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I‘WIIII ., 7 4%; 1" ~ ‘ ‘ ”Rh-"I1“ ”U $1117} I Y 7c 1% f‘fifif: 53“? II’ 4:11.14 "jig £1 at: I {1:101 figgxg 51:31 7- III‘LIR'Infx‘ 1% If 1" 1:3; "iv- t’t: N ”Lida—I. x"; " L ,3. m; I, IHEsms This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN ANALYSIS OF THE ATTITUDES OF MILITARY PARENTS TOWARD RELOCATION, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS DURING THEIR CURRENT TOUR OF DUTY, OKINAWA, JAPAN presented by Suzanne Elizabeth O'Shea has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Department of Educational Administration ILLM Qatar’s Major professor Herbert C. Rudlran degree in Date July 23, 198A MSU is an Affirmatiw' Actinn/Equul Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES v RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. [ES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. AN ANALYSIS OF THE ATTITUDES OF MILITARY PARENTS TOWARD RELOCATION. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS DURING THEIR CURRENT TOUR OF DUTY, OKINAHA. JAPAN By Suzanne Elizabeth O'Shea A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1984 57/0‘Zé 7—0 G) COPYRIGIT BY SUZANNE ELIZABETH O'SHEA 1984 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF THE ATTITUDES OF MILITARY PARENTS TOWARD RELOCATION. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, AND DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS DURING THEIR CURRENT TOUR OF DUTY. OKINAWA. JAPAN By Suzanne Elizabeth O'Shea Pucpgse of the Study. The central purpose of this study was to analyze the attitudes of military parents toward the relocation pro- cess, self and interpersonal relations, and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools during their current tour of duty. Okinawa, Japan. The secondary purposes of this study were (1) to determine if those of higher rank among commissioned and noncommissioned personnel have more positive attitudes than those of lower rank and (2) to determine if length of total military service is positively related to attitudes about relocation. self and others, and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Progegyce . A 45-item questionnaire was developed which contained statements concerned with the relocation process, self and interpersonal relations, and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Likert scales were provided for respondents' ratings of each item as to the degree the attitude was closest to their own feelings about the statement. The questionnaire was sent to a randomly selected Suzanne Elizabeth O'Shea sample of 600 military parents. Summary statistics. analysis of variance. and multivariate analysis of variance were the statistical treatments used to find the presence of significant differences in the responses of contrasting groups with the criterion of statistical significance set at p < .05. .Elndings. The major findings of this study were (1) the longer the family serves in their current tour of duty. the greater will be their satisfaction with the tour of duty; (2) length of time of military service is not a factor in the familyfls satisfaction with the tour of duty; (3) the higher the rank of the enlisted member is not a significant factor in the familyfls level of satisfaction; (4) higher- rank officer personnel were found to be more satisfied with the tour of duty than lower-rank officers and all enlisted personnel. .angluslgns. Within the limitations of the study. the following conclusions are drawn: (l) there was less disagreement with statements related to the Department of Defense Schools than with relocation and self and others; and (2) insufficient information before and during the tour is a critical factor in a lower level of satisfac- tion. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincerest gratitude and appreciation go to the many people who guided and encouraged me through the doctoral study and disserta- tion preparation. Special appreciation is extended to my committee chairman. Dr. Herbert C. Rudman. whose guidance and direction were major factors in my completing my studies. [ha Louis Romano. Dr. Timothy Little. and Dr. Paul Munsell. members of the doctoral committee. each contributed time. skill. and encouragement during research and writing of the dissertation. I wish to express my everlasting gratitude and appreciation to my family and friends. Although the distances between us were great. I was always aware of their support. interest. and encouragement; A special thanks is given to the doctoral students I met at Michigan State University. who shared the Joys and disappointments of doctoral studies with um» All of us have a very special friendship because of our shared experiences. Last. I wish to thank the military families I have known in my long association with the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. The parents have shared their children with me; their children have been a personal and professional Joy. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 0 O O O I O O 0 Introduction to the Study Need for the Study . . Purpose of the Study Hypothesis . . . . . Overview . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The Family as a System Systems Families . . . . . . Functions . . . . . The Military Family . Demographics . . . . Problems Faced When Relocated Overseas Mobility and Its Effects on the Member. S o O O O O O O O O O O O and Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . Military Family Research . . . . . . . . . Department of Defense Dependents Schools . . . . Its Founding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of the Department Schools Educational Programs III. METHOD 0 O O O O O O O 0 Population and Sample Design of the Instrument The Instrument . . . . Relocation . . . . . Self and Interpersonal Department of Defense Dependents O O O p o o c o o o o o o 0 000000.... of Defense Dependents Relations a). o o o o 3'00... 00.... Page vi viii Testable Hypotheses . . . General Hypothesis I . . General Hypothesis II . General Hypothesis III . General Hypothesis IV . Limitations of the Study . Methodology and Analysis . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Iv. MALYSIS OF RESULTS 0 O O O O I I O I C I O I C O O O I Statistical Tests and Treatments . . . . . . Results of General Hypothesis I and Its Operational Hypotheses . . . . . . . . Results of General Hypothesis II and Its Operational Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statistical Tests and Treatments for General Hypotheses III and IV . . . . . Results of General Hypothesis III and Its Operational Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . Results of General Hypothesis IV and Its Operational Hypotheses . . . . . . . . Summary of Analysis of Data General Hypothesis I . . General Hypothesis II . General Hypothesis III . General Hypothesis IV . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. DISCUSSION. RECOMMENDATIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS O O O O O O I I O C O O O I O O O O 0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purposes and General Hypotheses Sample and Design . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . Method of Treatment and Analysis Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . Interpretation of the Data . . . . Recommendations . . . . . Recommendations for Further Study Implications . . . . . . . . . . . I I I I I I I I I I I I o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I o O O O a O O O I 9 APPENDICES I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I AI COVER LEVER I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I BI POSTCARD REM IN DER I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 109 116 122 133 136 137 138 140 140 140 141 142 144 144 147 151 155 156 159 160 162 Page CO WE INSTRUMENT O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 O O 164 D. A SHORT HISTORY OF OKINAWA O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 169 BIBLImRAmY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 176 Tabie 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 4.2 4.3 LIST OF TABLES Service Members. Spouses, and Chderen . . . . . . . Personne1 and FamiTy Househoids in the Navy by Percentage and Projected Composition of the Tota1 Force 0 o I O o a o o o o n o I c o o o o o o I . Averages of PupiT/ProfessionaT Staff Ratios . . . . Programs for Students Having Speciai Characteristics Newer Schooi Practices in Eiementary Schoois . . Comparative Size of MiddTe/Junior High Schoois . Comparative Size of Secondary Schoois . . . . . Length of Time: Okinawa . . . . . . . . . . . . Length of Time: MiTitary Service . . . . . . . . Lower and Higher Eniisted and Officer Personnei Comparative Summary Statistics of the Attitudes of Respondents. by Months of Current Tour of Duty Analysis of Differences in Attitudes Between Categories of Months of the Current Tour of Duty . . . . . . . . Comparative Summary Statistics of the Attitudes of Respondents. by Years of Miiitary Service . . . . . . Ana1ysis of Differences in Attitudes Between Categories of Eniisted and Officer Personnei, by Time of Miiitary Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparative Summary Statistics of the Attitudes of Respondents. by Lower and Higher Eniisted Ranks Anaiysis of Differences in Attitudes Between Seiected Categories of Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 30 31 53 53 54 54 55 57 58 59 80 90 97 105 110 117 Page 4.7 Comparative Summary Statistics of the Attitudes of Respondents. by Lower-Rank and Higher-Rank Officers . . l27 5.1 Summary of Statement Items of Statistical Significance of Contrasting Groups Related to Time . . . . . . . . . 149 5.2 Summary of Statement Items of Statistical Significance 150 of Contrasting Groups Related to Rank . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.l The Family as a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2 Organizational Structure of the DoDDS System . . . . . . 47 2.3 Five-Year Curriculum Development Plan . . . . . . . . . . Sl viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I ro uc ion 0 e 5 Having a highly mobile armed forces serving in the overseas areas has been determined by military tacticians to serve the defense of the United States and its allies in their best interest. Military families. an appendage to the armed forces, are subject to the mobility of its members. Both the military members and their families have felt the effects of numerous transitions. Transitions for the military members are "from civilian to military status, from peace to combat to peace. from one assignment to another, from one geographic area to another, and from active military status to retirement" (Hunter, l977L As military personnel experience these transitions. the families also experience "the effects of war, mobility, separation, and loss" (Hunter. 1977, p. v). The number of married personnel has increased in the armed forces with the advent of the all-volunteer force. Although the mili- tary services have a long history, it was not until the beginning of the Cold War (Moskos, l976) when the practical problems of military personnel and their families received acknowledgment through appropria- tions by the Department of Defense. Expansion of the then-existing facilities through the base exchange (retail store). comnfissary (super- market). and medical services was begun. On-base schools. commercial enterprises. and recreational facilities were established. In the late 19605. the military system began "to institute various community and family agencies designed to increase further the range of services for family needs" (Moskos. 1976. p. 10). The importance of meeting the needs of the family rests on budgetary restrictions with the result that policies concerned with families are transitory. at best. The historical development of the military system has created the following assumptions about the family: l. The defense of the United States is the primary mission of the military; the concerns and needs of the family are subordinate to the mission; 2. The military profession is a way of life; families are expected to accept the inherent stresses of extended family separations and relocations; 3. The system has defined the role of the military wife as supportive and subordinate as the role is a traditional one and must be maintained; 4. In caring for its own. programs and benefits are a reflection of the military"s interest in the family; these should not be considered guaranteed rights; 5. The financial demands of forced relocation are to be borne by the member as pay. allowances. and benefits are fair. generous. and conducive to a comfortable standard of living; 6. Family influences are not influential in the recruitment. health. performance. and retention of personnel; 7. The concerns of family cannot be considered in job assign- ments. relocations. or separations because of the great logistical problems they would create; 8. Family problems are to be dealt with within the family; deviant behavior of family members reflects negatively on the service member; 9. It is considered improper for the family to challenge policies of the military system; l0. Data that are needed to evaluate any policies pertaining to the family are available to policy makers (McCubbin et al» l978. pp. 47-48). Each one of these assumptions can be found in the event that reoccurs in the lives of the military members and their families: geographical mobility. Nye (l969) wrote of the consequences of spatial mobility as (l) an increase in the number and variety of readjustments a family makes; (2) the extreme loss of support of the family by neighborhood. friendship. and kinship primary groups; and (3) weakening in the discouragement of divorce or separation by these groups. Sorokin (l959) found that the meaning one who moves gives to the act of relocation can have either negative or positive corollaries. He stated in Social and Cultural Mobiljty the following ten proposi- tions in the effects mobility has on human behavior and psychology: 1. Behavior becomes more plastic and versatile. 2. Increase of mobility tends to reduce narrow-mindedness and occupational and other idiosyncrasies. 3. Mobility tends to increase mental strain. 4. Mobility facilitates inventions and discoveries. S. Mobility facilitates an increase of intellectual life. 6. Mobility facilitates also an increase of mental disease. 7. Mobility tends to increase superficiality. to decrease sensitiveness of the nervous system. 8. Mobility favors skepticism and cynicism. 9. Mobility diminishes intimacy and increases psycho-social isolation and loneliness of individuals. suicide. hunt for sensual pleasure. and restlessness. 10. Mobility facilitates disintegration of morals (pp. 508- 509). Need fun the Study Geographical mobility is encountered by members of the United States Armed Forces (60% annually) to a greater extent than employees of private corporations (20% annually) (Hill. l976). The service member is seemingly in a constant state of transition from one commu- nity to another. either within the United States or in an overseas area. Stressful as the move can be. it is important for the agencies of the military that provide support services to know of the values and attitudes that are brought to the new location by its members and their families. One of the supporting services offered to the families of the military members is the education of their children. For those who are assigned to a military base outside the United States. "a free public education through secondary school for dependents in the overseas area" is provided by the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (United States Code Annotated. 1983L "The schools are located in 20 countries around the world. with an enrollment of approximately 136.000 students and are staffed with approximately ll.000 employees" (Department of Defense Dependents Schools. l983). These schools are fulfilling the functions of an American educational system by (1) transmission of the traditions of the civilization. (2) strengthening of national spirit. (3) providing for the establishment of social relationships. (4) job training. (5) teaching societal values. and (6) maintenance of societal norms (Spencer. 1979). Other than demographic information of the parent population of the Department of Defense Dependent Schools. little is known of the values and attitudes that parents bring to the overseas location. The vast majority of parents are a sponsoring member and dependent spouse in one of the four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces: Army. Navy. Air Force. and Marines. A smaller percentage of the parents are civilian employees of the Department of Defense through direct employment with one of the military services or as an administrator or educator with the school system. Assignment of the military member to the overseas area is a commitment of l2 months (without family members) to four years (with family membersL The length of residency in one of the 20 host coun- tries where there are Department of Defense Dependents Schools has been determined by the individual services. Administrators and educators are assigned for one or two years. depending on the location of the school. with the right to renew their agreement to remain in that location or to request a transfer to another location. Families of service and civilian members can usually move directly with the sponsor. although there may be exceptions to the right of concurrent travel. At times. housing limitations and command regulations prevent the family from accompanying the military or civilian sponsor. Thus. a family may await the availability of housing in the overseas area while residing in the United States. It is rare that this can be done at the former base. which entails a move by the family. resulting in a separation as long as six months. The highly transient population among students presents a challenge to administrators and educators to maintain stability and consistency in the educational program and services. To a lesser degree than the student population. there is a transfer of school personnel which makes staffing perhaps less stable than in other nonmilitary-related-sponsored schools in the United States. The maintenance of a stable educational environment is dependent upon the understanding of the characteristics of the military family through accommodation and service. Military families present many characteristics which set them apart from society. The profession of arms is dangerous. whether in wartime or peacetime. The military member of the family is subject to instant change of duty. whether permanent or temporary. Military families are likely to spend many years living in (xxnmunities composed entirely. or largely. of other military families. and in an area where they are likely to be supported entirely. or largely. by military facilities. But whilermilitary families have many things in common. they also represent great diversity. (Hunter & Nice. l978b) One of the great differences that separates the military family from many other families is the lack of extended history in a commu- nity.-'This is also true of other family units who are highly mobile. e.g.. migrant workers. corporate executives. construction workers. school superintendents. and entertainers. In terms of population. it can be stated that the military represents the most highly mobile organization (Hill. l976. p. l3). Since the military society draws from the larger American society. there is a great diversity of backgrounds. ethnic and kinship ties. educational levels. and career experiences. Rootlessness is a result of frequent moves; rootlessness results in the military family being comfortable with other military families who share common problems. The attitudes of society toward "those who serve" does not always make them welcome in the community. Knowing that their time will be brief compared to the lifelong resident. the military member is seen as making only marginal efforts in investing in the community. As Hill noted in Eamilies in theuMilitaLy_§y§tem (1976). families. particularly during wartime. have been willing to make accom- modations and sacrifices for a son. husband. or father to enter the service if the war is deemed one that is "popularJ' He wrote that the "military system would have less trouble if it could restrict membership to celibates whose only family responsibilities were filial obligations to parents" (p. 12h. Whether America would have a better military service to defend people and ideals with celibates is not for discussion. but rather the importance of families to the service mem— bers and the obligation the military organization has to them. Montalvo (1976) found military families possess a common sub- culture in that they share life experiences and are subject to similar social pressures and sanctions. This leads to conformity to the values and the norms of the organization. Living in restricted residential comnunfitfies. there is an overlap of work and home acquaintances. pro- ducing a close network of social relationships. "The groupDS‘tradi- tions. customs. and wearing of a uniform as a visible distinction between members emphasize group identity. group solidarity. and to distinguish the military from all others in society" (Montalvo. 