ABSTRACT CONFLICTS WITHIN COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE IN BROAD HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND IN CONTEMPORARY PROFESSIONAL FOCUS by William Ratigan This thesis used the research combination of the historical approach and the descriptive survey implemented by a fommat of inquiry (but inviting a more personalized response), to examine the ten hypotheses. The first five of these hypotheses seem manifestly the researchable, tentative statements basic to the thesis. The remaining five hypotheses could perhaps be more correctly called assumptions or dramatic descriptions of today's chaotic society, with the intent to focus attention on the relevance of conflict in guidance theory and practice to the schizoid culture of today. With the above qualifications, the ten hypotheses follow: (1) That there are conflicts within the field of counsel- ing and guidance. (2) That some people will tend to regard the conflicts in the broad perspective of such generalities as education, democracy, philosophy, social theory, Western civilization, culture. (3) That other people will tend to regard the conflicts in the narrower range of practical problems and everyday tasks. (u) That still others will tend to combine broad per- spective and narrow focus. (5) That the conflicts within the field of counseling and guidance (and, correspondingly, the conflicts between theory William Ratigan and practice in the schools) are a reflection of the conflicts within the Western World, presently and historically. (6) That the conflicts within Western civilization exist in both the United States and Russia, in varying degrees; that these nations, and indeed all Western mankind and humanity as a whole, are more alike than they are different; and that they must agree to reconcile their conflicts and co-exist, or perish. (7) That the conflicts within counseling and guidance, within Western civilization, are reflections of the warring duality of nature within every individual, the struggle between Faust and Mephistopheles, Jekyl and Hyde, the good-me and the but—this-can't-be me. (8) That contemporary conflicts, although generally no different than the historical conflicts, have been intensified (from the neurotic to the psychotic degree) in accordance with Freud‘s concept of the repetition compulsion and.Mowrer?s neurotic paradox: the persistence of inappropriate responses and rigidly fixed patterns in the face of what appear to be insoluble problems posed by the propaganda of conflicting national interests and the probability of a thermonuclear Judgment Day. (9) That contemporary conflicts indicate a deep-seated feeling of guilt and terror clamoring in the collective uncon- scious of humanity, the guilt and terror feeling of having unleashed the power to destroy all life. (10) That contemporary conflicts are the symptoms of a disturbed society, prone to be schizophrenic and paranoid, with William Ratigan typical split personality, delusions of persecution and of greatness, and hallucinations. In conducting the descriptive survey the writer chose to regard counseling and guidance as a function of society rather than as the prerogative and responsibility of a specialized group. Consequently, in addition to responses from such people as Barry and wolf, Hahn and MacLean, Rogers, Williamson, Roe, Tyler, Thorne, Hoppock, the reader will find responses from such people as May, Reik, Riesman, Whyte, Mead, Ellis, van Kaam, Roethlisberger, Skinner, Romney, among others. . Findings of the study at the summit level indicate that freedom in today's world is a myth: that the ultimate weapon has produced the-ultimate tyranny, that mankind’s basic right of survival is in the mortal hands of two small groups of men who wield unprecedented power with scant control; and that unless the behavioral scientists overtake the runaway natural scientists, Murphy's law of electronics may operate to wipe out both the memory and the promise of life on this earth. At other levels, the findings of the study indicate that the broad-perspective respondents tended to view conflicts in terms of purposes and goals, whereas the narrow-focus respondents tended to be concerned with means, methods, and techniques. Quite a number of conflicts were revealed, but it was found that these could be sorted into two categories: conflicts in values, con- flicts in communications. William Ratigan Several courses of action were suggested, including the desideratum of producing counselors well versed in values, communications, and Weltanschauung; but the primary explicit proposal of this study was for counselors to get out of "guidance," now that the fight to individualize Education appears won, and to settle on counseling as their distinct and definitive function. Copyright by WI LLIAIVI RATIGAN 1963 CONFLICTS WITHIN COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE IN BROAD HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND IN CONTEMPORARY PROFESSIONAL FOCUS By ‘William Ratigan .A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer takes this opportunity to express his debt of gratitude to George S. Counts, Professor Emeritus, for suggestions as to reference materials; to George A, Pierson, Queens College, for crystallizing and giving a sense of direction to the thesis; to James W. Costar, Chairman, Guidance and Personnel Services Curriculum Group, for supportive encouragement; to William Farquhar for research inspirations; to Buford Stefflre for valuable technical advice; to Walter F. Johnson, Chairman, for unquenchable enthusiasm and unfailing cooperation; and to the other members of the doctoral committee for their vital guidance, Lawrence Borosage, Harry A, Grater, and Orden C. Smucker. It should be confessed that the writer feels most humble when he turns to the Index g£_Authorities at the end of this book and looks at the important names of those who gave their time and talent to help forward this doctoral dissertation. To many people then, the writer owes much that went into whatever virtues may be found in this work, but he alone must assume full responsibility for its defects. ii ‘..-- TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page 1. OVERVIEW OF THE WORK .................... l Justification of the Problem ......... 2 Formulation of Hypotheses ............ 3 Plan of Organization ................. S Consummation Devoutly to be Wished ... 11 Definition of Terms .................. 12 Related Studies ...................... 15 Limitations of the Study ............. lo Guiding Principles of the Study ...... 16 II. HISTORICAL CONFLICTS WITHIN WESTERN CULTURE ................................. 18 Definition of Western Culture ........ 19 Basic Values of Western Culture ...... l9 Conflict of Values in Western Culture .............................. 22 Prognosis of Conflict ................ 26 Conflicts Within Communications ...... 28 Definition of Western Values ......... 30 Paradox of Conflicts and Values ...... 31 III. CONFLICTS WITHIN THE MODERN GUIDANCE MOVEMENT ................................ 35 Capsule History of Modern Guidance ... 35 iii CHAPTER Page Survey of the Literature ............. 37 Horatio Alger's Guidance ............. 39 Only in America? ..................... M2 The American Dream — and Awakening ... AS Modern Conflicts Spelled Out in the Literature ........................... h8 (Frank Parsons) ................... h8 (John M. Brewer) .................. 51 (Barry and Wolf) .................. 55 (CarrollH. Miller) ................ 60 (Robert Hendry Mathewson) ......... 61 IV. THE UNPRECEDENTED CONFLICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 A World in Need of Therapy ........... 6h Politics and Patriotism .............. 67 Rights of Survival ................... 68 Ultimate Weapons, Ultimate Tyranny ... 71 Guilt Complexes and Tensions ......... 7S Symbols of Life and Death ............ 78 V. ROLE OF THEORY IN SCHOOL COUNSELING ..... 81 Place of Personnel Services in Education ............................ 83 Educational Fifth Wheel .............. 8h Place of Counseling in Personnel Services ............................. 87 Another Definition of Counseling ..... 89 Implications for Counseling Theory in the NDEA..OOIOOOCOOCOOOQQOO...0.900.. 90 iv CHAPTER Counseling Goals in Public High SChOOlS 00.00.000.00......OCCOOOOOO... A.Novelist Indicates His Counseling Theory ...........OOOOOOOCCOOO....0... Role Expectations of the School Counselor (How is he Seen?) .......... School Counseling and Pragmatism ..... Relation of Time to Counseling Theory ......COOOOOIOO......OOOOO0.... Basic Role Playing of the Counselor .. Role Fulfillment of the School Counselor (What does he actually do?). School Discipline and Counseling Theory ..........OOCOOOOOOODOOOO0.0... Modus Operandi: Implications for Counseling Theory .................... Relations of Goals to Counseling Theory 0............OOOOOOOOOO0.00.... Relation of Theory to Behavior ....... Relation of Counselor Training to Theory ooooo00.000000000000000000.000. Suitability of Theories in School Counseling acocoa-cocoooooooooooooooo. Suitability of Psychotherapy in High SChOOl oooooooooooooooooonoooo0.400000 Limitations of Nondirective Counseling in SChOOlS OO0......OOOOOOOOOOOCOCQOQO Relation of Counselors in Training to Nondir€Ctive Theory ......IOOOOOOOOOOO Reaction of High School Counselees to NondireCtive Theory ooooooooooooooooo. Page 9‘4 96 98 100 102 105 106 108 112 115 117 119 120 122 123 123 125 CHAPTER VI. Practicum Surveys of Counseling Theory oooooooocoo-0.000000000000000on Tradition of Directive Counseling in High SChOOl cocoon-09000000000000-cooo Eclectic Theory in High School counseling cocoa-0.0000000000000000coo Analysis of Counseling Theories ...... Art Related to Counseling Theory ..... Flexibility of Counseling Theory ..... Summary Statement of Counseling Theory in High SChOOJ- .....OOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. CONFLICTS: SURVEYS OF OPINIONS ......... Part One - Four Along the Continuum (Rogers, Tyler, Thorne, Williamson) .. Part Two - APGA Presidents and Past Presidents (Arbuckle, Corre, Cotting— ham, Dugan, Dunsmoor, Johnson, Shaffer, super 00.00..OOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOODOO Part Three - the Testing Authorities (Bordin, Goldman, Lifton, McGowan, Reed, Smith, Whitla, WOmer) .......... Part Four - Names in the Literature (Erickson, Hoppock, MacLean, Mathew- son, Miller, Norris, Roe, Rothney, Shoben, Stefflre, Traxler, Barry & Whlf) coo-0000000..00.000000000000090. Part Five - The Dean‘s Office (Hahn and Pierson) ............°.....‘OCCOOO Part Six - Scholars in the Symposium (Field, van Kaam, Myerson and Michael, Tiedeman, wrenn) ..................... Part Seven - Assortment of Talent (Ellis, Hall, May, Mead, Miller & Dollard, Murphy, Reik) ............... vi Page 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 136 139 th 154 16h 177 181 185 CHAPTER Pa ge Part Eight - In Related Disciplines (Counts, Havighurst, Reeves, Snyder, Strang, Taylor, Woodring) ............ 191 Part Nine - Business and Government (Anderson and Romney) ................ 197 Part Ten — The Organization Man, the Lonely Crowd, and Walden Two (Whyte, Riesman, Skinner) .................... 201 Part Eleven — M-R, the Depth Probers (Anonymous, Cheskin, Dichter, Gardner, Miller, wulfeck) ......O.....O..°..... 206 Part Twelve - The General Semanticists (Glenn, Haley, Johnson, Rapaport, Roethlisberger, Wendt) ............... 217 Part Thirteen - NDEA.Directors and Other Counselor Educators ............ 227 Part Fourteen — ASCA.Study of Counselor Role and Function (Fitzger— ald, Hoffman, Johnson, Loughary, WinfrBY) .0000.00000900000000000.000... 277 Part Fifteen - at the Federal Level (Bedell, Craig, and McCully) ......... 282 Part Sixteen — at the State Level (McCreary, Shear, Shearhouse, Smith, Taulbee, Tobler, Ulrich) ............. 285 Part Seventeen - at the Secondary Level - the Administration (Super- intendents and Principals) ........... 291 Part Eighteen - at the Secondary Level - the School Counselors ........ 316 VII. CINNFLICTS ~~ THE SUMMING UP ............. 325 The Problem - In Broad Historical Perspective 0.0000000000QOOOOOOOOOOOOO 325 The Problem - In Present Application . 330 Personal Testament ................... 33h vii CHAPTER Page Findings of the Study ................ 336 Proposals for ACtion ................. 3h2 Prospects for Further Research ....... 3AA BIBLIOGRAPI-IY 0.00.0.0........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.... 346 APPENDICES AL Typical Form Letter and Format of Inquiry Used in the Descriptive Survey Portion of the Research ................. 351 B. Correspondence Between Dr. Edward C. Roeber and the Present Writer ......o.... 35h C. Index Of AUthOI‘ities ......IOOOOOOOOOOOOO SS7 viii I. CHAPTER I OVERVIEW OF THE WORK During the summer of 1961, the writer enjoyed the unusual opportunity of lengthy conversations on philosophi- cal subjects with two scholars of wide erudition and practical experience, George S. Counts1 and George A. Pierson.2 With one and the other the writer discussed the struggle for purpose in guidance and explored the origins of counseling and guidance in the cultures of Western Civilization. Vividly remembered (and certainly pointing toward Chapter II of this thesis) is the way Counts likened the three classes in Plato‘s Republic to an animal culture community in the American West: comparing the working class of the Republic with the prairie dog who digs a hole; the warrior class with the rattlesnake who crawls in; and the philosopher class with the prairie owl, symbol of wisdom, who keeps an eye out. lGeorge S. Counts, author of (among numerous other vmrks) The (finallenge BE Soviet Education. New York: McGraw HTT1z—71957- 2George A, Pierson, Dean of Students, Queens College, the City Univer51ty of New York. 1 2 "Obviously Plato studied and got his idea of the Republic from how these kinds of animals lived together," Counts said. "The question of how he got over here to do this is irrelevant. He must have done so; it's self-evident!" Remembered with equal vividness are the recountals by Pierson of the historical and contemporary paradoxes that perplex society. Intrigued by these paradoxes the writer explored further, going into the paradoxes of everyday life as presented by the psychoanalyst, Sapirstein (53). It soon became apparent that paradoxes were not strangers in the field of counseling and guidance. The paradoxes that have plagued society for thousands of years were found to cause conflicts within counseling and guidance. It was at this point of discovery that the 'writer decided to make a study of these conflicts. Justification of the Problem The initial justification of the problem came from Counts and Pierson, both of whom considered a study of conflicts as worthwhile and of potential benefit to the profession. It seemed evident too that the field of counseling and guidance-was in.a state of transition, moving to keep up with a rapidly changing world. Presently the field as a whole tended to lack a sense of direction, as indeed did society itself. It was felt that an exploration of conflicts might Show the way toward a more integrated future. 3 Formulation of Hypotheses The thesis presents, among others implied rather than listed, ten hypotheses. The first five of these hypotheses seem manifestly the researchable, tentative statements basic to this research. The sixth hypothesis might be called unnecessary and irrelevant to the thesis, but it is basic to the bias of the writer. The seventh hypothesis, although metaphysical in tone, appears realistic in tenor. The last three hypotheses could perhaps be more correctly called assumptions or dramatic descriptions of today's chaotic society, with the intent to focus attention on the relevance of conflict in guidance theory and practice to the schizoid culture of today. ‘With the above qualifications, the ten hypotheses follow: 1. That there are conflicts within the field of counseling and guidance. 2. That some people will tend to regard the conflicts within the field of counseling and guidance in the broad perspective of such generalities as education, democracy, philosophy, social theory, Western civilization, culture. 3. That other people will tend to regard the conflicts within the field of counseling and guidance in the narrower range of practical problems and workaday tasks. A. That still others will tend to combine broad perspective and narrow focus. h 5. That the conflicts within the field of counseling and guidance (and, correspondingly, the conflicts between theory and practice in the schools) are a reflection of the conflicts within the Western World, presently and historically. 6. That the conflicts within Western Civilization exist in both the United States and Russia, in varying degrees; that these nations, and indeed all Western mankind and humanity as a whole, are more alike than they are different; and that they must agree to reconcile their con- flicts and co-exist, or perish. 7. That the conflicts within counseling and guidance, western civilization, are reflections of the warring duality of nature within every individual, the struggle between Faust and Mephistopheles, Jekyl and Hyde, the good—me and the but-this-can' t—be—me. ' 8. That contemporary conflicts, although generally no different from the historical conflicts, have been intensified (frnm the neurotic to the psychotic degree) in accordance ‘with Freud's concept of the repetition compulsion and Mowrer's (39:h87) neurotic paradox, "Behavior which is at one and the same time self—perpetuating and self—defeating." In more detail the contemporary neurotic paradox may be seen as the result of failure to learn to act as the present situation demands, faulty labelling, the persistence of inappropriate responses, and rigidly fixed patterns in the 5 face of what appear to be insoluble problems posed by the propaganda of conflicting national interacts and the probability of a thermonuclear Judgment Day. 9. That contemporary conflicts indicate a deep—seated feeling of guilt and terror clamoring in the collective unconscious of humanity, the guilt and terror feeling of having unleashed the power to destroy all life. 10. That contemporary conflicts are the symptoms of a disturbed society, prone to be schizophrenic and paranoid, ‘with typical split personality, delusions of persecution and of greatness, and hallucinations. It should be noted here that the writer does not regard the above hypotheses as constituting an epitaph for the Western World but rather as his impressions of what the wide world of counseling and guidance is up against. To echo Stuart Chase (13:h3): "Are we crazy, then? Not hopelessly, but daft enough to be on the point of shattering a civilization." Plan of Organization Painstaking time was spent in surveying the literature and in investigating possible historical influences, but these are the routine and necessary bases of research which, it may be hoped, will lurk between the lines rather than appear in the formal writing, thereby adding to the impact of the literary iceburg in which any book represalts merely the visible portion of a largely invisible entity. 6 Although the writer deemed it necessary to use a modicum of classic historical background in this work (as Chapter II will attest), he has resisted the temptation of indulging in a "remembrance of things past" while wandering in a mist of philosophy through a maze of history. In short, he sought to avoid reprinting the more belabored paraphrases of the cultural heritage and to concentrate upon the present time and space along the continuum. This decision seemed in agreement with the Oppenheimer (h1:20) statement: The result (of scientific advances within our generation) is that nearly everything that I now know was not in any book when most of us went to school; we cannot know it unless we have picked it up since. The aforementioned decision also seemed in general accord with the anall voice of a new nation, Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, speaking out in the preface to Ward's (61) Five Ideas That Change the World: It is so often said that an understanding of the present relies upon an understanding of the past; in the present age the truth of this is perhaps less patent than formerly. Never before has the world been so divided by conflicting ideologies, never has so much depended upon the finding, not perhaps of a reconciliation of the ideologies, but of a means of coexistence. The very continuation of the human race vmuld seem to depend upon a solution of this problem. Barbara Ward does not make the mistake common to many economists and political theorists of attempting to interpret the present, still less to prophesy the future, in terms solely of the past... She quotes the African proverb, 'When the bull elephants fight, the grass is trampled down,‘ and 7 pleads with the small and uncommitted nations to make their voices heard constructively while there is still time, for in this age of the ultimate weapon the bull elephants would disappear with the grass. The above theme is introduced here because its tones recurred constantly during work on the dissertation at hand, and therefore will be reiterated in various modula- tions on the pages to follow (particularly in Chapter IV). This "point-counterpoint" echoing throughout today's world seems well keyed by the leader of a new country helpless but articulate in an era unprecedented for a totalitarian tyranny that speaks both with the voice of communism and democracy. When one form of life threatens the existence of all forms of life on a planet (presumably the only planet containing life), then the ultimate tyranny as well as the ultimate weapon has arrived. Guidance becomes concentrated upon the guidance of thermonuclear missiles rather than upon the guidance of people. In the past men have died in the name of truth, but the truth is what a man "trows" or believes in, and beliefs have varied from place to place and from time to time along the continuum of history. To risk global annihilation, unless one or the other form of present-day truth prevails, may be acceptable to the atheist or to the religious zealot, but to the person Imu>hmnders Mmat the future might hold for his new-born natimh hifis descendants, or for life itself, the risk may notsmem ungrth even the shadow of the radioactive candle. 8 At a paradoxical hour of history when new nations, sprung free of rusty shackles, are threatened with loss of their infant liberties by a twentieth century Armageddon, the prime minister of Ghana appears to place himself in the not inconsiderable company of those who align themselves with Housman's (26:XII) forlorn hero: "I, a stranger and afraid / In a world I never made." Just as the perspective on conflicts in this work may be broad or narrow, so may the research itself be viewed. Broadly, the historical method has been employed, but more narrowiy, the descriptive-survey method has been combined with a format of inquiry used as instrument:3 The form letters that accompanied the open-end format of inquiry were carefully phrased to make the addressees want to join the survey of opinion. After a tryout or pretesting of reaction, there were a number of changes in the form letters, the most significant of these being the invitation to diSpense with the format of inquiry and to reply in whatever way suited the respondent. Although follow-up was the rare exception rather than the rule (as will be noted in the complete report on methodology and results in Chapter VII, the percentage of returns 3See Appendix A for the format of inquiry and for copies of the various form letters sent to different groups of respondents . 