ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF ART THROUGH
GENERATING FORMS WITH SPECIAL APPLI-
CATION TO THE TEACHING OF MUSIC

BY

Howard L. Qvarnstrom

The cause of music education may be advanced when
each music educator exhibits two fundamental areas of
knowledge--knowledge of aesthetic creativity and knowledge
of the perceptual act.

Contemporary trends in music education seem to
adhere to the common position which regards music edu-
cation as ultimately aesthetic education. Therefore,
to discern the principles in art through which balance,
fulfillment, complementarity, unity in variety, and other
descriptive terms become meaningful is the necessary
task confronting each teacher.

In the final analysis, all musical experience is
aural experience. The hope of the composer is that his
composition will be heard by an audience. The responsi-
bility of the performer is to give in actuality those
sounds heard in the mind of the composer. What is the

obligation of the listener? The aesthetic moment may

Howard L. Qvarnstrom

only be enhanced when each perceiver consciously seeks
out the integral relationships among the elements in
the art object. That which is cohesively ordered in its
conception must similarly be responded to through a
process of directed sensory selection.

It is the initial purpose of this study to
examine the work of art (music) through the notion of
generated, created, form.wholes. Also, the response of

any perceiver to the work of art in terms of perceptual

 

wholes will be examined. The created and the experienced
art form is discussed from the perspective of Gestalt
psychology.

Created works of art sustain the principle of
pattern. A pattern may be defined as an order among
elements whose connection to each other are controlled
by an understood principle. In Chapter II, the principle
of affinity is evidenced through closure, grouping,
proximity, and others. In terms of human sensory exper-
ience, Gestalt psychology suggests that the organism
creates visual or aural wholes. From this premise, the
Gestalt phenomenon is applied specifically to the evolve-
ment of musical forms.

It is the culminating thrust of this study to
apply Gestalt theory to the task of music education.

The application to practical functions is accomplished

Howard L. Qvarnstrom

by establishing a common basis of experience for the
three areas of musical activity-~creating, performing,
and listening.

The principle of Guilford's psychological model,
which describes the equal but separate functions of the
intellect, serves as a foundation for the development of
a Dynamic instructional model for the three areas of
musical experience.

Finally, a representative teaching sequence is

presented for each of the following levels:

a. Elementary--Creative
b. Junior High-~Performing

c. High School-~Listening

In conclusion, music education as aesthetic edu-
cation is adduced as the requirement of every music edu-
cator to recognize the active relationship of order
among the elements in aesthetic objects. Of no less
importance is the awareness that each activity in any
music learning situation be focused towards the continual
refinement of the instinctive sensory perceptual act--
the aural discernment of created, performed, and listened

to musical wholes.

A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF ART THROUGH
GENERATING FORMS WITH SPECIAL APPLI-

CATION TO THE TEACHING OF MUSIC

BY

(
“O?“

x
Howard Bi Qvarnstrom

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Music

1975

DEDICATION

To Him who provides grace, understanding,
and patience-~and to my loving wife,
Coni, whose cheer and support

were unfailing.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This author is most grateful for the assistance
and guidance given by the members of the committee:
Dr. Robert G. Sidnell, Dr. John F. A. Taylor, Dr. Gomer

Ll. Jones, and Dr. James Niblock.

iii

TABLE or CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . 1
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . 8
Justification for the Study . . . . . 9
Survey of Extant Literature . . . . . ll
Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . 21
II. GENERATING FORM--THE DYNAMIC ILLUSION. . . 22
Dynamic Sensory Organization . . . . . 23
The Apprehension of Patterns . . . . . 27
Musical Time--A Dynamic Illusion. . . . 41
III. GENERATING FORM AND THE MUSICAL PERSPECTIVE. 54
The Grouping of Pulses or Beats, by Means
of More or Less Regularly Recurring
Accents, into Measures or Bars, Pro-
ducing What Is Known as TIME . . . . 69
The Grouping of Sounds Based Upon Some
Such Time-Scheme Into Musical Figures,
Phrases and Sentences, with Definite
Relationships One to Another, Resulting
in RHYMC SHAPE O O O O O O O O 7 2
The Grouping of Such Figures, Phrases and
Sentences Into Larger Paragraphs,
Described as SUBJECTS, EPISODES, Etc.,
Each With Its Special Connection With
and Relative to the Others . . . . . 78
The Grouping of These Larger Paragraphs
Into Complete MOVEMENTS . . . . . . 82

iv

Chapter Page

IV. LISTENING-~THE BASIS OF ALL MUSICAL

ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

The Morphological Model . . . . . . . 94
Creating . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Performing . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Listening. . . . . . . . . . . . 115

V. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION . . . . . . . 127
Elementary--Creative . . . . . . . . 127
JuniOr High--Perfoming e o o o o o e 1 3 9

High School--Listening . . . . . . . 148
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 156
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . 158

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter II
Visual Manifold: An Ideal Circle . . .

Visual Manifold: An Ideal Straight Line, An

Ideal Isosceles Triangle . . . . .

Proximity: A Principle of Formal Affinity .

Proximity: Negated. . . . . . . .

vertical Similars Preponderating Over
Horizontal Dissimilars. . . . . .

Dark Circles Preponderating Over White Circles

Grouping: A Matter of Chance . . . .
Grouping: Segregation from the Totality.
Grouping: Segregation from the Totality.
Ravel, Bolero . . . . . . . . .
Lozenge . . . . . . . . . . .
Lozenge: Predominance Over the Circle .
Closure . . . . . . . . . . .
Polka-dot Pattern . . . . . . . .
Accents . . . . . . . . . . .
Scale: Ascending and Descending . . .

Haydn, "Surprise” Symphony, 2nd Movement

 

vi

Page

26

26
29

30

32
32
34
34
34
36
36
37
38
39
42
46
46

Figure

18.

19.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.

13.
14.

15.

16.
17.
13.
19.
20.

Rhythmic Pattern: The Illusion of Experienced

mvemnt C O I O O O O I O O 0

Beethoven, Symphony No. S, lst Mbvement .

Chapter III
Wagner, the “Tristan" Chord . . . . .

Bach, Art of the Fugue . . . . . . .

Brahms, Symphony No. 3, lst Movement . .

 

Brahms, SymphonyNo. 3, lst Movement . .

 

Brahms, §ymphony No. 3, lst Movement . .
Brahms, Symphony No. 3, 2nd Movement . .
Brahms, Symphony No. 3, 3rd Movement . .

(a) Equal Perception of Beat: (b) Grouping
Of No Beats 0 O O O I O O O O D

Franck, Symphony in D Minor . . . . .
Bach, Passacaglia in C Minor . . . . .

 

Harris, Symphogy No. 3 . . . . . . .

 

Bart6k, Divertimento for Stringg, 2nd Move-

ment 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0*

Traditional, "Star Spangled Banner”

Broiles, Study No. 14, “Organ Trumpet". .

Brahms, S hon No. 2, 3rd Movement,
(a) PrincipaI THeme--Part I: (b) Trio
No. 1 Principal Theme--Part I . . . .
Haydn, §ymphony¥No. 104, 3rd Movement . .

Bach, ”Ricercar" from the Musical Offering

 

Mozart, "Jupiter” Symphony. . . . . .
Mozart, Piano ”Sonata“ K. 332. . . . .

Bach, 'Sarabande' from Emglish Suite No. l

 

vii

Page

48
52

57
58
60
60
61
61
62

70
71
71
72

73
74
76

76
77

79
79
80
80

Figure

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

26.

1.

3.

Faure, 'Agnus Dei" from the Requiem . .

Hymn, "Pange lingua” . . . . . . .

Josquin, ”Kyrie' from the Missa Pange lingua

 

Josquin, "Credo” from the Missa Pange lingua

Josquin, ”Agnus Dei' from the Missa Pangg

 

lingua O O O O O O O O O O I

Bach, 'Sicut locutus est“ from the Magnif-

icat O O O O C O O O O O 0

Chapter IV
Guilford: The Morphological Model. . .

The Dynamic Listening Model . . . .

Extension: The Development of Intonation

Chapter V
Mexican Folk Song, Don Gato . . . .

Initiative: Pattern for WOod Block . .
Initiative: Pattern for Castanets. . .
Association: Original Pattern . . . .
Association: Contrast through Diminution

Accompaniment: Original Pattern, for Don
Ga to C O O O O O O O O O O

 

Accompaniment: Diminution Pattern, for Don

Gato O O O C C O O O O O O
Bach, Chorale Melody No. 19. . . . .
Bartok, Increasing:Diminishing. . . .

IncreasingrDiminishing: An Arch Form. .

viii

Page
81
81
83
84

85

87

98
99
109

130
132
132
134
134

135 .

135
140
150
153

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

In the quest for a logical analysis of the aes-
thetic experience, much attention has been given to the
perception of art forms. Traditionally, attempts to
describe or explain the value of art and beauty in terms
of a specific aesthetic quality have proven to be too con-
fined, either because of continual changes in historical
style or due to the vague idea of what is intended by the
word ”aesthetics.“

The generic term 'aesthetics' has rather broad
ramifications. Aesthetics may deal with the significance
of art and the creative process, art as beauty, art as a
means of emotional or psychological fulfillment and
expression, or perhaps art as realized experience. Or,
second, aesthetic examination may be focused upon the
body or the work of art itself. In this aspect the work
of art may be discussed as an aesthetic order of sensuous
elements, in essence a coherent relation of parts with

perceivable form, and as easily argued in architecture,

a useful function. A third concern of the study of
aesthetics may be centered about artistic appreciation
and criticism. In this instance the relation and per-
ception of the work of art to and by the beholder is of
paramount importance.

The study of aesthetics, as isolated in terms of
illusion, beauty, technique, form, psychical distance,
abstraction, or expression, presents a confusing and
diverse spectrum of thought. Unnecessary argument may be
avoided if, as Morris Weitz has suggested, ” . . .
esthetic labels are not pasted in one piece on the whole
body of art, but rather are applied separately to the
various constituents of the creative process, the esthetic

.1

artifact, and the esthetic experience. Like religion

and science, art may not necessarily be compacted or
stripped down to one simple notion or single definition.
Rather, the analysis of the ramifications of the study
of aesthetics may make apparent an underlying consensus
among critics not readily seen at a surface glance.

Art itself is the great reconciler of opposite poles
which, in our practical life, ordinarily exclude
each other. More than any other form of human
experience, it combines such contrasting moments

as variety and unity, familiarity and strangeness,
repose and stimulation, order and spontaneity,

the Apolline and the Dionysian moods . . . as

Freud and Jung point out, art involves the her-
monious coworking of the conscious and the sub-
conscious . . . or, again as Schiller indicates,

1Morris Weitz, Philoso hy of the Arts (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, , p. 2.

art is the reconciliation of law and impulse: the
form, the pattern, the ”lawfulness" of the
experience becomes the expression, not the
repression, of impulse . . . as Lipps and Lee
observe, the images of esthetic experience are
seemingly objective and yet are colored by the
emotion and sensibility of the beholder: the
duality of subject and object disappears . . . or,
as Aristotle and Maritain understand, the uni-
versal essence merges into the specific image:
and the more seamless is the unity, the more
perfect is the aesthetic moment.

It has been stated that one profitable avenue
for aesthetic discussion would be the investigation of
the relation between the art object and the excitation
of the sensory organs of the beholder. Not only has
philosophic inquiry endeavored to develop a discursive
basis for the explanation of the individual's perceptual
experience, but also psychologists have exhibited great
interest in devising evaluative tools that will both test
and measure perception.

Psychology as a humanistic science is beginning to
emerge from an uneasy rapprochement between the
philosophical and poetical interpretations of the
mind on the one hand and the experimental investi-
gations of muscle, nerve, and gland on the other.
And barely are we getting used to what such a science
of the mind might be like, when we are faced with
attempts to deal scientifically with_the most deli-
cate, the most intangible, and the most human among
the humgn manifestations. we attempt a psychology
of art.

 

2Melvin Rader, A Modern Book of Esthetics (New
York: Holt, Rinehart afiH‘Winston,II966), p. xxxii.

3Rudolph Arnheim, Toward a P3 hol Lof Art
(London: Faber and Faber, I966}, pp. E-2.

 

In essence then, one of the most significant aspects of
aesthetic examination finds its focus in the analysis
and description of human behavior and reaction to per-
ceived art forms.

Man's attempt to understand the mystery of his
daily experience and habit has been made evident since
the beginning of recorded history and surely before that.
As beings which rely upon the sensitivity of our sense
organs to collect and receive stimuli from the world
around us, individuals constantly find themselves adjust-
ing and ordering these collected data so that a level of
equilibrium may be achieved. Rather than being a catch-
all for every diverse and unrelated stimulus impinging
upon it, the human organism tends to be selective in its
recognition and reception of assimilated input. This
process of selecting and interpreting received input
is called perception.

Behavior cannot occur in an organized way unless the
individual can select . . . those stimuli that have
a relevance for His needs. Adjusting cannot pro-
ceed unless the individual can also or anize, can
also bring meaning to the barrage of ngfiea physical
stimuli striking his receptors. Because we are
sensitive to only a limited range of the physical
energies in the world, we are by nature selective

in our orientation to nature . . . but there is

also selection from among_those physical stimuli

that the organism can register or is registering
at any given moment. . . . The organism shuts

itself off from some stimuli and opens wide its

input channels to others. Selectivity is one aspect

of the organism's interpretation of the world.
Although the preceding statement reflects the thinking of
the psychologist, philosophers have been keenly interested
in developing an orderly rationale for the explanation of
how the human organism perceives the world about it. For
example, the quest for the nature of knowledge has involved
the dichotomy between the existence of a real object world
outside the mind, and the existence of a world, in part at
least, as a mental construct. As a part of a rather broad
philosophical perspective, the problem of appearance versus
reality, or of subjectivism versus objectivism, may be
coupled with a search for the sources of knowledge as a
basis for the consideration of fundamental epistemology.
More important for the presentation of the problem at hand,
the issue of the nature of knowledge is fundamental to
the discussion and examination of other areas of philo-
sophic inquiry, namely logic, metaphysics, and aesthetics.

Aesthetics may be defined as the selective appre-

hension or perception of the beautiful. Art is brought
to fruition as a completed effort of artistic activity.
Aesthetic apprehension or perception begins at the
moment that art is fulfilled in its period of creative

gestation.

 

4

‘ Fillmore Sanford, Ps cholo A Scientific Stud
of Man (Belmont, Calif.: wastorEE, I961}, p. 279.

If a man relinquishes the common way of looking at
things, which is always ultimately concerned with
their relations to desires and purposes: if he then
ceases to consider the where, the when, the why,
and the whither of things, and looks simply and
solely at the what: if, further he does not allow
himself to thifiE of them conceptually (e.g., as
things to be recognized, distinguished, classified,
etc.), but instead of all this, gives the whole~
power of his mind to perception, sinks himself
entirely in this, and 30 yields himself to the
object present that he loses himself in this
object, . . . then his state is that of aesthetic
contemplation, and the object of it is an aesthetic
object.S

Because works of art are conceived by the creator
and are addressed to an audience, the natural phenomenon
of the perceptual experience poses many provocative
questions both to the research investigator and the
teacher.

Aesthetic perception (attitude) . . . is the attitude
we take which determines how we perceive the world.
An attitude is a way of directing and controlling

our perception. We never see or hear everything in
our environment indiscriminately. Rather, we ”pay
attention“ to some things, whereas we apprehend
others only dimly or hardly at all. Thus attention
is selective . . . once we recognize this, we

realize the inadequacy of the old notion that human

beings are simply passive receptors for any and all
external stimuli.

Therefore, to grasp the principle which governs that act
of selection is to have understood one of the profound
characters of our experience and in particular of our

musical experience.

 

5Arthur Schopenhauer, The WOrld as Will and Idea,
from the German, by R. B. Haldane ana J. KempTNew York:
Scribner's, 1948-1950), p. 231.

6Jerome Stolnitz, Aesthetics and Philoso h of Art
Criticism.(Massachusetts: ‘Riverside Press, 1966;, p. 32.

 

In his discussion of the import of perceived
wholeness as the requisite for comprehending things by
what our senses tell us about them, Rudolph Arnheim
writes:

Concept is split from percept, and thought moves
among abstractions. Our eyes are being reduced to
instruments by which to measure and identify—-hence
a dearth of ideas that can be expressed in images
and an incapacity to discover meaning in what we
see. . . . From its beginnings and throughout its
development during the last half century, gestalt
psychology has shown a kinship to art. . . . The
realization that a whole cannot be attained by
adding up isolated parts was not new to the artist.
For many centuries scientists had been able to say
valuable things about reality without going beyond
the relatively simple level of reasoning that
excludes the complexities of organization and
interaction. But at no time could a work of art
have been made or understood by a mind unable to
conceive the integrated structure of the whole.7

Arnheim's statement identifies the significant
relationship of Gestalt psychology to art. The importance
of Gestalt Psychology, as prepounded by wertheimer, is in
the approach to the study of behavior or consciousness
in terms of wholes rather than parts. As an objection to
Watson's desire to study behavior in terms of stimuli
and responses, (parts) Wertheimer challenged the tra-
ditional psychology of perception as an aggregation of
parts leading to the whole. Wertheimer asserted that

our thoughts and experiences are whole meaningful

 

7Rudolph Arnheim, Art and Visual Perce tion a
EaIif.:

Psycholomy of the Creative Eye (Los Angeles,
niversi y o a i orn a ress, 1969), pp. v, vi, vii.

perceptions. To this study of dynamic or perceptual
wholes, the German word Gestalt (form, pattern, or con-
figuration) was applied.

Rudolph Arnheim's declaration " . . . at no time
could a work of art have been made or understood by a
mind unable to conceive the integrated structure of
the whole . . . ,' establishes the foundation of this
study. Man's sensory experience occurs in terms of the
Gestalt theory of perceptual wholes. Similarly, works
of art are conceived and come to fruition as created

Gestalten.

, Limitations of the Study

At this juncture, it would be useful to delimit
the specific emphasis of this study in regard to musical
perception. In order to maintain a clear focus, the
study will not attempt to discuss the significance of
art historically, socially, or in its function as a
moral agent. Also, the analysis will avoid use of the
terms, "the artistic,“ ”the aesthetic,” or "the beautiful."
Although the former areas of scholarly interest, and
others not mentioned, are indeed important and in the
end necessary in the elucidation of the aesthetic domain,
this study will simply assume the concrete phenomenon of
musical experience and the intrinsic value thereof.
From the assumption of the concrete phenomenon of

musical experience, an attempt will be made to explore

the meaning of the perception of what shall be called
”generating forms.“ To restrict our consideration to
the generating Gestalten in music (and in art generally)
is not to deny that these forms are sometimes committed
to ulterior uses, as in the playing of an anthem or the
celebrating of a rite. These uses of music and of art
are demonstrable and important, but are for this

occasion removed from the task at hand.

Justification for the Study

Successful teaching strategy is the manifestation
of theory put into action. Each educational process
reflects a basic set of beliefs and convictions, regarding
the solution of the teacher's problems as he endeavors
to establish appropriate goals and objectives for his
students. Teaching strategies evolve from a philosOphi—
cal foundation because philosophy is necessary to
developing a systematic body of principles and assumptions
supporting a specific domain of experience (e.g. science,
education, art, music, history, law, religion, mathe-
matics, etc.).