1976. in l52L Each adult member of military families possesses values and attitudes that were shaped by background. education. and experiences before entering the service or matrimony. Those values and attitudes that had meaning in one community may be subject to modification. or appear in conflict. with another community--the military community. All adult family members have an understanding of the complexities of moving. Even under the most favorable circumstances. families on the move have a variety of complex tasks to perform. While new. and. perhaps. different relationships must be established between the family and the new as well as the old community. administration of customary family affairs must continue without interruption. (Marsh. l976) Modification to values and attitudes may be compounded by relocation to an overseas area where the host cultural values and attitudes diverge from the country of origin. Even with the support of the common subculture of the military community. the complexity of geographical mobility may also be affected by mediating variables such as a forced relocation. by a sudden move with limited time to plan the move. or by a relocation to a commu- nity viewed by the family members as an undesirable place to live or work. (Marsh. 1976. p. 93) However. we know very little about the values and attitudes of parents who have children enrolled in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools toward relocation. either in the first few months of arrival or when the residency in the overseas area has been for an extended period of time. While methods have been employed to collect data on issues such as retention. housing. pay. and benefits. there has not been a systematic assessment of parents' attitudes about the relocation process. self and interpersonal relations. nor with the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. These categories are of importance to the educators and administrators of the Department of Defense Dependent Schools. as well as other military agencies. because of the possible attendant effects of the performance of students when considering the degree of satisfaction of the families. It is essen- tial. therefore. to know of parents' attitudes toward their relocation to Okinawa. Japan. as these attitudes may have an effect on the chil- dren. and thus on the schools. in their acceptance. operation. and goal attainment. 10 Knowledge was sought of the military families' adaptation from one geographical area to another area. There was a need for research that was directed toward the attitudes of military parents in the following areas: (1) the relocation process. (2) desire to be in the overseas area. (3) losses encountered because of the move. (4) support given by the military service to the families.(5) awareness that the schools are providing the desired education for their children. (6) family conflicts are no greater than they were in the previous location. (7) their expectations for their children's educational achievement are being met» (8) satisfaction with the present career assignment. and (9) relocation as an opportunity for personal and professional growth. Pugpoee 9f the Study Geographical mobility. while not unique to the military member and family. is a constant in their lives as it is deemed to be in the best interest of the military organization. The purpose of this study was to survey three groups of military parents about their attitudes on the organizationally directed relocation to Okinawa. Japan. The focus of the research was the attitudes the military parent had for (l) the relocation process. (2) self and interpersonal relationships related to the relocation. and (3) attitudes toward the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Okinawa. Japan. The central question of this study was. "Do the attitudes of military families toward relocation. themselves and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools increase positively the longer 11 they serve their tour of duty on Okinawa?" Secondary purposes of this study were (1) to determine if those of higher rank among commissioned and noncommissioned personnel have more positive attitudes than those of lower rank and (2) to determine if length of total military service is positively related to attitudes about relocation. self and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. 0 s 5 While four general hypotheses along with operational hypotheses are found in Chapter III. the research hypothesis was: Greater satisfaction with the relocation process. self and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools is positively related to higher rank. length of time in the military service. and length of time of the current tour of duty. .QlLQLLLQ! In Chapter II the literature related to theories and studies about the family in general and the military family in particular are reviewed. Sample selection. data collection. methodology. and data analysis are presented in Chapter III. Analysis of the results of this study is found in Chapter IV. .A summary of the study. conclusions. and recommendations are contained in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter focuses on the theories and research related to the family in general and the military family in particular. The review of literature contains generalized theories of mobility with specific references to the military family: member. spouse. and children. The Department of Defense Dependents Schools is described in its (1) purposes and history. (2) educational programs. and (3) opera- tion of its schools. A brief history of Okinawa. the location of the research and the duty assignment of the subjects. is presented in Appendix D. The Familv as a Svstem The theory that the family is viewed as an open system can be traced to the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy. who "developed several basic concepts that described the organism as an open system" (Allen. l978L "A complex phenomenon (the family) is more than the simple sum of its parts (the members) or the properties (individual characteris- tics) of its parts" (Allen. 1978. pp. 16-17). A number of related entities (Kremer & deSmit. 1977). elements (Allen. 1978). or compo- nents (Kuhn. 1975) affect one another to achieve a balance by what is 13 given out and taken in. becoming a system on their being interrelated to one another. A change in one brings about a change in the other. Systems A system is defined as a set of elements that are interde- pendent. . . . This definition is general. but it permits any complex phenomenon to be included for purposes of analysis. Interdependent means that the elements interact. and more important. whatever affects one element will in some way affect all the other elements. The elements are the components or parts of the system. (Allen. 1978. p. 22) A system as a whole has properties that none of its elements or subelements have. Every element in the system is directly or indi- rectly related to every other element. An abstract system. a nonliving system. contains elements that are made up of concepts. .A concrete system. which can be living or nonliving. is one that is physically real. Systems have been described as being either open or closed. The open system processes stimuli from its environment in the form of energy or information in order to function. A living system is an open system because it interacts with its external environment. A closed system does not have an external environment. but is a self-contained unit. "Every system has a boundary. which is some kind of division or listing that separates what is inside from its environment" (Kuhn. 1975. p. 11). The boundary establishes the limits of the system. Boundaries are not necessarily physical as in the example of the 14 family. where all members belong to the family when they are not present within the house to the same degree that they are members when they are inside the house. The open system has the capacity to grow. and according to von Bertalanffy. "closed systems are systems which are considered to be isolated from the enviromnenv'(Kuhn. 1975. p. TBL "If a system is regarded as open. the state of the system and that of the environment influence each other; the system interacts with its environment" (Kremer & deSmit. 1977. p. 33). Relations exist between the system and the environment whereby one element of the system influences the state of an element in the environment. The state of a system is defined as a particular arrangement of components (elements) at a given point in time. Over time. a system's components may change in arrangement but such a change does not constitute a new system. Thus it is possible for a system to have or occupy many different states. 'There is some minimum number of variables or components necessary for describing the state of the system. (Allen. 1978. p. 25) The difference between traditional science and general sys- tems theory is that traditional science is interested in the analysis and design of parts whereas general systems theory concentrates on the analysis and design of the whole. 'qn very many social problems it has been found that the results of studies will improve with a holistic approach in which emphasis is put mainly on the interrelationship of individual parts" (Kremer & deSmit. 1977. p. 2). A systems approach follows two basic premises: (1) reality is regarded in terms of wholes. fieetelteu; and (2) the environment is regarded as essential 15 systems as in the interaction with the environment by open systems (Kremer 8. deSmit. 1977. p. 5). Boundaries of systems can be spatial. functional. or analyti- cal. Spatial boundaries are the easiest to see because they are physi- cal. Functional boundaries are the components that perform a given function or certain behaviors of a particular part. All components and interactions that can be analyzed and understood by using a particular science have an analytical boundary. Systems need to be identified in their relationship to other levels of a system when placing a boundary on a system (Kuhn. 1975. pp. 11-12% The boundary establishes the limits of the system. Inputs to the system are the energies absorbed by it or information processed by it. Living systems process two types of inputs: maintenance and signal. Systems are energized by maintenance inputs. enabling them to function. Signal inputs give the system the information that is to be processed. Two additional types of inputs are controlled and uncontrolled inputs. The controlled inputs can be regulated; uncontrolled inputs are unpredictable. Once the inputs to the system have been processed. outputs are discharged into the suprasystem. "Such outputs may be information. products. services. and energies. Such outputs may be useful to the suprasystem or unusable in the form of waste" (Allen. 1978. p. 26). A system takes some form of energy. psychic or chemical. for processing. During the processing. some standard is used for comparative means of determining when the desired outcome has been met. 16 A controlled system is one that maintains one or more variables within some specific range. If it goes beyond the range. it is self- regulating in that it will bring the system back to within its normal limits. Any controlled system can be called a cybernetic system. Norbert Wiener (1948). along with a group of scientists seeking termi- nology to describe the "entire field of control and communication theory whether in the machine or in the animalfl'coined the term "cyberneticsfl' It is the field of science that compares the communica- tion and control systems built into mechanical and other man-made devices with those found in the biological organisms. A relatively stable balance between two or more forces is known as equilibrium. If A varies directly with a change in B. but B varies inversely with a change in A. the situation tends toward equilibrium. This relation is also known as negative feedback (Kuhn. 1975. p. 19L Examples of negative feedback are a thermostat to stabilize tempera- ture and the governor on a steam engine to stabilize velocity (Wiener. 1948. p. 97). Positive feedback "means that the action set off by a change is not opposite and 'corrective.' but is in the same direction and aggra- vating"(Kuhn. 1975. p.20). For obvious reasons. positive feedback situations are disequilib- rating. unstable. explosive. or destructive. depending on which is the more appropriate term. In contrast to negative feedback. positive feedback is also a major source of social dynamics and developmental change. (Kuhn. 1975. p. 23) Wiener (1948) stated that a small. closely knit community has a high measure of homeostasis whether they are highly literate or are not 16 A controlled system is one that maintains one or more variables within some specific range. If it goes beyond the range. it is self- regulating in that it will bring the system back to within its normal limits. Any controlled system can be called a cybernetic system. Norbert Wiener (1948). along with a group of scientists seeking termi- nology to describe the "entire field of control and communication theory whether in the machine or in the animalfl'coined the term "cybernetich' It is the field of science that compares the communica- tion and control systems built into mechanical and other man-made devices with those found in the biological organisms. A relatively stable balance between two or more forces is known as equilibrium. If A varies directly with a change in B. but B varies inversely with a change in A. the situation tends toward equilibrium. This relation is also known as negative feedback (Kuhn. 1975. p. 19% Examples of negative feedback are a thermostat to stabilize tempera- ture and the governor on a steam engine to stabilize velocity (Wiener. 1948. p. 97). Positive feedback "means that the action set off by a change is not opposite and 'corrective.' but is in the same direction and aggra- vating" (Kuhn. 1975. p. 20). For obvious reasons. positive feedback situations are disequilib- rating. unstable. explosive. or destructive. depending on which is the more appropriate term. In contrast to negative feedback. positive feedback is also a major source of social dynamics and developmental change. (Kuhn. 1975. p. 23) Wiener (1948) stated that a small. closely knit community has a high measure of homeostasis whether they are highly literate or are not l7 literate. Creation of an antihomeostatic factor in a society depends on the means of control of communication. "Any organism is held together in this action by the possession of means for the acquisition. use. retention. and transmission of information" (Wiener. 1948. p. 161). Societies that are large do not have direct contact with their members. but must rely on other means such as the press. radio. television. theaters. movies. telephone. schools. and churches to commu- nicate to members. Therefore. any member of a society depends on the society for the acquisition. use. retention. and transmission of information. A subsociety within the greater society is the family. which is dependent on the society to which it belongs for the information it may acquire. use. transmit. and retain. Families The concept of the family as a system was the contention of Kantor and Lehy (1975): "Family systems. like all social systems. are organizationally complex. open. adaptive. and information-processing systems" (p. 8). They asserted that Families evolve networks of interdependent causal relations which are governed primarily by the mechanisms of feedback control. In other words. the component parts of a family system are neither fixed and unchanging nor chaotically organized; rather. the relation among the component parts of a family are circular. that is. reciprocally influencing. (pp. 10-11) Family systems are open in that the interchange with the larger environment is essential for the systenfls viability; there is found a two-directional movement with the larger environment. Family systems 18 are adaptive because they grow and develop as a result of the inter- change with the environment. While stress and tension are inevitable. the systems are capable of making changes in the stress. be it inter- nally or externally stimulated. Information-processing capabilities of the family system permit it to change action patterns. based on the information that it acquires. uses. transmits. and retains. Kantor and Lehr (1975) asserted that the information process of the family is distance-regulating information. which they base on extensive empirical observations. [We] believe that family systems seek to attain their goals by continuously informing their members what constitutes a proper and optimal distance as relationships among members. and between members and specific events. become established and fluctuate. (p. 12) Kantor and Lehr presented four concepts of the family: family systems are organizationally complex. family systems are open systems. family systems are adaptive. and family systems are information- processing systems. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.1. Kantor and Lehr described the feedback loop as: (1) loop begins with stimulus or disturbance. (2) input signal is generated. and (3) interactions take place between the signal and the response. The sensor signal receives the input signal from the stimulus and sends it toward the system as a whole. 'The sensor signal states the system's desired states of regulation. lhe system comparator sends an error signal. based on the discrepancy between the sensoris signal and the reference signal. The error signal activates the systenfls effector 19 function to produce the system's response to the original stimulus. The output provides a feedback link to the input stimulus (p. 14% Reference signal——- \V Error Comparator . Signal (l. S Sensor ystem Effector function function Environment Environmental feedback 6 Output Input quantity Quantit y <::)Disturbance Figure 2.l.--The family as a system. (From David Kantor and William Lehr. F i : To T o of F i .ELeeeee [New York: Harper & Row. 1975].) While the systems process and feedback loop appear to be theoretically sound and informative. they actually remain general and abstract. To bring [their] model of distance regulation down to earth. [there is a] need to talk about family strategies. the recurring patterns of interactional sequences.... . Strategies emerge whenever two or more people are living in the same social field. They are evolved 20 by the persons in that field to regulate and shape the relation- ships between and/or among themselves. Similarly. strategies emerge in the family for the same purposes. The concept of strate- gies allows us to link the principles of systems process with phenomenological reality-~the reality people feel as they experi- ence everyday family life. (Kantor 8. Lehr. 1975. p. 15) "We define a family strategy as a purposive pattern of moves toward a target or goal made by two or more people who are systematv ically bound in a social-biological arrangement" (Kantor & Lehr. 1975. p. 18). Although the strategies may not be rational. the strategies function in a rational framework; they have a purpose. 