9 tended to compare favorably with the mean percentage of questionnaire returns from such investigations as follows (22:627): 20h doctoral dissertations at Teachers College, Columbia University, 70.65 per cent; 59 research studies reported in the Journal of_Educational Research, 80.71 per cent. The percentage of returns ran well in advance of the percentage mentioned in Strong's (57:x) report: "A third of all who have been asked to fill out the Vocational Interest Blank have done so without any recompense. A one-third return on any questionnaire is unusual." Strong was speaking in particular of psychologists, who at the time were not too complimentary about his obsession with interests, but nevertheless they responded to his research instrument. Similarly in this research at hand it should be noted that formats of inquiry were sent to people who do not appear at first glance to have much, if any, relation to counseling and guidance. However, it is a major contention of this thesis that counseling and guidance is a function of society as a whole rather than the prerogative and responsibility of a specialized group, no matter how skilled and experienced in their field. This means to say that various segments of society should be explored for opinions and observations. ‘When the whole world tends to practice counseling, it seems reasonable to assume that ideas of value or criticisms worth analyzing may be found among those who are not formally known as 10 counselors. Cultural anthropologists, behavioral psycholo- gists, general semanticists, among others, undoubtedly have contributions to make. A recognition of this is seen in the growing number of courses in the Humanities introduced into the curricula of the National Defense Counseling and Guidance Training Institutes. - The writer joins Miller (35:2) in stating that guidance must rest on an interdisciplinary basis, and he adds that counseling and guidance is a function performed in all the professions, and outside the professions, in the State House, on Madison Avenue, from Telstar, at General Motors. The time and talent spent in attempting to shape and direct public opinion through the mass media communication processes must be weighed in relation to what is operating in educa- tional settings. Therefore, the reader will not be surprised to find authorities in Motivational Research speaking out in Chapter VI, Surveys g£_Opinion. In deciding upon selection of potential respondents in the several surveys of opinion, the writer made arbitrary choices and hoped to get quality and variety in the resultant sample. As has been implied, reactions from scholars in disciplines other than counseling and guidance were sought, as well as reactions from different levels within the field. Spokesmen outside of educational settings were invited to take part in the surveys. The entire selective process might well be challenged as haphazard or "impressionistic," but at 11 least this marks an attempt to gather insights from a multiviewpoint rather than from a multitude of univiewers (that is, the kind of survey that establishes circular validity by sampling itself, tantamount to having all the yea-Sayers and nay-sayers of the in—group in an echo chamber or closed circuit system). A fundamental decision in carrying out the surveys was to restrict the locale of the immediate inquiry to the United States as representing the citadel of western political philosophy and social psychology. This decision seemed to receive explicit support from Allport (2:h) and Brewer (12:8). Consummation Devoutly to be Wished A.major hope of the writer, and a touchstone in selecting a number of potential respondents, was to receive--instead of routine replies suited to be systematized for quantitative presentation-~responses that would lend themselves as valuable and integrated parts of the thesis. This hope, at least in the writer's opinion, has been realized far beyond his expectations, or to use a more appropriate term, his desserts. Some of the responses seem to have the merit of professional articles, while others appear to have enough potential material to form a book in themselves. Certain of the responses seemed so apt and timely, and written with such impact, that the writer curtailed his own presentations in Chapters II, III, and IV on the grounds that these responses said what he had to say in more effective l2 terms OI"were uttered from a more influential position. Not a fknd of the responses seemed to work so well into the "narrative" of the thesis that they might be called written to order. As an illustration of the spirit of the responses, one spokesman, who maintained that he should not take the time from his own pressing tasks to respond but could not resist the challenge to do so, wrote what amounted to a professional article and then, in haste at the close, explained that he had no secretary and would the writer ask his secretary to type two triple-spaced copies of the manu- script for return to him because, on re—reading what he had written at white heat, it seemed appropriate for an article that one of his publishers had just requested. (The writer also lacking a secretary, his wife cheerfully carried out the request.) The above is only one illustration of the enthusiasm ‘with which some of the responses were made. In effect, a sizeable number of respondents became co—authors in the total enterprise, as a glance at Chapter VI will verify. Definition of Terms As aforementioned, members of professional and (a few) non-professional groups were asked to consider the topic: Conflicts within Counseling and Guidance. To help resolve the problem of semantics, and to stimulate maximum leeway in expressing viewpoints, each individual was encouraged to interpret guidance as meaning education, culture, western l3 civilization, democratic philosophy, or indeed whatever he saw meaningful in the term. Primitive guidelines were offered: I think the greatest conflict within guidance is The second most vital conflict within guidance to my mind is ; Another conflict within guidance as I see it is ; To me the list of conflicts within guidance would not be complete without . Such a global definition of guidance, as permitted by the terms of the questionnaire, irritated one respondent (Woodring) to the cry of "Fuzzy," startled and challenged still another (Shoben), beclouded the issue for a few others (Roeber et a1.).u The overwhelming majority, however, responded without questioning the global definition of the term. There were also a few exceptions to the writer's choice of the term conflicts, deliberately selected because of its harsh, uncompromising tone of contention. Hahn chose to speak of issues; APGA President Dunsmoor preferred divergent viewpoints, and Skinner felt comfortable only with problems. Definitions of terms will be found throughout the body of this dissertation. For a masterly and well-documented ll'For further information, locate these persons in the Index of Authorities at the end of the book. ‘00 ..-— ‘ lit example, the reader is referred to Hahn’s contribution in Chapter VI. The writer wants to make a statement about definitions hIgeneral and communications in particular. No matter WmNLdefinitions (operational or otherwise) a writer might smxflfy, the reader may be assumed to react to a number of temmsat an emotional or non-logical level. Explicitness doesrmn.necessarily communicate. The secret of effective cmmmmdcation often is ambiguity, with much of the onus umethe person who responds. Just as writer and reader are separate entities, so is eadlreading of a book an act of creation distinct from any E>ther reading of that book. The words remain the same but the perceptions vary. No play comes to life until an audience acts as ITlidwife. There is no agreement on a definition of Hamlet's Character, and in that very mystery lies the immortality. I’I‘esumably Dean Swift's definition of Gulliver's Travels was that of a satire on society, a tirade against man‘s inhumanity to man, but generations of children have regarded Um book from their own benevolent frame of reference-~as one of the most engaging of the world's fairy tales. For the reasons cited above, it is not this writer's idea to dictate definitions of terms but to attempt to convey an impression that the reader may interpret and modify and thus join in the creative enterprise. As in 15 cmunseling the client is presented with information and choices, and it is the reader, not the writer, who necessarily and inevitably, makes the decisions. This, then, is a joint venture, an exploration in Ummtherness on a subject that may be viewed broadly or IMMTowLy, on a theoretical or practical level. A.saying cmmm to mind: "The gift without the giver is bare." Andalparaphrase occurs: "The writer without the reader is nowhere!" Related Studies Somewhat related to one category of respondents that Nfimars in this study is the Norris (hO) follow-up study, 1ming a questionnaire, of graduates across more than a deCade from a representative mid-western counselor education FWOQrmu. VThe present study, however, insofar as counselor I‘espondents is concerned, cannot compare in size, formal Statistical methods, or group homogeneity with that of Norris. The goals of the Norris study were more explicit. Related to the portion of the thesis using the historical method, are the studies of Brewer and, more recently, the studies of Barry and Wolf. These will be discussed at some length in Chapter III. Respondents were helpful in pointing out related studies for references. These will occur in due place. 16 Limitations of the Study The value set on individual response undoubtedly has limited the study insofar as mechanical methods of appraisal are cmncerned. Quantitative presentation will be attempted in.Chapter VII, but the research has not been as systema— tized as it could have been if the potential respondents 1mm been held to a check list or rating scale or multiple- <flmice device. Similarly, although categories of responses mulcomparisons in terms of different variables have not bemlignored, greater attention has been paid to the original idemsand forthright opinions of the spokesmen who con- uubuted so splendidly to the thesis that they are considered FMItners in the making of the book. Beyond question, EBff‘iciency has been sacrificed but (hopefully) effectiveness has been gained. Guiding Principles of the Study Following are some of the guiding principles that went 1nto the production of this work: [Non-logical behavior not only is important but] it is inevitable and constitutes a large part of the behavior of any human being whatso- ever. Effective persuasion itself often involves also non-logical processes...ln ordinary human relations the same words in the same context often have different meanings when uttered by different individuals...[Society is suffering a good deal because] it is subjected to a barrage of expert vocalizers who do not know what they are talking about but are convincing to the uninformed because they talk about it very well...Executives have to learn to think not only in the terms which are most convenient and appropriate frmn their own 17 point of view but also in the terms of other men and from other points of view. This was taken to heart from Barnard‘s "Education for Executives" (S) . The other day when l was speaking at the Arts Club someone asked me what life I would recommend to young Irishmen, the thought my whole speech, if it were logical, should have led up to. I was glad to be able to reply, :I do not know, though I have thought much about it.‘ Who does not distrust complete ideas? 'an passage seemed to leap alive from the pages of Yeats‘ autobiography (64:325). "Leadership requires more than rationality; it requires atleast as much emotionality...ln general a subjective fiKMment is better than all the objective things you can 981...“; "It‘s difficult to interview a rat."6 "I may be in error but I am not in doubt."7 ____ 5Floyd Reeves, distinguished professor, advisar to Presidents (University of Chicago, Michigan State University, the White House), in conversation. 6 William Farquhar, recipient of the APQA Research Award, 1959, talking. 7Bill Kell, Professor, Counseling Center, Michigan State University, in reply to an inquiry by an NDBA Institute participant. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL CONFLICTS WITHIN WESTERN CULTURE The history of mankind, perhaps indeed of all forms of life, is that of unending conflict and compromise between the individual and the group. In historical perspective this pendulum of conflict and compromise dates back to the era when individuals, formerly considered more or less equal in importance to the tribe, were forced to sacrifice rights and identities so that tribal institutions might grow and serve the greater number. Laws restricting individual liberty became necessary in order for society to survive and transmit its lore to future generations. No doubt the question then was raised (and it never has been dropped to this day): "How'much of his freedom may the individual sacrifice to the group for maximal benefit to both?" AIong the continuum of history, attempts to "act out" an answer to this question have met with varying degrees of success and failure. The experiments continue; the debate still rages. 18 19 Definition of Western Culture On these pages the writer has followed Priestley‘s (h5:ix) meaning of the term in his title, Literature and Western Man; that is, the Iron Curtain is removed and "Western" interpreted in the old geographical and cultural contexts to include Russia as well as America, and to exclude all Asia. This viewpoint, admittedly, quarrels with evidence that Clough (lu:6) and others cite to support the exclusion of Russia, dividing Western Culture into four major subcultures, including Northwestern and Central Europe (all the countries west of Russia and northeast of a line from Bordeaux to Budapest); Southern Europe (all of Europe south of the line from Bordeaux to Budapest); English- speaking North America, Australia, New'Zealand, South Africa; and Latin America. This definition of boundaries may satisfy those who look upon the Russian Revolution as a second Mongol conquest, but an edict that exiles from Western Culture the genius of Tolstoi, Turgenev, Vinogradov, Shostakovich, Tchaikowsky, and Chekhov (to name a few Russians who have influenced modern thought) seems not only ridiculous but a loss that Western Culture itself cannot bear. Basic Values of Western Culture In the Western World, from the eighth to the sixth centuries B.C., the city-state of Athens (supplanting the tribe as the political, economic, and religious center of 20 group life) upheld a torch of freedom for the individual, a torch that has blazed and fluttered its light to far-off cities in time and space, a light that has gone underground at times but one that has never gone out. The classic statement of the Athenian ideal of democracy was uttered in the funeral oration of Pericles in h31 B.C., during the war with Sparta. Minor changes would make it resemble a modern editorial in the Chicago Tribune (or, for that matter, in Pravda). Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighboring states. We are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administra- tion favors the many instead of the few. This is why it is called a democracy. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if to social standing, advancement in public life fails to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way; if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbor for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty. But all this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens. Against this, fear is our chief safe- guard, teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the statute books, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace. Further, we provide plenty of means for the mind to refresh itself from business. ‘We celebrate games and sacrifices all the year round, and the elegance of our private establishments forms a daily source of pleasure and help to banish the spleen; 21 while the magnitude of our city draws the produce of the world into our harbor, so that to the Athenian the fruits of other countries are as familiar a luxury as those of his own. If we turn to our military policy, there also we differ from our antagonists. We throw open our city to the world, and never by alien acts exclude foreigners from any opportinity of learning or observing, trusting less in system and policy than to the native spirit of our citizens; while in education, where our rivals from their very cradles by a painful discipline seek after manliness, at Athens we live exactly as we please, and yet are just as ready to encounter every legitimate danger. Nor are these the only points in which our city is worthy of admiration. ‘We cultivate refinement without extravagance and knowledge without effeminacy; wealth we employ more for use than for show, and place the real disgrace of poverty not in owning to the fact but in declining the struggle against it. Our public men have, besides politics, their private affairs to attend to, and our ordinary citizens, though occupied with the pursuits of industry, are still fair judges of public matters; for, unlike any other nation, regarding him who takes no part in these duties not as unambitious but as useless, we Athenians are able to judge at all events if we cannot originate, and instead of looking on discussion as a stumbling block in the way of action, we think it an indispensable preliminary to any wise action at all. In short, I say that as a city we are the school of Hellas; while I doubt if the world can produce a man, who, where he has only himself to depend upon, is equal to so many emergencies, and graced by so happy a versatility as the Athenian. Thus Athens in the golden age mirrored her self concept in words and spirit alive in contemporary Western Culture. ‘Would a Frenchman of today, an American, a Briton, a German, and, yes, a Russian, speak otherwise of himself and his 22 nation—state than spoke the Athenian of his city-state in that long—ago yesterday? Conflict of Values in Western Culture But the times changed, and Thucydides in h27 B.C. might well have been describing (some twenty—four hundred years in advance) the "cold war" struggles and the "hot spots" of global imbalance in the ubiquitous contests that threaten the continuation of Western Culture and of life itself on this world. Mirroring other eras then his own, Thucydides in effect wrote a "Remembrance of Things to Come": Later on, one may say, the whole Hellenic world was convulsed, struggles being everywhere made by the popular chiefs to bring in the Athenians, and by the oligarchs to introduce the Lacedaemonians. In peace there would have been neither the pretext nor the wish to make such an invitation; but in war, with an alliance always at the command of either faction for the hurt of their adversaries and their own corresponding advantage, opportunities for bringing in the foreigner were never wanting to the revolutionary parties. Words had to change their ordinary meaning and to take that which was now given them. Reckless audacity came to be considered the courage of a loyal ally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice. Moderation was held to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all sides of a question, ineptness to act on any. Frantic violence became the attribute of manliness; cautious plotting, a justifiable means of self-defense. The advocate of extreme measures was always trustworthy; his opponent, a man to be suspected. To succeed in a plot was to have a shrewd head, to divine a plot a still shrewder; but to try to provide against having to do either was to break up your party and to be afraid of your adversaries. 23 Do these echoes from Thucydides have a familiar and contemporary ring? Are they confined solely to die nation of today or are they endemic in Western Culture, in the very nature of man? How closely do the words of Thucydides bring together the times and the morals that are two and a half millenia apart? The leaders in the cities,1 each provided with the fairest professions, on the one side with the cry of political equality of the people, on the other of a moderate aristocracy, sought prizes for themselves in those public interests which they pretended to cherish, and, recoiling from no means in their struggles for ascendancy, engaged in the most direct excesses. In their acts of vengeance they went to even greater lengths, not stopping at what justice or the good of the state demanded, but making the party caprice of the moment their only standard, and invoking with equal readiness the condemnation of an unjust verdict or the authority of the strong arm to glut the animosities of the hour. Thus religion was in honor with neither party, but the use of fair phrases to arrive at guilty ends was in high reputation. Meanwhile, the moderate part of the citizens perished between the two, either for not joining in the quarrel or because envy would not suffer them to escape. The foregoing passages from Thucydides! History o£_the Peloponnesian Wars suggest obvious parallels and counter- parts in present-day Western Culture. Plato, born in the midst of such unprincipled chaos, dreamed of a Utopia that denied the democratic tradition of golden-age.Athens. The program he advocated would subordinate all individuals to 1For cities, read nations, for modern application (Ed.). 24 the state. His Republic not only served as a precedent to the divine rights of kings but it also disintegrated the family, established the duty of the masses as workers of the world, and imposed a censorship on ideas (especially creative ideas) as stringent as any thought-police of the present. A.dichotomy could be hazarded: that Mr. Khrushchev‘s Soviet Republics are closer to Plato’s famed Republic than most other peoples within Western Culture, and, in turn, that the latter mainly have drawn their guiding principles from Pericles rather than from Plato. The above dichotomy, however, is not rigidly drawn here although the tendency seems apparent. A.continuum might be drawn with Plato at one extreme and Pericles at another. Russian and American ways of life, for example, could be said to fall at opposing ends. This appears much too naive an observation, too much in keeping with the propaganda of the times. It seems more reasonable to suppose that two opposhig ideas have dominated world thinking and action throughout recorded history. These opposing ideas may be reduced to the disciplinary concepts of controls from without the individual and controls from within the individual. These disciplinary concepts have fluctuated across time and space, with the one and then the other gaining ascendancy in various eras and geographical divisions of the globe. 