If we consider music education as aesthetic edu-
cation, the essence of any aspect of musical experience,
if pursued far enough, will eventually expose problems

of a philosophic nature. Abraham A. Schwadron writes:

10

Even a curse examination of the various contemporary
philosophies of music will point up the consistency

in regarding music as aesthetic expression. If the
nature and meaning of music are inherently bound in
aesthetic elements, should not the music educator
formulate his philosophy and comprehensive ideas
concerning values in music education from such a
spring-board? Indeed, is it not necessary for the
music educator to probe deeply into the theoretical
components of aesthetics?8

Music education has always been a notable part of
general education. As such, one may assume that music is
a significant aspect of all men's experience. Harry

Broudy suggests:

Formal education tries to guide the behavior of
learners into specific routes of value realization.
. . . Principles of choice become standards. If
there are no defensible objective standards of
musical quality, then music education is an inde-
fensible imposition of the teacher's taste upon the
pupil, and such terms as ”good,” "better,” and
"best" are deceptions, for they sound as if they
were describing the music whereas they are only
describing our reactions to the music. . . . These
are some of the topics and issues that belong in

a philosophy of music education. Any serious
attempt to defend one set of basic concepts in this
area as against another will lead into general
-philosophy. This is so because to describe the
musical experience is, in part at least, a problem
in aesthetics: to define the role of musical exper-
ience in life as a whole is a problem of ethics and
value theory; to test the relation of music to
cosmic and human nature is a problem of metaphysics,
and the entire discussion should be respectful of
the rules of logic.9

 

 

8Abraham A. Schwadron, ”Aesthetic Values and Music
Education," in Pers ctives in Musig_Education Source
Book III (WashingEon, D.C.: Music Educators National
Conference, 1966), p. 186. ‘

9Harry S. Broudy, ”A Realistic Philosophy of
Music Education,” Basic Concepts in Music Education, 57th
Yearbook of the NSSE (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1958), PP. 62-630

11

All educators share one common responsibility.
Each must be capable of formulating teaching method-
ologies which carefully order the activities and exper-
iences in their classrooms. For the music educator, any
serious discussion of inherent musical values, of musical
style and taste, or the justification of music as a
viable educational function in the public schools, will
inevitably lead to philosophical inquiry and examination.
From the premise that man perceives behaviorally
and aesthetically in terms of organized wholes, will come
one approach which hopefully will be a useful basis for
the teaching of music. Abraham A. Schwadron writes
regarding the process of music education:
The goal in all this is the sensitive development of
cognitive and emotive perception so that the student
can habitually hear and understand musical relations
that previously he could not. In this manner, aes-
thetic habits become operational for active continu-
ing experience. . . . we seek a manner of teaching
music that is consistent with the nature of the art.
Aesthetic education suggests a valid approach to

music education that makes peace with the musical
arts.10

Survey of Extant Literature

 

The significant factor for research potential
was generated from the increased awareness that music

educators have exhibited in regarding music education

 

. 10AbrahamA. Schwadron, “Some Thoughts on Aes-
thetic Education,” Music Educators Journal 56 (October
1969): 88.

12

as ultimately aesthetic education. The following state-
ments reflect the growing body of available commentary

addressed to this issue.

The great fundamental question facing the profession
is this: What kind of musical society is desirable?
The answer lies in the breakdown of socio-musical
limitations by means of a high-powered, effective
scheme of education. Grounded on meaningful phil-
osOphical and aesthetic principles, concerned with
ends as well as means, contemporary music edu-
cation can occupy a proper and most deserving
station.ll

Donald Arnstine in an article entitled, “The Aesthetic as
a Content for General Education,” has suggested that

. . . Aesthetic refers to a level of experience
which often is created, not only by works of art,
but by any kind of object. . . . Aesthetic awareness
may best be achieved through repeated exposure to
popular and accepted works of art because of their
intrinsic interest. If cognitive and affective
inquiry is to be stimulated regarding works of art,
then an understanding of and an opportunity for

some aesthetic experience is necessary.

James Mursell alludes to the perceived whole of musical
sound as an aesthetic occasion when he writes:

. . . the whole art of music depends upon the
existence in human nature of a mental function to
which has been attached the convenient term
”musicality.” Musicality may be defined as
responsiveness to the tonal and rhythmic patterns
which are the substance of the art of music

. . . musicality itself appears to be universal

 

11AbrahamA. Schwadron, ”Aesthetic Values and
Music Education," in Perspectives in Music Education
Source 3095, III (Washing on,ID.C.: Music Eaucators
NatibnaI—Conference, 1966), p. 194.

 

12Donald Arnstine, "The Aesthetic as a Context
for General Education,” Studies in Art Ed 8 (Autumn 1966):
13-220

13

and to be one of the fundamental ways in which man
responds to the dynamics of his environment. . . .
This, then, is the function with which we have to
deal in all the teaching of music. From the
developmental point of view, the purpose of all
music teaching must be to bring about the evolution
of musical responsiveness or musicality.13

In an article entitled, ”The Nature of Aesthetic
Education,“ Gerard L. Knieter writes:

Programs of music education become aesthetic
education programs when they focus upon the artis-
tic content of music. . . .

Programs of music education conceived as
aesthetic education stress the sensitive, intelli-
gent, and creative development of musicality through
the fundamental avenues of expression: creativity,
performance, and response. This means developing
a program for all of the students.14

In 1909, Charles Farnsworth was alluding to
music education as aesthetic education when he wrote:
we must not forget, however, that the act of
appreciation itself is one that feels the beauty
of all the parts as related to a complete whole:
it is a synthetic and not an analytic act. When-

ever we study a piece of music we are only pre-
paring ourselves for appreciation.15
Bennett Reimer concludes that the purpose of

aesthetic education is in fact the awakening of aesthetic

 

13James Mursell, ”Growth Process in Music Edu-
cation,” Basic Concepts in Music Education, 57th Yearbook
of the NSSE (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958),
p. 146.

14Gerard L. Knieter, ”The Nature of Aesthetic
Education," in Toward An Aesthetic Education (Washington,
D.C.: Music EducatorsiNational Conference, 1970), pp. 18-
19.

 

. 15Charles H. Farnsworth, Education Through Music
(New York: American Book Co., 1999), p.‘49.

14

sensitivity depended upon the ability to apprehend sys-
tems of interrelationships.

Until the entire structure of aesthetic education is
re-examined and overhauled, beginning with the
preparation of junior high school teachers of art
and music, the public schools will continue to do
far less than they can realistically be expected to
do in the important task of developing a citizenry
with a high level of respect for, appreciation of,
and sensitivity to the arts . . . the aesthetic
experience consists of the feelingful apprehension
of the artistic content of the artwork, this con-
tent being the interactions and interrelationships
among the aesthetic events as they were created by
the artist.16

Will Earhart writes:

In the first place it is important that we recognize
the complete correspondence, the unitary nature,

of form and aesthetic effect. It may seem strange
that anyone could possibly overlook so obvious a
fact: but students of music are, on the one hand

so accustomed to regard musical form and forms

from a wholly objective standpoint, as matters of
technical study, and so on the other so often take
their own aesthetic responses for granted, as some
vague natural result of being musical, that just

as they overlook the effect of tone, so they fail to
discern the effects of form: and they thus continue
aesthetically sensitive while they remain aestheti-
cally unseeing.17

In a study designed to discover whether musically
unsophisticated seventh grade pupils could be taught to
keep track of the unfolding forms of unfamiliar minuets,

movements, and the extent to which successful tracking

 

16Bennett Reimer, "The Development of Aesthetic
Sensitivity,“ Music Educators' Journal 51 (January 1965):
34-36 0

17Will Earhart, Meanin and Teachin of Music
(New York: Witmark Educationag Pthications, I935),

p. 68.

15

is related to the observation of briefer musical ele-
ments, Alan Smith suggests several fundamentals and
conclusions.

a. Musicians, music educators, and aestheticians
agree that the perception of formal relationships
is cognitively and aesthetically of a higher
order than the perception of musical elements.

b. Musically unsophisticated seventh grade students
can be taught to keep track of the unfolding
forms of minuets and sonata-allegro movements.

c. The teaching of tracking can be accomplished
directly with only a minimal initiation to the
intricacies of music theory.

d. The listener experiences--to use the terminology
of Gestalt-field learning theory--a succession
of sonorous life spaces, each with its unique
combination of present sounds, memories of
sounds, and expectations of sounds. . .

Through perception, memory, and expectation the
entire work is encompassed in the mind of the
efficient listener. . . . Therefore, the goal
of formroriented listening should not be a
question of experiencing a work as a static
whole but rather of experiencing its becoming
whole.18

Abraham Schwadron writes:

If children were guided at various levels of
maturity to become qualitatively aware of time
and tone, to create music problems and solutions,
and thus to understand the nature of communication
through music in their own attempts, in the works
of masters, and in world music, their perception
of music and their responses to it would be
enhanced. In education of this nature, children
would not only learn to feel, but also come to
understand aesthetically why and what it is they
feel and value.19

 

18Alan Smith, “Feasibility of Tracking Musical
Form as a Cognitive Listening Object,” Journal of Research
in Music Education 2 (Fall 1973): 200-13?

19Abraham A. Schwadron, ”Are we Ready for Aesthe-
tic Education?” Music Educators' Journal 60 (October
1973): 89.

16

Bennett Reimer suggests that there are seven
aesthetic behavior categories which may be used to formu-
late a foundation for aesthetic education in the arts.

The seven behaviors are perceiving, reacting, pro-
ducing, conceptualizing, analyzing, evaluating, and
valuing. Two of these behaviors--perceiving and
reacting--can be called “ends behaviors.” They

are the ends toward which all of aesthetic education
moves. Four of the behaviors--producing, concep-
tualizing, analyzing, and evaluating--are called
"means behaviors.” They are the major means of
movement toward heightened aesthetic perceiving

and reacting. The final behavior-~valuing--is an
”outcome behavior." It occurs as an outcome of
effective involvement in the other six. The notion
of ends, means, and outcomes is crucial in under-
standing these behaviors and in using them appro-
priately to help music education become aesthetic
education.2

The introduction to the Silver Burdett Music
program text states:

The Silver Burdett Music program is aesthetic
education in action. Its major goal is to increase
the sensitivity of all children to the power of
music as an art--to develop their abilities to
perceive the art of music keenly and respond to
it deeply. . . . .

Musical aesthetic experience, the primary
outcome of this program, consists of the following:
1. Perceiving the expressive qualities in a piece

of music.

2. Responding to those qualities in a feelingful

way. . . .

Each lesson includes both perceptual problems
to be grappled with and musical experiences to be
enjoyed. One reinforces the other. As perception
deepens, enjoyment deepens. As children are moved
by the power of music, their ability and desire

20Bennett Reimer, "Aesthetic Behaviors in Music,"
in Toward an Aesthetic Education (Washington, D.C.:
Music Educators NationaI'Conference, 1970), pp. 76-77.

17

to perceive increase. Thinking and feeling become
inseparable as both are exercised in the experience
of music.21

The Silver Burdett author's suggestion that
' . . . thinking and feeling become inseparable as both
are exercised in the experience of music . . . " recog-
nizes the increasing interest that music educators have
given to the examination of the cognitive and the affec-
tive domain as applied to developing and clarifying
aesthetic educational objectives. Richard Colwell
declares:
The fact that cognition is a legitimate part of the
affective response to music helps simplify the
problems of measuring affective response. . . .
The responsibility of the school program is then
to teach the substance upon which understanding is
based and to expect students to form their own
values and to experience the aesthetic response as
a result of what they know and what they hear in
the music.2
Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia propose an affective
continuum which orders and connects varying kinds of
affective behavior.
. . . it is clear that we must first provide
a level at which the stimulus is attended to so
it can enter the organism's life and be perceived.

This would cover the less complex aspects of
interest and appreciation objectives.

 

21Elizabeth Crook, Bennett Reimer, and David S.
Walker, Silver Burdett Music (Morristown, N.J.: Silver
Burdett GeneraI'Learning Corporation, 1974), pp. vi-vii.

 

22Richard Colwell, The Evaluation of Music
Teaching and Learnin (Contemporary Perspectivesin
Music Education Series, Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 129.

18

Similarly, we must provide a range of levels
describing the extent to which the individual
interacts with the phenomenon and the basis on
which he does it: does he do it only when the
situation presses on him so that some behavior
is evoked, or does he go out of his way to dis-
play this interaction? This would provide for
some of the behaviors implied in the objectives
calling for development of interests and appreci-
ation and the less complex attitudes.

Provision must be made at some point in the
continuum for the first appearance of the
emotional quality which is an important distin-
guishing feature of the appreciation, attitude,
value, and adjustment objectives in the affective
domain. . . .

From the description of attitudes, values,
and adjustment, it is clear that the continuum
must provide for the organization and interre-
1ation of values and attitudes and for whatever
steps accompany or are prerequisite to such
organization.

Finally, the range of behaviors to be encom-
passed and the way these are organized into value
systems and philosophies of life suggest that
the continuum should provide for ygrious levels
of organization to be delineated.

Stanley and Hopkins, writing about the assess-
ment of the affective domain, declare:

Cognitive measures attempt to assess maximum
performance (what a person ggm_do): affechive
measures attempt to reflect t iEal performance
(what a person does mg or feefi. The objective
for almost any course wiIl include statements
pertaining to attitudes, appreciations, and

interests as well as knowledge and proficiencies.24

 

23David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin 8. Bloom, and
Bertram B. Masia, Taxonom of Educational Ob'ectives,
The Classification of Eaucational GaaIs, Hanahhoh II:
Affechive Damain (New Yorh: Davia McKay Co., Inc.,
1964)! p. 26.

 

24Julian C. Stanley and Kenneth D. Hopkins,
Educational and P8 cholo ical Measurement and Evaluation
(EnglewoodCIiffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., I972},
p. 282.

 

 

19

In discussing the structuring of a new cur-
riculum for arts education, Jerome J. Hausman states:

The content of aesthetic education derives from
the variety of people identified as artists as
well as the objects and events that might be
called “artistic.“ In its broadest context, it
deals with those images, sounds, movements, and
circumstances that can be experienced for their
aesthetic dimensions. It focuses upon the sources
and cues from which to generate forms--events,
myths, technical possibilities and controls;
upon the ways that artists interpret and produce
qualitative forms: upon the means for critically
evaluating works of art.2

It has already been suggested that meaningful
and successful teaching strategies are the result of a
harmonious blending of theory and practice. Therefore,
the analysis and consideration of man's behavioral and
aesthetic perceptions hold great import for the establish-
ment of a philosophical foundation which views music
education as aesthetic education.

Some practical value from the study of the psychology
of beauty may be derived by those who instruct the
young in art or seek to develop their appreciation
of beauty. An understanding, for example, of what
kind of things in pictures, music or poetry appeal
most to children and of the usual lines of develOp-
ment from a child's attitude towards the various
forms of beauty to the attitudes adopted by mature
adults experienced in the particular art, should be
of value to the educator.2

 

25Jerome J. Hausman, "A Contemporary Aesthetics
Curriculum," in Toward an Aesthetic Education (Washington,
D.C.: Music Educanrs fiationaI Conference, 1970),
pp. 52-53.

. 26Charles Wilfred Valentine, The Experimental
Ps chology of Beauty (London: Methueh_6_Co., Ltd.,
) I pp. 1-2.

20

Writing in the American Journal of Psychology,
Margaret Otis reported the results of an experiment to
determine the perceptual organization of the human mind
based upon a visual stimulus.

The purpose at hand is to study the process involved
in the act of the mind by which a number of elements
are unified into a whole, to ascertain what conditions
favor and what hinder the formation of units, to
investigate the power of various factors involved

and to test their relative importance.27

Except for the works of Rudolph Arnheim, only
short commentaries have been found which combine the
psychological and philosophical premise of perceived
wholes. Other references have only alluded to matters
secondary to the issue at hand (e.g. the meaning of
beauty as defined by the psychologist or philosopher,
beauty and pleasure, general psychological remarks on
aesthetic experience, differences of taste, and the
unconscious influence of sex upon the appreciation of
beauty and the creation of art).

Although psychologists and artists have generally
been unresponsive to each others' area of interest,
Rudolph Arnheim has proposed a common meeting ground

upon which the two may discover a common purpose. In

his two books, Toward a Psychology of Art and Art and

 

27Margaret Otis, ”Aesthetic Unity an Investigation
into the Conditions that Favor the Apperception of a
Manifold as a Unit,” American Journal of Ps cholo
(Albany, N.Y.: worcester, Mass.: PIorence ghandIer Pub-
lisher, 1918), 291-315.

21

Visual Perception, Professor Arnheim develops careful
comparisons between the scientific examination of human
perceptual behavior and the recognition of works of art
as a manifestation of the mentality of a particular
culture, social class, or creative artist.

Art historians and theorists have to refer con-
stantly to principles of perception and motivation,
but in many cases a lack of familiarity with the
development of psychology makes them take for
granted statements that were considered true in
the days of Helmholtz. . . . Thus, more intimate
contact between art and psychology is the first
prerequisite for progress. Once the wall between
the two departments is pulled down, the student

of art can expect to obtain from psychology a

more solid foundation for the generalizations

that play such an important role in all studio
practice and particularly in the teaching of art.
Similarly, the psychologist will find in works

of art, as well as in informal observations
recorded by artists, a wealth of information, which
will serve not only this special field of study but
will enhance the understanding of the human mind

in general.28

Hypothesis
The hypothesis that will control the approach and
direction of this study is that man's perception occurs
in terms of experienced wholes--of “organic unity, an
inward principle which reveals itself in the form of an

. 29

outward whole and that this fact bears demonstrable

consequences for the teaching of music.'

 

28Rudolph Arnheim, Toward a P3 chol of Art
(London: Faber and Faber, I966), p. I9.

29Samuel Henry Butcher, Aristotle's Theor of
Poetmy and Fine Art (New York: 56ver, I95I), pp. 276-76.

CHAPTER II

GENERATING FORM--THE DYNAMIC ILLUSION

. . . in an experience, flow is from something to
something . . . because of continuous merging,
there are no holes, mechanical junctions and dead
centers. . . . In a work of art, different acts,
episodes, occurrences melt and fuse into unity,
and yet do not disappear and lose their own char-
acter . . . an experience has a unity that gives it
its name, that meal, that storm, that rupture of
friendship.1
John Dewey's concept of ”mm experience“ implies
a dynamic relationship of elements. What is intended
by the word ”dynamic“? Simply, an illusion of movement
within the elements of a sensory field, which creates
the perceived experience of a unified whole. werks of
art are dynamically conceived by the artist, dynamically
perceived by the appreciator. Objects of our perception,
either in nature or in art, manifest some sort of intel-
ligible shape or form. What are the processes involved
through which the perceptual act finds meaning in artistic

forms?

 

1John Dewey, Art as Experience (New York: Capri-
corn Books, 1958), p. 37.

22

23

Qynamic SensomymOrganization

If two points of light are flashed in quick
sequence at different locations in a darkened room, an
individual will perceive visual movement. The first
point of light will be interpreted as having moved to
the second location, rather than as a second stimulus
separately perceived.

Why is it that the two points of light are not
experienced independently? For this reason, that
experience occurs always in terms of patterns, never
merely in terms of elements.

Rather than reacting to local and unrelated
events, the organism responds to the pattern of stimuli
with which it comes in contact. This response is a
unifying function, a response to a related whole, which
is experienced as a sensory landscape instead of a
patchwork of diverse sensations. we experience land-
scapes not blades of grass: vases not potsherds.

Sensory experience tends to be an ordering
process. It apprehends the elements of a sensory field
in terms of the simplest organizing forms that will
enable it to grasp the whole. The Gestalt psychologist
would describe the phenomenon of vision in the following
manner. When we see an object we do not see it in iso-
lation; we see it in relation to other objects in our

visual field. All objects of our perception are

24

discriminated by means of their formal characteristics.
Those objects most clearly defined take precedence in
our perception. Clearly defined objects become figures:
the rest become ground.

In sensory organization, the segregation and unifi-
cation which occur will separate areas of different
degrees of internal articulation, and according to
our law, the more highly articulated ones will become
figures, the rest fusing together to form the ground.
Look at any landscape photograph. You see the shape
of things, the mountains, and trees and buildings,
but not of the sky. The second factor, equally
important is that of good continuation and good
shape. The things which we see have a better shape,
are bounded by better contours, than the wholes we.
might see but do not. Therefore, when in exceptional
circumstances those conditions are reversed, we see
the hole and not the things, as the shape of a gap
between two projecting rocks with sharp profiles,
which may look like a face, an animal or some other
object while the shape of the rock disappears.2

The felt movement of the flashes of light is an
experienced illusion.' Such illusory movement is the
foundation for a dynamic explanation of sensory occur-
rences. The organism is the interpreter of unified
sensory patterns. If twelve observers listen each to
one tone of a melody of twelve tones, the sum of their
experience will not be the same as an experience of the
melody. Just so, when we experience a sequence of tones,
each tone is not independent from the others, but is
perceived as part of a dynamic flow, as an element of

an overarching rhythmic pattern.