'There is sys- temic awareness of these strategies as family members respond to "each otherfls verbal and nonverbal cues in reasonably predictable ways. a fact that leads us to believe that members know at some kinesic. motoric. or cognitive level the parts they are expected to play in family strategies" (Kantor & Lehr. 1975. p. 18). Strategies involve all members because each member voluntarily agrees to take part; there are shared responsibilities for the outcome. There are contingencies for their participation: (1) an individual is usually free to vary his movements as an active agent in a complex and on-going event; (2) there are degrees of freedom in the interrelations of the parts; and (3) freedom to decide not to play the parts or to make the moves assigned by a strategy. (Kantor & Lehr. 1975. pp. 19-20) Kuhn (1975) stated that much of what man does "is determined by his environment. particularly by his culture. not by inherent 'human nature"'(p. 33). Man is adaptive because he can give highly varied responses. responding differently to different circumstances. The family. being potentially all purpose. deals with the whole person. 21 The nuclear family‘s crucial social role is to serve as the main communicator of information. or pattern. from one generation to the next. The procreation of children transmits the genetic patterns developed through eons of biological evolution. And the rearing of children in the family transmits many of the cultural patterns developed through the millenia of social evolution. The genetic patterns are almost totally resistant to change during the lifetime of an individual. and the cultural patterns learned deeply early in life can be highly resistant to change. (Kuhn. 1975. pp. 404-405) Paolucci. Hall. and Axnin (1977) applied the Kuhn model to family decision making. They stated. In order to respond differently to different circumstances the family decision makers must be able to (1) detect the state of the environment by perceiving. receiving. and identifying environmental stimuli. (2) select one response rather than another. and (3) carry out the selected responses that will implement or affect the family's behavior or of an individual member. (p. 24) Melson (1980) offered unification of a systems approach to the family as an ecosystem. This family systems approach incorporated the general systems theory with the study of the family. Melson concluded that (l) the family is more than a collection of interacting indi- viduals. It is a whole greater than the sum of its parts; (2) the family consists of interdependent individuals whose behavior mutu- ally affects one another;(3) family systems tend toward equilib- rium or balance so that changes in one family member cause recipro- cal changes in others to restore the old balance or stabilize at a new equilibrium level. q» 6) F c s Melson conceived the family‘s environment as functioning at two levels: macro and micro. The family was considered as an institution on the macro level in relation to other institutions in a society. such as the educational system. political system. stratification system (class structure). or religious system. . . . The environment is then 22 specified in terms of issues affecting such large systems. such as population. technological change. housing availability and policy. and nutritional supply. (Melson. 1980. p. 20) When the family is viewed on the micro level. it is seen as a unit composed of individuals interacting. The environment affects adaptational strategies by the intensity and predictability of stimulation. by coping styles encouraged by the magnitude and intractability of environmental demands. Importantly. environments differ in the extent to which they encourage adaptational strategies that maintain self-esteem and family integrity. Transactions between system and environment tonnaintain adaptation may be viewed as a set of four interrelated processes: perceiving. valuing. deciding. and spacing. (Melson. 1980. p. 31) Melson found that a family maintains an adaptive relationship to the environment through an interdependence with the environment. If there are changes in the family"s characteristics even though changes in the environmental conditions stimulate family responses. a mutual change occurs when the family considers the surrounding environment to which family members will adapt. "The process of adaptation is imper- fect both because of conditions within the family and outside it. Individuals and whole families differ in the accuracy with which they perceive and use environmental information" (Melson. 1980. p. 235). It would appear that the family as an information-processing unit may receive conflicting. contradictory. ambiguous. and confusing information from the environment. The family will select and organize this information in the development of a pattern of accommodation in a reaction or action on the larger environment as they seek self- direction and growth. ‘The strategies it chooses to use will help to maintain the balance needed or lead to its destruction. 23 There is no fully satisfactory substitute for the family. although current political interests. based on societal demands. have taken some of the functions away from the family. Parsons and Bales (1955) suggested that the basic and irreducible functions of the family are two; first. the primary socialization of children so that they can truly become members of the society into which they have been born; second. the stabiliza- tion of the adult personalities of the population of the society. It is the combination of these two functional imperatives which explains why. in the "normal" case it is both true that every adult is a member of a nuclear family and that every child must begin his process of socialization in a nuclear family. q» 10) In the introduction to The Faijy and Ite Sthuetuhe and functions. Coser (1974) wrote of the family as a "universal institution [which] cannot be explained by its manifest functions-- such as reproduction. economic activities. socialization of the young-- all of which could conceivably be fulfilled outside the institutional family" q» xwi). ‘The characteristics of families (as based on the work of Claude Levi Strauss) "are as diverse in structure as the cultures in which they are embedded. . . . One feature stands out universally; the family helps place individuals into a patterned network of interweaving social relationships" q» xviL These inter- weaving social relationships are the socialization of the children and the stabilization of the adult personalities. "It is best. perhaps. to think of the family as a kind of social network characterized by inti- mate. long-term reciprocal relationships" (Melson. 1980. p. 21). The family is a social group with a common residence. a certain amount of economic cooperation and reproduction. It has a variety of functions for which socialization takes place. The child will learn 24 the typical sex-role from the same-sex parent. 'The child is able to conceptualize the idea of family living. the family being the microcosm of the society for the child. The child is developing interpersonal functioning from the relationships that are observed in the immediate family; these functions are then carried into society. These are the purposes of the family in relation to the child. and the purpose of the family in relation to the society. Serving as an economic function. the family is the basic unit of economic consumption. At one time. the family was the primary economic provider. but this is no longer of importance to most family units. This function. with few exceptions. has been taken over by groups outside the family; the family has become the»consumer without producing what it consumes. Families may differ in things such as roles assumed by members of the family. child-rearing practices. and other aspects of employment for the adults for the emotional and economic well-being of the family. To provide for the emotional well-being of the child. the primary function and characteristics of the family are that it should be a social group in which in the earliest stages the child can "invest" all his emotional resources (Parsons & Bales. 1955. p. 19). They recommended the family not be immersed in itself but in a differentiated subsystem of society. Briefly. Parsons proposes that the emotional security the family gives to the child in his early years is precisely the psychic foundations of the chilcfls later independence. By providing the child with a great deal of closeness and warmth and then by giving him his head. the isolated nuclear family trains a type of 25 personality ideally equipped to cope with the rigors of the modern world. (Lasch. 1980) Providing emotional support is as important as the material forms of help given. "As a setting for warm. intimate relationships. the family is unmatched by any other type of social group" (Spencer. p. 245). If a satisfying relationship is not developed within the family. there are problems in finding a substitute for the family. Increasing divorce rates. family violence. and child and wife battering are indications of the poor state of health for the family. The theories of the family of the post-World War II era could not take into account variations in family lives and lifestyles of today (Skolnick & Skolnick. 1980). Such family styles as. for example. that of the working mother or of the single parent family. could be seen only as deviant behav— ior. Similarly. social change in family life on a large scale as in the rise of women's employment or of divorce. could be inter- preted only as social disorder and the disintegration of the social system. (Skolnick & Skolnick. 1980. p. 4) Laslett (1979) saw the family as "one of the few places where the expression of strong feeling is felt to be legitimate. and. thus. the likelihood that emotionally charged interactions. both positive and negative. will occur" q» 250» This is due to the specialized and bureaucratic organizations in the lives of all. While there is no argument that the family has remained the same. there is no consensus on how the family changed. 'Tufte and Myerhoff (1976). in examining the literature about the family. found the definitions of the family to be sharply different. They reported. Some authors stress its territorial dimension. focusing on the household. that physical unit made up of kin and others living 26 together. sharing daily life on a primary face-to—face basis. Legal experts stress biological relationships. Other scholars and artists look at kinship and family as an attitude. a self-defined identification with or among a group of individuals who exist for each other psychologically and socially. however geographically removed they may be. Mass transportation and communication make a new kind of unit feasible. one composed of dispersedinembership based on perceived emotional proximity and interaction rather than face-to—face contact; this is now possible through exchange of telephone calls. letters. photographs. tape recordings. and the like. All these definitions are entirely sensible. (p. 1) According to Keller (1980). In the United States. as in other industrial societies. the ideal family consists of a legally constituted husband-wife team. their young. dependent children. living in a household of their own. provided for by the husband's earnings as main breadwinner and emotionally united by the wife's exclusive concentration on the home. Keller followed by stating that no more than one-third of families live up to this image. 'Whe remaining majority all lack one or more of the essential attributes--in lacking a natural parent. or in not being economically self-sufficient. or in having made other necessary modifications" (p. 69). The American family has emerged as a new kind of family system in the history and evolution of the family. Fuchs (1972) found the American family system is based on the search of individual members for personal independence. Fuchs attributed ten characteristics present in the American family which are not found to the same extent in other cultures. They are: l. Rejection of family of orientation 2. Idealization of the family of procreation 3. Precocity and aggressiveness of small children 4. Encouragement of independence in children; open competition between siblings 5. Rebellion of adolescents against parents 6. Freedom of unmarried females 27 7. Patriarchy is obsolescent 8. Degree to which women have more decision-making authority than husbands 9. Anxieties of mothering 10. Physical and psychological pains of aging The characteristics proposed by Fuchs are rooted in cultural customs and norms of the American family system. Rejection of the family of orientation. parents and grandparents. may be viewed as a consequence of high mobility of the military family. Physically removed from kinship ties and the possible assistance offered places a greater strain on the parents. The anxieties of mothering increase without help from parents. siblings. aunts. or cousins. Whether help is desired or not. the mother lacks the opportunities to find out. Distance is a factor that prevents the mother from learning about the quality of support that can be given by kin. Decision making by the mother in the military family is not used to attack the traditional authority of the father found in other cultures but as the result of the frequent absence of the father. Characteristic of the American family are the ideals of independence and equality. which lessen a patriarchal society. Traditional military service has been dominated by males. The authority of the male head within the military family must be abrogated to the female by temporary absences. Greater responsibilities in child rearing and home maintenance modify the role of wife and mother when compared to other American families. As an open system. the military family lives and works in a community that can be described as a closed society. The military 28 family is organizationally complex. open. adaptive. and an information- processing system. Development of a model of the military family may state that the family in receiving contradictory. conflicting. ambiguous. and confusing information will select and organize the information into a pattern of accommodation in the reaction to. or action upon. the larger environment as the family seeks self-direction and growth. The needs of the system. the military family as the basic unit of this study. can only be met by adequate supplies of resources from the environment to support growth and change. Stress and tension are inevitable with growth and change. The family being interdependent experiences change by the reciprocal influence of the behavior of its members. The adaptive relationship of the family to the environment on the micro level is interdependent among and between members. Adapta- tional strategies on the macro level affect the coping styles of the member and family to the demands of the military organization in their interdependence with this environment to maintain self-esteem of all members and family integrity. Ibeflflltamiamflx Historically. members of the military and their families have been guided by principles of sacrifice and dedication to the organiza- tion; their efforts. in turn. have been partially repaid by an array of social and financial supports signifying the military's intent to "take care of its own." (McCubbin et al.. 1978. pp. 46- 47) When a man or woman enters the military service. he or she also enters a relatively cohesive society while simultaneously taking a job. But 29 Orthner (1980) noted that the military community more so than other work environments has control over many aspects of participants' lives. and with that comes greater power and control over outcomes. This cohesiveness of the environment should meet the needs of all. providing an atmosphere that would foster personal and family development. Reviewing the research that has been published on military families. McCubbin. Dahl. and Hunter (1976b) stated that it is necessary to keep in mind the political and social context in which such developments or lack of developments occurred. The history of the military. its mission. its perceptions of the role of the family within the military. and the Zeitgelet of the behavioral sciences in the military provide the perspectives required to appreciate the evolution of research on the family in the military system. . . . It is a frustrating legacy of intermittent research activity in the face of a myriad of obstacles and overt resistance by a military system unsure of the value of such scientific inquiries. The basis for such legacy is complex and woven into the fabric of the military as an institution. (McCubbin et al.. l976b. p. 291) Demeghaphjcs The Military Family Resource Center of the Armed Services YMCA is an international center that supports family advocacy in the military services by assisting the professionals who provide help to military people and their families around the world. The demographics as provided by the Military Family Resources Center are shown in Table 2.1. 30 Table 2.l.--Service members. spouses. and children. In Uniform Spouses Children Army 777.000 448.000 718.500 Navy 527.500 231.000 307.500 Air Force 558.000 346.000 485.000 Marine Corps 188.500 64.000 90.000 Source: Military Resource Center. YMCA. Norfolk. Virginia. 1980. In addition there are 90.000 dependent parents and 45.000 "other" dependents of military personnel. About 444.000 dependents are living overseas or in foreign countries with their military sponsors (Family Resource Center. 1980. p. 4). Orthner and Nelson (1980) prepared a report for the United States Navy on the demographic profile of U.S. Navy personnel and families. Working with officials of the personnel branch of the U.S. Navy. they learned that there were no computerized records that would lend themselves to the creation of household units. Information was obtained from the noncomputerized Emergency Data Form. Orthner and Nelson used a 1 percent random sample. or 5.231 members. in the random selection of Social Security numbers from all active-duty Navy personnel. Table 2.2 is adapted from their study. The authors concluded that Navy family patterns are changing. They concluded that (1) the increasing social trend for remaining single will decrease the rising proportion of married persons; (2) Navy women. whether married to civilian or military spouses. often choose to 31 remain childless; and (3) the number of single-parent fathers is twice as high as single-parent mothers. Table 2.2.--Personnel and family households in the Navy by percentage and projected composition of the total force. Total Force Estimates Household Percentage Number Single personnel Independent singles 45.6 237.499 Single parents 0.9 4.541 Married personnel With civilian wife 49.5 257.974 With civilian husband 1.5 7.637 Dual military 2.5 13.227 Total 100.0 520.878 Source: Dennis K. Orthner and Rosemary S. Nelson. Paper prepared for Department of the Navy. Navy Family Support Program (Op-152). Contract No. NOOl71-79-M-8577. 1980. The Air Force Conference on Families (1980) focused on eight major areas of concern: economics. community. communication. educa- tion. moves. health. child care. and research. The conference members were provided the following information about Air Force families: 1. Military families with civilian wives account for 59 percent of the total force. 2. Among male enlisted personnel. 60 percent are married to civilians compared to 83 percent of male officers who had civilian wives. 3. Thirty-five percent of the female officers and 23 percent of enlisted women are married to civilian spouses. 32 4. Although nearly 70 percent of Air Force men with civilian wives have children in the household. less than 25 percent of mili- tary women with spouses have children. 5. Traditional families. composed of an Air Force father. non- working wife and mother. and one or more children. comprise only approximately 19 percent of the force and 29 percent of all Air Force families. 