25 It may*be posited that Russia with her Soviet Republics represents largely the Platonian idea of government with the disciplinary concept of controls from without the individual, while the United States largely represents the Periclean idea of government with the disciplinary concept of controls from within the individual. This broad generalization must be qualified with the statement that, within these national entities, there exist opposing poles of opinion regarding the rights of the individual and of the group. Russia is not black, nor the United States white. There are grey (and pink) shades within each. Clough (14:15) pointed out that members of primitive cultures sacrifice the individual for the glory of both their gods and their tribes. Do not advanced cultures tend to do the same? Similarly it may be said that Russo— Communists subordinate the individual in order to further a particular socioeconomic system. However, these same Russo-Communists might well argue that communism will in the long run give freedom to the individual. As essential nurturing climate for freedom, of course, is a dynamic economy. Economists (61:58) estimate that when a society begins to save and invest from 12 to 15 per cent of its national income, it has broken through the "sound barrier" between a static and a dynamic economy. For several decades now Soviet Russia has maintained a 26 rate of savings up to 20 and 25 per cent of the national income. These significant figures, along with Russian advances in agriculture and industry, are an indication that the Russian people may move (and probably already are moving) toward greater individual freedom. Meanwhile, the United States and other nations within Western Culture have moved from their more extreme concept of individual freedom to a show of greater concern for the group and for the structure (the nation) that sustains the group. In other words, it would appear that Russia and the united States are approaching one another in fundamental concepts, although the extreme opinions remain within each national entity and, being shrill and articulate, are an ever—present threat to world welfare. Prognosis of Conflict One of the first observers to sense the two great protagonists shaping up in the arena of contemporary con- flicts was the Frenchman, Alexis de Toqueville (18:452), as he stared out across the American frontier, compared the scene with Russia‘s land mass and her peoples, and ventured a prophecy from his point in time of 1833: There are at the present time two great nations in the world, which started from different points, but seem to tend towards the same end. I allude to the Russians and the Americans. Both of them have grown up unnoticed; and while the attention of mankind was directed elsewhere, they have suddenly placed themselves in the front rank among 27 the nations, and the world learned of their existence and their greatness at almost the same time. All other nations seem to have nearly reached their natural limits, and they have only to maintain their power; but these are still in the act of growth. All the others have stopped, or continue to advance with extreme difficulty; these alone are proceeding with ease and clarity along a path to which no limit can be perceived. The American struggles against the obstacles that nature opposes to him; the adversaries of the Russian are men. The former combats the wilderness and savage life; the latter, civilization with all its arms. The conquests of the American are therefore gained by the plowshare; those of the Russian by the sword. The Anglo—American relies upon personal interest to accomplish his ends and gives free scope to the unguided strength and common sense of the people; the Russian centers all the authority of society in a single arm. The principle instrument of the former is freedom; of the latter, servitude. Their starting point is different and their courses are not the same; yet each of them seems marked out by the will of Heaven to sway the destinies of half the globe. Alexis de Toqueville was, of course, speaking of the Russia of the Czars and the Uhited States of Andrew Jackson. His prognosis and implication of conflict are remarkable. The two great contenders shape up much as he saw them within Western Culture, but the national interests of the government of Czar Basil and the national interests of the government of Premier Khrushchev would appear to be at least as different as the national interests of the govern- ment of Andrew Jackson and the national interests of the government of John F. Kennedy. However, the propaganda in de Toqueville's statement, the classic dichotomies of sword 28 and plowshare, slavery and freedom, no doubt would carry over in many American minds as unchanged. It is in areas such as this that the essential conflict exists. This is the conflict that remains to be resolved if civilization is to endure. Inherited and conditioned prejudices must yield to Benedict's dictum (8:257) that societies and nations cannot be compared on an ethical basis but simply as coexisting and equally valid patterns of life. Conflicts Within Communications The process of saying one thing and meaning another perhaps is as old as the first attempts at language. Probably there were cavemen who deceived others with false promises couched in eloquent ugh§_just as there were cavemen who caused breakdowns in communications by misunderstanding the meaning of Speakers. Any language is such a deceptive art that those who deal most extensively in the medium become wary of definitions and suspicious of intent. Freud himself grew so distrustful of words that he put his faith in the images of dreams and in the lapsus linguae, slip of the tongue. Francis Bacon, in the sixteenth century AmD., concerned himself with the problem of communications in his Ngvum_ Organum: We have no sound notions either in logic or physics; substance, quality, action, passion, and existence are not clear notions; much less, 29 weight, levity, density, tenuity, moisture, dryness, generation, corruption, attraction, repulsion, element, matter, form, and the like. They are all fantastical and ill defined. The notions of less abstract natures, as man, dog, dove; and the immediate perceptions of sense, as heat, cold, white, black, do not deceive us materially, yet even these are some- times confused by the mutability of matter and the intermixture of things. ,All the rest, which men have hitherto employed, are errors; and improperly abstracted and deduced from things. unquestionably important advances in semantics have been made since the days of Bacon; the propositional function and the theory of types, both largely the work of Bertrand Russell; and the operational definition and predictive value as the criterion of truth, both largely developed within the field of modern physics. These four great principles, however, are unknown to the general public which reacts to words as if words were things, words were facts, words were magic. These chain reactions to words not only make possible huge sale volumes entirely unrelated to quality of product2 but, throughout history, they also have made wars inevitable (2h:23, 2h). The demagogue and his true believers are fanatical and psychotic in their violation of semantic principles. This means to say that their reactions to word signals are automatic, uncritical, 2For more intimate and personal revelations, see the Motivational Research responses in Chapter VI. 30 and impulsive. This goes further to say that the psychotic reaction to Communism by a fanatical anti-Communist would put a higher value on the abolition of such "wickedness" than on the continued existence of the human race; and a similar psychotic reaction to anti-Communism would be made by a fanatical Communist (52:120, 121). Definition of Western Values In brief, the Western World, historically and presently, has professed to cherish such values as individual worth, filial love, group security, a just peace, opportunity for self-actualization, enjoyment of beauty, and in general a way of life governed by the Golden Rule of the Bible or the Golden Mean (auream mediocritatem) of Graeco—Roman philosophy. But these values are not merely expressed in different languages; they express differing viewpoints among peoples of different ideologies and nationalities. In fact, the same umrds spoken by different people may have identical or different meanings; and the same words spoken by the same people may have identical or different meanings, depending upon the person addressed, the time of day, the situation, and any number of other variables. An example may be given from Basic Values 9£_American Civilization, previously cited (1h). Clough titled his second chapter, "The End of Man is Man." In this writer's copy a reader has scribbled the satirical comment: "Could be!" 31 Paradox of Conflicts and Values The highest values of Western Culture seem to carry with them the gravest conflicts. Man is an individual; he needs to preserve and to develop to full potential his own unique identity. But man is a social animal; he needs to communicate and to interrelate with his own species, to protect and to be protected by other men. A move to the left or to the right, forced or chosen, brings man into conflict. Thus it seems to the writer that the conflicts between the socioeconomic systems of Russia and America are representative of this duality in the nature of man, and the constant war within. For vigorous comments on personal and social values, the reader is invited to scan the responses of Anatol Rapaport and Clyde R. Miller, among others, in Chapter VI. Bertrand Russell (52:111), speaking out as a champion of self—enterprise, said: All the important human advances that we know of since historical times began, have been due to individuals of whom the majority faced virulent public opposition. Emerson wrote in greater moderation but much in the same vein as the above in his essay, "Self Reliance." There is a time in every man's education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance, that limitation is suicide; that he must take himself for better or for worse as his portion; that though the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on 32 that plot of ground which is given to him to till. The power which resides in him is new in nature, and no one but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know until he has tried. Trust thyself; every heart vibrates to that iron string. A political victory, a rise of rents, the recovery of your sick or the return of your absent friend, or some other favorable event raises your spirits, and you think good days are preparing for you. Do not believe it. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. And yet one of Carl R. Rogers' books is prefaced with a quotation from Emerson about the individualts need of an uncensoring listener. D. H. Lawrence, whose theme in several famous books is love, lends modern literary weight to this major point in the thesis. Here he is, speakhig of mother and child: Hence a duality now, in primal consciousness in the infant. The warm rosy abdomen, tender with chuckling unison, and the little back strengthening itself. The child kicks away, into independence. It stiffens its spine in the strength of its own private and separate, inviolable existence. (31:6h) And as the child fights the mother fights. Smnetimes she fights to keep her refactory child, and sometimes she fights to kick him off, as a mare kicks off her too—babyish foal. (31:65) So, the polarity of the dynamic consciousness, from the very start of life! Direct flowing and flashing of two consciousness—streams, active in the bringing forth of an individual being. The sweet commingling, the sharp clash of opposition. And no possibility of creative development without this polarity, this dual circuit of direct, spontaneous, honest interchange. No hope of life apart from this. (31:66) 33 Lawrence goes from the subject of mother and child to that of man and his beloved, discussing a mode of communication at first: The breasts themselves are as two eyes. We do not know how much the nipples of the breast, both in man and woman, serve primarily as poles of vital conscious effluence and con— nection. ‘We do not know how the nipples of the breast are as fountains leaping into the universe, or as little lamps irradiating the contiguous world, to the soul in quest. (31:83) Continuing his clinical analysis, Lawrence asks himself a searching question: There is a tremendous great joy in exploring and discovering the beloved. For what is the beloved? She is that which I myself am not. Knowing the breach between us, the uncloseable gulf, (my unconscious goes forth) to find out the wonders which itself does not contain and to transfer these wonders, as by impress, into itself. (This) contains always the element of self- amplification, as if the self were amplified by knowledge in the beloved. It should also contain the knowledge of the limits of the self. (31:99,'lOO) In summing up his theme, which is such a striking parallel to the main theme of this chapter, Lawrence uses both mystical and practical elements of communication: The goal of life is the coming to perfection of each single individual (but) a soul cannot come into its own through that love alone which is in unison. If it stress the one mode, the sympathetic mode, beyond a certain point, it breaks its own integrity, and corruption sets in in the living organism. On both planes of love, upper and lower, the two modes must act complementary to one another, the sympathetic and the separatist. It is the absolute failure to see this, that has torn the modern world into two halves, the one half warring for the voluntary objective, separatist control, the other for the ‘— "~._‘ 3b. pure sympathetic. The individual psyche divided agahist itself divides the world against itself, and an unthinkable progress of calamity ensues unless there be a reconciliation. (31:106, 107) Carried forward by Lawrence's enthusiasm, the writer is tempted to add Q.E.D., but he concludes his statement with the measured judgment that man must fulfill himself but he does not live by himself, nor for himself, alone. This is the paradox of value and conflict that Western Culture must reconcile before the clock strikes thirteen. CHAPTER III CONFLICTS WITHIN THE MODERN GUIDANCE MOVEMENT One of the major features of the 1963 Convention of iflielAmerican Personnel and Guidance Association was the scheduling of the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the National Vocational Guidance Association. The siiue of the Convention, Boston, the "birthplace" of ‘vocational guidance, added significance to the occasion; and the theme of the Convention--"Guidance: Retrospect arui Prospect"—-encompassed the historical significance of the fiftieth anniversary of the NVGA.and also indicated the important responsibilities to the future held by all divisions of the American Personnel and Guidance Association. Capsule History of Modern Guidance It was in Boston that the organized modern guidance Inovement had its beginning in a philanthropic organization luaown as the Vocational Guidance Bureau of Boston, founded in 1908 by Mrs. Quincy A, Shaw at the suggestion of JProfessor Frank Parsons of the Law School of Boston University.1 1This history is largely borrowed from "The APGA Story, 1% Report to the Profession," from the American Personnel and Chiidance Association, Washington: 1961, pp. lh-18. 35 36‘ Mr. Parsons became the first director of the Bureau, which proposed to "Give aid to young people in choosing an occupation, preparing themselves for it, finding an opening in it, and building up a career of efficiency and success." In 1909 Parsons! Choosing a Vocation was published, but untimely death kept him from seeing his book in print. The vmrk of what had come to be known as the Breadwinners' Institute was taken over by Myer Bloomfield, who had been director of the Boston Civic Service House. The services of the Vocational Guidance Bureau were enlarged and extended, and definite contacts were made with the com- nmnity's business and industrial leaders and with the public schools. _At the suggestion of the Massachusetts Commissioner Efi‘Education, representatives from thirty—five cities met filBoston in 1910 fir the first Vocational Guidance Conference. The inspiration of this conference soon spread to all parts Cfi‘the country and resulted in the organization of the National vocational Guidance Association in Grand Rapids, iflchigan, in 1913. Within four decades, membership grew from one hundred to approximately six thousand. Then, in July, 1952, the American Personnel and Guidance Association was founded. By 1963 membership neared seventeen thousand. Th1? stated purpose of APGA is to unify all qualified w orkerus in.the field so that mutual acquaintance may be o ' ' n .A \- ,uu ...n-"' ‘)—u4“' _. o'u‘ , a u ~‘»' ..-- v‘ ......“- uh“.-. ¢--¢ ... ~... - o i , "' v . "n...‘ "-|.' . v~..,.- H.».. _ 37 cultivated, so that principles, practices and professional standards may be advanced, and to further the development of personnel and guidance workers in educational institutions, community agencies, government organizations, business and industry. The Association provides certain field services, conducts a placement service for guidance and student personnel workers, and coordinates the work of a variety of committees concerned with training, ethical standards, Placement, international relations, and related matters. AS a professional organization, APGA is dedicated to improving standards of guidance and personnel work and Strives to coordinate research and other professional activities. A section in Chapter VI of this book is devoted to a SLlrvey of conflicts within counseling and guidance as seen qu past presidents (and similar potentates) of APGA. Survey of the Literature The point-of-departure book is, of course, Frank -13arsons' own trailblazing Choosing a Vocation (43), which «:Ieserves reprinting and is commended to the reader for its lilcmmly insights, shrewd horse-sense, interview techniques, éaénd appraisal methods for cumulative records. For a detailed history of the first three decades of ::>rimarily the Alger side of the case will be treated here. Alger*S‘first and greatest success, Ragged Dick 93_ Street Life ir__1_New York, was first published in 1867. An Cb‘vernight best-seller, the book went through numerous ea cfiilons before.Algeris death in 1899, and is now listed in 1t.11e category of all-time best-sellers, in such company as Uncle Igm‘s Cabin and Gone with the Wind. There is no question but that Alger had first-hand EL<34uah1tance with the kind of boys he wrote about. In fact, .o-a . I ...:c ... n I t .... v‘ ,1, nurAi u . ,.o.o “.... 1 .n\ v .o‘ I .. . I - I .u. _. . u. ..- -— - «.....- ‘- ho after the publication of Ragged Dick, he was invited by the superintendent of the Newsboys! Lodging House to make his home there, and he moved into that charitable institution and stayed for the next thirty years, encouraging his young companions by writing books that told them to Work and Win, to Plan and Prosper, to 9p and Dare, to Wait 29.9. Hope, to Sink p_r_ Swim, to Strive and Succeed, to be Brave and Bold, to be Strong and Steady, to be Slow and §y_§_e_, to be Frank and Fearless, in which case they were Mpg 31.5.3, guaranteed of Forging Ahead, and sure of Falling 1.1.1. with Fortune. The Alger books appeared during an era when America had just begun to realize her potential, when she was on the verge of developing her great natural resources. A Ilumber of the men who helped to develop these resources found their inspiration in such volumes as Mark Mason's Victory, or The Trials and Triumphs pf; a Telegraph Boy; The Errand Boy, or How Phil Brent Won Success; Sam‘s Chance and How 113 Improved. it} Struggling Upward, or Luke Larkin's w: and so forth, through one hundred and thirty—one other fortune—hunting titles. Alger's books were dedicated to the proposition that fl110thing succeeds like success"-—-—commercial success. As Russell Crouse, the playwright and producer, pointed out in his Witty introduction to the represeitative collection of Alger's novels put out in one volume (l:x), the real heroes A .i .. \ _- w v. ' ... .1 a v... .... l.. ’- fu "‘" L. ...7 cl’ “" .I‘V.» ’.. ~l4i"~ el. 0.. 3 . r ...-.." D‘\"I , . IligeV‘ I .‘l- I ......1 Ar 0- -»o. u i... IA | In: ... \ ..~’ I .~“ . . ~o, - ... ‘0. a""‘ '- ;, ~- ‘-. F 'q I ..~ ' -, l n. ' .. . r. 1 ‘\v -. u ,' V. . -. - hl in these books of the Harvard Divinity School graduate are not the newsboys and the bootblacks and the luggage boys and the street musicians who were his leading characters, but the merchant princes, the opulent bankers, and the successful lawyers whose careers the heroes were taught to emulate. .Alger worshipped at the shrine of financial success and all of his novels are songs of adoration to high profit. The Unitarian minister who gave up his calling to Write about underprivileged boys, such as Paul, the Peddler; Phil, the Fiddler; and Jed, the Poorhouse Boy, showed them a middleclass road frmn rags to riches, not calculated to intrigue a Steinmetz, a Douglas MacArthur, an Edison, an 1¥1exander Graham Bell, a DeForest, or a Frank Lloyd Wright, xWhose goals were set on horizons beyond the commonplace Eunbition of financial rewards. Instead of striving to betcome rich men these spirits aimed at enriching mankind. Alger preached the gospel of the almighty dollar. His quemca was Wall Street, aid his Mohammed was Commodore ‘\IEanderbilt who had sailed a Staten Island ferryboat into Jr1.inety~four million dollars. Algerian heroes are all nice, bright, dependable young men with a complete set of virtues, and yet they seldom are 9 ifted with any exceptional talent, and no Alger hero is celebrated as "making his mark" in the world by developing his talents through years of diligent study and crea tive he effort. But the happenstance formula of success suited the wishful thinking and daydreaming of the average newsboy whose desires and drives were mediocre. In the twilight of Alger‘s hmiting career, great ewents were afoot in America and great men were born to carry them forward, but they tended to be inspired by research and experiment, not by the "luck and pluck" series. The man who wrote the American success story over and over again died a heartbroken failure. All his life he had dreamed of writing the great American novel. He never got further than the title. It was called Tomorrow. The moral of the story carries the inexorable doom of GI‘eek tragedy. In the dream world of Horatio Alger, there is no Tomorrow. Dreams are not materialized by heroes, loitering around until the second—lastchapter. Dreams 1f ““3 poles of political opinion) that guidance and democracy .. "_ u. "- .. ~~~ / 1| .... ,.-.~\- Irv? . , .. .... - -.... . l-w I . - -.. . t‘n-.. -. . ‘ r -. ... . w . O~Qn . v n u. — .. u o 43 go together. Brewer called vocational guidance a necessity to democracy and left the implication that democracy was a necessity to guidance. He said that a survey of the period since 1900 revealed the rise of a number of educational nmvements, smne to flourish and then disappear, others to grow hato hnportance, the latter including vocational mfldance, which added to the educational staff a new worker, unknown half a century ago, the school counselor (12:1). Wrote Brewer (12:7): Given the division of labor, the growth of technology, and the spread of vocational education lus a form of democracy allowing for much self- determination, vocational guidance becomes inevitable. It was no accident that vocational guidance was started in the united States. Relatively free of the class system and of parental domination over children, equipped with educational arrangements smnewhat committed to preparing children and youth for participation in democratic procedures and conditioned toward awakening them to the need for making their own decisions in many kinds of life activity, America could easily endorse a plan of vocational adjust— ment involving a beginning in guidance in the true meaning of the term. Russians, and perhaps others, would challenge Brewer's -SS‘tatement about vocational guidance and democracy going A 'tLCDQether. They would claim, for instance, that true ‘\I‘c>cational choice is impossible in a class—conscious, race- EDDIOQJudiced, mass-unemployment, capitalist society; and that 't—171W?ChOice is possible only in a peoplest government, such as Russia. ao- .- .. u-“ r ...... .0 an- I ...ovu - . . . . . . - ....- .- o iv~..~. . ‘1 - . - — w ‘ ~.. 0; . I. .... n ,' H u..- r u..' i u : t . .11 I» ‘ cu V. . *. g \' I . s, v ~- ”g ‘. _ x. 'e \ s ‘. v. u ‘. A ..‘ . ‘5! 