I Ell. II. III.III.|IIII Ill SELECTED CRITICISMS OF EDUCATION IN THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY 1900-1950 BY Samuel Jesse Underwood A TEESIS Submittedto the College of Education Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHImedPHY Department of Education 1958 /’/ *4’57‘ 1’ m) .. "’ e a; 23 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In a period when teachers and teaching are under attack from.mamy sides, it is gratifying to have the privilege of associating with a teacher whose characteristics include: vision, ability to inspire, and ‘wisdom to help students develop professional insights and skills. Doctor Carl H. Gross, under whose guidance this study was done, is a master teacher; and the writer would like to express his-appreciation for his guidance, encouragement, and stimulation. ‘Dr. Gross exerts important and significant influence in the field of higher education, and the writer of this thesis unuld like to thank him sincerely for his personal integrity and professional leadership. Others who likewise gave assistance in the development of this thesis include: Doctor Claude N. Newlin, Doctor John‘W. Hanson, Doctor Byron H. VanRoekel, and Doctor John A. Fuzak. To them go sincere thanks and appreciation for their inspiration and service on the guidance committee. One could not define all the many influences of these teachers upon the writer of this thesis, but let it suffice to say that such men as these are dedicated to the improvement of society» through education and are dOing far more than:is required of them in their respective fields. Also, the writer would like to express his appreciation to Miss Mary Rider of the Michigan State University Library for her helpfulness and her willingness to secure materials for this study. The quality of graduate school is often determined by its library staff, and Miss Rider certainly deserves special commendation for her gracious help. To my wife, who encouraged perseverance and helped with the proofbreading, goes my especial thanks. Without all these people, this study would not have been possible. SEIECTED CRITICISMS OF EDUCATION IN THE ATLANTIC 150mm 1900-1950 BY Samuel Jesse Underwood AN'ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Education Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in.partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR.OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Foundations of Education 1958 SELECTED CRITICISMS OF EDUCATION IN THE ATLANTIC MDNTHLI 1900-1950 BY Sammel Jesse Underwood AN'ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Education Michigan State University of Agriculture and ‘Applied Science in.partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR,OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Foundations of Education 1958 Approved The purpose of this study was to make a survey of all the peri- odical articles on education appearing in 21:13 Atlantic Monthly between 1900-1950 to discover the nature of the critical attacks on education during the first half of the twentieth century. Education receives a mass of critical attacks during periods of stress and strain, and the writer felt that a careful look at an outstanding periodical would reveal trends during such critical attacks and offer some insights into the causes and effects of such social pressures on education. Since the period under consideration included two world'wars, a crippling depression, and other social and political upheavals, the writer as- sumed that education would reflect these phenomena. It was fbund that educational criticisms were directly related to what was transpiring in society at large. Generally speaking, the survey of the articles in this magazine substantiates the fact that education reflects the dominant aims of society of which it is a part. As one reads all the materials, he gains the impression that one of America's favorite pastimes is the criticism of social institutions-especially education. Educators oftentimes invite criticisms by their lack of aggressive leadership, and this study indicates that many ill-conceived remarks could have been forstalled by a dynamic and vocal.type of educational leadership. Observing the fifty year period at one glance indicates that education.has made important strides in improving its program. A significant trend was the development of the junior cellege, a peculiarly American institution, to meet the needs of terminal education and training beyond the high school on the community level. There were similar developments in the elementary school, the high school, and the univerSities. There are evidences that gains in the support of free public education were further strengthened during the period under consideration. Vocational education came into its own during the first half of the twentieth century, and the Federal Government continued to support vocational education. To conclude that education is better today than it was at the beginning of the century would be a valid concluSion, for one sees evidences of this improvement in regards to the curriculum, financial support, extension of educational opportunities, and school administration. This study indicates that there are other improvements which could be made. such an.improvement is the need for better public relations, which would include interpreting the work of the school from kindergarten to the graduate school to the general lay public. Educators need to keep their hands upon.the public pulse by surveying the popular publications, fer the laisseszgi 2 philosophy in this regard is worse than none at all. Finally, the study shows that laymen are concerned about education and want to contribute to its improvement. Such a spirit behooves educators to take the helm of leadership and capitalize on this public interest. CHAPTER I. II. TABIE OF CONTENTS THE AMERICAN SCENE, 1900-1950 . . . . . . . . . Political and Economic Differences . . . . . Religious Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . EconomicForces............... Reformldeasures............... SocialCriticism . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . ,Trends inlmigration . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . American Education: A Preview .‘ . . . . . . . Educational Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . EducationalProgress . . . . . . . . . . . . Literary Activities in the Twentieth Century PeriodicalLiterature . . . . . . . . . . . . The Atlantic Monthly: A Sketch . . . . . . . ConcluSions................. WHATISEDUCATION? .............. Forces Influencing Education . . . . . . . . Criticism of Education . . . . . . . . . . . Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . Education as Mental Discipline . . . . . . . TrainingoftheMind ............ Education: The Sum Total of the Curriculum . EducationasaProcess . . . . . . . . . . . Educational Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . Spiritual AspeCtS s o o o o o o o o o 0 iv PAGE mOP‘NI-J 1h 17 18 . 19 21 23 25 27 28 30 32 32 33 35 36 38 . 39 to III. IV. V. Character Training and Education 0 O O O O 0 Professional Versus Liberal Education . . . . Classical Versus Modern Education . . THE PUBLIC EIEMENTARY SCI-IDOL . . . Forces Affecting Education. . . . Education: Then and Now . . . . . O O O O O 0 Science and Religion In Education . . . . . . Influence of Science on The Schools . . . . ,' Objectives of Education . . . . . Curriculum Changes . . . . . . . Conflicts Between Classicists and Progressive Education . . . . . . Inequalities in Education . . . . Critical Attacks on Education ... Smmnary and Conclusions . . . . . THESECONDARX SCHOOL .-. . . . . . Education and Social Change . . . The Emerging Secondary School . . Studies of Secondary Education . Criticisms of Education . V. . . . Critical Attacks on Education . . LanguageArts.......... College Entrance Requirements . . Vocational Education . . . . . . The Junior High School . . . . . HIGHEREDUCATION . . .... . . . Educational Problems in 1900 . . Modernists h? be So 53 St 55 56 61 68 73 77 ' 82 85 89 92 93 95 96 100 101; 107 113 115 118 121 123 VI. LiberalEducationooeooooooo00.00.00o Criticisms of Graduate Schools The State University . - . - . . Role of Higher Education . . . . University Extension . . . . . . Academic Freedom. . . . . . . . The Elective System . . . . . . Standards in Higher Education . O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Honor Systems in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . College Entrance Requirements . The J‘mor 0011383 Movement 0 o o o o e o o o o o o o a Higher Education for Women . . . Critical AttaCks on Higher Education 0 o o o o o o o o 0 Academic Weaknesses . . . . . . Evaluation in Higher Education . C O C O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O C O O O O C Edmation and Military Training 0 o o o o o o s o o o -o Criticisms of College Professors . . . . . . . . . . . . Collegiate Athletics . . . . . . O O C 0 O O O O O O O . Endowmnents and Philanthropic Foundations . . . . . . . Religion am Higher Education 0 o o o o o o o s o o o o 0011011131011890000000009000.0000... CRITICALANALYSIS ........ Brief History of The Atlantic Monthly . . . . . . . . . Survey Of Educational PI‘OblemS o o o o o o o o o o c o s Kilpatrick's List of Educational Problems . . . . . . . Newspapermen “OR at Education. 0 o o o o o o o o o o 0 vi 129 130 133 138 no 1111 1th its 115 1116 1118 151 15b 15 8 15 9 162 163 169 171 171: 176 178 178 183 188 191 Comparisons of Problems . The Writer's Position . . VII. CDNCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY oooooodooco 193 203 205 216 . CHAPTER I THE AMERICAN some, 1900-1950 The dominant note at the beginning of the twentieth century was one of affluence and optimism. Writing in the New York Times editorial section January 1, 1900, the editor expressed this mood in saying that "the year 1899 was a year of wonders, a veritable annus mirabilis, in business ani production."l He suggested that prosperity left none of our industries untouched, and touched nothing that it did not enrich. "It would be easy," he continued, "to speak of the twelve months just past as the banner year were we not already confident the distinction of highest records must presently pass to the year 1900."2 The Reverend Thomas R. Slicer, pastor of All Souls' Church in New York City,preached a powerful sermon in which he anticipated the emphasis of the new century. He intoned:3 We have taken down our walls. We have extended our limits. We are no longer fortressed by what were then the almost impassable seas, but have made them a pathway over which American warships and merchant ships carry out the mission of this country. Elsewhere in his sermon the New York divine mentioned the observance of George Washington's death and burial exactly a century before. He solemnly advised the worshippers to follow the example of the father of the country who had been entombed in Mt. Vernon. Thus, the keynotes of the period, as it were, were sounded by the editor of one of the most influential newspapers in the world ard one of the well-known ministers of the period. Interestingly, the minister reflected the old and prevailing idea of manifest destiny of America in his sermon; and the 1 Editorial in the New York Times, January 1, 1900. 2 Editorial in the New York Times, January 1, 1900. 3 News item in the New York Times, January 1, 1900. buccinators emphasize both the spiritual and material values of the time. ’ These values undergirded all phases of activity in the early part of the twentieth century, and it should be pointed out that these values had their roots in the preceding century. The nineteenth century had brought astounding changes in all realms of life, but these changes ‘were perhaps more evident in the material realm..America had made the gradual but sure change from an agricultural country to one of teeming industry. Beset with diverse types of revolutions, society had experienced a rapid succession of changes which were literally breath- taking. Through the years the concept of democracy was broadened to accomodate these changes, but there were many evidences of stress and strain during this turbulent and troubled period. The development of machinery revolutionized the farming industry and made it possible for | one man to produce what scores had formerly produced. The century evidenced the spanning of the continent with railroads which tended to bring the East and'Iest closer together and to stimulate a new type of nationalism, to say nothing about inter-state commerce. The latter part of tin century, according to the famous American historian, Frederick J. 'l'urner,’4 witnessed the disappearance of the American frontier; but the nation still held to much of its frontier psychology. Political and Economic Differences The North emerged as the industrial leader of the nation, leaving the South and West to the pursuit of agriculture. However, before the Nerth became supreme in the industrial upheaval, the nation was forced H FFiderick J. Turner, The Frontier in American History, Henry Belt and Company, (New'YOrk,—T§h55: P. 9.- to decide the issue during the Civil'flar. Abraham Lincoln, the Great Emancipator, had been in office but a few monthS'when he issued a call for volunteers to save the Union. The firing on Fort Sumter in South Carolina was the initial spark which.set off one of the most tragic and unfortunate'wars in.the country‘s history. After four years of wanton destruction and blood shed, the South lay prostrate and bleeding from the ravages of war. As a result of this contest, entire State Consti- tutions had to be rewritten; and the South suffered tragically during the Reconstruction Period which.was characterized by bitterness and suppression.of the Old South as it had existed for almost a century. The industrial revolution introduced many problems, and there were many inequalities which paved the way for the formation of huge and powerful labor unions. Notable among the labor unrest of the latter part of the nineteenth century was the famous Haymarket Square riots in Chicago where a group of strikers was fired upon by policemen who were trying to break up a protest meeting of the union..An irate judge sentenced seven of the eight strikers to death. The crusading pen of ‘Willism Dean Howells, famous realist in the field of literature and later editor of The.Atlantic Monthly, called the nation's attention to the injustices of the sentences; and it was largely due to his efforts that three of the men were set free by Governor J.P. Altgeld of Illinois. A New York traction strike resulted in.the deaths of several union members and innocent byastanders, and the fight for the rights of labor was long and bitter. The most widely-discussed one was the Pullman strike, which tied up East and West traffic on the railroads for several months. Eugene Debs, a former railroad worker and Socialist candidate for president, authorized the strike because he felt that his union members had been treated unfairly. When the strike spread to several other railroads and the United States mail could not be de- livered, the President called out troops to break the impasse. Debs was sentenced to six months in prison for inciting the strike, and the United States Supreme Court upheld the sentence. William Dean Howells Religious Activities The spiritual aspects of the period were reflected in numerous religious events. The publication of Charles Darwin's gri__g_i_r_1 2f. the Species in 1859 led to numerous struggles between the fundamentalist and the orthodox wings in religion; and this struggle has not been completely resolved--even in this enlightened mid-twentieth century. Even though this publication was a product of the nineteenth century, its influerce continued to be felt well into the twentieth century. Repercussions of the publication were witnessed in the famous Scopes trial in Dayton, Tennessee, where William Jennings Bryan was the prosecuting attorney. While the religious zealots were somewhat naive in their contentions, the trial was a climu between the new scientific spirit and divine revelation, or the two dominant threads in the period urfier consideration. H.L. Mencken, editor of the American Mercury and well-known iconoclast, covered the trial and wrote a rather interesting observation of this trial. After giving a rather scathing report of his observationsin Dayton, Tennessee, he concluded: Finally, we got tired of the show and returned to Dayton. It was nearly eleven o'clock--an immensely late hour for those latitudes-~but the whole town was still gathered in the courthouse Mencken, "The Hills of Zion," pp. hl3‘hlbo Quoted in John K. Hutchens, The American Twenties: _A_._ Literary Panorama, J .B. Lippincott Company, (fiew York, 1952). 5 yard, listening to the disputes of theologians. The Scopes trial had brought them in from all.directions. There was a friar wear- ing a sandwich sign announcing that he was the Bible champion of the world. There was a Seventh Day Adventist arguing that Clarence Darrow was the beast with seven heads and ten horns described in Revelation XIII, and that the end of the world was at hand. There was an evangelist made up like Andy Gump, with the news that atheists in Cincinnati were preparing to descend upon Dayton, hang the eminent Judge Raulston, and burn the town. There was an ancient who maintained that no Catholic could be Christian. There was the eloquent Dr. T.T. Martin, of Blue Mountain, Miss., come to town with a truck-load of torches and hymnbooks to put Darwin in his place. There was a singing brother bellowing apoca- lyptic hymns. There was'William Jennings Bryan, followed every- 'where by a gaping crowd. Dayton was having a roaring time. It was better than the circus. But the note of devotion was simoly not there; the Daytonians, after listening for a while, would slip away to Robinson's drug-store to regale themselves with Coca-Cola, or to the lobby of the Aqua Hetel, where the learned Raulston sat in state, judicially picking his teeth. The real religion was not present. It began at the bridge over the town creek, where the road makes off for the hills. Other evidences of the conflict between religion and science are not hard to find, for the period has many examples of college professors who lost their jobs because of attitudes they held and statements they made in defense of the scientific way of looking at things. Andrew D. ‘White, President of Cornell, said in his Histogz 3£,the'Warfare 2f Science with Theolggy in Christendom,that "Darwin's Origin of Species had come into the theological world like a plow in.an ant-hill. Every- where those rudely awakened from their old comfort and repose had swarmed forth angry and confused. Reviews, sermons, books light and heavy, came flying at the new thinkers on all sides. "6 Thus, because of ferment of the period along religious lines, many notable men were fired from their Jobs. Among them were Professor Alexander‘Winchell of Vanderbilt University, Doctor Crawfldni H. Toy of Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Doctor James Woodrow of the Southern Presbyterian 5 Andrew D. White, A History of: the Warfare 2}; Science With The- ology in Christendom, MacMillan Company, (Nedeork, l90h), Vol. I,p. 70. Seminary, Professor Charles A. Briggs of Lane Theological Seminary, Doctor David Swing, pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago, and Reverend Theodore Parker of the Unitarian.Church of Boston. Fortu- nately, many eminent scientists and other public leaders intervened to stOp this needless mass hysteria. Andrew.D. White, President of Cornell, pointed out that advances in knowledge had always been opposed by blind and narrow religionists. Professor Asa Gray, perhaps the most outstanding botanist in 1873, and Charles W} Eliot, brilliant young President of Harvard, helped to heal the breech between.these two contending forces. Even Mark Twain "pro- posed the erection of a monument to Adam before the great progenitor of the race should be entirely supplanted by Darwin's monkey.“ This problem has‘been.a recurring one in education.over the past fifty years, and it is interesting to note how violent the conflict became from time to time. Economic E23323 Since the first part of the twentieth century was characterized by economic struggles, some of the important movements in this field should be indicated to show their influence in the field of education. These struggles originated in the preceding century, but they were still very much of a problem in the twentieth century. Big business was the order of the day; and the organizers of trusts, cartels, and other forms of ‘monopolies over the manufacture and distrflbution.of goods and services believed that they were anointed, as it were, by God Himself to bear the weaknesses of the poor. Labor had little or no protection.from.exploi- tation; in fact, labor was not yet recognized by big business as having legitimate bargaining positions. During President Theodore Roosevelt's 7 administration a prolonged struggle ensued between labor and management, cutting off the mining and distribution of anthracite coal. The oper- ators refused to bargain with labor on the ground that labor received fair compensation and that t In laboring man had no right to strike for what he comidered his rights. George F. Baer, President of Philadelphia and Reading Railway, expressed the point of view of management in a famous letter which is reported in Mark Sullivan's 93 Tires: America Finds Herself. 7 After appropriate salutations, Baer begins, I I have your letter of the 16th instant . I do not know who you are. I see that you are a religious man; but you are evidently biased in favor of the right of the working man to control a business in which he has no other inter- est than to secure fair wages for the work he does. I bag of you not in be discouraged. The rights and interests of the laboring man will be protected and cared form—not by the labor agitators, but by tie Christian men to whom God in His infi- nite wisdom has given the control of the property interests of the country, ard upon the successful Management of which much depends. Do not be discouraged. Pray earnestly that right may triumph, always remembering that the 10rd God Omnipotent reigns, and that Ifls reign is one of law and order, and not of violence and crime. Such a letter could mt be kept fran the public, and it found its way into the press of the country where it was received with mixed reactions. Religion ard business were juxtaposed in a deliberate attempt to break the back of labor and to protect the powerful monied class. Even though President Roosevelt had the Sherman Anti—Trust Law at his disposal, he could mt get the necessary supportfrom Congress nor the Supreme Court to help break the costly strike. Thmugh skillful manouvering, in- eluding encouragement by an ex-president, Grover Cleveland, who was a 7 IE rk Sullivan, Our Times: America Finding Herself, Charles Scribner's Sons, (New $3512, I977), p. 523. 8 Democrat, ard subtle pressures, he finally settled the strike; but he had to call out the Army ard declare a national emergency to end it. Another example of the accumulation of wealth is to be found in the organization of The Standard Oil Company in the latter part of the nine- teenth century by John D. Rockefeller, a former bookkeeper of Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller was a brilliant organizer in his own right, and he applied pressures to get a monopoly in the petroleum industry in this country. With the accumulation of a vast personal fortune and a Republican Congress, Rockefeller grabbed millions without too much interference Iran the Federal Government. However altruistic he might have been in giving his money to the philanthropic agencies and in con- tributing to the growth of the country through his organizational ability, he still remains' a good example ofthe “benevolent despot" in the field of high finance. The list of the trust-makers of the period would not be complete without mentioning the following: J. Pierpont Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, Charles M. Schwab, William M. Rockefeller, Charles R. Prick, Henry U. Frick, August Belmont, and John W. Gates. This period saw a veritable epidemic of publications about the trusts ,8 but the solution to the problem had to wait until the beginning of the twentieth century when the Federal Government finally showed big business which was the more powerful. Reform Measures Test it be imagined that the period was one of complete dis- organization, the positive side of society should be mentioned. Before "“T‘sa‘me of the books of this period would include: v1.1a. Collier's, The Trusts; Jeremiah W. Jenks', Trusts and Their Relation to Industrial mgfis? H. Apthrop's, Trusts Wefibfia- Wnfi,_THé_—— m Trusts; J. Harmsj-Trustsm. Dodd's,Book of—Trustss few o'f'tFe' pamphlets were: H.L. fiai‘ee, "To What Are The Trusts Ead- a Eggégcgqi. Hopkins ,"The Impending Crisis ,"and F.A.Adams,"Who Rules 9 doing this, however, other examples which tend to support the idea that the early twentieth century was one of wholesale reform should be pre- sented. Perhaps the best example of this would be the background of the Pure Food and Drug Acts which had its beginning in the publication of a novel which literally shook the foundations of big business throughout the United States. If one were to compile a list of books which have changed the world, Upton Sinclair's The _J_u_n_g__l_._e_ would certain- ly have to be on such a list. Mark Sullivan gives a rather capable picture of the background to the book in the following terms? In 1906, Upton Sinclair, a young man devoted to romantic philosophy, realistic literature, and experimental socialism, finished a novel, (A Socialist periodical, The Ap eal to Reason, financed Sinclair with $500, upon which he me or seven weeks among the stock-yard workers), named it "The Jungle," carried the manuscript to five different publishers who rejected it, decided to print it as he could, and asked his friend, fellow Socialist, and fellow author, Jack Iondon, to write the announcement. London, seeing the novel as what the author meant it to be, described it as an appeal for socialism, a protest against "wage slavery," and wrote: , 'Circulate "The Jungle," Dear Comrades: . . . The book we have been waiting for th$e yea rs: It will open countless ears that have been deaf to Socialism. It will make thousands of con- verts to our cause. It depicts what our country really is, the home of oppression ani injustice, a nightmare of misery, an inferno of suffering, a human hell, a jungle of wild beasts. And take notice and remember, comrades, this book is straight prole- tarian. It is written by an intellectual proletarian, for the proletarian. ' It is to be published by a proletarian publishing house. It is to be read by the proletariat. What "Uncle Tom's Cabin" did fcr the black slaves "The Jungle" has a large chance to do ibr tie white slaves of today.‘ ' Sinclair feared that his mvel would be given the silent treatment, but he fourd that his book soared to the best seller position in the nation. As is often the case in literature, the public failed to understand V that this book was intended to convert people to the socialist po- Sition and took the descriptions quite differently from what Sinclair 9 Sflnvan, 9.2. 2.21:." pp. h7l‘h72e I 1! ‘IIII‘I-flalll. Ilulll‘lli I II 10 had intended. Industrialization of the meat packing industry gave his novel many paragraphs of local color, but Sinclair was amazed that the public missed the point of his sausage grinding machine example. This descriptive paragraph was intended to show how machinery had replaced hand labor and consequently cut cbwn on the number of employees in the meat packing industry.’ He proceeded to describe details of poor sanitation in Pacldngtovm, which was the epithet he gave to the meat- packirg business at Chicago. Detail after detail of poor sanitation showed how an impersoral food combine was conspiring to poison the health of the nation through its neglect of cleanliness. One of his most moving paragraphs concerned the squeals of little defenseless pigs, when their throats were slit; ard he had intended for this description to be symbolic of the whole tragedy with which he hoped to arouse the general public to action. his description follows: 10 One could not stani and watch very long Without becoming philosophical, without beginnirg to deal in symbols ani similes, and to hear the hog-squeal of the universe. Was it permitted to believe that there was nowhere upon the earth, or above the earth, a heaven for hogs, where they were requited for all this suffer- ing? Each one of these hogs was a separate creature. Some were white hogs, some were black; sore were brown, some were spotted; some were old, and some were young; some were lorg and lean, some were monstrous. And each of them had an individuality of his own, a will of his own, a hope and a heart, a desire; each was full of self-confidence, or self-importance, and a sense of dignity. And trusting and strong in faith he had gone about his business, the while a black shadow hung over him ard a horrid Fate waited in his pathway. Now suddenly it had swooped upon him, arm had seized him by the leg. Relentless, remorseless it was; all his protests, his screams, were nothing to it; it did its cruel will. with him, as if his wishes, his feelings, had simply no existence at all; it cut his throat ani watched him gasp out his Life. And how was one to believe that there was nowhere a god of hogs, to whom this hog- personality was preciors, to whom these hog-squeals ard agonies had a meaning? Who would take this hog into his arms and comfort him, reward him for his work well done, and show him the meaning of his 15 Upton Sinclair, The Jungle, Doubleday, Page 8: company, (New York, 1906), pp. ill-20 ll sacrifice7. . . A most terrifying shriek . . . followed by another, louder and yet more agonizing--ror once started upon that Journey'the hog never came back-- at the top of the wheel he was shunted off upon a trolley, and went sailing down the room. And meantime another was swinging up, and then another, and another until there was a double line of them, each dangling by a foot and kicking in frenzy--and squealing. The uproar was appalling; one feared there was too much scum flor the room to hold-—that the walls must give way or the ceiling crack. There were high squeals, and low squeals, grunts, and wails of agony. The author of this paper doubts if there is a more touching personi- fication of the porcine mammal Suidae Sus in the whole realm of litera- ture. Throughout his novel he gave examples of the filth, vermin, and disease which were designed to expose Packingtown.and to arouse the public. President Theodore Roosevelt read the novel and used it as a basis for appointing a committee to make an on-the-spot examination of conditions for him. Needless to say, the President probably under- stood 'the real import of the shocking novel somewhat better than the general reading public did; but he was too wise to let this opportunity pass without using it to pressure an unpcooperative Congress into action when it was a question.of the public welfare. This widespread concern for the American stomach spread int: the area of drugs where patent medicines were the panacea for the poor and unlettered. Chemists were hired on a grand scale by food and drug manufactur- ers to help them make even more money, and die general public began to suspect that there was a grand conspiracy, even a trust, in a vital area which had influence over their lives. Thousands of dollars rolled into unpscrupulous patent medicine companies, and hundreds of dollars went into an ambitious program of advertising. Since the reading public had been saturated with yellow journalism and sensationalism for some time, 12 it was nothing extraordinary to find hundreds of columns of this type of advertising. When one patent medicine maker solicited testimonial letters from his purchasers, he proceeded to make plans to use these letters for the purpose of making more money. He sold the whole batch of testimonials to his brother manufacturers so that they would find an easy. market. Speaking of the chemist's role in this chicanery, Mark Sullivan points out some of the practices in the following terms: 11 The chemist suggested drugs which, added to foods, prevented their too early decomposition, and coloring matters which con- cealed decomposition that had already taken place; and still other substances possessing the magic property of restoring foods, already deteriorated, to a deceiving simulation of freshness. Stale, rancid, soiled, and unsalable butter, in various degrees of putrefaction, was made over and sold for fresh. Eggs, which the passage of time had made a little more than mellow, and which for that reason had been theretofore unusable; eggs which would have mined the reputation of am old-time grocer selling them to an old-time housewife whose senses were experienced in recognizing the more advanced phases of nature--such eggs, in the new impersonality of big business, its complexities and secrecies of his chemistry, were deodorized with formaldehyde, became a standard commodity of commerce, and were sold in enormous quantities for cake-making. In the earlier period of the use of cold storage, the word "fresh" when used in connection with eggs as well as meat, conveyed nonecessary guarantee of nearness in time to the living animal. Apples, of which the succulence, in their pristine stage, had proved over-alluring to some of the smaller invertebrates; ard other apples in a condition that represented too geat a zeal for conservation, were made into a jelly which, mixed with flavoring substances derived from coal tar, appeared on the market labelled "current,“ "blackberry,“ "plum jam," “pure apple butter.“ In spite of tie fervid reform movement on the part of manufacturers, the public did not. feel trat the reform was conclusive enough and began to apply pressure on Congress for the passage of some law to protect them. President Theodore Roosevelt delivered his message to 11 Sullivan, op: cit. pp. SOZ-SOh. 13 7 Congress December 5, 1905, demanding passage of such a bill. For a while it appeared that the neat-packing and drug dispensirg lobbies in Congress would defeat the measure which had been submitted. The arguments against the bill were curious and questionable, and the opposition included Senator Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island. He based his argument on the liberty of the people and drug in the States' Rights issue. He even tried to argue that the people's liberty to purchase goods in a free market would be curtailed and, wtat's more, unconstitutional. His arguments ran like this: Is there anything in the existing condition that makes it the duty of Congress to put the liberty of all the peOple of the United States in jeopardy?. . . Are we going to take up the question as to what a man shall eat and what a man shall drink, ard pit him under severe penalties if he is eating or drinking something different from what the chemists of tie Agricultural Department think desirable? Congressmen were quick to point out fallacies in Senator Aldrich's arguments, for the intention of the bill was not to abridge the free- dom of the consumer but to force the manufacturers and distributors to label their wares. It was felt that all commodities in inter-state commerce should contain a label which truthfully described the con- tents, ani it was Shawn that this would not abridge the consumer's freedom but enlarge it. Senator McCumber answered his colleague by . 13 saying : On the contrary, it is the purpose of the bill that a man may determine for himself what he will eat and what he will not eat. It is the purpose of the bill that he may go into the markets and wren he pays for that he asks for that he shall get it, and not get some poisonous substance in lieu thereof, for the benefit of some pa‘ticular individuals who desire to make a little money out of the sale of these poisonous articles which are imposed on the public . 11% 151d 0, pp. 502'5014 ., p. 532. The pure Food and Drug Act seemed assured of passage when the powerful American Medical Association brought pressure upon Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, who led the opposition in Congress. But it took more than an aroused public to answer the challenge of the lobbyists ani certain stubborn Corgressmen. Even President Roosevelt had to use his influence arfl apply pressures in order to get the bill through Congress. Roosevelt appointed a commission to investigate, but the thing that worked the trick was the wholesale boycott of these items by the public . The agitation for this bill almost became an inter- national issue because the businessmen were arguing that foreign trade had been adversely affected by the uproar for the bill. Too, the Congress accused the Pmsident of meddling in the legislative branch of government. Nevertheless, the Pure Food and Drug Act became the law of the land on July 1, 1906, despite the opposition. Congressman James W. Wadsworth lost his seat in Congress for opposing the bill, and the success of the legislation meant that the President had been elevated to the real leadership of the Republican Party. Some argued that the legislative branch of government became more independent of the executive branch later when the question of Prohibition became a burning issue fcr the ration. Social Criticism Few men have influenced the thinking of a country in quite the same way as did Edwin Markham, a California school-teacher, with his poem,"'1'he Man With The Hoe, (Written After Seeing Millet's World- Famous Painting) ."He had seen the renowned painting by the French Peasant artist in Scribner's Magazine in 1886, and the painting made Such an impression on his mind that he wrote ‘a poem which became the smbC-l a wide; mnfw «:9' (‘f' O (9‘ H 5—4 Iithix poem ': perio' were ' Some ' of tin MIG poem p081; 15 symbol of man's struggle with social and economic forces. Writing in a widely-distributed popular magazine, Markham explained the motivat- 1h ion for the poem in the fo llowirg terms: I sat for an hour before the painting and all the time the terror ard power of the picture was growing upon me. I saw that. this creation of the painter was no mere peasant, no chance man of the fields, but he was rather a type, a symbol of the toiler, brutalized through long ages of industrial oppression. I saw in this peasant the slow but awful degradation of man through end- less, hopeless, ard joyless labor. The poem was first published in the San Framisco Examiner, January 15, 1899; but such a poem was destined to receive national circulation within a very shart tine. The general reading public understood the poem's nessage'and began to quote it rather widely. Newspapers, periodicals, and pamphleteers seized the poem; ani thousands of copies were to cone from the nation's presses for distribution and discussion. Some writers sneered at the poet's message, saying that the treatment of the oppressed tended to make the average man a "brother to the ox." \Vhile it might be diffic ult for modern readers to understand why this poem should have such a universal appeal, there is no doubt that the poem becane the symbol of the struggle of the woman man in his attempt at betterment of his position as a member of society. Many a minister took the subject of the poem for the text of a sermon, and one college president used the theme for a series of lectures which he gave many times throughout the country. Sociologists pointed out the implications of the poem by showi ng the results of the machine upon mankind during the early part of the century. Even William Jenning Bryan, the boy orator from the Platte and unsuccessful candidate for the presidency of the United States, used the poem in his III Edwin Markham, 223; Saturday Evening Post ,December 16, 1899. l6 arguments against the powerful monopolies which he hoped to smash. Bryan attempted to answer the critics of the poem by stating: "The literary sycophants who strew rhetorical flowers in the pathway of the successful. . . complacently throw the responsibility for failure in life upon God, or Nature, or upon man himself." Over and over again the theme was used in. commencement addresses, ard the cartoonists of the period literally drew hundreds of pictures for the popular news- papers ard periodicals. Parodies, ranging from mild acceptance to bitter disapproval, ibund their way into print. Perham the most honest criticism of the poem was expressed by E. P. Powell when he said: 15 Mr. Markham slrnws us the workman of civilization, not going up from the animal, but going dom from what God made him. . . Such an interpretation of man and labor, especially of agri- cultural labor, at this time, puts the poem in alignment with that pessimism and explosive arraignment of social order in which sentimentalism strikes hands with brute force. Even the President of the United States used the poem when he spoke before Congress, but it was William Jennings Bryan who made political hay from it. Suggesting why the poem had become an expression of the prevailing mood of the American peOple, he wrote in a peri- odical article in December, 1899: 16 It is not strange tlat "The Man With the Hoe" created a profound sensation. It is a sermon addressed to the heart. It voices humanity's protest against inhuman greed. There is a majestic sweep to the argument; some of the lines pierce like arrows. How feeble in comparison have been the answers to it. The extremes of society are being driven further ard further apart. Wealth is being concentrated in the hands of a few. At cm and of the scale luxury and idleness breed effeminancy; at the other end, want and destitution breed desperation. . . 15 E.P. Powell, 1% Coming Age, November, 1899. 16 William Jennings Bryan, TE Saturdav Evening Post, December 1o, 1899. “'- """ 17 m H Immigration One may gain further insight into the reasons why Upton Sinclair and Edwin Markham's propaganda pieces had such a wide appeal by remembering events which gave rise to these publi catiors. Was it not true tlrat immigrants had to people the hurdreds of factories where machinery was replacing hand labor? Were not hurdreds of agricultural workers flocking to the growing cities because machines had made farm workers largely unnecessary? Government and industry welcomed immigrants gladly, for the immigrant ms needed to fill the holds of ships, to take up homesteads, to mrchase the surplus acres of the railways in the west, and to supply the man power which an expanding American industry needed. The Federal Government stimulated this immigration by the passage of permissive laws and setting up an Immigration Bureau in Washington. From the last quarter of the nineteenth century immigrants had streamed into the "melting pot" to meet these needs. The national strains of these immigrants seemed to matter very little in the early days, however, the nation began to look carefully at the nationality of immigrants preceding the first World War and almost completely stopped the flow of aliens into this Country during the early twenties. The immigrant '3 dream of the new world was couched in a romatic Vein in may instances, and this mass transplantation was bound to have implicatiors for the social, political, ard economic aspects of American life. Thus, the attitudes toward immigration ranged all the Way from permissive acceptance to legal exclusion; and one should be reminded that President Eisenhower faced this problem in the recent a‘<1!:1'1it‘!;ar1ce of Hungarians who were trying to escape blood-shed and 4 “vol It °U Pro Val. I 18 oppression at the hands of the Russians. Who were these immgrants, and where did they settle in America? The first wave of immigrants was composed of Irishmen, Germars , Swedes, and Danes, followed by Italians, Jews, Poles, Finrs, Croats, Roumaniars, Czechs, Rutherians, Latins, Turks, and Greeks. The Germars, Swedes, Finns, and Czechs located chiefly on the farms of the old Northwest and contributed to the population of Wisconsin, michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska and the Dakotas. The Irish generally moved to the cities of the North; while the Jews tended to the sweat-shops of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The Italians supplied the labor market with day laborers; while the Poles, Croats, Slovenes, Roumanians poured into the stockyards of Chicago and Kansas City, the coal mines of Penn- sylvania and Illinois, the textile millsof Fall River, Lowell, and Paterson, the steel mills, the iron foundries, the salt, copper, and lead mines of North, East, South, and West. Effects of Immigration Among the pressing problems introduced by immigration were: con- flicts over cheap labor, difficulties in the assimilation of a new cultural background, exploitation by business and industry, stress and strain in the religious area, and a host of other related problems. Education reflected these problems throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Certain pressure groups exerted influence to round up the Japanese on the West Coast in the early days of the second World War when it was feared that the Japanese were contemplating an in- vasion of the West Coast after the successful bombing of Pearl Harbor On December 7, 19m. Agitation for religious reforms was further in- tensified by tte crusading Catholics, whom many accused of attempting fl V—_¥' _ .A...—.—-.- ._ _ . _,,_ _4 A -— J-- 19 to build a “Catholic Empire" in this country and trying to put the Pope on a throne 3 and this struggle over the place of religion in society expressed itself during the first half of the twentieth century. Isabel Ieighton's Elf. Aspirin Age, (l9l9-l9h1), 17 gives an excellent history of the revival of this post-Civil War organization which was organized in the South to provide a social outlet for returning veterans and to support the changing demards of society. Even though the principle of the separation of Church and State was accepted early in the country's history, there were many sides of the question which were to plague ‘ school administrators, church fathers, ani lawyers, who tried to reach compromises to this Controversial problem. Indeed, the legal documents of this country reflect this problem to a marked degree; and one must understand the roots of the problem to determine the relative value of the many laws which have been passed in this area. The early dream of free public education for all American youth seemed, at times, to be entirely thwarted by concerns in the area; and had not religion played a very significant role in the founding, growth, and development of the United States? American Education: A Pre-View V What, then, was the nature of education at the beginning of the twentieth century? One of the brilliant leaders in- the field, Nicholas Murray Butler, Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University-- later president, summed up the nature of the age in 1900 in an address before the National Educatinnal Association. His address was published in Proceedings of that year: Butler expressed his Opinion in the I7 Robert Ccughlan, "Konklave in Kokoma," quoted in Isabel . Egghton's The Aspirin Age, Simon and Schuster, (New York,l9b9),pp.105— #Mr ..‘____‘-— . 0 1‘9 fell: l 1 20 following terms : 3'8 But who can know the 19th century? Development so rapid, changes so startling, inventions so undreamed of, crowd each other in a whirl of coniusing images when we try to picture this century and to note its salient facts. It is the century of Napoleon and of Lincoln, of Hegel and of DarWin, of Goethe and Kipling, of Bessemer and of Rockefeller. More leaders of enter- prise and more captaim of industry have appeared during this one hurflred years than in all previous recorded history. The average of human intelligence and of human efficiency has been raised to a point, in the United States certai nly, which a few hundred years ago vould have entailed notoriety, and perhaps distinction. Prosperity and querulousness, desire and happiness, have all multiplied togetmr. lbw can this be interpreted? . . . The wisest answer seems to me to be this: The 19th century is pre- ominently the pwiod of individual liberty—-political, religious, intellectual, industrial; and its manifold triumphs and achieve- ments are due to the large opportunities which have been granted to individual initiative and to individual expression. The greatness, the shortcomings, and the contradictions of the 19th century are alike due to this. The individual liberty 033‘ which Professor Butler spoke was destinedlto change educational practice and to lead to broader opportunities and freedoms in the field 01‘ education. Whereas the top classes had gone to the colleges and universities in the past for advanced training, it became necessary to look at this problem critically in the face of te emancipation of the sermon man with ever expanding freedoms and liber- ties. Shorter we rkiqg hours for the laboring class led to more leisure time, and the distribution of wealth began to have direct bearing on the possibility for wider educational opportunities. Could not one say that the machine age had been partially responsible for a shift in values from the old classical education to a more utilitarian type of training? Perhaps this was the significance of the Merrill Act which led to the establishment of colleges where the practical artsreceived a good deal of attention ard support from the Federal Government. I8 Nicholas Murray Butler, "Status of Education at the Close of the Century," Proceedings National Educatiornl Association,l900 ,pp .188-‘189. ...—go- Aw- I . r' VV‘ _ . ‘wvb —' o)“ .. U: 54 ‘ ‘L‘Q'I 5P. aixtxu new . . u 1 1w 1“ .Aqll _‘. n n"“hr ‘I‘ A‘\. "3" N 21 Education came to he regarded as the hand-maiden of economic betterment in society at large, and this argument las had wide currency throughout the twentieth century. Our recent drop-out studies, as well as setting» ship stu ies, show that this economic issue in education is very 2;;uch alive in 1959. The shift in emphasis from th e old *1“ '11.th and «‘11:; drivium in emeric= n colleges occurred rather slowly, but manges were suggested by educational leaders in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Ch 13‘]. es W. Eliot, distix tyished President of Harvard University and education 1 reformer of natior pita is r, v-ras one of the .utstand- r .-ng leaders in elwtcmir‘nal reform. Coupled with t1 .e gr eat names of Edward I... Thorndike, John Dewey, Francis Parker, William James, ”William T. Harris, Henry Barnard, Horace Meals, and others, Eliot did his best to get in step with the tires and to lea” the movement in educational imorovezre nt. His concern over the improvement of opportuni- ties res‘..=.lt;d in the elective system at Harvard University, and this rer ovation had widespread influence in all phases of education in the United States. His plan fostered the free-dc :1 of election of courses in place of the megsure of faculty proscrip‘rion which had been practiced unt 1 tie latter part of the nineteenth century. Eliot was not only interested and influential in the area of improvement for Colleges and universities; he also took a keen interest in the second- ary schools as well. But it should he noted that the old idea of mental discipline persisted well into the twentieth century. Educational Agencies Even though there was a gradual establishment of standardizing associations in the East during the last two decades of the nineteenth 22 century, these associations did not define the purposes of the high school conclusively. The National Education Association was the only organization of national scope, arxi it was through this agency that many reforms were effected. The association appointed a Committee of Ten to make recoumxerdatiors as to how the secondary school could be improved, and this committee had some effect in the field of secondary education. One interesting outcome of this committee was stated by Henry S. Canby who attended the meetings of the association. He summa- rized the problems which existed at the close of the nineteenth century 19 in the following terms: We went to school for facts and got them. Facts about Latin, facts about history, facts about algebra, which gave, us a valuable experience in taking intellectual punishment without a quaver. But of education there was very little because,with one exception, none of the teachers were educated. They had knowledge but, not knowing what to do with it, passed it on to us in its raw condition of fact. They knew facts, but could neither relate nor co-ordinate them. They believed in their subjects with the absolute conviction of the baker that his bread is the staff of life, but there was no passion in their belief, and, to tell the truth, not much reason. If you learned history, you knew history/«whether you be- came thus historically minded I never heard anyone either in school (or college) inquire. William E. Drake, in his 2113 American School in Transition 20 dis— missed tte mark of the Committee of Ten with the remark that the com- mittee "strained like a mountain and gave birth to a mouse." He had reference to the fact that the committee upheld the idea of formal discipline and that the study of the classics, formal history, liter- attire, and grammr were highly important to the high school curriculum. 19 Henry S. Canby, The Age of Confidence: Life in the Nineties, Rinehart 34 Compary, (New mTE’flI), PP. TOD-7105. _" __ ...—...... 20 William E. Drake, The American School in Transition, Prentice- Hall, Inc., (New York, 195975. '5’.» ""‘"" "" “""' ' m; n,v 23 One positive contribution of the cormittee was that it recommended that the schools needed better—trained teachers who were skilled in a higher grade of scholarship. Since this committee had its existence and support in a national association, it did tend to focus attention upon some of the critical issues in secondary education. Educational Progress Thus, the twentieth century occupied itself with the e Jension of educational Opportunities through individual study, reports of com- missions, and other activities by the State and Federal governments. The American people expressed their faith in education through its support, ard education became the biggest business in the world. Edgar W'. Knight, educational historian and widely-know writer in his field, made some important observations about America's robust faith in edu- . o g I o 2 I cation in the twentieth centm'y. He said in part: 1 Notwithstanding its weaknesses, however, public education continues to hold the confidence of the American people. Probably no other theory, or doctrine, of democracy has for them such fas- cinating interest as the theory, or doctrine, that relates to the equality of educational opportunity. Probably no other principle of democratic government has had so much claimed for it. It is comforting in its alm03t romatic promise of an educational Utopia. The validity of many of the claims of the democratic school system finds encouraging support in actual practice. The public school has played and continues to play a most vital part in the spirit- ual advancement of the American people as well as in their material advancement, and it has served to guide them toward high- mirdedness as well as to increase their material riches and power. The primiple of universal education, although far from complete in practical application, has uplifted ard enriched them and quickened and refined their life. The increased ani constantly increasing economic well-being of the average citizen of the United Stat es--the widespread material prosperity of the country at large-~is largely due to the extension and application of this principle. Comparative sta- tistics dealing with the increase in per capita wealth, bank re- sources, savings accounts, and other evidences of economic power mdgar W. Knight, Education in the United States,(Third Revised Edition), Ginn and Company, {EosEan9SIL pp. 6?,5-5'735. “-2--A “—7“ " 4—.— A ‘1 {.1 .u.n . 2h made a very impressive showing in the three or four decades prior to 1929. Public education then had its most effective development. And along with the personal arri corporate accumulations of material wealth went also a rapid rate of progress in public welfare gener- ally, promoted largely by the public school, which has served to give the average funeiic an citizen an appreciation of public services and has led him to demand many others. . . These en- deavors and sacrifices are impressive tributes to the belief of the American people in the effectiveness of public education. Sometimes, indeed, they seem to see in it the panacea for the ills and weaknesses inevitable in a democratic society. But even when the public school, like other theories or dreams of democracy, falls short in reality or practical application and fails to ful- fill its promises to the masses for whom it was established, their faith remains robust. They refuse to see comedy in the democratic theory of education or to decry it, as opponents and cynics often do. The "robust faith in education" of which Professor Knight speaks so ably surely underwent serious stresses and strains throughout the twentieth century. It was during this period that America fought two World Wars, went through a paralyzirg depressing, reached un-dreaned of heights in the development of democracy, and enjoyed the luxuries which a technological age could provide for its citizens. President Woodrow Wilson, an idealistic college professor and President of the United States during World War I, led the country into a war whose stated objective was "to make the world safe for democracy." He formulated his famous fourteen points which 1’s presented at theParis Peace Con- ference at the close of the war against German imperialism. It was he Who noudnated Clemenceau, "the gran} young man of France,“ chairman of the peace conference which was to have settled the economic, political, and social problems growing out of the war. Critical and stern realist, Clemenceau had been chairman of the conic-reins for a very short tin when he high to chide his American counterpzrr'; :hcuu as fourteen“ Points by rcmarI-zing that Wilson had more points in his statement than God Almighty had expressed in the Ten Cormanlmnts. Wilson had hoped to b19119 . ' + quac‘ w “ L‘ r lrivvb 50““; scape 12‘. 