6. Fifty-two percent of all wives married to Air Force members are employed. . . . These numbers have become more significant when it is realized that a sizable proportion of the force is assigned to overseas or isolated CONUS (Continental United States) areas where opportunities for spouse employment are limited. (p. 3) Pneblems Faeed Wheh W An overseas tour is usually less demanding for the military member than for spouse or child(renL The work is familiar if not the same as it was at the previous base. A routine is established along with friendships that are developed at work. The spouse may have greater demands made in adjusting to the overseas area. 'There is a loss of friends. relatives. perhaps career. and social interests. Feelings of isolation and frustration may result in the spouse becoming more dependent on the service member. ‘This may provide for greater unity within the family or the negative corollary of disharmony if the spouse or service member is unable to give the emotional support needed (David. 1960). Specific to this study is a journal article by McNeil and Zondervan (1971). Using the conceptual framewomk of the general systems theory. they examined some of the factors that contribute to the breakdown of military families overseas. The inputs of culture shock. an altered dependency-independency ratio between spouses. 33 disturbed perceptions relating to distance. boredom. and temporary suspensions of life style are given as the causative influences of family breakdown in the overseas location. Knowing that it is expected to have experienced culture shock along with a loss of all familiar cues of social intercourse. McNeil and Zondervan found that an "inability to traverse this period success- fully can play havoc with family stability. and eventually shift the dependency-independency balance that conflict is inevitable" (p. 452). Feeling isolated in a place where English is not the dominant language. the spouse's dependency on the service member increases as the depend- ent looks to the military-related member of the family to provide all emotional needs. Distance can be symbolic of friends and family left across a great expanse of water. Distorting the perception of distance. a spouse or service member may become dependent on the other. which creates more conflict in the need to fill the void that others had. The military service can be responsible for boredom by providing the housing. operating the facilities for basic needs. and having recrea- tional activities on the base. which does not encourage contact with the local nationals. An overseas tour takes on a special purpose or a combination of timerlimited goals. 'These are reduced to three primary concerns: buying. traveling. and saving. Pursuit of one or all of these may alter the homeostasis developed within the family. There is pressure from others in the overseas military comnunfity to conform to the 34 criteria established to get the most out of the tour. "Inputs from all sides force a reappraisal of priorities. and other things are demoted or suspended until the overseas assignment has ended" (McNeil & Zondervan. 1971. p. 454). M b s M mb 5 Sorokin (1959) developed a theory of the effects of mobility on human behavior and psychology. While Sorokin's concern was with social mobility. selected effects of social mobility can be applied to the relocation process of the military member and family. Each member in the uniform of his service is further identified by rank in placing the member in a social space. Sorokin summarized his thesis of social space as (1) social space is the universe of the human population; (2) man's social position is the totality of his relations toward all groups of a population and. within each of them toward its members; (3) location of a man's position in this social universe is obtained by ascertaining these relations; (4) the totality of such groups and the totality of the positions within each of them compose a system of social coordinates which permits us to define the social position of any man. (p. 6) The behavior of members in a mobile society is quite different from those who have remained in the same occupational. economic. and political status. The mobile group is required by a change of status to make a corresponding accommodation of body. mind. and reactions. This behavior has to be more versatile. changeable. and capable of greater variation and modifications. 35 Take a man of any occupation who has followed it for a lifetime-~be he a dentist. a fisher. a soldier. a professor. a factory operator—- he will necessarily exhibit the narrow-mindedness. idiosyncrasies. and Ji§§2LiL_d§_§Q£2§ of his social status more conspicuously than a man who has passed through several different positions. (Sorokin. 1959. p. 510) The individual who remains in the same occupation. such as the military member. is "decidedly marked by the stigma of his social position" (Sorokin. 1959. p. 509). 'This permanent social status with "all its virtues and idiosyncrasies is reflected in his opinions. belief. ideology. standards. and morals" (p. 509). 'Thus. the social space keeps him from acquiring a broader point of view because he is not changing his position by "passing through different 'social atmos- pheres.' breathing different social air. experiencing different stand- ards. habits. morals. ideas. customs. and beliefs" (p. 509). The social space occupied by the military member and family is based on the military hierarchical structure. Frances and Gale (1973) stated: Rank permeates not just the work environment. but also social clubs. the location and quality of housing. social relations. eth it is always clearly visible whether written on the mailbox or worn on the lapel. The husband's promotion has a major impact on the family's prestige within the community. Conversely. the actions of all family members can significantly influence the soldierwslike- lihood of promotion. Implied demands are made upon the wife for participation in numerous social functions. Depending upon her personality characteristics. she may welcome this opportunity to contribute or feel guilty that her lack of participation is a burden on her husband's career. The home may acquire an authori- tarian. hierarchical structure. as this form of organization is most familiar to the military man. UL 173) While conformity to these demands of the military organization varies within families. Frances and Gale found that "the military hierarchies 36 can contribute to psychic equilibrium and a sense of place and identity by providing clear behavioral guidelines" (p. 173). Sorokin's third effect of mobility in the application to the military member is the necessity of being more versatile and able to adapt. which increases mental strain when moving in and out of differ- ent social strata. Those who do not change occupations live a life of routine and inertia. New ideas and efforts are unnecessary. while the mobile individual must do this continuously. The military services as hierarchical organizations determine the amount of information any individual will have. which is based on his/her position in the hier- archy. There is a limit to the latitude permitted to any member in developing new ideas and making new efforts. ‘The military member is conditioned and expected to respond to an order without questioning that order. A mobile society has an environment that is "more diversified [with] more numerous combinations of ideas. values. and things produc- tive of inventions in the minds of the people" (Sorokin. 1959. p. 511). From this fourth effect is developed the concept that mobility facili- tates an increase of intellectual life. "Increase of mobility means an intensification of interchange of ideas. a clashing and crossing of values of different strata with different cultures. and increase of chance for a cross-fertilization of minds" (p. 512). This may not be found in the military service because of the comnmulpurpose of the occupation: defense of the country. While there exists inter-service 37 rivalry. it is not intended to create conflict in their common purpose. nor is it encouraged. When the military member and family members seek ways to learn of the ideas and values of the citizens of another country. a major problem in communication arises. The language barrier poses a formidable problem of adjustment for the serviceman. for the inability to communicate effectively with others is both frustrating and debilitating. The types of activi— ties in which the individual participates. as well as the cate- gories of persons with whom he interacts. are determined in large part by the extent to which one can speak the language of the country. (Coates & Pellegrin. 1965. p. 401) Lacking the ability to speak the language of the host country prevents intellectual growth. thus the loss of cross-fertilization of minds. "A lack of ability to communicate also makes it difficult to learn which forms of behavior are considered good or bad by the natives. or to learn their values and attitudes bearing on other matters" (Coates & Pellegrin. 1965. p. 401). A negative corollary to the increase in broad—mindedness. greater experiences. intellectualism. inventions. and discoveries is the increase of mental diseases. 'Great mental strain and versatility of behavior demanded by life in a mobile society. are so exacting that they cannot be met by many individuals" (Sorokin. 1959. p. 515). To this may be added the constraints of a highly structured organization when requiring structured responses may create greater strain by placing the individual in an environmental climate (overseas) that becomes more restrictive because the customs and norms are not known. 38 This new situation demands versatility of behavior that may not be consonant with the requirements of the organization. Obviously. in the foreign setting there is added to the cultural differences between civilian and military ways of life the even greater cultural differences between American and non-American cultures. ‘This means that a problem of cross-cultural understand- ing is inevitable. The American serviceman is faced with a cul- tural situation with which he is unfamiliar and to which he must adjust in some fashion. The foreign civilian is faced with a group of American service personnel whose culture they do not understand and to whom they must adjust; (Coates & Pellegrin. 1965) r F e The demands of mobility have been documented in research on families of military personnel. Gonzales (1970). in his case studies of military "brats" referred for psychological help. emphasized that children. particularly adolescents. have to discontinue their immediate. familiar life pattern. and depend primarily on the type of ties that exist within the family. He also found that younger children primarily react not to geographic change but to the emotional changes in the parents. and that generally the children's reactions to moves depend on the emotional relationships in the family prior to moving. (McCubbin. Dahl. & Hunter. 1976b. PP. 294-95) The relationship between feelings of alienation and family problems was assessed by McKain (1973). He paid particular attention to the adverse reactions of families assigned to Europe who were mem- bers not well identified with the military or civilian community. "Specifically. common attitudes and feelings were uncertainty as to what might happen next. lack of friendships. disorder in their environ- ment. and feelings of strangeness. anxiety. and rigidity" (p. 205). Following McKain's tour of duty in Germany he surveyed 200 randomly selected families at a large Eastern United States Army post. in an attempt to find a correlation between the variables of "the wife- 39 mother's feelings of alienation; her lack of military community identi- fication; and family problems. both general and associated in time with a move" (p. 206). Each subject received a packet containing the Srole Anomie Scale. the Mooney Problem Checklist. Farber and Blackman's Index of Marital Role Tension. the Pedersen Attitude Scale. the Clemens Needs- Wants Inventory. and a childrenhs problems checklist selected from the Midtown Manhattan Questionnaire (provided by Dr. Srole). The findings were (1) moderate to high correlations between alienation and non-move—associated. personal. children's. and marital problems with all correlations being significant (p < .01); (2) alienated wife-mothers and husbands having just experienced a move perceived more personal and marital problems than those who had not had a recent move; (3) the high-alienated wife-mother will perceive per- sonal. childrenkb and marital problems as having started at the time of the transfer; and UN identification with the Army community lowers the perception of problems associated with the move. An exploratory and descriptive study was designed by Marsh (1976) to delineate the problems and hardships endured by the nuclear military family. It was postulated that a predisposition to experience family hard- ships during the moving process would be dependent upon differences in family characteristics. type of transfer. and the distance moved. and that families who have less contact with family comnur- nity resources would experience more hardships than families that used formally established community resources or obtained assist- ance through informal social networks. “L 92) 4O Marsh developed three indices for the study: a family hardship scale. an attitude toward relocating scale. and a neighborhood scale. The first of two questionnaires was given when the member reported for duty. and the second was given two months later. The conclusions were: (1) payable allowances and benefits do not cover the full cost of moving; (2) most enlisted men must borrow money in order to cover the excessive costs of moving; (3) those experiencing the most hardship will make the most use of available community resources in order to lessen the hardships; (4) social welfare services may not be sufficient to provide remedial services to families disrupted during the process of moving; and (5) most of the hardships identified are beyond the immediate control of the serviceman and his family. and thus are not easily offset by social supports in the comnuufity'or by a more positive attitude about relocation. The majority of military families acquire skills that enable adaptation when confronted with another move. Research in the area of geographic mobility is still a limited source of information on the adaptive skills of families. The military services attempt to provide as much support as is possible within the constraints of size of the base. available personnel. and the perceived need on the part of the services. The military is placed in the position of the extended family. Frances and Gale (1973) stated that the military provides a new extended family which is often perceived as endur- ing. universal. and reliable. It offers medical. legal. and dental care. shops of all descriptions. movies. banks. clubs. churches. charities. crafts. adult classes. childrenhs nurseries. schools. teams. and Scouts. and just about every service imaginable. (p. 172) 41 Pederson and Sullivan (1964) cited research that suggested mobility is more highly associated with psychiatric causality rates among adults than among children. They had predicted that there would be a high number of moves in relationship to the emotional disturbance of the child. It was found that the parental attitudes toward mobility were more important than the number of moves in affecting the adjust- ment of the child when compared to the normal child. In the preface to 9 Mi F ° P Y Agent. Hunter and Nice (1975) stated: The assessment of behavior in childhood and adolescence is tradi- tionally determined relative to a normal expectable sequence of regularly occurring developmental phases. These phases in develop- ment reflect intrinsic changes associated with biological and psy- chological growth as they emerge in interaction with the extrinsic influences of the socio-cultural milieu. The children in the military community experience the same general developmental and maturational processes as other children but they also experience a social and facilitating environment which is unique. The commonly accepted stresses associated with the military way of life are geographic mobility. transcultural experiences. transient father absence and early military retirement. ML 3) Darnauer (1970) conducted interviews with 60 adolescents 16 to 18 years of age. The majority of them believed the most negative effect of military life was the mobility of the family. "The problems of adolescents in the military are best understood as individuals moving through a complex intrinsic developmental process interacting with the social milieu rather than any unique characteristic of the military community" (Shaw. 1975). An analysis of the relationship between mobility and 17 personality characteristics of ninth- and twelfth-grade dependents of 42 military personnel in Germany and the United States was conducted by (NConnell (1981). A Social Profile Questionnaire was administered to 297 students in Germany and 279 students in the United States. The assessment of personality characteristics was made by use of the California Psychological Inventory. (YConnell concluded his study by stating. "Claims that mobility impacts negatively on the adolescent personality may be exaggerated" (p. 92). "There was no significant relationship between mobility measured over a child's entire lifetime and his personality characteristics with the exception of the trait dominance (p < .05)" (p. 87). The few studies that have dealt with the military family and the effects of frequent geographical mobility (Marsh. 1970; Pellegrin. 1965; Gonzalez. 1970; McKain. 1965; CfiConnell. 1981)) have emphasized the stresses of frequent moves. ‘These stresses were noted by Coates and Pellegrin (1965) and can be summarized as the following: 1. Temporary duty assignments can be frequent for some 2. Not having roots in a community; unable to buy a home 3. Associated monetary and social-psychological costs of moving 4. Giving up old friends and establishing new ones 5. Changing schools with perhaps changing standards of educa- tion 6. Curtails the service member's desire to accumulate domestic goods 7. Frequent separation of the military member from the family 8. Overseas assignments for the military member without the family 9. Irregular work hours for some military members 10. Dangerous occupations for some 11. Reverse gender roles when spouse assumes responsibilities to fill in for the military member during prolonged absence 12. Ineffectual level of performance when family problems are great (pp. 385-87) 43 Mobility has a crucial effect on the children in the education they receive. Quality of programs and services is a concern for both mobile and nonmobile parents and children. ‘The military services under the parent organization. the Department of Defense. support the educa- tion of dependent children through the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Frequent moves. disruption in continuity of education. loss of peer groups. general adjustment to a new location. and parent atti- tudes about the relocation challenge the educators and administrators to assist families in yet another transition. The history. purpose. and programs of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools are presented in the following section as each has importance in understanding the attitudes of military parents in response to statements related to the children's education. 0 D s D The Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DoDDS) is a worldwide system of public education for the children of military and civilian personnel of the Department of Defense who are assigned to the U.S. military bases outside the United States. The Department of Defense Dependents Schools (00005) provide educational opportunities comparable to those offered in the better school systems in the United States. This segment of United States public education consists of approximately 270 elementary. middle. junior high. high schools. and a community college. The schools are located in 20 countries around the world. with an enrollment of approximately 136.000 students and are staffed with approximately 11.000 employees. The overseas school system is one of the United States' largest school systems; it is exceeded in enrollment by only a few other school systems. (Department of Defense Dependents Schools. 