the issue Of how analysis is con- ducted in ethnographic methodology, many writers discuss the "mystique" Of insight and science (Agar, 1980). However, Agar argues for a more comfortable view and definition for analysis, seeing it as "the working Of thought prOcess (Agar, 1973, p. 109)." Through this definition, the researcher is viewed as a craftsman applying "ordinary thinking and ordinary skills (Agar, 1973, p. 109)." The researcher in this study adopted this definition in analyzing her data, and proceeded with analysis in a pragmatic fashion. Stages of Analysis Although field researchers suggest differing numbers Of stages for analyzing data, the researcher in this study used three stages as recommended by Schatzman and Strauss, 1973 and Agar, 1980. 92 1. Preliminary Analysis The first stages were continuous and took place in the field. These included the daily workings Of the Observational notes and the theoretical and methodological notes. 2. Secondary Analysis Secondary stages took place after leaving the field and included coding data by classifications and linkages to other data (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973). 3. Final Analysis This stage integrated the data into theoretical prOpositions leading to a grounded theory of rule formation. Final analysis included the writing Of both the descriptive data and its explanation. This process involved both analytic induction and testing data through seeking out disconfirming evidence as well. "The principle which governs the selection Of cases to test a theory is that the chances of discovering a decisive negative case should be maximized... If this theory is false or in- adequate, he knows its weaknesses will be most clearly and quickly exposed if he proceeds to the investigation Of those critical areas (Lindesmith, 1952, p. 492)." Therefore, analysis Of data was an ongoing process that took place throughout the study when data were being collected and during the following three months after the researcher left the field. 93 The Funnel Approach The stages Of analysis followed Agar's "funnel approach." "You begin wide Open to whatever you can learn, but within such a broad boundary you are always bouncing between learning and checking what you have learned... As you begin to focus your interest on certain topics, the funnel narrows. You may focus because Of a 'a priori' interest you brought to the field, because Of what you learned in the first period of fieldwork, or because Of both. But still you are alternating learning with tests Of what you have learned. Finally, as you approach the narrow end Of the funnel, you begin some systematic testing. Even here, though, the results of the test will Often pose further questions, so you return to your learning role to get a better understanding of why the tests worked as they did, or why they did not work at all. As the funnel narrows, your questions may get more and more specific, but you never stop learning (Agar, 1973, p. 36)". Overarching Research Questions In utilizing began by focusing 1. What are classroom and how 2. What are the funnel approach, the researcher on the overarching research questions: the formal and informal rules in the are they made visible? the sources Of influence in shaping the classroom rules? 3. What are the effects of the rules on students' social and academic behavior? Observation was central in gathering data tO answer these questions. As data were collected they were coded 94 into classifications of behavior (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973). Examples Of these classifications included verbal and nonverbal behavior, disruptive and nondisruptive students and on and Off task learning. These behaviors were then linked to other behaviors as mid—range questions were raised. Mid-range Research Questions The mid-range research questions included: 1. How are rules develOped? 2. What are the consequences to breaking the rules? 3. What categories of rules are present? 4. What variables determine the informal rules? 5. What is the teacher's philosophy concerning student motivation? 6. How does the school structure and administration influence the classroom rules? 7. What influence do the parents and community have on the classroom rules? During this stage Of questioning and analysis, Observation still remained the central mode Of gathering data. However, the researcher also employed questionnaires, interviews and conversations which contained specific questions to help answer the mid-range questions as well as the overarching questions. For instance, one teacher was well trained both in the academic content Of her course and in methods Of establishing classroom rules, 95 yet she had many disruptions due to student misbehavior. The multiple means of gathering data helped the researcher to understand the situation and led to more specific questions as well, thus narrowing the field Of inquiry. Specific Research Questions The specific research questions included: 1. How does the class composition influence the rules? 2. How does teacher rapport influence student behavior? 3. How do students perceive their teacher, peers and school? What effect does this have on their behavior? 4. What is the effect Of administrative leadership on the classroom behavior Of students? 5. How do social and economic conditions Of the community influence the behavior of students in the classroom? 6. In contrasting the two teachers, what variables play an important part in rule formation and student behavior? To answer these questions, Observation and conver- sations were still employed. However, written measures were used as well to collect data. These included test scores, enumerations, and information from students' records. These methods were especially helpful in under- standing both the class composition and also the social composition Of the community. Interviews with students, the 96 administrator, professionals serving the district, and members Of the adult community were also helpful. These answers to the specific questions helped answer the mid- range and overarching questions as well. This process was Often two-directional in nature before findings were Obtained. Grounded Theory Ethnographers do not begin with a "top down approach" through Operating on a priori assumptions (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), but rather work from the "bottom up approach" which starts with the data and works up through the discovery of conceptual categories (Anang, 1982, Note 8). "The evidence is used to illustrate the concept that has been described (Janesick, 1981, p. 21, Note 10)." In this study the research questions led to gathering data. The data were analyzed and integrated leading to statements of findings and to theoretical propositions. The propositions then formed a grounded theory on how classroom rules were formulated both formally and informally within two classrooms in a junior high school. For more information on grounded theory see Discovery Of Grounded Theory by Glaser and Strauss, 1975. A synoptic chart depicting the "funnel approach" tO analysis leading to a grounded theory follows. Figure 3.1 begins with the overarching research questions and participant Observation as the primary 97 source Of collecting data. Through these Observations mid-range questions emerged which narrowed the field Of inquiry. During this stage Observation, conversations, and other methods of data collection were employed leading to more specific questions. The specific questions were sometimes answered by the more informal means Of Observation and conversation. Additionally, formal means Of data collection including test scores, enumerations and sampling occurred at this stage tO answer the research questions. The findings that emerged from the analysis led tO theoretical propositions regarding rule formation. These theoretical propositions, which emerged from the data, led to a grounded theory Of how rules are formulated both formally and informally in two classrooms. 98 ANALYSIS OF DATA STATEMENTS OF FINDINGS AND g THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS O E: Adamo monsmmoo OHmHommm A «sane Aqazmomsz A \qazmom. monemmoo mozemon AZOHB<>mmmmOV GROUNDED THEORY OF RULE FORMATION STATEMENTS OF FINDINGS AND E THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS O E: Adena monemmoo OHmHommm A memmmmov mZOHBmmDO momfimmmm 02Hm0m0 STATEMENTS OF FINDINGS AND THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS Aaeao qazmomv monsmmoo OHaHomam A assoc Aqezmomsz A \qezmomv monemmoo mozamon Aone¢>mmmmov (Figure 3.1) 99 Summary Of the Methodology In this section of the dissertation the researcher discussed the nature Of ethnographic research and the role of the researcher as a participant Observer within the setting. Additionally, she described the six sources of data utilized in the study. These included not only participant Observation, but also interviews, tape recordings, questionnaires, written documents and slide photographs. A detailed design Of the study was presented followed by a discussion Of how the data were analyzed leading to a grounded theory Of rule formation. For a descriptive and explanatory account Of this process, a focus on the study itself is presented in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTIVE EVIDENCE This chapter contains both descriptive and explanatory data on how rules were established both formally and informally in two c1aseroms. In the first section the researcher focuses on the events surrounding the Opening Of school. These include the faculty breakfast and staff meetings when the concerns Of the school board and administration were expressed. Additionally she presents the Opening days of school when the assistant principal established the school rules with the student body and the teachers established classroom rules within the two English classes. The researcher explains both the categories Of rules and consequences which were present, as well as the interventions the teachers employed as "prewarnings" to the consequences. Data pertaining to the sources which influenced the shaping Of classroom rules is presented in the second section. These include the students, the school structure and administration. Moreover, they include the parents, school board and the socio-economic composition Of the community. Student reaction to the formal rules is presented as well, and their views regarding the school, teachers and their English curriculum are made known. 100 101 The researcher utilizes a reporting method which combines a narrative with excerpts from the field notes as descriptive evidence. Summaries Of questionnaires, interviews, and demographic information appear within the narrative, and synOptic charts are utilized for the purposes of summarizing and comparing data. Opening Of the School Year America was caught in the grips Of an economic recession during the autumn Of 1982, and the state of Michigan, home Of the nation's auto industry, reflected the hardships of the declining economy. Michigan's rural area Of Mount Vernon, was no exception with unemployment at 18.5% (Mount Vernon News, August 1982). This recession was reflected within Mount Vernon's school district as well and was a topic Of concern at the Opening breakfast for the school staff who met in the cafeteria Of the junior-senior high school. Opening day for the faculty and support staff at Mount Vernon school district began with a formal breakfast held for the entire staff, including the support staff Of secretaries, janitors and bus drivers. The school board also attended. The room was decorated with paper table cloths, place settings, a large red apple at each place, and a name card. The faculty and board members were interspersed in the high school cafeteria. The morning began with an invocation and the principal wel- comed everyone and started the buffet line Of scrambled eggs, sausage, waffles, french toast, milk, juice and coffee. Each person had a juice cup saying, 'Mount Vernon Bears, smile, we love you.‘ Following the meal which included kidding and jokes at the 102 tables, Larry Powell, the principal Of the Junior-Senior High School, welcomed everyone and introduced the superintendent Of schools, Terry Boyd. The superintendent said that teachers and public schools are existing in a time Of political confusion and economic uncertainty and that the public is displaying a lack Of confidence in public education. "It is time we start to market our schools and the apple at your place setting represents everything that is good about the things public education has done for education and for America. We need to build confidence, band together, set goals, monitor our actions and defend education. We need to bond together as a school board, administration and teaching staff. We need a marketing plan so that schools are places that the people want to do business with. This year we will adopt as a theme, 'Your public schools, no better place to learn.' We need to communicate with parents." The president Of the teacher's association spoke next. "We have to get together. We have a bad image. Trust is low for teachers. We have to get the correct information out. As a staff we have to come out with the same message tO the public. The state used to pay 50% Of our cost. Now it pays 27%. We need to market our schools. You'll be hearing more about this (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." While the reality of economic cuts were evident, a theme of "being positive" permeated both the staff breakfast and the following faculty meeting for the junior-senior high school staff. The president Of the school board, verna Wilson stated, "Only good things will happen--this will be a positive year (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Following the break, the faculty met in the resource room Of the building, located on the second floor. Larry Powell Opened the meeting by saying 103 "We must permeate (sic) a positive attitude. I have a theme for the year -- to accomplish great things, we must not only act but also daydream, not only plan, but also believe... We will be on a tight budget this year which will be reflected in supplies and field trips. SO, please be frugal, innovative and cautious. Think positive, act positive, be positive (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Mr. Powell then went on to discuss the changes in approaching discipline problems within the building for the school year. Economic cuts were reflected in reducing the role Of assistant principal tO a part-time post and eliminating the former in—house suspension program. "Discipline problems will have tO be carefully manicured at your end because without the learning adjustment center, if students are sent to the Office, we have to send them home. Mr. Jerome (the assistant principal) will be in the Classroom two hours this year. (Larry's voice became strong and forceful.) Take charge of your rooms--keep control PLEASE. Short Of a crisis don't send them to the Office. Help me with this please. I am here to be an instructional leader not just to handle dis- cipline problems. Read the article 'How to tell students about rules." Also read 'Cold Turkey Won't Work.' It deals with motivation. Read the article by Lee Canter. By September 10 I want the plan you and your students arrive at collegially for your classroom. I encourage you to send this home with the students and have the parents sign as we did last year. If the plan doesn't work BY GOD DO SOMETHING. (Larry pounded on the podium.) Some teachers didn't like this plan but they went along with it faithfully last year. Some teachers did it well. PULL YOUR SHARE. If you send a student to the Office because he forgot a book I will send him back with a long rhetorical note about it. Put the assertive program into effect. If you have a problem consult the manual and then come to us. I have a tape by Lee Canter for you to view. This is a secondary program. With a part-time principal and no LAC room we 104 have to make this work. We can still use the Glasser class meetings. We started that program a few years agO and it faded out. That was due to my fault. But there are some good ideas there and they will still work (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Following the faculty meeting teachers were free to work in their classrooms. They filled the halls, joking with each other, as they moved to different parts of the building. The combined junior-senior high school housing 484 students, shared both its gym and cafeteria as well as the home economics room and resource room. Prior tO this year, both the junior and senior high school students had held classes interspersed with each other throughout the building. This year, however, the junior high school had been given a wing for themselves, and senior high school students would not be allowed in these halls. Within this two story wing, the 92 seventh grade and 74 eighth grade students would have their History, English and Science classes. The two eighth grade English teachers, Mary Alice Whitson, and Janie Evans, were talking in the hall about the curriculum they had planned for the coming year. Janie and Mary Alice talked together about a programmed grammar approach that they were both excited about and the films that they had ordered. They are planning tO teach around themes such as friendship, and handicaps which are in one of the literature novels Of Mice and Men. They both seemed truly excited about the curriculum and the upcoming year (Field Notes, August 31, 1982). 