1'. Katine . "as to: ‘ mt" " ‘ .- ...vbuvd Du . MERE: , *3. '£ 25 to bring America into th: Lea :‘e of Natio r“ to keep peace anl enjoy international good will. However, he brought his treaty to an un- cooperative and stubborn Congr3ss W hich refused to ratify hr— League of Nations. Wilson took his case to the American people, but the country was too tired of war and too complacent to heed the importance of the Wilson died an unhapw man >ecaLse of the failure of his message. dreams, and it took another war before this country realized that iso— lationisn was not a tenable position. The twenties may stand out in history as period of conservative politics arr! heightened rationalism; and the period will surely hen/“e to be labeled the period of "worderful nonsens e," 'Ihose expression i nthe jazz age, the revolt of the younger generation, speculation in stocks and Florida real estate, speakeasies and bathtub gin, high—pressure salesmanship and installment buying, spectator sports, Rotary and Kiwanis, flappers and lounge lizards, radio and the movies, and success stories and true confession magazinesna‘Ll test: 13. to the interests of the twenties. Women‘s atffrage azfi Prohibition were reflected in the roaring twenties, ard those two moves-Lents to old require a book in them- selves. But what was the nature of anerican letters during this first half of the twentieth century? ‘ c .+. o a . C 7' Literary Act1v1 ties 3'51. tte Txrentieth entur‘: American writers turned tmir attention to the social surroundings for materials; and such names as: Upton Sinclair, Theodore Dreiser, Sinclair lewis, Sher food Anders 1:, Villa Gather and James Branch Caboll are all important in literature. Theodore Dreiser assured himself a place in literary history .‘:"~Tit-h+11b fublioati on of a score of novels. Among his more influential ones are: Sis‘ tor Carrie, Jennie Gerhardt, I i. i ..«: I‘ f‘: .-. T"; b or'“ an. I‘- \”“—u. ~ .‘OO— '5 ..4—0 ‘\ ‘V\ .19. i‘ .P‘I‘w. ML .1 -.W 'o. ...» 26 3:13 Financier, £33 Titan, and in American Tragedy. While he had to wait until the twenties for universal recognition, Dreiser was a name to be reckoned x‘rith durirg; the first quarter of the century. The social satirist, Sinclair Lewis, turned his attre nti on to the ma: hers, habits, morals and speech of middle-class America to produce some of the best satire of the century. Lewis' Main Street, Babbitt, Elms-r Gantry, Arrowsmith, ard Dodsworth deal with the problems of a machine age. Interestingly, Sinclair Lewis was the first American author to be homred, in 1930, with the Nobel Prize for literature. One of Ainsrica's outstanding short story vrrit ers, Sherwood Arricrson, produced revealing stories of Imerican life. His The Triumph of the Egg, Horses and Men, and ‘u‘s’inosburg, Ohio are c ‘5: uplcs of the penetrating analysis of character Winch Anderson made famous in the medium of the short story. Willa Gather will so rorrcnooi ed for‘ oer t1 cement of women characters in her :-ovels. Some of her more important ones are: 0 Pioneersl,_T_Z’1_e_ 80:3; 9.3: 1:23.. Lark, IE3; Antonia, The Ios___t_La La,dy and Death co :es for the Archbishop. Upton Sinclair has alread; been discussed elsewhere, but the nexus of Jame 8 Br rar ch Cabell requires some cement, for .e is one of 11.318 finest stg'lis 5 31:1 ironists of the period. His novels reveal. a comic writer of no mean consequence, his best known books are: The Rivet in Grandfather '5 Neck, The Cream of the Jest, Jurgen, and Beyond E53. Added to this surve;r of literary "greats" of the late twenties we ghost of young write 3, all of Whose novels her e full of sigrrlfioa: it promise. Ernest Hemingw may, Glerway'."c G'CS ott, Thornton Wilder, 13. E. Cummings, John Doe Passos, Elizabeth M. Roberts, Thomas Wolfe, id William Faulkner are the most notable ones among this list. Perhaps the m 1‘}; 111-1111 "“ hUa,UoV ‘ “.1 'r n 27 the work of these authors are too well-known to require comment. In addition to the impressive list, one would have to catalogie the names of the more promising poets who graced the American scene during the twentieth century. Edgar Lee Easter, Carl Sandburg, Vachel Lindsay, Edwin Arlington Robinson, and Robert Frost would have to be mentioned as the most important poets of this period. This period also contributed such poets as: T.S. Eliot, Robinson Jeffers, Hart Crane, Leonie Adams, Ivor Winters, and Allen Tate .1 All of these. literary figures made pertinent comments about American life in their works ; but the. period was not limited to poets and novelists, for there were important contributions in the fields of history, literary criticism, economic theory, philosophy, and periodical literature. Periodical Literature The newspapers of the period underwent a shift in emphasis from the yellow journalism stage, in its rawest sense, to the sensational type of reporting which is common today in many newspapers. The popular publications had to modify their editorial policies in order to keep up with the times and to swell their coffers with the wonderful cash which could be earned through vigorous advertising schemes. The gatmday Evening Post and Collier's brought messages of cheer into two million homes each week through their preoccupation with such Subjects as: gaining success in business, displaying prowess on the golf links, and Winning the beautiful daughter of employers in marriage. The women's magazines, namely, Ladies Home Journal, Woman‘s E313 Companion, Pictorial Review, and McCall‘s-uall dedicated their pages to advice on housekeeping, the latest fads and frills in the area of fashions, diets for slenderer contours, and a host of other a”. ...; detar LI” 1 . . intellec. v I)? these «t. Eercurf. # :eriodic A dvrir: “\-. 28 departments dealing with the concerns of modern American woman. Serious intellectual magazines were circulated widely 3 and the more famous of these were: flew Republic, 9232, The Atlantic Monthly, and The American Mercury. 01‘ course, this list only mentions a few of the well-knovm periodicals of the time; but all of these had their greatest influence during the first three decades of the twentieth century. The Atlantic Monthly: A. Sketch An outstanding magazine, Which had its beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century, continued to influence public opinion through the first half of the twentieth century. Th3 Atlantic Monthly was established in 1857 at the now famous dinner given at Parker House, Boston, Massachusetts. The editorial policy of this influential magazine was announced in the first issue of the magazine in these words: "In politics, The Atlantic will be the organ of no party or clique, but Will endeavor to be the exponent of what its conductors believe to be the American idea. It will deal frankly with persons and with parties, endeavoring always to keep in View that moral element which transcends all persons and parties, which alone makes the basis of a true and lasting prosperity. It will not rank itself with any sec-t, or anties: but with that body of men which is in favor of Freedom, Na‘tional Progress, and Honor, whether public or private." Since its founding in 1657, The Atlantic Monthly has enjoyed a host of distinguished contributors. Some of the better known are: James Russell Lowell, William Dean Howells, Walter Hines Page, Mark Twain, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Bret Harte, Woodrow Wilson, Ernest Hemingway, Albert Einstein, T.S. Eliot, Bertrand Russell, and George Bernard Shaw. Its editors have been men of distinction; nd the complete list 29 Of editors ineludes; James Russell lowell, James T. Fields, William Dean Howells, Thomas Bailey Aldrich, Horace E. Scudder, Walter Hines Page, Bliss Perry, Ellery Sedgwick, and Edward A. Weeks. Realizing that The Atlantic Monthly: appeals to the college grad- uate, one can not deny the influence of the magazine upon the field of education. Since education exists within a social setting which is always shifting, it is highly important to indicate some of the major social, political, and economic movements which have changed society in order to determine possible influences of these same forces upon education. The assumption that education changes as society shifts its point of view can be demonstrated by an analysis of the articles which appeared in this magazine. Because 3313 Atlantic Monthly appeals to a somewhat selected reading public and because the editorial policy has consistently assured the magazine contributions by influential public men, the writer of this paper chose to make a study of this partiallar magazine. The latest statenerrt of the editorial policy was made by I‘d} .A.DeWolfe Howe when he said:22 If The Atlantic Monthly were a repository; if it confined itself We discussion of Roman antiquities, or the sonnets of Wordsworth, or the planting of the colony in Massachusetts Bay, no one but the specialists would concern themselves with the opinions expressed in its pages. But it happens to be interested in the present world; curious about the actual conditions of politics ard society, of science and commerce, of art and literature. Above all, it is engrossed with the lives of the men and Women who are waking American what it is and is to be. On careful examination, the selection of articles shows that the editors kept the editorial policy in mind il choosing what was 1311blished. The contributors of articles represent a select group in 22 1.1 . DeWolfe Howe, The Atlantic Monthlv And Its Makers. “*— ‘Tlé "— W m BOStOIl: The Atlantic Monthly $338330, InCo, ;' /, p. 2‘. 30 the sense that their purposes were mt priizarily t, amuse or to entertain, and this point iriluenced the writer's decision to use The Atlantic Monthli'f in 1:; reference to The Saturday Evening Post, The ————_- c——-———fin 'Courrbrz Gentleman, or The Woman's Home Companion mesa aims and purposes are quite different. Conclusions This chapter has set the stage in the realm of social, economic, arfi political factors for a consideration of the articles in one of America's leading literary magazines. Many of the topics to be covered have a direct relationship to those forces which have been thus described. Many of the writers on educational topics are themselves educators, and the validity of the criticisms may be checked by contrasting What t'u, educators have to say to that the layman express in their colmgmz, T‘ lt‘ study will Show the mlatia‘,1"‘-si1ip of the chang- ing social conditions to the merging problems in the educational worlr'. ’37.? comparing the subjects in the magazines to those written by authorities in the field of education, the writer will suggest how the professional educators terded to influence popular writers on the subject of education. Thus, the method of this study will be to give a survey of the important educational problems during the period under consideration by referring to the opinions of experts. This description 0f the educational problems of the period will be followed by a treat- men-t, of the articles which appeared in 323 Atlantic Monthly. The Writer hopes to establish a relationship between the appearance of the a1"ticles cited in the magazine and the remarks by authorities of what they considered the important problems in education. An evaluation of these articles will be made, and the problems will be grouped under 31 the following headings: definitions of education, elementary education, secondary education, and higher education. The last two chapters will deal with a critical analysis and give conclusions of the study. The. next chapter will deal with the definitions of education as they appeared in 213 Atlantic Monthly during the period covered by this stu 3*. Sims it is felt that a summary of these definitions must be given in order to establish a rationale for the analysis of the problems presented, the writer will describe and confluent upon these definitions . CHAPTER II WHAT IS EDUCATION? 223 Atlantic Monthly published articles about education from its beginning, and the contributors tended to comment upon the same problems which were being discussed in the educational journals. Many of the writers tended to define education in terms of what they expected education to accomplish; the articles reflect the author's awareness of the influence of the social and cultural forces upon the field of education. Any attempt at defining education would necessarily be expressed in terms of the person's values, beliefs, or philosophy of life. Of course, the prior question of the nature of man and his ultimate destiny would influence the conclusions which the writers reached. It is interesting to note that the attempts at defining education are not all inclusive because of the complefity of the factors involved; but it is revealing that the writers, on the whole, were cognizant of the influences of social and cultural forces upon such a definition. Forces Influencing Education Political events during the period tended to call for a critical look at democracy and to suggest some remedies for improvement, and education was one of the avenues through which this critical evaluation was undertaken. Dallas Lore Sharp, former professor of English at Boston University, underlined some of the weaknesses of education and called for needed reform. He said in part:1 If education for democracy is understanding based on common training and personal acquaintance in school, then education for individuality-4 thing as elemental and personal as life itself-- cannot possibly be the product of any school, but must begin in the m Lore Sharp, “Education for Individuality, " 2312 Atlantic W, Vol. 125, June, 1920, pp. 528-538. 33 home, the only institution of civilization devoted to the oneness of life against life's many-ness. The class, the school, the group- idea, is a prime factor in education for democracy. Nothing better I has been devised to this and than our common public schools. ' During periods of strain, such as World War I , it was obvious that social, ‘ political, and economic forces would influence public opinion in this social area. Nathaniel Horton Batchelder spoke to the issue in his defense of the democratic way of life when he said: "Education is quite as much a matter of habit and attitude of mind as of subject-matter."2 While the concept of mental discipline influenced educational definitions and practices after the war, it is worthwhile to note that Batchelder marks an important departure of the widespread support of the idea in the layman's magazine and. other areas. Thus, one may see that the political, economic, and social forces were taken into account in this attempt to define education. The United States had just helped defeat the Germans in) World War I, and the stresses and dislocations during this war period brought into focus certain wealmesses in American education which needed careful attention. Criticism of the m 212 led to a critical look at educational practices, and these criticisms were one of the forces which tended to bring the subject into sharp focus. Criticism of Education ‘ Trying to justify some of the apparent weaknesses of education, Henry I. Holmes grappled with the problem in the following terms:3 Education suffers in America from confusion of purposes. Justified a hundredfold in our faith in schooling as an instrument of democracy, We have cared more for the spread of education than for its fitness Wheniel Horton Batchelder, "Democracy and Education," The Atlantic ‘M—Oll%, V01. 125, May, 1920, pp. 651.6570 Henry W. Holmes, "Chaos or Cosmos in American Education,u The 9353.122 25213.11 V03» 1&0. April. 1927. pp. 2493-503. 3h for specific ends. We have been interested in quantity rather than quality. For the most part our public enthusiasm for education has been uncritical, and the actual arrangement of subjects in our school programmes has been largely the result of tradition, harried here and there by the raw winds of pedagogical theory. Not even in vocational schools do we know exactly what we want, to say nothing of the more difficult question of how to get it. In liberal education we are so far from clarity and agreement as to the ends to be served and the means to be used that the situation, in spite of a certain fixity, is little better than chaotic. Our professional students of education have been devoting their energies, perhaps inevitably, to the develop- ment of techniques for a scientific attack on the problems of the curriculum, and it is only within the last few years that the light of penetrating analysis has been turned on to one of the most important problems in.our whole educational undertaking--the problem of what to teach in our secondary schools. So far we have made small headway, and tradition remains generally undisturbed. College requiremnts have kept Latin enthroned and protected, but nearly futile as a means of education. Mathematics has been struggling with some success to find its most fruitful form. Modern languages are just beginning to man something in favored spots; history and science have been stifled; English drags, and such subjects as home economics and other forms of practical arts have had no freedom to find their place and proper goals. The root of the difficulty lies in the relationship between'the secondary schools and the colleges. . . Our confusion as to purposes is one of the reasons for the lack of a coherent system of schools in this country. Thus, Holmes says that the clearer the goals of education are made the . better the task may be accomplished. Other laymen noticed the importance of the great social experiment which appeared to have weaknesses which needed correction. Albert Jay Nook touched upon this problem when he said:h Still, education seems as yet to be a subject of experiment with us, and I Observe with interest that, according to some educators, the next experiment will be the revival of the small college. There is obviously no more saving grace in smallness than in bigness; everything depends upon what the small college is like. The fcrecast, however, sets one's fancy going. Perhaps-~cne must have one's doubts about it, but perhaps-dwithout too much infringment on nature's policy, or deflection of our great moral and social mission to the world at large, one small laboratory experiment might be tried, such as has never been tried by us. I mean an experiment in educating educable persons only. It would be interesting and possibly useful to set up two small institutions, a school and an.undergraduate W4 Elbert Jay Nook, "American Education," The Atlantic Monthly, V01. 1’47, Hay, 19313 pp. 588‘5970 35 college, both so well endowed as not to cast a strain whether a student came near them or not, and both committed wholly to the pursuit of formative knowledge; the school's attendance limited, say, to sixty, and the college's to two hundred. The school should take pupils at the age of eight, and carry them on until they could meet the college's requirements. Neither institution should take any account whatever ox bogus democratic doctrine, the idolatry of mass, vocationalism, or the pretended rights of ineducable persons. If such persons presented themselves they should be turned away, and if anyone got in and afterwardswas found for any reason or to any degree ineducAble he should be forthwith forced out. many of the values and attitudes which American educators held before the war came into sharp focus when hundreds of draftees were turned down for military service due to illiteracy. Even though there was a widespread feeling of frustration and disappointment during the twenties, writers continued to beg for needed change in American educational practice to right the ills which had been emphasized during the war. The foregoing quotation indicates that the author was aware of some of the weaknesses in American education. Proggssive Education _ Some writers complained that progressive education could be blamcd for the ills of the public school system. Such writers refused to accept the changes in the philosophic framework which undergirded the public schools. In many cases, educators were put on the defensive rather than being occupied with an offensive interpretation and application of the new education. William mister Comfort raised his voice in protest in these terms: Public education has been so watered down in this country to suit the digestion of all young citizens that this truth about the severity of competition will not be palatable in all quarters. It has so long been possible for anyone with two legs and a pair of arms to find work and a living that any discovery to the contrary is unwelcome. Our education for marw years has been for decent 5 William Wistar Comfort, "Competition in Education--The Facts and a Prephecy,“ 2513 Atlantic Monthlyflol. 1147, February, 1931, pp. 233-256. 36 mediocrity; social, phySical, and intellectual develOpment has all been blended into an innocuous wnole by our schools and colleges; it has not been the fashion to work anywhere near to one's capacity for fear of being a 'grind' or of missing the team or the fraternity; some have thought it clever to ' get by' without work. But it is perfectly evident that under the exigency of competition, if for no other reason, our colleges are soon going to become institutions of learning in fact as well as in name. Those who are too clever to study and those who are too dull to learn will be excluded. A minimum of sincere interest in intellectual things will be expected and demanded of all students in reputable institutions. Self-develop- ment through study will be put first, and the physical and social activities will take their normal places in a Well-mauled education, instead of the emggerated roles which they occupy in the minds of many people. The weaknesses of American education which existed during the 1920's could not be attributed to progressive education, but it is interesting to note that a layman's magazine showed an interest in education by Publishing several points of view and explanations. The writer of this thesis would like to turn now to the definitions of education as they were reported is 1‘1: Atlantic Monty, and the reader is reminded to keep these forces in mind while considering these definitions. Education 2 Hostel Discipline The most widespread understanding of the word education was undoubtedly related to the nineteenth century idea of education as mental discipline, or the training of the mini. Even though this understanding of the term pervaded the thinking of many people during the first half of the twentieth century, some writers were beginning to define education more broadly. The foregoing criticism. of education indicate- a strong preference for the term "mental discipline" as the best definLtion for the word, am it is important to realize that the forces at work in society would bring this crucial point into conflict with the older idea at education. But there is evidence in those selected articles that mental discipline was one of the powcrm ideas underlying education during the first half of the 37 twentieth century. . It was logical for new writers to ask themselves what courses in K the curriculum of the school would contribute most to mental discipline, I if this were the accepted definition of the term. During the first part i of the twentieth century when new courses were cometing with the traditionk courses, the criterion for the inclusion of new courses seemed to be: Will the course contribute effectively to mental discipline or. the training of the mini?" The classicists imisted that students should be introduced to Greek, as it was the best medium for effecting mental discipline. Science was only slowly accepted in the curriculum, .. although the science teacher pointed out that his subject was the best possible one for mental discipline. Speaking about the newer courses which were vying for entrance and acceptance in the curriculum, Resident Killian J. Tucker of Dartmuth College pointed out in a symposium on education at the beginning of the twentieth century that classical learning had not been replaced as a means of mntal discipline. as noted, moreover, that science had not been completel . accepted in the curriculum at the beginning of the century. He viewed the 6 problem in these terms: Apart from those who believe in the indispensableness of Greek Culture, there are more who have not as yet found its equivalent in the modern languages, in history, or in the sciences. The 'problee‘ . here really lies in the secondary schools rather than in the colleges, and is concerned largely with the order and method of instruction. Physics rests so far upon mathematics that it is impossible to get am full disciplinary value out of physics. as taught in advance of the required mathematics. watery is still forcing its way into the secondar schools, with no sure consensus of opinion or action in regard to nthcd on the part of secondary school-teachers. No modern language, representing an equal- discipline with Greek, has yet made a place for itself beside Greek in the preparatory schools. When the necessary advances inthe newer preparatory subjects have once been made, Greek m J. Tucker, ..The thlems thick: Confront Our Colleges at the Opening of the Twentieth Century,“ Education, Vol. 11, September, 1899- June, 1900, pp. 586-597. 38 will yield its supremcy. Doubtless it will before that time. The colleges will accept wider terms of admission, knowing that some of them are lower, and endeavor to make up the deficiency through advanced work in these subjects which are stronger in their later than in their elementary discipline. However such educational leaders draw upon the past in Justifying education, society shamed the new developments and would not accept them as the status 393 in the field of education. One writer, llarths Baker Dunn, spoke nostalgically about the past and spoofed the present when she said:7 It was the Puritan conscience, we are told, which "Put rock foundations under this republic;" in the mirrls of some old fashioned people the belief still obtains that courage and loyalty and self- control and self-sacrifice lie at the foundations of both national and individual character, and that the nation or the individual who forsakes these ideals will, in spite of all the opportunities and training of schools and colleges and universities, remain radically mmm. Training of the Mind Thomas Huxley raised a storm of criticism when he was invited to speak at the dedication of John Hopkins University in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Frederick Irsland quotes May's concept of- education on the elementary level and gives this statement in support of his contention that education is a matter of training of the mini. The quotation follows:8 Now I have a very clear conviction as to what elementary education ought to be; what it really say be when properly organized; and what I think it will be, before too new years have passed over our heads, in England and America. Such education should enable an average boy of 15 or 16 to read and write his own language with ease and accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence derived from the study of our classic writers; to have a general acquaintance with W Baker‘Dunn,. "Education,“ 32 Atlantic m, Vol. 86, smear-551‘} 1905. PP. 3115-3520 A 8 Frederick Ireland, "High schools and classics,'I 323 Atlantic ‘ m, Vol. 121;. July, 1919, pp. h7-53. 39 the history of his cum country; to have acquired the rudiments of the physical and psychological sciences. In April, 1920, Frank E. Speulding spelled out his definition of education. He suggested that the clearer one defined the goals of education 9 the better the end product wouldlbe. In this regard, he said: There are three mm, definite, comprehensive objectives that Amrican public education should 1:; once set for itself. They are: first, essential elems _kncw , training, and iscipline; second, occ Hofienc ; 15ng , civic responsibility. until; eISmenWy dodge, diam anf training should be understood to include so much as results from successful completion of the full elementary-school course in the best school systems-ma course requiring, as 'a rule, eight years of regular attendance, thirty-six to forty weeks a year. The details involved in such a course are too well am generally known to require emmeration here. The present eight-year elementary-school course, as it is carried out even in the best school systems, is not here proposed as a fixed or final ideal, especially in details, of the first objective‘of public education. It should be understood to be inclusive, not exclusive, or any improvements that may be made in content, in anthod, or in organization, affecting the latter years of the typical elenentary-school course. W ' The first objective is the indispensable basis of the other two, occupational and civic responsibility; it makes the full achievement of these two practicable. Indeed, it does more than that: it affords direct an! invaluable preliminary training for both occupation and citizenship. Such training, however, can never go beyond the preliminary stage, not merely on account of the limitations of time, but even more certainly on account of the lindtations of the pupils occupational and civic responsibility cannot be achieved by boys and girls before reaching fourteen years of age. Spaulding's consents were occasioned by the weaknesses of American education winch were madepainfully evident during tin stress an! strun of the first worm war. In addition to the mmrous articles in the laymn's magazine, the reader is reminded of the work of national comittees during this period who published statemnts on the aims of education. Education: The; fin; 291351- 9.; the Curriculum ‘ A statement which suggests the modern-day definition of curriculum § Frank E.'8paulding, "Educating the Nation,'. an: Atlantic llonthlz, VOle 125, April, 1920, pp. 528.5380 to as all the experiences which the school sponsors was made by H.D. Sedgwick. He viewed the educational process in broad terms; he felt that the school should be concerned, therefore, with the forces which coanqu to the development of human personality. Some critics would question the assumption that the school should be concerned with such a broad program, but Sedgwick felt tint education was of vital importance in American society. His remark in this connection waszlo Education is the working of all forces that fashion a man during the plastic years, before his habits become fixed and his character determined. No one can escape education even if he muld; whatsoever may be his let, his spirit will be led toward one desire 6r another, his mind will fasten and feed upon acme chosen thoughts, his heart will make something dear to itself. Education a: 2 Process Another- writer who joined his colleagues in helping to define education was Arthur. E. IIorgan. He does not give a very comprehensive definition; but he does indicate, as so many of the writers in this publication did, one particular facet of the problem. He had this to sayxu Education is not an institution devised and adapted by men, and kept alive by ceaseless vigil. It is an innate process of human life, as inherent as is plwsical deve10pmnt from infancy to ' maturity. Educational stinmli do not need to be produced and transmitted to the child by external application. They unfailingly originate within him, Just as surely as do hunger and thirst, They may be awakened, guided, controlled, trained, inhibitions may be removed; but in the main they work according to their own laws. To have faith in creation as it expressed itself in the instinctive demnd of youth for education; to sit at the feet of childhood and to learn its ways; to use to the utmost, and to direct wisely, its resources of interest and desire-~this is educational wisdom. To ignore these great resources, to assume that we must work with childhood as with clay, expecting no innate determining activity on its part, but merely moulding it to fit a preconceived conventional type--this is educational tragedy. 15 Ha). Sedgwick, "A Gap in Education," Lhe Atlan_____t__ic Mo nt_h_lz, Vol. 87, May, 1901, pp. 68-72. 11 Arthur E. Morgan, "Education: The Mastery of the Arts of Life,‘ T___hs Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 121, March, 1918, pp. 337-3h6. m I The theories which educational innovators of recent centuries ‘ have forced upon us are to no small extent a direct by-product of 1 the doctrine of total depravity. Though the doctrine itself has been abandoned by men of modern outlook, yet its implications con- tinue to control our conventional educational systems. To orthodox American educators, a child's tendencies are essentially unreliable and are largely bad. These men require that the child be drilled in useless subject-utter; that his life be fitted to an intellectual straight- Jacket, and that he smother his deep-rooted love for adventure and inquiry, accepting their statements as final authority; am! when the spirit of youth rebels, and its life, thwarted in normal growth, expresses itself in unlovely ways, their remedy is to turn the screws still tighter. Professor llorgan concluded his discussion with a proposed solution to 12 the problem which he raised elsewhere in his discussion. He concluded: to should include in our program the develoment of social relationships, interests, and responsibilities. Habits should be acquired of effective expression of considerableness and good will, and of the elimination of social friction through the medium of courtesy, good manners, and good form, this 'good form' to consist of comumate skill in living the Golden Rule, "not of proficiency in the mannerisms of an exclusive social class. Educational Obaectives Throughout the period under comideration many writers were asking themelves about the goals or objectives of education and the factors ~ involved in the problem. Since one's definition of education is related to the goals or objectives of education he hopes to achieve, these were pertinent considerations. Clailde I. Fuses, brilliant teacher at one of of the influential private preparatory schools, attempted to show how he would attain the ideal in education. He felt that teachers were very important in helping students to realize their fullest potential. He envisoned this inter-play between teacher and pupil as an imitative process in Wish the student worked with master teachers whose skills and understandings could be imitated by the student. This appears to be a dg%ture from the strict text-book centered learning which the idea ids, Pe 338a 1.2 of mental discipline implies. However, it must be pointed out that this was merely one technique in achieving educational goals and objectives. Fuses said :‘13 The ideal. education is that which an immature mind absorbs almost unconsciously from close contact with a more mature one--such relationships as existed between Alexander Hamilton and George Washington, between John Hay and Abraham Lincoln, between Henry Cabot lodge and Henry Adams. In Hannlton, Hay, and lodge some fire ‘was kindled by association with a flowing intellect, that the flame was one which the world will not willingly let die. 7 Fuses touched upon an important aspect of education when he introduced the importance of the teacher in helping students to realize educational goals which had been formulated. Another writer who apparently toyed with the question: what is education? was Victor Moraweta. His definition includes several elements which Fuess did not mention. He realized that education was far more than the more training of the mind, and one can see implicit evidence of this assumption in his statement about education. He did not agree that the individual should memorize a body of knowledge in the process of securing an education; he felt that the whole personality of the individual was involved in the process. The progressives used a phrase, "education of the whole child ," which closely resembles what Morawetz has in mind in his statement of educational objectives. Since Morawetz's statement is perhaps the most comprehensive one, the writer would like to Quote it in its entirityzm The greatest aids to success and happiness are: (l) A sound and vigorous body. (2) Ability to think clearly. Wands u. Faces, "The New'Spirit in Education," '_r_h_e Atlantic mnthly, Vol. 153, June, 19314. PP. 753-760. ' 11; Victor Moraweta, flNeeded Objectives for Our Schools ," The M w, Vol. 11:8, December, 1931, pp. 802-803. . 1:3 (3) Ability to speak and to write one's own language clearly and forcibly. (Ability to think clearly and ability to use language, correctly commonly together, each being in large measure dependent on the other.) The principal aims of our schools, therefore, should be to mrnish training of the body, training of the mind to think clearly, training in the use of the English language, and training of character by inculcating his standards of honor. Education of the young should not, as comonly is the case, consist of memorizing book learning and acquiring more Or less superficial knowledge relating to a variety of subjects. Of the graduates of our secondary schools, the majority are not well developed physically and have not learned to think clearly to express themselves in good English. \ In ancient Athens , education consisted principally of training the body, training the mind, and training in the use of the Greek language. Other languages were not studied and there was little written knowledge; yet the ancient Athenians have 'never been surpassed in literature, in philosophy, or in art. Book learning can be acquired at any age; but the body and facul- ties can be developed only by training in childhood and youth. This training, therefore, should be carried on intensively in the primary and preparatory schools. However, as the preparatory schools are designed to fit boys for college, they cannot materially alter their curricula until the colleges change their entrance and graduation requirements. The lead, therefore, should be taken by the colleges by making their entrance exaflmtions tests of the capacity of applicants for higher education rather than tests of memory. Training in accurate thinking and apt expression cannot be acquired by merely learning lessons and passing examinations. It can be acquired only by free discussion with competent teachers and by the preparation and criticism of papers. Of course, students must have informed themselves by reading upon the subjects to be discussed or written about, and the subjects chosen should be such as require clear thinking arr! discriminating expression. Students should also be required to pursue certain cultural studies such as English literature and history (though these require principally the exercise of naemory) and they should devote part of their time to the acquisition of general information by reading books of their own choice. But the principal objective should always be to train the students-1'5 Wt an oelcpress themselves :n good English. teachers, WITHUUID be selected with". s cial Heretics? their clarity 93W arg— their mastery 9: £5 E lish Eiguage. We}: to speak and to write one's own language clearly and forcibly and to speak with a good voice and distinct enunciation is the greatest power and the greatest charm that can be acquired. Special attention should, therefore, be given to this subject in all the classrooms. The students should be taught to debate and to speak before an audience. Thorough physical education should be obligatory, and its main purpose should be to develop a sound and vigorous body. It should include not only gymnasium work, but also tennis, swiming, and uh other sports that probably’Will be kept up in their life. Each boy should receive special training according to his physical needs, and any faults of carriage should be corrected. To obtain the best results, students in.the upper grades of a preparatorywxfinol and students at college must be taught in groups classified according to their capacity and industry; Only'thase students who are fitted for training in a particular group should 1 be admitted to it and only those who show industry and make satisfactor progress should be retained. It should be recognized that the I education of students of exceptional ability who are likely to become leaders in the community is of the utmost importance. The welfare of a democracy depends in great measure upon the quality of its leaders. It is suggested that there be established a model secondary boarding school specially'designed to furnish the training above 1 recommended to promising boys at moderate cost. It should not be a school for the sons of the rich, but should be of a democratic character. Ample endowment would be necessary so that the cost of ‘ board and tuition.wou1d be within the reach of parents of moderate means and so that scholarships could be provided for the training of poor children of exceptional ability. It should be recognized that the education of children of exceptional ability, who are likely I to become leaders in the community, and also the development of competent teachers for other schools, are matters of national importance. A democracy can exist without the millions of graduates of the kind commonly turned out by the high schools and other secondary schools, but it cannot endure without well-informed leaders of ability and character when the voters are willing to follow. Spiritual Aspects One educator who had a great influence upon public education during the latter quarter of the nineteenth century and the early part of the inmentieth century was Nicholas Murray'Butler.‘While Professor John Ileweyis name would assuredly head a list of the most influential educators during the twentieth century, Professor Butler was an educator whose leadership must be acknowledged. Estimates of his contemporaries, evidence (If his widespread influence, and the number of publications and addresses, give some indication of Butler's importance in the development of educatimalpractices and procedures in American education. While most of his professional activities were accomplished during the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was inevitable that his influence should reach be3rond the confines of that century. Giving the presidential address before 145 the National Educational Association at Denver, Colorado, July 9, 1895, Butler defined education in his talk which was entitled:“What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?“ His address was published in a volume of collected papers which he entitled The; Meaning of Education. His underlying theme throughout the address was an emphasis upon the spiritual aspects of 15 education; he said in part: c It is the cultivation of man's reason, the development of his spiritual nature. It elevates him.above the pressure of material interests. It makes him superior to the pleasures and pains of a 'world which is but his temporary home, in filling his mind with the higher subjects than occupations of life would themselves provide him with. . .This is the poetical form of the truth that I believe is pointed to by both philosophy and science. It offers us a sure- ground for our educational theory. It reveals to us, not as an hypothesis but as a fact, education as spiritual growth toward intellectual and moral perfection, and saves us from the peril of viewing it as an artificial process according to mechanical formulas. Finally, it assures us that while no knowledge is wortheless,-- for it all leads us back to the common cause and ground of all,—- yet that knowledge is of most worth which stands in closest relation to the highest forms of the activity of that spirit which is created in.the image of Him who holds nature and man alike in the hollow of his hand. Writers in T11: Atlantic Monthly pointed out the spiritual significance of education, and it is interesting to note that these definitions were formulated during the period of mechanization of American life. Professor Briggs gave his definition in an article early in the twentieth century. He believed that :16 The main object of school and college is the same,--to establish character, and to make that character more efficient through mental discipline. In the transition from school to college, continuity of the best influence, mental and noral, is the thing most needful. Oddly enough, the only continuity worthy of the name is often (in its outward aspects) neither mental nor moral, but athletic. . . When all students of all colleges, and all boys of all schools, believe, and have the right to believe, that their teachers are their cholas Murray Butler, The Meaning of Education, The Macmillan Company, (New York: 1903): pp. 37:56- 16 L.B. R. Briggs, "The Transition From School To College," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 85, October, 1900, pp. 394-359. 146 friends; when the educated public recognizes the truth that school and college should help each other in lifting our youth to the high ground of character,--the school never forgetting that boys are to be men, and that college never forgetting that men have been boys ,--we shall come to the ideal of education. Toward this ideal we are mving,slow1y but steadily. When we reach it, or even come so near it as to see it always, we shall cease to dread the transition from school to college. Some writers gave more comprehensive definitions than others, and new of the writers in ‘_r_h_e_ Atlantic Monthly pointed out some facet of a definition. John Jay Chapman, for example, suggested that education is related to the sum total of human activity. He has this to say about a definition of education:17 What is education: What are Arts and Religion and all those higher interests in civilization which are always vaguely held up to us as being the most important things in life? These things elude definition. They cannot be put into words except through interposition of what the Germans call a 'metaphysics.' Before you can introduce them into discourse, you must step aside for a moment and create a theory of the universe, and by the time you have done this, you have perhaps befogged yourself and exhausted your readers. Let us be content with a more modest ambition. It is possible to take a general view of the externals of these subjects without losing reverence for their realities. It is possible to consider the forms under which art and religion appear,--the algebra and notation by which they have expressed themselves in the past,--and to draw some general conclusions without becoming entangled in the subject itself. Thus, Chapman held, elsewhere in the above article, that education could not be defined as some of his contemporaries would insist; but he did point out the debt which America owed to Germany for putting pedagogy on a scientific basis. Nevertheless, the writer of this thesis holds that education should be defined as comprehensively as possible in order that society could comprehend the issues involved. Without getting lost in a maze of semantic 'quibbles, the writer holds that it is possible to Construct a theory of the universe out of which a definition of education I7 Jo hn Jay Chapman, "Learning," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 106, July, 1910, pp. 125.136. h? evolves; and Professor Chapman's contention that such a thing could not be done effectively indicates an inherent weakness which seems to under- gird many of the writer's attempts to define education. The most pressing problems of the early part of the century reflected this search for values. With the introduction of the elective system and the broadening of educational opportunities, many writers defined education in operational terms. Character Training and Education Character training is another subject which is closely related to the topic of the spiritual aspects of education. Edward O. Sisson pointed out this aspect of education in his article early in the century. It is interesting to note that his stress on character has received much attentic as the century has unfolded. Granted that character is an important aim in education, Sisson did not indicate clearly how character was to have been taught. He said:18 No one would be apt to derw that character is the aim of education. This axiom is still a part of our formal pedagogy, and by many it is supposed to govern our practices; it is proclaimed at educational gatherings, and appears regularly in books and articles. But in the woof and warp of educational thought and teaching it has no such place as it had in previous ages. Abraham Flexner, keen critic and impatient reformer in the fields of education and medicine, maintained stoutly that education was to be equated with mental discipline. He said that mental discipline attempts to train such faculties as: reason, imagination, and observation. Flexner makes sport of those who would define education in any other terms, and he is Joined by Doctor Charles W. Eliot of Harvard Universit on this point.” d 0. Sisson, “An Education Emergency," The A lantic Monthly, Vol. 106, July, 1910’ pp. Sit-63. 19 See Charles I. Eliot's'article: "The Case Against Compulsory Latin, The Atlantic Monthl , Vol. 119, June, 1917, pp. 352-361, and Ernest C. man's I555 __Is Education. ha In his article on mental discipline in The Atlantic Monthly for April, 1917, Flexner refers his reading audience to Earnest C. Moore's Wt___1_a_t_ 23 Education? Professor Moore states that the three forms of knowledge are: common some knowledge, scientific knowledge , and philosophic knowledge; and he makes a powerful plea for the support of the idea of mental discipline in his book. Professional Versus Liberal Education Perhaps the greatest progress in education had been made in the establishment of professional schools and the inclusion of scientific studies in the curriculum in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Many educators and laymen raised serious questions abouttha efficacy of the new education which was being introduced. It is understandable that there was urgency and concern about these changes. Many feared that technology would replace many of the values which were held. Ephraim Emerton voiced his concern about where the college was going in the following tenns : 20 The answer is to be feund in a return to the conception of a necessary and essential union between learning and the higher life of the spirit. This conception must be made to enter vitally into every grade of our education from lowest to highest. It must not be set in opposition to the other canception of learning as essentially applicable to some human purpose. It must be united with it, so that our youth may grow up steadily to the conviction that a gentleman is a better tool than a scrub,—-that he will work better, play better, and fight better; and conversely that he who will not work ‘well, play well, and fight well is no gentleman. In that sense I should be glad to have it said of our education, as my English friend said of his, that American education is primarily intended for gentlemen. John Jay Chapman expressed concern about the new education and spoke of 26 Ephraim Emerton, "Gentleman and Scholar," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 85, June, 1900, pp. 773-778. 149 the outcomes in terms of retardation of children. He comments:21 This miscarriage of education has been.developed and is being conducted by some of our greatest educators, through a perfectly unconscious adaptation of their own souls to the spirit of the age. The underlying philosophy of these men might be stated as fellows: 'There is nothing in life nobler than for a man to improve his condition and the condition of his children. Learning is a means to this end.‘ Such is the current conception of education. . .YOu wish to help the American.youth. This unfortunate, benighted, ignorant boy, who has from his cradle heard of nothing but business success as the one goal of all human effort. Thus, education’was thought of in terns of a panacea and cure for all the social ills. Americans were slowly rallying to the financial support of education for everybody, but Widespread concern about education followed when society paid the bills. At times, moreover, the abiding faith which man had in education as the agent which was to usher in‘the millennium wavered under the strains of new developments in society. Had not this country exported its graduates to Germany for advanced degrees tmtil the latter part of the preceding century? With the establishment of graduate school in this country, America: felt that she-had matured somewhat in the field of education and believed that she could supply a type of education which America needed. Clement L. Smith, president of the American Philological Association, pointed out some of the ills of American education and defined education in an address before the American Philological Association in July, 1899, in these terms?2 The visible traces of the struggles are with us yet in the curious assortment of degrees ,--now fortunately diminishing in number,--bachelors of arts, of letters, of philosoplw, of literature, of science, or what not, which decorate our college graduates, standing ostensibly for so mam supposed varieties of liberal culture, W Jay Chapman, "Learning," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 106, July, 1910’ pp. 125-136. ..— 22 Clement L. Smith, '"The American College in the Twentieth Century,“ The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 85, January, 1900, PP. 219-231. 50 I ani giving currency and countenance to false and pernicious views ; of what liberal culture is; for an education which aims to equip ! for particular eallings, however, useful it may be, is not the ' liberal education which should be the single aim of the college. . . 5 It should be the aim of the secondary school, too. . .For the essence of a liberal education lies in the aim, not in the studies I pursued ,--not in letters, not in science. I \ Elsewhere Professor Snith defined clearly the role of the college and l the lower schools. He said that:23 . I The school is for the many, the college is for the few; but 1 these few are to be equipped for higher service, for leadership; I and who shall say that the community has less interest in the best 1 intellectual equipment of its leaders than in the general intelligence of multitude? Classical Versus Modern Education 1 Sir Richard Livingston, the great classicist and President of ’ Corpus Christi College and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University in England, indicated the job of education when he saidza‘ But there is nothing in our modern educational theory comparable to Plato's Re ublic-- still the greatest of all books on education. For Plato saw whit we ignore, not only that educationis the basis of the state, but that the ultimate aim and essence of education is the training of character» to be achieved by the discipline of the body, the will, aa the intelligence; therefore, he planned his whole scheme to this end, yet in such a manner that the intellectual education was in no 'way'distorted or ignored, that the intellectual and moral coincided. We, where we attack the problem at all, do so in an amateur and haphazard way. It is not surprising that human character has not improved, for we have never taken its improvement seriously in hand. We have spent time and careful thought on physical health; but what have we done comparable for the health of the character? Our system of spiritual or ethical medicine (if I may so phrase it) is in much the same position as medicine itself in the eighteenth century: good in patches, but wholly inadequate and generally unprogressive, and needing, if any real advance is 'to be made, hard thought, exact study, and methodical treatment. Interestingly enough, Sir Richard Livingston touched upon the problem of the failure of the school to develop character. when the home insisted Wide, Fe 2250 2h Sir-Richard Livingston, “Education and the Training of Character, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 178, July, 1916, pp. 81-86. 51 that the school take over more of the duties which the home had formerly done, the school left itself open for attack when juvenile delinquency became so widespread. The changed nature of the home certainly brought this problem into sharp focus; the educators are still feeling the impact of this problem on education. The writer of this paper would like to point out that every writer did not emphasize the same aspect of education in his definition of the term, for education has tended to become more and more complex as the twentieth century unfolded. In some respects, one might say that education as a social science was becoming more systematized. That all the writers who attempted a definition of education in The Atlantic Monthly focused their attention on some aspect of a definition reveals something about the growing complexity of education in the United States. At the beginning of the twentieth century, education was considered to be that process Which led to the training of the mind. The old idea that the mind was composed of several compartments, so to speak, and that each of these areas had to be analyzed continued to play an important role in education during the nineteenth century. Mental discipline was one of the most pernicious terms ever to be coined and given currency in educational Circles, for it has led to many types of restrictions. In this regard, one can still see evidence that education as a social science is one of the most conservative and traditional human activities, for it seems to Sling to out-dated concepts such as this even though there is not too much validity attached to such a term. However, one may discern an eVar-broadening conception of the nature of education by noting the articles which have been quoted in this chapter. For example, the term became expanded from the notion of mental discipline to such things as: , 52 character training, moral training, education for citizenship, training for democratic living, and many other similar phrases. This expansion of the term had its origin in the social environment out of which it evolved, and one needs to understand that these attempts at a definition of education are not too different from the definitions which appeared in the educational journals during the same period. With this fact in mind, one can understand the specific remarks which follow by keeping these definitions in mind clearly. The next chapter will deal with some of the problems in elementary education as The Atlantic Monthly reflects them. The author of this thesis will include criticisms and suggestions for the; improvement of elementary education and will show how the concepts of education during the period influenced educational practices of the period under consider- a tion. CRAP TER III Tr PU ELIE ELL...e"Tn{’ SCFTTL .u- v» The public elementary school was est'olished the goo 1+ t to Unite ed 0 States d‘.