 

2

4 Kurt Koffka, Princi les of Gestalt Ps cholo
(New York: Harcourt ana Brace, I935), pp. 298-59.

 

25

In 1915 Margaret Otis anticipated the findings
of Gestalt psychology by investigating the apperception

3 Consider the

of visual fields in terms of felt units.
following illustration. Figure 1 is a “visual manifold,“
an array of twelve elements distributed on an ideal
circle. The perceiver was asked to report what he per-
ceived in Figure l--twelve round dots or an implicit
”unit." According to atomistic psychology, the twelve
individual dots are separate stimuli which the eye surveys
in a scattered array. As a point of fact, however, the
patterning of the twelve dots inexorably creates the
'felt' or experienced awareness of an implicit circle.

In essence, our perception responds to the ideal form,
simplifies in terms of it. The illusory qualities are

the product of the dynamic stimulus.

Dynamic illusion may be described in terms of
forces constituting a constant design of stress. In any
manifold (a stimulus comprised of several entities) dyna-
mic balance is achieved when all patterns of stress reach
a point of equilibrium. Specifically, what is perceived

visually or aurally is the result of a distribution of

 

3Margaret Otis, "Aesthetic Unity--An Investigation
into the Conditions that Favor the Apperception of a Mani-
fold as a Unit," American Journal of Psychology 29 (1918):
‘291-315.

26

Fig. l.--Visual Manifold: An Ideal Circle

   

a b

Fig. 2.--Visua1 Manifold: An Ideal Straight Line,
An Ideal Isosceles Triangle

27

forces.4 Perception is in fact an orderly arrangement
of these underlying processes. Thus, if in Figure 2,
change occurs in the stimulus field, the resulting
activity will be towards the establishment of balance
once again. The three dots in Figure 2a are apprehended
as following an ideal straight line. If the central dot
be raised above the other two, as in Figure 2b, the
manifold is at once interpreted as distributed on an

ideal isosceles triangle.

The Apprehension of Patterns
Dynamic distributions should be envisioned as
functional wholes.

In . . . systems, there is at a given time a certain
resulting force at each point. All these resultant
forces together constitute a continuous pattern of
stress. For the system as a whole, the immediate
effect can have only one direction: all local
changes must be such that, when considered in

their totality, they bring the system nearer the
balance of forces.

The sense of sight will be initially explored as the
means of gaining the primary perspective of dynamic per-
ception. .We shall find, however, that the developed
notion of dynamic Gestalten, or mutually balanced pat-

terns of change, is directly applicable to the processes

 

4wertheimer, 'Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der
Gestalt, II,“ Psychologische Forschung 4 (1923).

5Wolfgang Kohler, Gestalt Ps cholo (New York:
-Liveright Publishing Corp., I967), pp. I3I-32.

28

involved in aural experience, and upon this circumstance
an advance in teaching music may be grounded.

There exists, however, a certain primitive
intellectual basis upon which certain requirements
rest in their turn, the fulfillment of which
naturally cannot fully assure the aesthetic value
of a musical work, yet whose omission is followed
by negative results.

When for instance a succession of sound
impressions is produced by a delicate acoustic
instrument--produced at accurately equal intervals
of time, and of exactly equal strength and quality
of sound--a certain systematic plan will be felt
. . . if the interim between the impressions is too
great, it is impossible to set them properly into
mutual relationship.6

In any moment of visual experience, our perception
encompasses several entities at a time. For example, the
kitchen counter may be covered with utensils, pans or
food substances. The complex manifestation of these
visual objects is seen as a figure and a ground. The
objects that appear in the foreground are more arresting
than the undiscriminated background against which they
appear. In the dynamic process of our perception, this
is the normal occurrence.

Our problem, then, is to determine the conditions
under which some objects in the field achieve the status
of dominant foreground (Figure 3). Why is it that in
Figure 3 we recognize against the ground of the page,

two groups of three patches each? Why not six individual

 

 

6Knud Jeppesen, The St 1e of Palestrina and the
‘Dissonance (New York: Dover PthicaEIons, I976), pp. 18-

19.

29

patches or three groups of two units each? For this
reason, that the patches are discriminated in terms of
what shall be called their affinity, an affinity in this
instance grounded on their relative nearness to each
other. Proximity establishes a stronger affinity among
the more nearly related elements than among the more
remote. If these elements were dispersed serially at
equal intervals, the dominant affinity of some of the
elements over others would be negated (Figure 4). In

any moment of perception the mind always responds to

the simplest pattern of affinities (a) that are available
among the actual relations of the elements presented, and
(b) that enable the more clearly related elements to be
grasped. The elements that are then perceived in terms
of real affinities are what we intend by "dominant”

foreground.

I
0.

   

0

Fig. 3.--Proximity: A Principle of Formal Affinity

30

Fig. 4.--Proximity: Negated

When three piano tones are sounded with very
small time lapses between them and then a fourth note
is struck after a more prolonged interval, as music the
three equal-interval sounds are grouped together as
opposed to the isolation of the fourth. The nervous
system dynamically creates an order of time in the
auditory stimulus, due to the temporal relationship of
the three equi-distant tones. Objects or stimuli that
occupy close space tend to be perceived as related ele-
ments which create dynamic flow.

Our perceptions may be described as a spontaneous
grouping of elements. The elements which we group into
patterns are not merely static. They mutually repel or
attract each other. In Figure 3, two groups of three
elements each were formed, because among the six patches
some space intervals were less than others. The patches
which were separated by shorter distances formed group-
units. The formation of sensory fields is governed by
particular rules of organization. Proximity is, then,
one example of formal affinity. What other illustrations

may be brought forward?

31

Affinity through grouping is illustrated in
Figures 5 and 6. As we apprehend Figure 5, our eyes are
drawn to the vertical columns of elements, rather than
the horizontal rows. Grouping occurs due to an exper-
ienced relationship between the elements of the pattern.
Squares have an affinity with squares, circles with
circles, and triangles with triangles. Hence, the
vertical affinity of four similar elements takes pre-
cedence in our perception over the horizontal relation-
ship of three dissimilars.

Figure 6 exhibits grouping in terms of contrasts.
The foreground is a field of circles. But upon this
field the dark dots gravitate together so as to form a
secondary figure within the first. The affinity of the
shaded dots creates an "x": their similarity with each
other in point of color preponderates over their simi-
larity with the other dots in point of shape.

Thus in a fugue, the continual reaffirmation of
the subject establishes a dynamic affinity. In the
exposition the statement becomes the dominant foreground.
As the fugue develops, the re-entry of the tones com-
prising the subject are aurally grouped. Therefore,
the subject fulfills a dynamic unifying function.

While Bach did not invent a single new type he made
of the fugue what it stands for today: a contrapuntal

 

Fig. 5.--Vertical Shmilars Preponderating Over Horizontal
Dissimilars

 

.0000
0.000
00.0.
000.0
00.0.
0.000
.0000

 

O.
.0
OO
00
OO
.0
0.

Fig. 6. Dark Circles Preponderating Over White Circles

33

form of the highest concentration in which a single

characteristic subject in continuous expansion per-

vades a thoroughly unified whole.7

Hertz conducted an experiment with several species

of birds in order to further demonstrate the nature of
grouping as an elementary sensory fact.8 Several small
flower pots were put on the ground upside down. One
bird was allowed to see how food was placed under one
of the pots. Presently, the bird would lift the pot and
retrieve the food. Of particular significance was the
means by which the correct pot was selected. The bird
encountered no problems when there was one pot only.
When several pots were present, the selection of the
correct one depended entirely upon the specifically
characterized quality of the pot as a member of the
totality. If put in a straight line with the others,
the correct selection was a matter of chance (Figure 7).
When the food pot.was segregated from the totality, the
bird encountered no difficulties (Figure 8). In Figure 9,
a different means of achieving grouping still enabled
the correct pot to be readily distinguished as a single
entity. In each of the preceding figures, the grouping
which is made manifest in the pattern as a whole deter-

mined the bird's selective responses.

 

7Manfred F. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1947), pp. 286-87.

8Paul Hertz, ”Zeitschrift fur vergleichende,"

Physiologie 7 (1928).

34

0......
+ ,

 

Fig. 7.--Grouping: A Matter of Chance

eeeeee
e +

Fig. 8.--Grouping: Segregation from the Totality

+
O O 0

Fig. 9.--Grouping: Segregation from the Totality

35

Perceived time has similar characteristics with
perceived space. Temporal “dots“ form temporal groups
just as simultaneously presented visual dots seem to
form groups in space. In Figure 10, the triplet pattern
of Ravel's Bolero is experienced as a group in time.

Suppose that I knock three times at short intervals
on my table, and then after waiting for a second I
repeat the performance, and so forth. People who
hear this sequence of sounds experience groups in
time. . . . The groups as actually heard are there-
fore instances of psychological . . . and physio-
logical organization. If the intervals between
sounds are made equal, groups will again be formed
as soon as differences of intensity or quality are
introduced in the series, especially if they occur
in regular repetition. Thus, equality plays the
same role in the organization of temporal sequences
as it does in a stationary visual field.9

John F. A. Taylor writes:

Every apprehension of pattern is grounded on the
affinity of forms. Visual forms are never neutral;
they are never merely juxtaposed. vThey stand to
each other in varying degrees of affinity. . . .
Where there is no affinity, there can be no
pattern. Where affinity is not seen, no pattern
can be seen.

 

Professor Taylor illustrates his statement by examining
the forms suitably dispersed within a lozenge (Figure 11).
Elements confined within a field will be perceived in

the simplest shape which is in keeping with the dynamic
ordering of them, When viewing the lozenge, why is it

 

9Wolfgang Kohler, Gestalt Psychology (New York:
Liveright Publishing Corp., v P. .

10John F. A. Taylor, Desi n and Expression in the
.Visual Arts (New York: Dover ications, Inc., 1964),
p. 74.

 

 

 

 

Fig. 10.-Ravel, Bolero

36

 

Fig. ll.-Lozenge

37

that the perceived forms therein do not have their
centers placed on a circle (Figure 12)? An ideal circle
affords no definitive selection among its own diameters.
Even if one were to mark a distinction between the verti-
cal and the horizontal diameters, the circle does not
declare any precedence among its own diameters. As a
simplifying form, the circle is not conclusive as a
pattern which can be focused upon and adhered to.
Instinctively the lozenge is chosen, because the simplest
form presented is that one whose axes will order the

location of the dots in relation to each other.

 

Fig. 12.--Lozenge: Predominance Over the Circle

An additional illustration of formal affinity is
closure. The perceiver will at times create wholes
where there are none. The act accomplished is none
other than “closing in“ gaps in sensory data. A momen-
tarily exposed curved line suggesting the shape of a
circle, with one small portion of the line omitted, will,
nevertheless, be perceived as a circle. It was stated

-previously that simple forms are more easily perceptible

38

than complex ones. The independence of the act of
closure may be demonstrated by setting it in opposition
to the phenomenon of proximity. Professor Koffka

3.11 The form

illustrates this phenomenon in Figure l
of the groups is established not by the vertical lines,
though they are in closer proximity, but rather by those
lines which enclose space. Specifically, the distance
between the lines which enclose space is three times as
great as that of the nearer vertical proximities. Only

the distance between the ends of the short oblique lines

is similar to the Space separating the closer vertical

mm

Fig. 13.--Closure

lines.

Closure is an essential element in musical
cadences. Where the ear anticipates the finality of
tonal melodic-harmonic movement, the tonic chord is

forthcoming. Occasionally, cadence closure may be

 

11Kurt Koffka, Principles of Gestalt Psycholo
.(New York: Harcourt, Brace andCEmpany,l935), p.’16 .

39

interrupted or postponed. If the tonic chord would be
replaced by the submediant harmony, then the thrust for
closure results in a deception. Similarly, cadence
finality may be suspended with the use of a half cadence.
In this instance the dominant harmony is employed.

This chapter opened with the statement, works of
art are dynamically conceived by the artist, dynamically
perceived by the appreciator. The discussion thus far
has suggested the imperative significance of dynamic flow
and function. Forms are not only generated in terms of
their mutual dynamic affinities, but similarly the per-
ceiving mind decisively responds to those dynamic patterns
of stimuli with which it comes in contact.

When viewing the polka-dot pattern, the arrangement
of the dots establishes the principle of simple repetition.
The immediate perception of the observed field is exper-
ienced as an organization of space. Through the repe-
tition of the motive, order and measure can be grasped

and held.

 

Fig. l4.--Polka-dot Pattern

40

In general, for our perception, what is seen as
measurable is more easily grasped than what is not.
Stand in the midst of a field of wheat, so that the
surface of the wheat-ears extends uninterruptedly
in all directions from your waist-height: all dis-
tances will lose their definiteness . . . stand .
beside the fence that hedges a field on any of its
sides: the fence-posts, themselves of equal height
and spaced at equal intervals, enable the distances
to be grasped, and grasped visually, in a single act
. . . both expanses are in fact measurable; only the
one is seen as measurable. The latter alone affords,
as a visuaI appearancei the scale necessary to make
distances appreciable.

A natural complementarity of elements is perceived as a

living, unified whole.

Aural experience does not capture the whole of'a
musical composition in any given moment of attentive
apprehension. we may view the whole of a painting,
however, in many isolated moments of perception. Music
requires the spinning out of tones in a time continuum.
If the perfect articulation of temporal form requires the
maintenance of a unified aural whole, then the composer
must rely upon dynamic motives. Only then will the bond
of complementarity hold the whole work in the dominant
foreground of our memory. The restatement of material
in the recapitulation of Sonata form, comes to the ear
not as a startling return of forgotten themes, but as
the recognition of an anticipated fulfillment of balance.

It is scarcely necessary for us to say more about

the technique of recapitulation, nor of its aes-
thetics, save to draw attention to Tovey's remarks

 

12Taylor, Design and Expression, pp. 71-72.

41

as to the deceptiveness of supposing it to be a
mechanical method of achieving symmetry. On the
contrary, it has the function fundamental to any
highly organized work of art, of unifying that
which was diverse.13

Professor Taylor writes:

The parts of that whole stand to each other in a
relation of complementarity. They form not merely
an aggregate, but an organization, in which the
several members are mutually implicated in each
other. All are necessary, none is dispensable,
for the meaning of each is seen to reside in the
relations which bind it to those others. That
complementarity of parts is what men understand
when they speak of the 'inevitableness" of a work
of art: to take from it any part or to add to it
any part is to destroy the distinctive kind of
equilibrium which it has.14

Musical Time--A Qynamic Illusion

 

The essence of musical experience is the ordering
of time. Temporal forms are manifested in terms of their
flow.
The purpose of all musical labor, in thought or in
physical activity, is to create and develop the
illusion of flowing time in its passage, an audible
(felt) passage filled with motion that is just as
illusory as the time it is measuring. Music is an
art of time. . . . 15

How may aural experience be explained in terms of a

dynamic phenomenon?

 

13Cedric Thorpe Davie, Musical Structure and
Design (New York: Dover, 1966), p. 83.

14Taylor, Design and Empression, p. 5.

15Susanne K. Langer, Feelin and Form (New York:
‘Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953 , p. .

42

If we would listen to a rhythm tapped on a drum,
or a melody rendered either vocally or instrumentally,
each beat or tone becomes an occurrence in our behavioral
environment. In any rhythmic pattern each beat is not
isolated as a separate stimulus, but rather we perceive
it as being dependent upon the preceding beat (Figure 15).
The louder beats in the rhythmic pattern of Figure 15
become recognized as "accents" due to the nature of the
softer beats before them. No matter how we would alter
the location or the intensity of the accented pulses,
those pulses would be aurally identified because of

their relation to the other softer beats.

 

) >

Fig. 15.--Accents

Similarly, one and the same tone will have a dif-
ferent musical "meaning” according to the tones
which precede it. For example, in one melody c

may be the tonic, in another the dominant, in a
third the "leading tone," and so on: moreover, dif-
ferent tones may have identical meanings--be prac-
tically indistinguishable from each other if they
occur at the same place in a melody. Thus what 9
is in a tune played in c major, c is in the ”same“
tune if played in f major, and f sharp if it is
played in b. . . . In all our cases we have per-
ceptual experiences produced by auditory stimuli,
and in each of them the effect of stimulation at
one moment depends upon the effects of preceding
stimulations. If these prior effects had disap-
peared completely with the cessation of the stimuli,
we could hear neither rhythm nor melodies, to say
nothing of speech.16

 

16Koffka, Gestalt Psychology, p. 432.

43

Stout's Theory of Primary Retentiveness has
established the premise that aural experience is an
organization of continuous time. The Theory of Primary
Retentiveness suggests that aural stimuli are cumulatively
held within the perceiver's mind. Although each moment
of immediate perceptual experience is reaponded to indi-
vidually, every sensation is felt to be a member of a
larger continuity in our memory.

The last note of a melody may be the only note of
which we are aware at the moment it strikes the ear.
Yet in it the entire melody is in a sense present.
It comes before consciousness as part of a quite
specific whole and derives a specific character
from its place in that whole. The cumulative dis-
osition generated by the ordered*sequence of pre-
v ous notes co-operates with the new stimulus to the
organ of hearing, and the ensuing state of con-
sciousness is the joint product of both factors
mutually modifying each other.17

The design of a musical motive is heard to begin
at one point and end at another. This motive may be
repeated or another may follow. In no instance are
balanced musical structures a mere extension from the
first tone of the first motive to the third or fourth
tone of the next motive. Aural experience, as Professor

Koffka suggests, is "a self-determination of temporal

organizations.”

 

17George Frederick Stout, Analytic Ps cholo
, (London; New York: S. Sonnenschein and Co., himiheg;
Macmillan and Co., 1896), 2 vols, p. 181.

44

A melody is a whole, organized in time. That its
later members depend upon its earlier ones is the
exact counterpart of the fact that the right upper
quadrant of a seen circle depends upon the left
lower one. The difference between the two cases
is only this, that in the latter we are dealing
with a stationary distribution, in the former with
a process which changes in time.18

Visual Gestalten are formed through the dynamic
character of seen forms. Aural Gestalten are formed
through the dynamic character of temporal patterns. If
each member of a temporal pattern depends upon its
existence within an established aural field, as well as
a stimulus in its own right, then Professor Langer's
notion of ”flowing time“ becomes meaningful.

The difference between perceiving clearly and under-
standing distinctly, is not the great difference

we are sometimes led to think it . . . for elements
not natively ordered by a relation of some sort will
not make structures for us at all, nor will intrin-
sically related elements make structures for us
unless we have become aware of the kinds of relation
involved. You cannot make a spatial whole except
with elements the very nature and being of which

is spatial extension. You cannot make melodic
structure except out of elements which are natively
ordered by an intrinsic relation in pitch from which
they cannot be removed. . . . The elements must lie
in an order grasped by us as constituted by a
relation. we call structures intelligible . . . in
so far as we find them capable of analysis into

such elements so related. 9

What is the illusory motion of dynamic temporal

elements? The ever-flowing movements we hear, be they

 

18Koffka, Gestalt Psychology, p. 437.

 

19David Prall, Aesthetic Analysis (New York:
~ Thomas Crowell Co., 1964), p. 39.

45

responded to as fast or slow, rising or falling, or
beginning and concluding, are not in themselves actually
moving. The experience of movement is an illusion. For
example, when we view the ascending and descending scale
in Figure 16, the tones progress upward to D, and downward
to D. In no instance do the tones physically move, but
rather the integral relationship of tones ”felt" to

ascend and to descend to the tonic creates an experience
of flow.

Another significant illusory aspect of musical
perception may be illustrated in the grasping of silence
as having impact equal to that of the presence of sound.
Moments of musical stillness are felt to be suffused with
the ever-present pulsation of the beat. In the Second
movement of Haydn's "Surprise" Symphony, the unexpected
fortissimo of the tutti orchestra is poignantly set apart
by the crucial pause of silence before its articulation
(Figure 17).

Musical dynamic movement establishes for the
appreciator the consciousness of £222; time, rather than
EEEl time. Speaking of the duration of ideal musical
time, Professor Langer turns to an essay written by
Basil de Selincourt:

Music . . . demands the absorption of the whole of
our time-consciousness; our own continuity must be

lost in that of the sound to which we listen.
Music uses time as an element of expression;

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Fig. 16.-Sca1e: Ascending and Descending

46

       

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Fig. l7.-Haydn,

47

duration is its essence. The beginning and the end
of a musical composition are only one if the music
has possessed itself of the interval between them
and wholly filled it.20

Dr. Langer further describes musical duration as
"lived" or experienced time.

