THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING METHODS IN PDUTICATL SCIENCE COURSES UPON STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD POLITICAL ISSUES: AN EXPERTMENTAL STUDY Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LARRY D. VANDERMOLEN 1971 LIB R A R Y Michigan State University i." This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Effects of Teaching Methods in Political Science Courses Upon Student Attitudes Toward Political Issues: An Experimental Study presented by Larry D. VanderMolen has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Date JUIy 19, 1971 0-7639 cr ‘7 " I ’ ‘ smomc, av 3' T BDDK P'NUERY IND. “trim, {ENE-5.3.5 mm; 8. sons THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING METHODS IN POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSES UPON STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD POLITICAL ISSUES: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY BY Larry D. VanderMolen This study was an investigation of the relationships of formal education and student attitude change. More specifically, the effects of three teaching methods in political science courses upon community college student attitudes toward political issues, was studied. That literature was investigated treating related areas of study, such as formal education, political science courses, and teaching methods. It was felt that because several studies discovered a relationship between teaching methods and attitude change, a differentiation might be observable among the three treatment methods in the teach- ing of political science courses. During the Fall Term, 1970, and the Winter Term, 1971, the three teaching methods were randomly assigned to 12 introductory political science classes, at Schoolcraft Community College, in Livonia, Michigan. The content of the course was held constant, and the same textbook was assigned to each class. Eleven tests were administered to 240 stup dents, as pretests and posttests, measuring attitudes toward political issues. Larry D. VanderMolen To prepare the data for analysis, gain scores for each class on each dependent variable were calculated and placed in a comparable metric. Utilizing the results of this data, the repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted. At the .05 level of significance, no difference could be found among the treatment groups, or between se- mesters. No significant interaction, among the treatment, semester, and measures variables, was found to exist. However, significant difference among the measures was indicated. THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING METHODS IN POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSES UPON STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD POLITICAL ISSUES: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY BY Larry D. VanderMolen A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1971 Dedicated to the patience and understanding of my wife, Lyn, and.chi1dren, Kristen, Scott, and Ann. The writer declares a singular ex- pression of love and appreciation for the encouragement, understanding, and support that they have given him through the years of the doctoral program. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Dr. Van C. Johnson, advisor, friend, and chair- man of my doctoral guidance committee. To the other members of the doctoral guidance com- mittee, Dr. George Paulus; Dr. Louis Romano; and Dr. Leroy Ferguson. To Dr. Robert Ebel, for his advice and assistance in the preparation of the achievement test. To the Office of Research Consultation, College of Education, and Linda Allal for statistical assistance. ii CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O O A. B. C. D. E. F. Introduction . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . Importance of the Problem . . Theory Underlying the Problem Research Hypotheses . . . . . Organization of the Study . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . A. B. C. Formal Education and Attitude Political Science Courses and Attitude Change . . . . . Teaching Methods and Attitude DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . A. G) ”lthOtU Sample Selection Change 0 O 0 Change Treatment Method I: The Campaign Simulation . . . . . . . Treatment Method II: The Debate . . Treatment Method III: The Lecture . Measures . . . . . . . . Nature of the Data . . . Reliability . . . . . . Validity . . Reliability and Validity of the Achievement Test . . . . . Analysis Procedures . . . . . Preparation of the Data for Analysis Repeated Measures Analysis of of the Index of Response Testable Hypotheses . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . STATISTICAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . A. B. Preparation of the Data for Analysis Analysis of Variance . . . . iii 0 O I O Variance PAGE oooowaI—I 11 15 16 22 25 26 27 28 29 29 33 36 37 38 38 39 51 52 52 52 PAGE C. Interpretation of Analysis of Variance . . 66 Differences Among the Treatment Groups . 66 Differences Between Semesters . . . . . . 67 Interaction Between Treatment and Semester . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Differences Among the Measures . . . . . 67 Interaction Between Treatment and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Interaction Between Semester and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Interaction Among Treatment, Semester, and Measures . . . . . . . . 68 Composite Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 smary O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 69 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 sumary I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O I I O O O 72 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Implications for Future Research . . . . . . . 86 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 93 MPENDIX A O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 103 APPENDIX B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O O I 133 APPENDIX C O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 153 iv LIST OF TABLES Summary Description of Methods Design. . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Achievement of Community College Students. . . . . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude I: Support of the Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude II: Nationalism. . . . . . . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political. Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude III: Support of the Church . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude IV: Support of Capitalism and Free Enterprise. . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude V: Internationalism. . . . . . Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude VI: Support of the Law . . . . PAGE 30 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 TABLE PAGE 9. Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude VII: Support of Communism. . . . . . . 60 10. Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude VIII: Support of Punishment of Criminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 11. Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude IX: Support of Censorship. . . . . . . 62 12. Effects of Three Methods in Teaching Political Science Courses on Political Attitudes of Community College Students: Attitude X: Scale of Liberal-Conservative Civic Beliefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 13. Description of the Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 14. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance . . . . . . 65 15. Composite Treatment by Measures Means. . . . . . . 70 vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM A. Introduction Educators have approached the problem of the degree to which formal education changes people's attitudes toward political issues and religious, ethnic, and racial minori- ties from many different positions, but always with a limited amount of success. (Stember) (Allport) (Simpson) Stemberl concludes that education seems to reduce a pro- vincial outlook and weakens primitive misconceptions. Bettlheim and Janowitz2 discovered that the better educated are more liable to change under the impact of particular events. Janowitz3 found that each increase in education seemed to be linked to less prejudice; but in the case of anti-Negro attitudes there seems to be a threshold: College level education is necessary before attitudes toward Negroes change significantly. 1Charles H. Stember, Education and Attitude Change: The Effectsigf Schooling on Prejudice Against MinorityGroups, (New York, Institute of Human Relations Press, 1961), p.3. Bruno Bettleheim and Morris Janowitz, Social Change and Prejudice, (New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), p. 19. 3Ibid., p. 20. Efforts to modify ethnic prejudice by direct inter- vention into personal control or psychological mechanisms, both emotional and cognitive, have been extensive during the last twenty years.4 First, there has been a continuous effort to investigate attitude change by means of labora- tory and quasi—experimental studies.(KatzS) Second, there have been field experiments and systematic observation of natural settings.(Simpson and Yinger6) Third, there have been group therapy programs,.(Pear17), but these efforts encompass only small audiences. B. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is that of investigating the effects of teaching methods in political science courses upon community college student attitudes toward political 41bid., p. 91. \ 5Dan Katz, "Attitude Change," Public Opinionguar- terly, XXIV (Summer, 1960), pp. 163-166. 6See Chpt. 22, "The Reduction of Prejudice and Dis- Crimination: Changing the Prejudiced Person," in George Simpson and J. Milton Yinger, Racial and Cultural Minorities: An Analysis of Prejudice and DIECrimination. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), pp. 647-695. 7David Pearl, "Psychotherapy and Ethnocentrism," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, L(March, 1955), pp. 119-227. issues and minority groups. Another purpose of the study is that of exploring the effects of teaching methods in political science courses upon the achievement of community college students. C. Importance of the Problem Educators need to be aware of the degree to which formal education changes students' attitudes toward politi- cal issues and minority groups.8 The individual is subjected to teaching methods and course content that could possibly have a significant impact upon his attitudes toward politi- cal issues and minority groups. This is especially the case in the academic discipline of political science and other social science courses.9 Professional educators need to be aware of the effects of teaching methods upon student at- titudes primarily for two reasons. First, substantial im- provements in instructional methods and course objectives. can be accomplished through such an analysis. Second, an assessment can be made to determine if they contribute significantly to the teaching of values in an American democracy. 8Bruno Bettleheim and Morris Janowitz, Social Change and Prejudice, (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), pp. 92 & 95. See also Helen G. Trager, They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children, (New Yor , Harper, 1954), p. 362. 9Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr., The Academic Mind: Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis New York: THe Free Press of Glencoe, 1958,) Measurement of changes in attitude have been con- 10 ducted, and they reveal that one of the.results of the studies may be an increase intolerance.ll However, the results have been far from conclusive.12 About a third of the studies revealed that the course of the study produced 13 no change of attitudes. The studies vary widely for many reasons, but the primary reason is due to the major differ- ences in the degree to which they have controlled vari- 14 ables. Moreover, most of the studies have not eliminated 10See George E. Simpson-and J. Milton Yinger, Racial and Cultural Minorities:‘ An Analysis of Prejudice and Dis- crimination, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 766. Another excellent summary of the results of many of these studies is found in Arnold M. Rose and Caroline Rose, America Divided: Minoritijroup Relations in the United States, (New YorE?* Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1948), p. 272. See Don C. Smith, "Cognitive Consistency and the Perceptions of Others Opinions," Public Opinionguarterly, XXXII, 1 (Spring, 1968), pp. 1-15. Another excellent summary of these studies is found in Milton Rokeach, "Attitude Change and Behavior Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXX, 4 (Winter, 1966), pp. 529-550. See JoHn J. Patrick, "Impli- cations of Political Socialization Research for the Reform of Civic Education," Social Education, XXXIII (January, 1969). pp. 15221. llArnold M. Rose and Caroline Rose, America.Divided: Minority Grgup Relations in the United States, TNew YorE: AIfredIA. Knop 7 Inc., 1948), p. 2827 12 Ibid. l31bid. 14George E. Simpson and J. Milton Yinger, Racial and Cultural Minorities: An Analysisjof Prejudice and Discrimination, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 766. the effects of self-selection which so often distort the analysis of human behavior.15. However, their total weight gives some support to the hypothesis that knowledge may 16 reduce prejudice. It can undermine the rationalizations of prejudiced persons and make their attitudes seem less respectable.17 Regardless of the approach used in the efforts to predict the effects of formal.education upon student at- titudes toward political issues and minority groups, most of the studies have been inconclusive in demonstrating a correlation between formal education and attitude change. However, the research of Allport,18 Trager,19 and Stember,20 were concerned with a social psychological approach to the study of attitudinal change of students toward political issues and minority groups. There is a need to study the effects of political science teaching methods upon the attitudinal change of students toward political issues and lsIbid. 16Ibid. l7Ibid. 18Gordon Allport, The Nature of Prejudice. (New York: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1954). 19Helen G. Trager, They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children, (New York: Harper, 1954). 20Charles Stember, Education and Attitude Change: The Effects of Schooling on PrejuHICe Against Minority Groups, (New York: Institute of Human Relations Press, minority groups, and to analyze the trends that occur be- cause of the exposure to teaching methods in political . 21 sc1ence. D. Theory Underlying the Problem Lazarsfeld and Thielens22 have theorized that dur- ing the first years of college, the impact of the formal curriculum has particular effect on student attitudes to- ward political issues and minority groups. It is then that 21Albert Somit, "The Effects of the Introductory Political Science Course.on-Student Attitudes T0ward Per- sonal Political Participation,PfAmerican Political Science Review, 52,1 (December, 1958), pp. 112991132. See also GeraId Engel and Harriet O'Shea, "Teaching Democratic Values: A Study of the Effects of Prejudice Upon Learning," Journal of Social Psychology, LX(1963), pp. 34-40. Other studies démonstrating the need for this experiment are: (l) Melvin Ezer, "Value-Teaching in Middle and Upper Grades: A Rationale for Teaching But Not Transmit— ting Values,” Social Education, XXXI (January, 1967), pp. 39-40. (2) John D. Gearon,"Simulation and Stimulation: Teaching Politics and Government in High School So- cial Studies," Social Education (March, 1968), 273- 278. (3) Philip Jacob, Changing Values in Colle e: An Exploratory Study of the Impact of College Teachigg, New York: Harper and Row, 1957. (4) E. Litt, "Civic Education, Community Norms, and Political Indoctrination," American Sociological Review, XXVIII (1963), pp. 69475. (5) Byron G. Massialas, Education and the Political S stem, (Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley, 1969). (6) John J. Patrick, "Implications of Political So- cialization Research for the Reform of Civic Edu- cation," Social Education, 33(January, 1969), pp. 15-21. ~ 22Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr., The Academic Mind; Social Scientists in a Time of Crisis, —_— (New York, The Free Press of Glencoe, 1958). young people leave home and begin to explore their own at- tidudes and orientations. The.content of undergraduate social science courses, sociology, anthropology, political science, and psychology, a11.have significant effects on fashioning attitudes.23 These social science courses are now a central part of undergraduate education and their im— pact on ethnic attitudes is particularly strong among the middle class students who had previously little direct con- tact with minority groups, especially with Negroes.24 Lewin25 has modified Lazarsfeld and Thielens theory of the impact of social science-courses on intergroup at- titudes by studying the effects-of teaching methods. In one study, the comparative effectiveness of lecture and discussion methods in persuading mothers to use more milk for their children was tested. .The discussion process achieved far greater results; about three times as many mothers increased the use of milk.26 Lewin theorized the principle that group decision is effective in social change. 23Ibid. 24Ibid. 25Kurt Lewin, "Group Decision and Social Change," in Theodore M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (eds.), Readings in Social Ps cholo , (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1947), pp. 330-344. 26Ibid. Louis E. Merz and Leonard Pearlin27 have theorized that relatively little information combined with a high degree of involvement seems to be most conducive to bring- ing about a disposition to action and elicits low prejudice. Many college undergraduate courses are concerned with studying the democratic tradition and strengthening belief in the democratic heritage, but few have the spe- cific aim changing attitudes, nor have they used techniques appropriate to that end. An attempt will be made in this study to explore the advantages and disadvantages of three techniques in political science and their effects upon changing attitudes. E. Research Hypotheses This paper is based upon a scientific experimental study. To facilitate directional analysis, seven research hypotheses have been developed. Because information com- bined with a high degree of involvement produces a dispo- sition to action and elicits low prejudice, (Pearlin and Merz) it is anticipated that there will be significant differences among the three instructional methods in teach- ing introductory political science courses. 27Louis E. Merz and Leonard Pearlin, "The Influence of Information on Three Dimensions of Prejudice Toward Negroes," Social Forces, Vol. 35, 4 (May, 1957), p. 350. On the basis of the above conclusions, the follow— ing hypotheses were formulated: Research Hypothesis l.--There will be significant difference among the treatment groups. Ho 1.--There will be no significant difference among the treatment groups. Research Hypothesis 2.--There will be significant difference between semesters. Ho 2.-—There will be no significant difference be- tween semesters. Research Hypothesis 3.-~There will be significant difference among the measures. Ho 3.-—There will be no significant difference among the measures. Research Hypothesis 4.