‘l"ihg the :aneteen’th century. It was availilb s to most of th. children in this coxmtry I‘fithcut cost, rimming {amen-ts of diverse brclgmunis :‘rith a ..irdmum coir‘i; on 6011236“ ti rel experience, v 1‘10 was S‘Y‘f‘OI‘th by r m lio funds and completely controlled by the whole community rather than by religious or political groups. Lawrence 1 Cremin notes that the public elementary school had won its most important battles in its struggle for recognition and support by 1850. By the end of the century the elementary school had undergone many changes and refinements; one of the noticeable changes was reflected in the mture of the student body which was quite different from the student body of the dame schools, the infant schools, and the other common schools of an earlier period. Another important difference was that educ ition began to be lor med upon as a national tool. Summarizing some of the so changes in public education, Cubberlegr suggests that education was effecting important char go 5 in American life. He moi-{es - . . 2 his pelnts in the follomkng manner: The general result of the vast and far-reaching changes which we have just described is that the irtellectual and political horizon of the workingc classes has been tremendously broadened; the home has been completely altered; children now have much leisure and do little labor; and the common.man at last is rapidly coming into h:s own. Still more, the common.man seems destined to be the dominant force in government in the future. To this end he and his children must be educated, his wife and children cared for, his 1 Lawrence Cremin, The American Common School, Teachers' Colle e Bureau of Publication, (New Yorc, 19515, p. 17-77 2 Ellwood Cubberley, The Histor;r of EducaLion, Houghton iiifflin Company, (New York, 19148), p. 736. home protected, and governments must do for him the things which satisfy his needs and advance his welfare. T 1:1 days of the rule of the small intellectual class and of government in the interests of uch a class have largelyr passed, and the political equality uh oh the Athenian Greeks first in the western world gave to the 'citizens' of little Athens, the Industrial Revolution has forced modern and enligI‘Ltened governments to give to all their people. In consequence, real democracy in goverment, education, justice, and social welfare is new in process of being attained generally, for the first time in the history of the world. Forces Affecting Education If it be true that education reflects the dominant aims of the society of which it is a part, one should examine the aims of society t-o determine whetfrzer ducation is actually making significant contri- butions to the development of mankind. In spite of the fact that prog- ress in the estab li elm ent of free public elements-.17; schools was derendent upon court decisions in many, ca see in the nineteenth century, ma ny reforms were made by such dynamic public figures ass Horace Kenn, den. "5' Barnard, Calvin Stow c, {William T. Harris, G. Stanley II ll, Bishop John Spaldirg, William James, John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, Nicholas Murray Butler, and others. These men provided the time of educational Leadership which tended to bring the aias of the schools into closer to“ch uith those of societ:r at large. Thus, the turn of the century was a tire in which society had developed a tremendous faith in the free public schools which had been emerging for over a hundred years in this country. Ed Icational publications exerted an important influence over the direction of education in the United States during the last quarter of the nineteenth center, and the popular and .L1 terary magazines continued to publish articles on educational subjects. The Atlantic Monthhr was sensitive to the problems of the educational world, \- . and it is interesting to note that the periods of stress during the SS twentieth century were reflected in the articles w7-éich appeared in this magazine. One would expect that the articles on education during the first decade of the twentieth century nomad express an optimistic mood; ard, actually, this is the case. America faced the newr century nith confidence in its ability to make prOgress in all areas, and this attitude prevailed until World War I ushered in a period of re-exam— ination and adjustment. Education: Then and Now The first article on education was warmly hunan, said a case could be made for the shift in Bd‘JCSL'ti onal emphasis which this article suggests. Elenenterjr educatio n had become highly formali zed in the nineteenth century through the Horbartian influence in this country. The curricular; consisted of facts to be learned and knowledge to be assimilated in the hope tllfiit the child wovld use this knowledge in later life. But with the development of the new psychology in the lac decade of the nineteenth century and its far-reaching effects on the School curriculmn, elementary education shifted from a formalized type of experience to one which too 1: into account the nature of the child and his environment. In other words, the curriculum became less formalized and more cognizant of the needs of the child in his socia surroundings. The influence of religion on elementary education cegan to man urfier the impact of the new secular concern in society at large. These influences on elementri-ry education were beginning to be GXpressed at the turn of the century. Considering the fact that woman's S‘Tffrage had not been decided in this country, it is interesting to note that a woman 17‘ o had been elected to a school board commented 56 b) upon her experiences in the follow1ng manner: Once upon a ti ie--that is to. way good stories zsed to begin-- a certain Maine town electrified itself by choosing a "am1n so serve on its superintending school committee, and--to precipitate rself into tie narrative as dramatically as possible-~I was that woman. . .‘y experiences as a school official ushered he irto a R?J world,--I was very much in the position of a neophyte aU at to be initiated into mysteries. I began to we he J?QCOVGPLeS--dluueurtenlnb dis coveries: the educational aroblem is one whose norkings can never be fully accounted for by the accepted laws of nature. . .the constant contemplation of this probler: had the effect of upsetting my nrevions tieological convicti»ns, or d even of rendering the co1solaticns cf relig on a doubtful quantity, since, aft er study- ing 'the tricks and manners' of youth, the claim that they possesse souls seemed absolutely untenable. The continuous, wearying routine of school life, the endless monotony combined with endless variation, the limitless demands of patience, the iteration and reiteration necess ary'to impress a single idea on the rind of the average pupil,-—all these I marked, and gained some idea of the difiiculty of the problem with which educators are confronted—~a problem rendered the noitzdiscouragir g by the fact triat in its solution it continually donates the in-ossiLle. (Dane may Surmize t‘n t conditions in Maine were S"newhht typical of <3c>nditions in other states, and, if this were true, Martha Dunn's (blaserva ion suggests something about the corplexity'of educational {enroblems at the turn oi th e century. EScaience and Religion in.Education Conflicts between the new scientific spirit and religion added to ‘tflre complexity of the problems with which.society had to deal. while 0 iztie problem of the separation of church and state was reflected in all zazreas of education, its HCSt striking influence was felt in the ‘H18 Insantary and seco dary schools. At the turn.of the century this country Mruad just been on an imperialistic binge which recalled the English CIDncern.over the white man‘s burden of caring for under-privileged {Ernaups. In addition to this imperialistic rr.:tior alisn, many people 3 Martha Ba} {er 16Dunn, "The ledit tires oi an Ex-Sc arl—Cov Mtee “[C>sar5" The Atlant chontnl:,, Vol. co, July, ICUO, 3p. 3C-h5. 1|.I. {til-ball cv. 1.1 . .i ......11, ‘ «I! 1.1%)5.|,.1ili 5 fl'ifllki1fl‘ Ii Ilu.» 57 (h. ;‘_I‘€‘C=. Gilt ’3': (J became concerned abort the over—all moral decadence n.3a tie swelling of towns and cities to meet the indust ial demands of a chan5inr scene 1113. Puliitetrs cla i -ed that there was a direit relation- ship betVGet criue ard tie lack of reli5i0ts irxtruction in the :utlic scdcols. Those min sunport the teaching oi reli5ion.in.the public fr 1. J ‘ A v 1‘ '3 .1. .... A,“ "(...L ."1. ,5 -, 1. ,1 ‘ .1, '1 sczdools have dSEJ tie ar5imen. o-co Biole teachin5 mould help U0 QCLVC f' R . - ' r3 ‘~ f. v '1 f ‘ IN - ~c' : or - 75r- t?ie treble.n o: J‘d'1enile delinguenCJ, hit there are few educators “no scluticn.to such a complex social and economic f1? exawld accept this as rxrotflem. Apparently, some writers did not a5ree that reli5icn she ld be 0’) tziught in the public chools. One of these writers, Herbert'w. Horuill, -. ." 1 . A ‘ ‘5‘. ‘ a r ...: “h_ L 3135;esteo 118 OplulOH in t*.s tanner: ‘\ H- The prevalent optinisa concerni 5 the present cc'”i+iw~“ c 1”neric n education as a WhOLG is b rok3n by an almost n_nimo 5 con fessi of failure in one partic 0113:. . the ty; c 1 young American does not know the Bible as tie fatfi3r knew it. 'It is apparent that familiaritv wit? the En5lish Biole as a masterpiece of literature is rapidlv decree sing agong the gupils in our public schools'. . .There i oaaorooeoiy roon1 and need for improvement. AS t e taicr't; of the orpnlicion pas es throo5h the public schools, the in redacti of fiblica 1 tea hin5 into these schools throaghout the countr; su5rests itself a the most obvious means of brin5ing about the desired reform. The C”LC7*o‘0” oi the Whole matter is 'hat teacr is the work of the ch arches and not c-f sta reason it has fallen into neglect, the d: t3r of repair lies upon those organizations Which have been formed for the express purpose of the spread oi Christianity. t is hell for tn1e churches themselves that they should be thrown upon their can resources in this respect, and cease 11c pin5 to obtain assistance from Caesar in the establishment of a kio5dom h1lC1 is not of this world. . . In.America no less LiSC ici‘ is done to the spread of true religion by the swectacle of ’he church revic1 who demands that the state shall set rp in every sc oolnonse a li5ht that has not yet been kindled within his own heme. Thus, Herwill viewed the matter as a responsibility of the church TX} home and stated th at tiers were tlTO o- hstacles whiCi 1C”ld Prevent #- w - I I s ’ ‘ ~} 1‘4“ TNr' 9-, near future. In all tie nore Ho ced Lablcuo t3. 5. NIer13 3: His 3 Clyde Lamont H39, The Blind Spot in Americ;n Fublic Educatiox, ‘ ' . ~. . - _ . . - \ . .. $519 Lacmillen Company, (New YorL, lFTUT, llC p,. s hasginrtcr Gladden,’ Reli5 io=;1 and the Schools," The Atlantic k; r-n IA -1.;LCIi,'I‘.t}'133-73 V01. 11:, JE‘TIITZJTV, lnl : f ‘ o ,3 1"‘5 ‘- o L 59 .o respvnsibility for the ed3crtion of'ihe ~eople. As a cry coiseouerce o1 ootn oi tb 3ese *ewda1c es the religious elem ent in popular education has seen constantly diminishing. In our own country we may say that religious teaching has practically disarpeared from the public schools. By many good citizens this fact is greatly deplored. All o1r Roman Catholic r.ei5hbors ooint J.‘- L (.5 r 8;: U) _ . \nfl med 3 CBC _ to it as a radical defect in o1r sprv of Opullr educatio , an as13 ert it is hav:t5 grave CO“~L”H°7£CS in tie o-dle ssness a.d immorality of the generations thus no5lected; 3 d nan} earrest Protesta ts Siocoaot3 ll3r a5ree with them. . .Xoralit; c n not be adequately taught ape rt from reli5ion. Because +1“ stat e cannoo teach religion, the state cannot adequately co1ou t tie work of educating its youth. For a5sostics and for 2r n-Catm olics, t1 who; these ir teres to 01' reli5ion are not vit;--, the s‘ate ray naiutain secular schools; bit Roman Catholics must not entrust t'3e Souls of their children to such defective care. This puts a considerable burden on 'the Catholic citizens, who are taxed, of course, to maintain the p1bl-c scMoo ls. Thev maintain that this is an injustice, and they are as kin5 for relief.It does not seem practicable to remit that fortico oi t'ie tax woicn is expended on the schools, and the alternative is a plea for subsidizing of Catholic parish schoo from the public treasury. Concerning tgis so are told that tziere is not entire unanimity among Catholics; that there are those who object to snob sn_bvention on the 5round l‘«u the sczools would thus he in da3ger of losing their irocpendence, sj ooe state aid would no :cessari y mean some Measure oi' insoection and regulation b; the p31bljc a 1thorities. Rather nan risk this interference‘they m old cortinue to bear their present burden. Most of the Catholic leaders, however, appear to be willin5 to 1 co thzt ‘eril, and+ he dezzzand Ior state aid to parochia sch R701 is l Rely soon to be articulate and urgent. LL CEJLadden 11L iste d that parorts should 0 the job Cl religious tm i11in5, ,Eirid he felt that the church shouli Nut its emphasis upon this goal tilisteid ci'ixoistirg that the state support a orogran of reli5ious lizistruction in the public schools. We quest3o. d, as did Hbrwill, toe I (3:2ntention that Bible readin5 in the public schools would nave a Cij;rect influence upon morality. In this regard, he corcluded: Th.t tbe' oer'vrotor" reedin5 of a few verses from the Bible everr nor; mi 5 uiMLl rodvce an? noterial iiprOXene t in the en intellig cc of t‘ie yeOple ufon Bible subjects, or in tublic morality, it is not reds rable to embect. frlNESe were the only articles in.The Atlantic Monthly dealing zith the . l Ifildo, Po éio 60 - r. i - r. h n z 4.41-1—.:..‘~ v-Z ‘ r: ~-.- 4 ' inbortsit issre bl tie Strait >n (f d-CJ end Stave, end it 13 ' .,‘ ‘ ‘ J. \ ,V ‘ ..« J- .u M . ' .- ‘ ‘. r~ Slgulflcanu test ,hese the J ilers tended to agree t_t. the F .. ..r.‘ - x- 1,. A of bOyurathH oi euurch an cer ed. Even though the yroblem cropged u; several times throvgheut the first the test; tieth centn y, the grinciyle was reaffirmed by court action whenever _oressnres were exe wt ° in this area. The gradual emergence of this prirciple guaranteed a secular instead of a sectarian emphasis in puhllc education. Influence of Science on the, Schools The irapact of science on the publics $10013 ezg :ressed itself in many ways, and the rapid ac “lsulcthl oi kIOWlG fig in the scienuific fields intensified the social =2ro ml 2s as} made it necessary lor society c make odjustrents in the lijht of such an secumulation of '\l knowledge. The emphasis of the new psycho-1c 3; 1rd channeled the deVelop- 111m into the direction of a stvdy 'J-.\ t. ment of the elementsr” school curricw 017the child and his reeds, and science was directly resio: v r --y . " e I ‘2 (" '- I‘ v A Iffl r' O r ' ‘the deV elopnext oi tee Gotlfl' KOVemeLt nhiclitas to have such 4“ IHPCTt&Ht influence 1:0: ednc ation during the first half or the iywentieth century. The ds.eloyhent of John Dewey's philosophy of enflucetion was still another ssoect of+ he groJing eupheSis on sci ence :1:1.American education. Agr es E. hr ever pointed out the meortance oi 1Bridging the gap between science and socie y, and she made a plea for ruaaorowing the gap between scientific progress and social adaptation. 5P63c3hnology, she felt, was responsible for this gap in society; she made v72. ‘t375-s point clear when she sci I cannot give a mare drazm Mt_c pict re than tEjS of the truth 8 ignes E. he yer, “Are Our SC2ocls DoLn Tm13* Jo b? “‘ The Atlzrkic £2533322$:,'V01.183, Februarv, 19L9,p , 32-35. t‘;T “due tiOII has 531 with WDiCh our dBROCr acy must cope ‘ I_ ‘ f1 0 1n cur civilizat:on 06:3 WCH 301 '7- 1 ‘L i- ' X' ’. ,... -. ,~ 4.11 - ... ~ ., 1c: 1931nu 1d ;“u G- 3-: Cautral mvr 013mg - --- ,- -* wr .1. , -\ - -‘ - 51 "1131' 3%3 sglit ha ox ’ I. fiIC 1‘3 3:...Ir1 twp-‘04 - ILO‘r 1D-et 7n 0‘11’1 . .1 “.11-! OK. .1... u”, twer 6 M. D a s T J U.) accumulation oi exrart technicues awd our ape taneity in 33713135 those techniques to th specific pru-lzus Ci t bridge this gas- between our immense res areas of 11cwlcdb- 1rd th social maladjustmznt t great Cities or in c , L1 0 ‘ -. [V " | 51:) 03’1C‘lo 116085.» . .-. - .. .--. 1 .~. - ‘-. J. .- ...- rt; , 1 C 011—...143-1: t: 11L; "(is , .... :1. Grab? Uhat \- ' 3 1116‘“: 61.314. 'J ‘-.:\ 3.2-3.’ 9 problems of everyday lixing. . .the is public school and its curriculum is tc (1" .AL r ‘ ' -. ,~ ‘1“ - L, ... ~ ~.‘ ...- 29b stczrec us in an; “doc WLQUMGT 1n c.r 1" 1‘77!de 81'833. - . " x" "L. "‘1' . '- "u‘.’ I" ‘ J :‘fi‘fl ." 3-11 01 Muckulug tn. scchl cirz1c1 4. \l N - y w . . n 1 4" 4‘ ’ "' n: «a '- a": 4- "~"3 P= 3'0 "‘1 “"‘ "‘ 2 "I'm-z ... "" ‘ I "t V) '5 (all 139'} AC...U j_.Il ' 1'... 1,1,3 ‘1 .11 J {J‘WQ (,.‘_ Lu.r-« E‘bl.~‘.wal-- LLL.J..-.1Q. ”11C. 311" . t‘qn" / 7 77‘1“. (.44 "n'zl IMH‘F‘H ,A'v" 11‘ '1“: .- F11 ‘u‘o‘u‘ 1‘.r\c' '. ('1 LC u-A\\' my “.52th .1... 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Eve , .T“?riV:rt q ‘ '1 “ h", . -‘ n -—-‘ 4 ~:~. 7 .3 _ .1 ’ L J. ..ls- ;.u-..o ..1 {5V 5 5L $.1M‘ul «'5 .‘i U“: -~~n-l 4 s p. .‘ --,-‘-'. < 4' ' .‘x .« .“ +1 0" ' ’y‘ » ‘fi ~ ”-— L... , guld 1.1.1.1,L31 E, .- :1“ f1 .1 XXL. U1 Cox- 5.1 L -. -7 -. V D .- ... ...‘ 141‘ -. ”A Vii-21"..» ..110 SCI"! ..2»._;.\.; 5.-.} eir Childho a u ~uinto Vhose nao1t of - 9 eaued tnréugn a t ousand revaries,--:1cse a.-. -. - . . 1‘... ..., -+ ,7 .. — ° are thc bun w c 1cca1Vc, rca1.fiu, .nd M a —1;1t 1.. Imhéuwée is " “‘ ‘ ‘: " ‘ ‘1" f‘ a} ,3: 1t" «1 e tuc briusts o. 1:16tige. their boriioq; thcy ar Thy) s t} ‘ ‘ \A 4"'\;3 3"" r;C_‘-,,)'$ --c; COILLZ-ic it” UDr-iC\I4- ~ :V L1;J-.~L-‘ _\l.1. 0".“ .. several wr1ters curin5 t‘ 9 John Th 1:. . L. ‘39} 1910, by. lCS-l:b. ’vqunari ”T '_ :3 O —-J 1) ..l »J .e A l 1 . ". .. - ..4. ,-_‘- + , 4. 1‘ n :e edr13 gap. O. .ne oWCltlc -c3rfiing," The Atlantic MOHJhlr, V31. 10C, spirius 1n term 4? the aims or object1nes of in: ”stlicM610013. The COHSJ?VI iv yearred to helm the line agai “I the pregr9321vcs, and :rogr6581ves fexfie” to t;k5 advav'agc of L. -ha b44 sncial ccriitiz.4 in 44.1.1? ths :ims and beect.i es in the b_ght Cf Chase ch; ‘35. WAile ti; cancer ativcs c;u+ N.&3d b: View “Hcmti :5 vbntsl CiSCi~ Cline, the Fro “re siV€”—-dn’er the inf1"ence‘M usseau, P:stzloz :i, -3— ,p . . --. - ~L -} ~ 4" .‘..' ...-u A '1‘ _~ 1' v ”4’04”t Frooue4, 4.4 Ubl&.S--lh3 Q'b cu.de1zn1.g sufic- Llcn -ugctlov . - ~,,,., .- 4 -, 4..: ,. , .. . ,. .-.- .. ,. .... 4,... d11Y- V1Cv3_ys SUICUfLOT 1.1 L 48 4.C.Cu 'Uu; proo;:o-_xc;'..s?4 haC«:b4— .. 0v 1 ~ I.- ‘ r ‘. +‘ — . - r 1‘ .. 1...». l .' .1 5" 3 w ". "\ "r',~ V‘- - .‘ ~A .‘ . ~. r41 3 , Sad 40 c 4; , .r55 -4: -.r_.1 4rn1", .L-g1egr . U, .44 13’141 -. 'l I . 4 I. , ~ " . ‘: Vov q P ‘«.- --. ~-l- , (F' «L. 1 .- .. -‘ -~ d1scln11re, 34332 C?) 94-? c+o”ib.1c C tie ccxuu' -;u~°. 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'3- .. - . . -" .L‘ I, '1 .,...s. -..1,‘( - v ~1-c’1 .. .. ._ _ .u Urngr4. 04 but 31ened,_r" SbuC' @I 1-14rd 1 s Parson's artlcl ‘: -L ..I- - 4. .. 4. - 1-4., 4., .7. .."' 4.1.. .. ." . --.~4L..‘ -.. : -. '3 144Cur4. 5 .fig TFOLUd 'e (1 C444.“ ShQCL.Ow 418 5.4. ct ’”VU.U;QM._I 4. 4. 4. ,4. +~.,. 1:- .L' . -.l. ,. ., '1 J. ... v, .4 1 .-. . :_ ’3 “ gr .9 do 317.1128 4w (.1360u101': 1-4 ‘ hLULfl L... .2-2. ‘4' 2501‘s.. 47:. ‘14.: .- _. x » - ." _' . - 4 ..‘J- ., . 4 4-1,. 9..-; .: .4. 4.‘ .3 ,. . , G‘w‘f'i‘ 9'5 0" 1 Y‘ 7.1.4.‘ S In: ; . TC“ 9" V ,,-f‘ ...cu‘. '4 t‘ -l.' mu. 44......) “43x16 U. 93.51...- N’ (At ‘ .4 . - i 4..? .. . - .. . - .. ..." 4L. 7- ... 4"" 7—11.; 4.1.‘L‘J‘l‘l 'u C bur -. " Crib; ' F TC? ..L': M r; ”-2.? ' ”" .11; Val-l: .-. . ..- l ., ,- I 1 " '- -~..‘, 3 .... *. n‘ a x .1 -.> “ \ ~L‘ ... ' .- ' x . I ; 1'11 1.1’: ‘ “ ' vz. !. -.-“:C {QT-Cut .1991 ..9 "3:79.44 {"1 341;...1‘2’2298 ' ... 3'1 " V __ .. ‘. .-- ., 1.7 .L .1 - . ' 1.- : .-. .1 - .. . . 1..-: . 41, It 4a.; 4b19 go 4e01de 1; t4e 44r4t .4 Co, 4t w4-cg 44;“ to ‘ 4.1 J. ' ,4 ,. .1 . ... .41 -. ,. ‘-. ._1 . .4 81?. In :“C r.t.©r 0i 4rrang_nb a 3734?._n- r 4443 P:c-1s t ; .. .L .. ’ 4. - .. 1.. .1. .‘ , ~4. " , -, . .. - 4 . .. ..- - 't:.. 18 urfiflf f. 31% a M £1; an} 14 hc4uouu~ 1t vb kro. ju st . .‘ . ‘ . ., -...‘. -. . ' ’ .. - ~ .. ... - . 4.4 .. V .. -L‘ 1 . . w“.t tha+ 1? 5rd hgcrb It 1134. Ann 1«,;4e “vb “a; 04 tag srste- l 0 W11 ‘ t5” antic J '3 t' a?“ rat hlif, d a; \4 U — f‘) the writers beau; Glles P4rs¢us, *7 r! ('1, “ere tr'n ”‘ {it the _)),i.. . ‘ . it I ‘.‘~ '1’. '| ‘1‘ .1I) I chxat._ba.b. ixqu 2 '1') ruf/- ...l.‘ :06, tilh“ .4. '3 A; III... , . 7‘" 7:71 .Q w .-. . -14. . T 116. — 62 63 into practice, all the way along the line, it would be well if the aim could be kept in mind, distinct am clear. The teacher who assigns the daily lessons, the board that determines curricula, the public that supports and influences schools, need constantly to ask themselves two questiors: What is the mark? and, how is it reached? As for teachers, it may be they do sometimes incline to assign the next lesson because it comes next in the book. We hear much, and need to hear much, about the necesszity of elevating the standards of instruction. But the teachers are the least of this trouble; they keep tkeir eyes open pretty well 3 and they are better than the system. The confusion of these (cultural and vocational) aims is the chief cause of the present blindness 01' our education. Nearly every course in every school tries for both at once, and con- sequentl y msses altogether . For different aims require differently directed courses. Vocatioml aims require vocational courses, dealixg with vocational subjects; cultural aims require cultural courses, dealing with cultural subjects. Is that not almost too obvious a reuark? Yet it needs to be trade, and made again, and shouted, for education is getting a little deaf (in the high places) as well as blind. And to this must be added the insistence that each aim be kept pure. In vocational courses the aim must be suprem. In cultural courses the cultural aim must be supreme. The importance of an elementary education was expressed in terms of a student's being able to read the Bible, but society became more complex With the mechanization of industry and the transformation of the economy into industrial channels where it had formerly been an agricultural economy. As society became more complex education became more diversified, an! the direction 01' education we determined largely by the aims and purposes which society set in terms of a changing social scene. Therefore, the articles in 315 Atlantic monthly dealing With tire aims of education as a whole am elementary education specific- ally reflected this broad social movement of reinterpretation of the role of the schools in American society. Harriet Finlay—Johnson gave a picture of elementary education early in the twentieth century, and her description suggests an awareness of the forces in seeiety which were calling for attention. One may senSe in her article an awareness 01’ the inappropriateness of older methods to tm’newer demands for 6h “ /\ 1 -‘ C‘. N ‘ ' r , "G L >“ 'I ' - - .-—1 ' - -\ : -.. ,v.‘ :ecll' ”Hat are the menuil fiict res CUTUULGQ up by‘these nor's? our walls, cupboards, hooks,(not the cupboard: of hone by any near erheps a different class of books), black- hoerds, drawing-mtdcls, easels, museum, kirdorgarten materials-- these comprise the slelatcn, the bare bones of 'school.! much has been done to emancipate the twentieth-century child from the ancient drudgery of learning, but still, to a great extent, 'shsdes of the prisonhouee begin to close upon the growing boy when he is old enough to go to school.‘ The desks are nude and designed care- fully for the express purjose of being set in. The boy will have to learn to sit still when he longs for movement. Others will dictate to him as to when he ought to move about, and he will move in c mmon with numbers of other children—~by rule--by drill. The books, the blackboards and all the other articles of furniture will soon represent to him merely so many pieces of apparatus by means of which he will study, in common.with others, uniform lessons; or, perchance, have thin films of information aid over his mind in order tLat it hey be skim ed off again by Questioners and examiners. For, although we hear a very great deal in these days about 'self-cxiression' in school, yet those 'in authority over us' still appear to require the self-expression served up in the same old dishes of methods, accompanied by the flavoring of tire-tables, notes, schemes, u*rks, repo~ts, and examinations which seasoned the metal good of those who went before us. The consequence is that the so—culled self-expression is not an expression of what the Child really hinks and feels at all; to use our culinary fivure again, it is really a {ind of mental 'Go:fi: to s J p. C) 9 t H 7.4 $ __0_ mockturtle-~an imitation and a sham. What is that you say? 'Hhat about the 3 RIS?I'Wh¥ these sonolars are taking the 3 R's in their stride, as it were.‘When they want to remember their parts, they write and transcribe them. 'When they nee' rathematics they actually measure, weigh, and calculate. You have seen them. How do they strike you? Are they not sane, healthy, promising little citizens? Do not their nice, natural manners impress you? And which 'day in school' did you -most enjoy7'which made you feel most alive? Which accomplished most? Let these UtOpian scholars preach the Gospel of Happiness for other childrenr—let them have their share in leevening the whole 111111;- Cornelia Janes Cannon recognized that the schools would have to <3kuange their programs in order to take into account new social factors 3 Céllnsed by ferment in the business are industrial world. She indicated 4— ,. .. , . . a . ,.,__ “)163 role wnicn tescners assumed in the educational scheme of.tniags, II Hhrriet Finlay-Johnson, "Education.Dramatized,“ The Atlantic monthly, Vol. 109, Febmrn 1912, 10:“- 255-3334- and she pointed out that criti31sm “f tne edrcational System appeared to he sareWnat of a n; :io H1 . Like so many of the writers, she socks in very gener ral terns, tut her TGIQT1($ defi:3itely have erpli<‘twlity to the field of elementary eds; cation as Well as to the Whole realm of edu- \ .. ' T r- A 4— r r .' ’- ...y r ‘ 1‘ ‘A‘ .. o ’- ~ .<. P re, ' Q T‘ * ation. She derc:s.rates e1 awareness of a changin- eanh351s uuen see spoke of the training for self~expressicn Which Was a departure from 4 12 y .7 3"“. 1: l _' o 4. .-H' 2'. o . toe mental disc13_1re 3oiTo of vie-. Sh: saio. Wlat part doe seducation, as obtained from our educaTio"“l institu tic one, play in the develOTLent of our Children? Criticisms ‘f our schools is so “oouler rthat the st':r oi inferiority seems to rest upon the entire a stem. Some of ihe censure is “odoToteul' an expzession of t.e hi‘ deals t3: critics hold Ior edtm Mi on in a oeroc_ac"; beta ood d3 al of it is Simply a ife3t3t1cn of oxr national hasit o abusing our public insti t-ti As a mat;er of f9 ct, Where t‘rere is any kind of serious oduL i.nal effort in the country, the children oi next ener3*3 ar‘ Ceiw ion a superior education. It is not so good as thit We hope cu r "raT3011ldr31'Tlll rec ceive, but it is much better than that whic. W38 meaed out to re. Indeed, it is in rcst C1833 so muclz. better - an‘we citizez s, in our indif’fu rence, deserve, twat we CLn only con rt ula+3 ourselves upon th~ unceas- ing labcrs rnd high stand3rds oi the eedagog ic profess: r, of which we are the c3viling ben3iici dries. The outst inding 03;“ r C.terist1c of ti: new education is its ‘J: ‘- A )0 *5 ”Q (T |\_‘ {a er_h 3si 5 ago: tr:ir in: for sell—eV‘re2sl n. It 's an education of reL ease. 'fie :rc apt to be innresse ed hr its quleasant m97:3i- estat— ions, thich,starr out nn'rwncrtlv, are distract our attentjo 3 iron the such more striking 3:.ins in poWer and aEMf ctiveness . We c;.n so easily one the Wholee method as dov: ed to craggarat: 2 natural self- assertic3, when i3r L t" it is a goteet s eTt for tie reduction of the fears and phobias 'hich have tortured “‘nnilc, and: strong stimulus to the development of a new-"ell-rolic- 3 and a richer perso3>l o3r°61ousneco. The word 'release is to rr;*r ols the ernal for the. to begin. S“'rc-o1- s, 5“"0rdiuullon’ are the 1 tcTwcrd" o. critics, of‘ iuman narirc. But, . gloss We noefill;r misread hzr I the impulses text guide our co.l.ct re rvcsrxaolv decent. Taking us as a whole, we are riD It —ni3d ed, 1 irl; “oTl*1sn, and pro erly tolerant of each other. D0th erTise we should not Taste effort em- bodyinr moral standards in tl3e form of law, nor z‘torp" the eu- forcement of err ejsiems. Our fundamental need, in 'rder+ o aexelop a full and rich civilization, is the -ree plag‘ of those 3rr2ies of men TiCh l? Cornelia Jones Cannon, "T3c Crab bin‘ of {cute bv Age," The I élileantic Monthly, 101 131, June, 1923, pp. :8T:79C. c‘ 9 LJ. 15 William Mr1 znt fxillen —. ‘ r— I ‘- - w A, r“ . r~ .u es APB :1e Defiers our :dnc1 >1 ‘ v 1-r ' '\ ‘1 .1" . ' ’ ‘ 5 r‘ ‘ not morn thet tho ?:d 15 015. over? esirbLolUi 1"“l_oo a 1c— ‘v‘: ,n «.q -~. A —. ~ ~ '3'? ‘ -r. ‘- n 'r‘ fi‘A ‘- ’. ,. 3-. ’ JI| pression afimea1;?e clue. n: “Iguie Can 1e eilccc1Ve 041? 1- 4.1-.- ,..---1.. ..z .... S" .1 . ~._. - 1 ..-.1.- .L- 41 “net‘s; muudlg jL‘GS Jar. lflllcrl’ in tae cdrl 1' '11 a poet cf 1K“53r1ljtr, controls an: 1fhihitions o. B‘t the emphasis of this rew1 ednc1t on, thick is predicateu ugon a faith in mecn nature, is 1“ fit that self—con1r0l is un— ir;oort;nt, hut that selfuexpression is es: en ticl. 4hioh cata- gories oi'éne ct shall e so); Cct tos Ml -control, and which to self-ey‘rocsiJh, is d7cided by the ethical idouls of {he nati;n3 but the need of‘ our democracy to-dgy is for fevzr rorrcws ed rsritics and for more potential cc-ztrihutors. The educator's Lott NfIS a 3 various. We strives, varied cur1Loalum1, to If ac} children cf diverse it1terests and ’1 1r capacit'eo, aid to make their abilitiee gvailaclc by 1gFrcprfi_a-; trai-‘n$ and disc iwli :e. The obi ilea of education, as son: tgsk the chili rust jgrf;rm jar tn; efificotigv of t‘» tegchor, is -1 extinct as the dado. Inoféed, the child's effort is for thf benefit of the oth r children in the echool, 1? yMFt ‘hw 1”“ L1”" 10* of ~23uisiticn oi” 1} rr~r~nb. The emfih1€i5 is less rm t‘: .* W l o - ~’- 1 - ~1~ 7* “a." ..-. \- ~14 '11. :~’~P ,' V1 rwn ‘v‘. 7““. 4‘1 -- 3‘ """ l ' ‘ 1... L ' ‘,_7rE;C‘r\ .L "UL.'L"1_-L'JL._.'(,‘/_ '1'- 1:74;)- CH: 1 h.\'1 ,, \ 1. Lab”- V¢UJ.L~ .. ”CLJL ’t'XC F751: 1 1.1 .1. i r 1 ' r ..1- 1,. -._ -. --. - ... 1., Mn“ ~4. H Another urth1u rzlleccs twb 13~cvullutiel c: nelzelog 1c r30 ,. 1;. ,:- 'v,1 1 ,flfl . \- .: ”1.x.” .—~ .--, .. , .- .-1‘- -..77 «xi ~91" :i(r.;.\,1. .‘. 1.11" I .‘7' D:..1\,l.’..." “grill-c”; Tr .L...~.'-Ff‘-1t;;l‘, T"1’ib]_dx.: 1+: - 7. 1.- , , HP 4- - 171,4... - .‘ 3.-...- 1.,: ...L . ,. 36d College, Lfiqéou. o etc: JCS ;r hel,ea,o t.-t :u 0. ion could r § “\ . ~ .1 . ‘, ~ ‘ ‘ .'~, A- .: .‘ , ‘V r ‘ ‘ . A11. .... *ro' d by curoi;l outojtjofi to to char trolflgné Jhd 0V inqubd- 7 2 p“ogrem of in-serv1 e r.1nl15 ior teec ’. Throughout 1is article he emghasized that one needed a clear 1 ~'1 I! ,»-. a 1- 1 x -: r u - DH» ’ r . w! 3. cs u: - w n 01 Kaut schools s‘ould be in orosr to Eliuct Cflnflbdfi l- society. And so, in we .r or in .e co, the chief defense SjgifSt the toes of morale is ednc1-1ion. And as there is onlv one ;““DCJ of edu- cation that can be made to reach effectively all th: 1 . sens of the state, the m :rale oi a nation is Large y in “eerihfi its pnblic sc"ools. It is corwonolace to say that the .etion vi be no bet oer than its public echo 015, and the schzols no be the n the teac :83 but it is no commonplace to grasp the idea Foster, "The Morale o the School," The tic Monthly, Vol. 131, Jw e, 1923, pt. 7'2—7?8. w .L n .‘v -r5 ‘1 .‘-' “" 1 ' J ". P' ‘ 1 1". -. the teocners L111 16 “O b.1tter t .1 tzs1r dom the r111t C7P&C'+lfln 0: that rm ‘0? o is the 1:. morale, the Chief moags of stro“1*“on1o" the I . s tr1izdrvrzi- rr13wf the schools. ””fitir proper fcwrti-*,“ he s31d," lS 1ct moral? that {)f furnishin31L1tollec 141 and oral tr Lips, ,nt of :ssimilafing our 'Wfl1ole people to an.£mcricol1 rye, and of chsckirg the temioncy towarcl 3 social str1t1f103tion that will p1svont tn? common sympathy and u;1d r 1: £31;aVJwfi" ppcbdgcv"’40” tixs cc06'11a+1ve effort of 1 democracy." Under :LB’ing 111 of these 3ereral comments upon air: and objectives was the IE Agw. Anderson, "Politics 25011111135 Vol. 3'7, April, 13101, ’(LI ools," The Atlantic 68 no+ioz1 ”that ed103.ion nus”: recc~ rzizo H1:- imolicciicrz of the many chaoges in An;c-3.c 11.1 life. Son-T: 0. too .21 ticlw dc 1-1-1.15 15:11:". 1‘11 elementary schools were of .‘1 genera 1131*: re, 7111’:- mox-g; of? them 011237118.- sized the i‘r.zport.imce of the; 5.11.153 and 0?:‘31 titre. of cd‘.1c:.+..‘o:1. Sowrcl art‘cles {lead for the ..e..ocr»1t_.zat1u~n of tho 115....1011'5 schools, and 0 t-T-1-se 111*4‘10 cs imply that the old truliticru‘l edwcztzfiotxal 1.121.1901‘111315 not o'a‘mocratic in form: and orgmizatic on. ran-J. .'~ 4- .~,. \ ‘I’IH' \' 1" t’\ v :1 .n ‘I (V ‘ v~ " A f .~\ ~.-- 011° 1» ‘o 0316 1.15»I«T'-..».:l(1-1 1n '1': Edilfl ~. .-.‘.‘..‘;- 1.7.1.2111 t 16 pfOCG-cu “'1 C.'.»;:.I’.,-.j3 "rh J. iron. not? mg the 11111112: or o1 5113113135 ch (.L.-alt. 1113..-: the subjuct. Hm:- I ., .L.-» . 1 ever, 1‘. he .~.rr:11.:--~;= 1:1 The Atlantic 13131113 more not vocal i: 3115;150:1111; _. ~.A method of reor (2114.1 Q1 of the puolic schools. They concentrated ‘ I 1" \A v -: .-. '4 . ' ~-§ , “-3 .. ‘rr. .3- . on doion 1215 13:16.- status gnu or 0.. 031111-; f . sp301f1c. rulom. "1.113131, M “ C‘.lccrlj*c‘uaf1:1.1.ng a method of. solving +13 edu<;‘:‘.tio:: 1 pro 521431.53 which .. ~ -~ -.. '-- ~.-‘--., »4- -. . ..." - .' 1. flora 1- a 111:“: :.-.1..c...._o:s “1.7....«2-13137, {he v0.31; u- cr1t1c1 ":15 .he q'u . - -‘ ‘AA 13‘ r - . ' ‘1 - I“ ’3'“ -.g «L 'i“"”' ‘0‘ q u ' "‘.: ~1 . ‘,.I. ".1"" i-‘mllc scnoow 1.1.5.373: “1‘ JCLl'TF-Jd t.:-1°»u..51~11«1~: 1.35301” Cl L.-1-.:. com-.1»... I ‘\ + C+ 1:)— CS '1 [J H O '3 J l .5 f) I" “4" + '3‘ 1‘ .1 I; C T n r] k 3 r3 3 .L.. (’3 I 4' F ‘3 l q. ('1‘ ‘3 1" ('3 -.~—*»»+ a. H""'"(‘“ w» ’r 41" PM 1 v»1:.c_v;1.~-}t c ‘+ ~»o 1 ~ - a -' ..L‘AU 1L: A.‘ '4 “_"J-14.1.b In ,1- 'L;' 5~;I;C) .‘Lnx ‘ ‘1 vi L), 13‘ SbUl. L3 {-lk ..L ,‘..;. .I '..-L \4 LhkaJ 331‘: ch criticis 1s sl.ou"d Le 1.121120. That educators 211:3. 113+. provide the 1.3.1116: r‘ v“ 'r — . . If ... ,, ~-:--. « . ,-,‘x w- \ r. v V-t- -. v-. v r uy‘ ‘ '. -~ ~ r ‘V‘ educ: +1 -1 16.-.ch‘S.‘lf 1.111131 11.1.1111 .113... -01: -....r. ..1.,.n; -.f the i.-o;>1.l.-.1~ -.. 0 Grit 1013 11‘s 01 911110311011- seem .:.;.are;'1t, out o: 1:: should be carofwfi 5.11 a . . ..L' . 1.. 1‘ .- . A n ., 4-, .... —~, .. ,. ,1. , 617.111.111.111:- tmf. oli c’r vznnos of 6.:uc.:tcr°. 1;? 11:11-; 0.1 ..11. 11111.1.-01 ' J C““itic .‘.(.‘.~l roic‘es which "11;...1.-ed1n oe <12: the 11;.1‘1or‘orar1t ......‘l influonticl ..L Alf. k.'.i. 1 o literary 1.13.632? But one can 110*: don; that The. Atlantic lionthly as critical of 0.101121 dc. V':l.;o1;.onts of] +313 3'6: Loci 1111111216 considorzgtior‘. J C umiculur101ang;s o h - .3 r~ -.‘.n‘ .m'“ ‘."'. ' 1 “ ‘ "‘11 ., --‘ - -" -r -: w . ‘ - Several arb1olo; d...11.._; .-:2.f..1 111-.- C,_l"1"l€‘.t..._ 1: fire 11115.1. ... Kurd—e. .. oi Jhese articles were motl rafed bv tr1c while others were mojlxatcd v ot‘ér for grow1n; lutcrest in science, ' -'_O_ 1' r,- ¢(."_‘ 033 In $0013,;. Tau thlcicb c:;3 alirg;‘vith the cunfificvlun;eflme'*hat ‘msre Ytusei charrfinvj :,tifi“ue O « - J. .‘ . ..J. 5" .' .. _ . ..y .3 n—, ', . ‘{ toward the curchwlum GJ inc ologeutarJ :xd FWmeLLJB Sfl'oflid. ror . r-‘I-ox, V ' 57“ ‘ . ,J r } J a J'- jINh ”'9 ~,‘ ‘1", I “ 1LJJJcce, Loazs J ”son b artlcl. t-Jdb Lo JJJ41JV thlC o; vie gro 1J8 ‘qn -r a It -: r J-‘ IN \* \.y 'x ‘ L“ —A J-‘\- --“ :1 of t w )7; CJ o JJc m. ‘1: “In, «J WJJJC “ *1‘“ ..Jn cm .0 arr ‘u; ‘ p ~VN‘_": a H .. 't ‘r‘—»- qr. '1 J— ,4- 0- lthu....C .er {GUSIC b Lint. ...; '_}GS\JI'1L.M,. .L In the “rnmr“ sckool,clas '1 singing, and :n13 choral activio" is confiinuea element of gablic UuSiC;l instrnr J;Lj school or To; uemy Work. in the ccl‘ ° 1%., ' . 1-1- - , ,4-.. -. ... 1b is 5“”0cfioJ 1% ad? dlrucuicn OJ 0 o I composition. cf 17 may »e b.?. a n 1.7 'a‘njrcjc ,‘P ion 0‘ xusicvl education ugs: ,. . ' " .1- u 3 , -. _._ J A 1-.. h, onlxbl¢ ”N chcu twsluflfl 1n:w if 9?? c*nw,e i° ”4““ V O”, . —v I) y.‘ NJ U £.A a, J, ., .f 4. ,. , 131 l’rv \CJ 1.)" ’ CC ’ ..JJ+ erpc...“ L," \~?.r:'\ .- .‘ J. . J. . '...,.— J. ., .‘ ' S or? “Lion m: A n»:-.-(~.‘»‘L!.L;. 0: u ‘,:. ,J . . .J. .. ,..J.:,-,. - L'. . ‘ ,. . tge gr glutrs con LL- VJ go o VJ :ducchcnal 1n5u1tatlons, :3- ». . ~ 5 1‘ —~ _ < -< . "x . -' . \~A1| *1 . .«1 7 . c c+1w co:;;;vutor us of muclc, 5111 not be 2.0+L131y “JachJ Th ~‘ ~.- 1. I J— ’> k.~- ’1 - n“ 4“ 4-1‘ r“'- {“1 Su _J(g~)”_ ”13w; ,osJ Jill enJuJ. mdohi( Lo Igr :zs bub; aze Jo‘s, ”1r“ +Hm “"n'4~3 ~4AJ 1v +‘p; ~wv»«rwna . vfl tuv~ ‘1‘-’AJL ..-.-; ~';.:~ ;._Vo C gully. Sui. JJSG‘ iJLLvn‘ILjnébq Jl'ZB-u" e . .‘J [kn/U ~-‘- . ~71 L‘.\ -» ('J ' ' '1" — r V 1 “ \v ~ r, . 4:. r‘: "- w'fi :3ome rj3zts 1._b.; -OMJIQ oJ ma: me ”an Some QJAlLS Jor an scum 1‘ 1 ' ‘ ‘x -c N ‘ < . . ~ . a .c: .-. L.- 5 - '~ +* A .Wt“ a to .n-w“ n cd°' cl'tcer 1n n‘31cal HPPTQCLQLJUD 333 s.) J b 7- - -3 . .3 -.;. 4n... .L‘-,J ..' .-. fl ,7 .1. ,o ,c " .3. -. » .0“c crfdxxj accehoz,qr Juan , :(NTMl‘TEJLaHJ ClnSSHL 337 s_n.11 A. Let fid? tabla: so 3313 :i” ;n trniriu" an ir.tellij:“t musics: I \‘L ~ r r‘ ‘- ‘-§- * ' -\.~ :‘.r ‘ x v - ‘. -n ~l-- A. .A t;&u*, Gnu fun nnCrlCflh c; “0"? ll fre d a maca loss thorns -c33 b .L a 1 w o . A‘ I“ ‘ 7' ‘. ‘ 1 f“ .’ 3 ‘_ . ->-(7-. Lina E“..’.: (JC.T 'V'-4+:' 1U+va A ...L., ‘LWJA...:, L4... \ 3., . .— - . -.A.- ...." ' J. i 1 ..J urcrent Lot vgw s' to iflvg 2=na ruu .L - .L o: o "y ¢; Q\ h 4' A s l .L.») ‘a-.,._J.' \AU - . '7 11,. ‘ , .. -. 47.." N: L; 03L“LP1HOHS 1nd moss“ J - .. .4 J, '- ‘ ° . . _ .J...‘ ..., 3 J :rc.: &g0rECun nabJoudl ... .f' ‘1 W lv-(ZLZ) 111,1”: s—U‘Jl J J CHALOHIO {kt x-v . r‘\ ”1‘ - 7- .1‘ ’ --, ,- .a a" 13.57. i I“; ‘1 .-.'\.J\.‘.J u;‘.‘i_.' f’_.,'\-tl"’ art 0,; J - -. - - . .. .. ' -V - TH J _J 7! ”at I 1:: .r‘ '.l"/ 1“ 4 7“: “'Y¢W@'+ r” 3ch 1 currictlxt'fi *‘w‘fowvr “ Prim-rfi *~ Np~ ”aw CJ‘;. 7371.3 :r ir'l: is :1 11031.11ch 5173‘1L1.T.‘.I“"f:: the: 3-~“.';101'T“Fm, of r. 'c‘mo Curriculz 1.1. HG. speed-:11: oi" the use of slatJJ, r2173“), 11171325, 1W: C“.i‘”.'-L‘i 1111 the clflfieniary SCWCCl, gxd his cnmmants upon racess VGTBQ on 3 ”rrt . " 1" ...-.‘J; '3 .L'_.' ...‘., ,m .L V',‘ ._ .2 .,,. . -3 .— L, ~v .0 '. 2);, Jox;qu VJ LWJLJD “2». £1; pc_nt “a: tact tge ;-url texts Jot culm— .15. ’ 1 - . ' .J ' J-L . r .~ r ' ,..-~ -. ‘7 ~3<1 toe C1 rlculum 1n one Area of 3 o rfiy. .' ’1 v? ”V. e ’7“ .2. ‘ '». ' ‘4‘ ---+'.-. “I; ibnls u. “7:0J, "Cc: uJJIc LGQCJtlDM L3.Lus;,,“ To; ntluuunv ‘ L: 1 I‘ ,‘,_ 1‘ 4- a (m «‘f) “_r‘ ya ran v’ ':IC..'_. 0’4, h).1ut€ 17:“..J, i3.-’1/. 41...: ‘ )4' ...—V' . 'V ‘ r“ ’ ’L m7! k ‘ Er'r‘ alto Chg-3.1.1-), “In Jug. o "L‘C' L”, g .. .1 __* _ , ’15-: J . ~ ‘0‘- V) ‘1 - r -, crfi;.ow .JJJLJ: , ; xltw-l so 4n!“ J ”'1“VC. ..-. ,. u-- .- . 4.1.- 3.. ‘ ~J-J-.- .' 2. 1‘;- ‘I -» 4.33 JCT t clr o.n SK”.,-~.Eu (ler tag pub .F,~-lflkm .‘a -o.s ’ ' .— . 4 a qr. ., -\ -'7-_-:-- ’2" L "‘ ‘ - tr. 4.‘ old books. He 11L-5 5.; n-;s Jr-ub :1 1(at too ud-Q c . '1... ....- .- ... . .L .1” ‘... -'v .' ‘., L! .. '1 1 thflOdCllhw -w” :..tufia mu's It :;.c. .C. o4fi . "‘“T*'uwvc G‘. .L'-’ 0" 4 . .-.u arbogrg.turs' ',‘ ..L. , . 4‘ .1 .'.‘...1‘ ." .. .21... - -2- ‘. .. ‘ .. ., 'J. ' .. .' ...3 .~ 1. C .LV“: .. ,.' 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Kl . v . s I‘ o' J . .2 ' ..- '— A$~ ”Tl; . 1.35:1". . L. tras thst many nirur p"sic.1 dcffci s cc aL to oi.csvured an. tlcat Au. - ° .. . ...- - . r‘ - -' . . ,2 . J.--_: . ,. , ;»efore me 1013 32-11ng dis.b111tleo d..olops . I: ..-; reg.rd, -. 7 .-: \- " I: -.. [w curvv -" lyur. ~vY’ .‘ “-.4- >>‘0‘.—:-th‘ - More t“.P 2% f :tcr .- .. ox--0h.: « ...ru.n.va C“? 1'um ‘5 "1 ---... .. -.. .... ~1- ..,. -1.,.!- .L.» ’g.‘ ‘ 4. ,. . ' 4:1 :[i r ' 1}" .1 '1 C: l.‘ (Pir!‘.-' . ‘1': C dull/:1 (JL—LL’: l:&‘fl‘il‘ .4‘) YV“ m -1 1.. L41. 5 s .\.A “va 0 .. A. .. L J .-.! .. . ‘... ,. . ..-: ....Jn‘v ‘-, 1--.--- -- 2 .1 - : 1 1...“. .- 11C 1.11.1 73013 1.7:; .-t .11" .L‘J ' .1141 .‘- "Ila ll--rL..‘_:_ '. i g -. .T U V"? 8-1.2.117 “ave 0:31:11. (..:-fr “1'1 ' . - 6‘. A7 \I. (\‘fifj 4"" 1' \‘1‘ "V‘ ‘V'I‘. 1": 1‘17' u‘1‘hrrr': "n" 1‘1". 1“! .1 “'1'" v. v ‘ 5,“. :‘.K .‘1_": -- L2'\-"-(..I‘.:J. ’ ..\.~UA.l. J J.";f4‘ J..L'.-'..‘--.L’ *.‘~.4 .4d-'~4\. L1.C {A 1, \ v ‘ .-. v-. . 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Thsv offs“ tho tw-"q~‘- t:?. ‘Lrehf's ar‘icle 1d.1--.;s ; fit;yt hr Tr" to recogpize and thtr.fo uwdfro+31d such children. 7 u %1 Je dcwc fine work 14 our sicnul sc1oois. They 3?: not queer, they .re t r a 01----P“. and un.ojgor~ +J’ 11L-“ 0e 3. TIL” "zc‘tifl(,u-3 .5 “Dual be nude; J. l -1 .- ~..: 4 4‘- .. . .7 ._ 34.13 1.7.14.1. 7.101.). 4.12/13] markil riot 1- .2 ...L \jtjb U .‘ " A -_r -- -..~ . —“ -.“ 'r ‘ --.- ' -.>‘~ V'- f o v‘ -L~ftsd fo the Bichhilf” :.H- L ..rrlculu¢. Profs nor Iv: hellcrm r :11 U (D Q. (C H ‘1. C) (j O L. -+ f. d” (D‘— I f‘ {V C) lcnefitar; so boo l curr ‘.culum oiion I? J. ROSWu71 ”"1--3¥’“, "Can'fi 39.111, Sun't Read," Cnfylz:r, ”3C1, 1&1, J1; --- L, 1024:}, OBI-1.390 »Tm,1mes hlndersi V {’15. S 07.7 I? 71 prove his point. Thus, he started to give his son serious attention by following his interests and providing learning experiences which the child could assimilate. Noticing that his sm was making undreamed-of progress, Professor Reed expressed his observations in an article in _'I_‘_h_e_ Atlantic Monthly when he said: 18 Ability to read easily ard rapidly, a knowledge of arithmetic and geography roughly equivalent to the mrk of the third and even higher grades in the public schools, am an attitude toward intel- lectual pursuits which will make learning arxi stuck a pleasurable pursuit instead of a task during the rest of his life-«these are the achievements of little Erik, aged four years and three months. The saving in actual years of schooling, and the immediate capaci- ty for increased enjoyment, as well as tangible information pos- sessed, are almost too great to estimate in any comparison with school grades. Subtracting the first year and a half of his life, which were occupied with learning to walk, to talk, to manage a spoon, to avoid hot radiators, mercilessly hard corners of tables and chairs, ani the like, we can speculate interestingly upon the proportion of gain by the time the boy is twenty years old. We see, at any rate, that it pays to begin early to take advantage of the child's desire and ability to learn, which are manifest in infancy, ard which diminish from childtnod on through youth, maturity, middle age, and senility. . . I believe that he is more amenable to reason than if he were taught the school subjects in the usual stern and systematic method. The fallacy in Professor Reed's conclusion is that he abstracted a general principle from too few cases and he could be criticized for using his son, who was obviously atypical, for the basis of his obser- vatiors. Other writers criticized the elementary school curriculum, but some writers did not base their criticisms on personal observations as Professor Reed did-«at least, they used more conclusive data to Justify their contentions. Another general criticism of the elementary school curriculum was related-to the teaching of literature in the grades. Edward Yeomans 18 Ivy Kellennan Reed, "The Three R's at Four Years Old, " _'l_‘___he W m V01. 123. Hay. 1919, pp. 6614-668. 72 claimed that the teacher was the crucial concern in the teaching of literature. That teachers did not always understand the purposes of the school was one of his contentions. While his objection was not couched in terms of mthod or content, is focused attention on the teacher whose duty it was to facilitate learning. He remarked: 19 It particularly remains for school people to show that they fully understand what schools are form-arr] then proceed to put tl'B emphasis upon those things that are radical; that produce an enlightened heart and a right spirit within us, to guide a trained mind and hand. By tin magic of intimate friendly intercourse with a wise and sympathetic teacher, who can interpret life and its arts to his pupils, who long ago accepted Whitman's philosophy and asks not good fortune within himself and distributes it wherever he goes, you get a school 3 and by no other means or method whatsoever. For a school, said a greatteacher the other day in my hearing, has always been Just a person--is now--and ever shall be 3 substi- tutes are invariably futile. Thus, if one Judges the validity of these criticisms on the basis of the number of the articles in 113 Atlantic Monthly dealing With the curriculum, one would have to conclude that the writers did not view the. curriculum as the most important problem in the field of elementary education. The only subJects to be treated were geography, music, and literature; if this had been of primary concern to the writers, they would have dealt with many of the other subjects with which the ele- 1“eatery school curriculum is concerned. An explanation for this dearth 01‘ articles concerned with the curriculum may be found in the fact that Q: Atlantic Monthly is not a professional magazine which deals with ‘echnical subJects related to the school; the articles were chosen on tin basis of their wideSpread appeal to a non-professional reading audience. Furthermore, the professional Journals in the field of E Edward Yeomans, "literature in tin Grades ," The; Atlantic Monthl , Vol. 127, March, 1921, pp. 328-337. 73 education were designed to treat technical problems. Thus, the articles tend to be more general than specific. But the articles of a general nature do reflect some of the broader problems of society and suggest that changes in society were demanding attention in the field of education. Conflicts Between Classicists and. Modernists One of the general problems was reflected in the conflict between tin classicists and modernists, but this problem was not peculiar to 1:}: field of elementary education alone. Mary authors raised objections about the developments in the schools, and these obJections seem to indicate a sort of disagreement with these modern developments. The objections definitely reflect a philosophical position, and the author's 311dgments were further influenced by their background of experience. Such an obJection was raised by L.B.R. Briggs, professor at Harvard University. Professor Briggs dis counted the new education and opined that the changes which he was experiencing in the educational world Would lead to chaos. No doubt Professor Briggs over-stated the case by using the word chaos, for this has not been the case. He referred to himself as old-fashioned in these terms: 20 Old-fashiomd people have old-fashioned doubts about what ‘ seems to than a showy all-around substitute for education,--a sort of bluff at general culture, such as we see when children, at great expense to their schools (tin new education is almost ruinously expensive), dissipate their minds by studying a little of every- thing. . .The curse of modern education is multiplication of sub- Jects and painless methods. I suspect that in another generation we may even overdo the 'enriching' of the granular school. I do not undervalue the pleasure ard the profit of wlmt is called '1 bowing scqusintame' with a variety of subJects: the mistake is to accept 25 LB .R. Briggs, ”Old-Fashioned Doubts About New-Fashioned Edu- fimtion," 1'! Atlantic Morrthl , Vol. 86, October, 1900, pp. 1463a-h70. 711 such an acquaintance as education. I still doubt whether we can do better for our children than, first, to drill them in a few subjects, mostly old ones: then to give time a modest general education in college, or in all but the last year or two of college; then to let them specialize as energetically as they can (but not exclusively),-throughom to keep in their minds not pleasure only, but the stern Lawgiver who wears the Godhead's most benignant grace. Thus, Professor Briggs inflected his conservative position. His objection to the multiplieaticm of the school subjects was prompted by the development of new subjects which were introduced as a result of the study of the suture of the child and a more scientific way of planning the learning emcriences im the school. He supported the textbook-centered rather than the child-centered curriculum, and his ..:-giant about the expense of the new education was not his principal objection. Naturally, a teacher who mes the textbook method of tcaching can handle far more students than a teacher who uses the Child-centered method of teaching. The latter method, taken to its Ultimate extreme, would mean that there would be a teacher for every student; perhaps, Briggs had this in mind when he comtemied that the child-centered method of tasting was 'ruinously expensive." The conflict between the classicists an! moderniste was reflected in another article which was penned by Agnes Repplier. The argument took the form of a disagreemmt with the content, method, and phi- losopw of the new education. n11. it is true that these general “ticles cemented upon quite different aspects of the school program, the autl'nr's point of view can be determined readily. Repplier's position indicates her disagreemwt with modern education, and her Qnumeration of tasks for the child to learn shows her impatience with 75 the my! 9112- She “£1321 It is not enough that the child should be taught to handle skillfully the tools of all learning,--reading, writing, ani- arithnetic: his sense of form and his aesthetic nature must be developed by drawing; his land must be trained by manual work; his musical nature must be awakened by song; he must be brought into harmony with his external environment by means of nature lessons and the study of science; his patriotic impulses must be roused by the study of American history and by flag drills; temperance must be instilled into his by lessons in physioloy, with special reference to the effects of alcohol on the human system; his imagination must be cultivated with the help of Greek and Norse mythology ; he must gain some knowledge of the great heroes std events of general history; he must acquire a love for and an appreciation of the best literature through the plentiful reading of masterpieces, while at the sane time to: mind should be stocked with choice gens of prose and verse which will be a solace to his throughout his later life; it might be well if, ty displacing a little arithmetic or geography he could gain some knowledge of the elements of Latin or a modern language; in some manner must be roused in his a love of trees, a respect for birds, an antipathy of cigarettes, and an aabitioa for clean streets; , and somewhere, somewl'ere in this and chaos he must learn to spellt Do you wonder that teacbrs in progressive schools confide to us that they fear their pupils are slightly bewildered? Do you wonder that pupils do not gain the habit art! the power ,of concentrated, consecutive work? Elsewhere, Repplier quoted Wilson Farrand's opinion, taken from his book, _1'_h_e_ Existing Relations Between m 313 College, in support of her contention. She loathed the doctrine of interest which appeared to b. very important to the progressives. Interest alone was not her primary concern, since she felt that tbre were principles and laws Which were far more valid than this criterion of interest. Taken to its ridiculous extreme, the doctrine of interest could mean that the child 3130u1d be free to pursue his interests of the moment to the exculsion 01’ other things. However , this leasing of the ten represents a popular- ization which the modernists did not attach to the term. The quotation 21' Ignes Repplier "Popular Education," _T_}_1_e_ Atlantic Monthl , vol. 113’ Jam, 19 , pp. 1.8. 76 which she chose to support her objection was :22 'The theory that school work nust appeal to a child's fluctuating tastes, must attract a child's involuntary attention, does grievous wrong to the rising generation; yet it is upheld in high places, am fonts the subject-hatter of many addresses vouchsafed year after year to long-suffering teachers. They should bring to bear the energizing force of interest, they should magnetite their pupils into work. Even Dr. Eliot rotunda them with Just a hint of reproach that if a child is interested, he will not be disorderly, am this reiterated statement appears to be the crux of the whole difficult situation. let us boldly suppose that a child is not interested,--and in say conceivably weary even of films,--is it then optional with his to be or not to be disorderly, and what is tin effect of his disorder on other children whose tastes nay differ fron his own?‘ Another writer sunmazized the conflict between the Classicists 111d nodernists by poking gentle fun at the modern educators who were typified by a “sake-believe, bustling kind“ of enterprise. He held to the old tried and true principle of mental discipline, which had had Wide curreney during the nineteenth century. This idea implied a textbook-oriented learning situa tion which did not take into account the nature of the child nor his needs in society. The child was viewed 8-8 a vessel to be filled with the facts, and it made little difference thur these facts would be used in later life or not. It was felt that the mind ought to be disciplined and formd by the facts which Wore to be found in textbooks, axd my people felt that transfer of training would occur autonatieally in real life situations. The inplications of this poird. of view led Samuel Orth to take this illtsdglnent:23 These,‘briefly, are the charges. They may be su-ned up by saying that, in a very general ami unsatisfactory way, the schools teach the elements of mental processes; that they, to this extent id.’ p. 6. 23 Samuel P. Orth, nPlain'Facts About Public Schools," Eh: Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 103, March, 1909, pp. 287-297. 77 only, teach morals; and that they leave the aptitudes, manual and mental, in about as dormant a condition as they found them. Maybe, if there were more genuine enterprise, not the make- believe, bustling kind, among educators, there would be a great deal less carping and parsimoniousness on the part of the people. Maybe the public would hail with great joy and cooperation such an energizing of the schools. Kathe it is too much to hope that this tranquility, freedom, and enterprise shall ever abide in the schools that belong to an impulsive public which often seems to prefer a self-complacent mediocrity to a virile efficiency. Orth's summary indicates serious public concern about the role of the public schools in American society. Under the impact of various changes in American society; many people were asking if the schools should do more tram shape the mental processes. The mere fact that writers were raising the point indicates that society was beginning to demand more from the schools than drill, rote learning, and memory work to meet the new demands of society. Progssive Education After 1921 the term "progressive education" was used extensively in 213 Atlantic Monthly. While John Dewey's philosophy had been formu- lated arr! tested in actual classroom situations long before this date, it took some time for the movement to become widespread in the school Systems throughout the United States. Remembering that America entered World War I and devoted her energies to the winning of that war, one Would be safe in surmising that much of the creative energies of the eountry went into the war effort. Thus, in the post war period, when a(Haiety was examining the schools, pm gressive education was a force which received considerable attention. The editors of 23 Atlantic Mental felt compelled to inculde an explanatory note of the definite ‘fiu—J type of education which included the following characteristics and published them in the introductory materials which the editors appended 78 to the article when it appeared:2h 1. Competitive games in which there is some opportunityfor action. 2. The abardomnent of tie formal recitation. 3. A more flexible programme. )4. Correlation of book-knowledge with the daily life of the child. They suggested that the term was first used in 1919, but it should be pointed out that the definition given by the editors was a descriptive rather than a philosophical definition such as a professional educator might express. Also, the characteristics which the editors listed were intended for the general reading public and not for the professional educator whose knowledge would necessarily be more technical and more inclined to elicit a more specialized connotation than the general lay public would be expected to know. By liSting these characteristics of progressive education, the editors revealed that they were definitely. not familiar with the movement. According to Professors Edwards and .‘R.:1.chey,25 the progressive schools “exhibit a spirit of freedom; stress Child initiative and self-activity; abandon logically arranged subjects in favor of pro jects and units of work developed around central themes Or functions of social life 3 and emphasize self-expression and person- ality adjustment." Basically, progressive education's key words are: activity, purposes, child-centeredness, freedom, interest, self-r activity, and learning to do by doing. Thus, the editors of 3133 Atlantic Monthly used descriptive phrases which, at best, tell only part of the Story of greasive education. The issues between the conservatives ors' Note, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 127, February, 1921, p - 227. "" """"""" """'""" 25 Newton Edwards and Herman G. Richey, The School in The American SCmial Order, HoughtOn Mifflin Company, (New York, I§E'7)Tp'._735. 