'U 4 Lib. Here again within Western Culture is encountered the paradox of basic communications: the same words carrying different meanings or (another possibility) the same words intended to convey the same meanings but misinterpreted by a communications failure at the other end of the verbal exchange. In England a counselor is called a career master. This seems to have obvious implications. Brewer defined vocational life as representing a gigantic human effort to secure two ends: (1) the support 0f the expenses of civilization, and (2) the maintenance of the individual worker himself. These aims, however, are not always compatible as history has evidenced, from the building of the Pyramids to the building of Magnitovorsk, \dhich contains the largest steel plant and iron foundry in the world today. Moreover, there is a difference in incom— FDatabilities. A vast amount of capital, and slave labor, went into ‘th building of the Pyramids, but these haughty tombs of tLhe Pharaohs did not turn Egypt into a dynamic economy zaJwrmore than do the air—conditioned palaces of modern Saudi Arabia. Conversely, Ward (61:59) cited one estimate <::laiming that as many workers were killed in the building CDUf‘MaQnitovorsk as in the Battle of the Marne. In this case: however, death, instead of erecting tombs for the pqxafldernuaat of the ages, cleared a way for the children of ... q' , . .... -‘ .I\' ' / .ua.. V . .. ,‘ r .. v. I a ' ~- .— ~-.,‘_ .~ ...- , -‘ van AS the dead to have a chance at new life and hope, throwing open these chances to more people than had any previous May of life, in Russia. The American Dream - and Awakening The American Dream, always in capital letters, was summarized by Bernard de Voto in a view of American history, as expressed in a letter to Catherine Drinker Bowen (60:3h6, 3&7): Sure you're romantic about American history. What your detractor left out of account was the fact that it is the most romantic of all histories. It began in myth and has developed through centuries of fairy tales. Whatever the time is in America it is always, at every moment, the mad and way- ward hour when the prince is finding the little foot that alone fits into the slipper of glass. It is a little hard to know what romantic means to those who use the word unbrageously. But if the mad, impossible voyage of Columbus or Cartier or La Salle or Coronado or John Ledyard is not romantic, if the stars did not dance in the sky when our Constitutional Convention met, if Atlantis has any lights or colors or shaper more unearthly than the customary homespun of Lincoln and the morning coat of Jackson, well, I don't know what romance is. Ours is a story mad with the impossible, it is by chaos out of dream, it began as dream and it has continued as dream down to the last headlines you read in a news- paper. And of our dreams there are two things above all others to be said, that only madmen could have dreamed them or would have dared to-— and that we have shown a considerable faculty for making them come true. The simplest truth You can ever write about our history will be Charged and surcharged with romanticism, and if you are afraid of the word you better start Practicing seriously on your fiddle. ‘F- Scott FitZQerald, spokesman for the Lost Generation :31? the 'Tipsy Twenties, would have agreed with Bernard de Voto's ...nn - ' . to: V ...~ ~- _ ... v- a. . dn .-. ... , d .4. ‘— 0- an. ..4. In \nuo . viva. .. . no view of American history--up to a point, the awakening from the dream to face reality. Early in his career and even while ebullient with the success of This Side pf_Paradise, Fitzgerald wrote the president of Princeton: "My view of life, President Hibben, is the view of the Theodore Dreisers and the Joseph Conrads-—that life is too strong and remorseless for the sons of men." His own experience tended to confirm this young judgment and, in l9kO, Fitzgerald told his daughter Scottie: The thing that lies behind all great careers, from Shakespeare‘s to Abraham Lincoln's, and as far back as there are books to read, is the sense that life is essentially a cheat and its conditions are those of defeat, and that the redeeming things are not happiness and pleasure, but the deeper satisfactions that come out of struggle. One of Fitzgerald‘s biographers, Andrew Turnbull (60:306), described the novelist's mood and viewpoint while working on his never~completed masterpiece, The £333 Tycoon, set in the framework of the real-life struggle between Irving Thalberg and Louis B. Mayer at MGM, which is in essence, as Fitzgerald saw it, the Struggle of art versus money, quality versus quantity, the individualist versus the industralist. In other words, Fitzgerald's final, and never finished, novel is the StDry of conflicts within American society and Western Culture. The hero of the drama, Monroe Stahr (Irving 4! I I -...- , ...u -—A ‘. d at. Q. a <\.. o. in. u. I - “o‘-‘ . “‘1: - I . u... o ... "" I § -,_. u,“- .‘. a . '. l o. '3. C . . ‘- ‘v v.. 9 ’o .I' . ': ‘._ ’- u.’ ‘. a j. ..“V '.. . n ‘«., u, . LL? Thalberg), the individualist, loses out to the "Organiza- tion Man" Brady (Louis B. Mayer). Fitzgerald wanted his novel to say something funda- mental about America, that fairy tale among nations. He saw'American history as a great pageant and romance: I look at it, and I think it is the most beautiful history in the world. It is the history of me and of my people. And if I came here yesterday like Sheilah [his mistress in Hollywood] I should still think so. It is the histony of all aspiration-~not just the American dream but the human dream and if I came at the end of it fliat too is a place in the line of the pioneers. (60:30?) Monroe Stahr may be seen as the end product of the above race of pioneers. "Is this all America amounts to?" he seems to say, and, although the answer is "Yes," he views his world with compassion (60:307). There is no need to multiply instances of the American Dream or the Awakening. The literal frontier has disappeared in fact while millions of Americans make symbolic returns to the womb as they view television Westerns. There are ever—beckoning frontiers of thought and space, but new dreams, the same as the old dreams, tend to clash and cause conflicts within American society and Western Culture, Perhaps because there is no truer saying than the French Proverb: "The more things change, the more they are the Same," Every nation has its private dream, and the emotion of the dream bears little resemblance to the emotion of the .u*‘ a... ...,, '-v<. h8 Tin Pan Alley songwriter: "I had a dream, dear / You had one, too / Mine was the best, dear / Because it was of you." Quite the contrary-—when America sings its Dream to Russia and when Russia sings its Dream to America! Modern Conflicts Spelled Out in the Literature Frank Parsons, in his landmark book, Choosing a_Voca- tion (M3), studied conflicts within society and within occupational education, concluding that: Society is very short-sighted as yet in its attitude toward the development of its human resources. It trains its horses, as a rule, better than its men. It spends unlimited money to perfect the inanimate machinery of production, but pays very little attention to. the business of perfecting the human machine, though it is by far the most important in production. (43:160) The admonitions of Parsons seem pertinent to the present state of education and social attitudes, although certain improvements must be conceded since the primitive springings of the modern guidance movement (no doubt traceable in large part to the efforts of Parsons and his followers). The part-time and somewhat peripatetic professor who ended his days in dispensing "True reasoning" (which is to Say, Counseling) to members of the Breadwinners! Institute, a180 made this comment: The union of a broad general culture with an industrial education, including a practical experience broad enough to form a true foundation for specialization in the proper field, possesses pP .- -.. 49 an economic and social value that can hardly be overestimated. Yet practically all our children are sub ected to the evil of unbalanced specializa- tion. (h3:l6l) Most of the children who leave school early specialize in narrow industrial lines, and most of those who remain in school specialize in book learning. (43:162) Critics of modern testing programs would rise en masse to cheer Parsons for the following speech: and The methods of general culture should be materially modified, if we are to give our boys and girls an adequate preparation for life and work instead of a preparation for passing an examination to get a degree. ‘We should train for ability and character rather than for examinations. And the principal test should be the successful performance of things that have to be done in daily life, rather than the answering of a series of questions about a book or a lecture course. (h3:l63) The foregoing idea deserves repeating in full detail, therefore Parsons! conclusion is rounded out below: Systematic and scientific training of body and brain, of memory, reason, imagination, inventiveness, care, thoroughness, truth, promptitude, reliability, sympathy, kindliness, persistent industry, etc., is what we need. Education for power; with actual performance, useful work, as the fundamental test. Power in any direction comes from exercise or activity in that direction, together with sufficient development in other directions to give symmetry and balance to the whole. Even the power of sympathy and the sense of justice can be developed by daily exercise, on the same principle that we develop the biceps or the bicycle muscles. Knowledge is excellent; but a man with knowledge only, without the power of original thought and the ability to put his ideas into effective execution, is little better than a book--he contains a record of facts but cannot build or execute. He may not even be up .c ' 50 to the book standard of life if he has not learned to express himself and impart his knowledge. That is why college graduates, even those who stood high in their classes, often fail tornake good in business. They are good bookworms, sponges, absorbing machines, but they do not know how to do things, and have no taste for doing things. They are really unfitted, by their habits of passive absorption, for the active life of the business world. we must train our students to full powers of action, not only in football and other athletic sports, but in the various lines of useful work so far as possible according to their aptitudes as brought out by scientific and varied experi- ence. .And we must give our working boys the power of thought and verbal expression that comes with general culture. And we must do all this in the formative period, before the progressive hardening of the system has taken the bloom from development and modifiability. In this plastic period of rapid growth, this age of brain and heart, society should guarantee to every child a thorough all-round development of body, mind, and character, and a careful plan- ning of and adequate preparation for some occupa- tion, for which, in the light of scientific testing and experiment, the youth seems best adapted, or as well adapted as to any other calling which is reasonably available. If this vital period is allowed to pass without the broad development and special training that belong to it, no amount of education in after years can ever redeem the loss. Not till this society wakes up to its responsibilities and its privileges in this relation shall we be able to harvest more than a fraction of our human resources, or develop and utilize the genius and ability that are latent in each new generation. ‘When that time does come, education will become the leading industry, and a vocation bureau in effect will be a part of the public—school system in every community-~a bureau provided with every facility that science can devise for the testing of the senses and capacities, and the whole physical, intellectual, and emotional make-up of the child, and with experts trained as carefully for the hmrk as men are trained today for medicine and the law. (h3:l63—l65) n ‘- 51 .Above speaks Frank Parsons, the prophet, first voice in the modern guidance movement, and a voice that remains well worth hearing. John M. Brewer, in his history of vocational guidance (12), raised a number of questions concerning issues in the field, some of which have been answered with more or less adequacy in the interval, but many of which still carry a fresh sound and present—day application:3 Should statistical data be set forth in correlation tables or in probability tables? Should record forms include "all possible facts" or only a modest array, with space for additional data pertinent to each case? Should the counselor attempt most of the counseling himself, or should he enlist the aid of other teachers, social workers, psychologists, employers, and even students? Should each grade level have a new counselor experienced with that particular grade and its problems, or should each counselor follow along with a certain fixed group of counselees? Should the counselor devote some of his time regularly to teaching? Should the counselors each do "field work" in Occupational research? Should counselors avoid having anything to do with discipline? (12:288) Should classes in occupational information give chief attention in class to specific callings or to the more \ 3The questions raised by Brewer are presented here lar'gely verbatim, not inferred. 52 general problems of vocational life? Should classes for credit meet three or five times per week, and at what grade level or levels should they be placed? Should such information be placed as a unit in the social studies course or should it be an independent study? (12:288) or program, Should exploratory (sampling, tryout) experiences be OITfered as a part of the regular curriculum of the youth? 1):) tryout samples for educational guidance--general naeathematics, general science, general language-~have gyeznuine value as solid subject matter? Can they accomplish 'tgrleir purpose? Is the vestibule idea for entering students El good one? (12:289) In the field of preparation for gainful work, how ES~1‘10uld the vocational guidance movement contribute? :I‘TIrough joint supervision? Through approving applications ITor training programs? Should counselors favor a narrow lesLljwi intensive preparation on the "unit trade" plan, or should they stand for a more general preparation--the "horizontal <::*11Ioriculum"--emphasizing versatility and adaptability and fitL’}7£3 ability to enter upon elementary tasks in two or more SE=1ated occupations? (12:289) What should be the methods of placement and follow-up?. :;E;171unseling agencies? F>€3nalty in the shape of a profit merely because he has Fees for the cost EJI‘own up to need vocational guidance? C>.I? tests and scoring are defensible, but education in the £3ll‘lape of guidance should be free, and there are too many (12:291) il-Eimptations to abuse in the other plan. even when backed up by the valuable Can the counselor, ‘:3 Eitafurnished by psychologists and psychometrist, still refrain from forming a judgment on what the young person And is he more likely so to refrain when he is % houid do? 'jLWIimjependent of or dependent upon the psychologist? And, i“SQEain, can he best counsel regarding vocational preparation “hen he is a member of a department of vocational education? ( 12:29.2) Can the principal of a school become a good counselor, Should counselors have 17‘ does his position interfere? EEcught, and should they continue teaching? ‘What should Eh eir preparation be, and should it include occupational 51L experience other than teaching? How should the counselor Should counselors receive “the sane salary as teachers? divide his time among instruction, counseling, placement, .followhup, and research? What should be his outside Irelationship? What attitude toward current labor problems Silould the counselor take? What toward the political and Enconomic aspects of the counseling work? (12:292) Brewer also discussed issues in terminology (communica- tfiions). He said that personnel and advice should not be 1lESed as synonymous with guidance and counsel; nor was aJdNIisement the right word for advice. He suggested that !! Elroup guidance" was invented as a term to mean classroom £3‘t-udy, recitation, or discussion, and he wondered: Is it 81:15, longer needed? "Group counseling" is a similar term, kDIJJt might it not be best to confine the word counseling to Warn with individuals? (122911) Discussing "aptitude," Brewer saw it as a difficult 1""CDJ."‘dtouse correctly. Is there any possible measure or EESS‘timate of one's aptitude for something with which one has Il‘c3‘t had contact whatever, as beating out gold leaf or speak- 11915~g Japanese? (12:29h) The most difficult questions, Brewer found, were those I“E=lating to the evaluation of guidance. What after all is 1“file result of vocational guidance? Does anything happen? ikirw can such a combination of complex things as guidance be ITl‘Eiasured? Are there not too many variables? And does not 55 the main question remain unanswered? Will a plan of exploratory opportunities, information, testing, counseling, and the rest result in a more harmonious vocational life .for the next generation? (12:295) Barry and Wolf,L‘L dissatisfied with erratic terminology. ill the field, settled upon the term guidance—personnel vwork (6). Their book raised such questions as the following: How, in the face of a strong and continuing trend toward Cenltralization, can educators best organize and administer tileir educational institutions? How can educators best c>I‘ganize their work so as to further the aims of their institutions? (6:76, 77) How can guidance-personnel workers organize and Ea~Ciminister their programs so as to reflect and to implement tlfleir true aims and purposes? How can guidance—personnel I;’I‘ograms be operated so that their internal organization, ITIEEthods of communications, and human relationships reflect the philosophy behind them and, perhaps, help to shape the C) I‘ganizational and administrative procedures of the whole institution? (6:77) What guidance-personnel services rightfully belong in E3- school or college? Should the services offered by a school \ 1"The questions raised by Barry and Wolf are reproduced litGare largely verbatim, not inferred. In rare instances, (Dr rhetorical purposes, a statement has been converted to question. 56 or college duplicate or overlap those offered by social agencies or government bureaus? If so, to what extent? Should placement, for example, be a function of the U.S. .Employment Service working in cooperation with the colleges and high schools? Should protracted psychotherapy twith students be a function of some of the social agencies amid special schools rather than an activity supported by tile colleges and public schools? (6:77) What determines the students who receive guidance- EDEBrsonnel help, and are these the best determinants? How ”<361n guidance-personnel programs be organized so that al S‘tnidents will receive the help they need? (6:79) Should guidance-personnel training emphasize general EB(flucational aspects or the techniques and skills required 133%" established procedures? Can training produce, at the £3Eirne time, a technician and an educator? ‘What should be .t‘ljie balance between the "liberal" and the "technical" <::<314rses in a sequence of "professional" training? (6:82) What body of information and skills should every gall-idance-personnel worker have before he is considered to :h)‘E3 trained? What should be the balance in a guidance- E2"E=rsonnel training program between the liberal and technical Q) lf‘ferings? ‘What information and skills from related fields Ea-3L’“e rightfully a part of guidance—personnel training EDibograms? How can materials from other fields best be illrl‘tegrated into these programs? (6:88) 57 Barry and Wolf insist that apprenticeship training in school situations raises some fundamental questions for guidance-personnel educators. First, at what point is the field experience helping the student and at what point Inay it simply be exploiting him? Second, how influential :18 field work in shaping the student's view of his field? Ilaird, what type or types of field experience are most ‘Vraluable? Fourth, can field experience help to train the ENJidance—personnel worker for the future? (6:91) Related questions are the following: What is the best Sequence of training-~what courses form the groundwork? Vfrlat special offerings, if any, should be included for Students on each educational level? For example, should Galementary school guidance workers receive the same training 81:3 (high school guidance workers, or even as college per— 53 (Innel workers? How'much should be common? How much, C3 1 fferent? (6:91) What about selection of guidance-personnel workers? tI§IjJ3 present writer recalls Rogers! opinion (51:76): If an individual is bright, sensitive, and desirous of doing psychotherapy, he is probably a suitable candidate for this field, in the present state of our ignorance. Barry and Wolf emphasize the fundamental paradox that f guidance-personnel work, Barry and Wolf run into issues 1Lhat may be summarized in several questions: Should the focus of guidance-personnel programs be 1Lhe same or different? Should focus be upon individual Estudents who have problems or should it include all 53‘tudents or even all members of the School or college com— rnlinity? Should there be a common focus for all guidance- F>€2rsonne1 work? (6:116) Do guidance-personnel workers, in concentrating upon SSpecial students and groups, discriminate against those $3itudents who are not included in these categories? (6:118) Regarding the problem of context, Barry and Wolf agree ‘tllaat some of the activities of guidance-personnel work Jr‘equire a restricted context, but "Can the total program fit :1s11to anything smaller than the total educational setting ‘Ellad still be a ‘good! guidance-personnel program?" (6:120) Related questions to the above include these: Should SEJthance-personnel work be essentially preventive in nature? JELf prevention is one of the aims of the work, what does this aim imply about the role of the worker? How can a concept (2’17 continuity further the preventive emphasis? (6:12h) ‘. "Vu uh.“ . N. 1...: ." ...‘ a \' '."" 1 O.'-' b,‘-. r 59 According to Barry and Wolf, no issues are more immediately perplexing to guidance—personnel workers than those centering around roles and functions. (6:127) The traditional debate about the role of the guidance-personnel worker may be summed up in one question: "Should he be a generalist or a specialist?" (6:128) What roles are compatible with each of the approaches to guidance-personnel work? What emphases are implicit in each approach? (6:135, 136) What are the procedures and practices of present-day guidance—personnel work? Can they be divided into the three functions of gathering and giving information, counseling, and offering a practical or exploratory experi- ence for students? (6:138) What are the most common types of counseling? Could they be categorized as educational, vocational, personal— social, health, family, foreign student, and the myriad prefixed types? (6:1h0) What about counseling? How'can opportunities for counseling be made available to all students? How can the limits of the guidance-personnel worker's competence in counseling be defined and acknowledged?’ Can the counseling process be divided into specialities? .(6:lhl) What about discipline? The present writer thinks there has been more nonsense written about the counselor and ...- 60 discipline, and non—directive versus directive techniques than any other so-called conflicts within the field. Both subjects would appear to be straw men. One of the most interesting questions raised by Barry and Wolf might be phrased as follows: "Are there pressures operating to induce guidance—personnel workers £2.§El.