-—There will be significant treatment by semester interaction. Ho 4.--There will be no significant treatment by semester interaction. Research Hypothesis 5.—-There will be significant treatment by measures interaction. Ho 5.--There will be no significant treatment by measures interaction. Research Hypothesis 6.—-There will be significant semester by measures interaction. Ho 6.-~There will be no significant semester by measures interaction. 10 Research Hypothesis‘7;v-There will be significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. Ho 7.--There will be no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. F. Organization of the Study The general plan of the study is to present, in Chapter II, the review-of.the;literature which shows the relationship between formal education and attitudinal change toward political issueszand minority groups. The third chapter is an account of the methodology used in collecting, organizing and tabulating the data, and the techniques employed in analyzing them. The results of the analysis are reported in Chapter‘IV. The summary, con- clusions, and implications for further study appear in the final chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A. Formal Education and Attitude Change The quantity of literature in the area of formal education and its relationship to attitude change, is not very extensive, but for the purposes of this study, a review of the literature is necessary. Experts disagree regarding the effects of formalseducation upon attitude change. One of the major studies, in this area, is Th3 Development of Basic Attitudes.and Values Toward Government and Citizenship_During the Elementary School Years, Part I by Robert D. Hess and Judith V. Torney. They conclude that the public school is the most important and effective in- strument of political socialization in the United States.1 However, John J. Patrick reports that several research studies have indicated that formal instructional programs 1Robert D. Hess and Judith V. Torney, The Develop- ment of Basic Attitudes and Values.Toward Government and Citizenship During the Elementary School YearsI Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago, Cooperative Research Project, No. 1078, 1965). Political Socialization--process by which a person internalizes the norms and values of the political system. ll 12 in civic education have little or no impact upon political attitudes and values, and appear to contribute only slightly to increased political knowledge and sophistication.2 Another major study in this area, is Education and Attitude Change by Charles Stember. He concludes that education seems to reduce atprovincial outlook and weakens primitive misconceptions.3 .Stember also found that edu- cation is most effective in changing attitudes where sub- cultural differences between the educated and the uneducated are greatest.4 Formal learning, by itself, however, is unlikely to change deep-rooted attitudes toward minorities.5 A Study, by Bruno Bettleheim and Morris Janowitz, reported in their Social Change and Prejudice, discovered that the better educated are more liable to change under 6 the impact of particular events. They also reported that each increase in education seemed to be linked to less 2John Patrick, "Implications of Political Sociali- zation Research for the Reform of Civic Education," Social Education, Vol. 33, 1(January, 1969), p. 15. 3Charles H. Stember, Education and Attitude Change: The Effects of, Schooling on Prejudice Against Minority Grou s, (New York: Institute of Human Relations Press, I§6Ii, p. 3. 4 Ibid., p. 177. 51bid., p. 180. 6Bruno Bettleheim and Morris Janowitz, Social Change and Prejudice, (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, ‘I964), p.'I9. l3 prejudice; but in the.case of anti-Negro attitudes there seems to be'a threshold: College level education is neces- sary before attitudes toward Negroes change significantly.7 In a study of stereotype persistence and change among college students, G..M. Gilbert concluded that the present generation of college-students is more reluctant than the previous generationtto.makenstereotyped generali- zations about the character ef-ethnic groups, especially those with whom they have had-little contact.8 Philip Jacob declares that a college education softens an individual's extremist views and persuades him to reconsider aberrant values-- "It increases the tolerance potential of students toward differing beliefs, social groups, and standards of conduct."9 V. O. Key's analysis of data gathered by the Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan indicates that a strong positive correlation exists between the amount of formal education and the level of political knowledge, political interest, political participation, feeling of political efficacy, 71bid., p. 20. 8G. M. Gilbert, "Stereotype Persistence and Change Among College Students," Journal of Abnormal and Social . Psychology, XLVI (April, 1951), p. 248. 9Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in College: An Exploratory Study of the Impact ofCoIIege Teaching, TNew York: Harper andfiRow, 1957), pp. 45-46. l4 sense of political duty, toleration of diverse political values, and ability to assess the complex ramifications of a political problem.10 Another significant contribution to understanding this problem is Paul F. Lazarsfeld's The Academic Mind. He concludes that the content of undergraduate social science courses, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and political science, all have significant effect in fashion- ing attitudes, especially during the first years of col- lege.11 Helen Trager's They Learn What They Live contends that research has documented in many different social groups and geographical areas, the fact that young children have learned social prejudices.12 Her research supplies ad- ditional convincing data from projective tests on approxi- 13 mately 500 children. Radke, Trager, and Davis's study reported that racial attitudes intensify as children grow 10V. 0. Key, Jr., Public 0 inion and American Democregy, (New York: Alfred A. KnOpf., 1961), pp. 315-343. 11Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Wagner Thielens, Jr., The Academic Mind: Social Scientist in a Time of Crisis, (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1958). 12Helen G. Trager, They Learn What_TheyLive: Prejudice in Young Children, (New YorE: Harper, 1951), p. 351. 13Ibid., p. 351. 15 older.14 Mary Ellen Goodman concludes from her New Dublin study, together with studies made in other parts of the country, in rural, town, and metropolitan settings, that children everywhere are shaped to the pattern of ethnic prejudice.15 B. Political Science Courses and Attitude Change Experts also appear to disagree regarding the effects of political science courses upon attitude change. Roy E. Horton, Jr. reports that formal courses in civics have no effect in shaping favorable attitudes toward the 3111 of Rights.16 Marvin Schick and Albert Somit concluded that greater knowledge of subject matter leads neither to a greater student interest.in politics nor to greater stu- dent political participation.17 Edgar Litt reports that civic education appears to influence students toward en- dorsement of the "democratic creed" and away from "chauvinism" but he concluded that "without some degree of 14William W. Joyce, "Minority Groups in American Society: Imperatives for Educators," Social Education, Vol. 33, (April, 1969), p. 430. 15Mary Ellen Goodman, aace Awareness in Young Children, (New York: Collier Books, 1964), p. 251. 16Roy E. Horton, Jr. "American Freedom and the Values of Youth," in Anti-Democratic AttiEudes in American Schools, H. H. Remmers, editor. (Evanston, Illinois: North- western Press, 1963), pp. 18-60. 17Marvin Schick and Albert Somit, "The Failure to Teach Political Activity" American Behavioral Scientist, VI (1963). pp. 5-8. 16 reinforcement from the political environment, the school system's effort at political indoctrination also fails."18 Kenneth P. Langton.and.M. Kent Jennings recently conducted an important study describing the impact of formal instruction in civics upon student political values, at- titudes, and beliefs of most high school students.19 They concluded that the civic education curricula of American schools appears to have little or no influence upon politi- cal values, attitudes, and beliefs of most high school 20 students. They confirmed the results of a similar study conducted earlier by Easton and Hess.21 C. Teaching Methods and Attitude Change Research in the area of determining the relation- ship between teaching methods and attitude change have been limited, but some studies have been conducted. A study by 22 Louis E. Merz and Leonard Pearlin, demonstrates the value 18Edgar Litt,'Civic Education, Community Norms, and Political Indoctrinations," American Sociological Review, XXVIII (1963). pp. 66-75, 107? 19Kenneth P. Langton and M. Kent Jennings, Political Socialization and the High School Civigs Curriculum in the United States, (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan, May 1967), (Unpublished paper). 20 Ibid. 21Easton, David, and Robert D. Hess, "The Child's Political World," Midwest Journal of Political Science, VI (1962): pp. 229-346. 22Louis E. Merz and Leonard Pearlin, "The Influence of Information on Three Dimensions of Prejudice Toward Negroes," Social Forces, 35,4 (May, 1957), p. 350. 