79 and progressives were summarized by William C. Bagley, conservative of 26 Teachers College, Columbia University, when he asked: Should our public schools prepare boys and girls for adult responsibilities through systematic training in such subjects as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, ard English, requiring mastery of such subjects, ard, when necessary, stressing discipline and obedieme, with informal learning recognized but regarded as supplementary rather than central? William H. Kilpatrick, leading spokesman for progressive education, ' ‘ 2 defined the issues in progressive education when he posed the question:7 Should our schools make central the informal learning of experience and activity work, placing much less stress on formal, systematic assignments, discipline,‘and obedience, arri instead seeking to develop pupil initiative, discipline, and responsibility as well as mastery of basic subjects, by encouraging pupils to show initiative and develop responsibility, with teachers, while in control, serving primarily as guides? In speaking of progressive education as it was understood in 1921, Cobb said:28 That the progressive movement is open to criticism, no one should intelligently deny. It is still young, still unformed, still empirical. It may on occasiors go to extremes in its reaction against the formalism of the present system. But it is a healthily growing movement, the defects of which time and experience. will eradicate. It is not as yet standardized. Therein lies its power and appeal. It is a movement still open to change, ready and eager for intelligent criticism ard aid. It is a movement for you and for me; and its ultimate will be what you and I conspire to make it. Even though the writers in 113:. Atlantic Monthly recognized the Progressive movement as such, it is interesting that they did not attack the movement as vigorously as some popular writers have during a later period. The articles discussing the movement were few ard inconclusive, Wgar W. Knight, Twenty Centuries of Education, Ginn and Com- pany, (Boston, 1910), p. E67. 27 Ibide, p. l407e 28 Wood Cobb, "A New Movement in Education," Th___e_ Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 127, February, 1921, pp. 227-231;. """""'""' and it is interesting to note that the editors of The Atlantic Monthly showed a marked misunderstanding of the progressive movement. Many people looked upon the pragmatic philosophy as an expression of America's affimtion of the scientific method in the realm of human behavior. The shift from other worldliness to this world's problems seemed to assure the experimental method a place in the American scheme of things. Walter 3. Monroe states a definition of pragmatism in these terms: “The keynote of experimentalism is the belief that the good life is most fully realized when maximum individual and social growth is taking place through the continuous process of reconstructing oxperience."29 The application of this definition in education is far removed from the traditional textbook method with rote memory and the accumulation of vast bodies of factual information which have little application in terms of the reconstruction of human experience. Claude M. Feuss, Headmaster of Phillips Academy, Andover, Masa- achusetts, commented warmly upon progressive education in an article which appeared in the early 1930's. His article reflects a growing acceptance of the movement, and it is significant that the director of an academy would lend support to the accomplishment of this new philosophy. Feuss underlined t1: effects of progressive education when he said:30 Progressive Education was organized as a movement and slowly adOpted as a creed. No one familiar with education to—day can deny that there has been an astonishing change in the attitude of the teacher toward his pupils. He regards them as individuals, not as a dozen or a hundred similar units, ard treats them not only with 29 Filter 8. Monroe, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, The Macmillan Company, (New York, I955}, p.191“ 30 Claude M. Feuss, "The New Spirit in Education,” T__h_e Atlantic Monthli, V01. 153, June, 193,4, pp. 753.7600 81 firmness but also with sympathy. . .That the modern school is a friendly, somewhat intimate place-mot a pentitentiary--is due to the influence of the teacher. The old time pcdagogue was likely to be remote, inaccessible, and austere, convinced that his function was chi efly punitive. His twentieth-century successor is more amiable, more cooperative, perhsps more worldly. It must be admitted tint there were even a century ago some wise am stimu- lating teachers, with the ability to amuse younger disciples. But with even the best of then the relationship was that between a drill sergeant am his squad of privates, and the idea ’of compulsion was seldom absent. The modern technique has given real teachers a shame. . .It has been intimated that conditions in our schools are better now than they were. What has been called the Progressive Education movement has done much to alter the situation. The Progressive Educators, like all enthusiasts, have been fanatics, enotionalists, cha rlatans, contemptuous of tradition, aiming chiefly to criticize and destroy. But it is largely because of the sanity, the courage, and the persistence of their leaders that education in the United States is more effective under Franklin Roosevelt than it was under Andrew Jackson. Doctor Carl Joachim Friedrich, Associate Professor of Government at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massuchesetts, was moved to cement upon progressive education after a visit to the fanned Lincoln School in New York City. His visit to the school was made in 1923, and he explained that he promptly forgot the methods used in that school until his daughter was old enough to enter the primary school. His remarks indicate a disagreement with the methods of pregressive education as he unierstood it, but he is the only writer to raise any objections during the period with which this study is concerned. His criticism of the method was motivated by personal considerations rather than the broad Positive philosophical considerations which motivated Feuss. Speaking in informal and intimte terns, he said :31 My thoughts did not return to the subject of primary education with any amount of vigor until our children approached school age. To be sure, one argumerm which I had used in discussing the Lin- coln School with my friend had stuck in my mind, and I had at times repeated it when the question of elementary education came up at tea rties. Perhaps it had stayed with me merely because she had BI Carl Joachim Friedrich, "This Progressive Education," The Atlantic M__o______nth1y, Vol. 151;, October, 1931;, pp. 1:21-1:26. 82 not‘been able to amwer it, though I am afraid it did not affect her, since she later went in for progressive education in a big way. I had asked her simply: 'Don't you think that such a school is better for children like yours, who can look forward to a life of leisure and comfort?" It was really a horrid question to ask her, since she was an avowed progressive and social reformer, and nothing was probably as repellent to her as the thought of a leisure class. Ard yet, when I elaborated my point, she found it momentarily convincing, or maybe she was merely polite. "My children,‘ I told her, 'will have to work for a living, and the likelihood is that they will be professional men like myself. Now the competition in all lines of professional work is daily more severe. If we go further in the direction of a socialized community, that competition will further increase, because opportunities will be given to gifted children of impecunious parents who will struggle the harder, since their chance to get an education will depend upon their proficiency. This series of articles indicates that $12 Atlantic Monthly recognized the importance of the school of pragmatic philosophy and its implications for education. Only one writer questioned the movement in education, and the champions of the movement appeared quite complimentary on the whole. But the movement came in for extreme critical attack during the early 1950's. These attacks seemed to parallel the widespread feeling of disillusionment in this country following the economic dislocations of the post war period and America's axilitary support of the United Nations in South Korea. Pregnatism also influenced other social institutions; and one could say that the pragmatic philosoxahy, with its emphasis upon the fundamental dignity and respect for the individual, had many implications in society at large as well as in specialized social insitutions. inequalities in. Education Because of the unequal economic and social situation; in the several States, there was a tremendous variation in the school systems through- Out the country. Even though public education was supported by a ~ 83 tax-paying public, many states simply did not have the wherewithal to develop a system of elementary schools and provide the necessary buildings, supplies, and staffs to man them. In the South, the support of a dual school system strained tin economy to such an extent that the negro schools did not receive as much financial support as did the public semols for the whit es. Rural schools appeared to suffer more in this regard than did the public city schools; and because the South is largely agricultural, one must admit that the status of negro edueation in the South must have suffered enormously. Several national philanthropic organizations donated huge sums of money to help equalize educational opportunities in the South. What started out as an ambitious program of school construction by the Julius Rosenwald Fund terminated with a thorough study of the elementary schools in fifteen Southern states. The committee wh'L ch made the study of the elementary schools was horrified to discover that the school program was composed largely of drill, rote learning, and incompetert teachers. As a result of the stucv, The Julius Rosenwald Fund decided to appropriate money to aid in tin education of Negroes in the South. Edwin R. Bubree reported the 2 situation in this manner-:3 Int m consider, then, what we should expect te-day from the little red school-houses of the countryside. First, whatever else is done, the school must provide skill in the use of the three R's. No child is prepared to take his place in the modern world without competence in reading, writing, and arithmetic. language and number are tools so basic to our civilization that teaching them is the first task of any school. The only thing we need to remember in this connection is that language and amber are, after all, simply tools to be used in various ,ways. They are not ends in themselves. The chief fault in the teaching of them is that trn lessons in reading and writing and arithmetic become so formalized that the pupil scarcely under- 32 Edwin R. Embree, "Little Red Schoolhouse-—l938 Model," The Atlantis Monthly, Vol. 160, November, 1937, pp. 636-6143. 6h stands why he is learning then. In fact, in spite of the great amount of time devoted to these primry subjects, a shocking anchor of children—especially in the rural regions-41o not acquire even an elementary krowledge of then. In addition to the three R's, the rural pupil should get an acquaintance with two other fields: handerafts and the processes of nature. We advocate these not at all as 'vocational subjects,‘ but simply as essential tools quite as general in their use as language or aritlmctie. Now the addition of these other fields(natm'e study, art, music) of interest will not in itself protect the school from rote teaching, but it will help toward eomecting the lessons With life. The big problem is to get each of the elementary tools constantly applied so that there will be a clear relationship between living awi learning, between too ls ard their application. This is what is meant by theslogan 'learning by doing.‘ It is the basis of the programmes of tin so-cailed activity schools and the chief feature of the movement which calls itself 'progressive education.‘ Skill and knowledge-wit cannot too often be repeated-- are of no value unless they are put to use; children cannot learn even the elementary skills unless they practice then. The study of the nation's school systems by private ani public groups was caused by many factors. The great depression of the 1930's caused society to question all of its public ami many of its private institutions. New developments in the public schools which were related to the applications of the pragmatic philosophy to education contributed to the turmoil in fie entire educational scheme in this country. The elementary schools received far more critical attention in The Atlantic Monthly than the public secondary scrools, and this was true because compulsory attendance laws forced the masses to stay in school longer. Mass unemployment tended to force the secondary school students to remain in school, as there were not enough jobs to absorb all of the Secondary school students who wanted to go to work before completing their high school training. These were some of the reasons for the Critical articles which appeared in _T_h_e_ Atlantic Monthly during the 1930's. 85 Critical Attacks 32 Education One of the met critical articles to appear was written by Maude Dutton Lynch. She brought into sharp focus nany elements of the I elementary school which caused concern. Her article was written during the depression, am it is perhaps indicative of the mass loss of faith in public education which the depression encouraged. She said :33 As a nation we have become not only education-co nscious but education-mad. Consider the disconsolate father who, as he sits before the fire with catalogues of thirty boys' schools piled high before bin, regrets that his only can can take advantage of but one of these de luxe opportunities which are offered his. That is the case more or less with all of us annous parents. And to be sure that to child of ours shall nice any of his chances, we have joined eagerly with educators, psychologists, and other parents to organize and develop a standardized programe of living which, almost fron birth to adulthood, our children have no escape. And What is this pngranne that has been so carefully devised by specialists? At 15 nentns of age, about the time the average child walks alone, we find this small individual entering school life. Brought at nine or ten in the norning to a preschool, he is carefully examined for colds and charted for future study. Then together with a group of children of his own age, he is put out to play with toys which psychological tests have shown to be the proper size, weight, and interest for his tender nuscles and awakening mind. Later he is fed a properly balanced seal, prescribed by an export dietitian, and then put to bed for a definite period of rest and sleep. At a duly appointed hour he is returned to his waiting nurse or mother to be taken hone. As he grows older his toys change to suit his years, his meals become more varied, and ‘is day at the pro-school lengthens. This, in essence, is his life for nine, ten, or possibly twelve months of the year until he reaches regulation school age. (When he is six years old he enters first grade, which is usually a half day session. The afternoons he spends in the park, under the watchful supervision of a nurse where linitation of space and lack of suitable mterials make nornal play practical- ly impossible. By the time he has reacted the fourth or fifth grade his school day has been extended into the afternoons, and this is followed by an hour or two of organized play. Saturday-- or chat is left of it after the barber, the dentist, and the orthopaedic surgeon have deducted their dues-~is usually un- scheduled up to this age, but fron then on it falls more and more into the hands of boys' and girls' clubs, Scout organizations, nusie teachers, and dancing masters. In short, by the time the 33 iadue Dutton Lynch, "Conscripted Children," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. lh8, August, 1931, pp. 232-236. 86 child has reached his teens he is likely to be carrying an eight- or nine-hour job practically six days a week. This, in brief, is the system which has been laid out for us by child experts ard educators generally, and the well-to-de parents of.America have accepted it without question as the normal and natural procedure in the upbringing of their children. Thus, in an era of peace, we are conseripting our children for education Just as deliberately as, in time of war, we are conscripting our children for the army. . . Someone--I think it was Amy Lewell--has said that no one would ever be a poet who wasaflt born one, for it is too hard work. It may'be that parents are poets of a sort, and that being a parent is too difficult a job for those who are not born to it. So, after all, we need not be too astonished to discover that thousands of fathers and mothers are complacently abdicating their responsibilities and allowing their children.to be conscripted into the ranks of standardized schooling which we so ignerantly call education. An anonymous writer--she remained anonymous for fairly obvious reasonsumade some critical cements because teacher's salaries were not paid during the depression in.ohicago. The article is written in the form of a diary, and it is very effective in giving a dramatic punch to what she has to say. Even though society had an abiding faith in education, it became apparent that teachers were the first group to feel the cut-backs in salaries during the economic upheavel of the thirties. To give a representative picture of the situation, the writer of this paper has chosen notations from the diary which show the development of the crisis in.Chicage. Here are the teacher's reflections33h ‘March 29.-—Infuriated by the constant use of the phrase 'unpaid teachers' by the newspapers to force selfish legislation through Springfield, I stepped to the telephone te-night and asked to speak with the editor of the Herald and Examiner. I actually got his and talked for ten.minutes Before he summoned a reporter to take down what I had to say. . .tht I wanted, I said, was a radio broadcast by leading teachers urging citizens to wire their representatives at Springfield that the teaching body did not want 3H I"5pcsnodic Diary of a Chicago Schoolteacher," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 152, November, 1933, pp. 513-526. 87 the rights of voters jeopardized by the use of 'teachers' nelfare' as a screen. To my surprise I got it. In less than an hour and a half I heard my own words being hurled back at me by four speakers. They sounded a trifle hysterical, but all right. . .I have been told that I have a 'messianic cosplex.’ June 9.-The last day of school is always anticlinatic._Today was doubly se.‘We‘were turned loose for the summer without pay and without hope of pay.‘lhat I need is to be turned out to pasture, but instead I shall have to find a job. The family is furious at my independence-~two letters on the subject today; 'Ccme and spend the summer with us.‘ Can't be done darlings, unless I can go like the wise men, bearing gifts. And I can't. July 10.-Yesterday the Board passed a so—called economy measure wiping out the junior high schools, closing the one junior college in the city, and abolishing all manual training and domestic science in the grade schools. Teachers' classes in the high schools will.be increased from five to seven, and there is to be one principal for every two grammar schools. Swimming instruction, too, is wiped out, and the physical education department is halved. This is the second step in a programme designed to wreck public education. The first was to starve the teaching ferce into submission. This action is in direct conflict with the National Recovery.Act, since it adds to unemployment by throwing more than 1,000 teachers out of work. , From 1939 to 19h? The Atlantic Monthly was strangely quiet on the subject of elementary education. However, there were many articles dealing with higher education, religion in education, priority in education, and other subjects. Since the United States was again inp valved in global war, it is understandable that the writers would be concerned with the war effort. One can find this same concern in the professional educational journals during this period when such topics as: education for victory, education and the war effort, the army train- ing methods, and post-war problems in education. With so many teachers lost to industry to help in war production and the continued reminder of the postawar boon in.onrollnent due to increased birth rates during the war, one might explain this hiatus with a great deal of difficulty. The general Federation of women's Clubs in collaboration.with‘ggg Atlantic Monthly offered a prize of $1,000.00 for the best essay on 88 education, and the judges chose two winners out of the hundreds of articles which were submitted from all over the United States. Miss Grace Williamson, graduate of the University of Alabama and teacher in her home state, was one of the winners in this contest. Williamson's essay on "Schools I Want And How To Get Them" followingS By all means, I‘d like to have special schools for problem children. Here the toasters would have very special training to cope with the intricate mazes of the minds of children who steal, annoy others, show complete indifference. These special teachers should have only a very few children. This arrangement would then allow the regflar teachers more time to spend with a normal group. There should also be schools for the gifted children, the mmsually bright children. They would be a challenge to one another, just as the Quiz Kids are, and would have to work to capacity. Too often today, in our zeal for taking care of the average children, we neglect the bright. I want schools with the best equipment possible. This would include comfortable seats for all children. Today in many schools we are Procrustean in our ideas. We expect big children to fit in small desks aml little children to pull themselves out to fit large desks. The lighting arrangement should be adequate. There are too many moms makirg out with the scanty provision of one or WO drOp cords with small bulbs. If the building is steam-heated, the furnace and the radiators should be in good working order. Furnace heat is not much good to you unless you can depend on it to keep warm. There should be plenty of books, maps, globes, visual aids of all kinds. Today there is a dearth of maps especially. I believe, in a few short years, there will be a psychiatrist in every school. They need to be there to help children who are obsessed with fears of death, of the end of the world coming; to help those who are handicapped by inferiority complexes. She should also help decide what children should be sent to the school for problem children. I want every school to lave the free services of a doctor, a nurse, and a dentist. In a check-up, if it is found that a child has malocclusion, it will mt merely be noted on his card and then the card filed away. Something will be done about it. Then when we have educated ourselves to live in peace with the rest of the world, maybe we can take the money that we would have spent on war and use that on education. Catherine Squires who was educated in North Dakota and was serving as Chairmn of the New London School Board in New London, New Hampshire, 35 Grace Williamson, "Schools I Went And How To Get Them,” The At lantic Lonthly, Vol. 180, July, 19m, pp. h1-u3. 89 was the other winner of the contest. It is significant that the judges felt led to award the prize for these two essays, for they appear to emphasize different aspects of the problem. Squires states her case in these temsz36 I believe, first of all, that the need for new and improved schools must be met. Secondly, the schools I want will have better teachers with better pay. Thirdly, the schools I nantmill have rethotght their whole philosophy of education. Most schools ought to re-exanine their objectives. Aside from some markedly pro- greesive--er conservative—private schools, an! public vocational schools, who knows wrst many tax-supported institutions wish to accomplish? For what are they trying to educate? Even in the vocational groups there might be a questioning of the course to see if the student is given, to quote Robert M. Hutchins, Chancellor of the University of Chicago, ‘a sense of purpose which will illuminate mt merely the forty hours he works but the seventy tm r. does not.‘ These, then, are the schools I want: more and better-equipped physical structures; schools with better teachers, better paid; revised curricula with released time for religious instruction; and an al l—prevading emphasis on world-mimiedness. Summary and Conclusions Thus, the articles dealing with elementary education ranged from very general comments about the aims and objectives of education to a sort of ”how to" set of articles during the period under study. Looking at the majority of the articles on elementary education, one should observe that the writers, on the whole, did not give evidence that they were cognizant of the tremendous changes which were taking place in education as a result of the economic revolution which was taking place in the enocomy. While it is true that the economy was changed from a rural to an industrial one during the nineteenth century, the full impact of this change was not felt until the first few decades of the twentieth century. Fron a careful look at the writers' comments in 3‘22 Atlantic Monthly one does not see. evidence that the role of education Wtherine Tuttle Squires, "Schools I Want And How To Get Them,“ The.Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 180, September, 19h7, pp. 76-78. 90 was expanding and that education would have far-reaching contributions to make in the training of citizens for the new type of social order which the industrial revolution effected. Many of the articles appearing in this chapter indicate that educators were slow to recognize their expanding opportunities in the light of the problems raised. If one may judge the editor's position regarding education from the articles he chose to publish, it would appear that he was inclined to maintain the status 322 rather than to suggest new methods of coping with educational problems. Furthermore, the editor shows marked his-under- standing of educational theory in his definition of progressive educ- ation. The most serious bias exhibited by the editor of’Thg.Atlantic Monthly lies in his presenting the idealistic and pragmatic positions to the expulsion of other approaches to educational theory. Thus, one would be justified in concluding that the articles dealing with elementary education.were not representative of what was transpiring in the school systens in the United States during this period. Since £22.Atlantic Monthly was not concieved to be a manual for the professional educator, one can understand the broad and general treatnent of problems in the field. This broad and general treatment of problems in the field of elementary education is appropriate for the purposes of’the magazine, fbr the reading public to which the magazine appeals is highly heterogeneous. Such problems as: individual differ- ences, instructional methods and techniques, discipline, intelligence, achievement testing, organization, administration, and supervision were properly confined to the professional educational journals which were established to deal specifically with these types of problems in elementary education. The value of a general treatment of educational 91 problems lies in the fact that a popular literary magazine exerts influence among the universityhtrained reading audience, which might not subscribe to the educational journals. Therefore, the reading audience of this magazine would not find the problems treated from the point of view of the professional educator except in so far as a professional educator might contribute articles to this magazine. Wherever possible, the identifications of professional educators have been made so the reader of this paper may make his own judgments on. the matter. Education was not the only field to be discussed in TE: Atlantic Monthly by professional people, as there are articles on foreign.policy, international affairs, domestic and foreign.trade, and others, written by specialists in these fields. The next chapter deals with the problems of secondary education as they are reported in Th: Atlantic Monthly. Not too many articles dealing with secondary education were published, for this magazine printed a vast amount of materials on the college and university. Some important problems were discussed in the field of secondary education,- particularly those which show the relationship of the secondary schools to the colleges and universities-—; and these articles will be treated systematically. CHAPTER IV TTr ~e.,9 ,-\.F -,~\O\,\ 1N. . ' {i I . ‘, I ~-‘ " -'\"‘> *I -~‘ , ’4- - - ;'-‘ ad‘luo s:'hi soretiiq, on the fixture Li ole oncarf sL-d c t3.un in 9‘1- the Unit ad States from the join of ‘flGW of The M got1c ”out--y, one should consider the do nxstraole aspects of sec mz1dar" edrcation in this country. Imbortant as two second r7 son:ols are in t21e A rican r“crti nal so h-me, can? people iook uron he sccaniarj sohon COHtiRUltitn of t11e la“ ntar" schools. Ellz:3d UHUu‘“t”", eminent educational Historian, egoke o; tjo state univers t; as t1e "capstone” of the.American ed110ational """L_u; and it is t“:s orogram between the college and the elementary school with WfliCh this chapter is concerned. The secondary seasols at the beginninr of :1e twentieth century wzre quite difierent in purpose and organization from the academy, wl1ich was the most popular form or the secondary school in the United States until about 1Léo. It gzow out of the Latin Gr an ar SCflUOl, and the academy e 1joyed its to tridesproad popularity during the nineteent 11 centuiy . B: 360 there were count 6 ,OOO academies wiLh more than _ l . 2oo,ooo pupils enrolled. Siice the academy 3110 led lar3elv to t1om 'who'were going on to college and since tie enrollments in the 1 eleiultar‘r scuools continued to swell drring the last quarter of the a .i11eteenth cen+ try, a need developed for a seem "Gar" 504001 for at dents Who were not @JBLClHutL 3 college ew'tran .C'er inro“*"wt reasons ior the development of a different type ofsecc3d1r" sc1ool ixc eludes: th) need for a termizal institution, the desire for a Lore practical . _ ‘ e . I 3.33 1. ...,5— 3 _ ..-" _‘ 3 3 3 ____ 3‘1__: 3 '3 1 curriculum, tie inc: asicg HLflHCrS of StpU‘LtS Who were tuning ao- § G.) vanta .ge of soccrdar“ education, and txo legalization 01 free public 1 C.W. Odell, The Second: r' School, The Garrard P'”‘S,(Gdun73iah, Illinois), 193?, p. F, 93 education through the secondary school which was made possible through the decision of the famous Kalamazoo Case of 1671:. Furthermore, a continuing interest in the applications of science to industry and other fields called for a different type of secondary school. Benjamin Franklin had introduced the notion that this country needed a secondary school which would serve the needs of students whose interests lay in practical subjects , as distinguished from the classical curriculum of the Latin grammar school. Education and M 211335: The first half of the twentieth century was a period of formant and change in the field of secondary education. Some stability in the secondary school was effected as a result of the study of the situation by The Gomittee of Ten, but many educators did not agree that a classical emphasis was the solution to the problems which areas. The old idea of a liberal education whose primary comern was with an aristocratic class was looked upon as inadequate to meet the changing needs of society. Confusion as to aims and purposes or secondary edu- cation took the form of a conflict between those who supported the theory of mental discipline am those who demanded a more realistic approach which would take into consideration the actual life needs of people. Henry I. Holmes underlined the importance of this confusion by calling for a re-statensnt of the aims of education. He apparently realised the relationship between philosophy and actual practice, but he did mt venture a statement of sins. He merely pointed out that confusion was the result of the lack of sins. Holmes' statement was:2 Our confusion as to purposes is one of the reasons for the 5 Enry I. Holmes, "Chaos or Cosmos in American Education,‘ The Atlantic Monthly, V01. 1140, OCtObor, 1927, we 1493-503. 9h lack of a coherent system of schools in this country. There is no discernible consistency in the multiplicity of our educational units and their endless variations. Six-year elementary schools stand alongside eight-year and seven-year junior high schools, or no Junior high schools, together with proposals for the four-year junior high school. Is have 'regular four-year high schools and senior high schools of three years. The Junior college, a two-year unit beyond the senior high schools, has been added in a rapidly increasing number of cities, chiefly in the West, and without exact definition of its function. . .In general, the organization of our schools, whether public or private, offers no testimony that we have translated into a definite scheme of schooling any clear and progressive philosophy of the social comequences of education. Our schools form a maze, a labyrinth, with arw number of entry points and exits. Our procedure lacks not only simplicity but integrity. It is a sprawling, spineless profusion of educational ' opportunities . ' Coalitiom such. as Holmes described reflect that society was emeriment- ing with new types of system to meet the needs of twentieth century man. Those who viewed change as bad or wanted to hold to accepted patterns could be called conservatives, and this element was quite vocal in the support of the theory of mental discipline. But some writers were Just as insistent that the theory of mental discipline was not realistic and therefore ought to be disregarded in the field of education. Abraham Flemr's position was that mental discipline was a moot question, and he expressed his point of view in this manner: 3 when doubts are suggested as to the value of certain time- honored subjects included in the elementary and secondary curriculum, one is told that the subjects in question are valuable because they 'train the mind.' 'l‘raining the mind' is therefore a phrase which expressed a definite educational theoryuthe theory, namely, that the most important function of the school is to discipline the mental faculties so that in after life they will be servicable instruments ready for effective use. The faculties to be thus trained are memory, reason, imagination, observation. People who believe in 'training the mird,‘ or in 'formal discipline, t which is the same thing technically expressed, almost invariably held that the time-honored subjecteo-Iatih, algebra, geometry, and so on-u-best serve his purpose. They believe that subjects which will themselves probably never be used furnish the most effective mental 3 Ib‘raham Flexner, "Education as Mental Discipline,” The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 119, April, 1917, pp. 1452-14614. 9S gymnastic, to use another favorite expression; that memory developed by learning Letin gramar, observation practiced in distinguishing moods and tenses, reason practiced in algebraic or geometrical operations, are so new weapons, in fighting trim, ready to be put to such uses as arise out in the world sub- sequently. The theory of mental discipline or formal discipline is therefore the bulwark of conventional or traditional education. Thus, Flexmr made the point that mental discipline was the chief concern of those who did not want to accept aw other theory of edu- cation. In some instances, the theory of mental discipline is uls'esolved today; but , on the whole, this theory has been replaced by a different conception of education. Those who subscribed to this theory believed in a static type of educational experience which could best be de- scribed in terms of formal drill and rote learning; but those who disagree with the theory look upon education as a dynamic process which takes into account personality constructs which the former theory would not accept. 393 Marga mom E9231 One factor which encouraged the establishment of secondary schools was the increasing number of school laws, particularly in the State of nassachusetts where in 1827 a law was enacted to encourage a non- college preparatory school. After the Civil War new ecommic and social forces were responsible for the rapid spread of the secondary school. The Kalamazoo Decision of 187).; was perhaps the most important mile- stone in the history of Amrican education, for it legalized the levying of taxes on the community for the support of secondary edu- cation. The importance of this decision lay in the fact that other states cited this precedent in passing seasures which would assure a system of secordary schools which would be free ad supported by the coammrdty at large. The next step in the evolution of the modern public 96 secondary school was the decision by the several states to support this particular type of secondary system. Thus, by 1690 the United States Bureau of Education listed 2,526 secondary schools whose enrollments included more than two-thirds of all the pupils enrolled in the secondary schools in the United States. The rapid spread of popular secondary schools and the increasing demands for reform by the colleges led to a serious study of the secondary schools in the last decade of the nineteenth century. Studies 2;: Secordafl Education Professor Charles I. Eliot, President of Harvard University, was largely responsible for a careful study of the secondary schools by an outstanding group of educators. Eliot was motivated to look into the problems of secondary education because he felt that in order to improve the work of the college both the elementary and secondary schools must be improved. He prevailed upon the National Education, Association to finance such a study, and the association appropriated the money for the Committee of 'l'enh which began its study in the last decade of the nineteenth century. The work of the comittee had far-reaching effects upon the whole school program in this country. One influence of this study was to connect the work of the elementary school with that of the high school; it also had a definite influence on the private colleges and state universities. Summarizing the impact of the work of this I: The members of The Committee of Ten were: Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard University; Iilliam T. Harris, Commissioner of Education; James R. Ansell, Pmsident of the University of Michigan; John Tetlow, Headmaster of Girls' High School, Boston; James ll. Taylor, President of Vassar College; Oscar D. Robinson, Principal of the High School, Albaw; James H. Baker, President of the University of Colorado; Richard H. Jesse, President of the University of Missouri; James, 0. Mackenzie, Headmaster of Lawrenceville School; and Henry C. King, Professor, Oberlin College. 97 famous comittee, Edgsr'l. Knight lists these points:5 As early as 1893 definite recommendations were made by The Committee of Ten, and a few years later by the Committee of Five. Out of these and other suggestions the scope of secondary education is being extended dalmard by what is known as the junior high school and upward by the so-called Junior college. The one movement seeks to afford a richer educational opportunity to provide for individual differences, to co-ordinate elementary and secondary education more closely, to furnish educational guidance, and to save time; the other undertakes to solve the problems arising in the increased numbers who desire and deserve educational advantages beyond those provided by the conventional high school, in the congested conditions of the colleges and in the demand for easier access to higher educational opportunities and for the reduction of expenses involved in leaving home for such advantages. The Junior-high-school movement has developed rapidly, but the Junior college has not yet nade wide popular appeal. Even though the Comittee of Ten did not attempt to solve all the educational problems it raised, its work had important and significant influences because of the comprehensive nature of the study. Tm work of the committee represents an important departure from practices of the nineteenth century public schools, for it was the first study which was done on a national level with such a distinguished group of American educators.- Writing in The. Atlantic Monthly early in the twentieth century, Edward 0 . Sisson expressed the opinion that the comittee's report was the most important educational document to be published in this country. '1‘}: m 53$ 1133 Committee 93; _T_e_n_ is probably the best known and most authoritative educational document in America."6 Sisson felt that the report was significant because it shifted the focus of educational aphasia in secondary education from a preparatory role to the role ‘ of preparing boys and girls for the “TEE” 1!. Knight, 33%.? Centuries 01 Education, Gina and PP. Company, (Boston, 19140), . 6 Edward O. Sisson, ”An Educational Emergency," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 106, July, 1910, pp. Sh-63. 98 duties of life. There is no doubt, however, that Sissonfis estimate of the report is far more laudatory than the facts would indicate. Part of the significance of thus report was that it was done'by an.eminent group of American educators, and Sisson was inclined to be complimentary because the report was the first one to be done on a national level. If one judged the accuracy of Sissonls opinion from.the standpoint of enlightened suggestions offered by the Committee of Ten, he would have to say that Sissonls evaluation.of the report is misleading. Professor wiiiian E. Drake had this to say about the relative importance of the study“:7 It might be said that the Committee 'strained like a mountain and gave birth to a mouse.‘ In.the report, which was submitted in 1893. no enlightened suggestions as to how to improve the secondary' school were offered. The doctrine of formal discipline was upheld. It was suggested that provision be made for a more thorough study of the classics, of formal history, of literature, and grammar. Emphasis was placed upon the need for betterbtrained teachers and a higher grade of scholarship. Although the recommendations of the Committee were not sensational, they did focus attention upon the essential issue in secondary education. To expand this point, one needs to look at the report of the famous committee and to indicate some of the recommendations. The doctrine of mental discipline which had engoyed wide currency in the nineteenth century was re-affirmed. The classics, as well as formal history, literature, and grammar, were the best subjects through which this doctrine of mental discipline could be expressed. The committee emphasized the need for betterbtrained teachers, and the proolems of scholarship also received attention. The committee surveyed the course offerings of the secondary schools and discovered “nearly forty” subjects ’ Brake, 3.2. Cite, Pe 235e 99 being offered. Although the committee did not identify thirteen of the irregularly-taught courses, some authors implied that the committee had reference to such practical courses as: bookkeeping, stenograpmr, manual training, domestic science, and art. The twenty seven most commnly taught courses were classified under the following heads: (1). Latin, (2). Greek, (3). English, (14). Modern foreign languages, (5). lathematics, (6). Physical sciences, (7). Biological sciences, (d). Geograpmr, and social sciences. Even though the work of The Committee of Ten reoafi'imd the theory or mental discipline and encouraged an intellectualistic approach to the problems 01' the secondary school curriculum, its work focused attention on the significant problems which were to receive serious attention during the twentieth century. The educational journals published hundreds of articles which dealt with the problems raised by educators; and BE. Atlantic Maxim con- tinued to publish articles which dealt with educational problems. One should note, however, that there are gaps between the appearance of articles on education in this magazine. This can be explained by the fact that 313 Atlantic Monthly did not attempt to publish as new technical articles about education as did the learned 'journala. It appears that the magazine devoted more attention to the elementary schools and the calleges than it did to the secondary schools during the first half of the tirentieth century, as will be demonstrated in the next chapter. But it is both significant and interesting that the articles in the literary magazine often paralleled the topics which were being discussed in the educational journals. Some of the articles dealing with secondary education were in the form oi criticisms, and 100 these articles reveal that the writers were cognizant of some of the weaknesses in education. Criticisms 31:: Education Alfred E. Stearns pointed out some fallacies in the modern educational scheme, and he represents the position that the modern education was too utilitarian and too materialistic. He felt that the new education was dangerous because it would not prepare students "to live.“ But it should be recognized that the twentieth century is the age 01 scientific experimentation and the equalization of opportunity for all types of people. Much of Stearns' objection had its origin in his philosophical positionunamely, idealism. Stearns objected to the "new education' on the basis that it was too utilitarian. This latter position had its bases in the pragmatic approach rather than in the idealistic or naturalistic conception which had enjoyed wide support during the nineteenth century. Stearns said:8 The modern educational ideal so loudly proclaimed by its advocates furnishes a marked contrast to the old. At its basis it is frankly materialistic and utilitarian. Practical efficiency is its goal. Not all will admit it, but there can be no doubt that the materialistic spirit so overwhelmingly present in our American life to-day has been a powerful factor in shaping and coloring our modern educational ideals. "fit our youth for life,' is the insistent demand of the new. 'Fit our youth to live' is the cry of the old. Stearns' objection to the new educational methods is similar to those expressed by many people, and his method 01‘ attack on the modernists includes name-calling. He loathed what he called "these modern pedagogical experts," but his complaints were based on a personal preference which could not be defended systematically. Claude M. Fuess expressed the contrary point of view by contrasting the “new spirit in education" 8 II'fred E. Stearns, "Some Fallacies in the Modern Educational Scheme,“ in: Atlantic Manta, Vol.118, November,l9lb, pp. bill-653. 101 to the Old accepted pattern which had wide acceptance during the nineteenth century. Fuess' argument tends to focus more attention on the student rather than on the subject content. The reader should note, however, that two decades separate these two opiniom--consequently, this fact would have some bearing on final judgments and comparisom. Fuess' point of view is illustrative of a position which many educators accepted. He supported the notion of more emphasis upon the student 9 rather than upon the materials which were to be mastered. He said: In general, it is fair to say that seventy-five years ago virtually no direct attempt was made to train boys ,---to adjust themselves to the environment in which, after leaving school, their lot was to be cast. The methods of instruction were still mediaeval not to say primitive. The universal practice was the recitation, adopted as a convenient opportunity of ascertaining whether or not the student had learned the assigned lesson. There was little discussion in the classroom, the teacher laying down the law from his throne and the pupil submisively accepting it. Independent thinking was neither encouraged nor tolerated. . . School was looked upon, in general, as a place to be avoided. . . I admit you can not make a student drink, but I believe you can make him thirsty. This principle is, I am sure, fundamental in education. That the modern school is a friendly, somewhat intimate place-«not a penitentiary—is due largely to the influence of the teacher. . .The modern technique has given the real teacher a chance. It should be noticed that the colleges and universities took the lead in the reform of the secondary schools in this country. Naturally, the colleges were interested in what the secondary schools taught, for most of the students entering the institutions of higher learning received their training in the public schools. When the callegea and universities modified their progress, it was almost imperative that the secondary schools follow the lead in order to graduate students who would be accepted for further training in the institutions of higher learning. 9 Claude M. Fuess, ”The New Spirit in Education," The A___tla__r_1____tic Monthly, Vol. 153, June, 1931:, pp. 753-760. 102 Because many high school admmstrators and teachers resented this arbitrary leadership of the college people, disagreements led to conflicts between the high school and the college. But the pattern of education as evolved in this country was too well established for the secondary schools to entertain serious ideas of becoming the most important element in American education. Those who tried to ignore the reality of college entrance requirements were in about the same position as the ostrich which conceals his head in the sand when danger approaches. Abraham Flexner pointed this issue up more systematically than any other writer in _T_h_g Atlantic Monthly. Flexner maintained that preparatory schools were the amwer to. the situation, and he was critical of the colleges for their experimentation with educational 0 procedures. Speaking on this point, Flexner said:1 The preparatory school is the embodied answer of practical education to the college entrance requirements. The colleges set up an arbitrary and atteml test for adnn.ssion. They tell the teacher that his candidate must achieve within a specified umber of minutes a mirdmm percentage in certain definitely defined areas of knowledge. 'Very well,‘ it is not for. me to question the terms upon which you open your gates ,--still less to defy them. I shall comply,’ and the preparatory school results. The mere fact that annual conferences between colleges and secondary schools are held for the consideration of matters of mtual interest does not radically alter the relation in which they stand to one anothe . The terms of admission to college are prescribed from above, and are more or less meekly accepted belch Similarly, the most effective ways of meeting them have been worked out by the preparatory machinery without serious question on the part of the higher authorities. Neither imtitution has prOperly concieved its relation to the other; neither institution has yet learned to subordinate itself to a large and inclusive conception of. education. For while the colleges have been freely, even recklessly, experimenting with educational novelties in their own field, they have simutaneously timen’ed the screws on the secondary schools. W Flexner, uThe Preparatory School," The Atlantic Kong, Vol. 9h, September, 19014. pp. 368-377. 103 No doubt Fleimer's critical estimation of the college's experimentation had reference to the elective system which was introduced by President Eliot of Harvard University. However good or bad ' the elective system might have been, it was destined to be aped by colleges all over the land. Thus, Homer's cordenmation fell on deaf ears. Furthermore, the preparatory school was relegated to a minor role in American education, for its college preparatory function could mt meet the increasing demands for college entrance by such large numbers of students. Another writer recognized this problem, but he took a different approach than Flexnsr did. Doctor L.B.R. Briggs, professor of English and dean of the faculty at Harvard University, advocated a broader conception of education. He called for cooperation in the solution of the problem and dreamed of reaching the ideal in education. Professor . . 13- Briggs said in part: The system of gradually increased responsibility at school met be met halfway by the system of friendly superVision at college,--supervision in which the older undergraduates are quite as important as the Faculty. . .When all students of all colleges, and all boys of all schools, believe, and have a right to believe that their teachers are their friends; when the educated public recognizes the truth that character,--the school never forgetting that men have been boys ,--we shall come to the ideal of education. Toward this ideal we are moving, slowly but steadily. When we reach it, or even come so near it as to see it always, we shall cease to dread the transition from school to college. Briggs appears idealistic, because the problem of the proper relation- ship of the college and the secondary school has not been completely solved. While it is true that the colleges and secondary schools cooperate more extemively today than they did in the early part of the centrulg, the trend toward this has developed aitez many trials and . .R. Briggs, "The Transition From School To College," The Atlanticllo 1:0,th Vol. 85, March, 1900, pp. 35h-359. 10h errors. As the century unfolded, the argument moved from the realm of the general to the specific. Thus, the problem of the curriculum received considerable attention; and this problem has a direct relation- ship to the problem of the coordination of the secondary school and college. Critical. Attacks 93 Education During the last few years of the period with which this study is concermd two articles dealing with the so-called "quackery‘ in the public schools appeared. Albert mm, i'orner teacher and graduate of Harvard University, vehemently opposed many activities of the public schools; his attack reminds one of the current ”Johmy-Oan't-Read“ criticisms of the public schools. Realizing that Lynd's article was controversial, the editors of 1h: Atlantic Monthly prefaced Iynd's article in this manner: "Mr. Lynd took his A.B. and AJ. at Harvard; after a year of further study in Belgium he taught history at Stanford and Harvard; but not until he had been elected to a school board did he appmciate the changes in our public schools and the ironbound and stultifying system which is producing the accredited teachers in the schools today. in land speaks as a parent am an ear-teacher now happily established in business in Boston.‘ Iynd complained-that the proliferation of courses in the schools of education had watered down education until it was all but meaningless. He had some critical things to say about the principals who were supposed to be leaders in the secondary schools. Speaking of the principal, he said :12 Next to the minister, the high school principal of thirty years ago was the most learned fellow in town. Today you may find ' I! IIbert Iynd, "Quackery in the Public Schools," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 185, Harch, 1950, pp. 33-36. ' 105 your local high school in charge of a brisk Kiwardan whose 'professional' training has been free of the elements of traditional culture. His teaching experience may have had nothing to do with letters or science; it may have been in auto driving or basket- ball or pattern-making or guidance5' no matter in any case, because what counts in the advancement of his career is his accumuation of courses in 'admirxistration.‘ He may even wear the splendid title of Doctor, earned through researches into the theory and function of a school cafeteria. He may not be able to decipher the Latin date on the cornerstone of his own school building, or to read a single word in any other foreign language, living or dead, or even to write a decently turned paragraph in English, but he can lead an enraptured class discussion in A Democratic Solution of Our Traffic Problem. Interestingly enough, Lynd's attack rests largely on the basis of classical education which is reflected in the statement that the modern principal could not read the Latin on his school building—or, any other foreign language, as Iynd puts it. Elsewhere in his attack he spoofs pedagogy-with its duplication of courses; and he suggests that parents run for school boards in order to rid the public seconiary schools of 'hocus pocus" of the pedagogical experts. He ends his 13 attack in this hauler: The public schools have a long way to go before they can realize our ideals of equality, solidarity, and universal justice. But we can readily transform the quality of our public education if we use the invincible human forces engendered by cOOperative living and prove that our democratic processes are more than equal to all the dynamic problems of the day. Such a criticism of the public schools did not wait too long for an answer from educators and lay people. The editors of The Atlantic Montgz were swamped with replies to Mr. Lynd's article, and they called this to the attention of their readers when they printed Dr. Gilbert Case's article in rebuttal. Professor Case was Chairman of the Department of Education at Brown University, and his rejoinder was Wide, Pa 380 106 chosen as the best answer to Lynd's challenge. His respome to Mr. Lynd waszlh Our educational enterprise has inevitably become extremely complicated. Our school ladder has been going through the elementary grades to the kindergartens, the nursery school, am now the pro-nursery schools, while on the upper rounds of the ladder we are extending educational service in the field of adult education to include attempts (in at least one adult education program) to help actual seniles in making better adjustments to the very last stages of life experiences. Along with this vertical expansion has gone a bewildering increase in the kinds of edu- cational activities, both curricular and extracurricular, on all grade levels in public schools. A great deal of this much maligned 'enrichment' has been forced upon the schools through the failure of church, family, and various social institutions to perform as they once did in guiding youth. The problems created by the growing complenty of our environment have also had to be reflected in our schools. , ' In his first paragraph, Ir. Iynd laments the *prevaleme , of a type of high school principal who, though he may be able to lead 'an enraptured class discussion in A Democratic Solution of Our Traffic Problem,‘ has difficulty in deciphering the Letin date on the cornerstone of his school building. Such a predicament, of, course, is too bad. But even though Mr. Lynd has a point here, I still feel that if one had to make a choice of a school administrator on the basis of even such trivial abilities, I'd favor the man interested in today' s traffic problems, which involves life, limb, and the pursuit of happiness. The Roman system of number symbols was a clumsy arrangement that effectively blocked Roman mathematical progress for centuries and perhaps ought not to be on a modern high school building. After all, we are in Anno Domini MCML face to face with the mathematics of the Atomic Age. Aside from this rather effective answer to Mr. Lynd's argmnent, the writer} of this paper would like to point out other weaknesses of Lynd's position. One is tempted to raise the question of Lynd's authority to Judge such matters on the basis of his havirg left the field-of edu- cation for the field of business. It is probable, at least, that Iynd was criticizing education through the eyes of a business man; but, what's more significant, here is a man whose personal bias for the ’ IE Elbert E. Case, "Quackery in the Public Schools: An Answer," E Atlantia Hontzg, Vol. 185’ June, 1950’ pp. 57-60. 