§§ tools pf anti-intellectualism?" This brings up the question: "Can guidance-personnel workers foster socialized individualism without according intellectual development the importance it deserves?" (6:175-178) In his book Miller (35) introduces a number of startling and intriguing questions, of which a mere sample is given here, for flavor and variety: What reason is there to suppose that abilities have anything to do with the particular environment with which we happen to be familiar? ‘Were there not persons able to learn the trade of auto mechanic before there was such a job? (35:276) Suppose that we are interested in trying to appraise the aptitude of persons for work as salespersons in a department store? First of all, what criterion or criteria of success shall we accept? The gross amount of sales? Judgment of superiors? Tenure on the job? Promotion to better jobs? Suppose we agree on the ratings by supervisors as the criterion. What is the can- bination of present abilities on the basis of which a prediction can be made? Ability to speak easily? Skill in meeting people? Skill in arithmetic computation? Ability to write legible? . . . Is it necessary that those who can perform successfully as salespersons also derive satis- faction from work as salespersons before they can be said to have aptitude? (35:277, 278) What possibly can guidance do about changing the occupation of the father, or about the sex of the client? (35:h27) I... . ...; .l'.. . ‘ '.' ’, c‘. h . I I I‘. . 1‘ "I r1“ ‘ A“ . u -" . vv'.‘ v v "' 61 Miller took note of the fact that in guidance sometimes the means to the end commands more attention than the goal (35:4h7). This is one of the major hypotheses of the present dissertation, starting as it did with the assumption that a variety of people would view counseling and guidance in broad prospective or in narrow focus, a choice which indicates a pre-occupation with goals on the one hand and with techniques and methods on the other. Most writers of books on guidance seem concerned mainly with the organization and administration of services, while being only scantily concerned with the nature of man and with the nature of the society in which guidance must be validated or vindicated. An exception to the above is Miller himself, and so is the next writer encountered in this survey of conflicts mentioned in the literature of the field. Among the memorable utterances by Mathewson is the following: Professional values in guidance are determined by non-scientific purposes served by practitioners who are essentially artists utilizing scientific knowledge. (33:168) It is Mathewson who sets the stage for the next chapter in this thesis: The immense difficulties now presented in our culture in the sphere of value judgment seem to be a consequence of the displacement of previous foundations of value without replacement by other, equally firm foundations; the breakdown of socially- 62 sustaining norms of conduct; the plurality of value-systems with no one system as a capstone; the threat of biological annihilation as the result of nuclear warfare. In times that resemble Greek tragedies, we come back to the center of all human activity, the individual himself, and rely upon there being a sufficient number of relatively autonomous individuals to form nuclei from which health for the whole organism may ultimately spread. The sad fact may be that the human race in its sociaL as well as psychobiological evolution, may not yet have attained the level of thought and action which the times now demand. (33:162) CHAPTER IV THE UNPRECEDENTED CONFLICT This is an angry chapter. These are times that try men's souls, but they are times that would silence the spirit of Tom Paine. Except for one circumstance, this is an era that may be embraced in Dickens! global description of eras at the opening of A.Ta1e p£_Two Cities: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—~in short, the period was so like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received for good or for evil, in the super- lative degree of comparison only. Except for one circumstance, this is that all—encompassing, Dickensian era sketched above. The circumstance, of course, is that man now has the power to destroy himself and perhaps all other forms of life on this planet. A.sharp description of the present era is given by Howard Mumford Jones (29:203—217) who describes it as a 63 6h period in time "which is proud of machines that think and suspicious of any man who tries to." Machines as well as men may become moonstruck. .A wandering moonbeam in Colorado recently struck a machine and scored a near-miss on touching off global war and holocaust. When civilization depends upon such stray ghosts, there seems little left to be said about mental health. .A World in Need of Therapy During World War II, philosopher Will Durant, in conversation with the present writer, hazarded the opinion that war between the inhabitants of this planet would end only when other planets were discovered to war against. At present such an opinion seems rather optimistic, with the nuclear race tending toward the occupation of man—made satellites and, in time, nature-made posts in space as bases from which to dominate the world man has known so intimately. 'More in line with contemporary developments seems to be the comment of a senior boy in a northern Michigan high school during the autumn of 1961. The school principal, conducting a class in government, led a discussion in crucial issues facing mankind and then asked what the seniors considered the most important question of the day. The reply, quoted as a joke during pep meeting for a foot- ball game, reflected the schizoid personality of the times o5 and carried the drift of contemporary worry masked with smiles: "Will Roger Maris hit his sixtieth home run before Khrushchev blows up the world?" Note the propaganda already instilled in the young man above. It is always the other side that commits the wrong. At the adult level, contemporary speeches by leaders of powerful nations give rise to the most crucial question of the age: Has this spinning globe, which holds in precarious grip the fate of human kind-~at least insofar as mortality is concerned-~become a veritable lunatic asylum in a suicidal attempt to maintain at all costs the opposing idealogies of Western Culture? Addressing the General Assembly of the United Nations on September 25, 1961, President Kennedy declared, in effect, that the United States would sacrifice all life on this planet rather than yield to Soviet Russia. The events and decisions of the next ten months may well decide the fate of man for the next ten thousand years. . . unless man can match his strides in weaponry and technology with equal strides in social and political development, our great strength, like that of the dinosaur, will become incapable of proper control and man, like the dinosaur, will decline and disappear. Roughly within the ten months mentioned by the President, the Cuban crisis of 1962 occurred. At the height of that 66 crisis, the blink of a Russian's eye under the pressure is said to have led an American official to make the decision that might have led to world conflict. When the future of mankind depends upon one person's interpretation of a split—second reaction in another person‘s optic nerve, then the race of men is indeed in grave trouble. Is the mad scientist (the mad politician) more than a myth, a folk figure? Has any science (any system of politics) the right to build machines to threaten all life? In a world where democracy, however cried in whichever O language, holds either the individual or the group paramount on sliding scales, what about the dictatorship of top level scientists and political spokesmen of berserk nationalism where they rarely know what the other is thinking and could seldom (if ever) care less? Today the power of life and death on a planet is held by blind chance and by a handful of men, some of whom may be insane, all of whom must have their irrational moments and emotional impulses. The thought of a world gone insane, carried to its logical conclusion, is that the kind of men formerly con- sidered sane are now in need of treatment and should be adjusted to the norm. Uhtil such is done they are a menace (at least an annoyance) to society. When family magazines such as The Saturday_Evening Post (511276) begin to print editorials entitled "Getting 67 Ready for Armageddon," George Orwell's 198% takes on a cheerful aspect, insofar as the novelist ppojected such a date on the calendar of humankind. Politics and Patriotism Patrick Henry echoed the traditional patriot across the ages when he cried out, "Give me liberty or give me death!" but presumably he spoke for himself and there were many respectable men who refused to rally under his banner because their concepts of liberty and proper allegiance varied from the one he professed. Granted that the Patrick Henrys of history have the right to pledge their own lives, do the spokesmen of today have the right to pledge the totality of mortal existence, frmn ancestral spark to gleam of generations yet unborn, as a burnt offering on a radio— active altar in space? A.man may agree with the Roman motto celebrated by the poet Horace--Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori--but there seems more madness than nobleness in being willing to die for a country, and indeed for a world, that promise not to survive the individualis death. Brave men across the centuries have given their lives for the preservation of freedom and other debatable concepts subject to climatic, temporal, and semantic interpretations; they have ungrudgingly given the supreme gift of the individual in order that other lives, the welfare of the group, might be preserved. 68 The question here is crucial: Does any philosophy of life warrant the destruction of all life? ‘Where is philosophy when fallout covers the poisoned earth of a dead planet? .Above lies the heart of the matter which this thesis is seeking to explore and which this chapter is discussing in particular. Ward's (61:112) statement on politics would appear to be definitive as far as the chapter at hand is concerned: The history of mankind‘s visions and beliefs suggests that no political doctrine lasts indefinitely; any very rigid political doctrine is fortunate if it endures a hundred years. Principles last: the principles of freedom, for instance, or of self- determination, or of the rule of law; but immensely complicated theories of human behavior which try to cover everything from mathematics to market-gardening very rarely survive because, as we know from human experience, life does not fall into such neat and preordained patterns. Nor is there anything more ultimately tedious than a vast apparatus of solemn nonsense designed to explain everything about everything. In short, a sane civilization would not risk all for what at best is transient. What needs to be said is that the words of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address do not apply to a nuclear war. Rights of Survival The historian, Toynbee, and other detached observers, may regard with equanimity the probability of nuclear war, and therefore the certainty that man must leave the stage of existence, perhaps bowing out to a superior species of 69 survival. But even Toynbee may feel that man has no right to take with him the last sweet hope of life on earth. There is no arguing the fact that Western man in his arrogant claim to a monopoly on reason, plus the added claim of having been made in the image of God (thereby giving himself maximum status), has put all other forms of life beneath him, made them captives, made them slaves, made them victims of experiment, made their rights of no value when weighed against him, and now has set in train a series of events that may deprive all forms of life a future. By no means intended to be facetious is this question: What about the survival of the paramecium and the blue whale, the amoeba and the elephant? 'W.H. Auden (3), the poet, said that he would like to see all scientists accept three pre— suppositions: (1) Not only everything that "lives" is holy, but everything that exists, from human beings to electrons. An electron has as much right to exist as we have. (3:269) (2) Though it is good that everything exists, the way in which a particular thing exists may be evil, or at least, not at good as it could be. (3:269) (3) So far as we know, we are the only created beings who, by their own conscious efforts, can make themselves better or worse, or ask questions about the nature of other beings. (3:269) 70 Auden asked: Is it too fanciful to suppose that it is up to man to enable other created beings to realize goals which are proper to them but which they can only realize with his help, that his authority over nature should be that of a father, not an irresponsible despot? (3:270) In concluding, Amden said: As our knowledge increases, may we not find that our power and, hence, our duty to educate will extend much further than at present we dream of? What, unknown to itself, does an electron want to become? ‘We don't know and perhaps never shall, but to know that should be the ultimate of science. (3:270) The statement and deduction-—Cogito eigo sum-—not only sums up what is most peculiar to man, the rational animal, but sums up philosophies of existence. If a tree falls in the forest and there is none to hear, where is the noise? Is man the sole criterion of life and is he therefore the sole keeper of mortality? Or is this another of his rationalizations akin to giving himself a soul and depriving other forms of life of the same privilege in order to be righteous in slaughter and in slavery, in dominion over all forms of life? Only recently have other colors and other tongues of mankind gained release from this kind of serfdom to the Western World. Africa speaks now, and Asia, and not with the "turn the cheek" philosophy brought to them by Christian missionaries. In time the Deep South of the United States may break free of the chains it now rattles if time does not run out on man. 71 Ultimate Weapons, Ultimate Tyranny Human life, at least in the traditional law'and litera- ture, is regarded highly in the Western Werld, although there is many a breach between the utterance and the practice of life being held dearly. Christian man placed such high values on the individual that he even projected himself into individual immortality and arranged a Heaven where he could carry on forever in a life beyond earth. This concept had not been visioned either in the golden age of Greece or in the Old Testament of the Hebrews. Christianity, therefore, while in its earlier phases quite communistic, championed the individual in its metaphysics. According to Beard (7:7), the present "crisis in Western thought may be said to spring from the disconcerting recogni- tion of the fact that science cannot of itself provide the certainty, understanding, and unequivocal direction to policy and practice expected after theological supremacy and assurance were disrupted in a conflict extending through several centuries." Modern Western man seems largely to have lost his dream of individual immortality, but he has compensated, particularly in America, by projecting himself into the future through his children and his children's children. Not insignificant is the American credo that the son must be 72 better educated than his father, have better living conditions, and the like. As a nation the United States caters to children, to youth, to young couples in society, not alone because of their economic power in the mass media but because in them is seen the best hope of individual and national immortality. The ever-growing place for women in American folkways also would appear to be a reflection of this attitude——woman, the cupbearer of immortality. Considering both the old and the new concepts of the carrying forward of the individual, it seems evident that each man's personal identity has been threatened as never before by the consequences inherent in the splitting of the atom, by fission and fusion. It is also ironic that Western manfs insistence on the rights of the individual to pursue his own course may result in the destruction of all life. Science, in brief, went where angels fear to tread. The consequence is the most totalitarian dictatorship in history. This paradox bears repetition: In allowing the individual natural scientist his freedom to pursue the truth, the liberty and freedom of choice of all individuals (except those in high places or chance situations) have been reduced to the lowest point ever. The world awaits the caprice of the men who push the buttons or the men who tell the men to push the buttons or the stray moonbeam that may decide the fate of mankind. 73 The poles of Western Culture, each claiming the unique sponsorship of freedom and the rights of man, have reduced man‘s essential freedom and rights-~freedom to survive, to propogate his kind, to link the past with a future-- toward a vanishing point. Crucial at this point is the lag of the behavioral sciences behind the natural sciences. Terrifying is the thought that a few men-~it makes no difference if they are men of good will or not; they are men and therefore subject to error-~hold more than three billion human beings in an incredible thralldom. At any moment one of these men may issue an either-or mandate to eternity, or a chance factor, in accord with Murphy‘s law of electronics (whatever gap_ go wrong, will go wrong), may press the signal for Doomsday. A sick old man, verging on death, may want to carry all mankind with him into the void. A.modern Nero may want to see the world in flames. And, after all, there is an epic-- perhaps irresistible—~grandeur in the thought that man finally has reached the point of beingable to exterminate himself and perhaps all other life on this planet. Compared to such quasi-divine power, what are the reigns of the Pharaohs, Cleopatra, Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon, Hitler, Roosevelt, Stalin? It is the Khrushchevs and the Kennedys, and their inner circles who, although they may not inherit the earth, have the power to disinherit mankind from the earth, forever. 7b. Discussing the American mind, Commanger (l5:hhl-hh3) said that Americans had made the atomic bomb and he asked: Would they use it for purposes of civiliza- tion or of destruction? They had achieved such power as no other modern nation had ever known; would that passion for peace which Henry Adams had named the chief trait in their character, triumph over the temptation to establish a Pax Americana by force? The above questions were asked about seven years before Sputnik I, at a time when the United States was being reckless with the H-bomb and long before there was any propaganda need to brand Russian bombs as "dirty," while somehow picturing the home-made variety as benevolent rather than otherwise. Today the Uhited States, perhaps capable of imposing a Pax Americana during the half decade following World War 11, may at best reach a stalemate of co-existence with Russia, but the probability of thermonuclear warfare, whether caused by accident or design, looms as the prelude to the only Pax Humanum that seems possible in the circumstances-- the peace of death, the global end of mankind. The foregoing are shuddering ideas but they bring out, again and again, the classic conflict in Western Culture: How far should an individual be permitted freedom to express himself and how far should society be permitted to suppress the individual? It seems rather evident that no one man in a pinpoint of time should have the power to disintegrate more than three billion people and put an end to continuing 75 human existence. It seems just as evident that no group of men should wield such power. It seems vital that such power be taken away from anyone and everyone, and that all engines for man‘s total destruction be dismantled. The difficulties about inspection and so forth-~Quis custodiet ipsos custodes (who guards the guards?)--must be resolved. Two principles apply to the above "laws for continued living," and make their enforcement a necessity: Lord Acton's dictum that "Power corrupts; absolute power cor- rupts absolutely," and the historical fact that man has tended to use every available weapon. "It was no ihistorical necessity! but a man called Truman who, with a few other men, decided to drop a bomb on Hiroshima." (36: 83) Guilt Complexes and Tensions On July 16, l9h5, the first mushroom cloud rose above Alamegordo's sands. J. Robert Oppenheimer (hl:20), whose leadership in the enterprise remains undisputed, no matter what may be said about his politics or his personality, later reflected: In some crude sense which no vulgarity, no humor, no overstatement can quite extinguish, the physicists have known sin, and this is a knowledge which they cannot lose. Jung (30:9) touched on this idea when he said: The evil that comes to light in man and that undoubtedly dwells within him is of gigantic proportions, so that for the Church to talk of 76 original sin and to trace it back to Adam's relatively innocent slip-up with Eve is almost a euphemism. Three years before his death in 1961, Jung would not directly call the atomic physicists a pack of criminals for developing the hydrogen bomb, because they did not do for the conscious reason of perhaps destroying all planetary life, but he made the significant observation that: The unconscious collaborates too and often makes decisive contributions. . . If it puts a weapon in your hand, it is aiming at some kind of violence. Knowledge of the truth is the foremost goal of science, and if in pursuit of the longing for light we stumble upon an immense danger, than one has the impression more of fatality than of pre— meditation. (30:9, 10) Jung, among others, spoke of a need for religion to help receive the conflicts of the times, but in a world where man seems hell—bent to take God apart to see what makes Him tick, what chance has any religion but the religion of the state, i.e., nation-worship] Look‘s cover of January 16, 1962, advertised: Found: How to prolong life; Almost found: How to create life. The article inside promised that in the next twenty-five years "man will master the secret of creation," and asked, "Will men discover 'the molecular structure of God?" .At least one scientist foremost in the building of the "bmnb" tried to purge himself of guilt by retreating into the priesthood. Oppenheimer in maudlin fashion begged to be strapped to the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. The 77 idea that one man‘s death could expiate the destruction of seventy-five thousand others is a symptom of the Messianic complex, if nothing else. The very fact that thermonuclear weapons exist, and may possibly be sent into motion by accident or by design, raises almost unbearable tensions among men, thus increasing D the probability of chance or impulse triggering the ultimate of chain reaction. In addition to the writhings of guilt in the collective unconscious-~guilt at having produced a form of life that threatens to exterminate life itself-— there exists the universal tension within the individual, as to when he and his kith and kin, and indeed all of his kind, may be burned into the face of the earth by totalitarian nihilism. The violence and terror experienced within man are reflected in the literature he selects to read, the plays and operas he attends, the art he chooses to prefer. This type of free selection is not to be confused with man's so-called factual sources of information, the daily paper, the weekly news magazines, and so forth. As pointed out by John Berryman (10:17), in his introduction to Th5 Unfortunate Traveler, the present is an age of ghastly orthodoxies, communist, fascist, democratic-~and men are suspicious of anything that is not wholly pro or con. Western men, and Western statesmanship, have been caught in this bind. Berryman wants to know why some serious writer 78 does not go to work against Iim§_and £333.35 Nashe in Elizabethan times went to work against the stuffed—shirt pundits of his day. In literature, drama, and the arts, however, man tends to choose what reflects the chaos and cruelty within himself. It was no fluke but a psychological necessity, that made Mickey Spillane the best-selling American writer for a time. The age of anxiety (32) reveals its great inner conflicts and tensions by making popular the works of such literary assasins as Grahame Greene, James M. Cain, Dahiell Hammett, William Faulkner (especially in Sanctuary). The terror and range of man's inner life may be seen in the cartoons of Charles Addams, the plays of Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, the operas of Carlo Menotti, the films of Alfred Hitchcock and Roberto Rossellini. These forms of art permit the common man to say the unspeakable from the darkness welling from himself. Today‘s penchant for the detective and susPense story harks back to the dual myth of flight and pursuit, the ancient theme of guild and punishment. Symbols of Life and Death Nobel, the perfector of dynamite, sought to expiate his transgression against humanity by turning the proceeds of his explosive fortune into such public acts of contrition as the Nobel Peace Prize. On December 10, 1950, William 79 Faulkner, in his Speech of Acceptance upon the Award of the Nobel Prize for Literature, said in Stockholm: Our tragedy today is a general and universal physical fear so long sustained by now that we can even bear it. There are no longer problems of the spirit. There is only the question: When will I be blown up? Because of this, the young man or woman writhig today has forgotten the problems of the human heart in conflict with itself, which alone can make good writing because only that is worth writing about, worth the agony and the sweat. I decline to accept the end of man. It is easy enough to say that man is immortal simply because he will endure; that when the last ding- dong of doom has clanged and faded from the last worthless rock hanging tideless in the last red and drying evening, that even then there will still be one more sound: that of his puny inexhaustible voice, still talking. I refuse to accept this. I believe that man will not merely endure: he will prevail. He is immortal, not because he alone among cneatures has an inexhaustible voice, but because he has a soul, a spirit capable of compassion and sacrifice and endurance... Margaret Mead, in her essay "Return of the Cave woman," has spoken out for the distaff side of life (3h): Today our millions of lives are in even greater danger than when the first humans clustered for safety around a fire which no one knew how to make and which must not be allowed to go out. Now, as then, we need those who can take a wider responsibility, some women who are not burdened by infants in their arms, some who can think for the whole, work for the whole. We have need of a new invention-~some way in which we can take responsibility for the whole of mankind, while recognizing that the governments of some nations are inimical to ours, and so to us. The intrinsic cherishing role of women for children—~not just their own, but all children-- 80 is needed now as never before. For now we cannot even protect our own children unless we find a way of protecting the children of the enemy also. If we do not, there will be no children to cherish. What is there left to say? .At Cape Canaveral and at various launching pads throughout the world, apparent symbols of ancient fertility rites jut out as if the planet had become a cult of phallic worship. What does the future hold? ‘Which Promethian-sped symbol of fertility--the carrier of life or that of death-- ‘will modern rituals crown? The potent erections, swift penetrations, and fiery orgasm of intercontinental missiles? Or the ejaculation phallus of the interplanetary rocket and the floating womb of the space capsule, man safe 'within? This is the riddle of the ages, for all time to come. ..q._ r/ “sewa- I“: h...