105 Mary Alice had talked about their team planning earlier. "Janie and I are great buddies. We did all our planning together for this year. I learned a lot from her about grammar. My background is in literature. We do everything to team teach except actually share the students. It's great. We have a great principal, too. I really can work with him. I can't say I'll be here 20 years from now. But I really like it (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Janie concurred. "...teaching with Mary Alice is the neatest thing in the world. We became good friends and we sit there and share things about kids...it makes me excited about teaching that she and I can do the same things. What she's good at she can help me with. What I'm good at I can help her. The kids are the winners - and that's what's really neat about it (Field Notes, September 23, 1982)." While both Mrs. Whitson and Mrs. Evans had essentially the same academic lesson plans and planned to implement "Assertive Discipline" in their classroom, they had contrasting feelings concerning classroom rules. Mrs. Whitson, was in her late 20's, had taught at Mount Vernon for six years and was a lifelong resident Of the community. She shared her apprehension about establishing classroom rules and consequences: (Mary Alice and I talked in the girl's room while she had a cigarette.) "Last night I fell asleep at 7:30 on the couch with my little boy. I woke up and started thinking about classroom rules and consequences. Last year I did the assertive discipline but I really hated it. I think about rules and then I have tOO many Of them. I want to say don't do anything. Just sit there. Then I get the rules lined up and I don't like the consequences. I wanted to ask you to do them for me. Then I 106 realized you're here to see what I do. I don't know. I'm really worried (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Janie Evans, a woman in her late thirties, had taught in Mount vernon for eight years and instructed not only eighth grade English classes but English classes in the senior high school as well. She talked about her views on establishing classroom rules and consequences, We discussed rules and she said that the theoretical material Larry shared was helpful and sometimes explained why things didn't work out. She decided to have only three rules this year. The consequences would be either a detention or an extra assignment. She stated, "I like to reserve a choice for me. I'll go over the rules and then we'll work out the little things like using the pencil sharpen- er as we gO along. I want students tO ask me if they can Open the windows or turn on the lights. After all there are 20 other peOple in the room to consider." She also shared, "I like to use the concept Of class meetings to discuss death and feelings. It helps students to realize they're not the only ones with these feelings and to see me as a person and just not an authority figure. But the idea Of using students tO establish classroom rules and consequences doesn't work for me (Field Notes, August 23, 1982)." In another interview Mrs. Evans discussed student input in establishing rules. Jane said that she believes in the democratic approach, as Glasser advocates, but in her classroom she wants to set the rules and consequences. Junior high school Children would take tOO long deciding on rules. Their consequences would either be tOO easy or too extreme. She said she didn't want to take five weeks to set the rules because she would have trouble living with such confusion for that period Of time. Also, it would take away from instruction tO have to deal that 107 long with discipline. I asked her if she had tried the process herself. She said she hadn't because it had been introduced in the middle Of the school year rather than at the beginning... "The other problem with each Class setting rules at the junior high level is that there would be five different sets of rules and conse— quences for each class. That's just tOO many for me to remember." She went on to say that the school is so much better than it was eight years ago when she first came. Then every teacher just did their own thing. They lived in their own little room by them- self. "Now Larry has such high expectations and really pushes everyone. It's really not gOOd tO be left alone. He's always putting things for us to read in our mailboxes and keeps on tOp Of things. He really pushes and it's good (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." Establishing Classroom Rules ' While the two teachers chose similar rules tO implement in their classrooms, they differed in their tone of voice when establishing rules, the day on which rules were established and in their choice Of positive consequences. This was reflected during the first two days Of school for students. The Opening day Of school for Mount Vernon's seventh and eighth grade students began with an assembly in the immaculate, but dimly lit Old gymnasium. This same room served as a passage for students traveling from the junior high school wing to the cafeteria. The assistant principal welcomed the junior high school students and delineated the new discipline policy for the school. His voice was laced with both humor and 108 sarcasm: Junior high school students filled the Old gymnasium and sat in the balcony stand talking to each other in voices that echoed Off the tiled walls. Teachers sat among the students and talked to them as well. Mr. Jerome, the assistant principal, signaled a group Of students tO take seats as they entered from the side door. Patrick Jerome began, "First I'd like to compliment 5 or 6 young men who came in with hats on, but now they're Off their heads. Good. I won't say their names because I wouldn't want tO embarrass them. For those Of you who do not know me, I'm Mr. Jerome, the assistant principal, Of the junior- senior high school. Some of you will get to know me pretty well between now and June. Some Of you will not." (Students laughed.) "Preferably most Of you will not." (Laughter.) "O.K. I'd like to welcome back the eighth graders — hope you had a nice summer." (Whistles and applause.) "Seventh graders welcome tO the junior high. You will have a lot of questions. DO not hesitate to ask. I hOpe the year is a worthwhile one." (Mr. Jerome went on tO explain room reassignments for the teachers.) In the next part of his student address, Mr. Jerome made four statements which conveyed the expectation that students would misbehave. Students responded to these through laughter and making comments to each other. "All junior high classes will take place in that wing, except, Of course, for gym which is out there, home ec, down the hall and to the right, and those Of you who have Mr. Green for science, which is all the way down the hall. You will go with your homeroom teacher today so you will not get lost. Lockers. You will be assigned lockers and there will be two Of you to a locker, not three, not four, not one. (Laughter and talking.) We're not getting Off to a very good start people." His voice dropped and he looked through the group Of students. "Now Obviously you have to sign up in your 109 homeroom for your locker and that limits who you can locker with. You must sign up with someone from your homeroom. I have no problem with you changing lockers somewhere down the road. But you'd better do it through my Office. I don't want to find you switching and not telling me. Is that clear? I do not want to find three or four people in a locker because you're all good friends. You're going to have to choose. You will again have a closed lunch period. And that lunch period this year is only 20 minutes, not 30. (Students all start talking.) We will have a closed lunch period. Now, that closed lunch period will start next Monday. (Cheers, applause.) SO you may leave at the lunch hour this week. Enjoy it while you can." (The students started talking to each other in excited voices.) "O.K., quiet down please." (A male voice in the back said, "Hold it down, please.") "Eighth graders, you've been here for a year, you know what we expect Of you. Seventh graders, you are no longer in elementary school. We expect you to behave like ladies and gentlemen." (The room became quiet and students straightened up in their seats.) "We don't want to see the things that go on in the elementary, like playing Tag in the little gym here." (His voice had a ring Of sarcasm. Loud high pitched giggles came from the students.) "I mean we can't continue to organize duck-duck goose. (More giggles.) "Each Of your teachers will go over their classroom rules. Most of them are very similar. We don't think anything we ask Of you is unreasonable. If you do think it is unreasonable we're willing tO listen to your concerns. But choose the right time to do so. You don't interrupt a class to give a complaint, or stop us in the hall. If you have a concern come into the office and make an appointment to talk tO us. Now, I'll take a minute tO answer any reasonable, intelligent questions anyone might have." A student said, "I heard that there isn't a LAC room." Mr. Jerome replied, "There isn't a LAC room." (The students burst into cheers and applause.) "Those people doing the cheering are Obviously the ones who don't 110 get into trouble, because without the LAC room, you're going out the door - three days, five days, ten days, whatever"... (some mild applause and yeas.) "Some of you may like that." A student asked if the tardy policy was the same. Mr. Jerome replied, "Yes, the tardy policy is the same as always, 4th tardy suspension, 5th tardy, etc." "This week do we have time to get from our lockers to our classes?" Mr. Jerome smiled and said, "Yes, we think you can make it." (Two girls said, "He thinks we can make it." Several groaned)(Field Notes, August 31, 1982). Students were then dismissed to homerooms, where the teachers were to spend the remaining 55 minutes explaining the school rules. This was accomplished in 10 minutes in Mary Alice's homeroom and the rest of the hour was unstructured. Students conversed and got into minor discipline problems. The students then followed an abbreviated 15 minute mini-session of their classes to adjust to their new schedule and find their way to their classrooms. First Day in Mrs. Whitson's Classroom Mary Alice met with her first hour class and was informal in her approach to welcoming students and taking attendance. She used this opportunity to provide an overview of the course and to present the students with a preview of the classroom rules. 111 Students entered the room and seated themselves at the tables around the room talking quietly with each other. The bell rang and Mary walked to the front of the room and in her slow voice, said, "O.K., let's get quiet. I didn't change any over the summer. Chairs on the floor, please. Thank you. Please answer me out loud when I call your name. If I'm looking at the paper I can't hear your head nod." (She laughed.) She called roll and students all answered, "Here." (Joe was absent, although he had been in homeroom earlier.) "O.K., fine." "This is English (she laughed) just in case you're confused. You'll get your books tomorrow. The books are just the gold version of the gray ones you had last year, same old stuff--some nouns and verbs and all that, too." (There was a chuckle in her throat.) "Tomorrow I expect you will have your paper and pencil, you'll have an assign- ment tomorrow." (Some smiles and groans.) "Sorry. Discipline plan will be up on the board tomorrow with the rules and consequences. They're very similar to those we had last year (Field Notes, August 31, 1982)." For the rest of the time she spoke with individual students, smiling and making small jokes. First Day in Mrs. Evans' Classroom Jane Evans used the first day of class to present the formal rules and consequences. She also had a letter for parents informing them of the rules as well (Appendix 6). She used an instructional tone of voice when present- ing the rules, one free of emotion. Rules and consequences were stenciled on construction paper and mounted to the wall above the chalkboard. She pointed to them as she presented them to the students. 112 "I'm Mrs. Evans and this is English 8. I think that the first thing that I should tell you is that I am in the process of traveling from another room and sometimes some of you may beat me to the room. We share this room with the art teacher, Mrs. Whiltshire, who you all know. So we will find a lot of things..." (Several students entered the room. She smiled at them gesturing that they take a seat.) A student interrupted to ask if he was in the right room. Mrs. Evans told him he needed to go across the hall. (Several students laughed and one said in low tones, "How embarrassing." Another whispered, "That happened to me once." A few sighed and groaned. They again focused on the teacher.) “One of the first things I want to do is go through the class list. It's very important to me that I pronounce your names correctly. I can only do this if you help me out. If your name is Jonathon and you prefer Jon, today is the day to tell me. Normally, your given name is on this list. If you want to be called a different name, help me out and let me know. When I call your name say hello or something so I know who you are. Some of you know me, but I don't know you. She called roll and students answered, offering their. preferred name." She discussed a privilege and then stated the formal rules. "One of the first things students are interested in, is where may I sit, and tomorrow I'm assuming you're all young ladies and gentle- men, tomorrow when you come into the classroom I want you to find a seat and then you will be assigned that seat. I have the right to move any and all of you at any time. Now there may be a few things I should tell you. First of all if I see any of you fighting over a seat the entire class will go on a seating chart. The purpose of choosing a seat is not to create enemies or a war, it's to give you a privilege. And you have obviously done nothing to show me that you do not deserve that privilege. I may ask you to move up so that there aren't empty tables in the middle. So I may ask you to do that so 113 be prepared for that concept. Most of you were here last year and are familiar with the discipline plan that was used, and I'm using one that's similar." (Two boys were talking together in the back as she was talking. Looking right at them she said), "I would suggest that some of you who are sitting with certain people today and cannot behave better, do not choose that person to sit with tomorrow. My rules are listed above the board over here and they're pretty all encompassing. We'll talk more Specifically about them tomorrow. Will the young man in the Indiana State tee shirt move up to the front, please." (The boy who had been talking earlier moved. Everyone became quiet.) "Thank you." "There are three basic rules: 1) Follow directions the first time; 2) Bring materials to class; 3) Respect the rights and property of others." She then went into an explanation of the rules and consequences. "Well, that includes an awful lot of things, but let's look at the consequences and then we'll come back and talk more specifically about the rules. The first rule that you break will basically mean that you have a warning. And many times you'll see your name on the board. There are times when I'm not near the chalkboard because we're doing other things and then I may just say, 'Joe, you have a warning, you've broken a rule.‘ And your name may not be written up here because I have told you verbally and you are aware of that. If you break another rule during that period you will be given an extra assignment or a detention. Please be aware of the fact that it is my choice of an assignment or a detention. There are times in my schedule that I cannot serve the after school detention with you and therefore you may be asked to do an assignment. If you have broken a third rule I'll be contacting your home. If I cannot get them on the phone, a letter may be sent through the mail. If you break four class rules during the hour you'll be sent to the office. And, of course, there is a severe disruption clause. 114 If you stop classroom instruction totally there is a severe disruption. A fight between two students would definitely destroy any learning that was going on. Now, I do have some sheets that I am going to hand out. These are to go home to your parents. A little note saying these are the rules in Mrs. Evans' class. Please have them sign it and return it so that I know that they have seen the rules. This does not necessarily mean that they agree with the rules." (The bell rang and students left for their next class) (Field Notes, August 31, 1982). The following day students had a regular schedule to follow with full fifty-five minute periods. It was during this day, the second meeting of the class, that Mary Alice introduced the classroom rules and consequences. These were written on construction paper and posted above the chalkboard. Second Day in Mrs. Whitson's Classroom "O.K., I want to go over the rules for this class and explain them to the new people before we get started on the assignment. O.K. most of you who were here last year will see that this stuff is very similar. There are a few changes. First of all, I'll go over rules that aren't posted classroom rules. If you're not in your seat when the bell rings I'll mark you tardy. Third tardy you get sent to Mr. Jerome's room, fourth tardy you get a suspension same as last year. I'm a great stickler for that. This is first hour, folks, and if you're not in your seat you've got a problem if you can't make it in 15 minutes. I think I mentioned yesterday about notes in my room. Don't write them. Don't read them, don't pass them to your friends. I'm not going to do anything terrible like tack them up on the wall so everybody gets to read them, but I will keep them. If I catch you more than once I'll make xerox copies and send them home to your folks. If you're going to let me catch you, you better not write any- thing you don't want me to read. There's a school policy - no gum. You all know that. 115 If you have gum on the way to school I suggest you dump it when you get here. If I catch you it's the same consequences as anything else. I'll give you a warning, but I better not catch you after that." A girl raised her hand asking, "May I get rid of my gum?" Another followed her to the wastebasket and got rid of her gum also. Mrs. Whitson replied, "That'd be nice..." "First of all, 1) No talking. That's obvious. That means never. Not at all, unless I ask you to speak. 