107 classics shines through in his criticism of the public schools. Since the problem of the place of the classics in the secondary schools was resolved in the early part of the century, Iynd's appeal to the classics weakens his position from the point of view that Latin and Greek were not given a vote of confideme by the public which ultimately determines the direction of the public schools in this country. Further, his attack is symptomatic of a weakness in education which calls for careful attention. Educators are far too prone to sit back and accept the periodic attacks on education without doing very much about these attacks. If professional educators conducted an intelligent and vig- orous program of educational leadership, many of the critical articles would never be dignified by publication nor circulated to confuse the public. Oftentimes educators put themselves in an awkward position by attenuating to answer indiscriminate criticism on education without doing very much in the area of dynamic leadership which would forestall many of the misunderstandings which lie. at the base of many of the popular attacks on education. 225213: iris Just prior to the beginning of Iorld War II, James L. Ilursell spoke quite bitterly about the defeat of the public schools. One could con- clude that education is a sort of social barometer which reflects the pressures which develop in society at a given time. Society tends to take a second careful look at its social institutions when periods of stress seem to depose cherished ways of doing things. So it was with the approach of the second World War which was Just around the corner. lursell complained that the conventional high school curriculum was inadequate, and new people had made this complaint since the beginning 108 of the twentieth century. Education appears to be one of the most conservative forces in society, for it is slow to change. Mursell's support of the argument for change is but one in a long list of articles, but it is interesting that his argument includes approval ‘of the experimental schools. He saidzl To organise the schools in terms of flexibility rather than rigidity is no small or easy task. It calls for much revision of the conventional procedures and instrumentalities. Yet it can be done, ani in fact the work is going on apace. For the benefit of those conservatives who may think that the way to get children to learn more in school is a return to the good old days of high pressure and rigid requirements, I project one more nugget of ascertained fact. It has been shown that the experimental schools actually produce better subject-matter learning than the con- ventional schools, with pupils of equal ability. Carry such tendencies further, and we have good reason to expect still more satisfactory results. What we contemplate is, to be sure, a breach with some of our most adamantine traditions and custom. But we have before us the problem of an intelligent rather than a stupid approach to the task which is of such supreme importance in a democratic society-«the task of bringing to the individual his birthright of culture. It is a task in which we cannot afford to, an! .06 not, accept defeat. lursell's support of the experimental schools indicates that he would not agree that the classical languages had significance for the modern school. Frederic Ireland opposed the deletion of Latin and Greek from the secondary school curriculum. He appeared to base his argument on a cursory survey of high school students in the area of vocabulary and gave some rather interesting examples which he felt supported his con- tention that Latin and Greek were necessary tools of the twentieth century pupil. While his argument could be refuted, it is, nevertheless, interesting to note his report:16 The average high-school graduate, who has studied no other We 1.. Mursell, urn. Defeat of the Schools," The Atlantic Hontnly. Vol. 163. March. 1939, pp. 353-361. "'"""""" 13 Frederic Ireland, "Big h Schools And the Classics," The Atlantic Months; Vol, 121;, July, 1919, pp. h7-53. """""" 109 language than English, cannot even understand literary English, much less use it. He does not know the meaning of words, though they define themselves upon their faces to those who have a very little knowledge of the foundation tongues. I do not mean the nomenclature of botany and faunal naturalism and anatomy, or psychology and physical science, though these are easy to one who knows a little Greek. I mean ordinary words one floor above the street. I induced the teachers in.our home high school to try their fourth-year pupils on some non-technical words. Those who had studied the classics defined the words well. The students of English pure and undefiled, who excelled even.Shakespeare in.that they knew no Latin and no Greek at all, presented papers so extraordinary as to be beyond belief without documentary proof. The first one presented, written by anMAmerioan-born.boy‘who had studied English eleven years in school, contained the fellowing definitionsx- ‘gggp-a dancing slipper. .Qenealogical--gent1e, kind. Chronic-~a record. FHSspHorescentugaseOus , bub bling . Stamina--anhexouse. CynicaI--circular. ocrite--one who talks religion continually. Diaphanous--strong-headed. Hiero‘lyphic--a hereditary gift. Eu efi§cs--a study of etiquette. cop nt--one-eyed. sium--eympathy in verse. Phenomena--reasons for not doing what should have been done. Hierarchy-~nereditary rule. Parable--capable of being peeled. “nesia--an island in the Indian~OCean near Java. As to six other words in a list of thirty-feur in all, he had no views whatever. Thirteen he defined correctly. If the classiphobiacs want to know"lhy,'why,‘Ihy' some of us believe the few hours spent in.the study of foundations may be useful in the development of linguistic architecture, let them try any exclusively English class in any school, on a list of words derived from Latin.or Greek, and compare the answers With those given by students of Cicero and Horace and Homer. . .Heaven and earth shall pass away, but words shall not pass away; and the only easy way to learn their meanings is to study the roots from Whicn they have sprung. That learning Latin and Greek is the best means of teaching vocabulary development does not Justify the teaching of these classical languages. A defensible refutation of Ireland's argument might be that this is quite expensive in teaching vocabulary; and some would object that the classical languages are affectations or ornamentations. This latter llO accusation touches upon the position that education should be utilitarian in nature, and there are many who hold this position. Many educators have attacked the teaching of classical languages in the secondary schools on the basis that these languages are not practical and that one does not need to translate Caesar's exploits, since there are many excellent translations of these works available. It is interesting to note a carry over of the language argument in the advanced graduate school in America where the modern foreign languages are required for the advanced degrees. Some schools have abandoned a reading knowledge of we foreign languages for advanced degrees and have substituted additional course work in lieu of this requirement. But there are those institutions which hold tenaciously to the language requirement for the advanced degrees. Another writer who attacked the teaching of Latin in the secondary schools was Charles W. Eliot, the exponent of the elective system at Harvard University. However, Eliot's position was quite different from Ireland's. Where Ireland had defended the teaching of Latin and Greek for their vocabulary value, Eliot remarked that Latin was merely a hurdle to an increasing number of youth who wanted to enter the institutions of higher learning. He argued that marry colleges were ban- ning Latin as an entrance requirement because students were being accepted on certificates, thus making it all but impossible for the university to require the classical languages as an entrance requirement. Eliot's position was stated in the following terms:17 - The imediate reason that'most state universities have abandoned all requirements in classical languages for admission is that they. desire to maintain close affiliations with the public schools. Now, les v. Eliot, “The Case Against compulsory Iatin,' 35.; Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 119, March, 1917, pp. 352-361. 111 public high schools the country over have almost ceased to provide instruction in Greek; and they maintain instruction in Latin with increasing difficulty. Their pupils are as a rule accepted at the state universities on certificates; and this practice tends to mantain somewhat intimate relations between high schools and these universities. The wish of principals and local school boards or comittees are more regarded by the state universities than they are by the endowed universities and colleges; and the state universities feel and express more sympathy with the serious difficulties which beset public high so hols than the endowed institutions do. Nevertheless, the endowed institutions, particularly those that aspire to attract students from all parts of the country, always desire to keep in touch with the public high schools; so that the graduates of those schools can, through a moderate amount of extra study, obtain admission to the eniowed institutions of their choice. Behind this immediate reason for dropping Latin requirements, however, lies an increasing sense of their inexpediency in a democracy which wishes to have the secondary and higher education as accessible as possible to all competent youth. Some people are furthermore convinced that the latin requirements are futile; that is, that they do not really promote scholarship or 'cultivation' in the youth who have been forced to comply with them. Quite a different set of circumstances gave rise to the following critical article on language instruction in the secondary schools in America. llany factors contributed to the entrance of German into the curriculum in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Before this country crganized a serious program of advanced graduate studies, American students went to the German universities for the dector of philosoplv degree. Thus, many students felt a definite need for German for this reason alone. But as the curriculum expanded to include languages other than the classical Latin and Greek, German was included for literary and aesthetic reasons. Another reason for its inclusion in the curriculum had to do with the increasing commercial activities between Germany ani the United States. When lorld War I was declared, there was-an almost immediate reaction against everything Gemn in this country, including the language. Angry parents began to complain that German should be dropped from the school curriculum, and many ' 112 states met this demand by dropping German. These arguments against German show that the schools are sensitive to outside pressures. Even though the schools normally reflect a slowness to change, the extreme ' nationalistic feelings during World War I forced the schools to drop the German language from the curriculum. A writer who chose to remain anommous for fairly obvious reasons-u-reprisal, both political and econondcg-spoke heroically about the teaching of German in the public 18 ' schools. He said: Shall German continue in the grade schools and in the high schools? Shall the German staff be maintained in colleges where there are not enough students to keep them employed? These are the questions that the formost educators, the press, tie people of the time persist in bringing forward. It is doubtless a problem that will be with us for a generation. After a generation the thing will largely solve itself. The most radical declare for a complete boycott. Others are represented by Theodore Roosevelt, who, declaring that 'America is a nation and not a polygot boarding house ,' reiterates the prudence of eJJMnating German from all the elementary schools, and reserving it solely for a purely utilitarian language in secondary institutions. Contrary to the writer'sljudgment, the problem did not persist for the reasons be indicated for a generation, for mam schools offered German in their programs after the defeat of Germany. Two decades laterthe problem re-occured when America entered World Far 11 on the side of the Allied Powars, but the reactions were not as violent agaimt the teaching of German as they had been during World‘War I. One explanation for ’ this toleration was that German was encouraged for its value in, psychological and cultural warfare. There are fewer secondary schools offering German today than there were during the period prior to World War I , and the reasons for offering German are different from those 1 advanced in an earlier day. IE |Inomnhous Thoughts of A Teacher of German," T__h_e_ Atlantic Monthly Vol. 122, September, 1918, pp. 372-376. College Entrance Requirements Another article which had reference to the curriculum in the secondary school was written by Albert S. Cook in 1901. Cook pointed out another aspect of the college's concern over college entrance requirements by discussing the teaching of English in the lower schools. He felt that the colleges should provide a constructive sort of leader- ship for the lower schools in this regard, and he did not appear to be pessimistic about the end results. Indicating the influences which colleges had on the lower schools, he said:19 The pressure thus exerted by the colleges upon the preparatory schools has in many instances been transmitted by them to the granmar schools, with the result that the worst evils are in course being remedied; and certain high schools have courses in English extending over four or five exercises a week, conducted by enthusiastic, winning, and competent teachers. Unfortunately, there is a premature movement on the part of a few high schools to emancipate themelves from all dependence upon college rsquirements,--or, as their representatives would say, an un- reasonable obstinancy on the part of the college in holding to their requirements ,-a movement which, unless carefully watched, will go far to nullify the progress which has been made, since it is only through the harmonious cooperation of all parts of our educational system that the indispensable results can be obtained. This article shows the relationship of the secondary schools to the colleges and universities, and it hints that some secondary cohools were trying to free themselves from the demnds of the colleges and universities in regard to entrance requirements. Some of the negative aspects of the elementary and secondary school curriculum were pointed out by William H. Allen early in the twentieth century. Allen's article was motivated by a conference of school administrators who studied the physical welfare of the schools. The conference attempted to look into the exterm1 factors which influenced 19 Albert S. Cook, “The Teaching of English," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 8?, May, 1901, ppe 710-722. llu the school curriculum and pointed out some rather striking weaknesses in the schools in this regard. Throughout the twentieth century school adunmstrators tended to pay more attention to this side of the in- structional program than had been the case during the preceding century. As' the school shifted its emphasis from a sort of preoccupation with an intellectual training to a concern about the total environment of the child, the school environment was improved. Today, one sees evidence of this continuing concern in the sight-saving classes, visiting teacher services, counseling and guidance services, and other important auxiliary services provided by the elementary and secondary schools. In this regard one can learn a great deal about the emergence of this concern by contrasting Allen's report of conditions to what is happening today. 20 Allen said: At a recent conference in New York City on the prhrsical welfare of school children, a school principal declared that our present curriculum is manufacturing more plnrsical defects every year than school physicians and school nurses can correct. To the surprise of the laymen present, the school men were of one mind as to the havoc wrought by school life, if not ruined by glazed paper, small type, lines of wrong length, or prolonged concentration. Dry sweeping fills the air with dust, and combines with bad ventilation, lack of water, and dust-raising pm'sical exercises, to supply conditions that favor the growth of disease germs, more particular- ly the tubercle bacilli. Seats and desks defom the spine and hips, and cramp lungs. Required home-study deprives the child of play and sleep, and accentuates the effects of harmful school environ- mnt. Highly trained teachers explain the composition of air in an atmosphere often more poisonous than that of the average sweat- shop. Boys and girls unable to breathe through the nose because of adenoids and enlarged tonsils are deprived of recess for not being able to describe the passage that leads from the nose to the wind- pips and lungs. Children fortunate enough to be physically able to meet school requirements are handicapped in their studies, and for that reason reduced in industrial efficiency, because they must march side by side with children suffering from removable defects. 25 Willi'am H. Allen, "A Broader Motive For School Hygiene,a The Atlantic MontEy, Vol. lOl, June, 1908, pp. 82h-829. 115' It would be difficult to determine whether the above description is an over-statement of the case or not, but one can conclude that such an article would focus attention on the problem of school health. Again, whstl'sr such an article had significant influence in the area of school construction or building accomodation can not be determined; but the twentieth century did experience the professionalization of school administration which had a great deal of influence in the area of physical accommodations of school plants to the learning situation. Perhaps the best evaluation of such an article would be that it tended to focus attention on this important matter of hygiene in the nation's schools. Vocational Education That secondary schools did not exist for the sole purpose of pre- paring boys and girls for college was related to the inclusion of vocational courses in the secondary school curriculum. At least, the argtmnt was used that many students vould not go to college; and it was contended that these students needed some type of education which would meet their needs. Booker T. Washington, eminent Negro educator and founder of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, had a tremendous in- flueme in the field of industrial education in the secondary schools during tm early pa't of the twentieth century. He argued that the Negroes of the South could improve their lot in life by giving con- siderable attention to vocational education. With Us emancipation of the Negro after the Civil War and the inauguration of the Reconstruc- tion policies by the Federal Government, the Negro had to face the problem of education with a changed status. Washington felt that the New could assure himself a place in the nation by turning to vigorous 116 and systematic training of the hands as well as the training of the head. Since some intelligent Southern leaders realized the importance of Wash- ington's work with Negroes in providing economic independence for a large segment of the population, he was encouraged by private citizens to conti: his work. As his prOgram gained wide attention, Washington pointed out ’0 h- many Southern white school superintendents cited his success in vocationai education before state legislatures as arguments for appropriations for this type of education for the white pupils. Commenting upon vocational education for Negroes, Washington had this to say:21 Aside from the reasons I have given showing why the South favored irflustrial education, coupled with intellectual and moral training, many of the whites saw, for example, that the Negroes who were master carpenters and centractors, under the guidance of their owners could become still greater factors in the development of the South if their children were not suddently removed from the atmosphe: and occupations of their fathers, and if they could be taught to use the thing in hand as a foundation for higher growth. Many of the whi' people were wise enough to see that such education would enable some of the Negro youths to become more skillful carpenters and contracto: and that if the laid an economic foundation in true way in their generation, they would be laying a foundation for a more abstract education of their children in the future. Five years after Washington's article, Paul H. Hanus took up the theme of vocational education. He tried to show the importance of vocational education in the secondary schools by giving a slightly differ. ent twist to the argument. Whereas Washington felt it important for economic reasons, Hanus insisted that it had a definite place in the schools on the basis of its liberaliZing potential. In this regard, he said:22 I do not wish to belittle the psychological value of manual maker T. Washington, "The Fruits of Industrial Training,"_T__he A"Inlantic Monthl, Vol. 92, October, 1903, pp. h53-h62. 22 Pa .Hanus, “Industrial Education,“ T__h_e_ Atlantic Monthly, V01. 101, January, 1908, pp. 60-66. 117 training, but the strongest reason for giving it a place in our scheme of public education is that it introduces our youth to a sympathetic understaniing of the constructive activities which constitute so important a part of contemporary life . . . The manual training, like other school activities, has been used largely as a means of 'general education' regarded as an end in itself or as preparation for further (usually technical) educ- caticn.0ur elementary schools and our high schools together consti- tute, theoretically at least, one continuous educational scheme through mich a youth, whatever his circumtances in early life may be, may secure the elements of general culture 3 preparation secured in school, a college education, or enter at once on pro- fessional study in nearly all the professional schools of the country. The public school system in Which we take a just pride, as now planned, does not reach the majority of our youth during the critical period of adolescence. This is the period when life aims begin to have a serious and lasting importance; when the habits formed rapidly acquire permanence; when the plasticity of earlier years gives place to stability. Ard because this is so, what happens to him than is likely to permanently shape his future. Yet during this period we send the great majority of our youth into the world without further systematic educational influence, ' and usually without any comprehension of the serious purposes of life, or train‘ug in the endeavor to realize them. Edward Yeomans’ 23 insisted in his article in 1920 that vocational edu- cation should be offered in seconiary schools to effect a training of the hand and head. The roots of vocational education extend to the pro- visions of the Congressional Morrill Act of 1862 which encouraged the establishent of land-grant colleges. The passage of the Smith-Hughes Bill in 1917 indicated trat the Federal Government had specific concern for vocational education in the nation's schools. The bill set up a Federal Board for Vocational Education and stimulated instruction in agriculture, trades, home economics, and industrial subjects by pro- Viding financial aid to. the schools. Both national and state govern- ments showed further interest in vocational education by the passage of Child labor legislation and compulsory-school-attendance legislation. k 73 —Edward Yeomans "bchool Shop " The Lwtlantic ”0’th Vol. 125 Jurie,1920, pp. 813-819: . , ’ 118 Since the federal and state governments stimulated vocational edu- cation, it is understandable that The Atlantic Monthly published fewer articles on this topic after 1920 when financial support had been established. One may conclude, on the basis of the foregoing articles, that the authors in this magazine felt the curriculum of the secondary school to be important. A good deal of attention was given to arguments about the importance of classical languages. The arguments ranged from personal preferences to the contention that the classical languages were out of tune with the deomcratic tradition, and these articles dealing with the curriculum indicate that some school systems were examining their school program rather critically and suggesting different approaches. Vocational education received considerable attention, and this fact was important in determing the direction the high schools would take in this regard. Many schools throughout the United States have in- stituted vocational guidance departments to help secondary school students make intelligent decisions in this vital area. One should realize that this continued emphasis upon vocational and industrial education is consistent with America's interest in business and industry which receives so much attention today. Curriculum committees on a local and national level have been organized to study the problems in this area, and the beginning of these comittees goes back to the early part of the century. The developmnt of the junior high school during the twentieth century was one of the significant movements in the field of secondary education. This movement did not receive much attention by the writers 119 in The Atlantic Monthly. In fact, only one author made observations about the junior high school. In.l937'H.E. Harriett lauded the establishment of the junior high schools and called for further develop- ments and refinements of this particular type of school organization. It must be remembered that the purpose of the junior high school was to provide for a smoother articulation.between the elementary and the high school. Its organization had been based on the premise that the junior high school, for psychological and social reasons, was more nearly related to the needs of pro-adolescence. Herriott Spoke of the junior high school in this manner: During the past twenty-five years, junior high schools have become widely establiShed. Educators with.a vision.of better schools and with the hope that this new unit would free teachers from a stratified school system have been primarily instrumental is establishing this new unit. Not every junior high school has justified the aspirations of these seekers for a new order. But good prospecting has been done. Even.though some veinS'were soon exhausted and others were in dry canyons that could not be supplied with adequate water, rich deposits of pay dirt and thick veins of the mother lode have been found. If the problems treated by The.Atlantic Monthly'do not appear too numerous, the reader should understand that this is not a weakness on the part of the editors. The reading public of this magazine was far more interested in the problems of higher education than it was in the problems of the elementary and secondary schools. The articles which did appear treated the same subjects which the professional journals were discussing. Obviously, the editors realized the interrelationship of the secondary schools and colleges and chose to publish.some articles ' in this area. The writers themselves determined that secondary education would receive some attention, for they realized that to improve the 25 3.12. Herriott, I'The Junior High School,“ The Atlantic Montnl , Vol. 160, December, 1937, pp. 778-783. 120 program of the colleges and universities one had to improve the secondary and elementary schools which supplied the students to the former institutions. The next chapter Will show how the university combined forces with those of the college to bring about desired changes in the high school program. The chapter will deal With the problems of the public institutions as well as the endowed private schools, both religious and secular, for their problems were somewhat sinilar. CHAPTER V HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in.this country has had a long and interesting history, and there has been an interest on the part of the higher institutions to correlate their work with the work of the public schools. Beginning in.the Colonial Period, the training of leaders for the Church was the primary concern of educational institutions; and many of the leaders in ColonialflAmerica had received their training in Europe before immigrating to this country. When it was realized that these leaders 'would take their learning with.them to the grave, attention was given to the establishment of institutions to remedy this situation. The type of training offered during this period was an imitation of the training which the colonists brought with them to this country, but the practical problems of clearing vast forests, establishing homesteads, organizing a system of government, and taking care of the fundamental needs of food, clothing, and shelter, encouraged a modified system of insti- tutions which would more nearly meet the needs of people in the new country. Contact with European culture persisted during this trying per- '10d of readjustment, and developments in Europe continued to have an impact upon American culture. But, through the years, America developed a system of institutions which more nearly accommodated the social, political, and economic aims of’this country. One of the first modifications, and, perhaps the most important, was the development of a democratic form of government. Related to this was the idea of the proper function of religion in civil affairs. Re- ligion played an important role in the government until certain leaders called for a separation of Church and State. The very nature of i 122 conditions in this country, plus the fact that America was a polygot of nationalities, made this separation necessary. This separation of civil and religious affairs was reflected in the educational institutions from the Dame Schools to the colleges, and one can still see evidences of’ttfis separation at the present time. Whether higher education should remain.classical in orientation and whether the college or the universi- ty, as it developed in a later period, should receive the encouragement of society were important problems which called fer consideration. Social, political, and economic ferces determined the nature of the struggle fbr higher education in this country; and the pattern of higher education.undcrwent many changes in the process of its emergence. Developments in the field of science, which called for a different conception of man and his destiny, tended to give a secular direction to higher education. Conflicts between the classical and practical traditions were intensified by developments in the field of science. The organization of a political system which would serve man's needs in a changed environment tended to influence education. The study of the organization.and administration of the elementary and secondary schools in the nineteenth century set the stage fer many problems in the field. Concern over higher education was marked Qy efforts of college personnel to improve the programs of the secondary scnools. The college had emerged as an extenSion of the secondary'school, but the questions of professional education beyond the colJege level began to be raised when American scholars had to go to Europe for the advanced profeSSional degrees.'Whenthis new scientific knowledge began to circulate widely, vocational education, with its concern for applications of scientific knowledge to the fields of practical living, began to receive attention. 123 The federal government stimulated the establishment of colleges with the passage of the Morrill.Act in the middle of the nineteenth.century. Thus, many factors made it necessary for society to make some rather fundamental decisions about the direction of higher education in this country. Educational Problem§_in 1900 To set the stage for-a.consideration of the articles which were published on the subject of the college and university in this country, the writer would like to summarize what several distinguished college and university presidents considered the important problems in higher education at the turn of the century.1 Their opinions were published by'Education,za prefessional journal which conducted a symposium on ”The Problems Which Confront Our Colleges at the Opening of the Twen. tieth Century." The problems which these college oresidents listed were: (1). the elective system, (2). personal freedom of students, (3). controversy over the classics, (h). the interest of students in merely securing degrees, (5). The tendency toward specialization, (6). the lack of interest of students in politics and government, (7). the failure of the colleges to imbue students with public spirit, (8). the need for the integration of the cultural and disciplinarian values in the college curriculum, (9). the loss of simplicity in college edu- cation, (lO). the growing complexity of administration, (ll). the predominance of athletics, (12). the apparent failure of the colleges -'—_1TTWE'college presidents were: Charles F. Thwing, western Reserve University and Adelbert College; William J. Tucker, Dartmouth College; Arthur T. Hadley, Yale University; Franklin Carter, Williams College; and John Henry Barrows, Oberlin College., 2 William J. Tucker, "The Problems'WhiCh Confront Our Colleges at the Opening of the Twentieth Century,“ Education, Vol. XX, September, 1899-J‘une 1900, pp. Ebb-597. to integrate their programs with actual life, and (13). the danger that the colleges would unwittingly blunder in or be led to be placing emphasis upon crass materialism. By the turn of the century the topic of higher education received more space in magazines and newspapers than it had ever received in these media of communication. During the first quarter of the century there was far more discussion of higher education than this country had seen in its entire history. The Atlantic Monthly continued to devote more attention to the problems of higher education than to any other educational problem during the period of this study. If one were to explain why this was true, an answer would be found in the fact that the reading public was composed largely of college graduates and it was only natural that this type of audience would be far more aware of the problems of higher education than it would be of the problems of the lower schools. The first article dealing with higher education was penned by Professor Clement L. Smith, President ef the American Philologlcal Association; his article was the presidential address Wl‘dch was given at the thirty-first annual session of that organization in July, 1899. His address was published by The Atlantic Monthly because 01‘ wideSpread interest in its contents. Professor Smith spoke about 1311 development of the graduate school and cautioned that the under- graduate program should. not be neglected. It will be noted that he augoested many of the problems which were reported in the above-mention- ed symposium. He said: The last three decades of the nineteenth century will be known as a period of extraordinary progress in American Education. To the n 3 Element L. Smith, "The American Colleze in the‘TNentieth Century, 3'22 A lantic Monthly, Vol. 85, February, 190 , pp.219-231. 11 American college they have been a period of unsettlement, starting many problems, solving few, and completely transforming its onviroment; so that the college will pass into the new century with many questions pressing upon it, so far-reaching and fundamental that the wisdom of experience of thirty years more will hardly suffice for their solution. . .The causes that have produced this change have worked upon the college in different ways ,--from below, from nithin, from above; but they are all really one cause working through various channels. It is custom- ary to speak of this cause as the growth of the elective system; but the elective system is itself a result, or rather a method. The real cause, of which the elective system is merely the manifestation, due not so much to increase of knowledge,--for not all mw knowledge is straightway fit for educational purposes,-- but rather the conversion of new fields of knowledge of the use of education. . .Within the college, the broadening of the educational horizon has necessarily developed the elective system, with its great advantages and its attendant dangers, the control of which presents one of the most difficult problems in college management today. Prafessor Smith's remarks about the elective system proved to be correct. The elective system introduced a completely different trend in education, for the burden of course selection revolved upon the shoulders of the students instead or being decided arbitrarily by what many felt was an archaic system of requirements by the colleges. If the center of gravity shifted from subject content to student choice, the change was prompted by many factors; the recognition by Professor Smith that there were other facets of the problem is merely a reflection Which many other people suspected and expressed. John Bascom came to Somewhat the same conclusions in an article which he contributed early in the nineteenth century. Unlike Professor Smith, he listed many causes for the chm ges mu ch he noted. Bascom said, in part: The last half of the nineteenth century was marked by exceedingly rapid social changes, especially in the United States. The more immediate causes of this movement were the discoveries and inventions which preceded and accompanied this period, and 1; John Bascom, "Changes in College Life," The Atlantic Monthly, VQI. 91’ June, 1903’ pp. 7110’7Sde —‘ 126 gave to men an entirely new mastery over material agents. This power was the occasion of a great increase in production,'which, in turn, gave rise to a wholly unprecedented concentration of capital. Industrial processes have taken an immense magnitude, and events push forward with prOportinate rapidity. Changes in social conditions which have been accustomed to creep slowly forward now begin to walk, and those which were wont to walk have fallen into a run. Good and evil overtake us before we are hardly aware of their presence. Snow Which has been forzen immovably to the mountain side begins to loosen, and may at any moment] pre- cipitate itself into an avalanche. The chances in college life should not be allowed to drag us down from the mount of vision and fling us, mere waifs, into the turmoil of events, a stream that hushes its own roar by a final plunge into the gulf of oblivion. Among the forces which Bascom recognized and expressed with such finesse were: (1). conspicuous gains in the amount of instruction in science, (2). the elective system, (3). the increase in the size of institutions, (h). changes in the methods of instruction from drill to the laboratory method, (5). the increase in enrollments, ((3). conflicts between practical and non-practical courses, (7). the waning of student interest in corruuencement exercises, (8). the change of status by colleges to universities, (9). the training in physical things, and (10). the growth of expense, increase of salaries, and the magnitude of endowments. Many writers expressed what they thought the problems of higher education were, and there was some overlapping of these problems as enumerated by the writers. However, these introductory articles ought to be included in this study in order to show the Smilarities and differences in the thinking of the authors and to identify the climate out of which these problems developed. Another writer framed a slightly different list of problems. Henry S . Pritchett sprears to have entertained a more comprehensive view of the whole field of education when he formulated his principles upon Which re-organi zation in higher education should be based. He amnarentl; 127 realized, perhaps more clearly than some of his contemporaries, the relationships of these problems to the elementary and secondary schools. His formulation of problems took this form:5 It seems clear that the work of the next two decades in American education is to be a work of educational reorganization; and this reorganization must include elementary and secondary education as well as higher education, fer the problem of national education is really one problem, not a series of unrelated problems. To-day our schools, from the elementary school to the university, are inefficient, superficial, lacking expert super- vision. They are disjointed members of what ought to be a consistent system. The work of reorganization is so enormous that one is almost at a loss to answer the practical question. Where should such reorganization begin? The answer to this question must come, in the end, from the intelligent leadership of teachers, and irom.the cooperation of teachers themselves, and from the cooperation of teachers in ail parts of our system of national education. lV5th this affirmation, Pritchett proceeded to list the areas in which lie felt reorganization was most pressing. The formulation of a con- ssistert and comprehensrve philosophy of education and the training of tusachers for increasing services were the first, and presumably, the most important areas of reorganization. He felt that vocational edu- cnation needed careful ConSideration due to progress in.the physical Suziences. He was concerned about the articulation from secondary to irigher schools; and he voiced concern over a closer coordination between Eligdlschools and college. Closely related to this point was the problem CliTcolleae entrance requirements. Pritchett returned to the field of Efidoilosophy in his next item by calling for a clearer definition of the ifumctions of higher education. Last but not least, Pritchett called iTcu'a clarification of the research function of the colleges and Lirdvorsities. Speaking before his colleagues at the University of u 5 Hénry S. Pritchett, "The Organization of Higher Education," The fgtlantic monthly, Vol. 102, December, 1908, of. 783—789. 128 Michigan, the same man expanded his ideas on the purposes of research. Since this has been one of the important functions of the university over the years, the writer of this tneSis shall quote his remarks on 0‘ this subject: It has been my purpose rather to state questions than to argue them; not to propose a substitute for our present administration of'the university, but rather to point out certain tendencies in it. To inquire whether, if the republic be the ideal system of administration, it is not also a good one for the scholar, and to ask, at least in these days when events move so rapidly, whether administration of the university as it is now organized tends toward the development of a larger type of professor and a finer order of students; to ask whether we are developing the mechanical side of the administration at the expense of the spiritual side. For after all, we can never too often remind ourselves that the first purpose of the univerSity is not to further industrial development or to increase the wealth of a state, but that it is the development of the intellectual and spiritual life. This development can take place only in the air of freedom, however, evident are the dangers which freedom brings with it. Wealth, power, the niceties of life, may all grow in an atmosphere of limited or of artificial freedom, but only in the air of real freedom can be grown that spirit and that intelligence which shall minister to those things which.are spiritual and to those things which are eternal. Yet another articles dealing With the subject of higher education was contributed by Professor Pritchett. He attempted to emphasize the - importance of coordinating the work of all educational institutions. He emphasized, as he did in the previous articles, the urgency of this issue when he said: A great change has come in three decades. With the establish- ment of'the Johns Hopkins University, the growth of the state universities, and the increasing influence in education of Americans who have enjoyed European study, the university idea was transplanted to America. It has shown.in three decades an extraordinary growth, measured by the number of universities and the facilities for study and research. One of the most significant results is the influence of the university idea upon the American 6 Henry S. Pritchett, "Shall The University Become A Business Corporation?" The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 96, September, 1905, pp.289-299. 7 Henry ST“?ritchettj'“The‘College of Discirflire and The College of Freedom," The Atlantic Monthly,Vol.102,Novembcr,1908,pp.003-6ll. 12! college, and the growing need for a more consistent educational organization wnich shall coordinate secondary school, college and university. Sir W31. Preece, in a recent address before the Royal a national coordinated system Society of Arts says, ‘In America a. will be evolved which will make the United States the best secular- ly educated country in the world, and its educational policy thoroughly organized. I believe that these hopeful words are likely to come true, but it is evident that, before that time, mud} must be done to clarify the present educational confusion. This is the educational problem of the next twenty years, and we are just mw squarely facing it.‘ One may check Professor Pritcnett's consistency by reading these three articles carefully, and one would have to agree that he touched upon the significant and recurring problems, if one judges on the basis of the statements by the five college presidents who were cited earlier and on the basis of the other writers on this theme. liberal Education The next statement of this theme was made by Professor David snedden whose article was entitled "What of Liberal Education.“ The term “liberal education" has several connotations, but Snedden defined it in terms of the end product of subject matter learning. While this is. a somewhat narrow meaning of the phrase, the meaning is not as relevant as the point he made about the limitations of those engaged in liberal education. He said: Schochnen-—teachers of the liberal arts in school and conege can be credited with a fine devotion to the study of those fields of knowledge in which their scholarly interests lie; but, with rare exceptions, they have not been students of teaching. They have mastered subject-matter, the means of education,—-but not pedagogy, the art of ai'olying the means. They have not yet evolved a satisfactory philosophy of liberal education to supersede the store of educational dogmas, ps;.'chological misconceptions, and cultural mysticism which they inherited. . .Efficiency in edu- cation, as elsewhere in the regions of conscious effort, involves on the one hand a fairly clear conception of goals to be reached, and on the other a degree of certitude as to the probable function ing of the means and methods employed. Our institutions devoted to 5 David Snedden, ”What of Liberal Education?“ The Atlantic Monthly Vol. 109, January, 1912, pp. Ill-11?. 13C liberal education are not able to apply to themselves tests of efficiency along these lines; they have no acceptable formulations of their purposes; and equally(and partly as a consequence) they have no sufficient evidence as to the efficiency of procedure which they use. Criticisms 23 Graduate Schools Particularizing his criticisms of the graduate sonools somewhat more definitely than did Snedden of liberal education, Abraham Flexner, author of the well-known book, Universities,-~American, English, German, and prolific commentator’in.the field of higher education, leveled a . scathing attack on certain inadequacies of the American graduate schools. Among other things, he iterated that graduate schools were too collegiate--thtt is, they were not turning out trained people in what he called "high culture." Continuing his tirade, he accused the uni- versities of paving far too much attention to the undergraduate arm of the university to the exclusion of the graduate branch. Harvard University was cited as an example of pseudo-professional schools which clung like barnacles to the university; he had reference to the Harvard School of Business Administration. His closing remark concerned conp flicts between business and learning. At the end of this list of indictments of the American graduate schools, Flexner summarized in . 9 this fashion:' In closing, let me briefly summarize my conclusions:-- 1. There has been a genuine and spectular improvement in facilities and opcortunities for graduate study since the first graduate school was formed in the United States. 2. On the other hand, no gaduate school in the land, with all the increase in money, libraries, equipment, and staff, is a clear-cut exemplificaticn of what a graduate school should be. The graduate scnool has succumbed to the college In respect to numbers and organization; it has suffered grievously from the influx of degree hunters, and fnam the creation, on a graduate 9 Abraham Flexner, "Failings of Our Graduate Schools," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 119, April, 1932, pp. Lia-L52. 13] basis, of merely technical schools-~often hardly that; its scholarly standards have been lowered by inbreeding and by irrelevant considerations in making annointments—-consideration of the college from wnich the nossible candidates were graduated, of the section from which they come, of the race or religious sect to which they belong. The evils which I have enumerated cannot be rapidly cured; certainly they cannot be cured everywhere at once. Unfortunately, the plant must be kept going, and students' fees supply a con. siderable part of the requisite funds. But at least universities could gradually be directed toward other and higher goals, and, as their funds grow, abuses that now bring income could be lopped off. The gradual process of discarding abuses and irrelevancies umuld in course of time completely change the quality and atmospher: of our universities, even if nothing else at all were done. Of all the critics of higher education, Flexner was the most out-Spoken. He held several important positions-~including a position as director of the Carnegie Foundation far the Advancement of Teaching and Director of the Institute for Advanced Study in New York; and he lectured widely in England under the auspices of the Rhodes Trust. His publications received wide attention in this country, and one reviewer pointed out that Flexner exhibited biases in his nublicatiuns. Whatever the worth of his remarks, one uruld have to accent the fact that he published Widely in the field Cf higher education. Flexner was spacinted secretary of the General Education Board in 1917 and held that office until the late 1920's. The movement of general education was organized to combat narrow specialization in the several fields of'krnnledge; and, in spite of Flexner's association with this organisa+ion, he cantinued to support the research function of the university. His ideal of the modern university included other asyccts, :ut he onnsrstently emphasized the importance or the research function. In the strongest rossible terms, he affirmed: On.thc cont arr, it ought to be the most skeptical and 10 Abraham Flexner, "A Medern UniverSIty," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 136, October, 1925, nn. EBO-Shl. and inquiring of intellectual agencies. It takes nothing on 13‘ foith--neither Newtonian laws of gravitation, Darwinian theories of evolution, germ theory, Kantian ethics, democratic institutions, wisdom of the fathers, virtues of the jury system, nor anything else. Under the heaviest sense of responsibility for the truth, and therefore with the exercise of the utmost care of which the human mind is capable, the university is concerned to pursue the search for truth, wherever the search lead, and to train young men, to find it, respect it, teach it, and, if need be, die for it. Only so can the vast forCes which are latent in the human mind and whicn are being released from nature be brought to work for the general good. Defining the role of the university in.American life in.the early 1930:; Flexner sketched further weaknesses of the university am; they then existed. His taking cognizance of the relationship of the university to the other educational organizations is reminiscent of Professor Pritch- C O V a 11 ett who was Cited above. Flexrer remarked in this regard: In order to determine the part which the university should play in American life, we must begin by taking into account our general educational scheme, however much we may hope in time to alter it. As things now stand, the scope of the elementary school is fairly clear; that of the high school is less clear; as to the college, general confusion prevails; the graduate and professional schools are, taken as a whole, chaotic. Elementary school, high scnool, college, all lack intensity, with the result that the more capable students emerge, at twentyaone or twentyatwo, far too immature, intellectually speaking. For this situation, taken as a whole, I can suggest no rapid remedy. Not until the American home is more exactnng, the training of teachers more severe, the recognition of the supreme importance of taste and intelligencejaru common at present, will the output of American schools and colleges be of sterner stuff; and not until the output of schools and colleges is better can the standards of graduate and professional ‘work be generally raised, though there is absolutely no reason why any one institution might not now do anything it pleased. If, then, we eliminate elementary education, secondary edu- cation, all kinds of Here training involving drill in process, and finally a variety of skills that the individual must acquire for himself, there is still left a considerable number of higher activities of predominantly intellectual and cultural character. In my judgment, these constitute the field of the uniVersity-- these and these alone. ll Kbraham Flexner, "The University in American Life,“ The Atlantic Flexner must have exerte“ if one judges on the basis of The At'antic Lonthly. cation'where spectable sours es outli812d L an inportaht book accused of personal biases does not detract from leader. reviews of stimulated a grezt many people. his personal convictions is not a the courage to stand up :efole Perhens Amarice needs more problems in‘ he field of State Vriversity .' J. ,.u. '4‘ (\ o A wri u :31.‘ wno :3 identity tauChed upon the subject of the styled "‘theniah” had some rather l1 funds with which to operate 2 perhaps celled fer a concealmest of his identity reservaticns. Ltn" other wr1.ers concealed their d ifect of the of t-FB a ether . The truth is that nitentiaries and the I? [m 13+het1im1, 89, April, 1' (‘2, #11. 2 he critic Na d the leek of in a doctor's trainivg. The educationgl journals in and this is another evidence HS 31 This anonymors the reform,schools deal ‘hllljd. n can,“ ’ ...,‘4'.A the hunter of articles he contrih ted ts He is well-known for his work in nedica l edg~ professiogsl emphasis on As indicated above, he in the field; arc, the fact that he was his stature as a the twentieth century are full of I , I ... _.' ‘. 1. . tndt fie ”11,131 flyiVL' Because a lien is outsooken in fremirg seri us limitation, fer Flexner he: all the world and declare his position. of his caliber to help solve the press- education. - . ‘1 "_‘ I]. \_ fly A .... ‘1 . - W -_ "_ ... ‘_ .0 more tiwid tum“ soranauzblexner 1n exnressiii his 4' I 4 r h Np ' . ~f stale fluiVGTSltg. itter thi1 s to sa v aoout the 1301:01 remarks university, and the retrace of 213:3 more than personal identities, so this ~ he castigated for doing what others did. than the identificat- far more imocrtart I ~. WTi't-er' :5 9.55:1 ; 1“ much mofie ir tireste ed in university, and leqislature is U1sn in the Rte Univers tJ: The niic Lonthly, Vol. ‘FXIJ - dent SI for t perso educ this of th 1314 more intxre-i:d in c. reputation for eccntry than in auvthihg elfse. Voreover, the titJe oi“ +he ”'rlCHJCQral college COEmGnLS itself to an agricultural cemmvxity. The un.versiity is treated as child of the state, and receives but a hi‘: gardl;r euo1oor19+1o The good day of suitable builiings and equipment, of adequate sale- ries, of departments properly manned, of a more extended iuf1901Jc, is once more fwd 13". ‘rhe president comes (2 t9 his .