The semblance of this vital, experiential time is
the primary illusion of music. All music creates
an order of virtual time, in which its sonorous
forms move in relation to each other--a1ways and
only to each other, for nothing else exists there.
. . . Inward tensions and outward changes, heart-
beats and clocks, daylight and routines and weari-
ness furnish various incoherent temporal data,
which we coordinate for practical purposes by
letting the clock predominate. But music spreads
out time for our direct and complete apprehension,
by letting our hearing monopolize it--organize,
fill, and shape it, all alone. It creates an image
of time measured by the motion of forms that seem
to give it substance, yet a substance that consists
entirely of sound, so it is transitoriness itself.
Music makes time audibleyyand its form and con-
tinuityisensihle.ll

In Figure 18, the rhythmic pattern creates exper-
ienced movement that is felt to extend through several
measures. The pattern culminates in a moment of finality
as would occur at a cadence point. Rhythmic movement
may be felt exceeding the first arrow (the motive), con-
tinuing on to measure two, and finally climaxing at

measure three.

 

20Langer, Feeling and Form, pp. 110-11.

ZlIbid., pp. 109-10.

(r = 120)

Allegro

 

 

 

 

 

48

Fig. 18.-Rhythmic Pattern: The Illusion of Experienced Movement

49

Similarly the tonal elements of music, melody
and harmony, may also exhibit the tendency to create
illusory flow. An ascending melodic line may not only
establish dynamic tension, but may also strongly indicate
the inevitable resolution to the tonic or some other kind
of cadence formula. Harmonic progression occurs in terms
of ”normal“ chordal sequence. For example, harmony texts
frequently refer to the ability of diatonic triads to
maintain a tonal center. ' . . . the whole mass of tones
and the connection of harmonies must stand in a close
and always distinctly perceptible relationship to some
arbitrarily selected tonic, and the mass of tone
which forms the whole composition, must be developed
from this tonic, and must finally return to it."22
Triads of the third and fourth classifications (i.e.
the submediant and the mediant triads) are weakest in
their ability to sustain strong tonality. Normal pro-
gression implies the movement of these triads to har-
monies of the second classification (supertonic and
subdominant), then establishing key center through the

strongest triads (leading tone, dominant, and tonic).23

 

22Herman Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone as
a Physiol ical Basis for the Theory of Music (London:
Longmans, reen, and Co., I875), p. 249.

 

23Allen Irvine McHose, Basic Principles of the
Technique of 18th and 19th Century Cemposition (New York:
Appleton-Century-Croffs, Inc., 1951); Allen'Irvine McHose,
The Contra untal Harmonic Techni ue of the 18th Century
(New Yorh: Appleton-Century-Cro 5, Inc., I947).

50

It has already been stated that in sensory
organization individuals experience always in terms of
patterns, never in terms of mosaics.

Musical time has form and organization. Melodies
are formed because of a unifying tonal function. Rhythmic
flow is generated through the devices of repetition,
variation and contrast. Together the musical elements
create a complementarity out of which a dynamic form
emerges. Musical perception apperceives the form as a
unified relationship. Music is the art of sound. Roger
Sessions suggests that of the five senses, only hearing

24 As

is decisively associated with our sense of time.
an art of time music is active rather than static.
Unfolding musical impressions must sustain the dynamic
illusion of movement. Monroe Beardsley writes: ”Music,
then, is no symbol of time or process, mental or physical,
Newtonian or Bergsonian: it is process."25
The function of all musical activity is focused
about the creation of illusory flowing time. As the
dissonance of the suspension requires an interpreted

resolution into consonance, so the musical image suggests

dynamic continuity and affinity in its apprehension.

 

24Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Com-
poser, Performer, Listener (New York: Atheneum,il965).

 

25Monroe Beardsley, Aesthetics (New York: Har-
court, Brace and Co., 1958), p. 338.

51

Themes and motives are explored until an emerging
structure appears. Only when the whole of the antici-
pated musical Gestalt is achieved in the mind of the
composer are frustration and anxiety relieved. The
emergence of the total Gestalt gives itself to the
awareness of the composer. However the Gestalt becomes
known, the composer seizes upon it as the fundamental
form of the work. The musical impulse becomes dynami-
cally conceived.

A musician may sit at the keyboard, putting all
sorts of themes and figures together in a loose
fantasy, until one idea takes over and a structure
emerges from the wandering sounds: or he may hear,
all at once, without the distinction of any physical
tones, perhaps even without exact tone color as yet,
the whole musical apparition. But however the total
Gestalt presents itself to him, he recognizes it as
Ehe fundamental form of the piece; and henceforth
his mind is no longer free to wander irresponsibly
from theme to theme, key to key, and mood to mood.
This form is the "composition“ which he feels called
upon to develop.26

Roger Sessions writes:

The gestures which music embodies are, after all,
invisible gestures: one may almost define them as
consisting of movement in the abstract, movement
which exists in time but not in space, movement, in
fact, which gives time its meaning and its sig-
nificance for us. If this is true, then sound is
its predestined vehicle. For what we apprehend
through the eye is for us static, monumental. Even
movement seen is bounded by our range of vision:
we never can closely follow it off into space unless
we ourselves move. Sound, at least in our experience,
is never static, but invariably impermanent; it
either ceases or changes. By its very nature it
embodies for us movement in time, and as such imposes
no inherent limits.

 

26Langer, Feeling and Form, p. 121.

52

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53

To sum up: the experience of music is essen-
tially indivisible, whether it is embodied in the
impulse to produce, or in the response, through
re-production, actual as by the performer or
imaginary as by the listener, of the musical 27
experience embodied in music already produced.

The essence of music is not the tones upon the
page, but the apprehension of illusory time. " . . . too
little stress is as a rule laid upon the fact that music
is an art which includes time; in other words, that it
exists not on paper to be looked at, but $3 the time ele-
ment to be listened to. . . . '28

Experienced forms in time are not moulds into
which composers have poured their music. Musical forms
are the result of a generating stimulus, out of which

comes a work which is alive and replete with its indi-

vidual integrity. It is form discovered, not made.

 

27Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of
Composer, Performer, Listener (New'York: Atheneum,
65), p. 19}

 

28Davie, Musical Structure, p. 11.

CHAPTER III

GENERATING FORM AND THE

MUSICAL PERSPECTIVE

For the composer, the fulfilling moment of his
creative task is in the temporal realization of a musical
idea. Music makes manifest, through aural perception,
the essence of the creative musical sense of each com-
poser.

Each composer has striven to bring to reality the
music which is most truly music for him. The
task of every composer is to give coherent shape
to his musical ideas; or, as Artur Schnabel has
so finely put it: "The process of artistic
creation is always the same--from inwardness to

lucidity.'1

The generating musical idea is the germ from which

 

the composer senses the Gestalt of his composition. Musi-
cal ideas may provide the necessary impetus for a move-
ment, an episode, or as a unifying agent either melodi—
cally, harmonically, or rhythmically. Stewart Macpherson,

addressing the need for the study of form, writes:

 

1Sessions, The Musical Experience, p. 43.

 

54

55

The nature and temper of an idea, or set of ideas,
used in an oratorio need not of necessity differ
widely from the nature and temper of an idea, or
set of ideas, used in a symphony. . . . Hence it
is evident that if we are to be able to estimate,
with any regard to correctness of judgment, any
work we may be called upon to hear or study, we
must take some account, at least, of these impor-
tant elements of design and of structure, without
which a work of art would be a shapeless mass of
incoherence unable to tell its own tale through
neglect of one of the fundamental laws of nature.2

When the musical idea gains pre-eminence in the mind of
the composer, the result is what Susanne Langer has

termed the commanding form of the work.3 The commanding

 

form of a composition establishes a generating principle.
Through ornamentation, repetition, variation or contrast,
the commanding form compels the composer to develop his
idea within an orderly framework. At this juncture some
would question the desirability of the composer's respon-
sibility to the mmlg of his idea. The commanding form is
not stifling, but rather allows the composer to fully
concentrate his creative power in the unfolding possibili-
ties of tonal or rhythmic elements.

The musical idea may emerge in the composer's
mind in several ways. Melodic or harmonic motives may
establish the Gestalt of the composition. Also, the

musical matrix may be brought to fruition in terms of

 

2Stewart Macpherson, Form in Music (London:
Joseph Williams), p. 4.

 

3Langer, Feeling and Form, chapter eight.

56

sonorities, rhythmic figures, or perhaps through formal
characteristics as evidenced in key or harmonic relation-
ships.4 For example, the so-called "Tristan” chord
which Wagner uses in a specific motive is not always
presented in an identical key (Figures la, lb).

One monumental commanding idea is the principal
subject of the Art of the Fugue. Bach designed this work
as an example of the profound possibilities in fugue
writing. Beginning with the unadorned fugue, Bach then
systematically inverts the subject, presents the counter-
fugue, the double fugue, the triple fugue, the mirror
fugue, and finally, the quadruple fugue. The Art of the
52222 combines eighteen fugues and canons. Through
thematic transformation, the principal fugal subject
provides a generating stimulus which fulfills a unifying
function (Figure 2).

In 1950, Elliott Carter completed an interesting
composition which explores the sound possibilities of
woodwind instruments. Eight Etudes and a Fantasy for

woodwind Quartet specifically focuses on woodwind timbres

 

and techniques (range, fluttertonguing, runs, etc.).
Etude No. 7 is a study on one note. Although the gener-

ating stimulus is one pitch, Carter manipulates dynamic

 

4Susanne Langer defines the musical matrix as
"the fundamental movement of melody or harmonic progres-
sion, which establishes the greatest rhythm of the piece
and dictates its scope . . . ' Langer, Feeling and
Form, pp. 122-23.

57

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58

levels and subtly creates tension at the mid-point of
the piece through rhythmic diminution. The marriage of
dynamic crescendi and diminuendi with a continual
shortening of rhythmic values establishes the etude in

terms of an Arch form.

Bac =60Art of the Fugue

 

Fig. 2.--Bach, Art of the Fugue

 

Johannes Brahms represents the epitome of classi-
cal integrity in the Romantic Era. Brahms opposed the
radical innovations of Liszt, Berlioz and Wagner. In
response to the new predilection for expanded modulations,
and the emphasis for programmatic attachments, Brahms
centered his creative effort about the restoration of
classical forms.

Of particular interest is the third symphony in
F major. Homer Ulrich writes:

The third symphony, in F major, represents a perfect
fusion of Brahms' Classical tendencies and his
Romantic temperament. Without allowing any devi-
ations from strict musical logic to infect his
writing . . . a melodic motive drawn from the

first movement casts its shadow over the inner

movements as well . . . an element made necessary
by his musical purpose.5

 

5Homer Ulrich, S honic Music (New York:
Columbia University Press, I952), pp. 215-16.

59

The commanding form of this symphony grows from the
motivic premise of the opening three measures (Figure 3).
In an analysis of the first movement, the principal theme
is supported by the F minor harmony found in the motive
(Figure 4).

Further developments and transitions in the first
movement are directly related to the motive. In the
latter portion of the Exposition, a fragment of the
motive appears within the concluding theme as the
announcement of the codetta--part II (Figure 5).

Similarly, in the second movement an allusion to
the motive is evident in measures three and four
(Figure 6). In his analysis of the Brahm's Third, Pro-
fessor Ulrich explains the presence of the "motto" in
measures three and four as ' . . . an interlude-by-
extension of the’theme."6

The third movement, a Rondo, employs the motive
as accompanying ornamental figures. Of particular
significance is the manifestation of the motive as it
exemplifies a thematic kinship between the movements.

In Figure 7 we see the emphasis of the motivic triad
relationship in a cascading inter-play among the violins,

violas, and celli-bass.

 

6Ulrich, Symphonic Music, p. 216.

 

60

Symphonic No 3

 

 

 

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Fig. 3.--Brahms, Symphony No. 3, lst Movement

Kontrafagott

 

 

 

Fig. 4.--Brahms, Symphony No. 3, lst Movement

 

 

 

    
 
 

  
 
        

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.__."'. 1...

Fig. 6.--Brahms, Smhony No. , 2nd Movement

62

 

Fig. 7.--Brahms, Symphony No. , 3rd Movement

The fourth movement brings to the ear the sus-
tained fulfillment of ever-growing strength and vigor,
which has gathered momentum through the preceding move-
ments. In the coda, wholeness is complete with the
reaffirmation of the motive (F-A-F).

The preceding several examples of generating
musical ideas are only a minute representation from the
wealth of musical masterpieces. These illustrations
have been given in order to aid in the clarification of
what we intend by the musical idea. Composing does not
become the required completion of binding formal guide-
lines but becomes, as Roger Sessions describes it, “a
living process of growth. . . . a composer's relation to
his work is an organic one; that the conception and the

composition of a piece of music are not a matter of set

63

procedure, but a living process of growth."7 Reiterating
his contention for purity in musical composition and
expression, Edward Hanslick goes on to say:
The object of every art is to clothe in some material
form an idea which has originated in the artist's
imagination. In music this idea is an acoustic one;
it cannot be expressed in words and subsequently
translated into sounds.

In Greek tragedy, Aristotle describes the dénoue-
ment as that focalized moment when all that has preceded
makes apparent all that is to come. The dénouement
emerges out of the plot because of dramatic unity. As
the musical composition develops out of organic growth,
so the tragedy also grows.

The unity of the tragic action is, again, an
organic unity, an inward principle which reveals
itself in the form of an outward whole. . . .
Within the single and complete action which con-
stitutes the unity of a tragedy, the successive
incidents are connected together by an inward
and causal bond--by the law of necessary and
probable sequence.

It has been stated that music is an art which

requires the spinning out of tones in a time continuum.

 

7Sessions, The Musical Experience, p. 52.

8Edward Hanslick, VOm Musikalisch-Schonen, Ein
Beitrag Zur Revision der Aesthetik def:TBnkunst (9th ed.)
Leipzig: UT A.*Barth, 1896), trans.‘5y Gustav Cohen as
The Beautiful in Music (7th ed.; London: Novello, 1891),
p. 2U.

 

9Samuel Henry Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of
Poetry and Fine Art, translation {New York: Dover Pub-
licatIOns, 1951), pp. 275-76.

 

64

Aural perception, as a temporal phenomenon, occurs due
to the dynamic qualities of the stimulus object. Once
the commanding form has been grasped by the mind of the
composer, what is the process through which the piece
becomes a meaningful dynamic whole in aural experience?
The foremost elusive aspect of sound is that it
contains no physical substance of its own. If a sound
be produced, it does not continue indefinitely, rather it
fades away into silence. For the musical composition,
this reality takes on primary importance in regard to the
structure of the musical work. If there were no per-
ception of unity in the apprehension of musical sound,
then each tone would disintegrate as a stimulus unto
itself. In his Confessions, Book XI, St. Augustine
refers to the absence of unity in sound as a void of

.
10 If memory cannot measure and sustain

discontinuity.
aural stimuli so that they may be ordered into distinct
groups, than the emergence of sonorous form may not be
achieved. we will remember that Stout's Theory of
Primary Retentiveness suggests that specific aural
stimuli may be cumulatively disposed in the conscious-
ness of the perceiver.

The last note of a melody may be the only note of

which we are aware at the moment it strikes the
ear. Yet in it the entire melody is in a sense

 

10Augustine, Confessions, Book XI, trans. by
Edward B. Pusey (New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1909),
chapters 27-28.

65

present. It comes before consciousness as part of

a quite specific whole and derives a specific char-

acter from its place in that whole.11
Unfolding musical tones, then, must be integral members
of a unified musical structure. Only then will tones
already heard have meaning in terms of tones being heard.

The fluid and successive being of musical substance

entails its intellectuality since the work, inas—

much as it forms a whole, requires that it be

structured in the memory by the mind. . . . Music

is essentially an art of time . . . not only is it

an art of time, but an art of the moment, whose

existence as art is of the same nature as that of

the dance, poetry, the theatre. The unity of

these actions is but that of a duration whose ele-

ments would fall back into the void of silence as

they fade if memory did not forget this unity by

endowing these elements with at least a tem orary

subsistence and a mode of intellectuality.l

For the musician, either as composer, performer,
or listener, the significance of each tone is in its
reaffirmation of sonorous movement. If any thread of
the musical fabric causes an interruption of the dynamic
whole the composition will sustain a rupture which cancels
its unity and destroys its equilibrium.
What, then, is the essence of all composition?

Susanne Langer explains, ' . . . the essence of all
composition-~tonal or atonal, vocal or instrumental, even

purely percussive, if you wi11--is the semblance of

 

11George Frederick Stout, Analytic Psycholog
(London: 8. Sonnenschein and Co., Limited; New York:
Macmillan and Co., 1896), 2 vols., p. 181.

12Etienne Gilson, Forms and Substances in the
Arts (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,—1966), pp. 145-

66

organic movement, the illusion of an indivisible

13

whole." Edward Hanslick suggests that the essence

Of all music is 31mP1Y: “sounding forms in motion."14
Monroe Beardsley describes the essence of musical

structure in terms of kinetic patterns. "I propose

 

to say that a musical composition has . . . what I shall
call a kinetic pattern: it is the pattern of variation

15 Leonard

in its propulsion, or intensity of movement.“
B. Meyer argues that the perceivable kinetic pattern of
music is directly related to one's previous encounters
with similar musical forms.16
From the conception of music as living or organic
movement, we may establish a fundamental principle of
musical occurrence. The establishment of temporal pat-
terns creates in the mind of the appreciator an expec-
tation of those aural substances not yet heard. As music
is an art of change and of becoming, so its manifestation

in terms of heard Gestalten makes it an art of time.

 

13Langer, Feeling and Form, p. 126.

14Hanslick, VOm Musikalisch-Schonen.

15Monroe Beardsley, Aesthetics (New York: Har-
court, Brace, and Co., 1958), p. 181.

 

16Leonard Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music
(Chicago: University of Chicago,“1956)p P. 35.

67

The principle of organic movement implies life
or essential organization. In nature, all living pro-
cesses continue and are sustained through the indis-
pensable motion natural to their function. ‘Where there
is essential physical activity, there is rhythm. As
rhythm is the necessary principle in living organisms,
so music only finds its ability to present ordered time
through vital flow. In his text, Harmonics of Aristoxenus,
Henry S. Macran discusses the role of Aristoxenus as
possibly the first musical humanist in Western civili-
zation.

So busy were the Pythagoreans in establishing the
mere physical and mathematical antecedents of
sounds in general, that they never saw that the
essence of musical sounds lies in their dynamical
relation to one another. Thus they missed the

true formal notion of music, which is ever present
to Aristoxenus, that of a system or organic whole
of sounds, each member of which ig_essentially what
it does, and in which a sound cannot become a member
because merely there is room for it, but only if
there is a function which it can discharge.1

we have established the premise that as an art of
time, music is such because its generating principle of
order is in a prescribed sequence of rhythmic and tonal
stimuli. Aural patterns are not mere successions held

together by time: rather aural patterns are a complemen-

tarity of elements which create unified time. From the

 

17The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, ed. and trans. by
Henry S. Macran (Exford, iondon: The Clarendon Press,
1902)! pp. 88-89.

 

68

musical idea comes the commanding form of a composition.
The commanding form of a musical piece provides organic
unity and develoPment.

Forms in music have several traditional and con-
temporary labels given to their structures. Polyphony
implies one means of formal procedure to our minds,
whereas the forms of homophonic music suggest something
quite different. Although there may be a multiplicity
of musical forms, they all share several factors in
common.

Stewart Macpherson suggests four criteria which

are tangible evidences of form.18

(1) The grouping of pulses or beats, by means of
more or less regularly recurring accents, into
measures or bars, producing what is known as

TIME:

(2) The grouping of sounds based upon some such time-
scheme into musical figures, phrases and sen-
tences, with definite relationships one to

another, resulting in RHYTHMIC SHAPE:

(3) The grouping of such figures, phrases and sen-
tences into larger paragraphs, described as
SUBJECTS, EPISODES, etc., each with its special

connection With and relation to the others;

 

18Macpherson, Form in Music, p. 3.