2) Second of all, I expect you to stay in your seats. Before the tardy bell rings in the morning, sharpen your pencil, if you didn't bring paper, borrow it from a friend. If you have some- thing to throw away, save it until the end of the hour and throw it away on your way out the door. I don't want anyone running around. If I'm going to do a good job of teaching you English, then I have to have a quiet orderly classroom. That way, hopefully, I can help you. 3) Number three. It says keep your chair on the floor at all times. Last year I just asked everybody to keep the chair legs on the floor at all times. I had four kids fall over." (Laughter.) "Now that seems real funny. Now that's not funny if you have a concussion or a broken leg or arm. This year it's a rule. I'll tell you one time. After that it's regular consequences. 4) Number 4. Keep your hands to yourself. That doesn't mean you just don't hit someone else or slap them or whatever... That means you don't touch anyone else's book, or pencil, or paper, or write on their paper, or anything and that includes things of mine. The first person I ever catch touching anything on my desk can kiss this good-bye. First of all, I'd never think of going into your note- book, or your locker or whatever. And I expect you to have that same respect for me and every- one else in here. Keep your hands to yourself. If someone offers to let you see their writing or something that's fine. But you don't touch anybody else's anything, property or selves. O.K. Those are the four biggies. The ones that mean the most to me. Now obviously, if 116 you choose not to follow those rules and to do something else instead, I've got to have consequences." (During this time all eyes were watching the teacher, except for three girls in the back who were quietly ducking a circling bumble bee.) Mrs. Evans said, "Just slap him, he'll go away." The girls did and giggled as the bee flew off. "See, he don't (sic) want to get hit." She went on to explain consequences to breaking the rules. "O.K. I'm not spending all year jumping up writing your names on the board. You're all grown and you know what I don't approve of. The first time I see you doing something that I'd rather you didn't do, chairs up or whatever, I'm just going to give you a verbal warning. I'll just stop what I'm doing and say, 'You know, whoever, that's your verbal warning.‘ That's it. No check marks or anything. I have an excellent memory. I'll never forget. If after your verbal warning you decide you'd rather not follow the rules, you'll get a written assignment; it'll be a vocabulary assignment. It'll be long and it will be difficult. And it will be due at the beginning of the hour the next day. You will come in on your way back from class and I will give you the assignment whatever it is. It will be due immediately at the beginning of the hour the next day, no exceptions. If, after that you still want to push your luck, it's a double assignment. I'll give you twice as much of whatever, which ought to take you half the night to finish, and I'll contact your parents. And that means immediately. I'll go downstairs and call them at home. If they're at work I'll keep calling them if I have to call them until midnight. And if you don't have a phone (pause) I'll come to your house." (Students burst into nervous laughter.) "I've lived here forever. Most of your parents I already know. If after all of that you still aren't through, of course, I'll send you to the office. Mr. Powell and Mr. Jerome are extremely busy this year. Mr. Jerome is teaching two hours this year. He doesn't have time to play games. If you go to the office things are going to be 117 worse than they are here. And it's going to be pretty bad here. So, it'll be real easy if you just follow the rules." (Field notes, September 1, 1982). While both teachers had negative consequences for students who broke the rules, Mrs. Whitson had positive written ones as well for those who cooperated with the classroom rules. These were formalized by the teacher presenting them orally and printing them on chart paper above the chalkboard next to the printed classroom rules and negative consequences. "O.K. All of this is similar to last year. We're not doing detention, you notice. However, I don't want to spend all year handing out negative punishments and all that stuff. I'm going to assume everybody's going to behave. In keeping with that we're going to have a few special privileges in this room. I'm not giving anything away this year folks, no free time, no library time, no reading time, no nothing. Anything you want you have to earn. It shouldn't be hard. You're only with me 50 minutes every morning. If you can control yourself for 50 minutes you've got it made. I have a system set up so that you have a choice of any of these four or all four (she indicated the signs above the board) of these privileges. You can earn free time, time at the library, bonus points towards your grade, and paperback books. (Her voice softened.) Those of you who are familiar with my grading system, I do everything on points. A test is worth 100 points. However many you got right will be on the top of your page. 74 or whatever-- 30--depending on what kind of day you had. Your spelling quizzes have points, your writing has points, everything has points. At the end of the week if you had everything correct you could have had 500 points. You could have 275, that would be an F. So you have the possibility of earning points towards your grade. 118 And the way I'm going to do that is this. I'm going to have a list. At the end of each hour it'll take me about 30 seconds to mark down those peOple I had to give verbal warnings or consequences to. Everybody else has a clean slate. If you make it all week, no verbal warnings, no consequences, then on Monday morning when we come back, I'll pass out little tickets with a 10 on them. They can be applied to any of these four things. If you want free time that 10 means 10 minutes. If you want to apply it to your grade that 10 will stand for 10 points. (Field notes, September 1, 1982)." She went on to explain that the bonus points would be distributed in the form of coupons that could be redeemed on Fridays for their desired value. The teacher also explained that she would occasionally reward a student with an extra five points if she/he was helpful to another student, performed outstanding academic work, or provided extra help to her in someway. She concluded this part of the presentation by saying, "I'd like to concentrate on that this year instead of the extra assignments, calling home and all that garbage...and all the negative things that could happen. I'd like you to forget that and concentrate on all the bonus points you could get. Does anyone have any questions at all about rules or about tickets?" (Field Notes, September 1, 1982). Categories of Classroom Rules Mrs. Whitson and Mrs. Evans had similar rules for students in their classrooms. The posted rules were: 119 Mrs. Evans 1. Follow directions the 1. first time 2. Bring materials to class 2. 3. Respect the rights and 3. property of others 4. Mrs. Whitson No talking Stay in your seat Keep your chair on the floor at all times Keep your hands to yourself There were a number of rules inherent within the posted rules. These rules were made visible to students in the first days of school and in subsequent days through the teacher telling them, and through the use of both positive and negative sanctions. The following synoptic chart (Figure 4.1) indicates the day of the school year that each teacher introduced rules and consequences in her classroom. 120 Aa.v musmwmv .mcoam mop csoomm on» so moosmsvwmcoo 0cm moans owcflauso compass .muz .mmswuwma mmmao w>am3u umufim on» mcwuso mcoflmmooo usmnmmmwo cm>wm no mwusomoonm can mwasu HMEHOM omcflauso mcm>m .muz conuflnz .muz xmme mumma mumma III co mafia III III qcflaammm mafiaammm “Om mmasm How Euom How mwasm mcm>m .muz NH Ha oH m m 5 Hum» Hoonom may «0 man mmocmsvmmso 3mw>um>o mmuaoo III III III III new . uuommmm somuflsz .mHz mmasm Hmfiuom pmnmwanmumm mEHHm mewswfl> mEHHm mwmwafl>flnm moosmsvmmcoo now mmasm III mcfl3mfl> III cam mmasm no can mmasm mcm>m .muz mo 3mw>mm Mom mmasm scammsomfla omumom HmEuom o m v m N H “mow Hoonom mmasm Eooummmao omnmflanmumm mnmzomma 039 on» sown: so Nun one was no man 121 In both classrooms these formal rules came under three main categories -- procedural rules bound to the classroom, procedural rules not bound to the classroom and rules pertaining to academic achievement. Procedural Rules Bound to the Classroom This category of rules pertained to students' social behavior within the classroom and included being seated, talking, use of the pencil sharpener, respecting property, being punctual, keeping chair legs on the floor, passing notes, and respecting property and the rights of others. The last rule was especially important to both teachers and they modeled it for students by answering questions seriously and by never humiliating a student for incorrect answers to questions. In an interview Mrs. Evans stated, "I guess if you want my basic philosophy - if I want to be respected and treated as a person, I have to treat them with the same respect (Field Notes, September 22, 1982)." While the teachers had similar parameters for student behavior they differed on the degree that students could operate within the rules. For instance, Mrs. Whitson had a very low tolerance level for talking, and her large classroom was an echo chamber for noise. She insisted on little or no talking above a whisper to accommodate her need for a quiet classroom. Mary Alice has told me on four occasions that she can't stand talking in her classroom. She needs a quiet, peaceful atmosphere. She will allow whispering when work is finished (Field Notes, October 10, 1982). 122 Her need for quiet also came forth in a discussion of students working in groups; "I don't care for groups. The yapping drives me nuts! (Field Notes, November 11, 1982)." Mrs. Evans had a higher tolerance for noise and would allow students to talk during particular class times in voices that could be heard across the room. She explained this to me saying, "...every teacher, I believe, has a classroom noise level that's acceptable, whether it's absolute silence or what - if certain people walked in - they would call it total pande- monium. But you have to find that level and you have to work out a way for you to maintain that level (Field Notes, September 22, 1982)." While these rules appeared to be Operative at all times within the classroom, the teachers seemed flexible depending upon the context of the class activity. Students would sometimes ask for permission to talk during these times. At 10:30 the bell rang and teacher (Janie) called the roll. The students had come into the room and chose seats. A student asked, "While you're taking roll can we talk quietly?" She answered, "Yes." (Field Notes, September 1, 1982). At other times a natural swelling of talking would begin and be allowed to continue since the teacher did not intervene. In both classrooms this normally occurred during the last five minutes of the class when students had completed their work. This seemed to be indicative of the informal rule, "It's O.K. to talk when teacher is 123 not keeping surveillance." Talking began when movies were rewound or during other transitional activities such as passing back papers. This talk appeared to be permitted unless it reached a level beyond the teacher's tolerance. She would then intervene. Teachers were, therefore, flexible about talking depending upon the context of the class activities. Mrs. Whitson also appeared to be flexible about "staying in your seat." During study periods, she allowed students to sharpen pencils and get dictionaries without her permission. This same practice occurred in Mrs. Evans room. This rule concerning "staying in your seat" was, therefore, context sensitive. The following examples indicate that teachers also appeared to be flexible in enforcement of these rules depending on individual differences of students. Both teachers stated that students could not all be treated the same way, that in fact this unilateral treatment could be harmful at times. Mrs. Evans explained this when talking about calling parents at home when students misbehaved. "You can't treat everything the same. I call some parents because I know that it will help. Some of them don't care and wouldn't help. And then some parents actually beat their kids if they get in trouble in school. So, I always ask the other teachers before I call home. I guess it's the same at all schools (Field Notes, August 17, 1982)." 124 The teachers sometimes ignored the misbehavior of a student and looked for an opportunity to give attention in a positive way. An example of this was the way Janie Evans worked with Dale, a boy who was consistently causing disturbances. She would ignore his minor misbehavior of talking out of turn. She would then ask him to pass back papers, or be captain of a spelling team, or praise him for a thoughtful question. Passive students sometimes received a little extra attention during study time. An example of this occurred one day when Meggan had withdrawn following her high school boy friend's suicide attempt. The teacher came back to Meggan and started chatting with her in a friendly way about her family. "It must be a hard act to follow when you have three older sisters... (Field Notes, September 28, 1982)." Mary Alice Whitson also seemed to be sensitive to students in this way. One transfer student appeared to have a learning disability. She seated him close to her and used this closeness as an opportunity to give him additional help and to observe his academic performance. She contacted the school psychologist for testing and a screening program was implemented. Another student's father had died that summer. Mary Alice said she was aware that Jeb was in mourning, but that he would also use this as an opportunity to be unnecessarily excused from work. She stated that she cared about his progress and was firm with him, keeping him on task and obedient to the rules. 125 Additionally, several girls in her class the previous year had sought her out for counseling, during their parents' divorce. She gave them the support she could but also referred them to the guidance department. While both teachers were sensitive to these individual needs of students, and were flexible with certain formal rules and consequences, they still saw their primary job as one of teacher, rather than friend and counselor. Mrs. Evans expressed her role in this way: "Every teacher is a parent-image in some way, because parents are an authority and teachers are authority. I've had kids call me Mom before. It's because somehow something missing from what's at home or maybe Mom's dead or maybe Mom doesn't live at home anymore. That's the highest compli- ment I can be paid - it really is!... I think I see myself as a teacher, but subconsciously I think there is a lot of parent there. As my children are growing, I see the joy of parent- hood. I sometimes get the best of parenting. Yes, I do some of the disciplining which isn't the fun part of parenting, but I see a lot of the neat things. I see them growing up, I see them becoming more mature -- it's really neat to have them in eighth grade and get them back as sophomores and see how much they have grown up. You look up to them now because they're taller than you are and so I have a lot of joys of parenting without all the hassles that some of them have. I don't think that I've ever - I mean it's taken me a long time to realize that, so subconsciously I get a lot of joys of parenting. I'm like Mom to 120 kids this year, but I see them at their best normal (Field Notes, September 28, 1982)." Mrs. Whitson discussed role perception as well. Her first year in the classroom was chaotic because she joked with the students and wanted to be buddies. She almost quit when discipline got out of hand and came to realize, 126 "My first responsibility wasn't to be their friend, it was to educate them (October 9, 1982)." Formal and Informal Procedural Rules Procedural rules bound to the classroom appeared to establish parameters of behavior for students. The data suggest that enforcement of these rules was flexible in nature, however, depending on the context of activity and the individual student involved. Students were not merely passive recipients of rules, however, but initiated certain procedures themselves, thus establishing informal rules and procedures. Students in Mrs. Whitson's class cared for the environment by taking chairs down and being responsible for ventilation. Furthermore, students in both classes would often comb their hair during class time, but rarely took over ten seconds to accomplish this task. As many as five to fifteen students combed their hair in a one hour obser- vation. Teachers rarely commented on this activity and thus permitted the practice. Students also cited a latent rule within the tardy policy. Brian stated, "I like the tardy policy. They let you be late to class three times for free." On the fourth tardy students reported to the office for detention. Connected to the tardy policy was the latent rule of "hurry-up and wait." Students would often push into class and rush to their seats as the bell rang. During the next 127 five to seven minutes they waited while roll was taken and while the teacher prepared to begin the lesson. Students also waited to be called on, waited for papers to be passed, for films to be set up and rewound, and waited for the bell at the end of the class. Therefore, procedural rules bound to the classroom referred to the social behavior of students and guidelines for care and use of equipment. The data suggest that they were initiated by both teachers and students and made visible through written rules, teacher explanation, practice, and positive and negative sanctions. This group of rules appeared to be highly sensitive to context. While teachers were nervous about being inconsistent in their enforcement, the data sugest that they were, in fact, consistently inconsistent since enforcement depended both on the activity and student involved. Students, as we shall see, appeared to recognize these patterns and viewed the teachers as fair. Procedural Rules Not Bound to the Classroom The second group of rules within the classroom was procedural rules not bound to the classroom. These included visits to the library, use of lockers and use of the laboratories. Mrs. Evans consistently enforced her rule of N9 use of the library or lockers. She did allow use of the bathroom under certain conditions, however, she explained this the second day of school. 