17 of activity and participation.. They theorized that rela- tively little information combined with a high degree of involvement seems most conducive to bringing about a dis- position to action and elicits-low prejudice.23 Zimbardo also concludes that active participation is more effective in changing attitudes than is passive exposure to persuasive communications.24 Kurt Lewin's study25 reveals the comparative effec- tiveness of lecture and discussion methods in persuading mothers to use more milk.for-their children. The discussion process achieved far greater results; about three times as many mothers increased the use of milk.26 Metcalf claims that controversial topics which lead to a clash of personal beliefs make for greater motivation of students in social studies-classes}.7 Festinger cites the results of several ZBIbid. 24Philip Zimbardo, Influencing Attitudes and Chang- ing Behavior: A Basic Intrgduction to Relevant Methodology, Theory, and_Applications, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley PublishingCompany, 1969), p. 57. 25See Kurt Lewin, "Group Decision and Social Change," in Theodore M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (eds.), Readings in Social Psychology, (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1947): pp. 330-344. ZGIbid. 27Lawrence E. Metcalf, "Anti-Communism: Education or Propaganda," The Nation, CXCIV (1963a), pp. 215-216,222. 18 experiments to support his conclusion that students may be motivated by being presented with contradictions between two more fixed beliefs and values.28 The effectiveness of simulations upon changes in racial attitudes was examined recently by Paul DeKock.29 One of the major conclusions,-emerging from this study, was that teachers can establish an environment, where 30 students learn to change their attitudes. His experiment demonstrates that simulations change students' racial at- titudes.31 John D. Gearon claims that students feel a sense of discovery while participating in simulations.32 Most research evidence, according to Cleo H. 33 Cherryholmes, indicates that simulations promote a high degree of interest much more so than is evident in the 28 . Leon Fest1nger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, (Stanford, California: Stan or UniversityPress, 1957). 29Paul DeKock, "Simulations and Changes in Racial Attitudes," Social Education, Vol. 33 (February, 1969), pp. 181-183. 3oIbid., p. 181. 311bid., p. 183. 32John D. Gearon, "Simulation and Stimulation: Teaching Politics and Government in High School Social Studies," Social Education, 32 (March, 1968), p. 274. 33Cleo H. Cherryholmes, "Some Current Research on Effectiveness of Educational Simulations: Implications for Alternative Strategies," American Behavioral Scientist 10, (October, 1966), pp. 4-7. 19 typical, conventional classroomexercise.34 Antoinette Ryan reports that simulations increase transfer-of-learning out- comes.35 Sarane S. Boocock found "evidence that simulations do effect changes in players: including increase in role empathy, learning of factual information and greater feel- ings of efficacy."36 F. T. Smith's study yields some evidence to support the claim that activity and involvement bring about at- titudinal change. He found, in a controlled experiment, that forty of the forty-six graduate students who went to Harlem and participated in social activities with Negroes became less prejudiced as a result of this contact experi- ence; the group as a whole became more favorable toward Negroes.37 The lecture method was recently studied by Ralph G. Nichols and Leonard Stevens. They concluded thatfimmediately 34Ibid. 35Antoinette Ryan, "Use of Simulation to Increase Transfer," School Review, 76 (June, 1968), p. 249. 36Sarane S. Boocock, "An Experimental Study of the Learning Effects of Two Games with Simulated Environments," American Behavioral Scientist, 10 (October, 1966). p. 8 37F. T. Smith, An Experiment in Modifying Attitudes Toward Negroes, New York: Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, 1943. Cited in Paul H. Mussen, "Some Personality and Social Factors Related to Changes in Children's Atti- tudes Toward Negroes," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLV (July, 1950), p. 424. 20 after the average person has listened to someone talk, he remembers only about half of what he heard--no matter how carefully he thought he had.listened. After a two month time lapse, the average listener will remember only about 25 per cent of what'was.said.'.'38 ‘Lloyd Pulliam concludes that the lecture "may be a-valuab1e part of the learning process if used properly. .It will derive its value largely from what happens to the student after the lecture is over. It must stimulate a studentinte-activity."39 Richard A. Schmuck provides additional evidence to support the claim that teaching-methods utilizing activity and involvement produce attitude change in students. His study40 was based upon a scientific experiment comparing the effects of three instructional methods aimed at helping teachers improve classroom group processes. He established a teacher development laboratory with seven core training activities. (1. Sensitivity training and related human relations experiences, 2. Didactic discussions on basic research about classroom group processes, 3. Problem-solving techniques for improving group processes, 4. Analysis of 38Lloyd Pulliam, "The Lecture: Is It a Valuable Part of the Learning Process," Education Digest, XXIX, 2 (October, 1963), p. 37. 39 Ibid., p. 39. 40Richard A. Schmuck, "Helping Teachers Improve Classroom Group Processes," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, IV, 4 (1968), 401-435. 21 diagnostic data from the teachers' own classrooms, 5. Dis- cussions about useful classroom-practices developed by other teachers, 6. Role-play tryouts of new classroom practices, and 7. Follow—up discussions during the school year.) This laboratory was-compared with a seminar in which the participants experienced all of the laboratory activ- ities except for sensitivity.training, related human ex- periences, and role play tryouts of new classroom practices. Both the laboratory and seminar were compared with a control group in which no training activities were introduced. "An overview of the results-indicated that the laboratory teachers and students made-more pesitive changes in their group processes than those in the seminar group; both these groups were more improved at the end of the school year than the control group."41 The strategic importance of teachers in this process was demonstrated by Helen Trager.42 She contends that teachers are in a key position; they are "gate keepers" in the process of social change. In a large measure, they determine, personally, the kinds of attitudes that will be communicated to the students.43 41Ibid., p. 402. 42Helen Trager, They Learn What Theprive, (New York: Harper, 1952). 431bid., p. 352. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY A. Sample Selection The student sample will be selected from Schoolcraft Community College students who are assumed to be quite rep- resentative of the community college population of the state of Michigan. The total sample will consist of 240 students from 12 political science classes, 6 classes in the Fall Term and 6 in the Winter Term.- During the Fall Term the students are randomly assigned to six Political Science classes, and the same procedure is repeated during the Winter Term. The length of both terms is 16 weeks. The three methods in the teaching of political science (the traditional lecture, the debate, and the cam- paign simulation) will be randomly assigned to each class during the Fall Term. Two classes will utilize the tradi- tional lecture method, two will utilize the debate method, and two will utilize the campaign simulation method. The same procedure will be repeated during the Winter Term. The content of the political science classes will be held constant, and the same textbook will be assigned to 22 23 each class. Ten units are included in the course, and one chapter of reading is assigned for each unit. One contro- versial issue is also assigned for each unit. The course outline will consist of the following: Units Chapters Issues I. THE CONSTITUTION Chpt. 1 Should federal aid to education be increased? II. INTEREST GROUPS Chpt. 2 Should the power of labor unions be reduced? III. POLITICAL Chpt. 3 Should public funds be PARTIES used to support private schools? IV. CAMPAIGNS Chpt. 5 Should sex education be taught in the public schools? V. THE PRESIDENCY Chpt. 6 Should Rhodesia be allowed to retain its independence from Great Britain? VI. CONGRESS: Chpt. 7 Should the U.S. join REPRESENTING the Common Market? THE PEOPLE VII. CONGRESS: Chpt. 8 Should the KKK be MAKING THE LAWS outlawed? VIII. THE LAW AND Chpt. 9 Should the use of THE JUDICIARY marijuana be legalized? IX. CIVIL RIGHTS Chpt. 10 Should the Blacks and Whites integrate? X. FOREIGN POLICY Chpt. 14 Should Red China be admitted to the U.N.? (The same instructor is assigned to the twelve classes participating in this experiment. Rigid time controls are established to provide for equal consideration of the concepts within each class period to insure uniformity among the treat- ment groups. See Appendix C.) II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Units THE CONSTITUTION INTEREST GROUPS POLITICAL PARTIES CAMPAIGNS THE PRESIDENCY CONGRESS: REPRESENTING THE PEOPLE CONGRESS: MAKING THE LAWS THE LAW AND THE JUDICIARY CIVIL RIGHTS FOREIGN POLICY 24 W Chpt. l Chpt. 2 Chpt. 3 Chpt. 5 Chpt. 6 Chpt. 7 Chpt. 8 Chpt. 9 Chpt. 10. Chpt. 14. 