-ccuyu- lationtof mrort feeling the siCkness of ”Doe c erred, en-i once more gees thniuqh the we; risome t9 sk of earn b o lambitious young instructors that no promotion with increase 0 Mr; mr.n is looked for, and fie ‘Jerivcrr'f‘ed uroi essors that th:y C9nnot have the es ist9c+s W1rm +.he" need, or the apparatus which tiev can hardly 9 Without, or tea «LCUWWUmQtfionD shich sees absolutely esser nti 1: that, in short, for Wet z'ne+ er th ”I“.IS sixyence mien do the vxrrk oi'11 shillijr . . . ‘Nat the)? :c1r11191 s Wiffiicl 700d.1ri11 art. go or.W:t1 t aeir work of und: 91nL°hee ere:g;. . . rte an versity is rsisi 9.: its (.911. stamercis and the standards cf the seccndgry S+CL“_ -‘I -5 ‘.{ 4 .L T 1 fs '1 . A'- v ,- .4— h ’ ’ K 1" 1w'~ '\ "- echools. .miis urawin: after it t:1e esrw.ri<: Cwiiebeb,1lfit l 198% either fellow i;s lead or fire iWGO a 909i,i~’ if “reeerator1 "L . ‘.. '1 4 VA 3 14- ‘ v .. : 4- l " 4"v“ sequels. ine state unitexsity is al: J‘p(, and it vcs a inter.. ' ' ' ‘ "w A , 1': "‘ " ‘p ‘ ‘\ ’~ ‘1 ‘ ' r‘:‘ n.‘ .' ':' n ‘ ‘ .z r. ”- ' ‘ “Z 1931t10n reeitcs elk C_ the yrtsent~.ey sorusalee 91 call;ie pres ~ . V - q 1 '7'. I a 47‘ ~1- * r- ' H ‘\ ~t ‘ .1 '0 -\ < rru dunes with state 1ejislmxt1re lor the asprskrlstien Cl futds he Operation of the state universities. as is so often the case, . ' -A,...1 .a' 1. 9—,, 7, f" -..m..:.r.(..: . fl ‘ ..-,. 1tlfihfll 1rut1tut139e rLG t1; first or . ietltns to 1eel the efiects u.omic dislocations in s1cietv: but collcae 1nd univer siiy WHBI comminue to devote their energies to fire ideal of higher 0‘ .. .. — ‘ :n. ‘ I " 'r. ‘ A —\ , . Q. B .A - - " — -. . a ... . n a "3 . A, A eiaow f&6&FUlCSS CJ tCulflmlC ineeuillties. Bani pearls CORSluBP T phenomenon to Le ecr11'“ to the United atates, 291 one exglanatien LJ. .3 congiticn has a direct relationship to the val MS‘VhiCh Americans hold. If the state university was drawirg the sectarian colle ges after it, as the sailor stated, condi tioris in 1202 wel e dif er- . .0 _ v.3 . ‘ . ,; .1 I‘ 1".1«~« -_‘ ' ' g .2. 1"”‘7 'I Vt, .- -‘ _.‘ T .:I . ent diring Lfist period 119“ thxt is true UCw91. All Over the Jnlted Stat c. ..o a.d to the objectives of ch:se institutions. CHE ’ ' . " ,"° ”\f‘ .1 j . 7“. —\ r '\ ".1! - r v-a . xrd - r1 1‘» 9 t1 re are min; 59,1. 119erll arts colleges StTM'~1ln~ to ke93 coJJeves because of loyalties to a religious sffir action and eelief, ocwprring presefit oq‘“*»on to Vffit this Writer propounded to h case in the past. Her 3‘ W. Horwill argued tne case of th= s'gll college, us somewhat difierent line of reasoning. Uis arguments were not d ent from those advanced toda f, exen though tie enou~sis is s. shifted. Horwill contended that the snell school was not a rose institution, that is, it should not compete with the univ rsi*:y regard. Taken to that TQ'O L’()" the small cello for advanced training in private or college men would hold hle benefits _or stteodioe flv.r~ q ‘- ' r- r‘ . a £1. coliege rates it its extr this Ti-OSS-i ole ior v‘ eme, this position woule lead to the L little nmre than a preps story state universities. Few sma 135 e + It) (:3 5.733) C. ‘ 5r) I...I€J"~ in this woint SC 3.100]. ll ‘ ‘ h . ” ,,- 'fi J‘ .'\ 'f’ ‘1 I “» fl ". fl - ‘ l J 7". positioig Jor tse3 eulhesiee otner int-o51- _ r. .. .r 1 -. ' - ‘3 . rm -‘ .1. ~ , e at 0 thnl toilece. inst the Site 01 the more and better individual to students ‘3 s reelr'in5 argument in this area. new em ll colle3e catalogues or hrochures oil to froclatn this Virtue to potential students. Strange 13; enough, me o3 students matriculate on the basis of this appeal even thou}? th 1 necessarily mean that its “1‘0 v :r: fact thnt a school is s;alld .1 1 1 standards Edi 1 .Céltif .4 3-4 1‘3 2 adeqiste é_.,1i.r:.a:1c:e Will oe given. HOPWlll Bald; The o1irion th 2t small colleges are Mrvr :d is rapidly ing into an axiom. The prevailing megruomsxit of €10 twent century is to sweep than away wi.h its ot-er victiuns. . .T are indications that the hzhbub of t:.se protW atatiorc the SH 3J1 Cfl"3es therselves into ieubts whether they have right to be eJive. be saved, and s:me question by meki 3 t; their size r“51121115315. said a professor the other thi?3 that the T‘iC‘; "V; '__l 1 Esr'>ert I. 2'01. £7, 13 Atlantic Monthly, OThcrr Cm ‘D e ginrli 31%;; 1.0 :18 ;{ ""P:‘l‘?. ’1‘: them are ittenollr to x, 70.133 i 1 '1" 1“ “ A.-Lt:if :1 e selves 1001: as much like 13r.3 co 11e5' If they are 'to coxnpete with the univ Other d93, they wust do this, that, universities do. Siroe the from attem ..l, "The Oopor tuni t3 oi the 311.: lJ Belle 1 \.~'-\. . P . - .. Ju3;3 1901 . 4f71. J are hi3h or tha+ answer'UWdI~0‘ U harden- ieth here is stirrin a t do to ~' 1'1 es as ere iti es,‘ anfl the pted to 136 1 ccmaete 1r 1th the ox, there has seen no s Nth nisconcep tion of couoluwnitv. The fable of the here and the tortoise shows a 'Jet be]? WE‘L‘T . has?» small colleges contracted :njwersity fever during the earl? fisft 01 che twentieth cetmiuy, cud twis disease is prevalent, though on a more restric ted scale tocay. The small colleges must )eriorm some P~< iihction 3rd meet the nee cs 01 a particalur sect.ion of nv,-1 an socE (,4 ‘ . .,- -- ‘an-A -..' -3‘ VP.‘ p Q 9- a. "-‘~. r -~ I? for Eh9x nave wee“ Jiti La :3? some tics ”on. 1 1 :7? Another Writer suoke of the spe university as the “cameC’xV Ci the American educational system. Frzfesscr 3r1tche tt has been cited above, but the mt Cr is 1cot1: g another-article in this section by the same man bcc;nse of its relstionship to this section. He was quc ted earlier because :is remarks on the problems of higher edicstion were appropriate to the development of the theme unier -zciceration. He had sorze conol*"entcry rena rks for the work of the state muiversity, U) ' w v A > , 'v. . l‘ 1": V ‘11 r '1 .0 ‘- ,w -- I q .‘. .1 .,-- ,— 7,3 , ' '. ‘ and this was (t the cuss nit; all L36 writels wuo spoke dUOLE thi '1gurated t1e state university 1 - . in; achievement, are remains Jest ev1cence that we have ih_ctr democracy of the _ ‘ Cats ind condvct the agencies which they need Jor their own dete101m=nt. In ro otter nation of the no orld, at any t 1e 11 its '1sturj, 1eve isstitai ors of the hisher learning so as WI tic, 311 on the whole SGerlgL ‘-ell t.he Heads of de ~1cracy as so the best of oer state universities, c-en developed so quickly. If or American democracy were to-da" csilcc to give hroof of its core trlct11*e s oility, the state iniversity and the h blic-school system WfllC it cro 1-rns would be the strcrgest evidence of its fitness Whisk it could offer. . .The American universiiv is to -dsv t1e home 01 that (democratic) he t5. It 1s a faith whic1 is real an: vital, w;72 ch takes hold uvon tha em motions as well as iron tie minds of men, C which.stirs their Lesrts and their imagination. It is the faith of humanity and in humanity. Under its inspiration great works are to be done. Science and art and literstmre shall becoue alive. lb Henry S. Pritchett, H’The Spirit of the State Universith' " The Atlantic Monthlv, Vol. 105, June, 1910, 3* 7L1~”E3. 137 And the American university, which embodies the intellectual aspirations 01' a free people, is becoming day by day the repre- sentative of their spiritual aspirations as well. The tone of this quotation suggests the abiding faith which Professor Pritchett had in higher education. As so often is the case when college presidents make public pronouncements, they often say what they are expected to say-that is, what the general public expects them to say. But this statement goes beyond that in its power and sincerity. As mentioned early in this chapter, classical education was one of the problems which marry writers recognized. When the colleges and universities introduced technical subjects into the curriculum and the enrollments began to swell as a result of changes in entrance re- quirements, the classical element in the curriculum had to compete with these newer courses. The classical influence in higher education in the United States was imported from Europe, but the pattern of the American university had its origin in England where the name had a different connotation from its American counterpart. The only two universities in the United States not built around a college of earlier origin are Johns Hopkins University and Clark University. With this explanation in mind, let us look at what Homer Edminston had to say about classical education in the United States.” The graduate school, which comerns our subject more directly, is a peculiar institution well deserving of a separate and special treatment. Some forty or fifty years ago Americans began resorting in considerable numbers to German universities, and thence returning home introduced into our colleges the spirit and methods of German research. They urged the plea trnt the United States should not be allowed to lag behind the standards of higher education set by Europe, and also that poor students who could not afford to go abroad might study at home, especially if tney were the holders of paid fellowships. In response to this demand, 15 Homer Edmin‘stcn, "Classical Education in America ,3 '_I‘_I_1_e_ Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 10h, August, 1909, pp. 260-273. . 138 graduate schools were established in connection with our leading colleges, and one or two as independent institutions. They are, of course, professional schools, and have never been regarded in any other light. But the circumstances in which they arose have given them a character totally different from schools of law and medicine. . . The American graduate school, with its requirements of (what is called) original research, thesis and doctor's examination, is an alien system at the best. It was borrowed almost unchanged from tip Gemns, a people naturally addicted to laborious scholar- ship, bit insufficiently endowed with genius and inspiration. And even in Germany, wise observers are condemning the hypertrophy of 'intellectualism' to which it has led. Scholarship even at its best should never be allowed to dominate the intellectual life of a people that hopes to be great. But who that knows the facts will assert that scholarship in American universities is at its best? The tempting of needy students by stipends, and by the hope of subsequent employmnt, is hire and salary, and not the promotion of useful knowledge. Thus, Edminston gave an historical sketch of the development of the American university and suggested the subject of standards in higher education. At the appropriate place, the writer will discuss standards in higher education ”i show that the writers in 222. Atlantic Monthly recognized this problem. 113}: 93: m Education One of the members of the Lowell family of Boston and president of Harvard University, 1. Lawrence Lowell, discussed the work of higher educational institutions under the label of "Universities, Graduate Schools, and Colleges ." President Lowell wrote his article some years after Charles W. Eliot's presidency at the sam institution, but there can be no denial of Eliot's influence in Lowell's attitudes which follow:16 ‘ Devotees of the existing system will maintain that there are now such Opportunities in the gaduate schools, that they now produce sane men of mark, and that the number of these is at best small. That is true, but the conditions might be better than is 131'. Lawrence Lowell, “Universities, Graduate Schools, and Colleges," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 150, August,l932,pp.ZlS-222. 139 possible in the present composition of such schools. The crowd of less capable and less ambitious students, with the routine inseparable from mass production, has not the attraction or driving force of a small selected group of men of rare abilities. These should be candidates for a degree, because their attention should be directed, mt to causes and examinations, but solely to progress toward their own objectives. They should live in contact with one another ard With older men, both in their own subjects am! in otbrs. Another distinguished college president, Doctor James Bryant Conant, gave the convocation address for the celebration of the 150th anni- versity of tr. establishment of the first state university at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, in May of 19h6. Despite the fact that Professor Conant's remarks were concerned with a particular university, there is similarity in point of view between his remarks and those of President Lowell of Harvard University which are quoted above. Both expressed an interest in the affairs of student life on university campuses. Conant ‘1 said: 7 The health of our universities depends on keeping a balance between the advancement of knowledge, professional education, general education, and the demnds of student life. From time to time, every institution will be threatened by the overgrowth of one of these four elements or the atropm' of one or more. But by and large it seens clear that in the next few years it is the advancemnt of knowledge which will be in need of the greatest encouragement and support. When an eminent scientist expresses ln'mself in this manner, one should take notice, for it is this relationship among the several functions of the university which continues to be a perplexing problem. nth this survey of statements ard analyses as a background, one can understand more easily the particular problems which will be dis- cussed during the reminder of this chapter. It has already been suggested that higher education received more attention during the first I7 is ames Bryant Conant, I'America Remakes the University," '_1'__he Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 177, Bay, 191m, pp. ul-bS. lho quarter of the twentieth century than this country had experienced during its entire history. Advanced degrees were awarded on an honorary basis before the turn of the century; in fact, holders of the bachelor's degree who had received their first degree could pay the necessary fees and be awarded either an honorary master's or doctor's degree. In my instances, even the doctor of philosophy degree was awarded on the suns basis until the beginning of the twentieth century; and it took a threat of exposure by a national edm ational organization before this situation was chnged. This was one of the many problems which plagued college administrators during the period of development of institutions of higher education in tin United States. Such problems as: university extension, academic freedom, competition between colleges, stanéards of work, am the development of the junior college, were some of the specific problems receiving attention. These problems grew out of the social climate, and the importance of the solutions to these problems lies in the fact that their solution determined the direction higher education took in this country. University Extension To turn to one of these problems, let us discuss the issue of university extension. As the colleges and universities assumed an expelled mle because of the many changes in society, university extension was looked upon as the best method of extending the influence of the university into the community, state, and nation, where vital problems needed solution. From rather modest beginnings, this movement has developed into one of the most important functions of the modern state university. One need only discuss the problem of the state university with college personnel to discover this truth, for most lhl university workers would rank this high on a list of their problems. Professor Lyman P. Powell smnnnrized the first ten year's work of 18 university extension in the United States in these terms: University extension is meant for those for whom religion is intended, for those whom life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- ness is intended. It is meant to kelp the ignorant who desire kmwledge,—tfat they may learn wisely; to reveal to the half- educated the insufficiency of their kmwledge; to rouse intel- lectual sluggards; to stimulate those who are in the right way; to bring questioning to the hearts of the self-satisfied. There is no class for which University Extension is not intended nor to which it has not ministered. There have been courses—«not a few, but mam-mto audiences made up entirely of the very poor; of the poor; of the poor ard of those who are not rich; of these and of all the well to do ; of the ignorant but eager; of the cultivated but not learned; of teachers; we might also say-mhaving in mind the . sunmer xneetings--of scholars; fimlly, of people of all conditions who have some leisure for study or reading, and look to the lectures for suggestions and leading. This ambitious and comprehensive statemnt of the work of university extension is more inclusive than the more limited view which is often- times expressed. Americans, who keep their eyes focused on practical results much of the time, tend to view university extension as a means of getting the latest developments in their respective fields; to these people, university extension is somewhat narrower in scope than what Professor Porrell had in mind. Academic Freedom The next problem was related to philosophy, as it dealt with the often nebulous idea ‘of freedom. Professor Meiklejohn opened his re- marks with a list of rhetorical questions; then, as a sort of considered after-thought, he formulated some answers to these same questions. He 18 Lyman P. Powell, "Ten Years of University Extension," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 88, September, 1901, pp. 393-103. 1112 said:19 How shall. we win and keep that(public) confidence? That is the urgent problem for us and for the people we serve. How shall we teach unless the people listen? How shall they listen unless they know that we can teach am tint we will? Unless a people find, in colleges or elsewhere, some place of criticism, some place where truth is sought, where thought is free, there is no hepe for freedom of the people. The college must teach, ard first of all, must make the people urderstand what teaching is. How shall we let them know that we are serving every interest that they have am! yet are slaves to none of them, that we will listen to every thought they bring an! yet will weigh and value than with thoughts of other nan in mind? There is m other way than this: to study and to teach. And teaching is the attempt to make men free. Physician, heal thyself 1 Two authors discussed the subject of academic freedom; their points of view are almost identical. Acadeunc freedom did not induce the same types of pressures in the first decade of the century as it has induced during the past several years when political conditions in the country have been quite different. Howard Crosby Warren defined the term in his article and spoke about it in general terms. He said:20 Freedom of teaching, as scholars understand the tem, means control of university instruction by the teaching profession itself, untramneled W outside interference. The university teacher is a prophet of the truth. His tenure of office should not be determined by political, theological, or popular approval; but In should be held accountable to his own calling. In point of fact, the teacher to-day is not a free, responsible agent. His career is practically under the control of He laymen. Fully three quarters of our scholars occupy academic positions; and in America, at least, the teaching investigator, whatever professional standing he may have attained, is subject to the direction of some body of men outside his own craft. As investigator he may be quite untrammeled, but as teacher, it has been said, he is half tyrant and half slave. I9 116 xander Meiklejohn, "Freedom of the College,“ _'I_‘___he Atlantic Ho nthl , Vol. 121, January, 1918, pp. 83- 89. £ Howard Crosby Warren, "Academic Freedom," The Atlantic Monthl, Vol. 1114, November, 19114, pp. 669-699. 12:3 Warren said elsewhere that the church arrl state were the two most important restraining influences on academic freedomnwith slight preference to the formr. He cautioned that the'fields of economics, philosophy,and psychology were points where cases of academic freedom were most apt to develop. Doctor Arthur Twining Hadley, President of Yale University, was the other writer on the problem of academic freedom. He indicated an inter- 21 esting dichotomy in the area when he said: In the fields of politics we have gone far toward removing the corresponding difficulty which once existed, when all institutional reform carried With it, or at any rate seemed to carry with it, the danger of revolution. We have learned to draw the line between the group of actions w’n ch Mill characterized as self-regardi ng, ard another group of actions which more immediately concern the safety or interest of others. By permitting liberty in the former field and restricting it in the latter, we seem to have secured the advantages of freedom without exposing ourselves to the worse dangers. We have combined the maximum of progress with the minimum of revolution. But in educational matters we have not yet learned to draw this line. We have not learned to separate the rights of the discoverer from the duties of the teacher, or to secure the advantages of freedom without the dangers. Nay, that very progress of legal conservatism which lessens the teacher's dangers in one direction binds him by closer shackles in amther,‘and renders his conflict of duties more perplefing. The establishment of a well-ordered legal system, which gives tre teacher permanent position and recogu nition in the state, tends to make him in fact, if mt in name, a part of the public service, engaged in preparing others for tret service; and it brings him under a contractual relation with authorities, public or private, who pay him for his teaching and conceive that they have the right to say what he shall teach. Both of these statements were written before the development of loyalty oaths in the field of education and investigation committees in the field of politics. The American Association of University Professors has been active in this area during recent years, since education has tended to reflect the confusion which exists in society in this regard. 21 Arthur Twining Hadley, "Academic Freedom in Theory and Practice," 1113 Atlantic Monthly, Vol.91,February,l903,pp.lSZ-160. lhh Whatever influence these forces have had in this area, these two men touched upon a problem which continues to cause real concern in the present day. That academic freedom does not mean academic license is a painful lesson to learn, but it promises to be a problem with us for some time to come. Ting Elective M President A. Laurence Well of Harvard University formulated a statemnt about 1:1: elective system and its influence in the colleges ard universities. Raising of the issue by him was interesting, Since Harvard University was the place of the development of the elective system under the leadership of President Eliot. Many people felt that the elective system was consistent with democratic principles am landed the effects of this system in higher education. Others were just as vocal in attacking the elective sytem, and it is revealing to see wtnt an important exponent of this system had to say on the subject. the said:22 When the elective system was first introduced, its advocates believed that it would have a powerful selective influence, by offering to each student ampler opportunity for self-development in tin branches of learning that he might prefer. The opponents of the system did not deny this , but complained that the under- graduate was mt capable of judging what was best for him, and that to follow his own bent would lead to a one-sided development. In the plans of men, the indirect, and therefore unforseen, consequences are often more important than those which form the subject of discussion. The elective systemuwhich has to a greater or less extent penetrated almost all our colleges-did, indeed, furnish an opportunity for self-development; but at the same time it weakened the stimulus to exertion. It was based upon the assumption that opportunity alone is enough, that a man will put forth his utmost powers if he can do so in a congenial field. Yet this is by no means true, even in the case of the highest genius. Many a man of talent res worked only from the stress of poverty, groaning all the time at his hard fate. Shakespeare 22 1F. Lawrence Lowell, "Competition in College," The Atlantic Monthgflol. 103, June, 1909, pp. 822-831. 11:5 himself did much of his writing under the pressure of finishing plays for the stage; and the difficulty of keeping artists and literary man up to time is notorious,--a difficulty not wholly due to the fith inspiration of the muse. Interestingly enough, an eminent exponent of the elective system felt constrained to spell out some cautions as the above quotation in- dicates. Standards in Higher Education Professor Horw11123 introduced quite a different type of problem when he called for a national standard in higher education whereby institutions would not have difficulties in classifying students when they transferred from one institution to another. A national standard was made necessary by the hundreds of students who were graduating each year with the bachelor of arts degree, thus it was difficult to compare the records of students who were trained in.different inp stitutions. Herwill recognized the value of degrees which were awarded by institutions with a national reputation, but he felt there ought to be some common basis for the colleges which were awarding more and more degrees each year. In his opinion, the situation was so chaotic that even the Commissioner of Education.himself could not gauge accurately the comparative worth of the degrees granted by all the institutions in this country. Besides, the standardization of degree requirements would have improved the quality of instruction; and it was this assumption which underlay Hbrwill's position. Henor Systems in Higher Education Professor Briggs of Harvard University discussed yet another problem in the colleges and universities; he attempted an explanation 23 Earhart Hbrwill, "A National.Standard in Higher Education,“ '2§2.Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 90, September, 1902, pp. 329-335. lhé of college honor. This has been a pressing problem since the beginning of organized teaching; but it received more attention in this country as the colleges began to admit thousanis of unselected students whose abilities differed so widely. Professor Briggs explained the importance 2b of the issue in these terms: College dishonesty in written work is hard to eradicate, because rooted in impalpable tradition,--that damaging tradition which exempts students from the ordinary rules of right living, and regards as venial, or even as rmmorous, acts intrinsically allied to those of the imposter, the forger, ani the thief. It is incredible that a youth of eighteen should mt see the dishonesty of handing in as his own work, for his own credit, a piece of writing which he has copied'from a newspaper or from a book, or from the writing of a fellow student, or which he has paid another man to write for him. Nobody who can get into college is so stupid that he cannot see the lie involved. li‘.verybod3r sees it clearly if the writing is for a prize, and if the fraud deprives a fellow student of his fair chance; but if a youth has spent all his available time in athletics, or in billiards, or at clubs, or at dances, or at the theatre, and if a thesis is due the next day, what is he to do? Attempts to remedy this situation or to eradicate it have been advanced from time to time. Some schools have developed honor systems which have proved to be unsuccessful in all cases, but these systems at least place the responsibility for conduct on the shoulders of the students rather than on the teacher. College Entrance Requirements Ralph Boas suggested an adjustment of college entrance require- ments to meet treneeds of the changed nature of the students who were attending the colleges and universities. He singled out the fact that many institutions need their entrance requirements improperly and complained that this condition would lead to serious consequences. He painted a rather bleak picture for those colleges which followed this 21; Liam. Briggs, "College Honor," 333 Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 88, October, 1901, pp. h83-h89. 114'. Procedure when he warned:25 Most disquieting of all, however, is the feeling that, in the perpetual fight against bigotry, superstition, racial intolerance, and inverted nationalism, the colleges seem to be abandoning the side of the angels. It may be hard to see one's college harboring strange men with alien ways, to see the happy spirit of'youthful friendship weakening beneath.the fierce and relentless pursuit of knowledge which, to these strangers, is the whole of college life; but it is harder to see one's college fostering mother hates and racial dissentions, the parent of bitterness which for years will be a canker in the minds of men. Colleges will doubtless say that, in selecting their students in their own way, they have no such purpose. Hewever, what usually matters is not the purpose of an act, but its result. The problem has received consideration by the national organization of college admission counselors, but it is significant that it was stated so forcefully in the early 1920's. Prasident Lowell of Harvard Umlversity made a survey of the relationship of college training to distinction in life by surveying Who's Wig in America to determine the level of training of those appearing in tins volume. "If appearance in M £132 is a measure of ‘ distinction in life," he concluded,"chance of college men is a trifle better than one in seven, or nearly twice as great as that of average graduates."26Another article along this line is a rather interesting answer to the question: Could Darwin be produced in an American university today? Richard Maclaurin27 answered in the negative. His reason was that such men are not produced in any university, since such men as Charles Darwin are born and not made. He felt, furthermore, that 25 Ralph Philip Boas, "Who Sahll Go To College ," Tie Atlantic Monthly Vol. 130, October, 1922, pp. Mil-11M}. Lawrence Lowell, "College Rank and Distinction in Life,“ The Atlantic Monthl , Vol. 92, October, 1903, pp. 512-520. Richer C. Maclaurin, “Darwin At An American University, “ 11213 Atlantic Monthl , Vol. 106, July, 1911, pp. 192-198. 1&8 the present American college might have retarded if not checked Darwin's intellectual development entirely. These are two different approaches to the problem of evaluation; and, while they are amusing, they do give insight into the problem of evaluation. 11?; W College Movement Doctor George Herbert Palmer, Professor Emeritus of Harvard University in the field of phi1050phy, raised a provocative issue in higher education when he wrote an article on the subject of the junior college movement in America. The junior college was one of the sig- nificant developments in higher education during the first half of the twentieth century, but the junior college has been modified considerably in purpose and function over the years. Professor Palmer rather in- nocently indicated that the junior college began as a movement and developed into a torrent, to use his phrasing. In 1927 he said that 375 had already been established and that five new ones were opening their doors every month. Because of the rapid multiplication of this type of institution, he viewed the junior college movement as the most menacing ani urgent aspect of contemporary education. Professor Palmer thought that college professors were not opposed to this institution because of the elementary work students did, ard this was one factor which encouraged its success. His article raised a storm of protest country-wide {when he said:28 Wherever Junior Colleges are strong, colleges will drop their first two years and will add two graduate years, chiefly of professional study. The unique intermediate culture college of America will disappear, and with it the great troop of men and women who, having had contact with scholarship, have become leaders 26 George Herbert Palmer, "The Junior College ," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 139, April, 1927, pp. h97-501. 1149 in idealism ard centres of civilization for our waste places. The financial backing of these persons, the main support of our colleges hitherto, now ceasing, we must, like the universities of Europe, come into dependence on the State ard let our poli- ticians refuse money if we teach such science as they do not like. I do not detect the flaw in this argument. Will someone point it out? An anonymous writer was quick to accept Professor Palmer's challenge and to disagree with Professor Palmer's point of view: to give the arguments at some length, the writer of this thesis will quote a key passage to be found in the article. it was as follows:29 We hear it said that junior colleges are peculiarly adapted to handling the masses wlrn seek higher education without capacity for absorbing it, and that they form a protective sieve for the universities, which will be thus saved from lowering standards to the mob level. But we have no assurance that, by junior-college aid, such students will not go on to the higher institutions in greater numbers. And what of the brilliant youth caught in the junior—college trap. The student of superior mentality is now passed through the lower schools with greater rapidity. He is ready for college young. His parents fear to send him away. He is placed in a local junior college. There he starves intellectual- ly, and grows warped ard bitter under administrative repression. The previous line of educational growth in the United States has been a settling downward in the system of subjects and of method. The high-school of to-day is the college of yesteryear. But the junior college, reversing this process, bids fair to turn to-morrow's college into a mere grandiose high school. Time alone can show whether, as the two new educational institutions become established, they can develop suitable personnel and standards of their own, or whether the blight of their origin is ingrained in their very make-up and the already thin substance of American education is to be diluted this much further. There is an heredity in insititutions as in individuals, and the junior college was born in the high-school family. Certainly if junior-high- school positions are to be forever the reward of grade-excellence, and if junior-college jobs are filled indefinitely from the high school ranks, then higher education in America has received a body blow. Whether the city boards of education under which the tm-year colleges increasingly operate can resist the inevitable pressure toward this course remains to be seen. And one also wonders whether, in the present state of popular sentiment that makes possible the frequent preposal and occasional passage of the so-called anti-evolution bills, it is safe to expose college train- ing to the short-range public scrutiny which is the lot of any local junior college. 29 "The Junior College Menace: As Seen From Within," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 139, June, 1927, pp. 809-612.. "" """"""' 150 These two articles stirred up such violent reactions throughout the country that the editors of The Atlantic Montfly were forced to print an explanation to the hundreds of readers who sent in letters of protest. Pr0fessor Palmer took a rather narrow view of the function of the junior college, and this institution's supporters of today would censure him for takim such a limited view of the function of the junior college. Historically, the junior college has been viewed as a preparatory sch001; but there are other important functions of this peculiarly American institution. It has become an extremely important institution in the areas of vocational education, adult education, general education, and terminal education. It tends to be looked upon in the middle of the twentieth century as an extension of the work of the secondary school, and this multi-phase institution seems to be highly develOped. With this background in mind, Palmcr's synthesis of the letters which he received on the subject should be given. First of all, Palmer said that the junior college menace could be met by requiring all applicants to universities to take all previous exam- inations before admittance—~paying no attention to certificates on which the junior college throve. Secondly, he favored putting this un-American type of education to national debate as a deterrent to its further development. Next, Palmer felt that parents should control the transition time between childhood ard youth instead of leaving this task to the junior colleges; he argued that sending a child away from home as soon as he gradxeted from high school would solve the problem of independence for. the home-kept student. Lastly, he expressed the opinion that a broad liberal education was simply not available in the junior colleges; he also referred to junior colleges as glorified vocational schools which were only advertisements for real-estate 151 speculations. This latter issue seems to be beside the point entirely. 30 So ended the discussion of the junior college movement. Higher Education For Women What was happening to the higher education of women during the period under consideration? The emancipation of women in this country during the second quarter of the twentieth century set the stage for serious efforts of the higher education of women. During the roaring twenties women made places for themselves in business and industry and in many of the professional fields Which had been heretofore closed to women. Isaders in the movement included some distinguished women who lectured, wrote, and persuaded the nation to free women from a rather servile status which kept women in the home or bound as domestic servants. The emancipation of women had far more significant influences than the number of articles in T113 Atlantic Monthly would seem to indicate; but the follow. ng articles on the education of women are significant. In the late 1920's Virginia Crocheron Gilder— sleeve, eminent champion of women's rights and president of one of the colleges for women, reported the results of a conference of several distinguished women who headed the girl's colleges in the East.31 According to the report, the group vindicated the work of the women's colleges and called for further support and encouragement of this important type of educational institution. As reported by President 30 Georgem Herbert Palmer, "The Junior College Again," The Atlantic Monthly Vol. lhO, December, 1927, pp. 828-830. The group included: Virginia Crochemn Gildersleeve, Barnard; Ada L. Comstock, Radcliffe; Marion Edwards Park, Bryn Mawr; William Allan Neilson, Smith; Mary E. Wooley, Mount Holyoke; Henry Noble MacCracken, Vassar; and Ellen F. Pendleton, Wellesley. 152 Gildersleeve, the group pointed out inequalities of opportunity of women in these terms:32 The question wnich we wish to raise is one of fair play. We have sketched the history of achievements of the colleges for women. They invite scrutiny and tiny can stand comparison. They are eager to go on, to develop, to experiment. The material which is being sent than in great numbers consists of the daughters of men who hold them as their dearest possessions. For their physical welfare arr! for their pleasures they lavish their means. For the training of their minds and the development of their personalities tte provision they make, in comparison with that made for their brothers, is meagre and grudging. Do Americans believe in educating women or do they mt? If they do, the question is one of justice rather than chivalry. Obviously, this group of distinguished men ard women called for a type of education for women which would be far more comprehensive than the finishing schools which had provided a veneer of refinement in the social graces rather than providing for their intellectual development. They championed the cause of complete equalization of educational opportunity on a par with that of men. A decade before Professor Gildersleeve published her challenge, Zena Gale contributed an article on co-education. It was in the form of an evaluation of co-education as it had been practiced before the Woman's Suffrage movement. Important flaws in the co-education move- ment included two problems: Gale said that boys refused to take courses with girls in many instances, for the boys felt that girls should not compete with them. She also felt that the women exhibited purely social aims and that they were not seriously interested in higher 33 education. She concluded her article in this manner: If we put faith in what we see of coeducation, we are of 32 Virginia Crocheron Gildersleeve, et al, “The Question of Women's Colleges," The Atlantic Monthly, VSITThO,December, 1927, pp. 577'5814. .- 33 Zone Gale, mWhat of Coeducation7", The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 111;, July, 19114, pp. 92-106. 153 course obliged to admit that after fifty years and more of experimentation in America the effect of coeducation on the students undergoing it is not wholly desirable. Similarly, after uncounted thousands of years of living, the experience of indi- viduation is not always operative to develop the substance so expressed. But if we are Wise, we shall voluntarily abandon neither coeduation nor living, on account of conclusions important only as they furnish bases for examination and modification. And the reactions from four years of educational life are important in our seeking for democracy-and for other things. Mabel Barbee Lee, assistant dean at Radcliffe College, outlined the job of the education of women rather effectively in an article in the 1930's. She reviewed the history of the movement and called for con- tinued support of education for mmen. Sime her article is an excellent summary of the problem, the writer would like to give one key quotation 3h from her article : The novelty of educating women has not yet worn off in spite of the fact that many of our mothers ard some of our grandmothers have received college degrees. The question of their mental capacity is no longer one of debate, for they have settled that by their high scholastic records; but their ability to take social initiative for themselves is still one of the burning topics of the day. . .President Eliot, one of the greatest of education leaders in his time, had said that the 'real object in ed ication, in so far as the development of character is concerned, is to cultivate in the child a capacity for self-govermnent, not a habit of obeying the dictates of honor and duty as enforced by action and will power.‘ Such an ideal must have been in part the in- spiration for the first adventure in promoting self-governing associations in the colleges. And if the orignial purpose has been somewhat obscured, it is, perhaps, because ideals have a way of eluding the efforts of men to capture and shape them in concrete forms. ,. The colleges educating women in their turn, should be free, financially and morally, to develop their cultural objectives without beirg distracted by extraneous issues; such as the bobbing of hair a few years ago , am, more recently, the smoking of cigarettes. There will always be hypercritical parents and alumnae; the general public will continue, doubtless, to con- tribute to the cause its sheaf of uninformed opinions. But these things need mt disturb institutions that are firmly established. It is their duty to become leaders in promoting more mature social attitudes toward women, not only as students, but as 3b, Mabel Barbee Lee, "Censoring The Conduct of Colleg ;e Women," Th___e_ Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 1115, April, 1930, pp. tut-150. 15b citizem in the community at large where they must work and make their homes. Such were the corrments on the education of women in The Atlantic Monthly. The problem was not treated extensively, but it did receive some attention in this famous literary magazine. It would appear that the final stage in the complete emancipation of women occurred during the period of the second World War when women took positions in in- dustry to relieve men for fro nt-line combat. They were also drafted into the service to perform important duties for their country. The records of their performance in all areas has been so satisfactory that tl'e idea of equality is an accepted fact today. Critical Attacks .02 Higher Education During the twentieth century there were many critical attacks in the area of higin education; scme of these criticisms have been in- dicated somewhat incidentally as other problems have been discussed. But the writer would like to turn mm to a more systematic treatment of specific critical articles in the area of higha' education as they were reported in _T_k_1_e_ Atlantic Monthly. President Henry S. Pritchett, perennial contributor to The Atlantic Monthly, attempted to identify and classify the groups which were making critical remarks about higher education. Pritchett categorized these groups in this manner: “The serious critics of the college fall into three groups: the college teachers, students of tire soc1al order, and the business man. To state the matter in a different way, the co ilege is being criticized to-day from three points of view: that of the college teacher, that of the social reformer, and that of the business man."35 Of these three grouas, 35 Henry S. Pritchett, "The Critics of The College," Th__e Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 111;, September, 1911;, pp. 332-3141. 155 college teachers were the most critical. College teachers complained about the lack of breadth in the curriculum and the lack of scholar- ship on the part of Students. The college teacher felt oftentimes that the president am the members of the boards of trustees had little understanding or sympathy of the teacher's problems; ani, if this was true, the college teacher perhaps had reason to complain. Social reformers in the area of religion and politics were another group in Professor Pritchett's list. But he felt tizat the buSiness h -an was the most persistent critic in the field of higher education. The business man criticized the colleges are universities for being uncritical of their own processes arm for being too careless with funds. This group favored a. critical administrative examination of the colleges and universities on much the sane basis as was current in the field of a business and industry. Professor Hitcnett's identification of the critics of higher education proved to be correct for the most part; the I reader can judge this as'the criticisms are discussed. { One critical attack on higher education fell outside this category, as it was made by President Robert Hutchins of the University of I Chicago. President Hutchins attempted to reorganize education at his university by awarding the bachelor of arts degree at t he and of the sophomore year, and he announced that he had received support for his plan from fourteen college presidents. However, W.H. Cowley refuted President Hutchins‘ announcement bywn‘ich this plan would be copied in other institutions. He said that not only had the plan been refuted but that a national educational association had deplored the Chicago 36 Plan. Few Institutions, indeed, have copied President Hutchins' plan. 35 W.I.. Cowley, "War on College, " The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 169, May, 191:2 pp. 719-726. 156 .Another series of critical attacks on universities came out of Chicago where the Chicago Tribune conducted a crusade against Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Dartmouth. These colleges and universities were accused of subversive activities under the leadership of Moscow, Rhodes Scholars, Wall Street, and the New Deal. Louis m. Lyons, eminent news- paperman, collected and analyzed many of the news stories and editorials which the above-mentioned newSpaper published. He concluded that "The Tribune with its slanted and twisted news staids out as an absolute anomaly in the area of responsible journalism.”37 Lyons further evalu- ated the Tribune by making fun of the editor. “Under Colonel Frank Knox,“ he said, nthe Chicago 22312 Eggs used to caricature the Tribune owner as 'Col. McCosmick,' a comic character. This is a kinder verdict than history will render." Activities during World War II and opinions of responsible public figures tend U3 confirm the smear techniques which Iyons pointed out.~ George Perkin raised a lively issue in higher education when be criticized the inadequacy of American institutions on the basis of the failure of such large numbers of applicants to pass the qualifying examination for the Rhodes Scholarships which were established by a renowned English industrialist. According to the terms of Rhodes' will, a considerable sum.of money was set aside to provide college and university training for qualified American students who wanted to acquaint themselves with English culture at Oxford University. After thirteen years of operation, George Perkin pointed out some serious 37 iouis M. Lyons, "Libeling Our Colleges," Igg.Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 183, January, 19h9, pp. 39-h2. 157 38 weaknesses in.American higher education when he said: Of all the candidates for scholarships throughout the Union during the last thirteen years, now numbering more than two thousand, about one-half failed to pass the qualifying examination, which is equivalent to what at Oxford is called 'Responsions,‘ > the lowest standard on which a man is allowed to remain at the \ University; It is a singular fact that those failures have occurred almost as frequently in the older Eastern States as in the West, and in the North as in the South, where education is supposed to be less advanced. This seems to indicate that the underlying causes are general through the Union. The examination is considered quite elementary according to Oxford standards, and is passed by boys of 17, 18, or 19 from the grammar, high, and great public schools. Those who take it in America are required to have at least sophomore standing at some recognized degree-granting university or college. They are most frequently graduates. In one state having an exceptionally large and varied university organization and numerous student body, out of nine— teen candidates who presented themselves in two years, only two succeeded in passing the examination. Among the causes for failure in this regard were: (1). serious weak- nesses in.American secondary and higher schools, (2). the requirement of more accurate knowledge in the English test than in the American ones, (3). poor work or preparation.by preparatory and elementary schools, (h). lack of training in classical subjects such as Greek and Latin which were nit offered in this country, (5). interest of the American student to get out of school and make money earlier than his European counterpart, (6). too little value on scholarship in the United States, (7). cultural limitations in the homes, (6). preference for graduate work at home where the American student could have job connections, and (9). the fact that Oxford was the hot-bed of classical influence. These criticisms were answered by Frank F. Bevine who was a former Rhodes Scholar. He suggested that Americans are the most sensitive 38 George Robert Perkin, I'Rhodes Scholarships and American ’ Scholars," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 12h, September, 1919,pp.36S-375. l I i I 158 nation in.the world and hinted that something must have been wrong with Oxford University and the system.when one half of the candidates, which numbered over a thousand, failed to pass the examination. Bevine re- called that the test required sight translations of Latin as well as the writing of a composition in that language, and he said that this was not a valid test for Americans who did not study Latin. That the exam, ination was open.to an unpselected population'was another fallacy in Parkin's report. Also, Bevine made much of the fact that the qualifying examination was adminiStered at the time the American boy was finishing his college education, thus making it all but impossible for him to prepare for the examination. Bevine also felt that the "Rhodes Trust" asked for one class of students and criticized us on the basis of yet another class. Conducting his rebuttal to Professor Parkin, Bevine 39 said: What appears to be the chief trouble is that the Rhodes Trust is impatient of results and unnecessarily disturbed over the careers of the American scholars. One loses sight of the fact that the Rhodes Scholars have only begun their part in carrying out the Rhodes idea on completion of the three years at Oxford. The scholarships were not intended as a means of competition in the examination schools, but were for the purpose of giving young Americans an understanding of the real England, her men and her ideals. In this they have been eminently successful, for almost without exception the Rhodes Scholars treasure their experiences at Oxford. Bevine seems to have answered Parkin's criticisms of the Rhodes Scholars, for there were no more articles on this subject in The Atlan- tic Honthly. I Academic‘weaknesses Professor Paul V. west quoted a study of the results of a recent content test as evidence that the American college student did not know 39 Frank F. Bevine, "The Inadequate Rhodes Scholar: A Defense,“ Thg.Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 12h, November, 1919, pp. 665-669. 159 very much in a factualway.ho His conclusions were based on such limited data that they are almost negligible, if not insignificant; but this attempt at an evaluation of higher education was in the same 1 category as others wmich have been discussed thus far. An article which was related to this subject was writtenuby Constance'Warren,hlwho made I a case for the introduction of graduate methods--that is, research--in order to give the student experience with factual knowledge upon.which principles and generalizations are based. A conversation with a business man.wmose son was about to enter colEege contained elements of the same type of criticism as the two already mentioned. The father of the boy accused education of operating on a "convoy system" which turned out poorlybtrained individuals. "We educational engineers with good material1 and on a cost-plus basis ought to be able to turn out an indiv1dual job superior to the usual product," Lyman concluded.h2 Evaluation in Higher Education The problem of evaluation of higher education was voiced by ‘William Nichols. He had some rather critical things to say about higher education when he said: Our passion for well-rounded education is such that we are in ’ danger of manufacturing a nation of billiard balls. The catalogue of any.American college gives a fair idea of the final steps in.the educational process as it is now applied. The . student must first concentrate, or major, in one subject, and take several courses in that; then he must distribute, or minor, in other courses, taken from prescribed combinations of subjects. The "_P hO PEU1 V. West, "What Do College Students Know?", The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 127, March,1921, pr. 391-3 93. "" _..___.... HI Constance'Warren, "The Graduate Approach in an Undergraduate Colle ;;e," The Atlantic Monthly Vol. 161, June, 1938, pp. 788-791. h2 E .‘IymEE:—"PETtTE§—T5'Up To The Colleges," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 1th, November, 1929, .p. 626-C 28 """"""' '—_—__53'William I. Nichols, "The Convention 01 Going To Colle :e,“ The Atlantic I.Iontnly, Vol. 1h3, October, 1929, pp . LL7-h56. 160 first will make him profOund; the second will make him broad. In most cases, moreover, he must have studied a certain amount of Latin or Greek, to make him classical, and modern languages in certain.combinations to make him erudite. His body, as well as his mind, must undergo certain treatments at the same time. He cannot matriculate until he has shown a certificate of vaccination. He cannot graduate until he has demons strated his ability to swim. He must have fulfilled his physical- training requirements by taking part in an approved sport for at least three hours a week; by taking special corrective exercises if his posture is deficient, and by attending a series of lectures in hygie no . ‘When he emerges from the stages of this process and receives the imprint of a colleee degree-—behold, the Greek ideal, healthy mind in healthy body, and both as well rounded as can be. No doubt this former assistant dean at Harvard University and recently- turned business man put his fingers on some of the issues in higher education which were eliciting criticisms, but this enumeration of problems were indicative of the degree and less of the kind of problems ‘ which had been advanced. Robert M. Hutchins of Chicato University noted the effects of the practical influences of society in higher education in a critical article. Professor Hutchins is perhaps the best-known American champion . of the idealistic philosophy of education, and it is interest'ng to note how his philosophy undergirded the following comments: The pressure of the practical appears everywhere in our educational system. The result has been trivialization. Courses in how to drive an automobile have lately appeared in an excellent ‘ middleAWestern university. The neWSpapers report an effort to institute courses in bicycle riding in the public schools of South : Bend, Indiana. These are simply two of the most recent instances of the general trend of American education. It is so full of action that thought seems fated to disappear from it. The danger of the American universities is not celibacy, but polygamy. They are mated to so many different kinds of action that nothing but a few divorces can save them from the consequences of their ardor. Hutchins is well-known for his granting the bachelor of arts degree at the end of the sophomore year and his support of the “great books“ idea hH'RBbert M. Hutchins, "Reply To Professor Whitehead,“ The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 158, November, 1936, pp. 582-588. 