128 "O.K. Obviously sometime during the year in this class period you are going to need to use the bathroom. You are obviously encouraged to use it before or after the bell. But if sometime you get to the door and you realize you need to use it and it's near the time the bell rings, you can ask me and I will probably say '60 use it.‘ I will not count you late if you have permission from me to use the bathroom. During class time, I discourage you from using the bathroom. However, there are emergencies. I do allow you to use the bathroom if you absolutely need to. I don't expect that will happen very often. If I think you are abusing the privilege, I will probably talk to you personally and tell you no the next time. Don't ask because I will not be sympathetic. So don't count on getting out of this classroom to use the bathroom day in and day out. It's a bad habit (Field Notes, September 1, 1982)." During the first eight weeks of school, Mary Alice occasionally allowed students to go to their lockers for books, use the library with their bonus points, and use the bathroom when needed. As the marking period progressed, she felt that students were misusing the privilege and she posted a large sign reading NO PASSES FOR ANYTHING. EVER. DON'T BOTHER TO ASK. This new rule pertained to lockers and the restrooms. However, she laughingly told me, that she had to allow an exception to the rule the first day it was posted, or Gary would have thrown up in her wastebasket! Rules Pertaining to Academic Achievement Rules pertaining to academic achievement included test taking, film viewing, and time on task - a term derived from classroom research which refers to students 129 being engaged in academic learning activities (Berliner, et al., 1976). The teachers appeared to differ on this group of rules and their importance. There were definite rules and practices regarding test taking. Students were to clear their desks in each class and the teacher would dictate the spelling words for a spelling test. For grammar tests, both teachers would pass out the dittoed papers and students would return them to the teacher when they had completed the test. No talking or looking at others' papers was allowed. These rules were announced each time a test took place in Mrs. Evans room. Students were never observed to violate these rules. Janie and Mary Alice had different perceptions concerning behavior while viewing films. In Mary Whitson's class, students were expected to be quiet but there was no reference to their behavior beyond this. An excerpt from the field notes illustrates this point. Following the reading the teacher told the class what the film would be about. "The film will repeat what we already know about how our language grew." (As the teacher got a book for the new boy, quiet conversation began. Brian got out of his seat to get a drink of water.) The teacher looked at him sternly saying, "That's a warning. Stay in your seat until I tell you you can get out of it.". The teacher reviewed a bit about Old English. Her voice was in a monotone. The movie was very difficult to see because it was so light in the room. The film was a very good quality. 130 9:00 - The students were all focused on the screen and there was only one yawn. 9:05 - The students seemed to lose interest in the film. Three yawned and one looked down. 9:10 - Five yawned. The film ended and the teacher said, "Well, that was a little drier than I expected." "Our next film is The Story of the Develqpe ment of the English_Language. That ought to be a real thrill, huh?" This film had actors in it and more movement than the preceeding one. The film started off with a jerk and then quit. The teacher stopped the projector and rewound the movie. The students talked quietly. 9:20 - She started the movie again. Seven heads were on the desks and one student was stretching. The film ended one minute before the bell rang (Field Notes, September 7, 1982). Janie Evans, however, had very definite rules concern- ing viewing films which she explained on two occasions and reinforced through the use of negative consequences. When the teacher turned the lights on she instructed the students on behavior for viewing films. "When you watch a film, stack your books and put them to the right of you. I saw books being opened and closed. No pens are to be tapped. You don't need a pen or pencil. It's hard for me to tell if you have your head on the desk. When we watch a film I don't expect this to happen. During a film if I see that happen I'll give you a warning and write your name on the board for not following directions. Lay your pen on the table or put it in a notebook. Some of you are doing things you are not aware of -- tapping or your feet are moving." As the film is being changed, conversations begin. Bob keeps teasing the boy who is threading the film. "I won't put names on the board during the film because it would disturb the viewing. I'll wait until the end of the film. At this point all pens and pencils are to be on the table." (Field Notes, September 7, 1982). 131 The two teachers appeared to differ greatly in their approach to on-task behavior of students during study time. Janie Evans was constantly reminding her students of the importance of working during study periods. She explained this importance to the students She wrote "time on task" on the board and explained what it meant to them. She said that it had been a while since she had taught junior high and would take her another week or two to discover what amount of time it would take them to complete assignments. She then asked them to think over the past week to see if they had used extra time to prepare for spelling tests and to review assignments. "Ask yourself 1) Did I spend time looking around? 2) Did I spend time studying the words? 3) Some of you work faster and can take time to look around, but some of you work slower and need to take the entire time to get the assign- ment done. 4) You need to develop good study habits as you go along in school, will have more work to do and less time to get it done!" She was speaking in a conversational tone and half way sat on the desk resting one pant leg on the desk top. (Field Notes, September 16, 1982). During the study periods, she walked around the room and supervised the work, answering questions when they arose. If a student was not on task she chastised the student and indicated that a book was to be open. This practice appeared so important to Janie that she would on occasion, reward the class with three to five minutes free time at the end of the hour if they had worked diligently during the study period. However, she never “formalized" this practice by announcing it as a rule or by applying the negative consequences. 132 Mary Alice held a different view concerning on-task behavior. In response to a question, "If a student finishes twenty to thirty minutes early, do you care if they do their work or use this as free time?", she replied, "It doesn't matter if they don't create a disturbance. They can do homework, read or color. It's not a problem. Sometimes I don't plan enough. They can talk quietly." (Field Notes, November 3, 1982) This rule was not announced. However, Mrs. Whitson often smiled at students who were ”quietly" off-task thereby sanctioning their behavior, creating a latent rule. As a result of this philosophy, students who finished work early, or who did assignments at home, often spent twenty to fifty-five minutes of class time in doing activities unrelated to academic. Here is an example to illustrate this point. Class began at 8:30. Mrs. Whitson passed Mike: 8:40 - Mike had all his work done and typed. Mrs. Whitson asked, "Are you done?" (He said, "Yes") "Good boy." 1 Mike had nothing to do the rest of the hour and drew a picture using his protractor and often opened his 'Trapper Keeper' (note- book) to file his paper or look at the Pac- Man stickers with their wiggly black eyes enclosed in plastic casings. Otherwise, he sat with his books piled looking out the window, a smile at the corner of his mouth (Field Notes, September 9, 1982). Therefore, the two teachers appeared to view time on- task in different perspectives. Mrs. Whitson was uncon- cerned with a student being off-task as long as the 133 student turned in work at the time it was due and did not interfere with other students. Mrs. Evans viewed time on task as very important, stressing that students could also read library books, or review, but that academic work was important during the allotted learning time. There appeared to be latent rules and practices pertaining to academic achievement as well. Students in both classes established the practice for "turn taking" during reading. In Mrs. Whitson's class students waited to be called on. In Mrs. Evans' class students raised their hands volunteering to read. Each teacher appeared to accommodate these practices within her classroom -- ones that continued throughout the study. There also appeared to latent expectations for differ- ences in teacher and student behavior. Students in both classes never corrected each other when errors were made during recitations but waited for the teacher to do so. While students were not to interrupt study time in Mrs. Evans' classroom, she regularly gave directions and announcements during this time. Mrs. Whitson stated she expected student work to be handed in on time, yet on five occasions she was late in returning corrected papers herself thereby appearing to establish the informal rule that teacher's work could be late. These latent or informal rules were evident within the first few weeks of school. 134 A typical day's schedule in each classroom follows. Some students in each class finished early and had more free time at the end of the class period. This schedule was not announced but informally evolved into the daily routine. Variations in the schedule sometimes occurred and were announced by the teacher. These announcements signalled that the "normal" schedule was being altered. TYPICAL DAILY SCHEDULE IN BOTH CLASSROOMS First 5 minutes Roll 30 minutes Formal Lesson and Activities 15 minutes Study time 3-5 minutes Free time (Figure 4.2) Summary of Formal Rules The data suggest that there were three categories of formal or manifest rules present in each classroom. These were 1) Procedural rules bound to the classroom 2) Procedural rules not bound to the classroom 3) Rules pertaining to academic achievement. Within the first two categories of rules, a range and context of behavior appeared evident. These rules were established within the first week in Mary Alice's class and by the third—fourth week in Janie's class. 135 The first weeks of school seemed to be, therefore, not only a time for establishing rules, but for the students to discover the range of behavior within the parameters and the context of the rules as well. This appeared to be a subtle adaptation, rather than a self— conscious testing of the rules and led to latent rules as well. Students and teacher appeared to Operate in a ecosystem - the students adjusting to the teacher and the teacher adjusting to the students. Janie Evans explained this concept "It's a matter of when the class gets to the point that I'm comfortable, which it is right now. That's probably why I look more relaxed when I'm teaching. When it reaches the behavior level that I'm pleased with, then I can relax. And when they step over the lines so it's beyond me again, then I'll pull it in again -- it's time for a new seating chart, or it's time to rigidly adhere to the rules that are on the board. And sometimes, especially depending on what kid it is, I'll be the first to admit, I ignore the rules. And the better you know the kid, the better you know what works. And probably in four weeks from now I'll know whether my best method is to go up there and write the name on the board or whether it's to walk back and say, 'Now this behavior is not very appropriate and I'm having a bad day.‘ You begin to read kids and what works for them." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) A synoptic chart follows (Figure 4.3) indicating the categories of rules with examples of each. Additionally, it depicts how these rules were made visible and whether or not they seemed to be influenced by the context of activities within the classroom. While the first three categories of rules were formalized, informal or latent 136 rules were also present in the classroom relating to procedures bound to the classroom. A fourth rule appeared to emerge within the category related to the curriculum. The data suggest that a latent understanding was that form is the substance of the curriculum. Formal Formal Formal Informal Informal 137 Categories of Classroom Rules Means of Context Category, Example Visibility, Sensitive Procedural Talking; Posted Rule Rules Bound Tipping Chair; Teacher to the Use of Pencil Telling Yes Classroom Sharpener Negative Sanction Procedural Use of Teacher Rules Not Bathroom, Telling Bound to the Library and Posted Rule Yes Classroom Lockers Rules Test Taking; Teacher Pertaining Viewing Films; Telling to Academic Time on Task PoSitive and No Achievement Negative Sanctions Rules Discussion of Grades Pertaining Structure Teacher to the rather than Verbal and No Curriculum content of Non-verbal films; Sanctions Emphasis on Following Directions Procedural Hurry Up and Teacher Rules Bound Wait; Not to Classroom Free Tardies; Intervening Yes and Procedures Related to Academic Achievement Different Expectations for Teachers and Students; Turn Taking (Figure 4.3) 138 Form is the Substance of the Curriculum In both English classes, the teachers appeared to place an emphasis on following directions and on dealing with the structural elements of written works and films rather than address the MEANING of the content. They usually focused on the elements which composed it. There were many examples of this. Most students accepted the notion that the content of the sentences in their grammar books was not important, but rather the elements - the parts of speech. However, on occasion a student would ask about the meaning of an idea within the sentence. An example of this occurred in Mrs. Evans' class and the students laughed, signaling the inappropriateness of the question. Dale asked a number of questions about the content of the material that was read about nonwalking birds. The kids laughed at his questions comparing kiwis to penguins. The teacher responded to his questions briefly and with a smile and then continued with the grammar lesson. (Field Notes, September 16, 1982) Another time in Mrs. Whitson's class, "A student smiled at what she was reading, the teacher joined her with a smile, but allowed the reading to progress without comment to the content of the sentence (September 7, 1982)." Form seemed to be especially important to teachers in test situations and in writing assignments. This was evident to students, not only through the teacher explaining this to them, but in the grading system as well. 139 Examples of How Form Influenced Grades Mrs. Whitson explained her grading system, "I assign point values equivalent to the length and difficulty of the assignment. A daily grade is 5 points - if you follow directions." (Field NOtes, September 13, 1982) On another occasion Mrs. Whitson stressed form She explained to the students that on the pretest they had to comply with the directions or the answer was marked wrong. "If the directions said to circle the noun and you underlined it, I marked it wrong. You must learn to follow directions." (Field Notes, September 15, 1982) The teachers gave very specific directions for form during assignments. Here is an example from Mrs. Evans' class She told the students to take ten words and use them in a paragraph. ~(The students groaned.) "Write every other line. Underline the ten spelling words. Indent the paragraph and start every sentence with a capital and use an end mark." She was lecturing and her voice sounded strident. (Field Notes, September 10, 1982) Grammar assignments and test taking are situations where one might be expected to emphasize form. This same emphasis on form was present when discussing films chosen to develOp student self-awareness. Both teachers stated they hoped these films, dealing with loneliness, would develop students' sensitivity to others. In these cases one