~.. ‘ .‘I£-— r. U-sv. . R; ,I d. . ZQ’: Bx. CHAPTER‘V ROLE OF THEORY IN SCHOOL COUNSELING In high school counseling, as in all education and indeed in every walk of life, there tends to be a gap in understanding between theory and practice. The professing theorist, dedicated to the study of crucial issues, may be inclined to look down upon the school counselor as an assembly-line mechanic performing necessary tasks with appropriate tools but without insight regarding the real meaning of his job. In return the practicing counselor may stereotype the theorist as living in an ivory tower on a diet of dreams, with cobwebs his sole output. The gap in understanding between the theory and the practice of counseling at the high school level outwardly reflects an attitude of superiority that in certain cases Inight well be traced to compensatory reactions springing from suspicions of inferiority. Such suspicions are often rooted in reality. Many a professing theorist would find himself unable to meet the everyday problems of a school counselor. It is equally true that the mechanical—type school counselor, obsessed with time and tools and techniques, performs his stint on the assembly line of educational mass 81 ulna n" 71“ 5, 9‘ r v” v 82 production with little awareness of what the total enterprise is all about. As the school counselor becomes more oriented to the theory of counseling and the professor to its practice, the gap in understanding tends to be closed by mutual respect. Each begins to realize that practical success of any importance is based upon sound theory and that any theory worth thinking about has to have eventually some capability for application or relevance for practice. In short, the most successful practitioners are theorists as 'well, and the most successful theorists are practical men (9:xii). The purpose of this chapter is to explore the field of high school counseling in an attempt to locate the influences that guide or push counselors into the personal evolution of a theory befitting themselves, their counselees, and the environment in which they operate. To use the vernacular, each newcome counselor enters a unique situation and he must find the answers that are inost appropriate for him. Given a do-it—yourself kit, so to speak, he finds out that some of the parts are missing, nobody knows where. He is puzzled by various sets of directions that differ not only on the method of assembly and the time it takes to do the job but also on what is intended to be built. He begins to have the characteristics of neurotic people: he has conflicts, he is confused, he 83 is concerned. But he clings to the basic faith of all counselors: "One person can help another, somehow." Place of Personnel Services in Education At least in many small conservative communities a still prevailing attitude toward personnel services in education is epitomized in the anecdote of the little old lady who stood on the bank of the Hudson River while attempts were made to get Fulton's steamboat under way. "They'll never start it," she predicted, shaking her head, "they’ll never start it!" When the steamboat finally went filto Inotion, the little old lady changed her words but not her basic doubts about the whole thing. "They‘ll never stop it," she cried forebodingly, "they‘ll never stop it!" Despite the lingering doubts, and a natural reaction against the proliferation of personnel services, other— than-classroom help is essential in education and always has been. Wherever the teaching-learning process takes place, there are attendant problems and needs. In the American secondary school such problems and needs, intensified by the excitements of adolescence, also have been multiplied by public commitment to the Jacksonian attitude of education rather than to the selective admissions principle of Jefferson followed at the college and university level. "High School U.S.A," fulfills the Jacksonian doctrine as expressed by period historian Bancroft in phrases that carry a guidance personnel ring (h:271, 272): 81+ Let the waters of intelligence, like the rains of heaven, descend upon the whole earth. ...The prejudices of ignorance are more easily removed than the prejudices of interest; the first are blindly adopted; the second are wilfully preferred! Intelligence must be diffused among the-whole people; truth must be scattered among those who have no interest to suppress its growth. . . It is alone by infusing great principles into the common mind that revolutions in society are brought about. They never have been, they never can be, effected by superior intelligence. The modern "open door" policy of the American secondary School, reflecting both national policy and the personnel V1 eurpoint, has made more other-than—classroom help 11i.<:::reasing1y necessary to more learners and non-learners, a1 1 with their unique quotas of individual differences and 111.23L lienable rights, the heart of the matter to the personnel PVC) JE‘Lker, whose professional goal and reason for being is to £153 lr‘ sonalize education. Educational Fifth Wheel As the need for more services at the secondary level (2:)9171ltinually increases the importance of personnel work, t;})“E=re are fewer jibes about it being an educational fifth b¢r3~"steries and hopes for miracles. In the field of his Q11nosing, not even an agreement on the definition of the terms personnel and guidance has been reached, let alone a i 87 consensus as to what, exactly, personnel and guidance workers should be doing. Moving across this unmapped I terrain the personnel man is like the bus driver whose passengers will get off unless he drives in the direction they want to go. But this is perhaps the blessing of the fi fth wheel of education: that the men who hold this S teering wheel take the route that the passengers decide upon rather than insist upon an arbitrarily predetermined de stination of their own. Place of Counseling in Personnel Services There is a growing tendency at the secondary level to C 1 assify guidance as one of the personnel services and to re gard counseling as its basic function. Although there i S no such general agreement as to what other specific Se rvices should be identified as guidance, a minimum pl“ Qgram customarily includes Individual Inventory, Occupational- h:Cfl‘anational and Social-Personal Information, Placement, and FD llow—Up. After these services the list becomes fuzzy. AI‘ Q school activities such as orientation, career days, Q5 llege nights, science fairs, or the hot lunch program a part of guidance? Agreed that counseling is the one bask: S Q Ivice, does only the person who holds the title attempt the d QJ)? Observation replies that everyone in school, from Q 1 assroom teacher to football coach to custodian, carries Q11 some counseling. Not infrequently there are determined efforts to counsel the counselor. ‘ nr-i‘ b-v '1‘. 0 fI-v—u 88 In the field of personnel services the general guidance worker who had to stretch himself so thin across such a wide area that he lost identity and usefulness seems to be another vanishing AInerican. The effective counselor is primarily a specialist, much as he may worry about Thorstein Veblen's definition, "trained incapacity, " the dangers of learning more and more about less and less, of increasing hi 8 stock of tricks of the trade and losing his touch of en’1»F>athy. Despite the preceding anxieties, most guidance Counselors consider themselves specialists in such areas as test interpretation, occupational information, and I'11—‘1—Ilt‘r1an relations. The trend toward specialization involves the school COunselor in one of the paradoxes that plague the profession. Th e guidance movement, intent upon the consideration of 11-1 dividual differences and the unique personality, was CDliceived as a counteracting force to the assembly line 83" Stem of mass production in education that tended to Db Qduce specialists and render the entire process impersonal, W3: ‘th the individual learner reduced to a number or name in a Toll book. But now the school counselor, as the leading ex pert in guidance, finds himself a specialist in combating the evils of specialization, a contradiction that bears watching and that points toward more training in the 1\‘cLllmanities rather than in the technologies because, essentially, SI1 idance is in the business of helping man reach full develop— 1T1ent as a human being. 89 Another Definition of Counseling As treated on these pages guidance counseling may be more fully defined as the profession of helping people make the more intelligent choices on their way to becoming Self—respecting citizens in a culture that historically Places maximum value on individual development. The school gaidance program is a continuing and developmental attempt to provide a healthful climate for the ultimate mental, Physical, and spiritual dignity of man as an inheritor of conscience and free will in opposition to the other d CDI‘riinant social philosophy of the Electronic Age which re quires the nihilism of the individual as a sacrifice to the growth of the communist state. Every counselor faces another paradox of his own pr‘ efession when he tries to follow the behavioral scientists 1.1—1 the belief that human behavior is caused and therefore Gen be predicted and controlled. If this is not so, then ”“113; is he wasting his time at impossible tasks? If this is St) ;. then he is toiling hopelessly in a culture opposed to hi S efforts, a culture dedicated to the preposition that high are free and responsible for their actions rather than the captive victims of predestination. The above paradox may be resolved by paraphrasing a 111% ssage of Christ, Himself called Counselor: "Render unto gQience the things that relateto Science, but to Art the things that relate to Art." Although scientific behaviorism ‘ 90 is useful as a guideline to school counselors, counseling at the secondary level remains an art, with human values and intangible verities still the heart of what takes place Ioetween the counselor and the counselee. A comment pertinent to the above discussion was made lzyr Carl Rogers (h9:2h7-2h9) when he raised a philosophical CILleastion about "Persons or Science," in which he admitted C=C>Ilflicts between himself as a counselor (therapist) and IIJiJnuself as a scientist, reporting that the more he used the E5<:.‘=.:i.entific method the weaker he would become in the intuitive, EiITLicj vice versa. He cited the fact that an Australian bush- nlEaLIfin would be unimpressed by the findings of science regarding tDEaL<::terial infection because the bushman knows that illness 1LI‘Inly is caused by evil spirits. The point Rogers makes 1‘53; that scientific findings can be communicated only to tit11::se who have agreed to the same ground rules of investiga— tLJi; can and he claimed that a basic mistake has been to label Es<:=i.‘ience as a body of knowledge "out there" and when it‘s 1‘ 3L sght here because, after all, scientists, too, are people 1? 3L :rst. Implications for Counseling Theory in the NDEA School counselors may take pride in the knowledge that <::C3”unseling is one of the oldest and most honored of callings Eiflbld yet so young a profession that it may be dated from the I? i-rst decade of this century. From the start the "stripling" 91 showed sturdy growth, rising and broadening from the vocational guidance-counseling movement, refusing to be swallowed up by Progressive‘Education, declining to join the mental hygienists because of reluctance to believe that everyone who does wrong is an unresponsible victim of di sease. In 1958, on what might be called its fiftieth birthday, guidance-counseling was ranked in importance by the federal government‘s passage of an education act "to in sure trained manpower of sufficient quality and quantity to meet the national defense needs of the United States." Pleased by the opportunities that federal monies would PI‘ ovide their profession, some counselors were nevertheless tl“ oubled by certain implications in the wording of the Na tional Defense Education Act. The government's intentions we re bluntly stated, and a definite policy stood out in SL1 Qh passages as, "the security of the nation requires the fu llest development of the mental resources and technical 81': ills of its young men and women...We must increase our 623»: ZEorts to identify and educate more of the talent of our 116* ‘tion." Title V, the section of the Act specifically related to SL1 :Idance—counseling, promised, in effect, to reward each S. hate which planned "a program for testing students in the b1q-Iblic secondary schools to identify students with outstand- ing aptitudes and ability. . . and a program of guidance and §Dunseling to advise students of courses of study best suited 92 and skills, and to encourage to their ability, aptitudes, s;tudents with outstanding aptitudes and ability to complete tileir secondary school education, take the necessary courses and 1?c>r admission in institutions of higher education, €31 ter such institutions." The provisions of the NDEA, logical enough on the ESIlqrface to a nation up in educational arms over Sputnik, -f‘21:iled to make any allowance for the bright boy who might EDZI‘eafer becoming a truck driver rather than a space pilot or the gifted girl who might prefer to raise a family instead Young people were viewed as defense ‘3-1T‘ bacteria cultures. ‘VVE: Eipons rather than as human beings. Ignored was the F>ltl i.losophy that courses in a curriculum and the careers to “'171~i.ch they lead are the means of education and not the ends. Jllil— this light the NDEA.appeared as new pressure in an old the individual impulse toward freedom 'fiknrl-Garican paradox: Etrjt-Cj the social impulse to restrict that freedom in the name Clearly, large numbers of people, (3 jEt national interests. 1‘171-<:luding educators, were willing to accept regimented \J-‘EL lues rather than search their souls for values appropriate tht) themselves. The NDEA.emphasis on testing programs also seemed to Ireiflect a national mood naive in its trust that the way to avert unprecedented disaster was to locate the talented through standardized tests and then process them for the Pencil and paper performance does not always public welfare. 93 liecessarily predict behavior, does not identify creativity, cioes not measure the human traits and potentialities that aJDpear not only in the talented but in those who make up “tile bulk of the nation, the common people whom Mr. Lincoln c3e:cided, "God must have liked because he made so many of 1;f1enh" School counselors, reacting with schoolmen in general Elsgzainst the flood of testing and the "quest of excellence," 53 C><3n learned that professing theorists could indeed be FDIF‘Eactical men. NDEA.Counseling and Guidance Institutes ELLl<3asing teachers, by practicing orderly conduct and by iniéarnorizing trifles (trivia) that can be test—measured easily. ‘Itflea worthy qualities of both the creative and the non- El<==ademic are not so glibly identifiable. Both as guidance Eilxizaerts and as schoolmen, counselors face the fact that I>Ir"c>ader goals of education have revolutionized the public 11*:t-sgh school program. The many must be served, not the €33“:-<:lusive few, and the greatest good for the greatest I)“LJLIleer is no idle watchword. Responsible for the education (Diff‘ more than 90 per cent of all American youth fourteen to Si€E=‘\Jenteen years of age, the secondary schools cannot be (3 E:>"€2rated as farm clubs for colleges and universities, as I)‘::> ithing more than training camps for talent earmarked for rl‘jt sgher education. (58:25) .Although in the American culture a college education r13.3 become increasingly essential in determining occupational EiTld status level, the college-bound remain a minority and \fiXerefore much of the high school program must be nonacademic for the benefit of the terminal pupils, and maintained so against all pressures, because this majority of school 95 Citizens has equal need for approval and of assurance that aachievement in areas other than academic competence is cnammendable. The scholarship examinations that downgrade ‘tlle general and nonacademic program should not be allowed ‘tc> downgrade individual dignity, and the college admissions I‘etquirements that early in school life slam the doors of 11:1ggher education on these classroom citizens cannot bar thlemn from the human race. (58:26) The continuing clash between the Jeffersonian principle 53.1? selection at the college level and the Jacksonian prin- C: 3L pale of admission at the high school level needs to be ‘“"Eisighed in the balance on a scale that can evaluate traits C>413‘ originality, courage, and stability, essential qualities 1‘17)- any era but especially required during world crisis. SSV‘41-<:h traits, generally developed and fixed early in life, E3‘35‘e by no means monopolized by those who excel acadanically, EiJFjL€3<20mes evident that the counselor has been operating bel'lind a facade. All too often, the school counselor has no clear-cut deglfinition of his role. There is the story of a counselor, r'LCD‘Mr‘a university dean, who told of having been appointed Sill-i-dance director of a high school so suddenly that he had I15 t the vaguest idea of his duties at the secondary level. 1willally he decided to hustle down the corridor several times E1 Earound mid-century upon psychology as the core of Courlsselor education has been a mixed blessing. C. Gilbert "hwarlrl (63:182) maintains that one crucial decision regarding Cc”lllsseling goals must be made by every school counselor: " Aw” I a specialist for a few who are in trouble or am I a SF“3<:iallst for many with normal growth problems?" An answer to the above question inevitably leads away fIWNn some theories of counseling while leading toward others. 123 Limitations of Nondirective Counseling in Schools Counselors have been asked to re-evaluate their ideas about the nondirective approach in counseling at the high school level. They are urged to be semi-corrective because lack of direction may put the responsibility on the shoulders of an adolescent who lacks the experience or (auctional maturity to handle his problem. In other words, lezt the pupil drive the car toward becoming what he is to rue, but put up enough warning signs along the road so that he: cannot go too far wrong. As a professional man every octniselor has to pass judgments and make decisions regard- irig such matters. A Lincolnian formula applies here: "You can be nondirective with some of the pupils all 0f the time and you can be nondirective with all of the Put>ils some of the time, but you can‘t be nondirective I«71th all of the pupils all of the time." Relation of Counselors in Training to Nondirective Theory Most school counselors begin their training by joining the IRogerian disciples with enthusiasm. They are enchanted "d til client-centered counseling largely because Rogers gives 11191“. a tool and a rationale--acceptance of the other person Cl‘361rs a way to problem-solving--that seems, in the first f141$3h_of discovery, easy to learn and easy to apply. The R0Saer-ian system with its faith in the fundamental goodness 0fman and in the democratic process appeals to counselors 12h in contrast to the systems of the classic psychoanalysists who demean man’s basic nature and appear Teutonically authoritative. There is also the possibility that school counselors in training, many of whom have had experiences as teachers, seize upon nondirective counseling as part of a short-lived rebellion against the directive educational procedures with which they have been rather forcefully acquainted. Considering the prompt and almost wholesale acceptance of? Rogers by counselors in training, there is occasion to VWJndCF, again not entirely in jest, whether the phenomenon Iniglht not be traced to years of indoctrination by the com- muJIications password, Roger, meaning "Okay, I get you, I unxjerstand, right!" The honeymoon with the Rogerian ideal seldom ends abrulptly but it cools, and in certain cases a divorce results. ‘A3 -School counselors acquire more sophistication, they tend tc’ Clevelop doubts about nondirective counseling. During NIHSIK Institutes and other phases of their graduate program, th‘?&’ gain insight into other systems and they hear counselor educIc'ators raise such questions as, "Realistically, how non- directive can you be? Doesn't every counselor affect the atrnOsphere with his personality and sense of values, and therefore even his presence is directive, right?" To which marlIY'counselors who have been so struck with the Rogerian Way may now reply, "Roger!" 