161 in higher education. The “great books" movement was designed to acquaint students with the significant ideas which have bad influence in the western world 5 and there have been some followers of this idea. However insistent Hutchins was in criticizing the institutions of higher learning on the basis of their offering practical instruction, the colleges and universities have followed the trend of giving more and more emphasis on this latter movement. In explaining the reorganization of the educational program at St. John's College, Springfield Barr showed that this school had been in- fluenced by the University of Chicago, where the "great book" movement was the rage. St. John's College embarked on a revolutionary program of banning textbooks for all courses arr! by instituting a curriculum based on the "great books." The elective system also received a set-back at St. John's College when this program was started. Commenting upon the subject, Barr said:hS In the conferences that followed, the Committeee proposed for St. John's, and the Board accepted in principle, that the College should abolish the elective system and the textbook and substitute for them an all-required four-year course based on the study of the great books of the Western tradition, of the sort which American colleges of liberal arts had furnished before Eliot of Harvard had introduced the elective system and the elective system had introduced vocationalism, a growing intellectual chaos, and, finally, the illiterate alumnus. . .We are turning back to the great books precisely because they conveyed the great and permanent] ideas which had nourished our civilization at every period of healthy growth . . Although the program at St. John's College received a great deal of ' comment in the educational journals and tie press, this movement has I not received wide Spread support from insitutions of higher learning in , the United States. At least, this article suggests that colleges and us Springfield Barr’ "A “liege in Successicn," $11.63. Atlantic W’ V01“ 165: JUIY, 19111, pp. 111449. ----—-- 162 and universities were emerimenting with new ideas to meet the critical attacks on higher education. Education ani Military Training Quite a different set of circumstances motivated Captain McGeorge Bundy of the United States Army to write his article to scold twelve college presidents who had written an cpen letter to President Roosevelt in the l9h0's Opposing the adoption of compulsory military training. When Germany and England declared war and much of Europe was over-run by the invading armies, many people realized that the United States should assist the Allied efforts in defeating the Germans. President Roosevelt persuaded Congress to provide assistance through the lend lease program whereby England could receive vast quantities of war material from the United States. Congress approved a system of national conscription with the passage of the Selective Service Act. During the debate of the issues involved in this bill, several college presidents wrote to the president protes ing the passage of such an act. Captain 6 Bundy scolded these college presidents when he said:)4 The returning soldier will have a deep and lasting hunger for education. Not all of what he wants, of course, is yours to give. Not every man is looking for the training of the colleges. But among us there are many tens of thousands who are waiting for the day when we can again go to you for light and truth-~for a sharpening and deepening of our minds that these last years have left us badly needing We will go eagerly and humbly, but if we find in your colleges a way of life still unrevised to meet the facts as we have had to : meet them, we will not stay as long or drink so deep as you and we now hope. It would be your great loss, and ours, if, in your eagerness to keep the old, you should lose your great, shining chame to mold the new. For the road is forward, gentlemen, not back. Of course, Captain Bundy did not anticipate the G.I. Bill which was 1.16 {Eptain McGeorge Bundy, “A letter To Twelve College Presidents ," 331?. Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 175, May, 1915, pp. Eli-56. . 103 approved after World War II to help those veterans who had been in service to continue their education. but he seemed to realize that the war had brought out severe weaknesses in higher education which needed attention. More particularly, the captain objected to the theory of isolation in world affairs; with this objection, the writer of this paper concludes his survey of specific problems which received attention during the firs half of the century in The Atlantic Monthly. Criticisms oi College Professors There were several articles dealing with the college professor as well as the college president during the first half of the twentieth century. The problems discussed under this category include: faculty salaries, tenure, professional. activities, and other assorted problems. If one were to formulate a popular image of the college professor from the articles which appeared on this subject, Ire would visualize a person who exerted important influences without being paid too well for his services. This image would be different fromthe popular image of the h1g1 school administrator as portrayed by the popular radio program known as "Our Miss Brooks" in which the principal is lampooned‘as a tyrant and a ne-er-do-well. Faculty salaries have been an important problem through the years, and this certainly received attention in fig Atlantic Monthly. To gain an understanding of these important educational officers in higher education, one should examine the follow- ing examples as they were reported in the magazine under consideration. An amusing trio of articles were contributed by one Wendell Brooks Phillips who was professor of English in a small liberal arts college in Georgia. Professor Phillips received his bachelor's degree from Piedmont College in Georgia where he was teaching at the time the lob articles were written, and he completed his advanced training at Harvard University where he had a brilliant record. Since his series of articles are illustrative of what was hagrrpening in one small liberal arts college in the South, and, as he said, all over the United States, one ought to report his caserather fully. Giving the background to ' h? his “hick“ college, Phillips said: There are plenty of hick colleges all over the country, but the one in which I teach is so perfect an example that it might be used as a yardstick by which to measure all the rest. Not a single quality is missing: we have a deep purpose in life; we are not only poor but desperate; we supply a college education to rustic boys and girls for about the price of a secondhand Ford; we neither dame, drink, nor smoke, and pet as little as possible; in short, we are so different from the usual college of movie and popular novel that you really ought to know something about us. Most colleges think they are poor; but have you ever heard of a college without a single building? Our recitation hall is a converted livery stable; our library is a redeemed doctor's office; our girls' dormitory is a reclaimed summer hotel; our boys' dormitory is a reformed dwelling house; and our chapel is a re- generated Chautauqua hall. Actual money is so scarce that we.have resorted to a complicated system of barter far more interesting thai ordinary getting and spending. I buy milk from a neighboring farmer, but I wouldn't think of paying him money for it. Each month I write him an order for thirty quarts' worth of tuition, with which the farmer's son pays his bills at the college treasury. And the treasurer charges the sum against my salary account. I receive a good part of my salary in the form of peaches, potatoes, hams, and firewood from the college farm. Even as it is, however, salaries are always in arrears, and are very small when they are paid. So we have to scheme, and patch our clothes, and, when tempted to have an appendicitis operation, simply subdue the impulse. The ideal student in the eyes of the administration is the docile, conforming student who makes fairly good marks, but who has no original ideas, nor any questioning fire in him. Every trace of individuality is censored out of our poor little college paper by official supervision. The faculty will not allow dancing because 'the trustees wouldn't hear to it.‘ The trustees say it really doesn't matter to them, but 'the parents would be outraged.’ Most Georgia parents seem quite willing that their sons and daughters should be thus carefully guarded at college, but they readily let them dance when they come home. . . Yes, these are the medicines I have drunk, and the lpells —_'ETWe'ndell Brooks Phillips, "1 Teach In A Hick College,“ The; Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 11:9, March, 1932, pp. 327-332. 105 which hold me to this preposterous but enchanting place. My old Harvard roommate who faithfully continues to Write me letters .even from.the courts of the mighty once tried to wean me away from this land of the hicks. But he is now resigned. It is no use, he says, since I am only a sort of super-hick myself. Well, why'not? Being a super-hick is sometuing new in the way of a career, and it suits me exactly. Like Brer Rabbit, I am never able to feel at home When very far away from my native hrier patch. Such beautifully written prose bretght notoriety to the school where good Professor Phillips had interpreted the S1bt1ties of Words vcriwlth StanZas icr twenty years, and the trustees looked upon this article as sufficient cause for disuiissal. But the situation at home simmered down becaise of the influence of this great and'widely-respectod pr'- ‘2 lessor. Professor Phillips comp icated his situa tion.further then in the very next year he penned an article in which he described the students 1 ) at: of a "hick" college in a romantic fashic-.. Of them he said: Each autumn they come to us anew; and if I were asked to name at once their most striking quality, I would venture: Outwardly, it lies in their extra-ordinarily good manners; inwardly, in the predominance of sentiment over all other considerations. By good manners I hardly mean.familiarity with the latest book of etiquette, but grace and dignity of bearing,'with tact and kindness for even the most casual encounters. Again, the article created quite a sensation in this quiet little Southern.college town;'but Professor Phillips was not allned to remain at his post this time. After his dismissal, he explained the iss‘es as h? he saw them in.this manner: And jus tint was the issue? Essential.ly it was this: the trustees consid«: red my attitude a menace to Christian education; I, on the other hand, considered their attitude a menace to education of any kind. The trustees were quite oblivious of the fact that in this issue the college, fully as much as I, was on trial. But the college wont However, the dintributor's column of the magazine endell Brooks Phillips,“Students inma Hick College,“ The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 151, April, 1933. pp. 412-1118. Wendell Brooks Phillips, "I‘Was Fired From A Hick College," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 156, CctOber, 1935, pp. 39o—h03. 166 was filled with art cles dealing with Professor Phillips' dismissal. If the conditions we e similar to thmse reported by Mi or Phillips in other small 1: oeral arts colleb (as all over T16 country, tr er» were no evidences of this to be found in the magazine with which this study is concerned. No donut, similar cases could be found, for this case developed during the collapse of the American economic 33s tezn oi tie early thirties. Be that as it was, these three articles indicate some of the problems of the collage professor; and college professors still face many similar problems in mid-century. An.anonyrw us self-styled "Scrutator" pointed out some aspects of what he called the professor's dilemma. There are many elements of the <0 same sort of dilemma existing in the present day. The author said:’ The professor‘s dilemxa is a delicate one. If he plays sage and remains within his academic groves, other men will points finger of scorn at him and quote Bernard Shaw: 'Those who can, do; those wno cannot, teach,‘ and if, itching to carry his thought into action, he dares to break loose and take part in practical affairs, he will be discredited as a wild-eyed visionary who has spent his l‘fe in 'mental acrobatics.' .Another writer on the theme exrlained why the job of the college pres- ident was such a difficult one in the United States. The last two articles fall within the tradition of the conflict between the town and gown, but the conflicts are peculiar to American education. Writing anonymously for obvious reasons, the author of the next article gave ..: l. some reasons for difficulties in the oil“; cc of tne college president:) The last quarter of a century has been a period of ferment in education as in all things else, and the marvelous changes whick have taken place in the world of commerce, production, and trans- portation are scarcely greater than those which have been known.in SO O"The Professor's Dilemma," The Atlantic Monthly Vol. 152 July, 1933, pp. 1211-125. """'""" "““J' 51 "The Perplexities of A College President, " The Atlantic Month]; Vol. 55, April, 1900, p3. h83—h93. the ..:-em Cl 3-7181f1T‘IICtj-1 througn.the of Harris and theories and 7'13]. 1 CL n3. “I'll C'Cyice establis. ement oi tie la11d-6rant cc izrozt 1161"" 1 : ‘i’F states give a 34vances made t froduction and con; ere e, have '5‘: ver- new d161:.'_t‘* V say ti1z‘1t e gineerirg {36‘ UL.) \ _ WL". L .1 ...C E'I'i r7 ....L-3 of frw S SCILO .. educatl of free s;.'St€E :S on the de, .nd a1d that tEe wrezaden scxolerly theTSAtj: he distiu x: ’7‘6‘. ‘11 Ca " O 5 a The'write- thy-1+3 4'; [:3 V. 1'" f‘fir ~ .1 ' «sud. QILI’ZG b ' E'C «1 mm recognized'the close 1elat10”.n1y between cell 7. Dreger, A E H‘V'v‘ C-h Y"i‘.""“~“. A. s- -6 ‘wjv nme ely .11d sarily as well 1 E? Bliss 1 Monthly, V01. 59, February, 53 Andret'fi. Drajer, 'V'Olo Q7, Jaizuc.r:?, lr'Ct" {3:1‘1 43:- .L.) I‘ u; - it ‘F‘ .L u». . A A. on a1d of 7+1. v .d. t ache; .« T" d (7'. .- . Inverse. "ETS'H ~ v .. .1 .4. i .we. igation, quic have created to the old. It is scarcely too Is, to-day at the p‘:nc ye state or c1cj ccllege (H r *3 {W i‘.‘ 111Oue“E‘I. .:¢ :: U 11" V 1., SE 1 " l 5", '-_\.« 't ' v 1)., 1w; aqd suggested a 1.5011- (11‘ \l, e {C x’rf ‘ .‘ . L. 'E E7 "-.I'Qd fisti S C 10210 8 or e ‘;g1“ ...-L Professors 1902, pp. vers1ty Ere 3:1‘242 o ke .“ 1, A {31 t1.” 0 ‘E‘ I :\ Hr! 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I 1 '1 . 1‘. Drefier'o 03.2.0130, 1:113 00-11050 0.0.1.31302115 1.01.101 nave .0 00 3 12.115011111031313 person, bet {1111; it mildly. Todq , 71331: tj"'1;10fl college president is nzre cf the 01.131333 executive t3";- scholar 1.1111011 Dray/er cleracter‘ized, 01th 0 there are some exec-31110.15 this 11110-1 wt'tj. th I‘. ' J. o e of .' erson than 1.710 ’3 Ha latter tfj-e 03" 02.33.1050 1resic ent. L 15. C: .51- Severel writers 00;..pleice' the salaries 3:1. ed other :‘roblerr-s, ':1'."t there 1" ere two arti0-es 110012.115 5018 I”) . (1’) the 01 this topic excl'...sivel;r. A11 5100131110113 11'1‘ite1‘0...0l..1ncu 000 1.t 111-0 A % ‘ “ ' ‘ " '_ .5.- ‘_I l _ , I. ~. "7‘ _.’_.‘I “ .'- I‘- a -.p~‘ . ... ‘ 31,000.00 3031.11,. 00011130 he felt t‘11-1t a 11.1.. zit‘. :1 doc 01‘ of. 13213;103:103 ‘1 I ‘ ‘1 f... ,. , ' ulL - -_,-.‘.-~‘ ~'.IV ‘A f--— 4— ‘I-l‘ - 1‘ ‘g-< T "-1 ..o ‘ ‘ .... ‘ ‘ fl - ‘. degree s-1.--=-.~.ld 1.01‘1. more 1.2.1103? t.2..1._..11; 311.... :10 0011301001 .---...s..-..1_1 1., .-,1'- teecnix. that in Simmer 301001311 oroer to s111¢1:.0r 1is fio 0 he was considering the 7108811321.]. it: of tel l{:‘ nr ‘ Job in 3.31? 13311‘;‘ I 1'fl1erc he could receive 0. decent living wage for his 1:11.01‘5 Rh Another _ - .,. 0 ‘1‘1 1‘ .x., 1 I f. - - _ ‘ ‘K 1" ‘1 - ‘ ..r.___ . a,“ , author was squeanlsn. a... t Signing .1113 {1.1.0 , .3 e ..:e.‘el;1 gave .13 5311113231310 001100.11 21.3.8 idel‘tity‘ sc:;.e1.'~I'3.:-1t. He said: EH "Family Finances of The Young, Professor ," The atlanuic 1.10:.1'.1:l;.1, Vol. Hontifly, V01. 95, May, 1903, pp. 6L1.- .SC. \ If the 1'1rofession of teaching is to ..ttl‘ act the 1.3. ghest type of efficient 1.15.11.10.00, a 13.17:; rfi salar‘rf 11:11.31; ‘00 paid. A man who 35 G.Ii’. 3.,“14’1'1'Iat Shofld College Promssors Be Paid?“, T__1_‘._e Atla '1tic 169 devotes his life to. the cause of “file advancement of education must feel a "call“ to it. He snowld be of a type which joyfully relinquishes all desire to accumulate worldly Wealth or to live in luxury. Large salaries, commensurate with what equal ability to 1d bring in other lines of work ($10,000 to @50,000), might be just, but would be undesirable, as they would tend to serve as bait to attract mercenary and lower types of men. But a man fit to occupy a chair in a 1111 varsity s‘:1o:ld'3br' :aid enough to enable him to live in.decency and comfort, rearing and educating his chi ldren, and retiring 1111is old "1e to some- tning other than absolute penury. By'ani large, professor's salaries have tended to be lower than the salaries paid in ousiness and ndus try, and the colleges have lost swig,“ capable teachers, both during the wrr and the post-war period, because they could receive higher salaries working in t‘n le'war industries. The Problem of faculty salaries continues to be a pressing problem today, tun America has not "‘“goried the notion of Q 9.: _ 3ing 1i gh salaries to teachers on any level. Collegiate Athletics .An interesting series of articles dealing with athletics appeared in The Atlantic Monthly diriig tne first a; ali of the century. One may note that the criticisms in the ield of "twistics gre: more violent as time passed, ard an.explara tic 10f this Iact night be that the abuses in this field demanded more attention as the century unfolded. Quite ,/ '3 L a di1%f rent exylanation was given.oy Ira N. Hollis in these terms:’ The old idea of e~Tz S'fiiiect serio'81f 7': to‘ 3:131?) the egit‘ict 'o".1!;"l'cb'e;,' :1 1d to 1113:; L53:- sco f - of ’:-‘.'1-;.-.:.e ’cr‘rto bdieve L112: 110th: 11g ca. 11 successfully 3:353:11 the I:o:—.r-?Lion of in? ercol_‘s;giaLo 9.611 Lisa :13 one 13; 113 most val CCU: 3.13 i‘eeLvres of colic-3 _, e life. L is 3. foot, ‘1mvever, Lint man" ti:- ..:-311': thf'nl men, occur 3;": mgr-105111 .ns 03' inf-hence i1. colles'e 311-1133 ation, are 2.1%. eresen-LP 0.113.331.1131 .".I-.-1g “it‘s. a]. 1:1 ab .505 '1'?- is '1 13's are at 3-...Lo ti: 3 phase Ci :.de; gmd' -1113 activiLy,-— «abuses V‘-'-ich to 13111211 see-1'. so 5131115 3.11 11 so dee; 11; ' rooted as to justify Lie abolition ...:‘Z‘ the V2141» s sLer; of :r1tercollegiste contests. uch issues as 13313 precedi' ;; articles raised in 1231.: field of iz'1Ler- collegiate athletics led to t 313 establish-3.1L of g-ovreritll athletic l‘ ss-3ciations 1‘ .LYC1 were 0144.: I‘D-36131 to supexvnse athletics. -1 of +3-113- . . ' -- ‘n '1 ‘ A-L. ‘Dr‘ ~ \" rfif'. I. "‘~' ‘ s- .1 410‘ (‘1 CI‘lthlSLLS o..-.t31~-..— 3:105 L13. 01:8 ‘13.:113 Loi = r 11 I. 9-112.133 ..:-C: e I - - vs A‘41 ‘9 V \. ‘fir y..r‘\-’\-yr '1' ~,~~ J. - . .~ - rx —'. reported earlier 111 the c-;.L1r§ , 31.L,13re are 1.-.... gem->113 11 .o 1..ainL1z3..1 I C a h «v ‘ n" .u ."< ‘ ‘ a». ‘ s ‘ .. , -“ '3 ,«1 the-L 00.1. c r: 313i] eta-c -3I’Ob1":.-i-S sm- ld be Camilaho 01" abolisheu .L 1 alto get :1 or . Emioxmnerts and PhilanLhrOpis P‘VMuc'~ .is 1 ‘_~_,—r - 1 -' ~~ -| r- w- - . . ' r- \ - v-a- 1 -: ‘ ..: n...‘ -— J [-\ J— 1,”: As toe COL-3,113 3...:2‘. I1.11.V31"Sltla:b (oi-ended their sex-Vises 3:11,: as ..:-.3. ‘7.- . l ~1 1“) 3' .' u..~'-.~ .. ' . - . J . ...1. .L'I °., 4..: ...-.3 - 600110..-.0 Si‘-v'--1.'3--C.'1 11. 313.10,; JI‘GGS 0.1. e 1.631133 3.314118, 1 ‘18 l.‘J$:3.-L'.'l._-Cl-S I I. d" 1 . e- #4.“ J- - ‘r H -\ r- : “r. -. '- " at. ' /’~J- +75 .q' of Big-131‘ ..eerny. begun r be 3rd tressao 101 .-:-1113.8 90 1.1-3.3 31-3-11“ C}- needs. T'ie 1:131: .;_1131“'el' of 3 13i1'1etee11'th cenL'u'y 13.12131 r'enced the organic: +3.1" of powerful trusts and monopolies, an 111311;: people made vast fortun38 Linux-311 L‘fise or'“'.'1zc'1 ions. The col-'erjjes, as Well as other insti'but 10:18, Exempted e3. 1 nous 3:101:11’03 of 11-01.62; 1‘ 1W son-=3 of these organisatinns and . private ."~.':':d.1‘.vid1:a is; 1111:! one author criLi 1ize1’. -‘ J- .w ’n ‘t\ ‘ . ' r" ~\r.' -- v ' n the 115131111i11 11 for aer..e,.-Li7._, 13.1-13 see cc. L’Q’ sijdz” 11311111Mm-11- gifts." 3:..- I‘ v‘ I" f‘.‘ ‘1"‘“"‘ '1’. f1'- ' '1' . . ‘M . ‘1- ‘.r\'- "‘q “1‘1 “11 o.er L-e c~‘-i.b, a unqe of ClelClbm 13 ris. b ag3339L ‘- P a‘» .5 1,wro — I re -. 2 .1 .' '. a-a fr; I <7 'fr~ -;1 Le ecceptqvce 3, churcxes, Cheri Liz‘s, end 001. ,ss, oi LGJlLfl hem EWLRGthCuS WVTCh Lze m.r37 sense of nhe ccmgunitv .s be m _ . - _ y - - C‘ \‘I J -' - on. - s. A. l 3' .3 1 . q ... _ I ‘ VidaD J. ocifiuer, "ill-GoLren Giitr To Jello es," Tie Aslsitic lionthiy Vol. L6, I‘Tove 31, 3.,01‘, 31’s. Jib-'3 7(7. 172 to tistrnst. One nrod Lot H52 ; ;i;lcedi““ pfirase 31“! a: had neiey, CA3 need lwild so quorre wit“ 1o|oiolres, to feel flit flier-e 7'. 0° use for it; LL11". 170 one questions that the taxezziv-znc-th. fo tunes wzvch or: 00m: ; to Le a distinc1ve f: stare of.American life are 5; stages made by methods sh: 'ch are cruel if not teC1Hi- ally 11 shonest, LL1‘~1Q~gasead,perilously near the limits of what V, .-.. c e en the crudeus co: sciefce ex11rCSLed i:1.com on L .w cor"idors leg"tir::te ,-- nod some sag’, though the 530'.) c 11 l’fif't’ilf' "1e arm-d, beyond t cse limits. Wealth oxisL which has seen piled togeL ez‘ be moons Inscr up 1015‘ sod uncsristian. It 3+ 5 in the p1blic mwnd as a s; mool of1znrestricteo sell-Leoszwg ans greed; it has to the k1omledge of A.Ly leit behin' its shining hosps a ‘ovseea des=rt trac'ic or desPair. TI(.2re is a growing to ndeucv on.the jert of owners oi re ey of this kird to spe;od lTVishly on works of 5.10110 uti--1t;r,01 +£138WJ-Tlhlol'vit 5f 'JLLJI‘CQBS’ C1;ar--ti 8b, U1". '- VGPSltIJS. It is a taradoxical situation. Wit} tr1e one Find, the owrer of such we' L'1 tl'usts bis competitors into th- skies of co mmlrcial ruin, or grinds the faces of the goor: . he hands the resultant gain to the Christian institu ions of the lam , Jhich 3r: tef“ll" accept it, -11d r~se to 05:1nt . democracy t..iu1pucn+. . .There is no dr'y beiore the ecL dewi.c eAi religio s world in Agerfica more ';‘=.ess.‘i.'w t1an tae duty of streufi 3311?; two iemzi‘ that yethods of cqu'ring wealth cone molly under the em 1‘11 on of t‘";o moral sense. There is no opfortvri.y: ore siéiilicout, n:oro in 1'r1ger oi closing forever, than t£1e on) ortvrit* of convi no: : =L‘11e punlic at large, by definite sacrifice oi worldly adverts” L, if need be, that the intellectual life cf the Countr;, as rogr“se*teo 3y its organized centres, is dieting 118 hed, is disinterestzd, hones+ mo free. Scudder's accusation.was but a reflection.of tLe economic conditions ‘ 1' ‘ 1‘ r\ 4- .-'\ u..- 1 A b r so use characLerizeo by the v .. 'JI of the country of the 31:8, as the r C" V ‘ orga anization of the most y VJoz ful mono olie 3 this country nae ever seen, and there were nany abuses in.this area. Since the 2m tituoio1s of hi: er leer .1ing have always been sensitive to the preset 1s ”“101 exist in.socioty at large, it is highly probable that there were some irregularities alonj this 1126. Anothor*outlwr,‘fiilli331 B. Kunro, was «1 '1‘ ° no In?“ '3- — “14—5 'Lo 9'. mar“ .An17(3.--0(* "177103". 1 7\(‘3“.‘1 t' ~ +-i ‘ . uUSflClC'..Lo 'vJ. one LuCLaLJVLQ L mm...) L-kLL.--._Jbvo "£ng 1.8 (queu He qaeSlen. 1 L0 s ‘1 r!- "J (- I- are our col‘eges olaying no r? The Lutnor had tlis I he.ve someti zzes vomdered why big ”1911 SS, when its short- comings are thus exposed to the world by cclle~e professors, does 6C‘Willim 1 B. Hunro, “Are Our Colleges Playing Foor?,"The.Atlartic Monthly, Vol. lh2, October, 1925, :;. LES-LAC. 17 not reci; :rocate b" -mt1\ing soae metic;10‘s fellOW'to probe iixancial LietLols oi toe collcges in.quest o1 tu quoque alibi. ‘1 re would be no diificulty in finding a 101; of them, i'or there is hardly a 81‘ le of1-color practice in corporate financing that does not have ics counterpart in our institutioxw of higher learn- ing. Selle e professors, as a class, are quick to see t11e note in the ct‘er fellofi's eye. They take the iighteousrtess of tr -eir own u'stitu: mts as self-evident. In their co1rses on public finance, ousifess organization, and accounting, they will dissect a munici- cal 5udgct or a corporation balance sh.eet wit}1 caustic acitcr*s 1c‘arc'ttirc t=.at cr icism, like char it;, can sometives make its best D-n_l“" at nozne . .Of ccurs e there is a reaSCFn tag? 6: colleges are not a11J a;s ready'to practice what the: treach benefit cf others. They claim to be ersagcd in the pursui a tr='bt ,but t5at is rot the whole story. Tg’le c eies are also engaged, with equal ardor, in the pursuit of funds. They want more endowmm 1t, :31 there are two gcod Ja111n6~po1rus in their quest fir it; Jamel", the the colleie authorities have great fir ancial compegeree in handlfrr t5e fur do alreadr committsd to tneir care (as is proved 1:7 t e uigh yield), and second, that if additional benefactifns are obtained t5PI‘. ll be me.de more productive wish the same efficie1c;. . .The erdowed col. es of the United States, takirg two-133 a “no 3, are giving a 1igh return for the the; keve recei"ed au1 are r cei ving. v; ‘reatl" i.pJoved t5eir He.a ds of account mg and 01 line: 0131 refortfiwg durinn tte £133 t quarter oi a certury, which is i: ' wrt die to t‘1e Iwre sure exerted uprn them by the various éehGFO‘S oenciacEicns Jh ich \- _ ~ _~ .fln — '2 o). '3... ; 1. ed .catio r al fc“naat1oru. Lut tzere is still some distance to be covered be i‘cre tee coilege proicssor of business administrauion can feel 1315611 saiel" ort of glass house. William Eunro was professor of governmeno at Harvard Universit anfi a college tr“stee, and he should have been expert in the subject wrzch he diseassed. These two very different articles on the subject of college firances were Tarlingers cf'what was to cone later in this area in higher education, for today several powerful funds exert tremendous influea‘e in this area. Another eviierce that the colleges reflect the influence in society at large was related to Baxter‘s reference to the in11uence of inflation uprn the col;eges during the "ear 0: l”h8 u e1 -usiness and industry'uere experiencirg an inflation': cycle..James Ba er, gresidext 01 .“illiams Colleg g,, fainted c at t5at , "so J < .4 he beg \00‘ inflation and the war a; all but ruined the small colleges 17h I'D 0 Cl - :or financial sutgort to save t e small colleges £1011. ruin. These, then, were the articles dea ing with the financial ficture of higher edwtcati on . There were several :-:.rticles dealing with the evaluation of institutions of :ig her le “hi1 g iron seve ral di..';'.‘erent points 01' vicw. ‘1'1‘1’1ile sore of tiese eval'ai.::t:'--c-ns were general in :ature, 8531218 of them indicated tne awareness of problmas which were destined to wla°1e the colleges throughc:.1t the first half of the centu J. TWO articles by Edward S. nartin gave advice to his children on the nerits of college education. In 1917 Lia-11 tin advised his daughter to be thmkful that she was living in the post war years anfl that she could look forward to Ca . , c sucn freedom of action as the Woman's Suffrage Movener t ase.red. aarli er, he had written an article in the form of a letter to his son suggesting tht he get all he cold out of coliege in spite of short- cmzings in the colleges in social, eoonon 1111c, and religious areas.“ Religion and Higher Education Philip E. Wentvmr“ 1,11, grad-rate ci‘ '{arvard Universitb raised t 1e question of the i111 iuence oi religion in hi ~ r:3r education when he 3,. ‘ accused his alma -.- aet‘. of destroying his religious . eit- . This was one 01‘ few articles on the ‘1-;roader totic of the separation oi. rurch and state, and it rust be racalled tbd thei' e were far nore articles dealin.E with this suoj act in the ele1re11t1ry and secondary scf’zocls. “.L-‘entmrth \ a said: The brea 1:621:17 - cf Cl:’l"’flaILl1" is part1 r“ larlgr 1.:2’1i'ortunatc 61 James P‘ni1'1ey Baxter, "Inflation Hits T111; Crlleges," The Atlant: Month J, Vol. 181, 11.18.1301], 19116}, 3; . Sim-62. — Edward S. martin, “A Fat‘mr To His Graduate Girl,“ The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 119‘, June, 151?, 13;}. 732-736. _‘——-—' .2 Edward S. Larti n, "A Fat;1er To His Fres 111123 Son," The Atlantic l Monthl}, Vol. 110, Sept 1ber, 1912, pp. Lil-1121c.“ """""‘"" 1.1 Philip E. alentwortn, "my Colle re Did To L113 Religion," The Atlantic _____‘.___o113,11.on" Vol. 111,-, June, 1 031.2, g; . {SJ-QLL. in Luxuries, "“11 re our edrc .ators are so 1115" ‘3“ilding new dormitories cni +hinkin; up nev systems of idst notion thfl they do not see hOW'urgently the sitwe tion calls them to redefine the purposes i'or waicn their pidagogicel mooninery exists. In so f as the colleges destroy religious faith'without substituting a vital philosophy to take; place, tley are turning loose Ween t:e world 3w n3 oarbari ans twho ha ve been freed from the dfsc xiline tre church before to 1ey have learned he 7 to discipline themselves Perhszs this see whet;one of my least orthodox professors had in mind when We once said: 'There are feW'men in the world who have earned the IT‘Igl‘lt 20": to u: Christiansd This article is an example of a personal argument against the CCllL ‘ es. If ore accepts Wentwertn's retort at face value, he must agree that college he d some influence over his choice not to enter the ministry. q TLwever, there are rany'graduotes of state eno private universities who have left college with a deeper and pore ermensnt religious comritment than the? Wrofessed before geing to college. Wentworth's article occasioyed a response I" Bernard Id i.ngs Lell, Professor of Religion at Columbia n1"rr"1*y".re Warden of St. Screwen s College. Professor Bell Led tnis to say shunt religious indifierence in the colleges and universities: One On the west eerie s charges brought against the typical A ericen rnirersity of tie morent is ttm+ its 5rednetes are, for the most LL“E, either eftegenistic to religion or else, L commonly, ifidifferer t to it. Th“ seems to be no debt ttet the facts bear CWt the alleget1on sienall“ this undou ted c 0 d irrelib ion becomes vocal, as in “.2 ass of tee men 1c le te l" v: :‘t‘. I 1 - , -1 ' u. . -, ,- ‘ J. 1, - a .4 wrote -er t2“ Atlantic Ienthl" cl .uL n _5pchQ to 31; faith ,u:ile 7- I -.—L 7 .~ 'F'“‘ " -: h J- . v .5 LG 15mg.) u .. {Lil‘v‘aiqkfg F. Au ”£513 0.]; EL‘. :1 l Clic)~U;i .LD S ‘ni‘l ’r -‘ ...giflc‘zma 3' a. t 1 i.) .-..- ,— 1. -- 41.4,. .L.., r 4 J. ..:...m quite true td.e s3.dents talk a 5‘; t - , - fi- ,. U. .LG‘J riLL! .Lr 0.1. s» «+11LLUQ 1.46, “-.‘JU 1 .L. -1. u .4.:.‘ 'J'--L.‘.J..C. be .10; 349.13 lL’-Lj.,Lu-.. ' »— .-. a - ‘-~ - -. x . ”a 'v A , -V ‘ -. “'1 J. ‘3‘- J" , J‘. '~ f‘ S - ‘ '4' ’. ,‘ '1‘. ‘\--‘~ as .-, U g. :z‘ 13': “ ,- L ' - J iqu...’ '2'- “at bl”: ‘3" 3“ Alt; “u: $1.3..IJTV 1 2;, C;1L‘..‘.'C 1. .x- ctw' "" (“1" '1 " "‘ ‘ 4 ’x “7 W ‘1“- C‘ . ‘ "1““ “T 1“ ‘ tt I'd . I‘ I 8d u (A u‘; L' 1 4L. 4.x U ‘3 J11). ‘- !-. ..‘ .LlU )v' 1 ~10 ..: Where a e ance 15 equlr Q rn \ \L . 9-. . '11, 4.- .1. .4. .L' .J -:1. ..-4..- .1 .3. , .. "V‘ «L 5": lag U vlr'L',LC_L.‘L-I U'\-‘ L'U.‘./~:- ~J 1.: flu s VLLJJ -‘J #3 CH. '5, V“-- A}: {J-UVL. .3“. .t1 (fir -.-, "Y" ‘ ‘ t ‘ ‘-*C_ “t "- ""'- - 3' " k ‘ '1 x '3‘ ‘3 [\ - ‘1‘! '\ , r“ '3“ 1 ‘ra -; - ...-n ‘- ~ 3-!- 1,111... ‘ . 1"“ u but) L I _ - cu .‘f L 1’ 1:; L. .1._ -_‘. 0 -LL- - Unit: ...aL v, $6.11.; “ u. ‘.'-.; 1 v.7, .., c - 4‘ -’ . l P.L 54,1 1* 10..) u- " 71691 Curt/431'. .(“uu 1"bd 3c C4. AILVTZCQI’ 05.1.3.8 ’88 and F ~v - - - s "- ‘\.- —\~ > go ‘ ‘- . called for refbrm.when peace waS‘won. "Once “etc” go Duty 1.1-..031,‘i 46 . ‘ .- .. . . ... - .' 3 J ‘ , ., 1‘n.‘- . .1. , .| -U.‘ 3.}- -4- .1.‘- - 8&1C, “VD must t;:“ a f;111¢ss e e o :61, -u.wale u,é1u CUUS, a c ‘- 14- ., .'.r.'~ 1‘ 1 . . - .. ..:-'1 1 -. ,1- .L. 4., \3 "- L'j- 11"" LuJ. S: .. U- L33 1.;1 '3‘. .... r1 - “Abr be ’ 091.43 LsJ..L.L.-L ’11 ~‘l.1.1«‘.‘v'. V38 JO L; ..U “ " "' "‘ "‘ ‘1 ‘ 1" ‘ n. ' - ‘. f‘ ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘IJ' ' ‘r'l '.‘ z o ‘I‘ .‘4 ' I ‘J- C u" .u J2..." .L654" .7) ’? - I: - {..:-{1, 9."; ..‘uL. .‘ V .1 U .L 1: ‘4» J" L v? .1 ‘ ’03.. .;.-VJ_ ‘14“ r I} 1,. - v- 0- _ Y V3, - 3" ,- ,_ ., ,_ ,. f - . ... 1N ' " " 1;;‘00' -1"? an” 1111.! E1 11?. ‘ J H. 1.11 -.r .9 CL." 1‘ - ' ‘ .._ VU ..‘C_ L.LJ.L.\ LC» - , * 1 .1 , . L -. ...: .v- . . _ ‘ .~ , ..: ,u - .‘ , ,. .1. 1 , .1 A J. L“; :‘ -. L, . --Lu ...U I, 1. 11.1: ... ‘21:" C'... L114”; 1) ’3~.\....; 54:7:1‘1 .. 3.1.14 1.“, C‘.. 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The Atlant ic MouU l7( O 318 r,-n,_\_r o .L'OZ.\J- wk 177 3 u , »~,-. - -: -.~ «In: .w ,-,~. , - 7.3,“ .. _._, 1“,. ‘ 4_ 1 r, _r_‘_ 1., 3, “It .11; .1133 31-0 MUM“ 33.15 “‘3‘- T113193 2:19 3Jtl£1r€me 3 O (J. U) '40 (T *1 p- H: ! J. O 3 3.5 d’ £2. <‘ (:3 H C) 1, Court Decision 01 May 1(,13§2, When the theory 01' separate but cqual facilities for Eli-grocs received its most 1.3111113 blow. T333 do 03.: eior 3 You-l Ens had a long historv; find it is strange, "to say the least, that The Atlwztic ’ OLLt..l:/— did not publish 1?..1'7‘1101333 dealing ‘-.'3'ith. this topic}. Further, one should .233 to t‘3.3t fade 2331 111:1 to educatio3'3, T13 Cit ilia‘n Comervati on Guys, and other depression neasmes‘w-all of which impinge: Lyon 111313313 educatlon----1 F: .33: igrizorsd. It is also int ' esti 3g that now; '5‘ ‘- ‘\' ' - 1“. 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T35 .33.-:.13tic ...oAthl, t1...“ tacrc were oi t3: groblezns c-J.‘ the: clam: tar: and secondary schools, and one should mentio; the fact that the editors of this magazme did not slant the issues by the choices the made in publishing the articles which they chose. CHAPTER VI CRITICAL ANALYSES To set the stage for an analysis of educational articles appearing in Th_e Atlantic Monthly, some comments ought to be made about the publi- cation. Admittedly, there are important differences between publicatio J because of editorial policies; and one would expect to find both general and specific reflections of these differences in publications. Therefore in making a critical analysis of certain selected criticism of edu- cation as they are reported in The Atlantic Montgz, some general cements about the magazine itself must be made. By way of comparison, the author of this paper has Chosen to measure the significance of the i articles which are reported in this thesis on the basis of the judgment: of authorities in the field of education. Some writers outside the field of professional education will also be consulted to support the ‘ selection of significant trends in education. The extent to which the ~ writers in The Atlantic Monthly recognized the important problems in education during the first half of the twentieth century will be in- dicated by showing what the authorities considered these problems to be Wherever the philosophies of the writers are known, the writer will I indicate this fact. The writer will make his position known in order that the general reader may evaluate the extent to which the writer's judgment and experience influence the study. Finally, the implicatio of this study will be suggested after the analyses have been completed gig Histofl of. The Atlantic Mental 1113 Atlantic Montgy must be classified as one of the. important E J hundreth year of publication. The reputation of the magazine has been J literary magazines in the United States. It. has just celebrated its 17S determined largely by the editors. The first editor was James Russell Iomll, an important nineteenth century Amarican poet. Other well- knolm literary figures who have been editor of the magazine include: William Dean Howells, realistic novelist; Thomas Bailey Aldrich, one- time editor of m Saturda ; and Bliss Perry, former professor of English at Princeton and Harvard Universities. Horace E. Scudder was an eminent publisher and part owner of the magazine; he was the fifth editor of the magazine. Walter Hines Page, whose services as United States Ambassador from 1913 to 1918 brought him fame, was the sixth editor. He was educated in the South and became literary adviser to the firm of I‘bughton, Mifflin and Company before being selected editor to to succeed Horace E. Scudder. At the turn of the century, 21?. Atlantic Monthly was purchased by Ellery Sedgwick, who became its editor. Sedgwic held several important offices in the field of publications before purchasing the magazine; and his acquiring themagazine marked the end of the influence of James T. Fields, earlier publisher and owner. F0110W1ng Sediick, the present editor, Edward A. Weeks, took over the responsibility of the editorship of the magaZine in the early 1930's. This distinguished group of editors shaped the editorial policies of thi magazine and selected the materials for publication. From its launchin, in 1857 at the now famous dinner at the Parker House, Boston, Massa- chusetts, The Atlantic Monthg has enjoyed a host of famous contribu- tors. To mention a few: James thissell Lowell, William Dean Howells, Walter Hines Page, Mark Twain, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Bret Harte, Woodrow Wilson, George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Alfred North Whitehead, and Bertrand Russell have all contributed to make this con- servative monthly justly famous the world over. It was started "with 18C the definite purpose of concentrating the efforts of the best writers upon literature and politics, under the light of the highest morals. " In its first issue The Atlantic Monty announced: "In politics, The Atlantic will be the organ of no party or clique, but will endeavor to be the emonent of what its conductors believe to be the American idea. It will deal frankly With persons and with parties, and which alone makes the basis of a true and lasting prosperity. It will not rank it- self with any sect of anties: but With that body of men which is in favor of Freedom, National Progress, and Honor, whether public or private."1 Data on the circulation of the magazine is reported in "Atlantic Facts and Figures ," a publication by the editor's office. According to this document, the average circulation of mail subscribers » is 16u,ooo; and the average circulation of single copy sales in 36,000.] thus, the average yearly circulation is 200,000 copies. ' The policies of the magazine under the editorship of Sedgwick have significance for this study, for he became the editor at the turn of thJ century and changed the direction of the magazine. A quotation from the above-mentioned publication will suffice to show the nature of this change; it follows:2 The ATLANTIC under Mr. Sedgwick broke away from the limitatio’ by which most literary periodicals up to that time had been bound. Confronted by the success of the then rising 'mass circulation' magazines, which sought quantity circulation regardless of quality and used the resulting advertising revenue to outbid conservative ' magazines for famous authors, Mr. Sedgwick felt that there must be enough people in the country who cordially disliked the methods of this new journalism to make possible the successful publication ' of a magazine with utterly different aims. I Kmee, Virginia, “Atlantic Facts and Figures ," Unpublished mimeographed statement by the editors, (The Atlantic Monthly Press), Cambridge. 1957. u pp. - . 2 Ibid., p. 3. 18] 'He did not,‘ says Frederick Allen, writing in the Outlook and Independent, 'aim.at a huge audience of newsstand buyers; he aimed at a small audience of intelligent men and women who would subscribe in.advance and keep on subscribing year after year if tn magazine satisfied them. . .He himself, and many of his friends, enjoyed. essays and cared little for fiction; he decided to reduce the fiction to a mum and cultivate the essay. He relied chiefl; on new writers. . .proi‘essors, scientific men, professionalmen, business men, to when writing was an avocation.but who could speak With.authority and conviction in the field of their specia1.comp petence. And instead of editing for a mythical general public he edited for himself, and tried to find for the ATLANTIC the sort of reader who liked what he did. 'The.ATLANTIC as it took shape under his hands dealt informp atively with the major problems of the whole world, political, economic, social, intermtional--but not with them alone. Its most absorbing interest was in. the human predicament and the human reaction to it. . .This policy has been.amazingly successful Since 1909 the circulation of the ATLANTIC has increased slowly and almost uninterruptedly from less than fourteen thousand to one hundred and seventy thousand. The circulation methods have been those indicated in the above quotation. The ATLhNTlC has ever sought to find the “Atlantic reader," the person who would derive enjoyment as well as information, entertainment as well as help, from its pages and who would not only remain on the lists himself year after year but, through his enthusiastic liking for the magazine, would bring to it as subscribers his friends and acquaintances. Since it has been impossible to determine the nature of the reading public except from the point of view of the editors, the author of this thesis must. conclude that the reading authence is composed largely of 3 college graduates. "It is a national magazine in the truest sense," say the editors, "dedicated to the interests of a thoughtful, informd and ' steadily growing public, discussing new ideas and new conditions exemplified in literature and politics, in the arts and sciences, in social studies and pleasure, and living to the full the overflowing life of the modern world.“ The writers of the articles on education include many professional educators and laymen who, for one reason or another, have spoken about the educational problems as they viewed them. Several eminent college l8 presidents have written articles for The.Atlantic Monthly; many college professors and secondary school administrators have likewise written articles for this magazine. One influential college president was Charle ‘W. Eliot, president of Harvard University and originator of the famous elective system in colleges and universities; and he appears to have stimulated a host of writers to contribute to the magazine. He was an avowed critic of classical education, and he advocated a realistic approach to a type of education which would take into consideration the nature of man in an age which placed so much emphasis on technology. Because of his convictions, he constantly complained about the teaching of Latin and Creek in the colleges of this country. He felt that these languages were not in keeping with the spirit of democracy and that other subjects of a more practical nature would make it possible for a person to live a fuller and more satisfying life. Eliot also exerted influence in the area of the reorganization of the Secondary schools, for he apparently realized that the colleges and universities could not be improved successfully'without taking cognizance of what transpired below and above the college. His influence was expressed through pro- fessional magazines and by the addresses and speeches he made about education. Other well-known college presidents who wrote articles for Th__e_ Atlantic Monthly include: Arthur T. Hadley, A. Isurence Lowell, Henry S. Pritchett, Andrew S. Draper,‘William J. Tucker, Hebert M. HUtchins, and James Bryant Conant. The point of view of these college presidents has been indicated elsewhere in this study, but one would have to conclude that this list represents the important college presi- dents in the United States. College professors and deans of colleges and universities also contributed articles from time to time throughout 183 the half century'With'which this thesis is concerned. Many lay citizens wrote articles about education, and it is interesting to see that their comments were quite different from those of the professional educator. One should indicate that the majority of the writers inughewAtlantic Monthly were men; and the American attitude toward women certainly accounts for this fact. Of the hundreds of writers in the area of education, there are but some twenty women included. Likewise, there are few'articles by Negroes; the best known Negro contributor was Booker T.‘Washington, founder of Tuskghee Institute inHAlabama. Several parent: 'wrote amusingly abOut the problems their children would face when they I went to college; and, on the whole, the articles by laymen were necessarily of a less technical nature than those written by the pro- fessional educators. With this preliminary identification of the contributors to the magazine, the writer of this paper would like to turn to the educational problems of the period as they were indicated by important professional educators. Survey of Educational Problems Doctor Edgar wallace Knight, Kenan Professor of Education.at the University of North Carolina and distinguished educational historian, wrote a book in'which he suggested the major educational prdblems during the first half of the twentieth century. Professor Knight experimented with the materials in his book for several years in.a cour: 'which was labeled "Contemporary Trends and Issues in.American.Education‘ at the University of North Carolina, Duke University, and the Universit; of Michigan. He determined the trends in education by a careful study of original sources such as: the proceeding of national and local educational associations and societies, acts of legislatures, decisions 18h of courts, and discussions in the daily press and in periodicals that were not altogether professionally educational in character. In the preface to his book Professor Knight spoke of the first half of the twentieth century in these terms:3 This book was prepared in order to tell the story of the growj of education in the United States during the first half of the twentieth century, a growth that was then more conspicuous than in any other period of the nation's history. Moreover, the history of American education during those decades was a significant part of the progress in economic and industrial, political, and other social developments with which it was closely interwoven. Changes in the scene between 1900 and 1950 were striking in elementary, secondary, higher, and professional schools,and also in extension.of educational effort which was not commonly accepted when the century began. Elementary education was expanding and becoming more favorably accepted than in any other period since th inception of the universal school, public secondary education was becoming more'widespread than in.any earlier period, and new Opportunities in higher education were little if any less promine At the same time, other developments were appearing in.directions that were little thought of in 1900. These, which are here set out as faithfully as the records permit, form an extraordinary story of educational growth in a half century that is perhaps unmatched in history. ' He continued his preface by listing some of the important conclusions 'which he drew on the basis of his survey of the original sources in the several fields. In his opinion, education reached its most ‘lofty" triumphs during the first half of the century; and he spelled out the task of the second half of the century by suggesting that the task was “to do qualitatively what has been quantitatively done so well ever since 1900." Another conclusion was that the American people were becoming more aware of the persistent issues that influenced them. He spoke of these issues as being clearly outlined against a pattern of 'world events, and suggested that education seemed to promise to become one of the most important instruments of peace. He pointed out that 3 Edgar'w. Knight, Fifty Years of.American‘Education:.A Historical Review and Critical Appraisal, The Ronald PFess,(New’YorE,l§S§5,’pp.v-v f 18f educational issues were more widely discussed than at any other period ' in the history of the United States. Some indication of the period may be surmised by considering the chapter headings in his book; these are:‘ “Then and Now," “The Expanding Common School," "Education.For.All ‘ American Youth," "Democracy Enters College," "Graduate, Professional, Summer, and Extension WOrk," "Teachers and Teaching,” "Trends in .Administrstion and Support," "During Military and Economic Crises,“ “What The School Men.Said," and "Other Trends and Developments." In order to indicate the problems as Professor Knight saw them, thewriterl of this thesis would like to look at the chapters in some detail. The first chapter compares and contrasts educational problems and ‘ lists several problems which are peculiar to the twentieth century. The( establishment of educational associations and the expansion of edu- cational journalism was one of the significant developments of the period. The period also saw an increase of the national government's interest in education and a new emphasis on education and international ism. Religion appeared tohe gaining ground after serious conflictS'with Charles Darwin's theory of the origin of species, and a renewed emphasi on religion.was exemplified by a revivalistic movement in the early ' 1950's. More money was being spent for bowling alleys and billiards the was being spent on library facilities, according to Professor Knight. "The first half of the century," Doctor Knight said,"witnessed many efforts to purge teachers by loyalty oaths, and the issue of academic freedom in 1950 was more acute than,ever.")4 Significant trends in the field of elementary education, according H IBlae, p. 30 166 to Professor Knight, were: (1). an increased awareness of the needs of elementary schools, (2). increase in attendance in elementary schools, in length of school term, in expenditures for schools, and in the reduction of illiteracy, (3). studies in.retardation and elimination in the elementary schools: (h). compulsory attendance and child labor laws (5). interest of specialists in the construction and reconstruction of the curriculum of the elementary school, (6). financial support of "the school of the people“ did not keep pace with the increases in national wealth, (7). tremendous increases in the birth rate in this country, and (8). the secularization of the elementary schools. The forces which had influence over the field of secondary edu- cation during the first half of the century were related to the economi political, and social problems of the period. Confusion, which was occasioned by the increase in knowledge and by an increase in economic wealth, expressed itself during the period. The public high school received more attention during the period, and serious efforts toward the improvement of the curriculumrwas one of the significant problems. Another movement was the experimentation between 1930 and 1950 to furth improve the relations between secondary and collegiate education. Thus, Knight viewed the trends as having a relationship to the old issues and introducing some new problems. meessor Knight indicated that there were some problems in higher educaticnhwhnch had.been present since earlier times, and he used the phrase "Democracy Enters College? to indicate the trend in higher education. He listed the following problems in higher education: the college curriculum, the place of the private and independent institutio the increasing belief of Americans in the economic value of academic l l 187 degrees, the rising costs of a univerSity education, concern over federal control through federal scholarships and fellowships, dis- satisfactions with the elective system, and provisions for regional cooperation.in higher education. Academic freedom was also listed as one of the significant problems in the field of higher education. Closely related to these problems were those connected with graduate \ schools, and serious concern about the quality of profeSSional degrees, especially the master's and the doctor's was apparent. Knight viewed ‘ . , the development of summer schools and extension work as a "phenomenon ‘ without parallel in the social history of the world." Adult education enjoyed widespread interest and increased the problems of colleges and universities. The work of the university presses was seriously challeng ing the commercial presses. 1 The most pressing problem in the area of teachers and teaching was financial support and salaries. The first half of the century was a period in which teacning became more highly professionalized. At the p turn of the century the majority of teachers were being trained by six different types of institutions, but the institutions of higher learning gradually accepted this function. Educational administration and supervision had their most significant development during the first half of the century, and the problem of providing financial support for the nation's biggest business continued to be a prdblem. Knight quotes Keeseckers who lists the following significant trends in administration and support of schools: 1. An increase in legislative actiVity affecting the composit 5‘W.W. Keesecker, State Boards of Education and Chief State Sohool Officers, Bulletin 150, NumEer IZIWashington, fi.C:l§BOS, 5.3. Covernmen Printing Office, pp. 109-110. 18: and organization of state boards of education. 2. The restriction of state control over education my the governor (1) by his removal from state boards of education and (2) by a trend away from the appointment of state boards by the governor. 3. The abolition of constitutionally created BE officio boards 0 T h. The removal of all ex officiis(sic) members from.state boards of education. '— 5. The removal of professional educators from.membership on state boards. 6..An increase in the number of members on State boards. 7. The selection of state boards by popular vote. 8. The selection of state boards by schoolpboard conventions. 9. Increased legislative and policy-making responsibility of state boards.. 10. Broadening the scope and functions of general state boards of education. 1 Professor Knight concludes his book by listing a series of miscel- laneous trends and developments in education; among these trends and developments were: (1). increased interest in education as evidenced by the G.I. Bill of Rights and other activities, (2). efforts for better international understanding through education, (3). the activities of the philanthropic foundations which were pouring huge sums of money int ‘ that of aGod's second mistake"(women), (S). intercollegiate athletics,+ the support of education, (h). the education of the Negro, as well as (6). growth of the scientific study of education, of the educational survey, and the construction and use of objective tests, and (7). the growing concern of the influence of the Supreme Court which attempted to become the national school board. The writer of this thesis has n i reviewed extensively Professor Knight's book'because it appears tolae one of the most authoritative studies on the trends and developments I in the field of education during the first half of the twentieth centur Kilpatrick's List 93; Educational Problems ~ Another educator of international fame reviewed the problems of 18S education at mid-century. Doctor'William H. Kilpatrick, one of the best known figures in the area of progressive education in the United States summarized what he considered the important problems in education to be at mid-century. He said inpart:6 As to the social-moral aims of education, two groups deal } inadequately with these; first, those just named who ignore behavi as a necessary factor in learning and use booms instead(this inciu many recent ambitious programs for 'general education,'contemporad civilization,' and the like); second, those who overstress vocatiw preparation, giving 'cultural' subjects only a 'lick and a promisj The world situation is too critical for such inadequate measures.