10. Lectures The Constitution: The Convention of 1787, Basic Elements of Am. Gov. Interest Groups: Definitions, Types, Tactics, power Political Parties: Definition, Func- tions in the Poli- tical System, Organization, Politics Campaigns: Tech- niques, Strategy, Imagery, Art of Campaigning President: Roles, Powers, the Insti- tution and the Individual Congress: Repre- sentation, Gerry- mandering, Elements of the Congressional District Congress: Law- Making, Legislation, Committees Supreme Court: Membership, Func- tions, Judicial Policy-Making Civil Rights: Bill of Rights, Religious Freedom, Security of the Person Foreign Policy: Case Studies in U.S. Foreign Relations (1 lecture per unit) 25 Summary Description of Method I: The Campaign Simulation 1. The discussion period will be devoted to a campaign simulation for the office of U.S. Senator. Each student will be allowed to research current issues and formulate ideas regarding the assigned issues. The individual student will be required to present a 5 minute speech including an analysis of the issues assigned by the instructor. II. The schedule will be approximately as follows: A. Research of Current Issues 1. 5. Should federal aid to education be increased? Should the power of labor unions be reduced? Should sex education he taught in the public schools? Should public funds be used to support pri— vate schools? Should Rhodesia be allowed to retain its independence from Great Britain? Campaign for the Office of U.S. Senator 1. 2. Present your speech to the class. Requirements. a. 5 minute time limit. b. Speech must include statements about the above assigned issues. c. Grade is based upon quality. This in- cludes the quality of the research demon- strated and the success of the campaign. The class will vote to determine the winner at the end of the campaign period. 26 Summary Description of Method II: The Debate I. The discussion period will be devoted to a debate focussing attention upon a controversial issue. Each student will be assigned a debate topic by the instructor. The student will then conduct research and formulate arguments regarding the assigned issues. The individual student will be required to present a 5 minute speech including an analy- sis of the arguments that he has researched. The student will participate as a team member representing the team to which he has been assigned. II. The schedule will be approximately as follows: 1. Should federal aid to education be increased? Affirmative Negative IT 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 2. Should the power of labor unions be reduced? Affirmative Negative I. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 3. Should public funds be used to support private schools? Affirmative Ne ative if’ I. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. Should sex education be taught in the public schools? Affirmative Negative 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 27 5. Should Rhodesia be allowed to retain its in- dependence from Great Britain? Affirmative Ne ative I. I. 2. 2. 3. 3. Summary Description of Method III: The Lecture I. The class period will be devoted to a lecture pre- sented by the instructor focusing attention upon one major concept. Each student is assigned a chapter in the text- book to be prepared and studied prior to the lecture. The traditional lecture style is emphasized, and the instructor presents the material to the class orally. Students are required to record the lectures in written form for purposes of examination in the near future. Emphasis is placed upon individual research prior to the presentation of the oral lecture. II. The outline for the first lecture is as follows: Title: The Constitution and Politics A. Definitions of Politics 1. Pursuit and Exercise of Power 2. Who Gets What, When, and How 3. The Art of Compromise 4. Series of Human Activities Related to the Adjustment of Social Disputes 5. The Art of the Possible B. Convention of 1787: Politics in Action 1. Founding Fathers: Aristocracy a. Motives b. Pursuit of Power 28 2. Compromises a. Great Compromise b. Election of the President c. Supreme Court Justices d. Treaties e. Slavery f. 3/5 Compromise 3. Basic Elements of American Government a. Separation of Powers Doctrine b. Checks & Balances c. Federalism d. Limited Government e. National Supremacy f. Civilian Control of the Military B. Measures Eleven major tests will be given to each group at the beginning of the term and at the end of the term as pretests and post-tests. Ten attitude scales will be given to determine the specific direction of attitude change. Achievement will be measured by administering a multiple choice test of 100 items, with ten.items from each unit in the course outline. (See below) UNITS TESTS Content Attitude I. THE 10 Multiple Choice Attitude Scale 1: CONSTITUTION The Constitution II. INTEREST " " " Attitude Scale 3: GROUPS The Church III. POLITICAL " " " 4: Distribution PARTIES of Wealth IV. CAMPAIGNS " " " 5: International Relations V. THE " " " 7: Communism PRESIDENCY VI. CONGRESS: " " " 10: Civic Beliefs REPRESENTING THE PEOPLE VII. VIII. IX. X. C. Nature of the Data UNITS CONGRESS: MAKING THE LAWS THE LAW AND THE JUDICIARY CIVIL RIGHTS FOREIGN POLICY II. The following data will be TESTS 29 Content 10 Multiple Choice 6: TESTS Attitude The Law " 8: Punishment of Criminals " 9: Censorship " 2: Nationalism gathered on each student: A. Responses to the Items on the Ten Attitude Scales. B. Responses to the Items on the Multiple Choice Test. GROUP MEANS A. Class Averages. B. Change Scores D. Reliability Several experts have reported regarding the relia- bility of the ten attitude scales utilized in this experi- ment. 1 Lorge (1939) reports the reliability estimates on 1 The ten scales were found in Terry B. Smith, Stud Guide For the American Political Process (New York: Mc-Graw Hill Book Company, 1969). 30 Table 1. Summary Description of Methods Design Unit 1: The Constitution. Semester 1: 9 Period A. Period B Period C (50 Min.) (50 Min.) (50 Min.) Lecture: Traditional Lecture: Traditional Class 1 Lecture: The Explanation Lecture: List Constitution about Re- of Arguments search Methods about Federal Aid to Education Lecture: Traditional Lecture: Traditional Class 2 Lecture: The Explanation Lecture: List Constitution about Re- of Arguments search Methods about Federal Aid to Education Debate: *Lecture- Involvement: Debate Partici- Class 3 Discussion: Debate Team pation: Should The Consti- Meetings Federal Aid to tution Education be Increased? Debate: *Lecture- Involvement: Debate Partici- Class 4 Discussion: Debate Team pation: Should The Consti- Meetings Federal Aid to tution Education be increased? Campaign: *Lecture- Involvement: Campaign Partici- Class 5 Discussion: Public Opinion pation: Campaign The Consti- Surveys of Presentations by tution Class Members Students and Election Campaign: *Lecture- Involvement: Campaign Partici- Class 6 Discussion: Public Opinion pation: Campaign The Consti- Surveys of Presentations by tution Class Members Students and Election (The above design was repeated during Semester II) (*The lecture presented in the campaign and debate sections emphasized discussion of the major concepts by the students. Active participation and analysis were developed in the campaign and debate sections. Traditional lecture sections emphasized the oral presentation of the concepts by the instructor, with attention focused upon passive tra- ditional learning by the students.) 31 the first scale to range from .76 to .84 which is satis— factory.2 (Attitude Toward the Constitution of the United States.) An equivalent-forms reliability was reported to be .79 (corrected to .88, based upon the responses of 178 3 college students, for the second scale. (Nationalism Scale.) Regarding the third scale (Attitude Toward the. Church)Nelson reports a good degree of consistency on the test re-test type of study, of changes in attitudes of ex- college students over a period of fifteen years (1936 to 1950), based upon N of 893. In his study, he reports that 51 per cent of the subjects showed no shift in attitude.4 The author of the fourth scale (Distribution of Wealth Scale: Wilke) reports test-retest reliability co- efficients of .87 and .90, based upon a sample of 1,174 persons and using a retest interval of three weeks. The split-half reliability coefficient (corrected) is reported as being .92, based on a sample of 61 persons.5 Regarding the fifth scale (A Survey of Opinions and Beliefs About International Relations), the corrected split-half. 2Marvin E. Shaw and Jack M. Wright, Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes (New York: Mc-Graw Hill, 1967), pp. 156-157. 3 Ibid., pp. 196-199. 41bid., pp. 544-546. 51bid.. pp. 187-189. 32 reliability was .84 for the student sample, .71 for mothers, and .81 for fathers.6 Ferguson (1944) reports reliability estimates rang- ing from .47 to .64 for the sixth scale.7 Reliability coefficients have been reported by several investigators for the seventh scale. Likert, Roslow, and Murphy (1934) reported reliability ranging from .66 to .95; Lorge (1939) obtained reliabilities ranging from .81 to .95; and Ferguson (1944) reported reliabilities ranging from .78 to .88.8 Two investigators have studied the reliability of the eighth scale. (Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals) Lorge (1939) reports reliability estimates to run from .69 to .76, while Ferguson (1944) reports the range as being from .57 to .73.9 They also studied the ninth scale (52; titude Toward Censorship Scale) and Lorge reports the re- liability estimates on this scale to range from .65 to .82, while Ferguson reports the range as being from .72 to .84.10 The authors of the tenth scale (The Florida Scale of Civic Ibid., pp. 199-201. Ibid., pp. 249-2510 Ibid., pp. 209-211. \OQQO‘ Ibid., pp. 162-165. 1°Ibid.. pp. 154-156. 