69

(4) The grouping of these larger paragraphs into

complete MOVEMENTS.

Through the examination of each evidence, we may
hopefully gain a clearer understanding of the musical
process-~"from inwardness to 1ucidity."

The Grouping of Pulses or Beats, by Means of More
or LessReguIafly_§ecurring Accents, into
‘Measures or Bars, ProduCIng What Is
*KEOwn as

Rhythmic order is established through the group-
ing of pulses. Man responds to auditory sensations with
the instinctive desire to group these stimuli into
larger patterns. In most instances the human mind
organizes perceived rhythmic pulsations into groups of
two or three. In terms of the accent, the presence of
the stressed pulse establishes metrical rhythm. If, in
Figure 8a, the intensity is constant and the tones are
sounded at a steady rate of flow, each beat will be per-
ceived equally. If we were to accent every other quarter
note, the mind immediately orders a grouping of two beats
(Figure 8b). “Metre is the relationship between long and
short beats: it is a quantitative principle of order.
Metre is duple or triple, and therefore duple and triple
time are the two basic forms of the musical beat, subject

to many different metrical variations."19

 

19Heinrich Lemacher and Hermann Schroeder, Musical
Form, trans. by Robert Kolben (Musikverlage Hans Gerig:

Cologne, 1967), p. 9.

’70

nuoom 039 no mcwmcouu any

auoom mo cowumoouom Hosea onnl.m .mwm

 

 

 

 

A3

 

 

 

71

Figures 9 and 10 illustrate the two basic forms
of musical time. We feel the pulse in Figure 9 as a
repetition of one stressed beat to one unstressed beat.
In Figure 10 we feel the pulse as a pattern of hgayy
light light, and so on. Duple and triple meter offer
many avenues for rhythmic variety and interest. Both
meters may be explored in terms of simple or compound
beat divisions. Regardless of the number of beats in a
measure, the fundamental rhythmic pulse will be either

duple or triple.

 

 

 

Allegro non troppo ’- ‘
.0 V

Fig. 9.--Franck, gymphony in D Minor

J. S. Bach, Passacaglia in c minor for organ

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. lO.—-Bach,_Passacaglia in C Minor

 

The notable exception to the preceding statement
is the expansion of traditional rhythmic concepts evident
in contemporary music. Even though asymmetric divisions
may be reduced to combinations of duple or triple meters,

some twentieth century techniques endeavor to establish

72

rhythmic flow through nonmetrical organizations. These
practices would remove the continual emphasis in com-
positions to sustain meters through strong and weak
beat patterns. Nonmetrical rhythms remove audible bar
lines (Figure 11).20

Symphony No. 3 p3 Harri:
J-n-w

   
 
  

v...

   
 
 

--

      

4 v

W.

Connifit I940 I» '3 84mm". In: Pei-"J hv pot-mum.

Fig. ll.--Harris, §ymphony No. 3

 

For our purpose at hand, the vast majority of
pieces listened to and analyzed find their formal char-
acteristics as established in traditional practices prior

to the twentieth century.

The Grouping of Sounds Based Upon Some Such Time-
c eme n o musical rgures, hrases and Sen-
tences, with Definite Relationshi 3 One to

*Another, ResultinginRHYTHMICEEEKF§———

Within the boundaries of meter organization,

 

 

 

notes of a composition will often be longer or shorter
than the basic beat pulse. Longer notes are inclined

to be heard as being “heavier“ than shorter notes. The
felt distinction between long and short notes creates an

impression of flow. As shorter notes are perceived as

 

20Leon Dallin, Techni ues of Twentieth Century Com-
pgsition (Dubuque, Iowa: “5. C. Brown Co., 1963), p. 101}

73

moving towards longer ones, often times a composer may
create unifying rhythmic patterns within the framework
of the primary meter. In the second movement of Bartok's
Divertimento for Strings, the rhythmic motive employs
the combination of the thirty-second note and the double
dotted eighth note (Figure 12). The smallest generating
idea in music is the motive. Motives are simply self-
sustaining fragments within a musical subject. If we
analyze measures within a composition, we find that

some sounds exhibit similar or identical relationships
to other sounds. Motivic replication establishes for
the appreciator the import of the composer's musical
idea. Second, the re-appearing motive creates the bond
of unity, which has been described as 'affinity' in
Chapter II. Affinity assists any perceiver in the aural

retention of the musical whole.

Hamil, Divertimento fur Strings, 2nd movement

Hallo Adnziu .. .
2§1f1HEf¥353~ new ~ :1

 

Fig. 12.--Bart6k, Divertimento for Strings, 2nd Movement

This is one of the meanings that confirms the
scholastic adage: Forma dat esse. Without
pushing as far as the metaphysical ground of

the formula, manifestly we speak of a being only
when we can grasp a plurality in a principle

of unity which is precisely its form. This can
be the form.of a concept, of a mode of reasoning,
of a tree, of an animal, or of a man: it can also
be that of a work of art. To say that a symphony,

 

74

a poem or any book is 'formless” is tantamount to
denying its existence. This being settled, it
remains for us to determine the nature of form in
each particular work of art. Strictly speaking,
form is proper to each art, and its discernment in
the very process of perceiving it is what is called
”understanding“ a work of art.2

 

Fig. 13. Traditional, “Star Spangled Banner"

As we view the opening measures of the “Star Spangled
Banner,” the recurring dotted rhythm provides motivic
unity and also establishes the dynamic flow of the piece.
The arrows indicate the locations where the rhythmic
motion seems to pause. Rhythmic design of necessity
requires cadence points in order to reinforce the appre-
hension of balanced cohesive order. we may refer to the

sense of a composition in terms of phrases or sentences.

 

In our conversations, we punctuate our words with commas,
semicolons, and the like. Punctuation in language makes
apprehendable the totality of our spoken meaning. Simi-
larly, a musical piece is a balanced aural Gestalt which

achieves its equilibrium through phrases, sentences,

 

21Gilson, Forms and Substances, p. 4.

75

and larger rhythmic periods. Addressing the matter of
rhythmic function Gomer Ll. Jones writes:

”Rhythm" in this sense is always at variance with
time or meter, precisely as the sense-flows of
poetry are at variance with the metrical scheme.
Rhythm.mitigates the strictness of time, robs it of
its squareness and mechanical exactitude. On the
other hand, time disciplines rhythm, keeps the flow
within due bounds, and permits no "overflow.” In
the performance of music, that interpreter will be
the best who best understands the structural rhythm
of the piece, and makes the nicest adjustment
between it and the time.22

 

Although musical phrases may be as simple as a
unit of two metrical accents, they may be modified in
several ways to sustain variety in their unifying role.
Motives within the phrase may be altered by sequential
variation, augmentation, diminution, or some other kind
of development. In Figure 14, the motive is sequentially
repeated at varying pitch levels. Rhythmic variation is
effectively employed by Brahms, in his Symphony No. 2,
the third movement (Figure 15). Figure 16 presents a
combination of rhythmic and intervallic alteration.
Although Figure 16 demonstrates one motivic technique
in the phrase melody, phrase variations may also involve
the supporting harmonic voices of any given orchestration.

From the generating rhythmic shape of musical
figures, phrases and sentences, comes the inevitable

formal organic growth into Subjects and Episodes.

 

22Gomer Ll. Jones, An Introduction to Literature
and the Fine Arts (Michigan SEaEe CoIIege Fress, 1956),
: y onality and Form in Music,” p. 383.

 

 

Fig. 14.-Broiles, Study No. 14, "Organ Trumpet"

Brahms. Symphony No. 2, 5rd movement -

76

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Allegretto {taxi

Trio No. 1 Principal Theme—-

Part I

    

hon No. 2, 3rd Movement, (a) Principal

Fig. 15.-Brahms, S
Theme-Part I,

77

 

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78

Form ought not to be regarded as something external,
divorced from the inner organization of the music;
structure and texture are functions of the melodic,
harmonic, and rhythmic elements, and these in turn
assume and exercise different functions in dif-
ferent styles even if their external manifestations
be the same. Form, taken in this sense, covers the
manifold interrelations of all these aspects, not
only the external scheme, but also the principle
that governs the inner organization of a particular
composition.2

The Grouping of Such Figures, Phrases and Sentences Into
Ear er Para ra hs,Describedas SUEUEETST—EFTSUBES7—_
Etc., Each WiEh Its SpeciaI’Connection With
andqfielative to the Others

 

Subjects are a basic musical entity which may
combine several motives. The theme or the subject is
often times the specific commanding idea of a musical
form (Figure 17). There are instances where the subject
may be predicated upon the dissimilar relationship
between two integral motives. In the first movement
of Mozart's "Jupiter" symphony, the crisp forts of the
theme's first motive is in direct contrast to the soft
legato flow of the second motive (Figure 18).

Subjects are often created as pure melodies.
Although small rhythmic or melodic motives may be present,
we are inclined to respond to the whole of the phrase
rather than isolate a particular figure (Figures 19-21).
Gabriel Fauré clothes the Agnus Dei of the Requiem with
a melodic countersubject in the strings as the tenors

introduce the cantus firmus (Figure 21).

 

23

‘ Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baro ue Era
(New York: W. W. Norton 5 Co., I937), p. 356.

 

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82

Willi Apel affirms the significance of the subject
ethen.he writes:

Subject-~a melody which, by virtue of its charac-
teristic design, its prominent position, or its
special treatment, becomes a basic factor in the
structure of the composition. . . . The development
of music shows an ever-increasing importance of
musical subjects as the staple of the composition
and as an element of unification.

The Grouping of These Larger Para raphs
Into Complete EUVEMENTS

Polyphony, the formal predicate for the Renais-

 

sance Mass, is a generating form in terms of the Plainsong
chant, the cantus firmus tenor, and the borrowed chanson
parody. Of particular significance is the Cantus-firmus
Mass. As a cyclical form, the evolving unity of the Mass
is achieved through the commanding subject. Each move-
ment of the Mass is based upon the same melody.

One primary example is Josquin's Missa Pangg
lingua. Motivic ornamentation and variation of the tenor
subject.sustain variety and interest through the whole
of the Mass. Figure 22 is the liturgical cantus-firmus
plainsong hymn, Pange lingua. The unifying function of
the hymn is illustrated in several movements from the
Mass (Figures 23, 24, 25).

The linear characteristics of polyphonic writing

occasioned the use of imitative counterpoint. As early

 

24

‘ Willi Apel, Harvard Dictiona of Music (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversiEy Fress, I934), p. 715.

 

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86

as the Flemish motets of Ockegham and Obrecht, the
cantus-firmi were often accompanied by florid lines which
were essentially derived from repetitive rhythmic or
intervallic motives. The sophistication of Josquin's
motet was realized in the emergence of cohesive melodic
units called "expositions'I or “points.“

The most intricate polyphonic form which develops
subjects through imitation is the fugue. The fugue is
imitative polyphony usually with the ensuing entries
answering the subject at the fifth. As a formal structure,
the fugue exhibits a tripartite harmonic relationship.
After all the voices have initially presented the subject,
the tonic foundation may give way to the dominant or
relative major key. After an extended modulating section,
the final entries re-establish the tonic. Contrast and
diversity are achieved through the episodes. One fugue
for suggested analysis is the brief but wonderfully

precise 'Sicut locutus eat" from J. S. Bach's Magnificat

 

(Figure 26).

With the advent of the 17th century, the increased
presence of instrumental music and the awareness of hag:
magic entities created an impetus for the innovation of
“closed” musical forms. 'La seconda practice,” or the
free usage of the dissonance, became the pivotal moment

when homophony began to take precedence over polyphony.

87

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Fig. 26.--Bach, 'Sicut locutus est" from the Magnificat

Musical people of that day thoroughly understood
that the dissonance is the critical turning point
of style. It was therefore not accidental that
Monteverdi's dissonance treatment particularly
should be sorely and bitterly attacked by Giovanni
Artusi, a Canon of Bologna.2
Another major factor which contributed to the
solidification of the closed form was the metrical
ordering of time. Although rhythmic modes provided some
sense to polyphonic rhythms, the arbitration of bar-lines
and measures demanded consistent movement between the
Vertical (harmonic) and the horizontal (melodic) char-
acteristics of the composition.
DeWitt Parker has articulated I'six principles of

aesthetic form."

 

' 25Knud Jeppesen, The St 1e of Palestrina and the
Dissonance (New York: Dover PfihIIcaEIons, Inc., 1975),

9. II.

1. organic unity or unity in variety

2. theme

3. thematic variation

4. balance

5. hierarchy: the principle of subordination 26
6. evolution: the principle of unified development

The significance of Professor Parker's six prin-
ciples is one that embodies a generating function. Visual
or aural Gestalten are dynamically conceived by the artist
and dynamically perceived by the appreciator only when
a commanding idea creates cohesion, unity, and a comple-
mentarity of elements. Professor Parker concludes:

' . . . each element in a work of art is necessary to
its value, that it [the work] contains no elements that
are not thus necessary, and that all that are needful
are there. . . . Moreover, the value of the work as a
whole depends upon the reciprocal relations of its ele-
ments: each needs, responds to, demands, every other

element.'27

 

26Dewitt Parker, The Analysis of Art (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1953), chap. ii.

27Ibid., p. 34.

CHAPTER IV

LISTENING--THE BASIS OF ALL

MUSICAL ACTIVITY

The basis of all musical advance is more comprehen-
sive hearing. And the one support that every
artist must have if he is to go on creating music
is a world that listens.

Any individual's experience with music is accom-
plished through the act of creating, performing, or
listening. Many times the innovative musical impulse
comes not only from the trained or mature intuitive
composer but may occur in the high school theory class,
or as improvisation in the junior high jazz ensemble.
Some moments of musical endeavor may be given to the
performance of composer's works either in the concert
hall, the studio, or the home. How often in elementary
general music classes are students asked to create spon-
taneous rhythm patterns which respond to a pattern given
by the teacher. Certainly one cannot ignore the endless

occasions when individuals from all walks of life may

explore their various musical ideas discovered at a

 

1Susanne K. Langer, Feelin and Form (New York:
-Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955’, p. 148.

89

90

keyboard, through the strumming of a guitar, or in some
other creative manner. Apart from the creation and the
performance of music, it seems that a vast number of
people are primarily listeners. Hardly a day passes
that some kind of music does not emanate from one source
or another in our environment. Every student in any
music class from elementary school through graduate edu-
cation has heard music. Bennett Reimer writes:

Most persons deal with music only by listening to it,

and the special uses of music also stem from listen-

ing. All encounters with music must rest on a foun-

dation of listening, for music is made of sound, and

sound must be heard to be experienced.2

At the present time this writer teaches elementary
general music to a student who possesses a hearing defi-
ciency. Even with the aid of two hearing devices and a
compact portable amplifier, the student is physically
capable of hearing only low-pitched tones and guttural
rasps. We would assume, and rightly so, that this child's
inability to attend to most of the aural stimuli in the
environment would seriously handicap musical perception.
How often, though, do individuals who possess

normal hearing acuity merely give recognition to the
presence of aural musical stimuli as one sound among

many which is received by the ear? Aaron Copland

alludes to this occurrence when he writes:

 

. 2Bennett Reimer and Edward Evans, Jr., The Exper-
ience of Music (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenticeéflall
Inc., 19:25, F. V.

91

It is insufficient merely to hear music in terms of
the separate moments at which it exists. You must
be able to relate what you hear at any given moment
to what has just happened before and what is about
to come afterward.

In any performing situation, each musician
involved only renders a "musical“ interpretation of the
work when he discerns the dynamic affinity among the
musical elements.

There are many instances in music appreciation
classes when teachers fail to understand their students'
inability to 'hear' patterns, motives, colors, or form
designs.

Charles Leonhard suggests:

Listening is viewed by some as a passive, nonpar-
ticipative activity quite discrete from other

types of musical experience. Our conception of
listening is that it should be an active perceptual
process, rewarding in its own right but also integral
to all musical activity--playing, singing, and come
posing. Listening is the basic musical activity

and it rightly pervades all others.4

It is not enough to simply assume that any person
who hears physiologically, naturally responds to or
experiences the dynamic relationships in musical pieces.
It was established in Chapter I that individuals select

and organize those stimuli which have a relevance for

 

3Aaron Copland, What To Listen for in Music (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1939), p. 6.

4Charles Leonhard and Robert w. House, Foundations
and Princi les of Music Education (New York: McCraw-
' HiII 500E 50., Inc., 1§§9), p. 118.

92

their needs. If the initial act of the organism is to
order primary input into aural or visual Gestalten, then
one's ability to 'hear' the vital whole of the musical
work depends upon an educational process. Professor

Leonhard continues:

Hearing and feeling patterns of intensity and release
constitute the first requisite of musical hearing

and musical performance. Without this the listener
perceives nothing and the performer expresses nothing.
The first task of music education must be to develop
this sensitivity without any intrusions, intellectual,
mathematical, or critical.

James L. Mursell cautions that the significance
of hearing as the basis of music education is in fact

often overlooked or taken for granted.

. . . music exists for no other purpose than to be
heard. . . . Unfortunately this is one of those
obvious truths that is all too often overlooked.

. . . The education of the musician, all the way
from the most elementary to the most advanced level,
is apt to place almost its entire emphasis upon the
training of the muscles or the training of the eye,
and to leave the all-important training of the ear
to chance.6

If hearing is defended as the basis of all musical
experience and learning, the question arises as to
aurally, what should individuals be able to apperceive?
Having assumed the intrinsic value of musical experience,

aural perception should be a discriminating function

 

51bid., p. as.

6James L. Mursell, Music in American Schools (New
York: Silver Burdett Co., 1913): P._144.

93

which decisively enables the hearer to respond to the
ordered whole of the work.
Whatever the mode being experienced--music, poetry,
dance, or sculpture--aesthetic sensitivity consists
of the same two behaviors. First, the person must
perceive the expressive conditions being presented.
Second, he must respond to what he perceives.
Creating, performing, and listening all share one common
factor. Each shares a fundamental premise based upon the
keen awareness of a temporal Gestalt. The common factor
is hearing.

A theory of music education, predicated upon more
comprehensive hearing, will be developed through a three-
dimensional dynamic morphological model. The significance
of the model is in its potential application for estab-
lishing a systematic basis for music learning. The model
will be executed upon the fundamental factor of hearing
common to the separate areas of musical experience (i.e.,
creating, performing, and listening). In an attempt to.
articulate a specific philosophical and educational
teaching strategy for music, the morphological model may
serve as one means of unifying the three factors of
musical experience. Creating, performing, and listening

are manifested in terms of an individual's ability to

hear musical wholes.

 

7Bennett Reimer, “Putting Aesthetic Education to
WOrk,” Music Educators Journal 59 (September 1972): 30.

94

The Morphological Model

The interest in the morphological model stems
from the studies of Guilford, whose efforts have been
toward the classification and organization of the intel-
lect. Many initial studies into the nature of the learn-
ing process have attempted to illuminate the development
of the human intellect. These early studies stressed
the historical definition of intelligence as:
. The ability to learn
. The ability to achieve
The ability to do well on an intelligence test
The ability to solve problems

The ability to remember 8
The ability to attend voluntarily

GUT-hWNH

Even in the effort to compress the definition of intel-
ligence into a single ability, observation and thought
regarding the operation of the mental process has left
little doubt that the nature and development of the human
mind is indeed a complex matter.

The directed outcome of all musical activity is
the enlightenment of the learner. A literate musician
gives evidence of his skills in terms of intelligent
listening, and a competent grasping of musical notation
and nomenclature. In the effort to construct teaching
strategies which will accomplish the task of increasing

musical knowledge, any input regarding the development of

 

. 8Robert G. Sidnell, Compilation and condensation
of On Guilford, Part I, Mus. 803, 1971.