might expect the emphasis to be on the film's content. However, after the showing of a group of films which stressed the loneliness of old age and poverty, teachers 140 did not discuss the meaning of the film, but rather their structural elements, sequential episodes and descriptive setting. When students raised questions about substance, the teachers redirected them to the structure. The theoretical field notes reflect a review of these occurrences. It is interesting to note that the discussion of a film about loneliness of an old lady really centered around the mechanics of the film - the structure and use of symbolism. The teachers worked with this theme of loneliness in assigning a short story based on the same theme. However, they never discussed the emotion of loneliness or the problems of lonely people. They re- viewed the structural elements alone. This interested me because before class, the teachers were really excited about the film saying that it was really excellent and dealt so beautifully with the topic. Yet, they didn't overtly involve the students with the affective element of the film. They also had originally planned to have the students write a personal account of when they were lonely, and then decided that the students would find that painful or embarrassing. Yet three different students in Mrs. Evans room asked if they could make this a first person account and were told that it would be better to use the pronoun he, Mary Alice said that the stories would not be read aloud, and the student could write about his own experience. Two boys in Janie's class asked if they could write about loneliness in poetic form - Terry and Scott. She told them it had to be in prose that poetry would come later. Terry was disappointed and said he would prefer to write a poem. (Field Notes, October 15, 1982) The following day Mrs. Evans read a synopsis of the film she had written to the class using descriptive language. Her reading seemed moving and appeared to 141 reflect her sensitivity as a writer. Following the reading she paused and waited for student reaction. Finally, Scott raised his hand and asked, "Why didn't you skip every other line and use ink?" Students, too, seemed to learn that form was more important than substance. A discrepant case occurred one day in Mary Alice's class. She spoke two sentences about the meaning of one of the films, saying, "Take what you get in life and go on (Field Notes, October 16, 1982)." This was the only time that substance or content was addressed in a direct manner during sixty classroom observations. However, it was the privately shared goal of both teachers that students derive meaning from films and heighten their sensitivity to others. The teachers had a lengthy dis- cussion about this one day out in the hall and shared their disappointment that students did not derive meaning from the content of the films. Additionally, in an interview Mary Alice shared, "Movies are a break, but the kids don't get the meaning (Field Notes, November 11, 1982)." Teachers did not structure or reward students' discussion of meaning however, and actually appeared to deter them from it when they attempted to do so. A partial explanation for this teacher behavior was expressed in a conversation on curriculum I had with Mary Alice Whitson. 142 I asked her if she thought it was important for students to learn grammar and phrases and what they modify. She replied, "No, I think it's retarded. Who cares what a phrase is? I know I don't, but they have to learn it." I asked her why. "Because the school told me I have to teach it." I asked who she meant by the school. "The curriculum." I asked who was in charge of the curriculum. She answered, "All those little English teachers." I said, "You're a little English teacher. Did you ever raise the question on why there is an emphasis on phrases and what they modify?" "No. I never thought of it." I asked, "What do you think would happen if you did?" She hesitated and said, "I don't know--it's tradition. You , teach grammar because that's what's always been taught in eighth grade. You just do it." She laughed. "I'm going to bring it up. I guess the kids have to know how to identify phrases for college." I replied, "In college you had an English minor. Did you ever have to identify phrases?" "No. It never came up. I had to know how to write. We don't spend enough time on writing. I know how to write, but no one ever taught me. You can't teach that. You're just born knowing how or have an ability to write." She went on to discuss her literature class. "We also do things like deal with values and feelings in there. I don't know if I'm supposed to do that." Her eyes dropped and she became quiet. "But we had the best discussion yesterday. It was fantastic. I think the kids need this." (Field Notes, November 11, 1982) The literature class was separate from the English class. The teachers appeared to see their role in English class as providing an understanding of the form and structure of language. Subsequently, they did not address the substance of the work they taught. Additionally, when students did complete the task, they only received a passing grade if they had followed directions, with correct 143 headings, circling the words correctly or underlining them as directed. The latent understanding within the content area of the English class appeared to be that form was the substance of the curriculum. Consequences to the Rules The data suggest that there were both formal positive and negative consequences to the rules in each classroom. The two teachers posted the negative consequences next to the classroom rules. These rules and their consequences were stenciled on construction paper and appeared above the chalkboard in each class. Mrs. Whitson posted her positive consequences as well above the chalkboard. These consequences rewarded INDIVIDUAL good behavior. While Mrs. Evans had no posted positive consequences, in fact, they did exist in her classroom in the form she referred to as PRIVILEGES. These privileges were rewards for WHOLE GROUP cooperation with the rules. They included: 1) Discreet gum chewing 2) Free time at the end of the hour 3) Choosing the seating arrangement in the classroom Privileges #1 and #3 were discussed with the class on several occasions. "You will not have broken the rule if I ask you to throw your gum away. You will not be asked to throw it away unless I find you popping it or blowing bubbles. However, and 144 this is a big 'however', if I find gum wrappers or candy wrappers on the floor, or in the desks, then I will say get rid of it before you come in the door. So a lot of it is your responsibility. If you can be adult about chewing gum, then you can chew it. If you cannot be an adult, then I'll ask you to throw it away. If you abuse the privilege by throwing things around, then you'll lose the privilege, and be told absolutely no gum chewing. It's your right, your privilege." (Field Notes, September 1, 1982) Gum chewing privileges were denied the class the eighth week of school when wrappers were found on the floor. This privilege was restored the following week for the next nine week marking period. However, if an individual student chewed gum while smacking it or blowing bubbles, the student had to spit the gum out, but the whole class was not penalized. Only when gum chewing became a littering problem was the privilege revoked for the entire class. Students were allowed to choose their seats at the beginning of the first nine week marking period. When the class was continuously disruptive, however, the teacher cautioned them saying, "I'll give you one more day to prove to me your seating chart is a good one (Field Notes, September 7, 1982)." The third week of school she placed them in an assigned seat and explained her reason for doing this in an interview: "I didn't want them to think that the reason I put them in assigned seats was a ploy on my part, so I let them have their own seating for the first two and a half weeks or 145 so. ...When you've got a friend, it's so much easier to look at the friend's paper and that's the basic reason I moved them, not because of their behavior but because of looking at someone else's paper... The class is beginning to be what I want it to be. Everyone seems relieved in the new seating." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) As stated earlier, students were sometimes rewarded with free time for a hard day's work session. This was a spontaneous gesture on the teachers' part and was not preannounced. Janie explained this particular reward in an interview. "Students earn free time for three reasons. One is a reward for being attentive. Also, if the work has been difficult and the frustration level is high, they need time to relax. Sometimes, I also allow free time if they have a take home assignment." (Field Notes, November 3, 1982) In the following synoptic chart (Figure 4.4) the researcher lists the positive and negative consequences in Janie's and Mary Alice's classroom. A comparison can be made of the different treatments which were employed. 146 CONSEQUENCES TO THE CLASSROOM RULES JANIE EVANS 1. Warning - Name on board 2. / Extra assignment or detention NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES 3. // Call parent 4. Send to Principal's office SEVERE DISRUPTION CLAUSE 1. Free Time POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES 2. Gum Chewing 3. Choosing Seats (Figure 4.4) MARY ALICE WHITSON l. verbal warning 2. Written assignment 3. Double Written Assignment Call Parent 4. Send to Principal's office SEVERE DISRUPTION CLAUSE 1. Free Time 2. Time in Library 3. Money Towards Books 4. Points Towards Grade Bonus Points 147 Figure 4.4 indicates the formal negative and positive consequences in each teacher's classroom. During a conversation, Janie Evans stated the greatest informal positive consequence for students'cooperative behavior was a quiet learning environment. "I think that the classroom atmosphere should be some reward... I've gotten away with as little paperwork as possible... The most successful discipline work you can do is what takes the least amount of time, because every minute you use to discipline the student is time you can't teach." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) In viewing Figure 4.4, it should also be remembered that students all started from a positive position. They began each class day with the expectation that they would cooperate and that such cooperation carried with it certain rewards for the individual or for the group. It was through misbehavior that rewards were lost and that a negative consequence was gained. For instance, in Mrs.. Whitson's class, all students started each week with 10 bonus points. As soon as they received a warning for mis- behavior, they lost the 10 points. Additionally, they began going through the steps of negative consequences which were cumulative within the hour. The following day, they started with a clean slate concerning the steps of negative consequences. They had to wait for the following week, however, before they were given the opportunity to gain bonus points. In Mrs. Evans' class, students all started with the 148 privilege of chewing gum and sitting where they wished in the classroom. Through misbehavior, the whole class lost this privilege until the teacher determined the time was right to restore the privilege once again. The difference in the approaches created additional bookkeeping for Mrs. Whitson, who kept daily track of bonus points and wrote out bonus tickets. She often did this during the student study time and in the teachers' lounge before school began. Both teachers had a "Severe Disruption Clause." This pertained to any student behavior that was so out of bounds that it stopped the teacher from teaching and the students from learning. It was only invoked once by Mrs. Evans. Students who created a severe disruption were excluded from the classroom and had to report to either the assistant principal or principal. While the rules and their consequences were_posted or came into being through teacher talk and behavior, there were intermediate steps as well which teachers used as fprewarnings" to the consequences. Mrs. Evans expressed the necessity for this by saying, "I used to keep better checks with assertive discipline, but it's disruptive to the class to be putting names on the board (Field Notes, August 18, 1982)." Mrs. Whitson also agreed with this approach. "I let a lot go on in here that I don't say anything about because I want to keep the class moving (Field Notes, 149 August 17, 1982)." Therefore, the teachers had other interventions to deter student misbehavior that were intermediate steps to implementing the consequences. Teacher Intervention The two teachers used verbal and nonverbal cues to students as indicators that a certain behavior was desired. The data suggest that these interventions would be indicated as steps on a continuum requiring low teacher energy to high teacher energy. The cues included non- verbal and verbal intermediate steps to the full range of consequences. The following synoptic chart (Figure 4.5) indicates the range of interventions that the two teachers utilized: Teacher Interventions From Low Energy to High Energy Conference Exclusion I 0 Negative I o o a: 5 Consequences ,fi 0 fl Verbal [ 2 U (3 Im a H w gIb m P m w Nonverbal I: m d Is 0 o B U U) D SID P' m w uaIu a 3:5 2 E; ":3 w k<""O WHO-I 9.9, (D o a m m o H X0 '15 50) n P“ 5‘ m cf 5 OS rr Orr EH? 2"? *‘ "’ m~< m5 :9 o m m n m m rr H- 9’ LG n a m I (Figure 4.5) 150 Figure 4.5 indicates the escalating interventions that the two teachers utilized in enforcing classroom rules. This, in reality, is a continuum that teachers appeared to "plug" into when they made decisions regarding the student's behavior. Mrs. Evans often seemed to rely on nonverbals, such as a frowning look with her arms folded, to gain the attention of the class. Both teachers used eye contact with students as an intermediate step to consequences serving as a "prewarning." Mrs. Evans moved around the room and would often stand next to a misbehaving student to thwart the misbehavior. She would touch students as well, for the same purpose. Sometimes she also removed a "tapping" pencil from a student's hand. She explained these nonverbal interventions: "They read body language very well. If you talk to them about body language they can't tell you what it is. But they can very easily see the things that upset me and it's amazing because certain groups read better than others... The better the group as a whole reads a teacher, the more successful the classroom is, because the less time you spend on discipline. One of my body language type things is walking around the room. I use it for a lot of things. If I find that a student isn't paying attention, if I walk back to where they are, they get a little panicky and try to find out what's happening in the classroom. If I find a student's behavior not appropriate and I don't want to interrupt the class, I can walk back there and say one word to them or just point the pencil or take the pencil out of someone's hand and lay it down. So, it's a way of giving a message to someone without disrupting the class and the teaching process, especially if they're reading aloud or doing an assignment or something. 151 I don't care what's happening in the classroom, if I put a student's name on the board, the first thing that happens is that everyone wants to look to see what John is doing. So, although I have not necessarily said anything, the name on the board has made everyone aware of the fact that some- one's behavior is inappropriate and they want to know what's happening." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) Mrs. Whitson usually remained seated and did not rely on proxemics or touch as an intervention; she did use eye contact as a prewarning. When nonverbal behavior did not produce improved student behavior, the teachers would often make declarative statements to the whole class "When I see peOple gazing off I wonder if they're following along." (Evans, September 22, 1982) "O.K., let's get quiet." (Whitson, September 29, 1982) "If you're going to share, let's share with the whole class, O.K.?" (Evans, September 3, 1982) Sometimes the teacher would call out the student's name and remind the student what the behavior was she expected. All of these interventions took place before going to the formal consequences and warning system. While both teachers utilized this approach, Mrs. Evans appeared to rely on prewarnings about three times more than Mrs. Whitson, who appeared to go more frequently to formal warnings and consequences. Following is an analysis of each teacher's pattern of intervention taken from one day's field notes. This was typical of daily interventions 152 within each teacher's class. Mrs. Whitson 1. Whole group statement -- "O.K. people." 2. Student named - "Turn around, Jan." 3. Whole group statement - "Rules haven't changed--no talking--no getting out of seats." 4. Warning - "Jim, stOp talking, that's your warning." (Field Notes, November 2, 1982) Four interventions; three prewarnings and one formal consequence. Mrs. Evans 1. Whole group statement - "Remember, no gum wrappers on the floor." 2. Name - "Dale, remember, keep the chair legs on the floor." 3. Formal Warning - Name on board--Dale. 4. Name - "Mike, put your arms in your sleeves, please." 5. Eye contact - whole class and wait. 6. Name - "Terry and Scott, no talking," 7. Eye contact - Two students passing notes. 8. Whole class declarative — "Notes seem to be popular today, put them away." 9. Student Name - "Loretta, turn around, please." 10. Whole group statement - "I'll wait." 11. Whole group statement - "SHHHH." 12. Name - "Laura, put your brush away." 13. Eye contact with student. 