1983a) 44 We "The dependents schools system began in 1946 amid the rubble of war-torn Europe" described the beginning of the system when reported by the investigating committee of the general subcommittee on labor. Department of Defense education of dependents overseas. in the 90th Congress. First Session of the United States Congress HIS. Congress. 1967L October 14. 1946 was the opening day for 38 elementary and.5 high schools in Germany for 2.000 American children and 120 teachers (U.S. Congress. 1967. p. 101). The original Munich American High School was located in a private German home and accommodated 38 students. Classes were taught in the basement. the attic. and bedrooms. The Navy opened its first school in Guantanamo Bay. Cuba. in 1946. The Department of the Air Force came into being in 1947 and gradually assumed responsibility for the education of its dependents. (U.S. Congress. 1967. p. 101) Recruiting. staffing. and funding transportation and buildings for a public education system overseas became the responsibility of the overseas commanders. Shortly a joint meeting of representatives of the Army. Navy. and the army Air Forces. "a formal group. the Joint Army- Navy-Air Force Board. Education of Dependents. was established to consider ways to provide public education or its authorized equivalent for children overseas" (DeLaney. 1983). "On 14 August 1947 War Department Memorandum No. 850—471-1 provided $1.000.000 for the operation of schools overseas from the supplemental Appropriations Act. 1948 (Public Law 271). Government and Relief in Occupied Areas" (DeLaney. 1983. p. 17). From this humble beginning the system expanded at a tremendous rate of growth during the next few years as schools operated by the Army. Navy. and Air Force were opened in various countries and 45 island groups throughout the world. Approximately 181.000 [1967] children participateEd] in the DoD overseas dependent education program. (U.S. Congress. 1967. p. 101) W W The first 20 years of the Overseas Dependents Schools saw an administration that is different than it is today. Each of the branches of the Armed Forces had authority to operate the schools on military bases. Up until the mid-19605. each branch of service would recruit teachers and administrators for schools on their respective bases or posts. In 1965 the worldwide system was divided into three regions: the U.S. Army had responsibility for the schools in Europe. the U.S. Air Force had responsibility for the schools in the Pacific. and the U.S. Navy had responsibility for the schools in the Atlantic region. Over the years. prompted by reports critical of the organization and administration of the dependents schools. the Defense Department tried to unify this fragmented system. Finally in 1964. after a series of highly critical reports from congressional committees. special Department of Defense study groups. and accreditation teams of the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges. the Department of Defense published a directive calling a halt to Service-operated school proliferation. and an effort was made to establish what might more closely be termed a Department of Defense Dependents Schools System. (DeLaney. 1983. pp. 21-22) A report was submitted to the Chairman of the Committee on Education and Labor. Hon. Adam C. Powell. by Congressman John H. Dent. in recommending the Overseas Dependents Schools be placed under the Department of Defense Overseas Dependents Schools under a single administrator. It was believed that the administrators could perform 46 "much more effectively and with significant authority" if placed directly under the Department of Defense rather than under the direct control of the individual services HIS. Congress. 1970). Reliance on inter-service cooperation to administer this vast system would no longer be necessary. Approval was given by the Committee on Education and Labor. but it was not fully implemented until 1975. Decentralization occurred in 1979 with the three regions being divided into six: Atlantic. Germany- North. Germany-South. Mediterranean. Pacific. and the Panama Canal Zone. In 1982 Germany-North and Germany-South were consolidated into one region. (See Figure 2.2.) Public Law 95-561. Title XIV. November 1. 1978. gives to the Secretary of Defense the duty to establish and operate a public school system for the education of dependents in the overseas areas. The Secretary of Defense carries out his function through the Director of Dependents' Education. The Director shall: (1) establish personnel policies. consistent with the Defense Department Overseas Teachers Pay and Personnel Practices Act. for employees in the defense dependents'<:.05). and the decision to reject or accept the hypotheses. Details of the statistical analysis of the data related to the general effect of time and rank were computed by the utilization of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. 5 i T s s T 5 Summary statistics were computed to describe the distributions of the attitude responses of respondents who chose the attitude closest to their feelings: strongly disagree. disagree. agree. and strongly agree. (See Table 45L) The subjects were classified in one of three groups. based on the number of months spent in the tour of duty. These data tested the general hypothesis and the operational hypotheses. The subjects were classified by length of military service: less than 10 years and more than 10 years. Each subject was classified by category of rank: lower- or higher-rank enlisted personnel or lower— or higher- rank officer personnel. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to find the univariate and multivariate linear estimation to test the hypotheses for any crossed and/or nested design with covariates. MANOVA was selected to determine whether several groups differed on more than one dependent variable. This statistical test is robust. which permitted departures from normality in the population distribu- tion. 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MNooM so. 9:8... sN A 0.8.8... 2.8.6 m. 8...: .8 N... :9: sMMN.M-MMMo.M .MMM. Mso..M MN 9:8... sN-N 89.8 _ .....8 88 ...... :8888m .. oon.M-.MMM.N .M.o. oooN.M MN msucoe o v mouco.o...o m.m 0.0.: :m5. oc.~.coouo. .NM onNNuost. son. .omoN so. 05:05 sN A .c0.... ....0 .....0 00 3.0.00 050.60.... .020... MooN.Nnoon. . oNNw. swooN MN 020.55 sNuN 003.00 02”. 030...... m: 85.0.... .03505 “imam NMoo.N-Nmoo.N oNMM. NsMs.N MN 9:8... o v moooo m 55.8.... 988830.. 9: o......o .sM ..002Um 0.0.m0umum 0x0... 0.: ... o0. .0..c0 c023 mmN..MnN.ww.N Nmmm. mwNo.M so. m20c05 sN A >onum *0 00.300 0:00050 m.Ac0.v:..20 NMNo.M-...o.N NsNM. Nmsm.N MN m...05 sN-N >5 .0 muom.oouom 0.. 5. em.oo.o wssM.MquNm.N somm. momo.M MN msuc05 o v >cm 0n .0: ...z 0.02. 0020 000ax0 ...mN MNmN.Nu..ms.N NNwN. Nsso.N so. mzuc05 sN A .m.0020m cm...>.0 ocm m.0020m moooo oNMNNustsN mmMo. NNoo.N MN mcuc05 sNuN “.0 5030.0 .05030030 0.3 :. 000:0 smwo.Mumme.N oo.w. .mMNN MN £0205 o v 3.0:... cm... 00.3.0. .50 0.05 0.0 0.0.... .wN msoozom mhzwozmmmo mmzmumo uo hzm2hm==.054). Length of time spent away from the United States makes these discussions less meaningful. 2. A similar multivariate analysis of variance was completed which compared the responses of those who had 24 months or less of duty with those who had more than 24 months. The Wilks Lambda indicated that differences between the responses of these two groups were significantly different. .69049 (F [45.153] = 1.52407. p = .031). An analysis of variance of the statements indicated the par- ticular data that were significant. Two items of the relocation pro- cess (items 35 and 36) and four items of the category of self and interpersonal relations (items 13. 30. 32. and 39) were found to be significant. (See Table 4.2.) No items that were concerned with the Department of Defense Dependents Schools were of significant differ- ence. There was the highest level of satisfaction for those having more than 24 months of duty (p==.DlD) in response to item 35. "We knew that we would encounter difficulties in the search for housing before we arrivedJ‘ The information the members had received before arriving at the duty station may have contained specific examples of the difficulties they would encounter as compared to those who had less than 24 months. 'The difficulty in finding housing for those with less than 24 months may be greater because of an increase in the total 89 military and civilian population with the competition for available housing greater now than for the others who arrived more than two years ago. The highest level of satisfaction for item 36. "We gained more help from other families we met in the hotel or billeting than we did from the orientation for newcomers." was found to be significant (p== .034) for those who had spent less than 24 months of the tour of duty. This correlates with the lower level of satisfaction for this group in not having as much knowledge about the difficulty in finding housing. From these two statements an assumption is made that perhaps the group with less time on Okinawa spent more time in the hotel or billeting. where they could have gained more help from other families than from the military service. Members who had spent more than 24 months of the tour of duty were more in agreement with item 13. "My children are influenced by the behavior of other children more than they were at the last assignment." than those having less than 24 months (p = .031). The significance of this contrast of the two groups may show the families who are settled for a longer period of time are finding their children have more permanent friendships with other children. Since most are residing on base after this length of time. the close proximity of other families may create the impression that their children are influenced more than they were at the last assignment. which may not have included on-base housing. 90 mz mz m2 mz mz mz mz m2 m2 m2 mz m2 m2 mz .ommn m:o_>oca ozu um uoxoma ommn ocu c_ voc_mucoo mm: mchmxo co m_oo;om moooo ocu u303m co_umEL0wc_ .omm Lomcao> m an >u_cseeou 30: m cu ucoEumamum >L0uommm_umm ocos m on: Acocvu__;o >5 umcu venom o>mc _ :.c30 mu_ mo memo moxmu: >Lmu___E osu umcu o>o__on cu us two. >Lmu___E ecu >3 voo_>oLa moo_>com acoaaam och ..oo:om muconcoaoo omcowoa mo ucosugmaoo m ucouum v.30; cocv__:o >5 umgu ocmzm mm: _ .m3mc_xo Op o>oe ecu Low >_oumaoovm oE vocmaoca EmcmoLa a_cmL0mcoam ozu o>o__on _ .t_o mcmo> ozu coca ocoe m_ mc_;u05 .m_ umzu mucoEcm_mmm m_;u uaonm acoooc mm; umcu co_umEL0wc_ to; ommn m:o_>oca one .mchmxo cu o>oe Lao o~_:mmco ncm cm_a OH Amcucos Lao» cmzu ocoev oE_u uco_o_mm:m um; >__Emm >z .m— .m— .N— .— zo_hL0moumu L30u ucoccao ecu mo mcucos mo momLOmoumo coozuon moo:u_uum c_ .AOON u 2V >u=c Lo moococomw_u mo m_m>_mc__5mm >5 o>mm oo_>com >Lmu___5 och .o: .mLo50ozoc Lo» co_umuco_co ecu 505m t_c oz can“ m:_uo___n Lo _ouo; ozu c_ uo5 mo___5mw cozuo 505w a_o; 0505 vo:_mm 03 .om .no>_ccm oz oLOWon m:_m:o; 50m cocmom ocu c_ mo_u_:o u_mw_v Loucaooco v.30: o3 umcu Bocx o3 .mm .aom m mc_nc_w >u_:o_mwmv 0: on: omaoam >2 ._m .Lon5o5 oo_>com ocu mc_cm_mmm cos: >__5mw ocu mo o_oL ozu moumc_oLOn:m >Lmu___5 ecu o>o__on _ .oN .L30u 0;» mo cameo. may 50% omma nwwo o>m_ cu omoo;o v.30: >__5mm >5 .u303m vocmo o3 omzo; m vc30m um: o3 w. .NN .oo_o;u mo mocm Loocmu ocu c_ o_nm__m>m ocm umzu mnOH co omaoam >5 550m:_ ou >Lmu___5 ocu >n onmE ocm muLOmmm ..N zo_hcomoumu .um=c_ucou--.~.s m_nme 91 . .moumum onu umo_ _ ocowon mzmcwxo co mz namo 8:3 umum coon om; 0:3 335% to: _ _5 $5 _ . 3 .mmumum ocu umo_ _ mz wz oco$on osmc_xo cacao EmcmoLa co_umuco_co cm >__5mm >5 o>mm oo_>com >Lmu___5 055 .o: .mLUEOUZQC LOW comuwucmmLO 05“ :mo. mz 505% v_u o3 cmnu mc_uo___n co .ouo; ozu c_ a u05 mo___5mm cosuo 505m a_o; o505 voc_mm o3 .mm .uo>_ccm o3 o_o. m2 oLOwon mc_m:o; 50m cocmom ozu c_ mo_u_:o n u_$w_v Loucsooco v.30: 03 umzu Bocx o3 .mm mz mz .nom m mc_cc_m >u_:o_mm_v 0: cm; omaoam >2 ..m .Lon5o5 mz m2 oo_>com may m:_cm_mmm cos; >__5mw osu mo m—OL ”Lu moumcvaOQDm >LMHm—mE ML“ 0>0~—0£ _ .QN .530u use #0 cameo. ecu Low ommn m2 m2 -mwo o>__ cu omoo;o v.30; >__5mw >5 .u303m vocmo o3 omso; m vc30w um; o: m. .NN .@U_O£U $0 NOLG LOMLMU 05H Cm O—Qw—_m>m mz .No. ocm umzu mach co omaoam >5 550m:_ 3 cu >Lmu___5 osu >3 ovm5 ocm muLOmwu ..N zo.550moumu o» _maum 50 cos» mmog cu .mncm 50 cash mmoA ummcucou .uo=:_ucou--.~.s v.5m5 92 .u205:m_mmm mz mz m:o_>oca ozu cmzu ma_cu >95 0505 mc_xmu acocma oco m__muco uco5cmmmmm m_;h .m— .uc05cm_mmm umm_ ecu um ocoz >ocu mmo. m2 cmcu v.05 cocu__no Locuo mo co_>m:on a ocu >3 caucus—mc_ ocm coco—”:0 >2 .m— .m3mc_xo co m:_>__ o__;3 cocc__;o mz mz >5 Lo mco_uomcum. mmo_ ocm oLoLP .o— m . .u .moumum ozu c_ ocoz >ocu mz mz cmcu co;m_; ohm momcoaxo v.0;omzo; Lao .m .ommn m:o_>oca ozu um o_nm__m>m no: ocoz umnu mooco_coaxo new m___xm mz mz m:_:_mm 5m _ omzmoon.co_u0505Q Lem o5 cu ommucm>vm cm m_ uco5cm_mmm ucomoca >2 .m .co_umo:oo m.AcoLvu__;o >5 c_ comuazcm_v ocu Lo» mz mz mummcoa50o >Lucsoo LoLHOcm :_ mc_>__ mo moo:o_coaxo .mco_umu:vo ocu umzu o>o__on _ .: mzo_h<4mm 450moumu cu .mncm Lo cosh mmoA cu .msou co cosh mmoJ umwcucoQ .uo:c_ucou--.N.: m_nme 93 .Amv_oo;om m:o_>oca :_ cog» Amy—oozom mz mz moooo oxu cm oocmELOWLoa m.AcoLVu__;u >5 cu_3 uo_mm_umm coca 0505 En _ .mm .ommn may :0 momcaoo .mco_umu:vo oxmu cu nowo. mz m5_u ocu 05 co>_m mm; acoEcm_mmm Loocmo >2 .Nm .mo>05 m:o_>oca ou uocmasoo o_o. m2 o>05 m_;u ocmE 03 con: om__ >__5mm Lao OH a comuaacm_t mo u::05m ammo. ocu mm: ococh .0m .ucoEcm_mmm umm_ one um ucov_>o Lo acomoca mz mz uOc ocoz umgu mcon5o5 >__5mm >5 cooZuon toao_o>ou o>mn m5o_noLa _m:0mcoacouc_ .NN .oocm__ocum_om mv__:n m2 mz u_ omzmoon mo_u_c:550o ocm muco_cm mo momcmzo ucozcocm oxm5 cu o_nmc_mou m_ u. .MN .wux movmcm c_ memo> ocu mc_cso m2 m2 cmcu _oo;om ;m_; c_ 05m cocu__co c053 ucmu nLoQ5_ oLOE m_ >uso mo Luca Lomco_ m mc_>m: .m— mzo_h<4mm 450moumu cu .msum 50 cash mmoA ou _m:om Lo cosh mmog ummcucou .eo=:_ucou--.u.s m_nme 9h .ummcucoo acmomw_cm_mn .ucmu_w_cm_m 0503 :_cu_3 m5ou_ vouoo_om .ucmo_$_cm_m Ho: ocoz mummcucoo cmsozu_< .ucmo_m_cm_m ac: n mzm mz mz _:o. mz mz mz mz mz .cmamw .mch_xo Ow aco5cmmmmm ecu voumozooc _ .q: .>oh ecu oLOmon emu u_ cmzu >05 @505 50 xooZnozu m Louwm 05mm ozu m:_m5mc Acocvc__cu >5 mc_:__a_um_o .N: .m3mc_xo cu mc_50o oLOwon 0505 Lo Amvcmo v.0m 03 cos: mmo_ _mmocmc_m o: vouco_coaxo o3 .mm .o5 cu mc_ocm3oc >__mc0mcoa coon mm; uco5cm_mmm ucomoca >2 .wm mzo_h<4mx 4comoumu .em=c_ucoo--.~.: «.5me 95 There was a higher level of satisfaction for members with more than 24 months of duty with item 30. "There was the least amount of disruption to our family life when we made this move compared to previous movesJ' The statistical significance may show these members as having experienced fewer problems associated with the move as a whole as they remembered it as compared to those who have had a more recent move (p = .010). The p = .020 level of significance for item 32. "My career assignment has given me the time to take educational courses on the base." showed a higher level of satisfaction for those having more than 24 months on Okinawa. Once settled in a location. members have more time to take advantage of what is offered for professional and personal growth. Each group was in disagreement with item 39. "We experienced no financial loss when we sold car(s) or home before coming to OkinawaJ' Financial problems have been cited by Marsh (1976) in that payable allowances do not cover the cost of moving. and to this can be added the losses that must be borne by the members when they must sell items because of the move; Contrasting the two groups. a statistical significance was found (p = .041); those having more than 24 months of time on Okinawa were in less disagreement with the statement than those with less than 24 months in the current tour. The operational hypothesis which stated an expected relation- ship of the highest level of satisfaction with the relocation process would be found with members having 24 months or more of duty was 96 accepted for the dependent variable statement 35 but not statement 36. The remaining statements in this category did not yield significance. Four of the 17 dependent variable statements in the category of self and interpersonal relations were significantly different when contrasting the two populations. 'The operational hypotheses were accepted that the highest level of satisfaction was found during 24 months or more of duty for the following statements only: 13. 30. 32. and 39. While a significant level of p = .031 was found in contrasting the two populations in response to all items. no items tested in the category of Department of Defense Dependents Schools were found to be statistically significant. The operational hypotheses of General Hypothesis I relating to time in the current tour and the programs and services of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools were not accepted as stated. Contrasts between groups based on length of time on Okinawa are presented in Table 4.3. l. 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No significant differences were found when statisticai treatment of the Wiiks Lambda test was performed. However. significant differences were found in their attitudes towardselecteditems of the instrument when an anaiysis of variance was compieted. 2. The members who had Tess than 10 years of service had a higher Tevei of satisfaction for item 12 in the category of reiocation. The significant TeveT of p==.033 indicates a greater agreement with the statement. "The support services provided by the miiitary Tead me to believe that the miiitary *takes care of its ownJ" This may find some support in studies of miiitary famiiies (Marsh. 1976; Frances & Gaie. 1973; Coates & Peiiegrin. 1965) in that those with the most needs wiii make greater use of support services avaiiabTe. Personnei with fewer years of service may use support services more frequentiy than do those with a greater number of years. based on real or perceived needs. Personnei with fewer years may have fewer demands on their time. and thus are abie to seek out services. which personneT with more years cannot do because of additionaT responsibiiities. 3. Members with more than 10 years of miTitary service had a higher 1eve1 of satisfaction (p = .059) with item 44 of the category. seif and interpersonai reiations. The statement. "I requested the assignment to Okinawa." may represent members who chose to return for a second tour and/or those who had heard positive attitudes from members 10% who had former1y been stationed on Okinawa. Consideration must be given to the fact that some members may have thought they were due for an overseas tour and requested Okinawa for persona1 and professiona1 reasons. 4. Members with Tess than 10 years of mi1itary service demon- strated higher 1eveis of satisfaction for the f0110wing statements concerned with the Department of Defense Dependents SchooTs than did those with more than 10 years of service: 8. 14. 20. 37. 43. I am satisfied with the encouragement of parent invo1vement within the schoo1s (p = .016). The schoo1s provide information that a110ws me opportunities to take part in my chi1d(ren)'s education (p = .030). I be1ieve that my chi1d(ren) is/are cha11enged through the teacher(s)' understanding of my chi1d(ren)'s abi1ities (p = .016). Recognizing that there are differences in achievement with each chiid. I expect my chi1d(ren)'s overa11 academic performance to be satisfactory (p = .027). My chi1d(ren)'s 1evei of achievement has increased since enro11ment in the 00005 schoo1(s) (p = .052). An assumption is made that with an increased number of years of mi1itary service. there is an increase in the number of schooTs the parent has experienced through the chi1d(renL Responding with a 1ower 1eve1 of satisfaction. the mi1itary parents with more than 10 years of service time were not as p1eased with noted aspects of the programs and services of the Department of Defense Dependents Schoo1s. Other fac- tors to be considered are (1) age of the chi1dren of the group that has a 1ower 1eve1 of satisfaction; (2) the perceived abi1ity 1eve1 of the chi1d by the parent. which may conf1ict with educatorsfi eva1uations; 105 Table h.h.