33 Beliefs: Kimbrough and Hines) report a split-half cor- relation (corrected) of .934 based upon 75 graduate student subjects.ll E. Validity Several studies have been conducted to determine the validity of the ten attitude scales utilized in the experiment. Experts agree that the Thurstone procedure of construction tends to insure a degree of content validity 12 for the first scale. (Attitude Toward the Constitution of the United States) Ferguson noted that the second scale might be considered valid because it correlated .90 with the scores on the nationalism factor which it was designed to measure.13 (Nationalism Scale) Nickols and Shaw dis- covered that the third scale (Attitude Toward the Church) correlated .39 (a high saliency group) and .76 (a low saliency group) with the semantic differential measurement of attitude toward the church.14 Evidence for the content validity of the fourth scale (Distribution of Wealth Scale) is difficult to assess, llIbid., pp. 307-311. 12Marvin E. Shaw and Jack M. Wright, Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967) p. 157. l31bid., pp. 196-199. l41bid., pp. 544-546. 34 but the author reports small changes in scores in the ex- pected direction as a result of experimental treatment.15 Validity was estimated for the fifth scale (A Survey of opinions and beliefs about International Relations) by having the students indicate their attitude toward interna- tional relations on a linear scale, and the correlations between these self-ratings and scores on the attitude scale 16 was .70. Experts agree that the sixth scale (Attitude Toward the Law) seems to have good content validity. The analysis by Kimbough (1955) would seem to indicate that the pool of items is relatively unidimensional.17 Regarding construct validity, Diggory (1953) reports correlations between this scale and the Thurstone scale measuring at- titudes toward treatment of criminals of .30 and .50 based on the samples of 75 men and 103 women, respectively.18 Little evidence is available for the validity of the seventh scale. (Attitude Toward Communism) Ferguson found that the scores correlated positively with attitude toward evolution (.20 to .25) as indicated by the scaling pro- cedure.19 lsapaa., p. 188. 163paa., pp. 199-201. l7;paa., pp. 249-251. 18Ibid. 19 Ibid., pp. 209—211. 35 Experts agree that the eighth scale appears to have good content validity. (Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals) Diggory reports that this scale correlates .50 and .30 with Thurstone's scale measuring attitude toward 20 capital punishment. Studies of the ninth scale (Attitude Toward Censorship) reveal its construct validity. Diggory (1953) reports correlations of .16 to .58 between this scale and Thurstone's scale measuring attitudes toward the treat- 21 ment of criminals. He also found this scale to correlate .15 to .46 with Thurstone's Attitude Toward Capital Punish- ment Scale.22 Fifteen judges from the faculties of the Universi- ties of Tennessee and Florida checked the content validity of the items in the tenth scale. (The Florida Scale of Civic Beliefs) They concluded that the factor loadings used in the selection of the items may be.taken as evidence of validity to the extent that the first factor reflects liberalism-conservatism.23 201bid., pp. 162-165. 211bid., pp. 154-156. ZZIbid. 231bid., pp. 307-311. 36 F. Reliability_and Validity of the Achievement Test The achievement part of the testing includes 100 multiple choice test items.24 Extensive pretesting was conducted to insure the validity and reliability of this test. The test was given in a number of subtests, each of which covered a different aspect of the criterion, so that attention would be given to the adequacy of the coverage, and to the avoidance of excessive concentration of items in certain areas.25 The procedure for purifying the test included a comparison of the performance of a group of good students with that of a group of poor students, chosen on the basis of total test scores on 247 questions. Item analysis of the questionable items resulted in the removal of 147 questions. Thus, the final achievement test of 100 items emerged from this purification process.26 The test re-test type of study of changes in achievement of college students over a period of two weeks (Summer 1970), based 24The achievement test includes 100 multiple choice items from The Instructor's Manual to Accompany_Thomas.H. Elliot's Governiag America: The Politics of-a Free Peeple TDde, Mead, and Co., New York), preparedihy Jack Plano, Professor of Political Science, Western Michigan-University. 25See Anne Anastasi, Psychological Testing, (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1961), pp. 168-172. 26Ibid. Also see Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educa- tional Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). pp. 346-372. 37 upon an N of 23, was conducted. A computation of the Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation reveals 27 The achievement test a reliability coefficient of .66. might be considered to possess face validity, because it correlated .89 with the item content which it was designed 28 to measure. G. Analysis Procedures Mean scores will be compared between all groups to determine differences in achievement and attitudes resulting from the application of the three instructional methods. The analysis will include the extent of attitudinal and achievement change in either direction for all the methods employed. An analysis of the multiple choice test will be conducted to determine the amount of achievement change that has taken place. To prepare the data for the repeated measures analysis of variance of the index of response, it will be necessary to calculate the gain scores for each class on each dependent variable. Each of the eleven tests are in a different metric, so in order to carry out the analysis 27J. Stanley Ahmann and Marvin D. Glock, Evaluating Pupil Growth, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1959), pp. 98-99. 28Ernest B. Fincher, The Government of the United States, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice HalI, 1967). Items were covered in Chpts. l, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 14. 38 of variance, the gain scores will be placed in a comparable metric. To accomplish this task, each gain score will be divided by the square root of the average within cell vari- ance, on the appropriate variable. Utilizing the results of these data, the analysis of variance will then be conducted. H. Testable Hypotheses The hypotheses can be restated as follows: Research Hypothesis l.--There will be significant difference among the treatment groups. Ho l.--There will be no significant difference among the treatment groups. Research Hypothesis 2.--There will be significant difference between semesters. Ho 2.--There will be no significant difference be- tween semesters. Research Hypothesis 3.--There will be significant difference among the measures. Ho 3.--There will be no significant difference among the measures. Research Hypothesis 4.--There will be significant treatment by semester interaction. Ho 4.--There will be no significant treatment by semester interaction. Research Hypothesis 5.--There will be significant treatment by measures interaction. 39 Ho 5.--There will be no significant treatment by measures interaction. Research Hypothesis 6.--There will be significant semester by measures interaction. Ho 6.--There will be no significant semester by measures interaction. Research Hypothesis 7.--There will be significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. Ho 7.--There will be no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. I. Definition of Terms 1. Attitude. A relatively enduring organization of Beliefs about an object or situation predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner. 9 2. Attitude Change. A change in predisposition, the Ehange being either a change in the organization or structure of beliefs or a change in the content of one or more of the beliefs entering into the attitude organization.30 3. Attitude Scales. Attitude measurement consists of the assessment of an individual's responses to a set of situations. The set of situations is usually a set of statements (items) about the attitude object, to which the individual responds with a set of specified response categories, e.g., "agree" and "disagree." The value assigned to an individual's response to given item is called an item score, and 29Milton Rokeach, "Attitude Change and Behavior Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XXX (Winter, 1966), p. 530. 30Ibid. 40 the number derived from his item scores represents his position on the latent attitude variable. We will refer to a set of items, along with the item scores, as an attitude scale. 4. Achievement Test. Test designed to measure a student’s grasp of some body of knowledge or his proficiency in certain skills. Such tests are often used to measure achievement in arithmetic, chemistry, English composition, typing, medical diagnosis, and other subjects of study. Most tests made b teachers for classroom use are achievement tests. 5. Affective Component. A component of an attitude consisting of a person's evaluation of, liking Of3 or emotional responses to some object or person. 6. Affective Domain. Objectives which describe changes ih interest, attitudes, and values, and the develop- ment of appreciation and adequate adjustment. 7. Beliefs. Any expectancy, set, or proposition which the individual accepts as true of the object or event.34 8. Class. A number of students in a college pursuing the same studies and ranked together. For the purposes of this study 12 political science classes were selected, with 20 students in each class. 1Marvin E. Shaw, Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). P. 15. 32Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 19657. p. 445? 33Philip G. Zimbardo, Influencing Attitudes and Changing_Behavior: A Basic Introdaetion to Relevant Method- oIo :. Theor and Im lications, (Reading: Mass.: ,AddiSon- WesleylPublishing Company, 1969), p. 7. 34Marvin E. Shaw, Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), p. 4. 41 9. Cegnitive Component. A person's beliefs about, or factual knowledge of, the object or person. 