14. Eye contact with Scott who is putting his finger in a stapler. 15. Whole class declarative - "It would be nice if all of you would listen." 16. 17. 18. 19. 153 Formal Warning - Name on Board, Loretta. Name - "Terry, don't tap your feet." Eye contact with Anne who is mouthing message to friend. Student named - "Terry, open your book." (Field Notes, November 1, 1982). Nineteen interventions, seventeen prewarnings, two formal warnings. Part of the reason for Mrs. Evans' reliance on pre- warnings, seemed to be tied to her belief: "I truly believe that if I walked in and set down the rules and was totally rigid, there will be no talking...that they wouldn't grow up as human beings. I don't want toy soldiers in my classroom, I want people." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) While Mrs. Whitson also believed that she was flexible in her rules, she stated that she was pleased with this year' them. 5 rules and consequences and the way she enforced "I'm happy with my consequences this year. They've worked out pretty well. I haven't had to go past the verbal warning more than twice. I don't think the kids want to take the assign- ment home and do it. And, of course, as soon as I give that written assignment, I call home. I call immediately, within the hour. Word gets around real quick..." (Field Notes, October 10, 1982) This direct approach appeared to curb misbehavior in the classroom. While both teachers indicated that contracts for behavior were recommended by the principal, and one teacher discussed using them with two difficult students, neither teacher implemented any contracts during the period 154 of observation. In summary, the two teachers had a wide variety of interventions that included both verbal and nonverbal signals. These interventions followed a continuum of nonverbal interventions to exclusion from the classroom. They seemed to move within this continuum as they deter- mined the situation warranted and in accordance for with their own daily toleration for misbehavior. Summary_of How Rules and Consequences Were Formulated Mrs. Whitson and Mrs. Evans both utilized the school's Assertive Discipline program developed by Lee Canter (1979). Mrs. Evans presented the formal rules and con- sequences on the first day of school. These were posted on chart paper and a note stating the rules was sent home to parents. Other rules came into existence during the next four weeks as well. Additionally, three positive consequences or privileges were introduced to the whole group and were rewarded for whole group coOperation. Mrs. Whitson introduced rules the second day of class and posted positive and negative consequences along with them. The two teachers appeared to have both formal and informal rules in their classroom which were organized into similar categories. Additionally, each teacher used nonverbal and verbal intermediate steps between the student and invoking of the formalized consequences. Mrs. Evans appeared to rely on these intermediate steps more often than did Mrs. 155 Whitson. The data suggest that Mrs. Whitson had fewer behavior problems overall. Other variables, however, appeared to intervene as well in shaping the behavior of students within the classroom. Additional Sources that Influenced the Shaping of the Classroom Rules The data suggest that while the teachers were the primary source in establishing the classroom rules, other sources influenced the shaping of these rules as well. These appeared to include the students, the school structure and administration, and the wider community. Community The parents, school board, and the socio-economic climate all appeared to contribute to shaping the classroom rules. This influence was sometimes direct, but primarily appeared to be a latent factor. Socio-Economic Climate The school district of Mount Vernon was composed of four governmental units with varying populations: Rainbow Beach - 227 residents winter 1500 residents summer Village of Morgan Park - 331 residents City of Mount vernon - 2832 residents Mount Vernon Township - 2583 residents The total population figure for the school district during the school season was 5,973. 156 According to the principal, teachers, and realtors, the school district was composed of three very different pOpulations of people. There were very wealthy city people who keep their $150,000+ homes for weekend enter- taining or who live in these homes but send their children to boarding schools in neighboring states. There were the low to middle class population who compose the stable population of the school district and live within it for generations. And the third group of residents were poor "hill folk" who had migrated to the area. According to the school psychologist and teacher consultant for the intermediate school district, "Many of these are hill people from Arkansas. What is different in this school is that many students they see are students who are not 'sequentially put together'. Some students have been in four schools in one year." (Field Notes, November 17, 1982) The psychologist went on to describe the group of citizens who make up the intergenerational population of the district: "There appears to be a population of peOple in the district who are culturally limited. They have little vision of what could be. Economically, these people may be quite poor. These are people who were born in Mount Vernon and never leave." (Field Notes, November 17, 1982) A county mental health worker who services the community shared his views of the population and life style of the people: 157 "This is the poorest area in the county for mental health. There is really nothing for kids to do in Mount Vernon, but get into trouble. There is nothing to do, nowhere to go and literally no culture." (Field Notes, November 12, 1982) Unemployment was reported to be up to 18.5% this fall in the school district (Mount Vernon Times, August 1982) and 22.5% in December (MOunt Vernon Times, February 1983). Of the two small manufacturing industries, only one was Operating at capacity, leaving many workers laid Off. The mental health worker commented on this phenomenon "Because there is relatively little industry in town it is easy to be unemployed. When people are unemployed they don't look around for other options, because there are no other options. They haven't learned about them. People live in this town for generations and repeat the life style over and over again. They haven't had the exposure to the city and don't realize what else is available and so they don't change. It is more comfortable not to change. The town has summer affluence wHiIe other towns in the community have year-round affluence. The people rarely break out Of their life style. Mental health workers in the county describe Mount Vernon as GRANOLA - a bunch of flakes and fruits with nuts thrown in." (Field Notes, November 12, 1982) The teacher consultant also characterized Mount Vernon. "This town is unique. It is a rough, tough town. It's characterized by violence. There are fights with weapons. It's a border town and the people are physical, macho types. Many of the parents won't let their children go to community events because they are afraid." (Field Notes, November 12, 1982) The annual police reports for the City of Mount Vernon indicated that the City had nine times as many arrests 158 for driving under the influence of alcohol and six times as many arrests for traffic violations as their neighboring City of Fernwood which had a similar pOpulation and number of police officers. (Annual Report Of Mount Vernon Police Department, 1980-81 and City of Mount Vernon and Annual Report of Fernwood Police Department 1980-81). The county mental health worker talked about alcoholic' consumption in Mount Vernon, "When peOple have nothing to do they do what's different, out of boredom. Alcohol is the thing to do in Mount Vernon and is more readily available than drugs. Older teens supply it to younger teens. ...Alcohol is available, the young (under 21) meet on the railroad tracks with chains and baseball bats to fight... As a mental health worker I tried to get a prevention program started in the school but with the budget cuts we're facing, I was told we'd only be treating schiZOphrenics and other serious problems. It's a shame. The police in the town come down hard on the kids. They do nothing to establish rapport. The kids come to hate authority." (Field Notes, November 12, 1982) The principal stated that the motto of the community is, "If it was good enough for Dad it's good enough for my kids." The school board president agreed with this perception and added that the populace believed that the school was top heavy in administration. "They remember what school was like in the 40's and expect it to be the same today." (Field Notes, January 18, 1982) The mental health worker added, "The parents of the community are products of the community and perpetuate the cycle. They don't take education seriously and reduce it to the narrowest Of basics." (November 12, 1982) 159 This group of parents was characterized by the principal and the school psychologist as "adolescent in their approach to life" which was reflected in their parenting of their children. The county mental health worker concurred, "The adults in this area are the most immature we've seen in a long time. Their love is adolescent love. They suffer from really low self concepts and there is often a steady stream of boyfriends in and out Of the house who have little to no regard to the mothers and often beat them right in front of the kids. The parents in the area are known to be very inconsistent with their kids and often then go overboard and beat them." (Field Notes, November 12, 1982) Summary of the Socio-Economic Factors in the Community The community appeared to be primarily composed of three groups of residents, poor peOple who were transient, wealthy city people who had homes in Mount Vernon, but in most cases educated their children privately, and a stable population who had lived in the area for generations. This group of people was characterized as chronically unemployed with little vision for what their lives or the lives of their children might be. They reportedly viewed education on terms of the narrowest of basics. Agency workers reported a high percentage of marriages in this area ended in divorce and many children witnessed a steady stream Of boyfriends in and out of their homes. Divorced parents were often reported to be preoccupied with these "adolescent" relationships and children were 160 said to be left to fend for themselves. The town was characterized as "rough and tough" with alcohol as a prime recreation for most young adults in the community. Parents The parents of eighth graders in this study also appeared to have a direct influence on classroom rules and consequences. This influence was Observed during a parent turn around day for the junior high school. The parents were invited to come and join their child, or their child could remain at home that day, and the parent went through the student's schedule for actually doing assignments and homework. Twelve parents attended the eighth grade turn around day and shared their perceptions with the principal both in a coffee hour and'through a survey (Appendix B). While all the parents who attended the day expressed their delight with the improvements in the school, two parents felt there needed to be tighter discipline in some of the classrooms. One mother was additionally upset that there was little to no homework, especially in English classes. "More homework! When parents are choosing to send their children to private schools for a better education, it is time to upgrade the standards in our schools." (Parent Survey, October 13, 1982) A few other parents agreed with this view and the following day the principal met with the eighth grade English teachers and told them that there needed to be 161 more homework. He also shared that parents were pleased with discipline in their particular classrooms, but told other teachers that their control had to improve before spring since he had invited parents back to see the improvement. The principal was angry and emphatic in his remards. The parents also wanted different rules for themselves on turn around day. "We need a longer lunch period and breaks for smoking. These same parents were opposed to students smoking, however, and supported the principal in having a closed campus during lunch to cut down on smoking and bringing drugs into the school." (Field Notes, October 13, 1982) One mother further stated that she was glad students had only 20 minutes for lunch, "It gets them ready for the job world. In factories, you don't get much time to eat." (Field Notes, October 13, 1982) Also, the parents were very pleased with the school building, seeing it as a luxury compared to when they were students during the crowded conditions Of the 1960's. While the building was 53 years Old and in need of replacement or repair, indeed it had been improved since these parents were students. According to the County Gazette, February 2, 1966, the school was designed for 375 students and had reached a population of 1,000 students. The administration appealed to the board for a millage vote to build a new high school. The paper reported, 162 "The sour note of defeat had been ringing in Mount Vernon Board of Education and School Board since 1962, when the first bond issue was turned down by voters... The school adopted portable classrooms and made do with present conditions which included whole gym classes sharing three shower heads and overcrowded classrooms." (County Gazette, October 2, 1982) The parents, therefore, gave the principal their support for tighter discipline within the building and expressed their pleasure with many of the building improvements. They asked for more homework for their students and requested that the school newsletter, which had been eliminated during budget cuts be restored. On Parent Conference Day, 142 junior and senior high school parents gave similar responses when filling out a questionnaire concerning the school. Overall, they gave the school high_grades citing many improvements. When grading the school from A-E, parents indicated that in their opinion their school was well above average (Appendix C). The following synoptic chart indicates the distribution of grades parents gave the school as a whole. PARENTS'GRADES FOR THE SCHOOL AS A WHOLE 0% 6% 38% 53% 6% (Figure 4.6) 163 In rating discipline within the junior high school, the parents indicated this distribution of grades. PARENTS' GRADES FOR DISCIPLINE IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL nsatisfactory Average Good Excellen 13% 28% 46% 15% (Figure 4.7) Again, over 85% of the parents who responded on the questionnaire believed that discipline was average or better in the junior high school and 61% described it as good to excellent. Additionally 86% of the respondents graded the principal and assistant principal good to excellent and 68% of the respondents gave similar ratings to the junior high school teachers. While the school principal was excited and encouraged by this response to the questionnaire, he also stated that the school had been in an awful mess the last ten years or more, and so agy improvement was seen as a big step to the staff and the parents. He stated, however, that he was pleased to have the support Of the parents for the many programs that had occurred during his administration. 164 The School Board The school board also made contributions to shaping the classroom rules, both as a policy setting agency and as the administrator of the budget. The board president shared that ever since she had been in Office there had been nothing but budget reductions and that she expected the trend to continue, "PeOple in this community don't trust the Board and that goes way back to the 1940's. In general, they have reason for mistrust. The Board is only as informed as its leader allows it to be. Many times, Boards didn't have complete facts and so they misled the public. I am trying to be as open and honest as possible about the budget and taxation. In time peOple will come to believe me. The present board doesn't always listen to me. I have formed a lot of committees just to keep them informed. We have a millage issue this spring that will get voted down. People don't realize that if their prOperty tax goes up, they can deduct it from their income tax and get a refund. We're out of formula this year and don't get state aid, there's been a tax roll back as well, we just have to keep cutting programs..." (Field Notes, January 18, 1983) The principal stated that the populace had mistrusted boards over the years. Indeed, on many occasions boards had made mistakes when interpreting the budget. Superintendents seldom lasted more than three years in the district and the present superintendent was in disfavor and was asked to submit his resignation in February. It was reported that part of the reason for this dismissal was that he announced a shortfall in the budget, but later stated the district was not in the financial straits he 165 cited earlier. A newspaper article reported this event. Savings resulting from rearrangement of teachers and receipt of unexpected funds from the state will make available to Mount Vernon schools an additional $23,789 for the 1982-83 school year. "We're not finding money," said Superin- tendent Terry Boyd Wednesday. "We're refining our budget and coming up with the actuals versus the projections--meaning, what we're actually paying out against what we planned to spend." Board President verna Wilson told the Times that of the total amount of unbudgeted funds, $9,032 was due to a combination of four factors: the 1982-83 beginning cash balance was lower than anticipated, district received $16,000 from the state that was not anticipated, an over—estimate of July-August teacher salaries, and lower anticipated expenditures. The $2,240,680 operating budget for the 1982-83 year approved by the board last June provided a surplus of $40,000 to be carried over to begin the 1983-84 school year. Wilson said Wednesday, "We now know-- finally--how much we've got to spend and how much we are able to spend for the coming school year." (Mount Vernon Times, August 1982) Reportedly this was the type of activity that superintend- ents and school boards have engaged in for generations. Moreover, the principal stated that pe0p1e in the area had little trust for governing bodies in general. The County Gazette reported in 1966: "The voters feared taxes would increase because local units Of government recently changed from basing their tax on assessed evaluation to state equalized evaluation (County Gazette, February 2, 1966)." 