--Analysis of differences in attitudes between categories of enlisted and officer personnel, by time of military service. (N = 200). Contrast C t I a egory/ tem Less Than l0 Years/ More Than 10 Yearsa RELOCATION I. My family had sufficient time (more than four months) to plan and organize our NS move to Okinawa. 2. The previous base had information that was recent about this assignment; that is, NS nothing was more than two years old. 6. I believe the sponsorship program prepared me adequately for the move to Okinawa. NS 7. I was aware that my children would attend a Department of Defense Dependents School. NS l2. The support services provided by the b military lead me to believe that the .033 military ”takes care of its own.“ l5. l have found that my child(ren) had a more satisfactory adjustment to a new community NS at a younger age. l8. information about the DoDDS schools on Okinawa was contained in the base packet NS at the previous base. 2i. Efforts are made by the military to inform my spouse of jobs that are available in the NS career area of choice. 22. If we had found a house we cared about, my family would choose to live off-base for NS the length of the tour. 26. I believe the military subordinates the role of the family when assigning the NS service member. 3i. My spouse had no difficulty finding a job. NS 35. We knew that we would encounter difficul- ties in the search for housing before NS we arrived. 106 Table h.4.--Continued. Contrast Category/Item Less Than I0 Years/ More Than 10 Yearsa RELOCATION 36. We gained more help from other families met in the hotel or billeting than we NS did from the orientation for newcomers. #0. The military service gave my family an orientation program about Okinawa NS before I left the States. hi. I met military members who had been stationed on Okinawa before I left NS the States. SELF AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS h. I believe that the educational experi- ences of living in another country NS compensate for the disruption in my child(ren)'s education. 5. My present assignment is an advantage to me for promotion because I am gaining NS skills and experiences that were not available at the previous base. 9. Our household expenses are higher than they were in the States. NS l0. There are less distractions for my children while living on Okinawa. NS l3. My children are influenced by the behavior or other children more than NS they were at the last assignment. l6. This assignment entails one parent taking more TDY trips than the previous assignment. NS l9. Having a longer tour of duty is more impor- tant when children are in high school than NS during the years in grades K-8. 23. It is desirable to make frequent changes of friends and communities because it NS builds self-reliance. l07 Table h.h.--Continued. Contrast Category/Item Less Than lO Years/ More Than lO Yearsa SELF AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS 27. Interpersonal problems have developed between my family members that were not present or evident at the last NS assignment. 30. There was the least amount of disrup- tion to our family life when we made this NS move compared to previous moves. 32. My career assignment has given me the time to take educational courses NS on the base. 33. I am more than satisfied with my child(ren)'s performance in the 00005 NS school(s) than in previous school(s). 38. My present assignment has been per- sonally rewarding to me. NS 39. We experienced no financial loss when we sold car(s) or home before NS coming to Okinawa. AZ. Disciplining my child(ren) remains the same after a two-week or more NS TDY than it did before the TDY. 44. I requested the assignment to Okinawa, .059b Japan. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS 3. Children of military members have less difficulty making friends at NS school. 8. I am satisfied with the encourage- b ment of parent involvement within .OI6 the schools. ll. Department of Defense Dependents Schools provides as many or more extra programs NS for remedial work or enrichment than civilian schools. 108 Table h.h.--Continued. Category/Item Contrast Less Than l0 Years/ More Than 10 Yearsa DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS IA. I7. 20. 25. 28. 29. 3A. 37. 43. A5. The school(s) provide information that allows me Opportunities to take part in my child(ren)'s education. The educational program of the DoDDS schools is as good or better than in previous schools of my child(ren). I believe that my child(ren) is/are challenged through the teacher(s)’ understanding of my child(ren)'s abilities. The development of needed basic skills of my child(ren) is increasing through the instruction received in the 00005 school(s). There are more similarities than differ- ences in the educational program of 00005 schools and civilian schools. I expect there will not be any problem in the acceptance of my child(ren)'s present course of study when enrolled in the next stateside school. During the Newcomers' Briefing, a 00003 staff member informed us about the educational programs offered to our children. Recognizing that there are differences in achievement with each child, I expect that my child(ren)'s overall academic performance to be satisfactory. My child(ren)'s level of achievement has increased since enrollment in the 00005 school(s). I will report my satisfaction with 00005 when another member asks. .Ol6 .030 NS NS NS NS NS .027 .052 NS 8NS = not significant. Although contrasts were not significant, selected items within were significant. bSignificant contrast. 109 (3) the willingness of older children to convey information about school activities; (4) the decline of parent-teacher conferences in grades 7 to 12 as compared to grades K to 6; (4) the general concern of this group for the academic development of their children; and (5) the achievement gap that develops between students the longer they attend school. Contrasts in the analysis of difference between members with less than 10 years and members with more than 10 years are presented in Table 4.4. Genera] Hypotheses 111 and 1y 1. The description of the data for the attitude responses of lower and higher enlisted and officer personnel is presented in summary statistics. The subjects were classified in one of four groups: (1) E-3 to E-6 and E-7 to E-9 in the testing of General Hypothesis III and (2) 0-1 to 0-3 and 0-4 to 0-6 in the testing of General Hypothesis IV. The composite scores for each group were computed. according to the reactions to the statements in each category. The respondents chose the attitude closest to their feelings about each statement. The attitudes were "strongly agree." "agree." "disagree." and "strongly disagree." A mean score of 2.8 on a scale of l to 4 was set to determine general agreement with the statement. (See Table 4.5.) 2. Multivariate analysis of variance. 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'This anaiysis treatment was used to test the hypothesis that (1) there were differences in the responses of iower-rank (E-3 to E-6) enlisted personnei and those of higher-rank (E-7 to E-9) personnei, (2) differences wouid be found when contrasting the scores of a11 eniisted (E-3 to E-9) personnei with those of iower- rank (0-1 to 0-3) officer personnei. and (3) there were differences in the responses of the totai popuiation of eniisted personnei and iower- rank officers when contrasted with higher-rank (0-4 to 0-6) officers. (See Tab'le 4.6.) s r es 1. The reiationship between the higher the rank of eniisted personnei and their level of satisfaction with the tour of duty was no; .figund4Lg_bg_gtgtigtigglly_§1gnijiggnt when contrasting those personnei of iower rank (E-3 to E-6) with those of higher rank (E-7 to E-9). A muitivariate anaiysis of variance test showed no significant differences between the responses of E-3 to E-6 and E-7 to E-9 personnei. 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220 9.33 A55;— Eu >5 umzu o>m_ .mn _ .ON m4oozum mhzmozmmwo mmzummo no hzm25m50mmumu .uo::_ucann.m.: w_nmh 122 There was a lower level of agreement for item 15 (p==.055), "I have found that my child(ren) had a more satisfactory adjustment to a new community at a younger age." for the higher-rank enlisted personnel. It is possible that respondents with higher rank disagreed with this statement because of the adaptive skills developed by their children. Members of lower rank may have had younger—age children who were experiencing problems in adjusting, but the members perceived this as satisfactory as they were not able to judge over a longer period of time. DeLaney (1981) cited research that found mobility during the age periods of 0-5 has an impact on adjustment. and regardless of the age of the adolescent mobility has no impact. The obtained p==.009 for item 9. "Our household expenses are higher than they were in the States," found the lower-rank enlisted personnel in more agreement with the statement than the higher-rank enlisted personnel. The expenses of the lower-rank personnel may have been perceived as higher because of lower income. Savings that were depleted to offset the cost of the relocation will take more time to return to the pre—move level when income is less. B§§g115 9f Genera] Hypothesis 1! and WW 1. Contrasting the measured scores of all enlisted personnel with the measured scores of the lower-rank officer personnel did not yield a statistical significance. The multivariate analysis of variance test indicated a p==.l28 level. The Wilks Lambda analysis resulted in .72316 (F [45,152] = 1.29308: p = .128). 123 An analysis of variance showed there was statistical signifi- cance within the categories. 'Three statements in the category related to the relocation process (items l5. 22. and 35) were found to be statistically significant. One statement. item 38. in the category of self and interpersonal relations was also found to be statistically significant. A single statement concerned with the Department of Defense Dependent Schools yielded statistical significance. Item 15, "I have found that my child(ren) had more satisfactory adjustment to a new community at a younger age," produced a p = .002 in disagreement with the statement by lower-rank officers than it did for the total enlisted personnel population. 'The lower-rank officer would have younger-age children and would be experiencing the problems of the adjustment of the younger-age children. The lower-rank (O-l to 0-3) officers were in stronger disagree- ment with item 22, "If we had found a house we cared about, my family would choose to live off-base for the length of the tour," when con- trasted with all enlisted personnel (p = .012). Junior officers may have greater concerns for career rather than becoming more familiar with the local culture by living in an off-base house. The importance of being located on the base may be seen as necessary for career advancement by the total immersion of the family in the military commu- nity. Another factor to be considered is the difference in standards in the construction and maintenance of local housing. The members of the lower-rank officer group had a higher level of agreement with item 35. "We knew we would encounter difficulties in 124 the search for housing before we arrived." than did the enlisted members. The p==.O4S significance level indicates the probability of the lower-rank officer receiving more accurate information than the total enlisted population. The statistical significance level of p =.O42 found the lower- rank officer group to have a higher level of satisfaction with item 38. "My present assignment is personally rewarding to meJ' Responsibili- ties and promotion opportunities being. perhaps. greater for lower-rank officers than for the total enlisted personnel group may have produced the higher level of satisfaction. The p = .023 level of significance for item 29. "I expect there will not be any problem in the acceptance of my child(renfls course of study when enrolled in the next stateside school." indicates a higher level of satisfaction for lower-rank officers when compared to the total E-3 to E-9 group. There is the possibility of a higher level of education for lower-rank officers as compared to enlisted personnel. which may be assumed as a better understanding of the educational program of the 00003 schools. or awareness of what is expected in other stateside schools. ‘This group is also more apt to supplement the child's formal education with parent-developed activities. 2. The Wilks Lambda test was applied to contrast the attitudes of the total enlisted personnel groups and lower-rank officers. in comparison with higher-rank officers. The multivariate analysis of variance showed p = .015 with the complete test results of .67437 (F [45.l52] =‘L63l0l. p==.DlS). .I lr L 125 Statistical significance was found within the categories by the test of the analysis of variance. Three statements in the category of self and others (items 9. 13. and 39) were found to be statistically significant. Items 6 and 4l in the category of relocation and item 28 in the category of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools were found to be significantly different. Item 9. "Our household expenses are higher than they were in the States." shows a p = .026 difference between total enlisted and lower-rank officers as compared to higher-rank officers. 'The higher- rank officers were in general disagreement with this statement. finding expenses not higher than they were in the States. The p =.036 value of item l3. "My children are influenced by the behavior of other children more than they were at the last assign- mentfl'fOUnd the higher-rank officers in greater disagreement with the statement. The lower-rank enlisted personnel indicated more agreement with the statement than did the others in the group. The 0—4 to 0-6 personnel may have more child-care management skills which permit them to give direction to their children to lessen this influence by peer groups. 'The statistical significance of p = .039 found the higher-rank officers in greater disagreement with item 30. "There was the least amount of disruption to our family life when we made this move compared to previous moves." when compared to the other personnel. Suddenness of the assignment. older children in high school. career of spouse. selling of home. and a possible temporary duty assignment are 126 some of the factors that may have contributed to disagreement with this statement for all. but to a greater degree on the part of the higher- rank officer. There was more agreement with item 6. "I believe the sponsor- ship program prepared meradequately for the move to Okinawa." by higher-rank officers than all others Q>==.027). The members who have attained the field grade officer rank. 0—4 to 0—6. will have more privileges extended to them. Rather than a random assignment of another member to serve as a sponsor. they will hear. written and ver- bal. from a sponsor of equal rank. the officer they are replacing. and a member who will serve as the noncommissioned officer in charge of the unit. The higher-rank officer was in more agreement with item 41. "I met military members who had been stationed on Okinawa before I left the States." than was the contrasting group (p = .014). It is possible that higher-rank officers have more contacts or greater access to information about pending assignments. There may also be more frequent transfers for those of higher-rank than lower-rank personnel. which allows for networking to a greater extent than the lower rank can accomplish. Statistical significance was found for only one statement in the category related to 00008 when contrasting the two groups. Item 28. "There are more similarities than differences in the educational program of 00003 schools and civilian schools." was found to be significant with p = .028. 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NsmN.N N. muo 00 .-o u.0...0 :0:0 00.0..0..5.0 0.05 0.0 0.0:5 .mN 0000200 mhzmozmmmo mmzmumo .o hzm25m==.027). ‘The group of higher-rank officers showed a higher level of satisfaction with having met others before they left the States who had been stationed on Okinawa (p = .014). This group did not find their household expenses higher than they were in the States when compared to all other personnel (p = .026). The higher-rank officer personnel did not find their children being influenced by the behavior of other children (p = .036). All other personnel did not disagree with the statement related to the 139 least amount of disruption in family life when making the move as the higher-rank officer personnel disagreed (p = .039). The higher-rank officer personnel had a higher level of agree- ment in finding more similarities than differences in the educational program of DoDDS schools and civilian schools than was found with the group of lower-rank personnel (p = .028). In conclusion. the statistical treatment used to test General Hypothesis IV was found to meet the criterion of significance of p < .05. Therefore. General Hypothesis IV. "The higher the rank of the commissioned officer. the greater will be the satisfaction of the family with the tour of duty." can be accepted. CHAPTER V SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. DISCUSSION. RECOMMENDATIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS The final chapter contains a summary of the purpose of the study. procedures. limitations. major findings. and conclusions. Implications and recommendations are presented in their association with the data. Sumarx W The central purpose of this study was to analyze the attitudes of military parents toward the relocation process. self and inter- personal relations. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools during their current tour of duty. Okinawa. Japan. The central ques- tion of this study was. "Do the attitudes of military families toward relocation. themselves and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools increase positively the longer they serve their tour of duty on Okinawa?" The secondary purposes of this study were (1) to determine if those of higher rank among commissioned and noncommissioned personnel have more positive attitudes than those of lower rank and (2) to 140 141 determine if length of total military service is positively related to attitudes about relocation. self and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Four general hypotheses were formulated concerning the level of satisfaction of military parents toward the relocation process. self and interpersonal relations. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. The general hypotheses were: 1. The longer a family serves in their current tour of duty at a given location. the greater will be their satisfaction with the tour of duty. 2. The longer the length of total military service. the greater will be the satisfaction of the family with the tour of duty. 3. The higher the rank of the enlisted military member. the greater will be the satisfaction of the family with the tour of duty. 4. The higher the rank of the commissioned officer. the greater will be the satisfaction of the family with the tour of duty. §§mg]§ agg Design This study was limited in scope to only military parents in the pay grades of E-3 to E-6. E-7 to E-9. O-l tolO-3. and 0-4 to 0-6. The random selection of 590 parents of ‘".285 parents with children enrolled in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. Okinawa. Japan. during October 1983 was made. with responses received from 326. or 54%. It was found that of the 326 respondents. 45 had 6 months or less at the current duty station. 122 had spent 7 to 24 months of the tour of duty. and 159 had more than 24 months. 142 Within the total population were 77 members with less than 10 years of military service and 249 members with more than 10 years. There were 153 enlisted members in pay grades E-3 to E-6. 114 enlisted members in pay grades E-7 to E-9. 