125 When the reaction sets in against Rogers, the objections are based on pragmatic grounds and tend to ridicule the client-centered system: "When a kid asks me where's the bathroom, I don't think that um-hum is a very satisfactory answer." "A.kid comes into my office and wants to know how Inany years he's got to go to college to get to be a physician. So what do I do--sit there and nod my head and \vait.for him to go on to another question or unburdei his scrul or something?" "Listen, there aren't enough hours in the day to let tliese kids string out their problems. Some of them would tallk forever, just to keep out of class. You've got to get dorm: to cases. Youive got to forget all this permissive Sttlff and start being directive." Reaction of High School Counselees to Nondirective Theory There are even objections from pupils about nondirective Couriselors. In most of their classrooms they have been told whalt— to do and they want to continue to be told. Some qu’i ls greet the nondirective approach with wonder, then Witl”l delight, and take up the implied challenge to think Others may decide that the counselor has and they display £01" themselves. I10 iaaterest in them, that he is incapable, Sharp irritation at the lack of direction. 126 At a National Science Institute for high school participants were invited to receive counseling As juniors, from graduate students taking their practicum course. observed by the writer, most of the adolescents were pleased at the attention they received, comparing this process with ‘what they called the "fast shuffle" they had experienced 'with their own school counselors, but a strong minority reacted against the nondirective treatment. This minority olrviously wanted nothing from the counselors except test iriterpretation and occupational information. They showed reasentment against the permissive atmosphere which struck tfllen1either as dawdling or as pressure to elicit personal prwoblems. There is at least a suspicion here that the COILnselees in the minority are more representative of the F821118tic school situation whereas the counselees in the maJority were responding to an amount of attention possible under the relatively ideal conditions of a practicum but nfi’t ‘workable (or equitable) in the time-bound public SCT1C>ols. Whatever interpretation may be made of this, one corlczlusion seems clear: the attitude of counselees will terlcj to shape counseling theory. The psychotherapist tends to Eittract certain types of patients (problems) and they ill 1Lurn are attracted to him because of his specialization irl ‘their kind of troubles. This choice of selection, present tc’ :1 limited degree in larger high schools, is virtually x101”b-existent in small schools. The educational setting 127 appears to demand compromise rather than a position toward either extreme of the counseling continuum. Practicum Surveys of Counseling Theory Across a period of three years, the present writer has made informal studies of supervised counseling practicum groups to get an idea of how students taking the course iiitended to relate theory to practice; that is, how they twould use the knowledge and understanding gained in graduate unork in an actual on-the-job situation. Results of these surveys show that although most of tlie prospective counselors paid lip service to nondirective they saw themselves as not using this theory counseling, Vezfiy much (or at least not as much as they thought the COLLnselor educator thought they shouldl). About 25 per cent fai/cred the nondirective theory as most effective, 10 per cerit favored the directive theory, and the majority StrVassed conviction that different pupils required the aPFJIaication of different theories. There were counselors who felt that many pupils were 80 l imited in basic abilities or background that the inter- Visa“, had to be structured rigidly if any communication 'weI‘e: to take place. There were those who claimed that Fnlp’i 1s who "let off steam" and used the counselor as a N SDunding board" had to be restrained because the self- indiligence in talk became a luxury neither the counselor 128 nor the school could afford since it robbed other pupils of the right to equal time. Several of the counselors felt that a nondirective approach should be used only in the case of personal problems. The average run of responses indicated a prevailing confusion which seemed to regard a direct answer to a direct question as constituting a directive answer. Despite the informality of this extended study and (other inadequacies of the research, two significant findings seaem to stand out: one, general agreement that counseling tlleory should be suited to the pupil and two, that it should n£>t clash with the counselorls personality; i.e., the COILnselor who remains himself and does not try to put on an aci; is more convincing and effective than the counselor ”wh13 tries to use a theory which is not characteristic of him. Tradition of Directive Counseling in High School The strong tradition toward directive counseling in thfii schools, based on the didactic method of instruction an‘1 the protective principle of custodial care, has been Ca-I‘I‘:led forward by the fact that typical school counselors Ilalfe: emerged from the teaching ranks. In their role as t£3axzhers they become accustomed to telling pupils what to <30: and in their role as counselors they continue to tell DuPils, convinced that this is probably best and certainly 129 quicker. There seems little argument that in a school setting the directive counselor can operate with greater efficiency than the nondirective counselor but the vital issue concerns which one can operate more effectively. The question the strongly directive counselor has to answer in the watches of the night when self doubts take the place of dreams is: "How would you like it if everybody you ever gave axivice to had gone on to take it?" Eclectic Theory in High School Counseling One comment about the eclectic theory of counseling is tliat.the middle of the road is where head-on collisions ocn3ur. The critics of the counselor belonging to the eczlectic school also picture him in the position of the Ineniber of the old Mugwump political party, who, "sits with h153 mug on one side of the fence and his wump on the other." Much confusion exists among high school counselors as to Ewhat constitutes an eclectic theory of counseling. Is It tkhe weaving of odds and ends of other theories into a CI‘aquuilt’t‘ Or is it being Adlerian at nine in the morning Enlci Rogerian at three in the afternoon, with role—playing Of‘ IEllis, Sullivan, Mowrer, Williamson, Bordin, and others Sand'wiched in between to suit other pupils of the day? TTlei former seems at best a makeshift and the latter smacks .tOCD much of a quick—change artist, conjuring up a refrain Tr.-. . ...—- 130 from the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, The Sorcerers: Oh! my name is John wellington Wells, I'm a dealer in magic and spells. Eclecticism is as much in tune with the American way of life as pragmatism. The former has been called (23:180) "the bane of our national life and either responsible for, or a rationalization of, the contradictions, inconsistencies, illogicalities, and opportunitic compromises that figure :30 prominently in our personal and institutional behavior." ‘1718 spirit of compromise is strong in America. Complete iLcjeas and extreme opinions (except in matters that become .1.Eabelled as "national interests") are repellent to the E3>I‘evailing philosophy. When this republic was a young u-E>sstart among nations, deToqueville observed the American C3 iLssposition to form associations on any pretext and for ‘"’1fileatever purpose. Perhaps in light of this history an 63-53 Ssociation of counseling theories is inevitable in the E31—11::lic schools. Analysis of Counseling Theories In considering the suitability of counseling theories Ei‘it- the secondary level, there are four crucial variables ‘lhlfilzat must be balanced in reaching any decision: the nature of the nature :3 33‘ the counselor, the nature of the pupil, .t;]b1<3 problem, and the nature of the school situation. Little d i fferentiation need be made among the various theories of <::c>11riseling. They have a variety of styles but interchangeable 131 parts, most of which can be made to operate in any of the systems once the semantics are overhauled. Counseling theories are more striking for their similarities than for their differences. Jung (30:95) is on record as being a prehistoric Rogerian: The psychologist has come to see that nothing is achieved by telling, persuading, admonishing, giving "good" advice. He has to relate to the individuality of the sufferer. . . The deeper the doctor's understanding penetrates the patient, the weaker become the meanings of the principles based on general experience that the doctor first applied. Freud himself could be nondirective. While a student C>.I‘ Freud, Theodor Reik (h8) bumped into the master on his C3 €11.Ly walk along the Ringstrasse in Vienna and walked home ‘fl’ii'th him. Freud inquired about Reik's plans and Reik told r1 iLIn of his problems, about choosing a profession and a ITIEE—I‘riage mate. Freud counseled: I can only tell you of my personal experi- ence. When making a decision of minor importance, I have always found it advantageous to consider all the pros and cons. In vital matters, however, such as the choice of a mate or a profession, the decision should come from the unconscious, from somewhere within ourselves. In the important decisions of our personal life, we should be governed, I think, by the deep inner needs of our nature. Art Related to Counseling Theory The arts, particularly the art of writing, always have ‘h)‘E=€3n close to counseling. Psychoanalysis has followed the eaJKleunple of the great playrights and novelists in attempting 132 to reach the depths of behavior rather than the superficial layers. A story has to have a beginning, a middle, and an end; so does counseling. A.novel predicates character change; so does counseling. All artists study the methods and the formats of the masters. Just as an artist has to learn the principles of perspective before being able to create an effective illusion, so it would appear that a counselor must learn (:onformity to certain systems of counseling before being sable to encourage freedom of expression in a way of his CDle. ,All art earns liberty through discipline. Not until 'thhe rules have been learned does the artist gain the -i¢rlsight to understand when and how they may be altered or Ea-‘\roided to suit his purposes. The very restrictions of the sonnet form encourage greater ultimate freedom of <3->'<.pression than the unrestricted license of free verse. I:‘3F‘ee verse is permissive; the sonnet is a challenge that c3:33.113 upon the poet‘s ultimate resources. When a poet Q annot contain his ideas within the framework of a sonnet, 171 CD“wever, he does not break the framework or sacrifice his 1 hspiration; he moves toward another form of expression. fir‘lfilere seem to be guidelines here for counselors in quest Q If theory. Flexibility of Counseling Theory As far as holding fast to one system of counseling and J? C>3E‘<:ing the counselee to fit into the framework of that 133 system, it may be recalled that Freud deprecated all "systems" including his own in the words, "Moi, je ne suis pas un Freudists." Jung (30:112) has been more explicit, declaring that since there is no nag that cannot be ridden to death, all theories of neurosis and methods of treatment are a dubious affair. He always found it amusing when businesslike doctors and fashionable consultants would claim that they treated patients along the lines of Adler, 1(unke1, Freud or Jung. He said there simply was not and czould not be any such treatment. When I treat Mr. X, I have of necessity to use method X, just as with Mrs. Z, I have to use method Z. This means that the real and effective treatment of neurosis is always individual. If it has become evident anywhere that there are not so much ill- nesses as ill people, this is manifestly the case in neurosis. . . I myself have long discarded any uniform theory of neurosis, except for a few quite general points like disassociation, conflict, complex, regressing, abaissement, which belong to the stock-in-trade. Summary Statement of Counseling Theory in High School The school counselor works in a setting where the 131" imary goal is not rehabilitation but education. He is jl’IT‘ained to refer disturbed pupils, not to treat them. The I:’3F‘oblems brought to him are largely vocational and educa- 1t‘31-onal. Counseling theory at the secondary level rests ‘L1-1;>on a basic idea in counseling and educational philosophy, 1L5r1<3 idea of individual differences. No one theory of <::C>1Lnseling is suitable because no single theory can allow 13h for individual differences, not only of the pupil but of the counselor himself. A.theory of counseling suitable for application in high school must conform to principles laid down by artists and top level leaders in all walks of life. It must be flexible rather than rigid, and, like the democratic process itself, adaptable. It must provide access for all Ilormal pupils. Call this eclecticism or call it a compromise, ‘the fact remains that every life, and every theory in life .ITaces a continuing adjustment between a world of possibili- ‘thies and the world of reality. The beginner in the field of secondary school counsel- 4Iarlg either tends to become erratically eclectic, piecing t3-CDgether remnants of theory, or he allies himself with a I3’Ea;rticular theory and clings to it whether suited to h imself and pupil needs or not. Instead of bending his 1:“l‘leory or moving along the continuum, he inclines toward b1‘eaking the pupil into the mold. An effective counselor usually begins practice by $3 ‘53L1ecting a theory of counseling that attracts him as 1:"E=.ing suited to his personality and concept of counseling. J=\‘53 time goes on in his school situation, he discovers that -t;171.is favorite theory has to be revised constantly to ESL<:2<::omm.odate individual differences in pupils. In due <::C>11rse the theory may become so altered as to defy analysis 3 1‘ its origin. 135 in effect, a skillful counselor works out a theory of his own, but he does not start from scratch; he starts from Tyler or Williamson or Rogers or Thorne or someone else with whom he can identify, until in the fullness of experience he becomes his own man, thus fulfilling the ancient inscription on the temple of Apollo at Delphi-- Gnothe Seauton--which is the goal of all counselors and of all counseling: Know thyself. Or as that very directive counselor Polonius told his SOn: This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man. CHAPTER VI CONFLICTS: SURVEYS OF OPINION For a detailed introduction to this chapter, the reader is invited to re-examine pages 3, h, S and 8 through 15 in Chapter I. To recapitulate, potential respondents to a format of .izuquiry (see Appendix A) were invited to consider the field CDLf counseling and guidance in broad perspective or in liléarrow'focus and thereupon to set down their opinions and CDLt>servations regarding conflicts within the field. The majority of respondents found no difficulties in illilee deliberate vagueness of the global definitions taken as :14rrlzplicit in the range of counseling and guidance, and most 0 I‘ the few who did quarrel with the foregoing "fuzziness" other questionable terminology simply stated their own DI‘ A.rare exception was V i ewpoints and went on from there. {bebem whose letter along with the present writer‘s 3“ Q sponse may be found in Appendix B. The various surveys in this chapter (grouped as much it“:’ put focus upon individuals as to differentiate between $31"(Dups) are looked upon not only as another tentative probe 136 137 toward finding out how counselors and counselor educators, see themselves and their work-~in broad perspective or in narrow range-~how they are oriented toward‘Wrenn‘s Changing MEEEEJ but these surveys also are regarded with equal importance in the light of how leaders and spokesmen and toilers in other professions and ways of life see counselors and counselor educators and the elastic reaches of counsel- ing and guidance. In the long view, evaluations are going to interact. fFrue, there is a tendency on the part of the public to JLook upon counselors and counselor educators and the field ‘bviiich they inhabit, much in the way that counselors and <:=<>unselor educators see themselves and their field (pro- "’Wi-ded their vision is reasonably correct or adjustable to COrrection). But appraisal, the same as all forms of <::CDIhmunication, is a two—way thoroughfare, and counselors E33r1have a broad perspective toward counseling and guidance tend to be more concerned with purposes and goals whereas people who have a narrow focus tend to be preoccupied with methods and materials and techniques rather than with global concerns about culture and mankind. The latter also (it could be argued) tend to be obsessed with one aspect of life or system of education, Oppen- heimer’s career furnishing a sharp reflection of the run— away genius in natural science who proved himself (to the world's cost and his own repentance) a political ignoramus. Furthermore, it could be argued that counselors and counselor educators with narrow focus may be similar to the socialites who were the butt of Oscar Wilde's quip: "They know the price of everything and the value of nothing." In other words, such counselors and counselor educators would have plenty of know-how about administering the Kuder or the PSAT but little basic alertness to the They would resemble nature of man or the goals of creation. 338 Um skmeowme English teacher who knows all about the mednmicscn‘the language but hardly anything about the dynamics of communication arts. Sudlcmunselors as those described above are the in effect: "Don‘t kinlem in graduate training say, Tell hmulus murof that waste—of-time theory business. us Unatechniques, give us the gimmicks, so we can do the job quick." fimyone who has worked in the strait-jacket schedule of an elementary or secondary school will have more than a modicum of sympathy for the practical—minded counselor with the narrow focus on the job to be done and the most efficient way to do it. But those who are driven to get things done, either because they are compelled to do so by external circumstances, or by their own compulsive natures, may be doing more harm than good. The poet Yeats (6h:336) comes to mind here: "Nobody running at Ilnll speed has either a head or a heart." Cfliis study, and most of the scientific research done so far‘lflrroughout the field, concludes that counseling is en1 art Iwather than a science. Investigations indicate that hmuunth, ennpathy, sensitivity, and other intangibles are .more important Hum.tedudques. lias Iiot.lnatke the mistake of the psychologists who left The counseling profession philosophy behind before they had founded a science. 339 Wmtabmn.conflicts within the field of counseling mm mfldmme? The historical approach and the descriptive mmVQ/ameetmat there are a number of conflicts at both thelnbadqmrspective level and at the narrow-focus level. anwrauy'prevalent throughout the surveys of opinion umrecnwsthnm and observations about the following: 0 -Cbnfusion regarding the counselor's role: functions (job definition); ethics (with particular concern as to how far one should go in attempting systematically to direct the behavior of other human beings; goals. Lack of a recognizable theory. Lack of a standardized practice. Preparation of the counselor; professionaliza- tion; certification. Personality of the counselor. Place of counselor in elementary school. 0 -Jkt the secondary level, should the counselor ccurfine himself to "educational" counseling or may he venture toward psychotherapy? ‘The: pros and cons of testing in counselor's program. c) _ CD - ‘Latfl{ of research (worthwhile and_provable) regard- irlg the results of counseling. C) —- 1718? counselor and discipline. Isn't counseling 21 liirld of discipline in itself? 3hO Smuld the counselor reveal his sense of values? Chm he keep from doing so? \Mriance in procedures: directive, nondirective, eclectic. variance in service outlook: generalist or specialist. Conflicts involving the different orientations of counselors: toward psychometry, psychology, sociology, school or college counseling, adminis- tration, etc. Conflicts involving differing viewpoints: between counselor educators and secondary school administrators, between those who profess and those who practice, between the theorists and the efficiency experts. Conflicts resulting from the differing basic values in American culture. Conflicts caused by radical changes in social environment and spatial relationships (speed, eniergy, etc.) and the increasing difficulty in [Iredicting the kind of jobs that will be available irl tomorrow‘s world. (Conflicts caused by contamination of the prwofessional role by administrators who enlist <301uiselors for other duties (with the counselor‘s aquuiescence placing him as most to blame). 