166 For these reasons, voters had historically denied millages. Additionally, the lack of a strong industrial tax base put the burden of taxation on middle class and poor residents. Senior citizens and wealthy year-round residents traditionally voted "no" on millages since they, or their children, received no benefits from the schools. Currently, the expensive lake front properties placed the district in a high economic bracket thus putting the school "out of formula" for state aid. The district did not receive full benefit from taxing this prOperty, however, since a "roll back" to help prOperty owners during periods of inflation, allowed them a break in taxes. The present school board, therefore, was faced with a declining budget during an inflationary period and a distrustful populace who would not vote yes to raising millages. The effects of the economic decline were felt within the workings of the board and its allocations of funds. Some of these actions affected the discipline program within the school. These cuts included: 1) Reducing the assistant principal to a part- time post, 2) Eliminating staff for the in-house suspension program, 3) Lack of funding for staff in-service training. In an interview, a school board member shared this view of the role of the principal in relation to the program cuts in the junior-senior high school. 167 (The board member went on to say that all the positive improvements in the high school have been due to the principal.) "He really pushes the teachers. He doesn't allow them to get lenient, he's in the classroom and keeps them on their toes. The most important aspect of discipline is for students to respect their teachers. Larry really works with the teachers and the students respect the teachers in return...I forsee that we will not be able to restore the assistant principal to a full time basis. But to be selfish about it, I will say this. Before, Larry gave 100% of himself to this job. Now with Pat back in the classroom part-time, Larry gives 150% of himself to the job. If we put Pat back in the classroom and eliminate the position of assistant principal, Larry will give 200% of himself to the job. I suppose there's a limit to what peOple can do. (Laughter.) Larry has not told us what his limit is." (Field Notes, January 18, 1983) However, in an earlier interview with Larry, he displayed anger over the pressure and increased responsi- bilities the board was asking him to accept. He said that he saw himself as an educational leader, while they saw him as a sheriff chasing kids for smoking. "I can't do both jobs. I'll resign if they expect me to. It's either that or drop dead. I was in the hospital earlier for exhaustion. I won't let that happen again (Field Notes, November 2, 1982)." In another interview Larry shared that one board member laughed at him when he was incensed over getting a 3% raise. Larry was told - "Why should we give you a raise, you'll never leave!" A board member said that many other board members knew that Larry loved this school, since he had attended it as a student himself. "He's totally dedicated here. 168 That's why he works so hard. I fought to get him this job - me and another board member. We have not been disappointed, and he knows we're responsible for him being principal (Field Notes, January 13, 1983)." Students In order to understand teacher behavior within the classroom, the data suggest that it was important to understand the composition of each class. Additionally, it was important to understand how students viewed the teacher, the classroom rules, and the school. Both student surveys and interviews were utilized for the purpose of gaining the student viewpoint. Moreover, the principal and guidance counselor provided standardized test scores and case study vignettes of students in the study groups providing additional insight regarding the students and class composition. Class Composition Mrs. Whitson and Mrs. Evans taught heterogeneously grouped classes of students. However, the data suggest that students in Mrs. Whitson's class had higher aptitudes for language and fewer social problems within the school. A composite of language scores taken from the Michigan Assessment Test, which was given the preceding year, indicated that nineteen out of the twenty students in Mrs. Whitson's class who took the test were in the 75th to 100th 169 percentile. One student scored in the 25th to 50th percentile and three new students had not taken the test. In Mrs. Evans' class, thirteen students scored in the 75th to 100th percentile, four students in the 50th to 75th percentile and three in the 25th to 50th percentile. Therefore, 95% of Mrs. Whitson's class who took the MAT scored in the upper 25th percentile for language, compared with 65% of the students in Mrs. Evans' class. This higher academic profile for Mrs. Whitson's class was also indicated in the nine week grades. Both teachers made the same assignments and used the same point system for grades. (Mrs. Evans' class showed the following distribution of grades: NINE WEEK GRADES IN MRS. EVANS' CLASSROOM Grade 1 Number of students A 2 B 7 C 3 D 2 F 5 (Figure 4.8) The distribution of grades in Mrs. Whitson's class must be indicated in two ways, since some grades included bonus points for behavior which boosted the grade and therefore did not reflect academic achievement alone. 170 The first column indicates the grade that appeared on the report card. The second column indicates what the grades would have been if bonus points had not been included. GRADE DISTRIBUTION IN MRS. WHITSON'S CLASS Actual Grade on Number Of Grade without Number of Report Card Students Bonus points Students A _l§r A 12 4B ‘ymlm y _ Ag; B 5 C 2 C 2 D 2 D 1 F 1 ’f' 2 (Figure 4.9) The principal indicated that students in Mrs. Evans' class appeared to have social adjustment problems. Seven of these students were seen in his office for a variety of reasons. Four of these seven were girls who were involved in drugs, fighting and described as "street wise." The principal indicated that one of these 14 year old girls was frequently truant since she left town for periods of time with her 40 year old boyfriend. The three boys who were Office referrals were described as having some problems due to attention-getting behavior. One was reported to have had flirtatious with a teacher. In Mrs. Whitson's class only three students had records of Office referrals, all were girls. The principal had seen them for incidents connected with drugs and fighting. 171 In Mrs. Evans' class, half the students had experienced their parents' divorce, three students lived in one family homes, and seven students lived with a parent and stepparent. In Mrs. Whitson's class almost half of the students also came from homes where divorce occurred. Six students lived in one parent homes and four lived with a parent and stepparent. Mrs. Evans appeared to have a more challenging group of students to work with in terms of academic and social behavior. She expressed that she wanted them all to be "winners" and sometimes overlooked their minor misbehaviors focusing instead on their academic work keeping them "on task." Student Reaction to the Rules When students were surveyed in both Mary Alice's and Janie's class, they indicated that, overwhelmingly, they liked school, their teachers and English class. Addition- ally, over 90% of the students answered that they liked the classroom rules and consequences as well. When asked to describe their teacher, students in Mrs. Whitson's class responded that she was nice, great, super, excellent, sweet, good, considerate, pretty, and cool (Appendix A). Students interviewed also stated "Mrs. Whitson is not like other teachers. She doesn't treat us like we're lower, She seems like us. We had to fill out a form from our Weekly Reader which asked who our favorite teacher was and most everyone put Mrs. Whitson. She talks like we're friends, and she's fair. We learn as much in here as in other classes, too. 172 She's fair on tests, too. What I like most about her is the way she talks to us." (Student Interview, November 8, 1982) Another student agreed "What I like about Mrs. Whitson is that she's like a kid herself. She's like a mother to all the girls. If I had a problem I'd take it to Mrs. Whitson before I'd go to the guidance office. She's really nice." (Student Interview, November 7, 1982) Jeb, a boy known to get in trouble in school, said, "She's nice. I don't get mad at her like I do with other teachers who pick on me. When she gets mad at me and gives me.a consequence I know I deserve it. She's fair. If you like a teacher you want to follow the rules. You want to obey because your relation- ship gets better. The other day I saw her carrying a projector upstairs. I Offered to carry it for her. I wouldn't do that for another teacher. When we got to the room she gave me some bonus points. She didn't have to do that. That was nice." (Student Interview, November 9, 1982) Over 90% of the students in Janie's class described her in positive terms as well. These descriptors are taken from the student survey -— nice, O.K., fair, super, tough, so-so, and strict (Appendix A). her, During interviews, students also had this to say about "Mrs. Evans is a good teacher. She's pretty nice. I like the way she does things." (Student Interview, November 7, 1982) "The teacher is pretty nice. She's not boring. She can be interesting and is reason- able. She gives a reasonable amount of home- work. She's like my ideal teacher." (Student Interview, November 9, 1982) 173 This boy had a record of discipline problems, but spoke positively about his teacher. Dale, however, saw her in negative terms and read her nonverbal interventions in this way, "My ideal teacher would be strict to all the students, fair, have a heart and not be cruel. She wouldn't take nothin' from nobody. Mrs. Evans isn't like that. She's cruel to me, Terry and Scott. She looks at us with a mean and low look. She takes a lot from the other kids and has her favorites... Mrs. Evans is not strict with the whole class. She looks down from her book and points. She'll help you with your work and won't treat you like no low-life if you have a question. She's a good English teacher if she wouldn't be all crabby." (Student Interview, November 8, 1982) Students in both English classes liked the rules and consequences as well. With the exception of one or two students in each class, they responded on their survey that they found the rules to be fair, reasonable and O.K. A few students also responded that they would like to help determine the rules, and one student suggested that students should "Be kind to the teacher and that rules shouldn't be necessary." His classmate disagreed, saying, "We need rules - they're good for us." A boy student in Janie Evans class shared, "She's not that strict. You can chew gum unless she catches you. That's how it should be. We can talk. The consequences is just right. Fifteen minutes means you won't miss the bus. I'd prefer to have a verbal warning than have my name on the board. Then all the kids laugh at you. It's embarrassing. Rules are needed. Kids would act up, throw paper airplanes and then you couldn't get work done." (Student Interview, November 7, 1982) 174 Scott and Vonnie had Mrs. Whitson for their reading teacher and Mrs. Evans for their English teacher. They contrasted the teachers' approach to discipline in this way: "Mrs. Evans is fair and gives lots of prewarnings which I like. Sometimes when she puts my name on the board I laugh because I'm embarrassed. Sometimes she's grouchy and not always nice. And sometimes she lets us talk and doesn't give homework. I like the teachers in the junior high school and especially Mrs. Whitson because she's funny. She knows what we talk about and how we think. She's strict. She goes to a warning immediate- ly and an extra assignment, but she's not mean." (Student Interview, November 9, 1982) "If kids break the rules Mrs. Whitson will give more verbal warnings and Mrs. Evans will give more 'evil eyes'." (Student Interview, November 4, 1982) The vast majority of the students liked their school as well. They described it in positive terms on the student survey, describing it as fair, O.K., good, great, fun and neato. Two students used these negative descriptors -- "boring" and "it sucks". What did they like about the school? The top three responses in both classes were the teachers, students and the school activities, especially sports. They also liked the principal, school spirit and the fact they know everyone due to the small size of their school. Additionally, students liked the fact that the school was clean with no writing on the walls and that there were no gangs. A few students additionally stated that they enjoyed particular classes and working on computers. 175 During student interviews, several students mentioned that some junior high school students were known to take drugs, but that they did not do them at school, because of the principal and teachers. "School is going pretty good. There are nice people here, nice teachers and friends. It's a pretty nice place. I was going to go to another school, but they sell drugs right in the hall there. There aren't many drugs in this school although some of the girls take drugs outside of school... Last year Roberta had pills in her locker and said that Barb gave them to her and it got into a big fight and they had to go to court. Roberta wanted me to lie and say that I saw Barb give the pills to her. I wouldn't do that. I got scared because Barb was mad at me. Drugs aren't as bad as they used to be here. Those girls hang around some boys who do drugs and smoke. They just try to look big." (Student Interview, November 6, 1982) While most students in the survey group were happy with their school (80%+), they had suggestions for improve- ment as well. On the student survey they suggested that they'd like a longer lunch hour and that there needed to be more sports and activities in the junior high school. Additionally, five students said that they would like to see the tardy system revised. Students also mentioned that they would like to have new desks, shades on the windows, and have the walls repaired. One student indicated he would like to see a higher level of work. A few students mentioned they would like to change a few teachers in the junior high school and one student cited he would like lights for the football field. 