 

95

the human intellect holds significance for the process
of music education.
Early definitions of intelligence as proposed by
Binet, Wechsler, Boring, Spearman, and others, stemmed
from the notion that all intelligence factors were bonded
together by an existing but unprovable §_factor. The
recognition that several factors of intelligence were
identifiable but not empirically related rendered the
explanation of "intelligence” almost inoperative.
Spearman, quoting J. 8. Mills, writes:
The tendency has always been strong to believe that
whatever receives a name [intelligence] must be an
entity of being, having an independent existence of
its own. And if no real entity answering to the
name could be found, men did not for that reason
suppose that none existed, but imagined that it was
something peculiarly abtruse and mysterious.9
Professor Guilford's morphological model is con-
structed upon the assumption that several seemingly
separate factors of the intellect may share parallel
prOperties. Contemporary searches for a unifying factor
of intelligence have employed the multivariate factor
analysis method. Factor analysis may be defined as a
number of different tests given in one subject area
(music for example--pitch, rhythm, memory, discrimi-

nation, etc.) with the test results then correlated to

see if those test results have any significant factor in

 

9Charles Spearman, The Abilities of Man (New
York: Macmillan, 1927), p. 14.

96

common. As such, the three-dimensional morphological
model endeavors to codify the activities of the intellect
as a ' . . . cross classification of phenomena in inter-
secting categories, rather than in categories within
categories as in a hierarchial model. . . . "10

Guilford labels the three dimensions of the model

as gperation, Product, and Content. Each dimension is

 

recognized as being part of the intellect. Within each
dimension distinct parallel sub-factors are seen as
functioning co-equally. Content is described as what

we know. What we know is manifested as verbal (semantic),
nonverbal (figural and symbolic), and behavioral. The

Qperations dimension suggests the activities of the

 

intellect in terms of the ”thinking process (i.e.
memory, cognition, creative-thinking, divergent pro-
duction, etc.). The Product dimension ” . . . pertains
to the way or form in which any information occurs

. . . product is seen as a synonym for the term 923:
ception, which pertains to ways of knowing or under-
standing."11

Professor Guilford's text, The Nature of Human

Intelligence, is an exhaustive presentation which examines

 

some common factors to be found in the functional process

 

10Joy Paul Guilford, The Nature of Human Intelli-
gence (New York: McGraw Hill 553E Co., Inc.,—1967). p. 47.

lllbid.

97

of the human intellect. These factors are uncovered
through the dimensions of Qperation, Product, and Content.

For the task at hand, the principle of the Guil-
ford model proves itself to be most useful in laying the
dynamic perceptual foundation of all musical experience.
The musical activities of creating, performing, and
listening share a cross classification of phenomena
based upon a common factor which is hearing dynamic
Gestalten.

Figure 1 presents the Guilford dimensions and
their related sub-factors.

Figure 2 presents the dynamic listening model.
The three dimensions and their sub-factors will be
defined and developed in terms of the experienced phe-

nomenon of heard musical wholes.

Creating

Many times, the excitement generated through dis-
covery learning creates an irresistible desire to create
again. How often in our own experience, or in the
observable experience of students, has the grasping of
new knowledge and the attainment of deeper insights
given rise to an inner anticipation as new explorations
are begun? Apart from the re-creative act of performance,
one significant emphasis of music education is to incul-

cate students in the use of musical symbology.

(”ERKHON:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Humane
Divetsentproduction \ .
W F s
Wflm— s ‘.. M 3
Units —\ -k‘ - U
.- Classos—é—\ \N c
§ Relations-fi\\\\/// R
g Smms——\\\\\/// s
Transformations W \\\\ // T
lawmafimn-————\\\\\ \\\ ”// //’
comam- \ \// '
' *K\ /
gm: I N\/) N E
Semantic J $6 M D
flammaml _

 

12
Fig. 1.--Guilford: The Morphological Model

 

12Guilford, Human Intelligence, p. 63.

 

99

DYNAMIC LISTENING MODEL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PERFORMING
Extension
Awareness
Insight A I
Recreation ‘
CREATING o... v
InIEiative - - ‘ ‘
... ‘
Association H .7 ' ‘
Flow \‘4 I'll II'II'
. Fruition . N “ ‘
APPREHENDING . ‘ ‘ ‘
Attending ~e ~‘ E
Imaging _ _ R I A
Appreciating
Valuing

 

Fig. 2.--The Dynamic Listening Model

100

The learner must perceive the relationship
between his learning experiences and the problem he
wants to solve. . . .

In learning music theory the student must be
led to see that the skills and understandings he
acquires are applicable to the refinement of his
musical behavior. Likewise, the student practicing
studies and exercises must perceive the relationship
between his practice and expressive musical results.
If this is not so, both phases of music study
inevitably become sterile, routine, and monotonous
and have little meaning for the student.

Learning musical theory and nomenclature provides students
with the means by which to explore their own conceived
tonal and rhythmic patterns. The ability to transcribe
inner inspirations into actual sounds satisfies not only
the natural creative instinct, but enables each individual
to evaluate his ”idea" as a stabilizing force which gen-
erates dynamic unity. The development of a musical
score invites the student to recognize the inherent
necessity of order, balance, unity, and variety required
within a composition. Discussing the problem of value
in music, Leonard B. Meyer writes:
A good piece of music must have consistency of style:
that is, it must employ a unified system of expec-
tations and probabilities: it should possess clarity
of basic intent: it should have variety, unity, and

all the other categories which are so easy to find
after the fact.14

 

13Leonhard and House, Foundations and Principles,

pp. 132-33.

 

4Leonard 8. Meyer, ”Some Remarks on Value and
Greatness in Music," in Pers ctives inMggic Education
. Source Book III (Washington, . .: ’Music Educators
National Conference, 1966): p. 84.

101

Creating may also characterize the listening
process. It has been assumed that the foundation of
all musical activity is hearing. Activities focusing
about composition or theory may enable students to more
clearly apprehend musical structure and design. Lis-
teners who are capable of rendering aural judgments
about what they hear are discriminators. Musical dis-
crimination brings with it a sense of knowing what music
is great and what is not.

For our purpose at hand, the creating dimension
of the morphological listening model will focus about the
act of musical composition. The expression of one's
intuitive creative impression may only be fully realized
when the "heard idea” is actively explored and reshaped.
COmposing makes clearer for the student the musical
”sense” of any piece--the means through which he deter—
mines the organic unity which welds all rhythmic and
tonal motives.

In the broad scope of the total music education
program, musical composition is only one aspect of creative
expression. Based upon the listening model, the creative
"personality” of each individual is present in the exper-
iences of ”creative performing” and “creative listening.”

The teacher's responsibility may not be to separate
those who are creative from those who are not, but

rather to encourage all students to be creative, to
enjoy the pursuit of creation, to believe in the

102

possibilities of achieving the impossible, to believe
in themselves, and to express themselves in their
own ways to the limits of their own knowledge and
abilities at any given time.15
1. Initiative--The activities within the music class-
room ultimately acquaint the student with the primary
musical elements--rhythm, melody, harmony, form, and
color. Musical ideas may inevitably be isolated in terms
of rhythmic patterns, melodic contours, chord sequences,
instrumental and vocal qualities, or potential designs.
Experienced composers can readily ascertain the
unifying potential of a musical idea. Similarly, stu-
dents at all levels of instruction can be guided in
recognizing and cultivating their musical ideas.
Spontaneous musical creating may begin with the
teacher's preparation of the class in exploring new con-
cepts and terms. For example, the ostinato is a device
which may be completely unfamiliar. Within the teaching
sequence, the student gains knowledge and experience
which may be applied to the use of the ostinato as an
accompaniment with a class song, and as a basis for
creative expression.
Primary elementary children discover the rhythmic
intrigue of contriving and combining various patterns.

Simple melodies may be formed through the exploration of

 

> 15Margery M. Vaughan, ”Cultivating Creative
Behavior," Music Educators Journal 59 (April, 1973): 40.

103

tonal relationships within scales or in experimentation
with prescribed melodic shapes. Initiative is encouraged
when we assist minds in the uncovering of the latent

generating potential of any musical element.

2. Association--The musical idea is like the archi-

 

tect's blueprint. From the basic design, an actual
building process manipulates and fits together the
necessary elements which combine to make the finished
product.

The musical idea must lend itself to manipulation
and variation. The notion of unity in variety suggests
that composers seek to sustain the perceiver's interest
by continually re-affirming the unifying idea in fresh
musical contexts. A contrapuntal melody does not follow
a prescribed formal design, but rather through motivic
metamorphosis the structural plan unfolds. The motives
within a melody provide cohesiveness, but may also lend
themselves to several useful variation techniques.
Transformations of the original motives in terms of aug-
mentation, diminution, transposition, and melodic
expansion and contraction, are just several means of
developing perceivable unity with provocative variety.

As the creator labors with his piece, his funda-
mental idea is constantly called upon to maintain dynamic
equilibrium. Because of a structure of tonal and rhythmic

relationships the composition achieves a rule of order.

104

3. Elgwf-refers to the possibility of the musical
idea as being perceived in the mind of the composer in
terms of providing the matrix-~‘the fundamental movement
of melody or harmonic progression."16

Macpherson's second evidence of form was defined
as:

ii The grouping of sounds based upon some such time-
scheme into musical figures, phrases and sen-
tences, with definite relationships one to
another, resulting in Rhythmic shape:17

From rhythmic shape came the evolvement of subjects,
Episodes, and finally movements. Professor Langer
describes the musical matrix or £12!_as that melodic
or harmonic progression ' . . . which establishes the
greatest rhythm of the piece and dictates its scope."18
In terms of mixing the various musical elements
(i.e., rhythms, colors, melodic or harmonic motives) as
to obtain a complementarity of repetitions and contrasts,
a flgg_results which inevitably provides the form of the

work.

4. Fruition--A composer knows when his work is com-

pleted. At this occasion of figuratively standing back

 

16Langer, Feeling and Form, chapter eight--"The
Musical Matrix.”

17Macpherson, Form in Music, p. 3.

18Langer, Feeling and Form, PP. 122-23.

105

and reflecting upon what is done, the creator senses a
quietness of spirit knowing that nothing need be added
Or taken away.

Many textbooks dealing with the history of music
often relate the anecdotes of Beethoven's sketchbooks.
The sketchbooks reveal a composer who constantly re-wrote
melodic themes and rhythmic motives.

In the shaping of the musical idea, the composer
constantly reworks and reviews the vital unifying ele-
ments of his piece. It would seem that the successful
composer is the one who can consciously determine in
his work the establishment of dynamic wholeness. In
order that wholeness be achieved, each composer must
intuitively discern the power of any musical idea in
generating a fundamental form.

Fruition fulfills the obligation of the composer
to the listener. Fruition brings about the uninterrupted
illusion of passing time which never completely satisfies
the curiosity of the listener. Each composition should
offer to the listener a continuing potential for the

discovery of new insights. This is the composer's task.

Performing
The performer makes aurally manifest the patterns
of tones and rhythms which the composer has symbolically

communicated. Once the musical work has been brought

106

to fruition, it is given to the world to be re-created
by many different artists in diverse circumstances.
Variations of technical skills, coupled with
relative degrees of perceptual sensitivity, may cause
some performances to be erratic or disjunct. James
Mursell writes:
In thinking about expression in music education the
fundamental thing to see is that we are not dealing
with something that is arbitrarily imposed upon
music at the whim of the performer,--something that
can be put in or left out just as we like.
Expression is demanded by the structure of the
music, and ever expressive nuance aims mere y’at
liberatinggthe eauty and meaningof the musical
structure.1§
Performance does not exist where there is no tech-
nique. Each musical instrument, including the voice,
demands some technical or manipulative skill. It stands
to reason that an individual cannot fully satisfy the
composer's ultimate musical demands when fingering,
breathing, or reading skills are not at accomplished
levels. Technical skills are necessary for re-creation,
but should only be considered as a means to achieving
that purpose. Bennett Reimer concludes:
Craftsmanship is necessary if a person is to be an
artist-performer, but it is not sufficient. Techni-
cal mastery is a means, not an end. The end is
aesthetic re-creation: for this end to be attained,

craftsmanship must be transformed into artistry by
the performer's sensitivity and imagination.20

 

19James L. Mursell, School Music Teachin (New

York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1931). p. .

2OReimer and Evans, The Experience of Music, p. 27.

107

In terms of what the composer hears in his mind

as intuitive impulse and the real listening experience of

the appreciator in the concert hall, two specific aural

acts have occurred. In each instance that a work is pre-

sented, its primary movement is renewed. Through musical

notation and indications, the composer has outlined the

essential musical contours of the work. The artist's

task is twofold.

(1) To develop a necessary sensitivity to organic

(2)

relationships of motives, phrases, periods,
sections, and movements. In other words, the
performer senses the Gestalt or the commanding

form of the composition as if he were the creator:

Through a process of re-creation, the performer
gives life to the work. The generating idea con-
ceived in the mind of the composer is given
physical reality. Although the re-creative
effort must maintain an integral faithfulness,
with the commanding form of the piece, the
individuality of each interpreter vitalizes the

actual moment of physical presentation.

Performance is the completion of a musical work,

a logical continuation of the composition, carrying
the creation through from thought to physical expres-
sion. Obviously, then, the thought must be entirely
grasped, if it is to be carried on. Composition and
performance are not neatly separable at the stage

108

marked by the finishing of the score: for both

spring from the commanding form and are governed

throughout by its demands and enticements.21
Roger Sessions discusses the role of the performer in
terms of imaginative re-creation. ”It is his [the per-
former's] task, and I believe his whole task, to apply
his imagination to discovering the musical gestures
inherent in the composer's text, and then to repro-
ducing them . . . with fullest participation on his own
part."22

Performance, viewed either as an inseparable

element in the total classroom musical scheme, or as a
specialized activity for the dilettante and professional,

requires the apprehension of inevitable movement.

The sub-factors in the Performing dimension will

 

be developed as the means through which comprehensive
hearing may be enriched and expanded as applied to either

individual or group instrumental-vocal participation.

1. Extension--The first requisite of instrumental
or vocal performance would seem to be the extension of
”heard" primary tonal and rhythmic musical elements
through an expressive medium (e.g., voice, trumpet,

violin, etc.). Very often, the absence of ”expression,"

 

21Langer, Feeling and Form, p. 138.

22Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Com-
poser, Performer, Listener (New York: Atheneum,91965),
p. 74.

 

109

or "musicality," in many adolescent and adult performances
may be directly related to a more fundamental neglect--
the inability to sense tonal or rhythmic entities as

part of an overarching structure. Instruments of definite
pitch most often require that the player or singer respond
to the tonal boundaries of the key, the scale, or the

harmonic context. Instruments of indefinite pitch require

 

recurring precision in relation to the beat and other
rhythmic patterns.

Figure 3 may fulfill three necessities for the
young trumpet player. First, the student is given an
opportunity to learn the correct fingering for G (open).
More important, he is asked to perceive and feel the
£122 of the pulse. Of greatest significance, however,
is the aural acuity which may be advanced if the indi-

vidual plays the four G's in tune, one with another.

 

1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4 1-2-3-4

Fig. 3.--Extension: The Development of Intonation

110

Vocal sight-reading is often a disastrous occur-
rence because chorus members cannot 2235 the specific
pitches of their voice lines, either intervalically
related one to another, or in relation to a key center.

For the percussionist, basic aural discrimination
may be the recognition of a tonal pattern correctly or
incorrectly played upon a xylophone or marimba. Also,
the technique of the paradiddle is not an end in physical
coordination, but should be valued as a means in estab-
lishing the necessary regularity of repeated rhythmic
groups.

Extension is the directed outcome of fundamental

 

musical perception. To perceive aesthetically in the
musical sense is to understand the dynamic expressive
essence of sound. This may be begun through the dis-
covery of time, tempo, pitch direction, either upward
or downward, melodic flow upward or downward, tone color,
rhythm patterns, and so on. Any student who can begin
to conceptualize primary rhythmic and tonal properties
has completed the initial task of becoming not only a
discerning listener, but in this instance a sensitive
performer.

The Michigan Department of Education's Minimal
Performance Objectives for Music Education at the ele-

mentary level states:

111

Performance is a means of making concrete some kind
of abstract musical concept. . . . One can easily
describe an ascending stepwise melody, but until
one has sung or possibly played one he is unaware
of what this concept really is. Performance brings
aural and verbal concepts to life.23

2. Awareness--Simply describes the discernment of

 

the composer's essential musical idea in terms of given
guidelines. For example, pitch, relative note values,
or specific rhythmic articulations are generally pre-
sented in the score. Before any performer can renew
the living aural whole, he must be able to interpret
the musical score.

Reading a score involves meter discriminations,
usually of twos or threes, based upon the identification
of strong and weak beats. Performance may necessitate
an understanding of the formation of measures as related
to a given beat note.

Another aspect of interpreting the musical score
is one's response to dynamic variations. Louds and
softs, crescendi and diminuendi, are often used by a
composer to establish moments of tension and relaxation.
Dynamics may also be used to set apart an instrumental
or vocal color for contrast, or perhaps to highlight

the return of a unifying motive.

 

23Minimal Performance Objectives for Music Edu-

cation (Elementary), Michigan Department of Education,
Revised 1973.

112

Interpreting the score correctly is an obligatory
responsibility to the composer. In writing a musical
score, the composer has set into symbols the essence of
his musical idea. The establishment of the musical score
provides for the performer the essential factors of tempo
and dynamics which are necessary to presenting the basic
design of the piece.

Roger Sessions writes: The musical text is obviously

the link between composer and performer. . . . By

means of it the composer sets down as clearly as

possible the substance of his musical thought in

order to indicate to the performer as exactly as

he can what is to be done to reproduce this thought

in sound.24

3. Insight--The moment when individuals sense and
respond to the dynamic order of the composition. The
threshold of insight provides for the performer that
occasion of fulfillment or resolution which was initially
experienced by the composer when he discovered the funda-
mental Gestalt of the piece.

Beyond the relative constancy of tonal systems,
rhythmic values, and tempo suggestions, insight brings
meaning to the intangible musical qualities of dynamic
shading and the awareness of phrase inflections and
cadences. Very often conductors and teachers refer to

the "life” or the “breathing“ of the music. Ascending

melodic passages are felt to ”grow” or to slightly

 

24Sessions, The Musical Experience, p. 68.

113

crescendo as tones move through tones. The anticipation
of a cadencial pause may bring with it an implied
ritardando, even though it might not be directly given
in the score.

The uncovering of the composer's intentions
in terms of the commanding form of the work is not the
final task of the performer, but rather only the begin-
ning. The discovery of any potential unifying, musical
idea presents to the performer the impending mutual
relationships among the musical elements.

In order to deepen one's insight into a composer's
work, the performer's acquaintance with style and form
would be most useful. As a part of history, music has
endured change. A knowledge of style characteristics
enables each performer to adhere to the intent of the
composer's work in terms of instrumentation, color, and
indicated or lack of indicated musical directions.

Through the study of form, each student may gain
insight into the structure of music by the identification
of recurring themes, motives, or any other musical
occurrence. The recognition of the unifying order of
any piece which creates unity and variety is the piece's
“form.”

Simply stated, insight is the inward hearing of
the aural whole. At this moment the work of the composer
begins to become fused with the ”personality” of the

performer.

114

Aaron Copland writes:

For a composition is, after all, an organism. It
is a living, not a static, thing. That is why it
is capable of being seen in a different light and
from different angles by various interpreters or
even by the same interpreter at different times.
. . . Every piece has an essential quality which
the interpretation must not betray. . . . In other
words, every composition has its own style which
the interpreter must be faithful to. But every
interpreter has his own personality, too, so that
we hear the style of a piece as gefracted by the
personality of the interpreter.2

4. Re-Creation--The performer brings to life the

 

musical work. As a catalytic agent, the artist gives
actual being to the musical idea. The moment of re-
creation completes the hope of the composer. That which
is heard in the mind of the creator may now be heard in
the mind of the appreciator.

It has been assumed that music is movement in
time. The unifying idea which springs from the mind of
the composer is given concrete form by the performer.
That performer who cannot establish the necessary balance
between the composer's directions and his own personality
will hinder the renewal of the work's dynamic flow.

In any instrumental or vocal circumstance,
teachers should ultimately base their adjudications,
suggestions, and goals in terms of advancing their

students' awareness of the heard musical whole. The

 

25Copland, What To Listen For, pp. 247-48.

 

115

spontaneous and enduring thrill encountered in a band,

orchestra, choral, or solo performance is one that comes

from keen listening. For the music educator, the sig-

nificance of any ggjcreative experience may only be

realized when any student's perception of a musical

whole becomes manifest through performance.

In stating six outcomes that a foundational

music curriculum should offer in terms of performance,

James Mursell provides two outcomes which speak directly

to the matter of the re-creative performer.