32 members in pay grades 0-1 to 0-3. and 27 members in pay grades 0-4 to O-6. The design of the instrument. an attitude survey. was based on readings that were discussed in the Review of the Literature. Inter- views were held with 11 military parents during May and June 1983. Okinawa. Japan. ‘The interviews provided the researcher with elabora- tion to some basic questions about the process of relocation and adap- tations through the accommodations made to the overseas environment. The instrument was field tested with a pilot group of 30 randomly selected military parents. The pilot group was asked to complete a separate information sheet of questions that sought quali- tative answers about the questionnaire. Nine of the 30 were returned with suggestions for minor corrections. Data Collegtiog The measurement of the attitudes of military parents toward the relocation process. self and interpersonal relations. and the programs and services of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools was obtained from the questionnaire instrument. which was designed by the researcher. Data for the comparison of the attitudes of military parents by time and rank were based on the 45 statements of the ques- tionnaire. Responses were made by marking an X on the number that most reflected the attitude closest to the respondent(sfi feelings about the 143 given statement. The attitudes and their numerical values were (4) "Strongly Agree." (3) "Agree." (2) "Disagree." and (l) "Strongly Disagree." Each of the 45 statements was related to one of the three dependent variables. relocation. self and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. The score for each category was obtained by the sum of each statement in the respective categories. A total score was obtained for each participant. On November 17. 1983. the questionnaire was mailed to the selected population of this study through the APO postal system. Okinawa. 'The cover letter assured all participants that all informa- tion would be treated confidentially and anonymously. Directions for completion of the instrument were printed on the questionnaire. Each participant received a cover letter. the instrument. and an addressed envelope in which to return the completed instrument. Postcards were sent on November 24. 1983. to remind those who had not returned the questionnaire to do so. Approximately two months were allowed for questionnaires to be returned because of the possi- bility that some members were on assignment away from their duty station. Receipt of 326 questionnaires by January 15. 1984. was deter- mined by the researcher to be all of the respondents who would partici- pate. w. Matnnd of Tneatment and Analysis The purpose of this study required an analysis of the data to determine if length of time in the current tour. total years of military service. and higher rank would show an increase in positive relationships with the dependent variables. Summary statistics of the responses of the participants to the dependent variables indicated mean scores. standard deviations. and the .95 confidence intervals. The data were presented to compare the differences for the independent variables. Analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance were the statistical treatments used to find the presence of significant differences in responses of contrasting groups. Intercorrelations were computed between all items on each measuring device used. and multiple- correlation analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which the independent variables contributed to the variance of the dependent variables. Missing values were not included in the statistical treatments. Of the 326 returned questionnaires. 126 had missing values. leaving a sampling group of 200 that received the statistical treatments. Cong]usjnns Since this sample was drawn from the military-parent population of Okinawa. Japan. who had children enrolled in the Department of Defense Dependents Schools during October 1983. this study must not be generalized to any other military-parent population either in another overseas area or in the United States. However. the results may 155 indicate similar attitudes by military parents during their current tour of duty. Okinawa. Japan. A major concern of this study was to test for significant differences in the attitudes of the subjects. The analysis of the data indicated the following: 1. The longer the family serves in their current tour of duty. the greater will be their satisfaction with the tour of duty. 2. The length of time the military member has spent in service is not a factor in the family's satisfaction with the tour of duty. 3. The higher the rank of the enlisted member is not a sig- nificant factor in the satisfaction of the family with the three dependent variables. 4. The higher-rank officer personnel were found to be more satisfied with the tour than the lower-rank officer personnel and all enlisted personnel. The impact of time and rank in the military familyds adjustment to a new duty assignment was revealed in the analysis of the data. The responses of the subjects were. in general. in disagreement with the majority of the items of the instrument. These subjects havethe same feelings. anxieties. and stresses that are found in a civilian popula- tion involved in relocation. The frequencies of moves by military families increase the chances of prolonged or reoccurring stress asso- ciated with relocating. The following must be considered when interpreting the data: 1. The validity of the data is dependent on the consideration that must be given to the motivating factors that prompted either participation or lack of participation on the part of the sampling 146 group. It raised this question: "Would participation have been greater if the cover letter to the subjects contained an endorsement of the Department of Defense and/or the Department of Defense Dependents Schools in support of this study?" While endorsement from one or both organizations was not requested by the researcher. it is believed that a higher percentage of the sampling group would have responded. The military parents who did not respond may have been moti- vated by (l) a lack of perceived gains for themselves by participating. (2) belief that their participation would not have an impact on the improvement of services provided by the military services or DoDDS. (3) concern for protection of confidential information. (4) perceived invasion of the privacy of their family life. (5) not fully understand- ing the purpose of the study. (6) the absence of any request to parti- cipate which was made by an organization rather than an individual. and (7) not finding the instrument challenging. 2. There are limitations to the instrument. ‘The instrument consisted of 45 statements that required selection of one of four attitudes. "strongly agree." "agree." "disagree." and "strongly disagreefl' Responses were based on a literal understanding of the statement and the relationship it had to the respondent. From this point it became a matter of determining which attitude was closest to the feeling the respondent had for the statement. Respondents who did not believe the statement applied to them did not choose an attitude. The statement. and thus the complete questionnaire. was not considered in the analysis of the data. 147 3. There are no indications to determine if the questionnaire was completed by both parents. by only the military member. or by the spouse in the absence of the military member. It was assumed that the attitudes reflected combined opinions as much as is possible. r o o e D The following summaries are presented in the general interpre- tation of the data: 1. The areas of satisfaction with the relocation process were (1) having sufficient time to plan for the move. (2) children would attend a DoDDS school. (3) believing the military takes care of its own people. and (4) children had a more satisfactory adjustment at a younger age. 2. The relocation process presented disagreement among members in finding current information at the previous base about the assign- ment to Okinawa. They did not find the sponsorship program prepared them adequately for the assignment. but they did note they received more help from people living in the hotels or billeting. ‘They did not have an orientation program about Okinawa when they were at the pre- vious base. They found little or no information about the DoDDS schools before they left the States. .A major concern was job opportu- nities for spouses and being informed of jobs that are available. They did not feel the military considered the role of the family when reas- signing members. 1 ml 111.. 148 3. The areas of satisfaction with self and interpersonal relations are (1) it is a benefit to children to live in another culture. (2) a longer tour is important during the children's high school years. (3) some satisfaction with their childrenhs performance in DoDDS as compared to civilian schools. and (4) the present assign— ment is rewarding. 4. There was dissatisfaction with the children being influ- enced by the behavior of others and the distractions children find. While the assignment was considered personally rewarding. gaining skills and experiences in the assignment was not a satisfying factor. nor was the time available to take educational courses. There were more TDY trips than at previous locations. The parents disagreed that there was the least amount of disruption in their family life when compared to other moves. Even though these disruptions existed. there was not strong agreement that interpersonal problems had developed since making this move. Finally. military parents had experienced financial loss when they had to sell car(s) and/or home before the move. 5. There was less disagreement with statements related to the Department of Defense Dependents Schools than with the relocation process and self and interpersonal relations. Military parents agreed that (1) children had less difficulty making friends at school. (2) there were as many remedial and enrichment programs as civilian schools. (3) they were informed of school activities. (4) the educa- tional program of DoDDS was as good as or better than previous schools. 149 .0000.0:00 0:00...:m.m 0 .0:00...:m.0 0.03 :.:0.3 0500. .0:00...:m.0 00: 0.03 0000.0:00 :m3o:0.<0 Nmo. 0:050>0.:00 0.:0.0..:u m: NNo. 00:05.0..00 .0000 0.:0.0..:u Nm 0.0. 305:2U em.e..s0 ON meeoe omo. 00:0.00 m:.5.0.:_ :. 0.0. 00:0.00 m:.>.o>:_ w mmo. 0:05:m.000 00000300: a: .00. 000. .0.0:0:.0 mm 0.0:00 oNo. 000.300 .0300 .0. 05.5 Nm 0 ..00 o.o. m... >..Em. eo_0ee.0_e om mmo. :0.0..:0 .0:00 .o.>0:0m m. :mo. 0.0.00 0.00505 0:.0002 .4 :mo. .3.0.0: 00...50. .000: mm 0.0. 0:.030: .0. :0.000 mm :0.0000.0m .No. 000m .0 003000 5.0.:_ .N mmo. :30 00. .0 0.00 00:05 N. 00.00> o. 00:0:02 :N 00:0:02 :0:5 0.02 :0:0 0.02 :N 00 N \0.00> o. \0000 .0 \0000 .0 500. >.00000u :0:5 0000 0:0:02 :N 0:0:02 0 030.0 ..oou u z. 05.0 00 0000.0. 0030.0 m:.000.0:00 .0 00:00...:m.0 .00.00.0000 .0 0500. 0:0500000 .0 >.0553mnu...m 0.005 150 .000.0:00 0:00...:0.m 0 .0:00...:0.0 0.03 :.:0.3 0500. .0:00...:0.0 00: 0.03 0000.0:00 :03o:0.<0 MNo. .m.: :. 00000000 00.0300 0N o 08. 0.850 3.233088 00 08 0 N00. 0:.0.030. 0:05:0.00< mm mmo. 0... >..50. :0.003.0.0 om 0.0:00 0mo. :0.0..:0 .0:00 .0.>0:0m m. 0 ..00 0N0. moo. 00000 0.0:0030: .0:0.: 0 :.o. 0.00505 0:.0002 .0 mac. 0:.030: .0. :0.000 mm N.o. 0:.030: 0000-..o NN :0.0000.0m Noo. mmo. 0..:0 0:3o> 0:05003m0< m. NNo. 50.0o.0 .00:000 0 n 00 : wMIW 0H flaw mMIo Cu —Io mmlm Cu mum «mlm OH MIN \mlm OH MIN \le Cu. MIN E®U_ >LO®0UWU 030.0 0000.0. 0030.0 0:.000.0:00 .0 00:00...:0.0 .00.00.0000 .0 0500. .NQON u z. x:0. 00 0:0500000 .0 >.0553mun.N.m 0.005 -.—-..._ 151 (5) children were being challenged. (6) basic skills of children were increasing. (7) there would be no problem in the acceptance of the child's course of study. (8) children's overall performance would be satisfactory. (9) the child's level of achievement had increased. and (10) they will report their satisfaction with DoDDS. 6. Military parents did not feel satisfied with the encourage- ment of parent involvement within the schools. They did not believe they were informed of the DoDDS program at the Newcomers' Briefing. They were in disagreement in finding that there were more similarities than differences in the educational program of 00005 schools and civilian schools. 13009005101911; 1. It is recommended that the family receive a pre-move orien- tation about the assignment before departing the United States for the overseas assignment. The dynamics that take place within the family in anticipation of the move are instrumental in the family's transition. Involvement of the spouse and children in a pre-move orientation will permit each to know the military's interest in their being in the overseas area. The military service would also be able to make an assessment of the high-risk family's ability to make a successful relocation. A pre—move orientation would place more emphasis on the family's needs. This would involve counselors specifically trained to provide information pertaining to all aspects of the overseas life. 2. It is recommended that a video tape of the overseas assignment be developed to offer families visual impressions. with an 152 accompanying narrative. of their new assignment. Any anxiety or uncer- tainty about a pending relocation to Okinawa. Japan. or any overseas area. can be reduced for all family members by the creation of a sight and sound program. Present information has not been viewed by the respondents as current or complete by the inclusion of information about the school system. A similar recommendation was made at the Air Force Conference on Families (Department of the Air Force. 1981. p. 73). The development of a video tape must be a joint effort by the military organizations and 00008. depending on what organization provides the logistical support for the local school. The tape may contain the mission of the particular installation. a brief history of the relationship of the host country to the United States. preparation for relocation in terms of general and unique needs for the tour of duty. arrival procedures in the overseas area. visual description of on-base and off-base housing. the programs and services of the local DoDDS schools (filmed on—site). educational and recreational services of the military organization and the host country. and the culture and customs of the host nation. Many military organizations schedule periodic orientation briefings for newcomers to give an in-depth discussion of the subjects mentioned above. Presenting these in the form of a video tape for viewing before the family leaves the United States may ease any concerns or anxieties about the tour of duty; thus. culture shock may be lessened for family members. 153 3. It is recommended that a professional staff of sponsors be developed to provide the same quality of services for alL. It would create further employment opportunities for spouses. a_need that has been expressed by the subjects of this study. The paid staff of spon- sors would relieve the military members of the assignment. thus reduc- ing the loss of manpower for the services. A significant factor in the families"transition from the States to the overseas area is the quality of assistance given by the sponsors assigned to them. The arriving families depend on them to have arranged for hotel accommodations and to provide transportation to find housing. cars. register children in school. and provide informal information about the military and host-nation community. 4. It is recommended that each military service compensate the members who must sell their homes below market val ue. Consideration should be given to providing facilities for the storage of automobiles that cannot be shipped overseas because of local restrictions. Members bear the burden of these losses without compensation because the timing of their move is not the optimum time for the seller. Facing these losses and the projected expenses of the move adds to the stresses of the relocation. 5. It is recommended that high-risk families who may experi- ence a difficult transition to the overseas location be identified by social service agencies. When military parents are under stress because of a recent relocation. so will the children experience stress. Differing academic and behavioral outcomes will be exhibited by the 154 children from high-risk families. School counselors in a cooperative effort with the social services agencies may provide counseling serv- ices specifically related to the losses encountered by the children of these families. 6. It is recommended that DoDDS publish (1) results of testing and introduction of new programs. (2) highlights of student or class achievements. (3) description of field trips. and (4) interviews with students and staff to keep parents informed of the commitment of DoDDS to provide an education that is comparable to better U.S. systems. The DoDDS publication. Ingnjfiu;tfilga. details the achievements and activities of students; selected articles can be expanded to be pub- lished in the Stansauntjfiujpgs in an established weekly section about the schools. 7. It is recommended that aperiodic assessment be conducted by DoDDS of the needs and attitudes of the community. There is a high turnover of students in DoDDS. Changes in community attitudes and needs may occur with newcomers or the re-evaluation of present commu- nity members. 8.’ It is recommended that a staff member of the Chief School Administratofls staff make a presentation at each newcomers'orienta- tion. for example: (1) programs and services offered to the students. (2) academic and behavioral standards for the student. (3) zoning for school eligibility. (4) transportation of students. (5) comparison of DoDDS to selected school districts. and (6) the need for each school to have parent support by membership in PTO and Booster Clubs. 155 9. It is recommended that the individual schools develop a committee of parents and teachers who will reach into the community to inform parents of the ways they can be more involved within the school. This committee may serverin the manner of the sponsor program for newcomers. Representatives from individual classes or grade levels may serve as the liaisons between school and community on a more personal level than sending a notice home with the children. 0 i0 F 10. It is recommended that this study be replicated to assess military parents in other overseas areas with the possible considera- tion of adapting the instrument to accommodate for particular charac- teristics of each host country. The schools on Okinawa. Japan. pro- vided an unusually large parent population when compared to other overseas locations. Having a large population. the military organiza- tions may. perhaps. offer a wider range of services for their members and families. Future research may compare the attitudes of parents from both large and small installations. The parents in smaller. more isolated areas may differ from those in large. cosmopolitan settings where differences from the country of origin. the United States. are not as great as in other areas. 11. It is recommended that the attitudes of parents and their children be analyzed for similarities or differences in a comparative study toward the three focuses of this study: the relocation process. self and others. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. If there is more than one child in the family. the study may reveal 156 dependence or independence of attitudes of children to those expressed by parents. It may also indicate the attitudes of younger children differing from those of older children. 12. It is recommended that an instrument be designed to assess the attitudes of those who have been given an assignment to an overseas area but have not left the United States. Knowing of their expecta- tions of a pending tour in the overseas area and any anxieties they may express may assist the military organizations to improve orientation services before the move has been completed. 