10. Cognitive Domain. Those objectives which deal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of the intellectual skills and abilities. 11. Composite Means. The grand total means derived ffbm the analysis of the final data. 12. Content Validity. The validity of an educational achievement test, determined by the extent to which the items in the test adequately sample the areas of subject matter and the abilities which a course of instruction has aimed to teach.36 13. Control Group. A group in an educational experi- ment that is not subject to the experimental treat- ment but is otherwise as nearly as possible like the experimental group or groups. Tests given before the experimental treatment are used to estab- lish the similarity of the control and experimental groups. Tests given to all groups after the ex- perimental treatment are used to indicate the influence of that treatment on the experimental groups.37 14. Civic Education. A division of formal education that seehs to promote political learning. The more important objectives of civic education are: (1) To increase political knowledge and so- phistication, (2) To increase political interest, (3) To increase one's sense of political efficacy. 35Philip G. Zimbardo, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior: A Basic Introduction to Relevant Methodologyz—Theoryand Implication, TReading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1969), p. 7. 36Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educatiopal Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). P. 447. 37 Ibid 0 42 (4) To increase desire to participate in politics, (5) To increase civic tolerance, (6) To decrease political cynicism. 15. Censorship. The curbing of ideas either3§n speech or in writing before they are expressed. 16. Capitalism. An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and on a sup- ply-demand market economy. Capitalism is based on the laissez-faire theory, which emphasizes the absence of governmental restraints on ownership, production, and trade.40 l7. Communism. A political, economic, and social theory 553ed on a collectivistic society in which all land and capital are socially owned and political power is exercised by the masses. Modern communism is based on the theories and practices of Karl Marx, V. I. Lenin, Josef Stalin, Nikita Krushchev, and contemporary Soviet leaders, with some new varia- tions provided by Mao Tsetung and the Chinese Com- munists. Communism in theory espouses the doctrines of historical inevitability, economic determinism, labor value, the "inner contradictions" of capi- talism, class conflict, capitalist colonialism and imperialism, world wars resulting from competition for markets, the destruction of the bourgeoisie, the dictatorship of the proletariat, the socialist revolufiion, and the final "withering away" of the state. 1 ' 18. Conservatism. Defense of the status quo against major changes in the political, econimic, or social institutions of a society. 38John J. Patrick, "Implications of Political Socialization Research for the Reform of Civic Education," Social Education, Vol. 33, 1 (January, 1969), p. 15. 39Jack C. Plano and Milton Greenberg, The American Political Dictionary, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and 40 Ibid., p. 3. 4lIbid. 421bid., p. 4. 43 19. Democracy. A system of government in which political power is exercised by the people. The term is de- rived from the Greek words "demos" (the people) and "kratos" (authority). Democracy may be direct, as practiced in ancient Athens and in New England town meetings, or indirect and representative. The Demo- cratic Creed includes the following concepts: (1) individualism, which holds that the primary task of government is to enable each individual to achieve the highest potential of development; (2) liberty, which allows each individual the greatest amount of freedom consistent with order; (3) equality, which maintains that all men are created equal and have equal rights and opportunities; and (4) fraternity, which postulates that individuals will not misuse their freedom but will cooperate in creating a wholesome society. As a political system, democracy starts with the assumption of popular sovereignty, vesting ultimate political power in the people. It presupposes that man can control his destiny, that he can make moral judgments and practical decisions in his daily life. It implies a continuing search for truth in the sense of man's pursuit of improved ways of building social institutions and ordering human relations. Democracy requires a decision- making system based on majority rule, with minority rights protected. Effective guarantees of freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, petition, and equality before the law are indispensable to a democratic system of government. Politics, parties, and politicians are the catalytic agents that make democracy workable.43 20. Dispersion. The scatter, variability, or spread of a diStribution of scores around some central value such as the mean or median. 21. Education. Experiences acquired within a formal school setting.45 43Ibid., p. 6. 44Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p. 449. 45Byron G. Massialas, Education and the Political System, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969i, p. i5. 44 22. Face Validity. A test possesses face validity if Ehe questions in it appear to measure the knowledge or ability the test is intended to measure. Psy- chologists tend to discount face validity on the ground that appearances may be deceiving. However, if the observer is perceptive and experienced, his judgment that a test possesses face validity may carry coni%derable weight as an indication that it is valid. 23. Factor Analysis. It involves the use of a variety SfimathematiCally sophisticated techniques to iden- tify a small number of hypothetical characteristics that will account for the correlations between scores on a much larger number of tests for the individuals in a particular group. 24. Gain Scores. Statistical scores derived from the subtracting of the initial mean score from the final mean score for each group. For the purposes of this study, gain scores are also known as change scores. 25. Ideolo . The "way of life" of a people reflected 1n terms of their political system, economic order, social goals, and moral values. Ideology is par- ticularly concerned with the form and role of govern- ment and the nature of a state's economic system. Ideology is the means by which the basic values held by a party, class, or group are articulated.48 26. Interaction. Effegts that one variable has upon another variable. 27. Inventory. An inventory consists of a number of questions, tasks, or other stimuli, designed more to provide a comprehensive description of some aspect of an individual's characteristics than to provide a quantitative measurement of one of those 46Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticerHall, 1965), p. 451. 47 Ibid. 48Jack C. Plano and Milton Greenberg, The American Political Dictionary, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, I967), p. 9. 49Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations pf Behavioral Researeh: Educational and Paychological Inquiry, (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965). P. 239. 45 aspects. Inventories are more commonly used in the description of interest, attitudes, or personality traits than in the measurement of intellectual achievements.50 28. Issue. A contempprarv situation with a likelihood of disagreement. For the purposes of this study Political Issues are contemporary political situa- tiOns with a likelihood of disagreement. 29. Liberalism. A political view that seeks to change Ehe political, economic, or social status quo to foster the development and well-being of the indi- vidual. Liberals regard man as a rational creature who can use his intelligence to overcome human and natural obstacles to a good life for all, without resorting to violence against the established order. Liberalism is more concerned with process, with the method of solving problems, than with a specific program.5 30. Mean. A measure of the central tendency or of the average humerical value of a set of scores. It is calculated by adding all of the egores and dividing the sum by the number of scores. 31. Measurement. A process of assigning numbers to the ihdiViduaI—members of a set of objects or persons for the purpose of indicating differences among them in the degree to which they possess the charac- teristic being measured. If any characteristic of persons or things can be defined clearly enough so observed differences between them with respect to this characteristic can be consistently verified, the characteristic is measurable. A more refined type of measurement involves comparison of some characteristic of a thing with a preestablished standard scale for measuring that characteristic. 4 50Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hail, 1965), p. 453. 51Bernard C. Hennessy, Public Opinion, (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1965), p. 98. 52Jack C. Plano and Milton Greenberg, The American Eglitical Dictionary. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 10. 53Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewood Cliifs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). P. 454. 54Ibid. 46 32. Measures. Tests utilized for the purpose of measure- ment. In this study, 11 major tests were employed to measure attitudes and achievement of students. 33. Metric. Pertaining to measurement. For the pur- poses of this study, placing the scores in a common metric (Chapter IV.) refers to changing the test results to a basic range of scores for purposes of analysis. 