1.

It should seek to develop an awareness of and
response to the living structure of music. . .
What is involved is the ability in listening and
to convey in performance the phrase design, the
melodic pattern, the harmonic structure, and the
larger architecture of music.

. . . this foundational curriculum should be
designed to develop awareness of and response to
the basic elements of musical expression and
interpretation-dynamics, tempo, and tone quality.
. . . Expressive treatment is not added to music
after its objective structure has been mastered.
It grows out of and serves to clarify that
structure: and in this sense it must be appre-
hended.2

Listening

It has been determined so far that the activities

of performing and creating unquestionably rely upon an

individual's ability to sense the impending Gestalt of

a musical idea.

 

26Mursell, Music in American Schools, pp. 260-65.

116

The work which is created and then interpreted
by a performer should lead to a decisive conclusion--
it is heard by an appreciator. It would seem that the
majority of individuals who are involved with music are
listeners. With the advent of record players, tape
cassettes, and a constant presence of some kind of
musical stimulus, the contemporary listening musical
public has grown to staggering proportions. All about
us we see people who are involved with country and western,
blues, acid rock, pop, gospel, and so on. Public school
and college students discuss, with an ample portion of
fluency, their musical perceptions of Elton John and
Harry Chapin. Many secondary and university courses
have been constructed which endeavor to enlighten the
perceiver in terms of “appreciation,” or “intelligent
listening.”

Our efforts as music educators need not be sub-
stantially directed toward the motivation of individuals
to hear music-~for that interest is already there--but
rather in the directing of aural discrimination and the
cultivation of aesthetic awareness. Bennett Reimer
states that the primary purpose of public school music
education is:

. . . to develop every child's potential to under-
stand and appreciate the art of music, and thereby

to gain access to the richness and beauty which
high quality aesthetic experience provides. The

117

goal of musical instruction, therefore, is not
simple pleasure or transitory enjoyment, but
lasting appreciation and deep understanding of
musical art.

Professor Leonhard has identified two principles of
musical learning which are established upon the notion
that listening is vital to musical growth.

Principle #4. Learning dgpends upon impressions
received by the senses. In musicaI”1earning,
heafing, sight, and'kinesthetic feel are all
involved. It appears obvious that hearing merits
primary emphasis, but much musical learning is
carried on without sufficient attention to musical
hearing. Aural awareness is the key to all musical
learning, and the music-learning situation should
be constantly focused on ear training. Sight and
kinesthetic feel are important but properly come
into play only after aural concepts are well
established.

Principle #7. Musical learning has a sequence of
gynthesis-analysis-s: thesis. ’Efficiefit musical
learning’is always irectéd at a musically intel-
ligible whole, not towards the bits and pieces

of musical structure, musical technique, or
musical experience. Once a concept of the whole
has been established, there begins the analysis
phase during which the parts are differentiated
in relation to the whole. This, in turn, leads
to a re-organization or restructuring of the
whole, their parts, and the interrelationships
among them are clarified.2

 

 

 

Chapter I presented the need for exploring the
principle which governs the act of sensory selection
as paramount to understanding one of the profound

characters of our experience, and in particular of our

 

27Bennett Reimer, "The Curriculum Reform Explosion
and the Problem of Secondary General Music,” Music Edu-
cator's Journal 52 (January 1966): 38.

28Leonhard and House, Foundations and Principles,
pp. 134-35.

118

musical experience. The perception of the mutually
related integral elements of art objects, and specifi-
cally in music the grasping of the aural dynamic whole,
fulfills the requirements of music education as aesthetic
education.
Comprehensive hearing may be achieved through
the development of a refined aural perceptual attitude.
A psychological dictionary defines “attitude" as " . . .
a more or less stable set or disposition of opinion,
interest or purpose, involving expectancy of a certain
kind of experience, and readiness with an appropriate
response."29
In aural perception, the illusion of moving time
creates a musical whole in the mind of the appreciator.
The unifying characteristics of the musical idea are
discerned with the foreknowledge that they generate the
dynamic integrity and equilibrium of the piece. Edwin
John Stringham writes:
Of course, any aural synthesis comparable to the
composer's intuition and skills of craftsmanship
should not be demanded of the average listener.
Yet--and here is the nub of the thing--creation and
appreciation are supplementary and necessarily
interdependent, in a sense, for the ultimate
realization of any musical work of art. No matter

how perfect the skills, the architectonic structures,
or the artistic ideas that embody them, they are

 

29James Drever, A Dictionary of Psychology,
Revised by Harvey wallersteIn (fiaItimore: Penguin
Books, 1964).

119

for nought if the effects do not arouse due aesthetic
contemplation and enjoyment in the listener, and

thus bring to life what was, up to this point, a
mere ”blue-print" for music.

The ultimate goal of music education should be
the awakening of keen aural perceptive responses. The
aesthetic experience only occurs, or is enhanced, when
individuals are attuned to the expected sensory qualities
of any art.

Throughout the whole range of sensations, percep-
tions, and emotions which we do not class as aesthe-
tic, the states of consciousness serve simply as
aids and stimuli to guidance and action. They are
transitory, or if they persist in consciousness
sometime, they do not monopolize the attention:
that which monopolizes the attention is something
ulterior, to the effecting of which they are
instrumental. But in the states of mind we class
as aesthetic, the opposite attitude is maintained
towards the sensations, perceptions, and emotions.
These are no longer links in the chain of states
which prompt and guide conduct. Instead of being
allowed to disappear with merely passing recog-
nitions, they are kept in consciousness and dwelt
upon.31

Through the sub-factors of the Listening dimension,
the perceiver may consciously expand his ability to hold

the whole of a composition within his mind.

1. Attendinge-The power of music to touch the human

body and mind is inescapable. The driving repetition of

 

30John Edwin Stringham, Listening to Music Cre-
ativel (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-fiaII, I959),
p. 5.

 

31Herbert Spencer, The Principles of P3 cholo ,
Vol. II (New York: D. Appleton ana"co., 1871-7§)p PP. 646-
47.

120

the beat, engaging rhythmic patterns, melodic shapes,
harmonic textures, or color combinations constantly
attract the attention of the ear. Individuals may
unconsciously strum their fingers or tap their feet

as a response to received rhythmic stimuli. For
example, the observable response to hard rock tunes is
often in terms of total body movement.

Perceptive musical hearing must begin with one's
ability to voluntarily attend to any musical stimulus.
Simple attention gives meaning to those moments of musical
experience which have been found to be absorbing or
interesting. Attendigg is the fundamental ingredient
necessary to apprehending the flow of any composition.

Primary rhythmic focus brings to the awareness
of the student that music does indeed move. The cadence
of the beat may be grasped by young and old alike. Ele-
mentary school children begin to expect the regular
occurrence of the pulse regardless of the tempo. Rhythmic
attention establishes the significance of music as an
art of time rather than space.

Fundamental aural discrimination may be further
developed in terms of sensing melodic configuration or
direction. Not everyone immediately discerns an ascend-
ing pattern of tones as becoming higher in pitch, or a
descending pattern of tones as becoming lgygr. Musical

attending may also be sharpened through experience with

 

121

harmony, color, or form. Triad distinctions in terms
of major, minor, diminished, or augmented qualities are
acquired aural skills. Beat divisions, instrumental or
vocal colors, form designs, dynamic comparisons, tonal
centers, and a host of other rhythmic-tonal variations
all demand of the listener the ability to be perceived
by their separate distinguishing characteristics.

Attending is the voluntary aural scrutiny of any

 

musical stimulus. From this beginning, the careful
listener may begin to respond to the "felt" relationships

among the sounds he has heard.

2. Imaging--From the foundation of attending,
the perceiver must begin to sense the connections that
musical sounds have one with another. Each listener
must hear beyond the isolated moments of a musical per-
formance which at random surprise the ear. For example,
themes or striking features in a score are not ultimately
important in being responded to as separate entities,
but rather in their context of musical continuity.

Imaging is inner hearing. Beyond the physiologi-

cal act of the hearing process, the perceiver begins to
create in his mind the anticipated succession of sounds
as they seem to lead one to another. Melodic awareness
certainly is more than the recognition of a series of

tones, one following the other. Melodies must be heard

122

as part of an organic unity--each tone sharing a
relationship with the tone before it and after it.

The flow of a melody is the sensation of move-
ment. Announcing phrases may create a feeling of expec-
tancy, responsive phrases provide resolution.

The notion of harmonic progression must focus
beyond specific chord quality or placement. In terms
of our traditional harmonic heritage, the dominant chord
leads to the tonic. In major and minor scale patterns
ti demands d2.

Colors are combined and set against one another
to suggest unity in variety. Form structures are heard
to provide a unifying bond for the musical elements so
that balance is maintained.

In any musical work, the vital elements-~melody,
rhythm, harmony, color, form-~are co-equally joined
together by the composer. Each element shares an inti-
mate relationship with the other. Through imaging, the

listener initially responds to the totality of the piece.

3. Appreciatingé-Professor Leonhard defines appre-

 

ciation as:

. . . the apprehension and enjoyment of the aesthe-
tic import of music. Appreciation includes feeling-
ful responsiveness to all the expressive elements of
music such as rhythm, harmony, melody, texture,
timbre, tonality, form, and phrase line. To

123

appreciate music is to perceive its embodied mean-
ing, to become immersed in the unfolding and
development of the musical idea.32

In appreciating, the composer's generating musical

 

idea is fully grasped by the listener. Here the per-
ceiver not only respgnds to the musical flow, but
instinctively anticipates the unfolding musical matrix.
The listener awaits the composer's manipulation and
exploration of basic motives and themes.

The appreciative listener has become acutely
sensitive to all of the delicate nuances employed by
the composer. The "deep mine of musical resource"
opened by the commanding form is foreseen in his mind.
Rhythmic or tonal motives achieve significance as uni-
fying devices which will return in some subsequent or
altered manner.

For the discriminating appreciator, each compo-
sition brings the anticipation of expectations and pro-
babilities. How the composer manipulates patterns,
creates unity in variety, or generates any kind of
musical curiosity, is eagerly sought by the listener.

The mind of the perceiver is constantly creating,
simultaneously, with the music he is hearing. The lis-

tener perceives in the work the generating form originally

 

32Leonhard and House, Foundations and Principles,

p. 114.

124

experienced in the mind of the composer. Discussing the
aesthetic merit of a musical composition, Julius Portnoy
writes:

. . . a musical composition depends on two things:

first, on how well the composer can convey his

feelings and moods, either directly to us or

through an interpreter; secondly, on the worth

of those feelings and moods which are conveyed.

. . . A proper aesthetic reaction depends on

whether the listener can recapture the spirit of

the original mood. . . . In the wake of this

emotive experience the recipient must then be

able to form a discerning judgment on the worth

of those feelings and moods. . . . He can do this

only through the hearing and intellect.33

4. Valuing--A good listener is one who is able to
make discriminating judgments concerning the music he
hears. The sensitive musical ear learns to isolate the
salient qualities of any piece. Those impressions
retained in the mind are subsequently catalogued as
being musically desirable and interesting. As one's
ability to graSp the whole grows, so the expectation
of vital experience with the work also increases.

Music educators would agree that all students
should be exposed to worthy or great pieces of music.
There are surely instances when teachers tacitly justify
a particular listening lesson or specific historical

unit because the composition is acknowledged as a

masterpiece. The characteristics of the specific

 

33Julius Portnoy, The Philosgpher and Music
(New York: The Humanities Press, 1954), p. 243.

125

style period also have enduring meaning for the contem-
porary listener. The crux of the matter is, however,
that certain musical works have achieved lasting great-
ness due to the fact that they are held high in our
musical regard. Compositions that we desire to hear
again and again continually affirm their dynamic unity,
but never dull the anticipation of the ear. Roger
Sessions writes:
The question, once more, is what we demand of the
composer. Do we demand always what is easiest,
music that is primarily and invariably entertain-
ment, or do we seriously want from him the best
that he has to give? In the latter case, are we
willing to come to meet him, to make whatever
effort is demanded of us as listeners, in ordei
to get from his music what it has to give us?3
Hopefully, one primary task of music education
is to guide listeners into discovering for themselves
the vital aesthetic qualities inherent in each composition.
The hearing of all kinds of music should become a per-
sonally desired experience, rather than a prejudiced
occasion directed only by one's ”likes” or "dislikes."
R. D. Darrell refers to the listening experience
as an active participation with the musical whole.
Instead of concentrating on tunes, or even melodic

principles, focus your sharpest attention on their
dynamic qualities, not only the basic beat, but also

 

3“Sessions, The Musicalggxperience, p. 100.

126

the counter-rhythms, the fast-slow and loud-soft
contrasts, the ways in which a sense of momentum
is built up, sustained, and finally brought to a
conclusive step.35
A good listener values any piece of music that fulfills
his expectation of organic movement existing in time.
Hence, valuing represents a fundamental musical advance--

more incisive hearing.

 

35Robert D. Darrell, Good Listening (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1953). P. 29.

CHAPTER V

THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The logical sequence from the presentation of the
theoretical Dynamic Listening Model is the establishment
of several practical classroom applications. The model
will be used as the foundation for the structuring of a
creative lesson at the elementary school level, a per-
forming experience at the junior high school level, and

finally a listening module for senior high school students.

Elementary--Creative

 

One vital area of creative musical experience may
be found in the development of instrumental accompaniments
for class songs. Accompaniments not only promote student
interest, but more importantly lend themselves in aiding
the grasping of musical concepts.

It has been stated that as individuals begin to
hear the whole of a musical piece, the recognition of
the unifying characteristics of tonal and rhythmic
patterns becomes of primary importance. This elementary
lesson is designed to afford third grade children the

opportunity of creating rhythmic patterns, employing

127

128

percussion instruments of indefinite pitch. Each pattern
should extend through two metrical accents. The given
rhythmic parameters of the lesson specify the written
and performed use of proportional notation (i.e., half
notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes). Each child
should be able to notate correctly his created pattern
on a staff, with an appropriate meter signature and the
proper placement of bar lines. This pattern will then
be played with several other patterns providing an
accompaniment with the piece.

As one lesson extracted from many in the course
of a year's work, the success of this endeavor should be
founded upon the students' awareness of several basic

musical factors:
1. Recognition of the pulse:

2. The ability to group pulses into two's, three's,

or four's:

3. A working knowledge of proportional rhythmic

values and their uses;
4. A working knowledge of meter signatures:
5. The necessity of notating upon a staff;
6. The function of bar lines;

7. A thorough familiarity with the song (musical

and ethnic implications):

129

8. An awareness of one unifying device in rhythmic

writing (e.g., diminution):

9. The ability to discern color characteristics
among the several indefinite-pitched percussion
instruments found in most elementary music class-
rooms (e.g., cymbals, castenets, maracas, many
different drums, rhythm sticks, cow bells, and

some Orff instruments).

The song that has been selected is the Mexican
folk song Don Gato. This writer has found that most
third grade elementary children readily respond not only
to the musical aspects of the piece, but also to the
text (Figure 1).

Through the creating sub-factors of Initiative,
Association, Flow, and Fruition, will hopefully come not
only the stimulation of each child's creative impulse,
but also the practical reinforcement of the afore-

mentioned basic musical factors.

1. Initiative.--has been defined as the ability of
the individual to discriminate the generating potential
of any musical element.

The pervading musical notion of this experience
is one of movement. Proportional notation indeed

suggests varying durations of time. Each child's

130

Don Gato

English Word: by Margaret Mark: Mexican Folk Song 1

This is a story told in song. It is called a ballad. Take turns
singing a verse of the story.

duh. c dmh.

 

1. Oh, So - iior Don Ca - to was 'a oat,____
2. “I a - dare you i" wrote the la - dy cat,

 

d c

 

On a high, red roof Don Ca - to sat.
Who was flufi - y, white, and nice and fat.

 

 

 

He went there to read s let - ter,

meow, meow, meow)
Therewas not a sweet-er kit-ty,

g min.

dmh.

 

Wherethe read-ing light was bet-tor,
In the ooun-try or the cit- y,

meow, meow, meow,

drain.

 

'Twas a love note for Don Ca - to!
And she said she'd wed Don Ca - to!

 

Fig. l.--Mexican Folk Song, Don Gato

 

1Beatrice Landeck; Elizabeth Crook; Harold C.
Younberg; and Otto Luening, Makin Music Your Own, Book 4
(Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, 1965), "Don
Gato," p. 174.

131

initial act should be one of discovering the latent
rhythmic potential that various patterns may provide
(Figures 2 and 3).

As the children experiment with their rhythmic
patterns, three necessary fundamentals should be stressed.
First, a pattern i5 because of repetition. Second, the
rhythm values used must be properly placed in measures
as determined by the appropriate meter signature. Third,
the selection of a pattern in terms of how each student
"hears" or "feels" that it seems right. The distinctive
rhythmic quality of Don Gato, as generated by its ethnic
heritage, may subconsciously provide some clues in which
the student may pursue his pattern experimentation.

When teaching the principle of the pattern,
examples of repetition may be easily illustrated.

Through the student's observation of each other's

attire, many pattern designs may be seen. Todd's shirt
may be a series of red dots upon a white background, or
Anita's dress may present an orderly arrangement of green
cubes residing upon a backdrop of solid yellow. Each
observed pattern will present to the students' eyes the
equal measurement of space. If the repeated dots or
cubes declare specific order visually, then the con-
nection to the aural ordering of time, through repeated
beats or rhythmic motives, may be accomplished.

Some children's first rhythmic efforts may be

rather limited in terms of employed notation. Once

132

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opossumou How snapped

 

muocaumao

 

F
<

.U

6F

 

F u h u
A r—

‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

uo>uuawuwaHrr.m .mflh

xooam oooz you cuouumm

xooam aooz

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H1 w
N _
(V

...4+
dun-v-

 

 

 

 

 

 

F

 

1--F_

 

 

 

_--H'
H

 

 

 

 

 

fifi:

 

133

beginning with a half note or a quarter note, the
necessity of adding eights or of mixing the rhythms
becomes frightening. The teacher should encourage each
child to explore all the specified proportional values
indicated in the parameters of the lesson. From this
point, many children become rather critical of their
own work. In some instances, children will rework
their accompaniments until satisfaction is achieved.
The quest for satisfaction may be evidenced in terms of
how each student accepts his accompaniment as being
musically and personally interesting.

The fulfillment of the Initiative sub-factor is
achieved when each student has developed a rhythmic
pattern which meets the requirements of the rhythmic
parameters, reflects the principle of repetition
necessary to a pattern, and is perceived inwardly as

being a useful accompaniment.

2. Association.--has been defined as the reaffirm-

 

ation of the unifying musical idea in fresh musical
contexts--the notion of unity in variety.

In terms of repeated aural patterns unity may be
readily perceived. One rhythmic variation such as
diminution may be explored with the idea of presenting
contrast to the established pattern (Figures 4 and 5).

Through the use of imagination, many elementary

school children have little difficulty in comprehending

134

the meaning of boredom. Everyday examples of a pre-
ponderance of color or particular taste are quickly
decided upon as making life dull and uneventful. Sim-
ilarly, the recognition of variety is seen to provide

interest and contrast.

Original

 

Claves

Fig. 4.--Association: Original Pattern

Diminution

 

Cleves

Fig. 5.--Association: Contrast through Diminution

Although Don Gato is only eighteen measures in
length, its potential for accompanied rhythmic variety
may be realized by dividing the six verses into a
pattern combination of three. (Only verses one and two
are shown in the figure.) Verses one and two would be
accompanied by the original pattern as presented in

Figure 6. Verses three and four could be accompanied

135

by the original pattern as altered through diminution
(Figure 7). Verses five and six would then be joined

by the repetition of the original pattern.

Original

 

V03

Fig. 6.--Accompaniment: Original Pattern, for Don Gato

‘ Diminution

 

Games

Fig. 7.--Accompaniment: Diminution Pattern, for Don Gato

The Association sub-factor of the creative
dimension is complete when each student is able to
notate a specific rhythmic pattern with one or more
possible derivations. Each student's evolving accom-
paniment should fulfill the need for unity in variety,
and also bring about an impending rule of order for the

whole selection.

3. Flgg.--has been defined as a complementarity of
repetitions and contrasts, a fundamental movement which
inevitably provides the form of the work.