13. It is recommended that a field research study be conducted to provide in-depth. qualitative research to the problems encountered by families during relocation and for a period of time following the relocation. Field researchers may act as a participant observer with families from the time they receive their orders to a designated time after relocation. This study may give to the servicing organizations and DoDDS qualitative information about the relocation process that may or may not support quantitative information. Implicatigns The findings of the study indicate that the family who has spent 24 months or more in the tour of duty and the higher-rank officer personnel have a higher level of satisfaction with the relocation process. self and interpersonal relations. and the programs and serv- ices of the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. These findings have important implications for the individual military services and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. 157 The implications that are presented are directed to the educators and administrators of the DoDDS systeuu The purpose of this study was to analyze the attitudes of military parents for possible attendant effects on their children. The attitudes of parents may have an impact on children's performance. The acceptance of the established educational program by parents and children will help DoDDS meet the needs and desired goals of all. If parents are not satisfied with the relocation process because of unfulfilled needs and wants. the children may react to the family environment when they are present in school. The parents who believe that their children's education outside the United States will be less than could be had within the United States will convey this information directly or indirectly to their children. It appears from the analysis of data that the parents are generally satisfied in their attitudes toward the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. While they believe they are informed of the opportunities to take part in their children's education. they do not believe there is enough parent involvement within the schools. 'This is an important implication for educators and administrators to evaluate and plan to provide more parent involvement. Throughout the analysis of data are the implications of insufficient information given to the military parents before the move and during the tour of duty. Lacking accurate information. family members are left to preconceived ideas about the tour that may not change unless they are given correct information. 'These ideas may be of positive benefit to the family if the members are challenged to 158 confirm or correct these impressions. ‘The negative aspect of precon- ceived ideas may narrow the boundaries established by the family. The contradictory. conflicting. ambiguous. and confusing information family members receive from the environment will remain this way unless they are able to organize and select this information in the development of a pattern of accommodation that is beneficial to all. Family members have a pattern of interdependency with recipro- cal influences on one another. The implication for the educators and administrators is clearly seen in that the adjustment of one member will influence the other members. Students who are having difficulty in adjustment may exhibit a pattern of behavior that does not meet the expectation of the student or educational community. They may be reacting to behavior of other family members. although manifestation can differ in form. The results of this study may serve educators and administra- tors in the awareness of military parents' attitudes that may reflect and explain students' performance. APPENDICES 159 APPENDIX A COV ER LETTER 160 161 PSC #1. Box 24035 APO S. F. 96230 17 November 1983 Name Address Dear Having relocated your family to Okinawa. you have shared many of the same experiences that others have. As a teacher at the Bob Hope Primary School. I also have shared some of these experiences. Each one of us has certain feelings about different aspects of the relocation process. The enclosed questionnaire has been designed by me. a graduate student at Michigan State University. for a doctoral dissertation. You are one of a small number of people who are being asked to give their opinion about the process of relocation to Okinawa. Your name was drawn in a random sampling of the entire parent population of the 00008 schools. Okinawa. In order that the results will truly represent the thinking of parents. it is important that the responses to the ques- tionnaire reflect the combined opinion of both parents. or guardians. whenever possible. The results of the study may be of benefit to the Department of Defense and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools. You may be assured of complete confidentiality. 'The questionnaire has an identification number for mailing purposes only. Your name will never be placed on the questionnaire. Your responses will be statis- tically analyzed along with the responses of others. Your participa4 tion is strictly voluntary. and you are under no obligation to complete the questionnaire. However. your completion of the questionnaire will be greatly appreciated. You can receive a summary of the results of this study by writing "copy of summary requested".on the back of the return envelope and printing your name and address below it. Please do not put this infor- mation on the questionnaire itself. I would be most happy to answer questions that you might have. Please write or call. The telephone number is Kadena Air Base 3-0380. Thank you for your assistance. S cerely. 2562., Su ne E. O'Shea APPENDIX B POSTCARD REMINDER 162 163 24 November 1983 Last week a questionnaire seeking your opinions about your relocating to Okinawa. Japan. was mailed to you. If you have already completed and returned it to me. please accept my sincere thanks. If not. please do so today. Having only a small. but scientific. random sample of the parent population being surveyed. it is extremely important that your responses be included in the study if the results are to accurately represent parents' opinions. In case you did not receive the questionnaire. or it has been mis- placed. please call me. and I will mail another one to you. Sincerely. KAB 3-0380 Suzanne E. O'Shea APPENDIX C THE INSTRUMENT 164 16S Identification Number 1. Rank of Sponsor . Length of time in the military (years) 2 3. Length of time on Okinawa (total months) 4 This is my first assignment to Okinawa .yes ‘ no Directions: Read each statement carefully. Place an 'X' on the numeral that most closely represents your attitudes about that statement. The attitudes that you will consider are: 4. Strongly Agree, 3. Agree, 2. Disagree, 1. Strongly Disagree Example: I am assigned to one of the military units on Okinawa 4 3 2 l *‘k**********************‘k***********************1k***’******1k*** 0 0 H 0 co 3 0 0) on -H < c: >. 0 >. 54 0 .4 co 0 oo 0 0 oo = o 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 U 00 'H U U) . 0 >. '3‘. 4‘3 2‘. c 0 u: c O Q) (U D 0 0 0 0 U DO ”-1 u to ‘m c: :0 10. There are less distractions for my child(ren) while ~ living on Okinawa. 4 3 2 1 ll. DoDDS provides as many or more extra programs for remedial work or enrichment than civilian schools. 4 33 2 l 12. The support services provided by the military lead me to believe that the military "takes care of its 4 :3 2 1 own." 13. My child(ren) are influenced by the behavior of other children more than they were at the last assignment. 4 13 2 l 14. The school(s) provide information that allows me opportunities to take part in my child(ren)'s 4 23 2 1 education. 15. I have found that my child(ren) had. a more satisfactory adjustment to a new community at a 4 :3 2 1 younger age. 16. This assignment entails one parent taking more TDY 4 :3 2 1 trips than the previous assignment. 17. The educational program of the DoDDS schools is as good or better than in previous schools of my 4 l3 2 1 child(ren). , 18. Information about the DoDDS schools on Okinawa was contained in the base packet at the previous base. 4 :3 2 l 19. Having a longer tour of duty is more important when children are in high school than during the years in 4 :3 2 1 grades K-12. 20. I believe that my child(ren) is/are challenged through the teacher(s)'s understanding of my 4 :3 2 l child(ren)'s abilities. 21. Efforts are made by the military to inform my spouse 4 :3 2 l of jobs that are available in the career area of choice. 167 Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree 22. If we had found a house we cared about, my family would choose to live off-base for the length of the tour. ob “) Agree “J Disagree ...-J 23. It is desirable to make frequent changes of friends and communities because it builds self-reliance. 4 24. I am able to continue the interests/hobbies that gave me the most satisfaction at my previous assignment. 25. The development of needed basic skills of my child(ren) is increasing through the instruction received in the DoDDS school(s). 26. I believe the military subordinates the role of the family when reassigning the service member. 27. Interpersonal problems have developed between my family members that were not present or evident at the last assignment.. 28. There are more similarities than differences in the educational program of DoDDS schools and civilian schools. 29. I expect that there will not be any problem in the acceptance of my child(ren)'s present course of study when enrolled in the next stateside school. 30. There was the least amount of disruption to our family life when we made this move compared to previous moves. 31. My spouse had no difficulty finding a job. 32. My career assignment has given me the time needed to take educational courses on the base. 33. I am more satisfied with my child(ren)'s performance in the DoDDS school(s) than in the previous school(s). 34. During the Newcomers' Briefing, a DoDDS staff member informed us about the educational programs offered to our children. 35. We knew that we would encounter difficulties in the search for housing before we arrived. 36. We gained more help from other families met in the hotel or billeting than we did from the orienta- tion program for newcomers. 168 0 0 0 0 a a ‘< '< >. 0 >. v-i Q) P! no 0 on e 0 u: c o 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 00 w-i u a: <: c: a: 37. Recognizing that there are differences in achievement with each child, I expect my 4 3 2 l child(ren)'s overall academic performance to be satisfactory. 38. My present assignment has been personally rewarding to me. - 4 3 2 l 39. We experienced no financial loss when we sold car(s) and or home before coming to Okinawa. 4 3 2 l 40. The military service gave my family an orientation program about Okinawa before I left the States. 4 3 2 l 41. I met military members who had been stationed on Okinawa before I left the States.“ 4 3 2 l 42. Disciplining my child(ren) remains the same after 4 3 2 l a two-week or more TDY than it did before the TDY. 43. My child(ren)'s level of achievement has 4 3 2 1 increased since enrollment in the DoDDS school(s). 44. I requested the assignment to Okinawa, Japan. 4 3 2 l 45. I will report my satisfaction with DoDDS when 4 3 2 1 another member asks. APPENDIX D A SHORT HISTORY OF OKINAWA 169 170 o s o Okinawa is the maJor island of the chain known as the Ryukyu Islands. The Ryukyu Islands were under American occupation from the end of World War II until May 15. 1972. when they reverted back to Japanese control. Late in World War II. the Japanese fortified Okinawa. creating a Wuilitary magnet attracting American forces" (McCune. 1972). ‘The battle of Okinawa lasted 82 days. and the American occupation for 27 years. The history and culture of the Ryukyu Islands stem from the trading with the nations of Korea. Japan. and China. The major influence in the Culture and history has been the Chinese. Liu-Chiu was the Chinese name given to the islands. with the first mention made in 629-136 A.D. (McCune. 1972. p. 8). The golden age of Liu-Chiu began in 1372 with a new relation- ship with China. which endured for the next 500 hundred years. The political ties involved acknowledgement of subordination to China. Chinese consent to the investiture of a king. and the pay- ment of tribute. Since the vessels carrying the tribute missions from the central kingdom of Okinawa to China were permitted to carry extra goods to be sold at the port of entry. the political relationship. tribute. and trade were indissolubly bound up with one another. (Glacken. 1955) Okinawa became a trade center; its ships were sailing in the Far East as far as the Indies. Okinawa. at that time. was divided into three kingdoms: north. south. and central. It was the central kingdom that was affected the most by its contacts with China. A divided Okinawa was unified in 1407 when campaigns were conducted which brought the northern and southern I71 kingdoms under the reign of the father of Hasshi. the conqueror. Sho Hasshi succeeded his father in 1421. which also was the beginning of new and cultural relationships with Japan. Even though the Okinawa kingdom acknowledged its vassal age to China. the Shimazu. Lord of Satsuma (the modern province of Kagoshima in Kyushu). had since the twelfth century been granted the title of "Lord of the Twelve Southern Islands" by the Japanese Shogun. This grant of authority had never been exercised by the Shimazu clan. but in the fifteenth century steps were taken to penetrate the southern islands in the interests of bringing the lively trade between China and the Ryukyus under Japanese control. (Glacken. 1955. p. 33) The international trade brought prosperity to Okinawa. Lacquerware and textiles were imported from China; weaving and dyeing techniques were learned in the East Indies. Confucian philosophy and the Confucian ideas of the hierarchical state were assimilated. "These foreign introductions were accompanied by the strengthening of an old native institution: the female priesthood system became a state- encouraged and supported religion" (Glacken. 1955. pp. 34-35). The trade network was destroyed around the middle of the sixteenth century by the increasing raids by Japanese pirates. thus draining off profits. In the early seventeenth century. the Satsuma clan. restive under the Shogunate. and looking for expansion southward. successfully invaded Okinawa (1609). with the result that northern Ryukyus-- Amami. Kikai. Erabu. Tokuno. and Yoron--were detached and made a permanent part of Satsuma territory. and the central and southern islands. nominally independent. came under the political control of Satsuma representatives. (Glacken. 1955. pp. 35-36) Satsuma controlled foreign affairs and international administration to maintain its profitable relations with China. ‘This era lasted 269 172 years. from 1609 to 1878. when trade relations with China were terminated. A bitter dispute developed between China and Japan with the Japanese annexation of Okinawa in 1872. "Late in 1878 Tokyo discovered that the Chinese proposed to raise the question of Ryukyuan sovereignty with General Ulysses S. Grant. former President of the United States" (Kerr. 1958). He was on a world tour as a private citizen and was to be in Peking during the early months of 1879. Both Peking and Tokyo were aware that it might be difficult for Grant to decline a request to act as arbiter in this Sino-Japanese dispute. that the parties to the dispute would be under heavy pressure of public opinion to submit to arbitration. and that a public statement by the former President of the United States would sway international public opinion. to which the Japanese leaders at the time were peculiarly sensitive. (Kerr. 1958. pp. 376-77) Japan. to avoid having the problem become public discussion. determined to present the Chinese (and General Grant) "with a fait accompli; the Ryukyu problem must no longer be a 'question'" (Kerr. 1958. p. 377). A debate was held in the Council of State at Tokyo. It was recommended by Admiral Enomoto that the Ryukyu nan be abolished and Okinawa become a Ken (Prefecture) of Japan. It would become a greater problem for the Chinese and General Grant to ask Japan to give up "an integral part of 'home territory'" (Kerr. 1958. p. 377). The recommen- dation was adopted. The transfer had to take place before the arrival of Grant in China. Japan sent Okinawa's first governor. Nabeshima Naoaki ra. along with an imperial court physician. The court physician. Dr. Takashina. certified that the King. Sho Tai. was fit to travel to Tokyo. It was 173 imperative that Sho Tai did not flee to China to appeal the case of the Okinawans to General Grant. Sho Tai. the last King of Ryukyu. was sent to exile in the imperial court (Kerr. 1958. pp. 383-84). The Okinawans bowed to the inevitable. but not without a last gesture designed to salve the former king's wounded pride. Presentation at court was accompanied by a public explanation that Sho Tai had been ill for eight years because of deep concern for the welfare of Ryukyu kingdom. and that he had sent messengers to China to explain Japan's actions and to seek China's aid and advice. On May 20. the statement alleged. a reply had been received to the effect that China was too busy with internal affairs to act on behalf of Shuri. and the Ryukyu kingdom henceforth must obey Japan's orders. (Kerr. 1958. p. 384) The issue of the tribute between the kingdom of Okinawa and China was not silenced by the action of Japan. China attempted to invoke the interest and sympathetic support of General Grant. planning to associate Grant and the United States with China's claim. "by inference if not by technical fact" (Kerr. 1958. p. 387). The Ryukyus were of strategic importance to China as they served as a screen off the China coast. General Grant did not commit himself to the Chinese problem; he did present the issue to the Japanese when he arrived in Tokyo in 1879. Japan treated Grant in the capacity of a private citizen being entertained by the imperial court. and not as an official mediator. For over 15 years. the question of Okinawa was kept current by the Chinese. "In 1892. for the last time. Viceroy Li attempted to use the Ryukyu sovereignty issue as a means to embarrass Japan when Peking and Tokyo were engaged in a rancorous dispute concerning Korea" (Kerr. 1958. p. 392). Japan and China were at war soon after. and "China's 17h defeat in 1895 removed the Ryukyus from consideration in Sino—Japanese relations for fifty years" (Kerr. 1958. p. 392). In the nineteenth century foreign powers interested in developing trading posts began to cast covetous eyes on the Ryukyu Islands. It was presumed that because of their central geographical position they could be used by maritime powers. British war ships visited Naha and explored the waters around Okinawa in 1816; they were followed by exploratory expeditions of other nations. Commodore Perry made Naha a rendezvous in 1853 and 1854 for his "Black Ships" aimed at the opening of Japan. In 1854 before leaving Naha the doughty Commodore signed a treaty with Liu-Chiu court pledging enduring and friendly relations with the United States. (McCune. 1972: P. 8) Perry conducted the first extensive exploration of the island. Perry's exploration was merely incidental to his main purpose of using the island as a base while inducing the Japanese to open their ports for trade. although a trade compact signed with the Ryukyuan kingdom as if it were an independent state was subse- quently ratified by the United States Senate. (Glacken. 1955. p. 39) Attempts to bring economic success to the Ryukyu Islands were made by the Japanese. For the most part. Okinawa's chief value to Japan was strategic. This was brought forth during World War II. From the militarists' point of view the Ryukyu Islands formed useful links in the line of communications leading to Formosa and the south. but the impoverished province added no economic strength to the empire. Okinawan youths were substandard candidates for military service. and the loyalty of the population had not been fully tested since the days of annexation. (Kerr. 1958. p. 459) The Okinawans had little to say in shaping the policies and campaigns of World War II. The battle for Okinawa began on Easter morning. April 1. 1945. "An immense American fleet lay in the offshore waters. drawn like a noose about Okinawa proper" (Kerr. 1958. p. 468). The battle was over on June 20. with 90.401 Japanese soldiers having been killed and 12.000 American soldiers having lost their lives. 175 Between the hammer and the anvil. the Okinawans suffered indescribable loss. 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