\ Youth must be reared from childhood to grapple with life's probleh at each developing level. This means constructive discussion to pl school work; it means building attitudes of concern for the common g00d(as increasingly perceived); it means attacking controversial issues(Within the growing intellectual reach); it means pursuing social purposes in the community. In these various ways must eacn youth build effective citizenship. The Specific tasns seem to be: (i) remake the elementary schc consistently on the new outlook which it now proxesses; (ii) rebu: the secondary school on the oasis of liVing and learning: dethrone memory and cramming for examinations; abolisn the subservience to entrance examinations and college entrance requirements; put the high school on a oasis of the finest and richest liVing that teach and pupils can together deVise; (iii) so rebuild the college as td get true living(behaving) into its program; educate its instructo: for full true teaching; bring the teaching and management thinking abrest of the best really known. \ ! In comparing Pnlfessor Knight's remarks to those of Professor Kilpatric‘ one may conclude that there are significant similarities. Even though Professor Knight was an idealist, he agreed With Professor Kilpatrick i his identification of educational problems. Yet another educator touché upon the proolems in.euucation.ouring the first half of the twentieth century. Doctor Foster R. Dulles, professor of history at Ohio State University, gave the following appraisal of education:7 Educational advance, scientific activities, intellectual and 3 Bruce Bliven, Twentieth.Centur Unlimited: From.The Vanta e Poir of the First Fifty Yam Womfismap a, 567': 55.103213: """' 7.Foster Rhea Dulles, Twentieth Cent tAmerica, Hbughton.Mifflin Company, (Boston, l9b5), p. 177; p. 355:_E£Z'~__‘__- l artistic ferment were further evidence of the period's expansive spirit. Between 1898 and l9lh, the number of children in public schools rose from fifteen.to twenty million and the highpschool population doubled. The 'little red schoolhouse' was giving way 1 to larger consolidated schools, in part due to the introduction oi school buses in.outlying districts. The enforcement of compulsory] education laws was being tightened up throughout the country. Yet; at the same time that one in.every'twentyafive persons between ' nineteen and twenty-three was attending college, the average period of schooling fer the population.as a whole was only six an: a half years. At the same time, there was also further progress along the general educational front. The increase in students in elementary school, high schools, colleges, and universities, already noted for preawar years, still continued, with especially spectacular gains in college enrollment. It had reached a total of three hundred thousand in.l91h, yet by the end of the nineteenptwenties this figure was approximately a million» Summer schools, extensior courses, and correspondence courses flourished; junior colleges x and state teachers! colleges multiplied; and at the top of the { educational ladder, graduate schools attracted more and more } StUdOntlo The traditional calm of academic halls was disturbed'by discussion and debate over the purposes and methods of education ‘ in,a democracy. In large part through the influence of John Dewey, educator and philosopher, there was widespread experiment in progressive schools, and for all the criticism.evoked in conservative circles, the new principle of 'education fer life' made many converts among educators. In the realmtof higher i learning, there were attacks upon the traditional curricula, whil proponents of a return.to the classics repudiated the elective system. Underlying all such controversyb-the science of education the one hundred best books, progressive schools, humanism, freedor of the individual, and pedagogical discipline-there nevertheless appeared to be a trend away from.the liberal artS‘With increasing emphasis upon.scientific, professional, and even vocational t It should be remembered that Professor Kilpatrick helped to popularize, the work of JOhnfiDewey,.American educator and philosopher. Their positj rests on the premise that if a thing worked over a long enough period \ of time, it was true. They were not concerned with working out a comprehensive system in the classical sense, but they attempted to provide a method which would accomodate American culture. It would be correct to say that the individual was the primary concern of these two pragmatists. John Dewey lived to see his famous philosophy gain I 191 wide popular support, and Professor Kilpatrick is still active in the field of philosophy. Thus, one's philosophy provides the framework for the identification of problems; but more important, it provides the method for the solution of the problems which exist in society at large. And one Senses Professor Kilpatrick's method in the above quotation. Newspapermen _Lo__o_k 5“. Education Yet another evidence that the twentieth century exhibited certain educational problem was expressed by Erwin D. Canham, editor of The; Christian Science Monitor. Canham, together with members of the staff of this influential American newspaper, wrote a book at the mid-centur point in which progress in the field of education was noted. Their chapter on education is entitled "Education in Ferment“; and Canham spoke of the forces in society which led to confusion which was reflec in the educational institutions. The chapter was introduced in this W: The field of education is, however, so vast and so accuratel a mirror of the choices are desires and dreams of all the people, that almost awthing one can say of it, good or regrettable, is bound to be a fact somewhere. There are countries, for eocample, where the education of children is shot through with prejudice and lies. The schools behind the Iron Curtain and teaching as Hitler bent it to his dark purposes but a decade ago are sharp reminders in our tine that 'education' is not in itself good or beneficial. It is what its people males it. Granting this, then, its confusion concerning aims, its figh for academic freedom, its shortage of buildings and teachers, its inequality of opportunity even in wealthier free lands, can speak urgently to us of our shortcomings. On the other hand, the nation wide public school system of the United States, to take one example, is one of the greatest achievements the world has ever known. Also, it is in our tine that education has taken a step ahea m D. Canham, Awake ' : The World at Mid-Cent , Iongmans, Green & Company, Ime’ ( BW 01' ’ 1936), pp. 32%. - [ 19 that can only be described as approacning the spiritual. The leaven at work in the area of educational policy has brought a neW'attitude toward the child. - Now almost taken for granted in democratic lands, education has come into its own only in the twentieth century. Individuals had grasped it before, but only as we reach the mid-century mile- stone can we look out across the free portions of the world and 1 see education reaching out to embrace this new concept that has already revolutionized entire areas of schooling. These newspapermen spoke of the first half of the century as the age 0: the child psychologist, and they described the changes in the classroom in the physical area to accomodate children. They spoke of movable chairs which could be used for small group discussions and other learn- ing activities, and they indicated that this change from the arrange- ment of desks in screwed-down.rigid rows to a more flexible arrangement indicated a changed way of looking at the learner. They spoke of the revolution in teaching methods whereby reciting fromvmemory had given way to individual and group investigation and evaluation in which the materials were geared to the natural interests of young people. Other trends and developments, according to these newspapermen, were: 9 1. The consolidation of scnools which was made possible through improvements in transportation facilities. 2. The development of two-year junior or community colleges which extended educational opportunities upward. 3. Progress toward equal educational Opportunities for minority and racial groups was slow but steady. h. ‘Wide-spread discussion and progress in the area of federal-aid legislation to help the more backward areas to provide adequate educational facilities. 5. Education for citizenship received a great deal of at- tention during the first half of the century. 6. Experimentation with core programs. 7. The development of general education courses as dis- tinguished from a more specialized type oi’training. 8. Further secularization of education. 9. The organizagion of national organizations such as the National Citizens Commission for the improvement of education. 9 WC, p0 1.qu 193 These were the problems in the field of education during the first half of the twentieth century as expressed by three eminent college professors and a group of editors of one of America's influential newspapers. Even though this group did not state the problems in the same way, they agreed largely on the identification of the problems which existed during the period covered by this study. That there would I be differences as to methods of solVing these problems among the write: seems apparent, but all of these men suggested trends which, more or is . . i seem to indicate the direction which the solution of these problems '~ 1 would take. Few men would hazard a guess as to what the problems would I doubt that the problems of the second half of the century would have a be in the second half oi‘ the twentieth century, but there can be no direct relationship to those which plagued society during the first I half of the century. Conparisongg 3_1_‘ Problems How do the articles in The; Atlantic Monthly compare with the I judgments of the experts as reported above? Broadly speaking, there I was not a problem which these experts mentioned that was not treated I by the writers in Erie Atlantic Monthly. Since the points of view of the writers oi" the articles have been indicated at the apprOpriate I places in this study, it, is not necessary to juxtapose each article I with the problems raised by the authorities in the field of educationI Rat her, the writer would like to indicate the broad general agreementsI and emphases which seem apparent. Judging from the number of pages I devoted to educational matters from 1900—1950, one would have to admi' that education received as much space as did any other broad field wi‘ which this magazine was concerned. Out of a total 01‘ oh,776 pages { r - lf printed during this period, some 6,915 pages were devoted to educations problems. Every issue of the magazine except four contained an article about education, and this tends to show that the editors were aware of the importance of this subject to its reading audience. One of the most obvious comparisons could be made on the basis ofI the number of articles treating specific areas of education. If one were to make such a comparison, he would have to agree that there was far more attention paid to the field of higher education than to elementary or secondary education. This fact is true because higher I education underwent phenomenal developments during the first half of the centuryt'While it was true that graduate and professional schools I were established during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, th schools made many significant changes during the twentieth century} I many articles dealing with the aims and objectives of higher education were reported, and the same thing was true in the field of elementary! and secondary education. Standards in higher education.received con- I siderable attention, and this led to the establishment of regional and national associations in the field of education. These associations were instrumental in effecting a more realistic approach to the proble of the proper relationship of the lower sonools to the colleges and I universities in this country. The majority of thevriters in this areaI were professional educators, and their treatment of the issues would ‘ necessarily be more technical in nature than the lay person who dis- cussed the same issues. The group of writers who contributed most to I this broad field were: college professors, deans, presidents, and 0th? college personnel. As one would suspect, most of the college presiden‘ were men; but there were four or five distinguiShed women.college I presidents who wrote articles in this area. Some of the writers on higher education were extremely critical 0: specific problem in the area. or the group of professional educators, there appears to be an, evenly divided enphaeie on the problem of a broad liberal education as opposed to a more narrow and specialized type of training. Those who supported a broad liberal education appear to have lost ground to thoae who were supporting the specialized curriculum. The classical languages such as Iatin and Greek received a great deal or attention during the period, and the modern foreign ling! such as French, Spanish, and German received considerable treatment. '1‘] general feeling seemed to be that languages for their own sake did not hove a place in the American college or secondary school. The arguments ranged from the contention that they were un-deuocratic to t poaition that they were impractical. Dmhg the tic world ware especia the teaching of German was violently attacked on the grounls that Amer opposed everything German including the language. But thie attack on t German language leseened after the two world wars. Almost every gadua \ achccl in the United Statea still requires a reading knowledge of Germ and bench. or some other nodern foreign language, for the advanced degreea. One would have to account for the criticism of higher education identifying the critica and suggesting some of their motivee. There we leveral business men wl'o leveled criticisms of the colleges and uni- versities because of the management of finances. A profeseor of econcn V pointed an accusing finger at the colleges and universities because 0] 933%“ in the field of financePHe felt that the colleges in B. Hum-o, "Are Our Collegea Playing Poor?“ 32?. Atlant’ Wild. 1132, October, 1928’ PP. h33‘hhoe _ l to clean their own houees before accusing business organizations of improper activities. Other criticism by this group of business men included serious accusations that the colleges and universities were poorly organized and managed. One author spoke of educating students on a cost plus basis; and broadly speaking, the criticism reflect the confusion which existed in society at large in this regard.n Others criticized the higher institutions for what they cited 'the ones mltiplication" of mm- courece and of "watering down“ their offering until a college education was all but meaningless.12 This type of criticism Ins been rather widespread, especially since the second lorl tar; and one sees evidence of a continuation of this particular type of criticism of education today. Typical of this type of criticism p are the corks of mm Beater, Iortimer Smith, and Molph, none of whom appear in 213 Atlantic Monthly. Yet their books fall into this gemral category of educational criticism. In the main, these critin repeeecnt vested interests, for it has been dcmomtrated by authoriti in the field of education that this type of criticism contaim many ermnecue generalizations e A significant development of higher education durim this period was the experimentation with different organizational typcs or echcols to meet the demnds of widespread agitation for reform in thie area. titers in 333 Atlantic Monthly tended not to deal with the mrc technical problems of education, am! this area was not treated at am le h. the development of the junior college and adult education . Lyman, “Putting It Up To The Colleges," 1!: Atlantic W VOlc 1M4, November, 1929) PP. 626-6280 H 12 W, 22c 235'.” Pa 35c received some attention; but, here again, the treatment was not carpi: herein. The Junior college movement got under way during the early twenues, and the movement took the country by storm in the 1930's. ' There were two articles about the development of the Junior college, er they were largley critical of this paritcular type of educatiOnal i organisation. ‘ retired college professor rather innocently called for information on the subject and received support from a person who was teaching in a Junior college at the time. 13 The Junior college was looked upon as an “tension of the work of the secondary scmol, and t1 general ccnsemus was that developmnts in this area would seriously weaken the work of the four year liberal arts colleges. This was not t1 case, as the Junior college has emeryd into a pattern of community colleges wherein the education of youth has been planned and conducted on a local level. One of the significant functions of the junior cells at the present time is to provide educational opportunities for continuing education and adult education, and this dcvelopmnt appears to be taken for granted today. There was very little discussion of the organizational patterm of the elementary and secondary schools, as— th tended to be too technical a subject for this type of magazine. Another broad general field in higher education which received considerable attention was the subject of the aims and purposes of education. As they were expressed in this magazine, they differ somewh because each author's Judgment would naturally tend to express his Eicular preferences in this area. But all the writers appear tobe orge Herbert Palmer, "The Jhnior College,“ The Atlantic Monty, Vol. 139, April, 1927, pp. 107-5013 see alsoT'Tm 0 go Hence: As Seen From Uithin," The Atlantic Hangs Vol. 139, June, 1927. pp. 809-812; and George Hem, or Colle Amn’. m Atmtic m, v01. 1'40, wmr, 1927, we 828-830. cognizant of the relationship of the ends of education to the actual classroom practices, even though they did not all spell these differen out comprehensively. The tire major points of view seem to be related the magnetic ani idealistic schools of philosophy, and there appearst] be a slight preference for the latter philosophic position. A preoccupation with the evaluation of the work of the institutio of higher learning is another broad theme which received attention by the writers in this literary magazine. The evaluations were expressed in terms of what college training would mean in dollars and cents larg In this category, several parents wrote articles in which they gave l advice to their children. The usual injunction of the parents to their children in these articles was to make the most possible of college | training in spite of the weakrlesses evident in the college programs. | Some of the weaknesses which those parents pointed out were related to the lack of religious training in the colleges of this country. There ”‘3— were several evaluative articles in the area of athletics, and the consensus was that organized athletics ought not to be a part of the college program. Regardless of these criticisms, organized athletics sea destined to be a part of the college and university programs for some time to come, as powerful athletic associations have been organic to met some of the criticism of the program and to campaign for the development of plvsical education in the nation's schools. The usual complaints of the stamiards of work were voiced'both by college person and busimss men. It was maintained that many people were gaining admittance to insfltutions of higher learning who ought not to be in college. This accusation had a direct relationship to the continued interest in securing a college degree; in fact, the half century was . 1 characterized by what could be called a mass mnia for the diplomas anc degrees wruch the institutions of higha' learning awarded its graduates With this type of evaluation, it would seen only natural that the value of the college degree should be measured in terms of its monetary wortk And it was Just this controversial point which occasioned so mch comment from educators and laymen as well. Thus, while there were apparent disag'eenents in the area of evaluation, the mere fact that so much interest was expressed in this area seem to indicate that the American public was becoming more and more education conscious. [any of the articles dealing with the elementary and secondary schools were motivated by the college and university people who began to make studies of their programs in the last decade of the nineteenth century. The colleges and universities apparently realized that there could be little if am real reorganization of higher education without some consideration of the relationship of the lower schools to the institutions of higher learning. Stimulated by the study of the colleg" and university program, the secondary schools were forced to modify tl programs to meet the changing trends in higher education. The most significant problem of the secordary schools was the curriculum, and it was in this area that the writers made their most significant contribution. Generally, the writers tried to interpret the curriculu and to indicate wmr changes in this vital area were necessary. Confus' in the area of curriculum was indicated by the work of the famous Committee of Ten which made a national survey of the course offerings in the nation's secondary schools. Course offerings differed widely over the United States, and the Comittee of Ten stimulated a certain amount of standardization as a result of its survey. Although there It 2c many criticisms of the work of this national comittee, one must agree that this was one of the first national committees to focus attention on the entire school system in this country. Following this comitte, there have been new studies of the secondary schools; and one must recogm‘ze the importance of these comittees in the area of secondary edmation. Several writers commented upon the work of these committees; and they agreed that these comittees had had beneficial results. The subject of the increase in enrollments was another problem which interested the writers. Compulsory school legislation extended the mmber of years of 'school attendance, and more careful enforcement of these attendance laws tended to swell the numbers of those who were in attendance in the elementary and secondary schools. Although glari | inequalities existed between the several states in the area of financ' support, there were evidences that the nation was becoming more consci of the effects of education on the nation's welfare. Changes in teackn methods seemed to be a wholesome indication that education had somethi to offer “all American Youth.” It is understandable that the writers in one of the influential literary magazines would not treat the educational problems from the standpoint of the professional educator. In general, though, the prob] which the professional educator pointed out were the same problem whit the writers in this magazine treated. There was more of an indication a vested interest by the writers on the subject of higher institutio than there was on the elementary ard secondary school level, for the seemed to be general apesment that the latter types of schools were to serve all the children of all the people. So. evidences of this general assmnption may be gathered from the articles which comnented upon the organisation and administration of these types of schools. If one were to draw any conclusions from the articles treating the elementary and secondary schools, he would certainly have to recognize the fact that the writers gave unqualified support to the principle of universal education on those levels. That there were slight disagreeme: as to the implementation of the procedures or methods to be used in attaining universal education does not cancel the importance of this conclusion, for America is beginning to understand the relationship of education to the general welfare of the nation on a national an! inter national level. One ought to explain the apparent emphasis on higher education an to suggest some reasors wiw the elementary and secondary schools did not receive a comparable amount of space in this magazine. A partial explanation is that the reading audience determined the types of I articles which would be of interest and concern. It is an accepted fac‘ that the reading level of many mwspapers and some popular magazines 1 geared to a public whose educational level falls within the general a: of the eighth grade. This was not the case with 2332. Atlantic Monthly, and this fact would explain the importance of publishing articles whic would appeal to the reading level of the subscribers . The vocabulary level is far higher than one would expect to find in mam popular newspapers and other periodicals. It would be safe to say that the readers of the magazine are, on the whole, college graduates; and one would expect such a reading audience to express far more interest in the problem of higher education than they would in the elementary a secondary schools. lloreover, there was a different type of writer in area of higher education. The majority of the articles in this area w f‘ C written by professional educators, that is, college presidents, deans, business managers, and college professors. The remainder of the articl on higher education was written by well-trained people whose professio preparation and experieme gave them a backgroum from which to draw 1 writing about the problem of higher education. Thus, the editorial policy and the nature of the subscribers would seem to indicate that the writers would have to be rather skilled in the art of writing before their articles would be considered for publication. One evidenc that the editors were sensitive to public opinion is to be found in a feature column known as "The Contributor's Column" in which the subscribers expressed their opinions in letters which they wrote. The writer of this paper read all of these columns in the hope of discover. a trend in this area. On the whole, there were few articles in this colum which dealt with education; but there were many letters protest the firing of Wendell Brooks Phillips from Piedmont College in Georgia The writers of these letters were extremely critical of Professor Phillips' treatment at the hands of the board of trustees of this sxna Southern liberal arts college. The issue of academic freedom was ment: by several of these writers, and it would seem that this case receivec far more attention than it deserved on the basis of the three article: which Professor Phillips wrote for the magazine. It appears that Professor Phillips challenged the administration several tines before his firing, and he reported in his final article about the episode th he had been given proper notice before his expulsion.“ Ewomen Bz‘ooks Phillips, "1 Was Fired From A Pack College,“ ' The Atlantic Monty, Vol. 156, October, 1935, pp. 39o-h03. ' I In addition to reading all the articles which had my relation- ship to education in The; Atlantic Monthly, the writer of this thesis made an emulation of many of the articles which dealt with law, medicine, politics, and other related fields. me this examination the author concluded that the magazine did not show any marked biases in its choices of articles or writers. For enmple, one could not detendne the political preferences of the editors from a reading of the articles in the field of politics, for the articles did not show any particular preferences in this area. Most of the articles on fore‘ policy were written by specialists in that field. During the two Worl Hers the writers appeared to agree that America should play an active role in the wars to stop aggression, but the tone of the articles can] not be classified as radical. The writer of this thesis concluded that the editorial policy of the magazine seemed a fair and balanced treai rent of the issues in the several fields. On this basis, one has to conclude that the topic of education received as fair a treatment as did other topics with which the magazine dealt. TE lriter's Position The writer would like to explain his position in order that the I general reader may be able to evaluate this study. The writer tends to accept the pragmatic philosophy on the whole. He has an abiding interest in the improvement of society through its organized institutz' and he believes that the individual possesses intrinsic worth and dignity. The best possible society, in his opinion, is one in which every individual--regardless of race, color, or creed-~has equal opportunities in all areas of life. Strong convictions as to the wort; of each individual in society makes tne writer sensitive to the [\\ importance of knowledge and its application to the hmn scene. The author believes that the best possible solution to any problem can be made on the basis of experimental evidence which has been tested and founi adequate. Education is viewed as a dynamic process which has its most important significame in its application to the improvement of t individual. Thus, he is mt afraid of change so long as the change has its roots in the scientific method. The writer developed several theories of education on the basis this study. First, it seemed to the writer that educators are far mor aware of the importance of public relation than they were a century a That educators would take the time and emery from their professional activities to explain and clarify certain issues in education seem to indicate that this assumption has validity. The literary magazine has shown more interest in education during the first half of the century than it has shown in the past, and this fact could be explained by the fact that education is America's biggest business—musequently, it ‘ would demand a great deal of attention as such. Secondly, educators ca‘ keep posted on trends and developments in the field of education from reading the articles in a popular literary magazine such as at: Atlan kitty. So often the professional educator is so specialized in a I particular aspect of education that he might not get such a broad ? treatment of issues as such a magazine affords. The professional educ needs to develop an awareness of current trends and problem in the f, of education, and he can certainly do this by loseng up with the pop“ literary magazine. lastly, the popular literary magazine is somewhat I a mirror of the aspiratiom, goals, and problems of society, am the efficient educator can not afford to ignore this source of current hi CHAPTER VII COWLUSIOE In this study the writer has made a search for the topics on education which have interested the general reading public; he has tr: to determine what the issues were in education from making a study of one of America's most important literary magazines. Another purpose 0. this study was to determine the issues in the field of education duri: the first half, of the twentieth century as they were reported in text books and other sources to see what agreements there were in the identification of the problem which were thus reported. It was hoped that some broad trends in the whole field of education could be deter by making a study of this nature. Finally, the writer felt that such a study as this would make contributions to educational literature dealing with critical attacks on education which appears to be on the increase at the mid-century point. Because the twentieth century experienced the establishment of a host of professional organizations winch published Journals for the professional educator and because t popular magazine tended to publish vast numbers of articles dealing \ education, the writer felt that The Atlantic Monthly would be the besi choice for such a study. I The organisation of the materials is based upon the materials themselves, that is, the chapter headings-Jim American Scene 1900-19 What is Education? , Elemntary Education, Secondary Education, arr] Higher Education-aware chosen because the articles tended to fall int these categories. The writer did not deal with the articles on educat, which did not fall into these categories, the there were several suc articles outside this classification. For example, there were sever? 206 articles about education in foreign countries and a few occasional poems about teachers and teaching which had little or no bearing on this study. In the first chapter the writer indicated the broad politi social, and economic movements which existed in society at large and which were indicated by the writers quoted and set the stage for tie study of the educational problems which grew out of this setting. The social principle that education reflects life about it was exhibited t: spelling out the broad movements in the American scene from 19C!) to l The second chapter reports the definitions of education as they were formulated by the writers themselves. In order to avoid making Judgmer on the definitions of education from the point of view of the author a to set the stage for the study of the problems of the whole area of education, the writer felt that his establishing the framework throug the definitions which the writers themselves gave would assure concl that would be more valid and reliable. In so far as shifting patterns; society affected these definitiom of education, the writer has attem;l to indicate this fact by his organization of the materials on a topic: basis. The next three crepters were organised in the same manner, for writer felt that this arrangement would indicate more strihngly the importance of the problems by arranging them in this manner. Qualitat the writer identified the writers and made evaluations of these artic in the proper places. Finally, a critical analysis of the whole stud was made by showing what some important educators and public figures thought the educational problems of the first half century to be. T Job of formulating conclusions is the burden of this chapter. One conclusion would have to be that The; Atlantic Monty is a chronicle of events which took place during the period under conside There is striking evidence for this conclusion in the entire sweep of J articles, for few important events in society at large were ignored b the writers of the articles for this magazine. That the topics on education appeared in the magazine indicates that the subjects were so important that they found expression in a literary magazine. Moreover, the authors of the articles were not mere dilettanti, for a signifies: number of writers on the subjects of education were professional edu- cators. And the writers who were not professional educators were, to say the least, skilled individuals-nor else their articles would not j have been accepted for publication by the editors of The Atlantic Ionty. If the purposes of this magazine were to instruct an! to entertain, one would have to concede that both of these purposes were realized. . Historically, education has played a vital role in the Umtcd St: the period with which this paper has been concerned may be characteris’ in many different ways, but the labeling of specific periods would contribute little to this study. Educational problems of the twentietl il century originated in earlier periods; it would be correct to say tha1 there were more differences in degree rather than in the kind of problem which were expressed in the twentieth century. The principle l of the separation of church and state was one of the problems, and thi problem persisted in the twentieth century. Some important developmen in this area include the distribution of free textbooks in the paroc schools, bus transportation for students who attended the parochial schools, and religious training on a released tine basis. This partic problem seemed mre pressing during periods of stress and strain. The this problem will continue to be with us during the second half of t w l\\ century seems assured if religion continues to have the influence it has always had. The extension of education opportunities is another problemflwhich continued to receive widespread attention during the twentieth.century. There were tremendous increases in the numbers of students who attended elementary, secondary, and higher schools during this period; and the dream of a more enlightened citizenry came nears: to realisation than it had ever come before. Forces were at work whicl seemed to offer educational opportunities to all people in spite of race, color, or creed; and the ruling of the Supreme Court of the Unit States in this area was one of the significant milestones in the histc of American education. This problem.promises to be a lively one for ac time to come, but there are indications that important progress has be made in this area. Though changes in the field of education.appear to be slow, they are nevertheless steady. Concern over the best type of educational organization.led to the development of the Junior high school on one level and the junior col] on another level. These developments were perhaps the most Obvious, bt they indicated that the teaching profession was interested in providir a more realistic type of educational program for students. The junior high school attempted to bridge the gap between the elementary school and the senior high school, and it has received wide support during t! period. Advances in the field of child psychology influenced teaching methods and techniques in this particular educational institution, and the physical plants likewise received professional attention. The res] iaation of the nature of the problems of pro-adolescence and the orgar iaation of the junior high school to take care of these problems seem to indicate that education was becoming more and more aware of the nee h‘ of stlxients. The Junior college movement had its most rapid growth during the late 1920's and early 1930's; and many educators looked upc this peculiarly American institution as one of the most significant advances in the field of education. It offered programs for those stuc‘ who would continue their education at other higher institutions, and i also provided educational opportunities for adults on the community level. The American public has always shown concern about keeping the elementary and seoorxiary schools under their control, and the developn of the Junior college seemed to express this same desire. Even though there were new petty Jealousies between the junior colleges and other institutions during the period, this institution has developed into a comunity agency which seems to offer unlimited possibilities. 323 Atlantic Monthly mirrored important developments in the field of higher education, and some of these movements continue to have significance today. Graduate schools had their most spectacular develc ment during this period, and higher education enjoys a professional spirit which was not always the case in the latter part of the nine- teenth century. The multiplicity of advanced degrees, intense special- isation, higher costs of education, and other administrative problems have plagued the advanced graduate schools through the first half of the twentieth century. National educational associations in the area 4 higher education have musl-u'oomed during this period, and there were I similar developnents in the areas of the elementary and secondary schools. Professional Journals which published articles of interest to the thousands of professional people employed in the field of educati; made their debuts during the period. The organisation of teacher's unions created many problems. That .213 Atlantic Montgy was one of th [\5 agencies which made information on the field of education available can not be ignored. Another problem which'was Just as pressing in the nineteenth century as it is during the twentieth century was the ques of’the teaching of the common skills. This particular issue has recei attention by the twentieth century critics on.all levels of education endeavour, particularly on the elementary and secondary school levels Applications of the statistical methods in the field of education has contributed to the comparison of educational results on,a national le some critics have seized upon these statistical reports and attacked the schools for a water down of their curricula. The current battles the area of reading, writing, and arithmetic have a direct relations to this attack on the public schools. Confusion exists as to what te method will produce the best results, and the popular writers in thi area are not always professional educators. Applications of the pra philosophy to teaching has led to serious criticisms of the public schools; the general nature of these attacks is that the schools are becoming too easy and devoting far too much.time to the sozializatior process to the neglect of formal subject matter; Ontthe whole, educai have answered these critics with some gusto; but the writer of this thesis feels that the professional educator misses the boat in many instances by not playing a more realistic role in explaining what th‘ schools are attempting to do in an effort to avoid some of these misJ leading and unfortunate attacks upon the public schools. In higher education there have been similar critical attacks; the reader will ; recall that the series of articles dealing with the Rhodes Scholar 12 the chapter on higher education are in this particular vein. The tea) colleges and the schools of education throughout the country have 2 experienced critical attacks in the areas of content and method. Progl has been made in all these areas, however; and it would be correct to that these attacks on the public schools have led to serious efforts c the part of educators to make improvements. But the American habit of criticizing the public institutions, particularly during periods of stress and strain, appears to be a continuation of a pattern which originated in an earlier period. The earliest cements upon education in this magazine dealt with formulation of aim and objectives, but after 1910 the articles bec more specific. National educational organizations were quite active il this area in the twentieth century, but the confusion which existed this area suggests that there is no comprehensive philosoplnr of life America from which the aims and objectives might evolve. The widespr discussion of the aims of education could lead to significant progre in the field of education; at least, preoccupation with the aims of education is a sign that many people consider this area to be impor ‘ and worthwhile. ' Interest in the aims and objectives of education were no doubt i related to the developments of the pragmatic philosopmr in the field education during this period. Professor John Dewey formulated this famous philosophy while he was professor of education at the Univers: of Chicago, and he persuaded authorities there to help him test his theories in the area of childhood education by establishing an eleme school. This famous laboratory school was discussed widely during thj first quarter of the century, and the applications of Dewey's philos to education elicited many articles in The; Atlantic Hontgy. The fir articles dealing with this subject described John Dewey's philosophy 21 as a movement, but the articles which appeared in the mid-thirties tended to be evenly divided between acceptance and rejection of the movement. Pregnatism had its most widespread acceptance in the area 0; elementary and secondary education, but the peeple in higher educatio: were extremely critical of the movement. Whatever the causes for this lack of interest in pragmatism in its beginning phase, there can be It denial that prematism has found wide support in the colleges and universities in the United States. Other forces contributed to the sh of emphasis from memorization and rote learning in American education however, the pragmatic philosoptw had important and significant in- fluences in this area. The child seemed to come into his ownfrom the standpoint of education during the first half of the twentieth centur and the changes in this regard were extremely important in the direct education would take during the last half of the twentieth century. During the Colonial Perioa, the child was looked upon in many instanc- as a little ”imp" whose will was to be broken. Discipline was harsh, and the literature is full of examples of the cruel types of punishme which were meted out to the children. The teacher was quite often ste commanding that there be "perfect order' in the classroom. Disciplinel has shifted from authoritarian control to a more democratic type of control; and, on the whole, the child's lot is considerably differeni than what it was during the nineteenth century. One may read news it: reporting cases of corporal punishment in the present day, but these the exception rather than the rule. Trends in the treatment of the sc called sub-normal student are related to this issue. Some people have referred to the first half of the twentieth century as the age of the child psychologist. Child guidance clinics, special education classe. vocational guidance, and citizenship education, as well as other movements, testify to the fact that society is beginning to accept t1 idea of education for individual differences. The chaos that exists in the realm of international affairs has impinged upon education during the first half of this century, but t1 are indications that education is beginning to be looked upon as an agency which has valuable contributions to make in this area. After 1 second World lar when the United States was busy helping with the rehabilitation of devastated countries, education played a, vital rol in helping foreign countries to recover from the effects of war. Ame has begun to make significant contributions to world peace through i program of scholarships and exchange of teachers with foreign coun [any state and private universities have branches of their instituti' in foreign countries, and there is a constant flow of students comi to this country to study in the American schools. America appears to emerged from the second World lar as the recognized leader of the We Iorld, and it gives evidence of having accepted this role. By way of summary, The Atlantic Manta has been a faithful * chronicle of the events which happened in the field of education d l m’ the first half of the twentieth century. Trade in the development both public ani private education may be determined by examining t issues of this magazine. While the professional educational Journa provide infonxation for the educator, the popular literary magazine a valuable source of information for the non-professional but info general public. The history of The Atlantic Lnthly has been sugges elsewhere in this study, but it needs to be said that the magazine changed its policies Just after the turn of the century. From its in the middle of the nineteenth century to the turn 01 the century, is) editors preferred to emphasize literary forms such as the short story, the novel, am the novelette, and other types of fiction. Since the t1 of the century the essay has been the most important literary from in the magazine, ani this .form lends itself to the discussion of ,proble more readily than some of the other literary forms. Marv magazines which were established during the nineteenth century ceased publicatm before the twentieth century, and that at: Atlantic Monthly has con- tinned to command the respect of 200,000 subscribers indicates someth about the importance of this magazine in American life. The format ofJ magazine has been altered somewhat over the years, but the structure the magazine remains essentially what it was during the nineteenth c The “Contributors Column" and "The Peripatetic Reviewer" have been a within the past twenty years, and these are excellent vehicles for t publication of letters to the editor and for editorial comment an! b reviews. Another helpful feature which began around 1930 is a column which makes short biomphical cements upon the writers for the identification of the people who contribute to the magazine. This pa feature proved helpful in identifying the many writers who contribut to this publication. The editors did not identify the authors of the articles until the 1890's, and there were several authors who remain anonymous when they discussed controversial issues in the field of education. The writer of this thesis has indicated the reasons for t anonymonity at the appropriate places, so there is no further need 1‘. conment on this point. The most welcome change in the format from th 1 . writer's standpoint was the inclusion of the month of publication in the table of contents, as true facilitated Ins search for articles dealing with education. Since the writer of this thesis had a great deal of experience in the field of journalism, he feels qualified to judge the make up am format of the magazine. It is one of the most attractive magazines in the field in the United States, and the quali' of the art work, the printing, and editing contribute to its success.I Such a superior magazine merits the attention of all people who are I concerned with American education. BIBLIOGRAPHX' A c 30016 Bliven, Bruce, editor, Twentieth Cent¥€ Unlimited: From _T_‘x_1_e_ Vantage Point 95 the First Fifi! Years. P ilaaeIphia: J .B. Lippincott Company. T930. 315 pp. Canby, Henry 8., The; Age of Confidence: Life in the Nineties. New To: Rimhart & Company. 39314. 260 pp. ...... Canham, Erwin D. , Awakenin : The World 23 Wentg. New York: Lon; Green and Company, Inca-Fm pp. Cremln, Lawrence, The American Common School. New York: Teacher's Co. Bureau of PubE'c'a‘t'i' one, 19317281; PP . Cubberley, Ellwood P. , 112 Histog 93 Education. Boston: Roughton Mi Company, 191:8. 639 PP. Drake, Iilliam E., The American School in Transition. New York:Prent: Hall, Inc., 1935': BEE—Fl). Dulles, Foster Rhea , Twentieth Centug America .Boston: Houghton Kiri: Company, 191450 582 PP. Edwards, Newton and Herman G. Richey, The School in the American E393. Order. New lork: Houghton Mifflin'fimpany. 1957. 835 pp. Hay, Clyde Lamont, 1’! Blind Spot _i_h American Public Education. The Hacnfillan Comparwfmfm pp. ' Howe, ILA. DeWolfc, The Atlantic lonthl and its Makers. Boston: The Atlantic nontmsrTz-ofi’as, nc .‘Wz, . Ia; pp. ""‘""' Hutchens, John K., The American Twenties: é Literfl Panorama. Phila JOB. uppimOtI-Ifim, 195:. um pp. ' Keeseoker, LL, State Boards of Education and Chief State School 01‘ Their Status aifi Leg! Powers. Washington: 5.5. Writ Ffi We, $555134 pp. Knight, Edgar 1h, Education _i__n the United States. Boston: Ginn and C' 1951. 733 pp. i Knight, Edgar 11., Fift Years of American Education: A Historical R ‘38:? Critical p aisaI. New Terri: Them“ Company, 19 PP- . Knight, Edgar 17., Tiehty Centuries of; Education. Boston: Ginn and Co 191:0. 622 pp. ‘ Leighton, Isabel, editor, The ”Bin 5%., 1919-19h1. New York: am: and Schuster, “191:9. 1; .pp. . Monroe, Walter S. , Ens clopedia of Educational Research. New York: T Macmillan Company, . 575 pp. Moore, Ernest 0., ".5..." Is Education. New York: Ginn and Companv, 191 357 pp. ' Mott, Frank Luther, A History of American Ma azine s, 1565-18o__5_. Camb Massachusetts: Harvfi Univems, . 639 pp. Odell, C .I., The Soc onda School. Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1%. 635601313.iii "" "" Perry,B Bliss, Park-§____treet P2232. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Compamv, 277 Pp. ' Sinclair, Upton, The 9E3: New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 19 3 PP. Sullivan, Mark, Our Times: AmericaF Mag Herself. New York: Charla Scribner's 333s,1927.E3pp I Turner, Frederick J ., The Frontier in American Histwog New York: He Holt and Company,'T9hF._T73—fip. White, Andrew D., A History of the Warfare of Science with Theolo Christendom. New "T‘Tfior TKe-ficm-Comme-BBTJ O I B. Periodicals Allen, Iilliam H. , "A Broader Motive For School Ibrgiene,“ At;lan Monthlz, 101:6211-629. June, 1908. An Athenian, "Our State University,”_1_'__he Atlantic Manta, 59: 36-5 April, 1902. """'"“""‘ Anderson, A .I‘., '.Politics and The Public Schools ," Lhe A__t______1arrticMo 87:1133-11117. April: 1901- 'Anomvmous Thoughts oi A Teacher oi German," The A__t_______lantic Monthly, . Barr, Springfield, “A College In Succession,“ The Atlantic Mont ____h_J:z,I 111-119, July, 19111. I Bascom, John, "Changes in College Life," The Atlantic Monthly, 91:'1I 758, Junfl, 19030 Batchelder, Nathaniel Horton, "Demcracy and Education ," Lu Atlant Monthly, 125: 651-657, May, 1920. James Phinney, ”Inflation Hits The Colleges," The Atlantic 1é1:59-62, March, 1911:. M Bell, Bernard Iddings, "Universities and Religious Indifferences,“ _T_h Atlantic Monthly, 150: 316-320, September, 1932. Bevine, Frank F., "The Inadequate Rtndes Scholar: A Defense," The _A_tl 110,1:to 12hz655-669, November, 1919. Boas, Ralph Philip, "Who Shall Go To College,” The Atlantic Mo__n_____th1y, hid-111:8, October, 1922. """—""" Briggs, L.B.R., 'Conege Honor," '_1‘___he Atlantic Montgz, 88:1:83-1189, Briggs, L.B.R., I'Ol'd-Il‘as'hioned Doubts About New-Founded EiducatiOn,u TE Atlantic Monthly, 86:1:63-1170, October, 1900. Briggs, L.B.R., "The Transition Fran School To College,.' The Atlantic Monti]; 155: 351-359, October, 1900. ""'"'""" Bundy, Captain McGeorge, "A Letter To Twelve College Pmsidents," T__h_e Atlantic Mon___t____hly,175: 514-56, May, 1915. Butler, Nicholas Murray, “Status of Education at the Close of the Ge: Proceedings National Educational Association. 39 :188—189, 1900. Calkins, Earnest Elmo, “At The Central Primary," The Atlantic Monthly 133: 1193-502 April, 19211. Cannon, Cornelia James, "The Grabbing of Youth by Age," The Atlantic HOD__E___hJ-Y. 131: 757-796, June, 1923. Case, Gilbert 11., "Quackery in the Public Schools: An Answer," The Atlantic Norway, 185: 57-60, June, 1950. Chapman, John Jay, "warring," The Atlantic Monthl , 106:125-136, Ju‘ 1910. | Cobb, Stamood, "A New Movement in Education," T__h_e_ Atlantic Monthl , l 127: 227-2311, February, 1921. I Conant, James Bryant, "America Remakes the University,“ '_1‘__hc Atlantic M,onth_J£ 177:111-115. May, 19116. Cook, Albert 8., "The Teaching of English," The Atlantic Monthl , 8% 710.722, Hay, 1901. Comfort, Iiuiam 'ister, “Competition in Educatiom-The Facts and a Prophecy," 112 Atlantic Monthly , 1147:233-236, February, 1931. Cowleyf9giflu 'l’ar on College ," 111: Atlantic Monthly, 169 :719-726, M: Cram, Paul P. . "Uralergraduates And The War," The Atlantic Monthl, 169: 1:10-1:21, October, 19110. Delano, Lorin F., “Football at Harvard and Tale," The Atlantic _M_o___ntr1 106: 700-713, November, 1910. Draper, Ardrew 3., "University Presidency,” The Atlantic Ionthly,“ 97:3h—h2, Jamary, 1906. Dunn, Martha Baker, “Education," The Atlantic Nontle, 86:3h5-352, September, 1905 . i Dunn, Martha Baker, "The Meditations of an Ex-School-Comittee Nona n: I...“ Atlantic Nonthl , 66:36-15, July, 1900. Editor's Note, The Atlantic Nontg,127:227, February, 1921. . 1 Edminston, Homer, uClassical Education in America," The Atlantic “.23 10h:260-273, August, 1909. A Eliot, Charles l., "The Case Against Compulsory Latin," T_h_e_ Atlantig Nontkfly, 119652-351, march, 1917. 92 :252-255, August, 1903. Bubree, Edwin 3., ”little Red Schoolhouse," '_l‘___he Atlantic Nonthl , 15 636-610, November, 1937. A Eleon, Louis 0., "Our Public Education in Music,“ The Atlantic “0.23? Emerton, Ephraim, "Gentleman and Scholar," The Atlantic llont my, 85 :, 773.778; 11“”, 1900. "Family Finances of The Ioung Professor," The Atlantic llon____t___h1y, 121;: 232-230 AuguSt, 1919. F‘uess, Claude L, "The New Spirit in Education," Lbs Atlantic Month} 153: 753-760, June, 1931:. ' Finlay-Johnson, Harriet, "Education Dramatizeo," The Atlantic Nontkl 109:256-26h, February, 1912. neither, Abraham, "A Modern University," T_h3 Atlantic No ntwhly 136: 530.5111. October, 1925. Eleanor, Abraham, “Education As Nental Discipline," The Atlant____3__c MoJ 119. hsz-uou, April, 1917. ““1 IA ”J Flexner, Abraham, "Failings of Our Graduate Schools ,' T___ne Atlant_______i_c 1119: “-11.1152, April, 1932. 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Gladden, :Vashington, "Religion and the Schools,” The Atlantic Honth.‘ Hadley, Arthur Twining, “Academic Freedom in Theory and Practice) _1 A__t______lantic L-onthly, 91: 152-160, February, 1903. Hanna, Paul H., "Industrial Education,“ The Atlantic L____onthly, 101: 6c Janurary, 1908. Herriott, 113., "The Junior High School," The Atlantic lonthl z, 160 783, December, 1937. Hollis, Ira N., "Intercollegiate Athletics," The Atlantic Month______l__y, 53h-Sbh, October, 1902. ......— Holmes, Henry I., "Chaos or Cosmos in American Education," The Atla ll_9____nthly, lhO: h93-503, October, 1927. Horwill, Herbert, "A National Standard in Higher Education," The At Monty, 90: 329-335, September, 1902. I Hordll, Herbert I" 'The Bible in the Public Schools," The Atlant lonthly, 923296-3014, September, 1903. Horuill, Herbert m, “The Opportunity of the Small College," The At “Om—_A_y, 87: 763’771’ Jum’ 1%1. Hutchim, Robert 11., "Reply To Professor Whitehead,“ The Atlantic_ 158: 582-588, November, 1936. Ireland, Frederick, 'High Schools and Classics," The Atlantic Ho__n__tk 12hzh7-53, July, 1919. Dee, Mabel Barbee, "Censoring The Conduct of College Women," The A] Monthly, 1h5: hhh-hSO, April, 1930. } Livingston, Sir Richard, "Education and the Training of Character," _T_'__he Atlantic Honthlz, 178: 81-86, July, 191:6. Well, Laurence, "College Rank and Distinction in Life," '_r____he Atlant Mont____h_l_y, 92:512-520, October, 1903. Lowell, A. Lawrence, "Competition in College ," '_l'____he Atlantic Monthly, 103:822-831, June, 1909. Lowell, A. Lawrence, "Universities, Graduate Schools, and Colleges, The Atlantic Monthly, 150: 215-222, August, 1932. ‘ Tynan, 3., ”Putting It Up To The Colleges," The Atlanticll nthE 1 626-628, November, 1929. Lynch, Maude Button, "Conscripted Children," The Atlantic lonth, 1 232-236, August, 1931. ,Albert, ”Quackery in the Public Schools,” The Atlantic Monthly 185:33-38, larch, 1950. “—— wone, Louis 11., 'Libeling Our Colleges," The Atlantic Mon____t___h1y, 185: 33-38, March, 1950. ""'"""" Harkhmu, mun, "How And lhy I wrote The Man With The Hoe,' _'I_'__he Saul Evening ,Post 172: h79-h99, December 16,1899. Martin, Edward 8., "A Father To Hie Frestman Son,“ The Atlantic Mon 110:1:hlohh6, September, 1912. Martin, Edward 3., "A Father To His Graduate Girl," The Atlantic Mo: laclaurin, Richard 0., ”Darwin At An American University," The Atla: nonthlz, 108: 192-198, July, 1911. Meiklejohn, Alexander, "Freedom of the College," The Atlantic Month. 121:83-89, Janurary, 1918. ' ' ' " "'""""" Meyer, Agnes 13., "Are Our Schools Doing Their Job? ," The Atlantic M; 183: 32-36, February, 19149. ' Hornets, Victor, ”Needed Objectives for Our Schools," _'I_°__he Atlantic Monthly, 1118:802-803, December, 1931. Morgan, Arthur E., I‘Ekiucation: The Mastery of the Arts of Life,'I T___h Atlantic Monthly, 121:337-3146, March, 1918. Munro, Hilliam B. , “Are Our Colleges Playing Poor”, The Atlantic M 11.2: h33-hh0, October, 1928. """"'" ‘ lureell, James L., "The Defeat of the Schools," The Atlantic Monthl‘ 11428113341140, October, 1928. {i National Educational Association, Journal of Pmceedi s and Addresg of the Thing-Ninth“ Annual Merigg at‘Uharleeton, outh Carola" Nichols, William 1., "The Convention of Going To College,‘ The At___]_.__ar Morita, 1143: law-use, October, 1929. Rock, Albert Jay, 'American Education," The Atlantic Mont , 11:7:56 597, Hay, 1931. Orth, Samuel P., ”Plain Facts About Public Schools," The At18nti_______<_:_ W 103. 289-297, March, 1909. Palmer, George Herbert, "The Junior College ," '_1'__he Atlantic H_o_____nthly, 1397-501, Apnlg 1927e Palmer, George Herbert, "The Junior College Agatha,” The Atlantic Mt 1h0:828-830, December, 1927. Perkin, George Robert, "Rhodes Scholarships and American Scholars," ‘ Atlantic]! Hontfl, 121;: 365-375, September, 1919. Parsons, Willard Giles "Making Education Hit the Mark,“ The Atlant: nonthly, 97:h33-h£h,ipr11, 1906. Perry, Bliss, "College Professors And The Public ," The Atlantic Hon 892282-288, February, 1902. Phillipe, Wendell Brooks, "I Teach In A Hick College," The Atlantic lo__n____thly, 1119:327-333, March, 1932. Phillips, Wendell Brooks, "I Was Fired From A Hick College,‘ The At. * Monthl , 15633964403, October, 1935. ..., Phillipe, Wendell Brooks, "Students In A Hick College,‘ The Atlanticl MontflfiSlzhu-MB, April, 1933. Powell, Lyman P., "Ten Years of University Extemion,‘ The Atlantic llonthlz, 88:393-103. September, 1901. 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