For most third grade students the notion of flow

would be most easily grasped in terms of hearing

136

the movement of any rhythmic pattern in its relation-
ship to the song.

Having assumed that the children are thoroughly
acquainted with the piece, the teacher should now play
the song at the piano and ask the children to read
silently their rhythmic creations. As the melodic and
harmonic progression of the piece unfolds, each child
will hopefully begin to evaluate the relationship
between the musical stimuli from the keyboard and his
own rhythmic accompaniment.

In a very basic sense the children may initially
experience the relationship of one created musical
element and its integral partnership with the resulting
whole of several other musical elements. Any third
grader's awareness of the entirety of his rhythmic
creation, in terms of its unity and variety joined with
the presentation of Don Gato, fulfills the sub-factor

of flow.

4. Fruition.--Fruition terminates the obligation
of the composer to the listener, therefore bringing
about the uninterrupted illusion of passing time which
never completely satisfies the curiosity of the listener.
For the elementary creative lesson, the simple
essence of Fruition is the moment when students combine

their created rhythmic patterns and indeed do accompany

137

Don Gato. Because this creative occasion involves the
participation of relatively inexperienced minds and

ears, it would be most useful if the teacher were to
join together those patterns which offer the greatest
degree of contrapuntal movement. The rhythmic interplay,
resulting from the coupled patterns, would provide an
adequate example of illusory time continually arresting
the attention of the ear. In terms of reaffirming the
given musical factors necessary to the foundation of
this creative experience, Fruition provides for the

following events:

1. Each student's playing of his accompaniment
requires that he perceive the pulse. The
accompaniment must proceed within the tempo
boundary established by the teacher. Also,
the pulse must be experienced within its
specific occurrence with any other performing
member (i.e. the teacher playing the piano,

and several other percussion players).

2. Accurate meter perception necessitates the
grasping of pulse groups. In Don Gato,
a pulse grouping of two may be established
through the ordering of one accented pulse

moving to one unaccented pulse.

138

3. A working knowledge of proportional rhythmic
values may be viewed through the student's
ability to correctly play his accompaniment--
the recognition of rhythmic symbols as spe—

cifying varying units of time.

4. Through a working knowledge of meter signatures,
each student understands the meaning of 2/4
time. The quarter note is the established pulse,
and two pulse units are given to each measure.
From the foundation of the given pulse, any
written notation in the accompaniment finds a

direct relationship to that pulse.

5. The performed accompaniment may be accurately
symbolically communicated because of the use
of a staff, bar lines, and the presence of a

meter signature.

6. Because of any student's familiarity with the
song, the impending addition of each accompani-
ment is anticipated in the mind. Each student
senses his accompaniment as part of the ensuing

musical whole.

Either performed individually or collectively,
each rhythmic accompaniment becomes musically success-
ful when it seems to generate to the perceiver dynamic

wholeness.

139

Junior High--Performing

 

The performer makes aurally manifest the patterns
of tones and rhythms which the composer has symbolically

communicated. One example of the Performipg dimension,

 

as the basis for a teaching sequence, is in its appli-
cation to the private instrumental lesson. The piece
that has been selected for the individual lesson

experience is Choral Melody No. 19, by J. S. Bach, as

 

arranged for solo trumpet courtesy of Leonard B. Smith
and published by Belwin Mills (Figure 8).

Apropos of the selection criteria for the creating
and listening examples, this junior high teaching sequence
reflects one among several skill and achievement levels
that may be or have been attained by the students. In
this instance, the performance level is rated by the
publisher (Belwin Mills) as first division band material.

It has been this writer's experience that the
choral melody arrangement in terms of range, tessitura,
fingerings, and embouchure—breath control presents a
most valuable musical experience for the intermediate
junior high trumpet student.

In many situations, students possessing lesser
or greater ability would better profit from another
musical choice. No matter how elementary or advanced
any performer's ability is, each will enhance his

practice effort if a conscious attempt to perceive

140

Bb Cornet

Chorale Melody No. 19 ’

J. 8. EACH
VI! lowly Arr. by LEONARD B. SMITH

m

    

V R —<

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 8.--Bach, Chorale MelodypNo. l9

 

 

2J. S. Bach, Chorale Melody No. 19, Arranged by

Leonard B. Smith (Melvillé) N.Y.: Bélwin-Mills Publishing
Corp., 1973).

141

the created musical whole is pursued. To this end,

Chorale Melody No. 19 will be examined through the per-

 

forming sub-factors of Extension, Awareness, Insight,

and Re-Creation.

l. Extension.--has been defined as the directed out-

 

come of fundamental musical perception--the understanding
of the dynamic expressive essence of sound through the
discovery of time, tempo, pitch, color, melodic flow,

and rhythm patterns. Through the sub-factor of extension,
each performer may begin to conceptualize primary
rhythmic and tonal properties as found to be inherent

in any composition.

The initial step in this teaching sequence is to
focus the student's aural attention. It would seem most
useful for the teacher to play the composition, thus
providing a model. The teacher's performance should be
prefaced with several suggestions concerning the stu-
dent's perception of specific musical qualities as gen-
erated by the piece. For example, what may be heard in
terms of tempo, dynamics, phrasing, tonality, articu-
lations, and repeated musical ideas.

After the first hearing is completed, some

students might respond as follows:
1. The piece is slow moving;

2. A continual recurrence of pauses;

142

3a. The illusion of tension and relaxation created

dynamically;

3b. A decreasing dynamic level occurring at the

cadences (except for measure sixteen);
4. Tonguing devoid of staccatos or accents;

5. The awareness of alternating minor and major

tonalities;

6. If the score is studied while the teacher per-
forms, the recognition of low D as requiring
the lengthening of the third valve slide in

order to improve intonation;

7. The melodic and rhythmic importance of the
repeated eighth-two sixteenth note pattern.
The pattern ascends melodically, and returns
in the phrases until the cadence occurring in
measure twelve--hence, repeated cadencial

similarity may be viewed as a unifying element.

8. Cadencial finality emphasized by the rallentando

beginning in measure nineteen.

For Chorale Melody No. 19, the process of

 

extension is complete when any student hears the salient

 

musical qualities contained therein, and begins to
anticipate his own performance through the expressive

‘medium of the trumpet.

2.

143

Awareness.--Is the ability of any performer to

 

interpret the musical score. If the essence of any com-

poser's musical idea is to be grasped by a performer,

then that performer must be able to discern the function

of each musical symbol.

The second step in the teaching sequence is a

careful analysis of the score. A necessary dialogue

between teacher and student should emphasize the follow-

ing points:

1.

A suggested metronome indication to reflect the
arranger's notation of "very slowly" (e.g.

Largo J = 50);

All dynamic symbols should be understood

mf.f.r,7p.<’>

The use of the (breath) , , and the (fermata) f,"

The purpose and correct articulation of the slur

The meaning of rallentando (rall.)

The accurate execution of elongated and grouped
rhythms as related to the counting of the pulse
(e.g. m = one beat, J. = one and one half
beats--the dot carries the sound of the quarter

through the next expected regular pulse.

10.

144

A careful examination of all accidentals in
relation to correct fingerings, and their

implied continuation throughout an entire measure;

A simple explanation of a chorale--its historical,

liturgical, and musical significance;

Some comment regarding the contributions and

greatness of J. S. Bach;

In lieu of any specific tonguing suggestions, the
teacher might offer for consideration legato or

connected articulations.

At this juncture, the student and teacher may

find it advantageous to play those particular measures

which seem to pose potential technical or musical problems.

For example:

1.

Some students may have difficulty sensing the
relationship of the initial eighth-two sixteenth

anacrusis pattern with beat four.

From measure four to measure five, the preparatory
and actual lengthening of the third valve slide

when D1 is played.

In measure fourteen, the ear and the embouchure
must carefully anticipate the diminished seventh

leap between F# and Eb.

145

4. Some students may give evidence of coordination
difficulty in measure sixteen--the alternating

fingering between A and G#.

S. The ascending melodic line, moving from measure
eighteen through measure nineteen, requires
great concentration in terms of necessary breath
support and embouchure control in order to ade-

quately support the dynamic level at G2.

6. As the piece concludes in measure twenty, the
integrity of the phrase must be maintained as
breath control sustains the forte in measure
nineteen, the ensuing rallentando, and the

decrescendo to pianissimo.

3. Insight.-—is that moment when individuals sense
and respond to the dynamic order of the composition.
At this moment the work of the composer begins to
become fused with the "personality" of the performer.
Through insight, the performer begins to sense the
musical implications of the composer's communicated
symbols. Insight brings meaning to dynamic shading,
phrase inflections and cadences, "growing"--ascending
melodic lines, or in essence, the "life" of the music.

In terms of Chorale Melody No. 19, insight brings

 

to reality the student's visual perception of arbitrary

146

score symbols, transformed into an inner expectation of
the musical sense and flow they represent.

Insight is the foundation for the "musical"
quality of each performing occasion. Most teacher
adjudications of the Chorale melody would be suggestions
relating to the essential musical directives presented
in the score. Student insight would become apparent if
dynamic and rhythmic inflections were felt to be
instinctively necessary. Hence, some crescendi markings,
fermati, and loud-soft indications might not be necessary
in the score to insure the students' awareness of phras-
ing and general musical direction.

One point for consideration is the presence of
many musical indications in the score as given by the
arranger. In terms of assisting the student in the
uncovering of the musical whole, it might be advantageous
to cover the indications as the student plays through
the Chorale. As the teaching sequence unfolds, the
process of insight should be an initiatory act, rather
than a learned response. When the junior high trumpet
player begins to anticipate the mutual relationship
among the elements, then a "musical" performance of the
piece is rendered. At this moment, the presence or
absence of arbitrary score symbols becomes of secondary
importance. A performer's insight brings about the dis-

~cernment of the dynamic order of any composition.

147

4. Re-Creation.--completes the hope of the composer.

 

That which is heard in the mind of the creator may now
be heard in the mind of the appreciator.

Re-Creation is the culminating point of the
teaching sequence. At this moment, the student has

accomplished two tasks.

1. The mastery of all technical and musical factors
which are necessary to the physical playing of
the piece (i.e., fingerings, breath-embrochure
control, and the correct interpretation of given

musical symbols presented by the composer).

2. Is cognizant of the musical whole (i.e.,
phrases, rhythmic and melodic patterns, in

essence the commanding form of the work).

In the act of re-creation, the student is ready
to perform the piece as a free agent--free from any
comment by the teacher and endeavoring to interpret the
piece faithfully. What originated in the mind of the
composer, as a generating musical idea, is now inti-
mately experienced and presented by the performer.

The Chorale melody comes with a piano orches-
tration. An appropriate climax for the teaching sequence
is the student solo accompanied by the teacher.

Re-Creation provides any individual with the

expanded ability to hear a musical whole in terms of

148

performance. Re-Creation is an evidence of musical
growth. Each performing occasion becomes more sig-
nificant when the individuals who participate are
capable of renewing, in actuality, any composer's

inspiration free from intrusion and diversion.

High School--Listening

 

In many instances, the high school curriculum
provides lecture classes for those individuals interested
in music: appreciation, theory, and composition classes
usually offer an in-depth survey of style and structure
beyond that information generally received in band,
orchestra, or chorus rehearsals.

Within the selective environment of the special
music class, many students are first exposed to the
experience of making aural judgments concerning pieces
of music. Teacher comments referring to various histori-
cal eras and style characteristics very often are illus-
trated with recorded excerpts.

It has been stated that any composer's ultimate
responsibility is to his listening audience. If the
composer's task is to evolve a musical whole, then any
eventual perceiver of that whole is one who can readily
discern the dynamic relationship among the musical ele-
ments. Teaching intelligent listening is a process

which assists any individual, as he consciously

149

expands his ability, to hold the whole of a composition
within his mind.

To think of selecting one example of a generating
musical idea from the abundance that exists is a rather
awesome task. Also, the idea as a developed musical
whole should lend itself to being grasped from the
experiential and cognitive musical levels of most high
school students.

The piece that has been selected for analysis

is selection No. 46, Vol. II., Increasing-Diminishing,

 

from The Mikrokosmos, composed by Béla Bartok (Figure 9).

 

Mary H. Wennerstrom writes:
In his pedagogical collections of music, Bartok
presented contemporary materials and techniques
in a systematic manner. His larger works have a
tightness of construction and an exciting and
convincing melodic and rhythmic development;
these works place Bartok among the great composers
of the first half of the twentieth century.3
As a master of compositional devices, Barték is an
epitome of the composer whose works are generating forms,
resulting from the perfect order of unity and variety.
The Wennerstrom text suggests two areas of

analysis.

 

3Mary H. Wennerstrom, Anthology of Twentieth
_Century Music (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969),
p. l.

 

 

150

N0. 46, lNCREASING—DIMINISHING '

 

Moderato,J=m

 

’4’ Emu-J

Fig. 9.--Bart6k, Increasing-Diminishing

 

 

4Béla Barték, Mikrokosmos, No. 46, "Increasing-
Diminishing," in Anthology of Twentieth Century Music,
ed. Mary H. Wennerstrom (New Yofk: Appleton-Century
Cl'OftS, 1969)! p0 la

 

 

151

1. List all the elements which are "increasing and
diminishing." How do they contribute to form?
2. Discuss the pitch material of this piece (scale
basis, tonal center).S
Through the sub-factors of Attending, Imaging, Appre-
ciating, and Valuing, the Wennerstrom analysis directions

will be incorporated as to present one example of

advancing any perceiver's hearing of the musical whole.

1. Attending.--has been described as the voluntary

 

aural scrutiny of any musical stimulus. Voluntary
attending might include triad quality distinctions, form
designs, dynamic comparisons, and many other rhythmic-
tonal variations.

Assuming that several rhythmic-tonal variations
can be distinguished by the students, the first area of
inquiry would be the isolation of "heard" musical quali-

ties. After two or three presentations of Increasing-

 

Diminishing, each student should endeavor to write down

 

those salient musical stimuli which seem to strike his
ear. For example, some students would respond to the
increase and decrease in dynamic levels e.g. (pp, p,

mf, f, mf, p, pp). Others might indicate the pattern
of rhythmic values moving from long to short and back

to long again:

. J JVJ J 4 U J. .

 

51bid.

152

Several remaining observations might include the expansion
and contraction of intervallic leaps, canonic imitation
in contrary motion which is particularly evident beginning
at measure nine, the moderately moving tempo ( a’= 120),
the color quality of the performing instrument (piano),
and the phyrgian modality centered on E (measures l-l4)
coupled with the transposition to the phyrgian mode
centered on F, which emphasizes the diminished fifth
interval of B falling to F (measures 15-28).

Simply stated the attending sub factor, as applied

to the hearing of Increasing-Diminishing, is the initial

 

response of the student to the piece in terms of distinct
perceivable musical criteria-~dynamics, rhythms, color,

modality, intervals, and a contrapuntal device.

2. Imaging.--has been defined as inner hearing--
that occasion when any perceiver begins to sense the
integral flow and relationship among the musical elements
of any piece. Through imaging, the listener responds
to the totality of the work.

One aural manifestation which should occur in the
Imaging sub-factor is the recognition of generating form
structures as providing a unifying bond for the musical
elements. The first analysis suggestion of the Wenner-
strom text asks for a list of the elements which are
" . . . increasing and diminishing. How do they con-

tribute to form?"

153

Imaging could be made clearer to the students
through the manipulation of the reproducing stereo
channels. Because of multi-track equipment, the
mechanical isolation of each voice line would serve to
focus the students' contrapuntal awareness towards the
increasing and decreasing elements. Because the specific
increasing and diminishing elements have been identified
in the Attending sub-factor, it would now become crucial
that each student identify in his mind the collective
similarity of all the elements increasing and diminishing
together (i.e., dynamics, note values, and interval
range).

The collective effect of the combined musical

stimuli might be diagrammed in the following manner.

1‘

 

R93t Tension Rest

Fig. 10.--Increasing-Diminishing: An Arch Form

 

154

The increasing and diminishing of the musical elements
seems to generate to the ear an arch structure. Very
simply, the arch structure may be perceived as a flow
which is manifested in terms of rest building to tension,
and then subsiding again to rest. Although Bartok's
larger works show great diversity in their formal designs,
the third, fourth, and fifth string quartets are in five
movements which may be analyzed as arch structures.

As stated previously, through imaging, the
listener begins to sense the whole of the piece. The

arch form of Increasing-Diminishing is an aural unity

 

which incorporates canonic imitation and modal change

for added variety.

3. Appreciating.--the composer's generating musical

 

idea is fully grasped by the listener. Here the per-
ceiver not only responds to the musical flow but

instinctively anticipetes the unfolding primary movement

 

of melodic or harmonic progression.

The sub-factor of appreciating is not one so much
of discovery, but rather of expectancy and reflection.
When the perceiver begins to expect of the composer the
development of themes and motives into a unified whole
of passing time, then the mind of the perceiver senses,
as did the composer's, the potential generating impetus

of any musical idea.

155

Appreciating is a time of synthesis. Having
assumed the presentation of the composition throughout
the entire teaching sequence, enlightened ears are pre-
pared to hear the composition from a new perspective.
The implication of the title, coupled with the impending
sense of the elements creating a feeling of increase and
decrease, will sharpen the anticipation of an ordered
musical statement.

Although Increasing-Diminishing is a rather

 

simple example of a generating idea, its fundamental
process of development and completion may at later
stages enable students to discern the import of musical
ideas in evolving phrases, movements, concerti, and

symphonies.

4. Valuing.--has been described as the ability of
any listener to make discriminating judgments concerning
the music he hears. Compositions of lasting greatness
or interest continually renew their dynamic unity, but
also never discourage the anticipation of the ear.

The value of Bartok's Increasing-Diminishing is

 

that in its suggested performing time of 58 seconds, an
organic musical entity has been created. For the neo-
phyte high school listener, the piece can fulfill his

expectation of unified flow existing in time. Any

156

student's awakened or increased sensitivity to a dynamic
musical whole is valuable because it represents a funda-

mental musical achievement.

Conclusion

 

If music education should be aesthetic education,
then every music educator must have a thorough graSp of
the dynamic principle of order necessary in aesthetic
objects, and as specifically applied to music. Of equal
importance, is the recognition that each activity in any
music learning situation be directed towards the con-
tinual awakening or refinement of the instinctive sensory
perceptual act--the aural discernment of created, per-
formed, and listened to musical wholes.

As a viable part of the educational process,
music education must provide a fundamental rationale
from which definitive goals and objectives may evolve.
The curriculum is constantly changing. In view of
increased demands for accountability and relevancy,
the contemporary music educator must be able to evaluate
his current teaching practices in the light of a philo-
sophic rationale. When this is accomplished, clear
principles and concepts may emerge providing the means
by which each teacher may establish some momentum in
the solving of his problems. In an article entitled

"How Music Concepts Are Developed," Asahel Woodruff

157

discusses the advancement of music education in terms
of affective and conceptual criteria.

The human being is an affective organism. Affect
is always present in his behavior, just as the
perception of meaning is always present. . . .
One cannot form a concept without an affective
component, and he cannot have an affective
experience without a conceptual component. The
result of this duality is that our appreciations
and motives are acquired simultaneously with our
conceptual patterns. We learn to like those
objectives and conditions that are emotionally
rewarding to us as we experience them. This
implies very clearly what is required of us in
the pursuit of goals of appreciation and of
taste in music.6

From the premise that man perceives behaviorally
and aesthetically in terms of dynamic aural Gestalten

comes a useful basis for the teaching of music.

 

6Asahel D. Woodruff, "How Music Concepts Are

Developed," Music Educators Journal, 56 (February 1970):
53-54.

 

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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Reports-~Published

Minimal Performance Objectives for Music Education
(Elementar ). Michigan Department offEducation,
Rev18e 3.

Music Education Series--Pub1ished

Crook, Elizabeth; Reimer, Bennett; and Walker, David S.
Silver Burdett Music. Morristown, N.J.:

Silver Burdett General Learning Corporation,
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Compositions-~Pub1ished

Bach, J. S. Chorale Melody No. 19. Arranged by Leonard
B. Smith. Melville, N.Y.: Belwin-Mills Pub-
lishing Corp., 1973.

164

Unpublished Materials

 

Sidnell, Robert G. "Compilation and Condensation of On
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