314.1 0 - Conflicts caused by the need for self— realization and by society's obligation to direct and teach its young how to meet life’s situations. All the above conflicts (and all the others mentioned in this thesis but not listed above) may be sorted into two categories: conflicts involving values and conflicts involving communications. Values and communications operate crucially at all levels in every field. The narrow-focus counselor concerned about his workaday role in a public high school is face to face with conflicting values and problems in communications, the same as the broad—perspective counselor educator in a university setting who wonders about the nature of man and his role in the universe. What might be called a "hidden" conflict in the field is the fact that some spokesmen in related disciplines and in other professions claim to have no knowledge of counsel- ing and guidance, or have not read enough or heard enough about it to discuss the matter, or appear aseptical that any such separate profession ought to or does exist. These people might be called, in contrast to the title of Packard‘s book, The Hidden Dissuaders. Perhaps it is time for counselors and counselor educators to come out of their Cloisters and, instead of forming mutual admiration societies or indulging in family bickerings, to 3’42 start doing a public relations job with professionals and non-professionals alike. When an authority in as high a after a year of time in which place as Allport replies, to mfilecu "I still don't have the faintest conception cfi"mfldmwm,l" while sending in the same mail his article mflflishmflin the Harvard Educational Review under the titka"Pswfimlogical Models for Guidance," then a critical IneakdeIIn communications seems to exist. ‘When another I haven‘t read anything in that spokesman replies, "Sorry, line," there is the implication that he has not been stimulated to read anything or that the books in the field are a sort of secret code for a secret society on the fringe of society. On the other side of the coin is the fact that people in counseling appear to be increasingly guided by spokesmen in cultural anthropology, sociology, behavioral psychology, general semantics, among others. Proposals for ACtion This; study has resulted in the following proposals: (Sounselors should be broadly educated and alerted (1) to the values in Western Culture. (20 Chounselors should be sensitive to communication prwoblems, not only within the counseling chamber .ert within society at large. (:3) CRJunselors should strive to encourage better (zonununication at all levels and in all fields they (5) (6) (7) (8) 3h3 contact. In particular, there needs to be more and better communication between those who "profess" counseling or educate counselors and those who practice counseling or hire counselors in schools. Counselors should stress public relations, in the school and within the community. At all levels this would appear to be the key to acceptance and therefore to value placed on counseling services. Counselors should get out of "guidance." They have won their fight to individualize Education. From now on they should entrust guidance to the classroom teacher and other personnel. Counselors should settle on counseling as their distinct and definitive function. Counselors should avoid such school titles as Director of Guidance (aggressive and dominant) or Coordinator of Guidance (defensive and abasive). These titles are anathema in many secondary school situations. They tend to make administrators and fellow faculty members bristle. (Sounselors should bend every effort to correct the typical schoolman's reaction that a counselor is someone who has the student body for a captive suidience with built-in subjects and whose mission 31m in society is to buttonhole each member of the school population for a given number of sessions per semester, no matter what. (9) Counselors should offer more counseling services to groups of students, not to save time but to get interaction. It is often surprising to find how much information and intelligence about jobs and careers there may be in a group, provided enough selective procedure is used to insure an interest level. (10) Counselors should be themselves in the counsel- ing process. Sincerity communicates, whereas operating behind a facade is a deception easily detected in accordance with the Emersonian judgment: "What you are speaks so loudly that I can‘t hear what you say." Prospects for Further Research From the viewpoint of interest and enthusiasm shown by a variety of respondents, prospects for further research would seem encouraging. A.surprising number of respondents 923393 They felt strongly. They were opinionated. They admittedly "got something off their chests." They said it was a piece of research that needed doing. They requested to see the results. They went out of their way to volunteer information of their own and cited sources of 3L6 otmn‘infonnation. Clyde R. Miller sent a followhup pmstcamL calling attention to a likely article in the Newlhqmblic. Allport, in an incident already touched upmh mailed a copy of one of his articles. Hayakawa, alUunmh not considering himself adequate as a respondent, vohufleered an issue of the magazine he edits (ETC.: .A Review of General Semantics). Apart from the interest and enthusiasm shown by con- tributors to the thesis, the study points to certain leads that might well result in profit to the profession if followed out by others more skilled in statistical research than the present writer. In short, the study has gone a little way on a long road. But this thesis closes with a thought expressed by Sir James Jeans (27:217): "To travel hopefully is better than to arrive." IO. 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alger, Horatio, Jr., Struggling Upward and Other works, (Introduction by RusseTl Crouse). Newaork: Crown Publishers, 1954. Allport, Gordon W3, "The Historical Background of Modern Social Psychology," Handbook 2f_$ocial Psychology, edited by Gardner Lindsey. Cambridge, Massachusetts: AddisonéWesley, l95h. Auden, W. H., "Do You Know Too Much?" Esquire, December, 1962. Bancroft, George, (as quoted by), Joseph L. Blau, Social Theories of Jacksonian Democracy. New York: The Liberal Arts—Press, l95h. Barnard, Chester I., "Education for Executives," The Journal g£_Business, October l9h5, 18. Ruth and Beverly Wolf, Modern Issues in Guidance Barry, I__ Personnel Work. New York: TeaChers CoTlege, Columbia University Bureau of Publications, 1957. Beard, Charles A., The Open Door.At Home. New York: Macmillan, l93h. Benedict, Ruth, Patterns gf_Culture, New York: Houghton Mifflin, l93h. (editor's introduction to), John 5. Benjamin, Harold, New'York: Brubacher, Modern Philosophies of Education. McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1939,7111. .Berryman, introduction to Thomas Nashe's The Unfortunate ’Travelor or the Life pf Jack Wilton. NewTYork: Capri- corn Booksr I963. Ihordin, E. 5., "Diagnosis in Counseling and Psycho- therwapy," Educational Psychology Measurement, l9h6. 3H6 I2. 13. 1h. 15. l6. l7. 18. 23. 2h. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 3H7 Brewer, John M., History gf_Vocational_Guidance. New York: Harper & Brothers, l9h2. Chase, Stuart, The Tyranny_g£_Wbrds. New York: Harcourt, Brace, I938. Clough, Shepard B., Basic Values of Western Civiliza- tion. New York: Columbia UniversTty Press, 1960. Commanger, Henry Steele, The American Mind. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950. Cowley, W. H., "Preface to the Principles of Student Counseling," Educational Record_(April, 1937). Darley, J. G., Counseling_in the High School. Chicago: Science Research Associates, l9h3. de Toqueville, Alexis, Democracyin America (Volume I), New York: Vintage Books, l95h. Fromm, Erich, The Sane Society. New York: Rinehart, 1955. Frost, Robert, "His Last Poem," Life, February 8, 1963. Gide, Andre, The Journals 2£_Andre Gide. New York: Knopf, 1957. Good, Carter V., and D. E. Scates, Methods o£_Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 195E. Hartmann, George W., N§§E_hlst Yearbook, Part II, University of Chicago Press, l9h2. Hayakamm, S. 1., The USe and Misuse gf_Language. New York: Premier Books, 1962. Hobbs, Nicholas, "The Compleat Counselor," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1958, 36. lhousman, A, E., Last Poems. London: 1922, XII. Jeans, Sir James, Physics and Philosophy. New York: .Macmillan, l9h3. Johnson, Walter F., and wm. Ratigan, "Do Guidance and .Discipfline Mix?" NEA Journal, (December, 1961). .knnes, Howard Mumford, "Creative Intelligence, the lWorld of Ideas," Harvard Educational Review, 1952, 22: No. 3. so. 31. 32. 33. 3h. 35. 36. 37. :58. 39. no. hl. h2. h3. uh. MS. 3h8 Jung, C. G., The Undiscovered Self. Boston: Little Brown & Co., I957. Lawrence, D. H., Psychoanalysis and the Unconscious. London: Martin Seeker Ltd., 1931. Maloney, Martin, "A Grammar of Assassination," frmn The Use and Misuse of Language, Edited by S. I. Hayakawa.77New York: Premier Books, 1962. Mathewson, Robert Hendry, Guidance Poligy and Practice, 3rd Edition. New York: Harper & Roe. Mead, Margaret, women iE_Mass Society. New York: Beacon Press, 19 2. Miller, Carroll H., Foundations pf Guidance. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961. Mills, C. Wright, The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. More, P. E., The Skeptical Approach to Religion, Princeton Press, l93h. Moskin, J. Robert, "The Next 25 Years," Look, Janu- ary 16, 1962. , Mowrer, O. H., Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics. New York: Ronald Press, 1950. Norris, Willa, "More Than a Decade of Training Guidance and Personnel Workers," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, December 1960, XXXIX. Oppenheimer, J. Robert, "J. Robert Oppenheimer, His Life and Times," (from an interview), Time, April 26, 195A. Packard, Vance, The Hidden Persuaders. New York: David McKay, 1957. Parsons, Frank, Choosing a'Vocation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909. . . Payne, Robert, The Gold of Troy. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1959.*M Priestley, J. B., Literature and Western Man. New York: Harper Brothers, 1960. h6. LL7- h8. #9. 50. 51. 52. 53. Sil- SS. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 3M9 Ratigan, William, Benevolent Witch Doctor, A Psycho- analysis pf_Carl Gustav June, unpublished study, 1962. , Highways Over Broad Waters. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1959, Chapter III. Reik, Theodor, Listening with the Third Ear. New York: Farrar, Straus, Cudahy, Inc., l9h8. Rogers, Carl R., "Persons or Science? .A Philosophical Question," American Psychologist, No. 10, June, 1955. , "Some Issues Concerning the Control of Human Behavior," Science, 1956, 12h. , "Training Individuals to Engage in the Therapeutic Process," In C. R. Strother‘s (Ed) Psychology and Mental Health. washington: American Psychological Association, 1956. Russell, Bertrand, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind. New York: Bard Books, 1966. Sapirstein (with Alis de Sola), Paradoxes of Everydgy Life. Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett, I961. Saturday Evening Post, "Getting Ready for.Armageddon," March 3, I962. - Scates, Douglas E., and Carter V. Good, Methods of Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, l95h. Schorer, Mark, Sinclair Lewis: Ap_American Life. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, I961. Strong, Edward K., Jr., Vocational Interests pf Men and Women. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, l9h3. Testing, Testing, Testing, by Joint Committee on Testing of American Association of School Administrators, Council of Chief State School Officers, and National Association of Secondary School Principals, Washing— ton, D. C., 1962. Toynbee, Arnold J., Civilization on Trial. New York: Oxford University Press, l9h8. Turnbull, Andrew, Scott Fitzgerald. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1962. 61. 62. 63. 6h. 350 Ward, Barbara, Five Ideas That Change the World. New York: Norton, 1959. Wilder, Thornton, Our Town. Wrenn, C. Gilbert, The Counselor i__a Changing World. Washington: 1962, p. 182. Yeats, William Butler, Zhg_Autobiography p£_William Butler Yeats. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1958. APPENDIX A Typical Form Letter and Format of Inquiry Used in the Descriptive Survey Portion of the Research 352 CHARLEVOIX PUBLIC SCHOOLS Charlevoix, Michigan (Note: The dateline for these form letters ranged from the summer of 1961 to the late winter of 1963.] Dear Sir: It is with reluctance, due to fear of imposing, that I write you, but your name is particularly prominent on my list. I'd like to introduce myself as an advanced (in age) graduate student at Michigan State University, but any real refer- ences I may have are in the current Who's Who, although not in education. I'm writing a doctoral dissertation about conflicts within guidance and counseling. Names contributing include Reik, Whyte, Mead, Riesman, Rogers, Williamson, Wrenn, Counts, Havighurst, Shoben, Roe, Super, Strang, Hoppock, Arbuckle, Ellis, van Kaam, among others both within and without the field of guidance, as the above names would indicate. A.major and vital part of this research is to ask for responses from notables in other disciplines and profes— sions, seeking their viewpoints within a broad perspective of guidance ranging from home advice and admonition to school counseling to psychotherapy in depth, and frankly acknowledging that counselors like myself (and our counselees) are increasingly guided by spokesmen in cultural anthropology, general semantics, national test- ing, and motivational analysis-~to name a few. Therefore we'd appreciate your filling out the enclosed form as briefly and in whatever fashion you prefer. (Several respondents have chosen to dispense with the form and write out their opinions and observations in a more personal way. Please follow your bent.) As a school counselor and as a counselor trainer and extension lecturer for Michigan State, I want to add my appreciation of such work as yours. With best wishes for the New Year, along with a souvenir bookmark and brochure by way of calling card-~not advertisement. William Ratigan Guidance Director 353 CONFLICTS WITHIN COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE Without too much reflection, please state briefly the con- flicts within the field of counseling and guidance —— and for guidance you may read education, culture, western civilization, democratic philosophy, etc., as you wish. Perhaps these conflicts may be triggered in your mind by such points of departure as the following: selectivity vs non-selectivity; client—centered vs directive counseling; the individual vs the group; and so forth. Please list and describe as many of these "Conflicts Within Guidance" as you regard important, use the reverse of this sheet if necessary (and repeat any or all, or none, of the above in the order you judge best): 1. I think the greatest conflict within guidance is 2. The second most vital conflict within guidance to my mind is 3. Another conflict within guidance as I see it is h. To me the list of conflicts within guidance would not be complete without APPENDIX B Correspondence Between Dr. Edward C. Roeber and the Present Writer 355 NATIONAL DEFENSE COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE INSTITUTE School of Education The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Guidance and Counseling December 5, 1962 Mr. William Ratigan Director of Guidance Charlevoix Public Schools Charlevoix, Michigan Dear Mr. Ratigan: I finally got around to completing your questionnaire only to find that I was not clear regarding your termi- nology. I am not sure whether you are talking about conflicts in society, among "experts" in guidance, or "experts" and "non-experts." Further clarification would be helpful, and I will then attempt to send a reply. Cordially, /s/ Ed Roeber Edward C. Roeber Professor of Education ECR/mm 356 December 10, 1962 Dr. Edward C. Roeber National Defense Counseling and Guidance Institute School of Education The university of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Dear Dr. Roeber: I can appreciate your statement about not being clear regarding my terminology. My intention was to make the terminology broad enough to allow for a number of reactions, including those you mention: conflicts in society, conflicts among "experts" in guidance, or "experts" and "non-experts." Frankly, one of my aims was to see how people in the field of guidance saw their work and the issues involved: as confined primarily to the discipline itself and the practical problems encountered therein, or as related closely to basic problems in the historical perspective of western civilization, etc, etc. I also have queried spokesmen in related disciplines, such as cultural anthropology, sociology, and psychology, about their reactions along this line in relation to the allied field of guidance and counseling. However, I really have made no attempt to get at conflicts among "experts" or among "experts" and "non-experts." Everyone on my list is a person whose opinion would be valued by other professional people. My interest is to get a reaction on what constitute con- flicts, and in what setting they are seen. I had better stop right here because the more I explain my purpose the more I defeat it! Several respondents have chosen to dispense with the form and write out their opinions and judgments in a more per- sonal way. Please follow your own bent. Looking forward to your response...... /s/ Bill Ratigan William Ratigan Director of Guidance Charlevoix Public Schools Charlevoix, Midligan APPENDIX C Index of Authorities 358 Acton, Lord, 75 .Adans, Henry, 7h .Addwns, Charles, 78 Adler, A., 133 Alexander, The Great, 73 .Alger, Horatio, Jr., 38, 39, hO, hl, 42 Allport, Gordon W., 11, 169, 3h2, 3H5 Anderson, C. H., 197, 198 Angel, E., 188 Anonymous, 206, 209 .Apollo, 135 Ambuckle, Dugald S., 1H3, lhh, 156, 263, 335 Archimedes, 138 Amlstotle, 327 Auden, W. H., 69, 70 Bacon, Francis, 28, 29 Baer, Max F., 269 Bancroft, George, 83 Barclay, James R., 228 Barnard, Chester 1., 17 Barry, Ruth, 15, 38, 55-60, 150, 16h, I77 Basil, (Czar of Russia), 27 Bateson, Gregory, 219 Beard, Charles Am, 71 Bedell, Ralph, 282 Beethoven, 118, 333 Bell, Alexander Graham, hl Benedict, Ruth, 28 Benjamin, Harold, 82 Bernard, Harold W., 229 Berryman, John, 77 Blocher, Donald H., 230 Bloomfield, Myer, 36 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 73, 138 Bordin, E. S., 120, 129, 15h Bowen, Catherine Drinker, h5 Brewer, John M., 11, 15, 37, h3, uh, 51-55 Brobst, H. K., 231 Brown, B. F., 291 Buddha, 118 Caesar, Julius, 73 Cain, James M., 78 Callis, R., 265 Capote, Truman, 137 Carnes, E. F., 231 Carse, Wm. T., 232 Cartier, Jacques, h5 Cartwright, Rosalind Dymond, 237 Cervantes, 333 359 Chamberlain, Wilt, 93 Chase, Stuart, 5, 217 Chekhov, Anton Pavolovich, l9 Cheskin, Louis, 206, 211 Christ, 89, 333 Christensen, C. R., 226 Cleopatra, 73 Clifford, Paul I., 232 Clough, Shepard B., 19, 25, 30 Columbus, Christopher, M5 Combs, AN‘W., 169 Commanger, Henry Steele, 7M Conant, J. B., 196 Conrad, Joseph, M6 Coronado, Francisco, M5 Corre, Mary P., 1M3, 1M6 Costar, James W., 233 Cottingham, Harold F., 1M3, 1M7 Counts, George S., l, 2, 191, 192 Cowley, W. H., 8% Craig, wm. G., 2 2, 283 Crouse, Russell, M0 Dante, 333 Darley, J. G., 10M, 179 Darwin, Charles, 119, 329 da Vinci, 332 Davis, 5. 5., 23M De Forest, Lee, M1 Denney, 203 DeRidder, L. M., 235 De Toqueville, Alexis, 26, 27, 130 de Voto, Bernard, M5 Dichter, Ernest, 206, 212 Dickens, Charles, 63 Dickson, W. J., 226 Dipboye, W. J., 236 Dollard, John, 185, 190 Dreiser, Theodore, M6 Dressel, Paul L., 233 Dugan, Willis E., 1M3, 1M8 Dunsmoor, C. C., 13, 1M3, 1M9 Dunsmoor, T. B., 292 Durant, Will, 6M Dymond, Rosalind (see Cartwright), 237 Edelfelt, Roy, 151 Edison, Thomas Alva, M1, 327 Electra, 326 Elias, George S., 237 360 Eliot, T. S., 328 Ellenberger, H. F., 188 Ellis, Albert, 129, 185, 186 Emerson, Frank Waldo, 31, 32 Engle, Kenneth, 238 Erickson, Clifford E., 16M, 286 Euclid, 333 Euripides, 329 Evans, Leslie M., 292, 317 Fahey, George L., 239 Faraday, 333 Farquhar, William, 17, 2M0 Farwell, Gail F., 2M1 Faulkner, William, 78, 79 Feder, Daniel D., 2M2 Ferguson, John L., 2M3 Field, Frank L., 181, 182 Fitzgerald, F. Scott, M5, M6, M7 Fitzgerald, Paul W., 277, 278 Flexnor, 179 Ford (Motor Co.), 208 Freud, Sigmund, M, 28, 131, 133, 185, 191, 331 Fromm, Erich, 328 Frost, Robert, 330 Gage, Gerald, 2MM Gardner, Burleigh, 206, 212 Geissinger, John B., 293 Gibran, Kahill, 105 Gibson, Robert L., 2M7 Gide, Andre, 329 Gilbert, W. 5., 130 Glazer, 203 Glenn, Edmund S., 217, 218 Goldman, E. D., 29M Goldman, Leo, 15M, 155 Gorman, Robert F., 2M8 Graves, S. M., 295 Greene, Graham, 78 Gresham, Thomas, 178 Gross, Martin L., 150 Hagenah, Theda, 179 Hahn, Milton E., 13, 1M, 165, 177, 178, 335 Haley, Jay, 217, 219 Hall, Edward T., 185, 187 Hamlet, 1M Hammett, Dahiell, 78 Hartman, George W., 130 Hatch, Raymond N., 175, 233 361 Havighurst, Robert J., 191, 192 Hayakawa, S. I., 29, 206, 208, 217, 22M, 227, 326, 3M5 Hector, 326, 327 Hecuba, 206 Henry, Patrick, 67 Hess, Charles F., 2M9 Hibben, (Princeton president), M6 Hitchcock, Alfred, 78 Hitler, Adolph, 73, 333 Hobbs, Nicholas, 20l, 329 Hoffman, Fred W., 277, 278, 317 Hollis, Joseph W., 250 Holman, W. Earl, 295 Homer, 326 Hoppock, Robert, 156, 16M, 165 Horace, 67 Horn, Carl M., 250 Housman, A" E., 8 Hoyt, Kenneth B., 251 Isaacon, L. E., 252 Jackson, Andrew, 27, M5 Jarecke, Walter H., 253 Jeans, Sir James, 3M5 Jefferson, Thomas, 83 Johnson, Kenneth J., 277, 279, 317 Johnson, Samuel, 327 Johnson, Walter F., 110, 111, 1M3, 151 Johnson, Wendell, 217, 22M Johnson, wynn E., 25M Jones, Howard Mumford, 63 Josephson, Mathew, 327 Jung, c. G., 75, 76, 131, 133 Kagan, Norman, 25M Kell, William, 17 Kenefick, Thomas A., 318 Kennedy, John F., 27, 65, 73, 21M, 215, 333 Kipfmueller, Mark, 255 Koob, C. Albert, Rev., 299 Korzybski, Alfred, 217 Khrushchev, Nakito, 2M, 27, 65, 73, 192, 333 Krutch, Joseph Wood, 202 Kuder, 337 Kunkel, 133 Lady Godiva, 138 Landy, Edward, 300 LaSalle, Robert Cavalier Sieur, M5 Lavine, Clyde J., 319 362 Lawrence, D. H., 32, 33, 3M Ledyard, John, M5 Lee, Irving J., 217 Lewis, Sinclair, 97 Lifton, Walter M., 15M, 157 Lincoln, Abraham, M5, M6, 68, 93 Loughary, John W., 277, 279 MacArthur, Douglas, Ml MacLean, M. 5., 16M, 165, 178, 335 Malcolm, David 0., 256 Maloney, Martin, 75 Malouf, Phelon J., 256 Manske, Arthur J., 238 Marcel, Gabriel, 169 Maris, Roger, 65 Marquand, John P., 38 Marsh, Drayton E., 301 Mathewson, Robert H., 38, 61, 62, 16M, 169, 265, 325 Mary Janet, Sister, S. C.,296 May, Rollo, 169, 185, 188 Mayer, Louis B., M6, M7 McCreary, wm. H., 285 McCully, Harold C., 282, 283 McDougall, w. P., 257 McGowen, John, 15M, 158 Mead, Margaret, 79, 185, 189, 326 Mease, Richard B., 258 Menninger (Foundation), 185, 189, 190 Menotti, Carlo, 78 Merriwell, Frank, 38, 39 Metcalf, Harold H., 305 Michael, Jack, I81, 182 Mickelson, Irwin T., 306 Miller, Arthur, 78 Miller, Carroll, 10, 38, 60, 61, 155, 16M, 170 Miller, Clyde R., 31, 206, 213, 326, 3M5 Miller, Gregory A», 259 Miller, John L., 306 Miller, Neal E., 185, 190 Mills, C. Wright, 75 Moore, Gilbert D., 259 More, P. E., 327 Morris, Glyn, 307 Mowrer, George E., 320 Mowrer, O. H., M, 129 Murphy, Gardner, 185, 190 Murphy (Law of Electronics), 73 Myerson, Lee, 181, 182 363 Nkrumah, Kwame, 6 Nobel, Alfred B., 78 Noble, Frank C., 260 Norris, Willa, 15, 16M, 172 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 6, 75, 76, 359 (Drwell, George, 67 Packard, Vance, 209, 3M1 Paine, Thomas, 63 Parsons, Frank, 35, 36, 37, M8—5l Patterson, C. H., 156, 261 Payne, J. Win, 308 Pericles, 20, 2M Peters, Hermon J., 262 Pfendler, Robert, 322 Pierce, Wendell H., 309 Pierson, George A., l, 2, I77, 180 Plato, 1, 2, 23, 2M, 332 Poling, D. Gordon, 263 Polmantier, Paul C., 265 Polonius, 135 Priestley, J. B., 19 Pulliam, Nolan D., 310 Rafferty, (Calif. State Supt.), 1M5 Rapaport, Anatol, 31, 39, 217, 225, 326 Ratigan,William, 110, 111 Reed, Lowell, 15M, l6l Reeves, Floyd, 5, 191, 193 Reik, Theodor, 131, 185, 191 Rembrandt, 333 Riesman, David, 201, 203 Rife, Marvin S., 266 Roe, Anne, 16M, 172 Roeber, Edward C., 13, 136, 16M, 265, 269, 286 Roethlisberger, F. J., 217, 218, 226 Rogers, Carl R., 32, 57, 90, 121, 123, 12M, 125, 135, 139, 181, 201, 202, 235, 237 Romney, George, 197 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 73, 21M Rossellini, Roberto, 78 Rothney, John, 16M, 173 Russell, Bertrand, 29, 30, 31, 327 Samler, Joseph, 156 Sapirstein, Milton R., 2 Schliemann, Heinrich, 326 Schmidt, Lyle, 270 Schorer, Mark, 97 Shaffer, Robert H., 1M3, 152, 177 36M Shakespeare, William, M6, 325, 329 Shaw, Mrs. Quincy Am, 35 Shear, Bruce E., 285, 287 Shearhouse, H. 8., 285, 288 Shertzer, Bruce, 272 Shoben, E. J., Jr., 13, 16M, 173, 181 Shostakovich, l9 Skinner, B. F., 13, 201, 202, 205, 235 Slinger, George E., 272 Small, George, 308 Smith, Glenn E., 16M, 285, 286 Smith, Robert E., 15M, 162 Smith, W. Eugene, 312 Snyder, W. V., 191, 19M Snygg, D., 169 Spillane, Mickey, 78 Stahl, Edgar, 313 Stahr, Monroe, M6, M7 Stalin, Joseph, 73 Stefflre, Buford, 138, 151, 16M, 175 Steinmetz, Ml Stern, Herbert J., 322 Strang, Ruth, 191, 19M Stripling, Robert 0., 273 Strong, Edward K., Jr., 9 Sullivan, Arthur 3., 130 Sullivan, Harry Stack, 129, 188 Super, Donald E., 1M3, 153 Swanson, Robert A", 323 Swift, Jonathan, lM Taulbee, Calloway, 285, 289 Taylor, Harold, 191, 195 Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich, 19 Thalberg, Irvin, M6 Thomas, Eugene S., 315 Thorne, Frederick C., 121, 135, 139, 1M1 Thucydides, 22, 23 Tiedeman, David V., 181, 182 Tillich, P., 169 Tobler, Charles J., 285, 289 Tolstoi, Leo, l9 Toynbee, Arnold J., 68, 69, 328 Traxler, A. E., 16M, 176 Truman, Harry, 75 Turgenev, Ivan, 19 Turnbull, Andrew, M5, M6, M7 Tyler, Leona E., 121, 135, 139, 1M0 Ulrich, Gerald F., 277, 285, 290 Vanderbilt, o. H., M1 van Kaam, Adrian, 181, 183 365 Veblen, Thorstein, 88 Vincent, Harold 5., 315 Vinogradov, l9 Walton, Isaac, 329 Ward Barbara, 6, 25, MM, 68 Wendt, Paul R., 217, 227 Whitla, Dean K., 15M, 163, 181 Whyte, William H., Jr., 201, 205 Wilde, Oscar, 337 Wilder, Thornton, 328 Williams, Tennessee, 78 Williamson, E. G., 121, 129, 135, 139, 1M2, 179 Winborn, Bob B., 276 Winfrey, James K., 277, 281 Wolf, Beverly, 15, 38, 55-60, 150, 16M, 177 Woodring, Paul, 13, 191, 196 womer, Frank B., 15M, 163 Wrenn, C. Gilbert, 122, 137, 181, 18M, 261, 26M, 335 Wright, Frank Lloyd, Ml Wulfeck, Wallace H., 206, 216 wyeth, Ezra R., 276 Yeats, William Butler, 17, 338 Zalesnick, A., 226 F '—.*r