176 Over 90% of the students indicated that the major reason they cooperated in class and in school was to avoid punishment both at school and at home. Half the students in both classes indicated that if the teacher called home, their parents would haVe a talk with them or ground them. Four students would have their Atari taken away. Two girls in Mrs. Evans class shared that they would receive more severe punishments, "I'd get grounded for a month, have the phone taken away, yelled at and whipped." Also, "My mom would yell and scream and kick my butt so hard." (Appendix A) How did students view the academic nature of their English class? Eight out of twelve (66%) students inter- viewed did not see how English would help them in their parsonal or professional lives. They seemed perplexed when trying to understand how it would benefit them. Two students mentioned that the movies were boring and that they did not enjoy writing about them. However, four of the students saw ways this class would help them either personally, professionally or both "I may be a computer Operator. English will help me with this, because I have to know the correct punctuation when I put it into the computer. If I speak better, I can get a better job because I'll do better on the job application. I don't want to use double negatives." (Student Interview, November 6, 1982) "English helps me to know when and how to say things. I used to be physical with my friends when I was angry. Now I talk it out." (Student Interview, November 6, 1982) 177 While all of the students stated they liked Mrs. Whitson, in their interviews, three of the students who received A's in English found the class work boring and felt that a higher level of work was necessary. Additionally, these students wanted to have more homework as well in Mrs. Whitson's class. "There aren't many things I dislike about this class. It's kind of boring. I think we need more homework. Mest of the kids would do it. I would." (Student Interview, November 6, 1982) While two students interviewed in Mrs. Evans class stated that the class was sometimes boring, over half also mentioned that Mrs. Evans pushed them in their work. While one student liked the fact, other students indicated they would like more free time. Summary of Student Perceptions The vast majority Of students in both English classes were happy with their teacher and the rules and consequences in the classroom. They enjoyed the positive consequences as well. These students also liked their school, the teachers and the students. They would like additional sports, activities and a more updated school facility. Additionally, many students would like a longer lunch hour and some would like to revise the tardy policy. All of the students in Mrs. Whitson's class described her in positive terms and several indicated that she under- stood them and knew how to talk to them. They enjoyed her 178 humor as well. Three of the students who were interviewed indicated that the class was sometimes boring and that they felt they needed more homework and a higher level of work. Another said that the work level was right and challenging. Most of the students in Mrs. Evans class also described her in positive terms. Three Of the boys and two of the girls, who had histories of problems in social adjustment, saw her as sometimes being mean and grouchy. Several of these students took these cues from her non- verbal prewarning "Look", when she would stare with her arms folded and a frown on her face. Additionally, two of the girls who indicated that they received harsh treat- ment from their mothers, also viewed Mrs. Evans in a similar way. Over half of the students interviewed mentioned that Mrs. Evans pushed them in their work and some would have enjoyed more free time. Others indicated that she was a good English teacher, smart, and would answer questions in a kind way. A few of the students indicated that the class was boring at times and that they did not enjoy the movies and writing assignments. A gifted student indicated that she, too, was sometimes bored, but that all the assignments were enjoyable to her. Students appeared to respect Mrs. Whitson primarily for her affect and Mrs. Evans for her academic ability. Students interviewed who had histories of social adjustment 179 problems appeared to have an easier time understanding verbal interventions than nonverbal interventions for misbehavior. Mrs. Whitson's verbal interventions appeared to be more clear and direct and students understood that they referred to their specific behavior. Mrs. Evans' nonverbal interventions, especially a frowning look, were often perceived as a sign of dislike for them as a person. Over 80% of the students in both classes, furthermore, indicated they would like all teachers to know that students liked them and wanted to be liked in return. They stated that teachers did not have to be so strict, because the students wanted to behave and have a good relationship with them. Here are some quotes to this effect from the student interviews: "Kids like the teachers a lot, but don't want others to know that. The kids like the teachers because of the teacher's attitude towards them. They pretend some- times not to like them, but they do." (Student Interview, November 6, 1982) "I think teachers should know how things are at home for the kids. If they're poor or rich. Reagan don't care about the poor. I'd tell the teachers, be as friendly as you can be. Let the kids get to know you and trust you and then be strict. Like Mr. Wilson. If kids overrun him then he gets strict. The kids are nice. When it's time to teach, then they work. Kids and teachers need to learn more about each other." (Student Interview, November 8, 1982) "Teachers should try to be nice. If they're mean and yell the kids won't like them and won't do what they say. I'd tell them, 'no yelling.‘ Kids will get the 180 wrong first impression if they smile and later if they do smile, they won't like them." (Student Interview, November 8, 1982) School Structure The school structure, which included the administration, the organization of the school, and the facility itself appeared to influence the shaping the classroom rules. Each will be examined separately. Principal Both teachers in the study attributed the staff morale, the improved discipline within the building and curriculum innovation to their principal. Janie Evans shared, "I have to say Larry has done it. When I first came to Mount Vernon we had a very nice principal who never pushed anyone. Every- body did their own thing. By the time another gal and I got to our third year teaching, we said that we wished somebody would expect something out of us because it's very difficult to raise your expectations if nobody is out there to pat you on the back once in a while or yell at you--you can become the teacher you don't want to because it's very easy to do nothing and to fall into the pattern of teach- ing the same lesson over and over again year after year. She and I talked about it, and then Larry came with all this enthusiasm and all these ideas. I think every school has its core. We were the kind of core that supported each other originally. And now with Larry, he's given us so many things -- a questioning technique. He came in on Saturday for an inservice. He had tapes about different people's philosophy of discipline. Plus, one year, our entire faculty meetings basically consisted of films on discip- line and methods that worked. He's given a lot of ideas and not said necessarily 'do this'. He said, 'Here's an idea, if it works, use it. If it doesn't, throw it away'." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) 181 One morning in the teachers' lounge, there was another reference to Larry's leadership, "Teachers in the lounge were laughing because Larry was starting evaluations that day. After a lot of kidding they told a newcomer, 'He doesn't just criticize, he helps. If he sees something wrong, he'll help you'." (Field Notes, September 8, 1982) The assistant principal, Patrick Jerome, also discussed the changes in the building since Larry had become principal, "Four years ago this school was a real mess. During lunch hour they would stuff a kid in the wastebasket. Just goofing around. But we don't want anyone to get hurt. we don't put up with that anymore." (Field Notes, September 20, 1982) While these changes were seen as a vast improvement by most of the staff, the teachers in the study expressed their concern about Larry's working too hard during a dinner conversation, "He's made a lot of good changes in a short time", Jane said. "He can be a tyrant but he believes in what he's doing and it's always for the school - he's not an egomanic." (Mary Alice furrowed her brow saying,) "I worry he'll be dead if he doesn't slow down. We took him out for'lunch last year just to get him to laugh and relax." (Field Notes, September 22, 1982) The school psychologist also characterized Larry and his leadership style. "You may not see drugs in the school but you'll see kids at the back of the school taking them. The principal really watches what goes on and if a few are gathered around a locker, he's right there. The teachers are also in the hall. They smile at the students and are really friendly, but their presence there makes a difference. There are a lot of 182 dedicated caring teachers in the junior high. The science teacher enters students in the state science fair every year and one of the English teachers, Mrs. Wiltshire, has students in the state spelling contest. There is no ruckus in either the junior or senior high school. The noise level is higher in the junior high school but you don't see students pushing and shoving as in some of the other schools we work in. It's the leadership. The principal is a fair type. He doesn't allow more freedom because he doesn't know what to expect. He's interested in change though, and models hime self after John Kennedy. You can see that in his office. The lounge is one of those improve- ments. It just picks you up when you walk into the building. There's music playing and it makes you feel like moving. Larry is a take-charge principal. He doesn't delegate responsibility, yet he does things quickly himself. The former principal was a staid, polished kind of guy. There was a decline in attitude when he was the principal. Larry is dynamic and fights for the kids. He's provided stability for the school." (Field Notes, November 17, 1982) The psychologist also cited that Larry was a "local boy" -- born and raised in Mount Vernon "This is a poor district. People come here and use the place as a stepping stone. Now Larry is different. He's a local person - dipped in green and gold and he'll never leave. What's different about him is that he wants improvements and sees things that other people in town don't see as a result of the (university) classes he took." (Field Notes, November 17, 1982) Larry Powell, a man in his late forties, is a former social studies teacher and basketball coach. He recently completed his Master's degree and designed his program to include three courses in discipline. The focus of these particular courses was on works by Glasser and Dreikurs. In our initial interview, Larry shared how this 183 course work influenced the discipline programs within Mount Vernon school: Larry explained that two years ago he and a teacher had introduced Glasser into their school. After one and a half years the effects of the program faded and he wanted to introduce another program that was more specific. He wrote a successful grant application for Assertive Discipline training for the staff and invited other area schools to attend the workshops. Last August, the training took place and the Assertive Discipline Program was implemented K—12 in Mount Vernon schools. Teachers worked on a two week plan at a time and once a month the plan was reviewed. There were problems with the plan in that teachers didn't always follow the plan. When a major disruption occurred in the classroom the teacher send a code word ENOUGH to the principal. Then both the principal and assistant principal would immediately come to the classroom to give the needed support to the teacher. This happened only a few times last year. The school has operated an in-house suspension program called the Learning Adjust- ment Center (LAC) to handle behavior problems. This year the programeill be eliminated due to budget cuts. In its place teachers will be asked to hold detention after school every five weeks. The principal will also take a turn in detention supervision. Larry would like to hold a review called Improvement Follow-Up using Lee Canter's tapes. The teachers will listen to these tapes in groups of 2 or 3. There is no more grant money for the discipline program. (Field Notes, June 23, 1982) In addition to these programs, Larry was also firm about teachers being in the halls before school started in the morning and between classes as well. He termed this being at their "Duty Stations." This was so important 184 to Larry and the assistant principal, Pat, that they added a morning bell to alert teachers to be at their stations. In a dinner conversation, the two teachers in the study discussed that Larry was firm about this expectation and that this was one of the items that had not modified since his first year when he had taken an almost tyrannical approach with the staff. "They talked about how rough Larry was the first year as a principal. "One day he wrote us a memorandum because the janitor said that the kids were writing on desks. Mary Alice went into the Office and told him off and ended up in tears. Two hours later, Janie went in and read him a list of things he had done wrong. Larry was in shock and told someone he'd never put anything in writing again. He'll get on anyone who's weak. He respects strength." The teachers said that they get along well now. "He still clocks everyone to see that they're at their duty stations." (Field Notes, September 8, 1982) Larry agreed that he was almost unbearable his first year as an administrator. He stated that it was a difficult transition to become the administrator of the staff he had served with as a colleague. One day a friend took him aside and said, "Look, this isn't working, you're alienating people." At first Larry didn't listen, he was so taken with the vision he had for this school and the students. He said he came to learn, though, that he needed to soften his approach. In an interview, Larry shared this view of his leadership. He attributed the positive school changes to himself saying that he is, "The heart of the school" and that "my motives are pure and virginal." 185 ..."I want this to be a good place for kids. This Office is the center for caring and energy. I tell the students that the door is always Open and that I am the most unique principal they will ever find. The students often drop in to talk about issues that are not related to problems. Next year, I am going to have pride buttons made for the students to wear. This is the most unique school in the area and we're constantly improving. I want the students to show their pride. This place used to be a mess. Now I'm taking one section at a time and improving it. I don't care what anyone says about it!" (Field Notes, October 5, 1982) I asked how he responded to criticism both within the building and the community. "It hurts. It always does, and I take the hurt home with me. Then I look into the mirror and ask, 'Is the program improving? Do you feel good in your heart? What's exciting today - how can I make it exciting tomorrow?‘ And then I go on." (Field Notes, October 22, 1982) Although the principal had a "take charge" approach, he stated that he also strived to stay involved with his staff and to involve them in decision-making and innovations. He implemented a curriculum congress to oversee the problems within the curriculum and had a teacher advisory council, as well, to give him feedback on issues within the building. Larry believed in this "DELPHI" method of shared leadership, seeing change as coming from within the staff, and moving up to the administration in a team approach. He, however, always saw himself as the instructional leader in the school. He asked the staff to rate his leadership anonymously on a survey he administered. The vast majority 186 of the staff gave him high ratings in knowledge, organ- ization,gappearance and enthusiasm. A few staff members saw him as emotional and not always fair (Appendix D). Larry said that these were probably correct perceptions, that, indeed, he was very displeased with three staff members performance and was often angry with them. In summary, the principal was reported to be a dynamic leader who was responsible for improved discipline within the building. He shared enforcement of this discipline with the assistant principal. Larry perceived himself as an instructional leader, as well, and directly provided staff education in both affective and cognitive realms. His leadership was perceived favorably by most staff members who also stated that the new discipline programs within the building had positive effects on the discipline within their classrooms as well. School Structure The organization of the school also appeared to affect discipline within the classroom. Janie, who taught most of her classes in the senior high school wing, request- ed to have her duty station in the junior high school wing so that she would have a greater chance to interact with the students so they could know one another and establish rapport. Janie further indicated that the lack of a fall sport for junior high school students made it difficult for the students to unify as a group at the beginning of 187 the school year. Additionally, it made it difficult for teachers to get close to students during these fun, informal occasions that a sporting event provides. She stated that this affected the rapport in the classroom and got school off to a slow start. The physical structure of the school also appeared to influence classroom discipline. While junior high school students had most classes in a separate wing, they shared the student commons, library, home ec room, science room, and the cafeteria. At different times of the day, these students were able to intermingle. The following diagram depicts the basic floor plan of the school: BASIC FLOOR PLAN OF MOUNT VERNON JUNIOR-SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Junior High School Classrooms : fl Small Senior High School Gym Classrooms 2nd Floor 1 SCience Library (Lower) Offices Offices Cafeteria Front of School Home EC (Figure 4.10) 188 The data suggest that a latent effect of the school structure allowed junior high school girls to interact with senior high school boys. Many of the eighth grade girls who were known to have drug habits were reportedly introduced to them by their senior high school boyfriends. The segregating of junior and senior high school students within the building was an attempt to solve this type of social problems. However, the proximity of students and the inclusion of junior high school students in senior high school activities still allowed for this interaction to take place. The structure of the curriculum appeared to create compartmentalized learning. The English class was tied somewhat to the Reading class. However, many students did not see how subject matter was interrelated and this fragmatized curriculum was not related to students lives. Some students reported that classes were boring and this this made it more difficult to "behave". Additionally, policies which were established for high school students affected junior high school students as well. If a junior high school smoked or was truant, she/he was expelled. Junior high school students had 90 minute semester exams as well. The data suggest that the students were usually not viewed to be different develop- mentally, although most were 12 or 13 years old. Many of the staff appeared to hold the same expectations for them 189 AHH.4 musmHmc mUHm Mm can mb mmmmoflmfi ZOHwH>mmmDm mmmo€m9 wocwchCHM—Z mZWIIaHOmHo Boom mocoq mumeOHonome ucmEQOHw>mo nomou umnomme nouoouflo , cam Hmnumxmmm moH>HU OHuanu¢ mumHHMHowmm mmmcsm mafiacmam / a \ AOOEUm EUHE KWImh A 92502 no mmDBUDMBm A