34. Minority Group. A group relatively small in numbers Withisome feeling of group coherence and a specific pattern of interaction with the rest of the popu- lation. 35. Nationalism. Social and psychological forces that spring from unique cultural and historical factors to provide unity and inspiration to a given people through a sense of belonging together and of shared values. Nationalism binds together people who possess common cultural, linguistic, racial, his- torical, or geographical characteristics or ex- periences and who give their loyalty to the same political group. 36. Opinions. An overt expression of favorability or unfavorability toward some issue.57 37. Political Attitudes. Basic attitudes of individuals toward the political system.5 55William Petersen, "Prejudice in American Society: A Critique of Some Recent Formulations," Commentary, Vol. XXVI (October, 1958), p. 345. 56Jack C. Plano and Milton Greenberg, The American Political Dictionary, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 330. 57Don C. Smith, "Cognitive Consistency and the Per- ceptions of Others Opinions," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XXXII, 1 (Spring, 1968), p. 1. 58Byron G. Massialas, Education and the Political System, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969), p. 63. 47 38. Political Science. Political science studies the political system and, where they exist, the insti- tutions of government around which it centers. It is concerned with the authoritative decision-making of the political system and with all of the processes and activities by which a society makes those de- cisions, chooses men to make them, and influences those who have been chosen. Its concern ranges from the individual's political interests and aware- ness to the complex operation of large political institutions. Its prime focus is on the processes of policymaking in the political system and on any activity that attempts to influence it. Political science, then, as it is practiced and professed in the United States, studies this political system. It examines it, furthermore, from four perspectives: 1. It studies the processes, behavior, and in- stitutions of political systems in order to make systematic generalizations and explanations about the political. 2. It seeks generalizations about relations among political systems, especially the politics of nations in the international system. 3. It studies the end products, the public policies, of the political processes. 4. It studies, finally, ideas and doctrines about government and the political system, ideas such as the concepts of and justifications for de- mocracy, justice, and equality. 39. Political Socialization. It is the process by which a person internaiizes the norms and values of the political system. 40. Political System. Any persistent pattern of human relationships that involve:1 to a significant extent, power, rule, or authority. 59Frank J. Sorauf, Perspectives on Political Science, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, 1966). pp. 5 and 7. 60Byron G. Massialas, Education and the Political System, (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969i? pp. 20 and 61Robert A. Dahl, Modern Political Analysis, (Engle- wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963). P. 6. 48 41. Predisposition. A hypothetical state of the or- ganism which, when activated by a stimulus, causes a person to respond selectivelyé affectively, or preferentially to the stimulus. 2 42. Prejudice. An unfavorable attitude--a predisposi- tion to perceive, act, think, and feel in ways that are against rather than for another person or group. 43. Radical.' An advocate of substantial political, social, and economic changes. Although no precise use of the term exists, a radical is generally re- garded as a leftist who is extreme in his demands for change.6 44. Semester. A.major division of the regular annual ——I_. - o . . sess1on 1n many educat1onal 1nst1tut1ons. For the purposes of this study, the semester was 16 weeks, and the experiment was conducted during two se- mesters. 45. Significance. The minimum criterion for establish- ing that a given result is due to treatment effects rather than chance fluctuations (error variance) in the observations. 46. Split-Halves Reliability Coefficient. It is ob- tained by using one-half of the items on the test, sometimes the odd-numbered items, to yield one score for an examinee.and the other half of the. items to yield another, independent score. The correlation between the scores on these two 62MiltonRokeach, "Attitude Change and Behavior Change," Public Opinion gearterly, Vol. XXX (Winter, 1966), p. 530. 63Theodore M. Newcombe, Social Psychology, (1950), pp. 574-575. 64Jack C. Plano and Milton Greenberg, The American Political Dictionary, (new York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967i, p.5I3. 65Philip G. Zimbardo, Influencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior: _A Basic Introdpction to Relevant Method- ology: Theory and Implications, (Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley PubliShing Company, 1969), p. 134. 49 half-tests, corrected with the aid of the Spearman- Brown formula, provides an estimate of the relia- bility of the total test.66 47. Test-Retest Reliability. It is calculated by cor- relating scores for the same students on two admin- istrations of the same test. The size of a test-retest reliability coefficient indicates not only the precision of measurement of the test, but also the stability of the trait being measured. Test-retest reliability coefficients do not indi- cate how adequately or representatively the items in the test sample the whole field to be covered by the test. Hence, retest reliability coefficients are usually higher than equivalent forms reliability coefficients. In general, the greater the interval of time between test and retest, the lower the re- test reliability coefficient will be. Because of practice effects and the difficulty in maintaining motivation when examinees are asked to take the same test the second time, retest reliability co- efficients are calculated less frequently than other types.67 48. Treatment. The independent variables manipulated by the experimenter. For the purposes of this study, treatment methods refer to the political science teaching methods. (Lecture, Debate, and Campaign). 49. Values. Primitive preferences for or a positive attitude toward certain end-stages of existence or certain broad modes of conduct. 50. Validit . The validity of a test is often defined as the Uegree to which it measures what it purports to measure, or as the extent to which a test does the job for which it is intended. Reliability is. a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity. The validity of an achievement test 66Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educatiopal Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). p. 464. 67 Ibid., p. 467. 68Walter Borg, Edueational Research: An Introduct- tion, (New York: David McKay Company, 1963), p. 289. 69Daryl J. Bem, Beliefs,_Attitudes,Jand Human Affairs, (Belmont: Broo 5 Cole Puhiishing Company, 1970), p. 16. 50 depends not only on the reliability of the scores it yields, but also on the extent to which the con- tent of the test represents a balanced and appro- priate set of tasks sampling the outcomes of the course or instructional program. For some types of tests for which good independent criterion measures are available, statistical coefficients of validity can be obtained. These are coeffi- cients of correlation between scores on the test and the criterion measures. 51. Variable. A symbol to which numerals or values are ass1gned. An independent variable is the variable manipulated by the experimenter. An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the presumed effect_7 and is the variable that is not manipu- lated. 1 52. Variance. The variance is a measure of the dis- pers1on of scores about their mean. The variance is the mean of the squared deviations of the scores from their mean. Hence, is is equal to the square of the standard deviation. 2 53. Z-score. A z-score is a standard score. In a com- plete distribution of z-scores, the mean is zero and the standard deviation 1. Raw scores are con- verted into z-scores by subtracting the mean from the raw score and dividing the difference by the standard deviation. Thus, z-scores are equally likely to be positive or negative. They ordinarily range from about -3 to about +3. To avoid the loss of too much precision in converting raw scores to z-scores, the z-scores are ordinarily expressed to tenths or hundredths of the standard deviation unit. If a z-score is multiplied by 10 and added to 50, the result is another kind of standard score, some- times designated as a "Z-score." 70Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educatiopal Achievement, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1955), p. 468. 71Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundationg'of Behavioral Research: Educational and PsychologicalInquiry, (New ‘Yorke Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965), pp. 32, 39. 72 Ibid. 73Ibid., p. 469. 51 J. Summary An experimental study was conducted investigating the effects of teaching methods in political science upon the attitudes of 240 community college students at School— craft Community College during the Fall Term, 1970, and the Winter Term, 1971. The purposes of the study included an exploration of the direction and type of attitude change, and the amount of achievement change. Mean scores were com- pared between all groups, to determine if significant dif- ferences resulted in the attitude and achievement scores, as a result of using the different instructional methods. To prepare the data for the repeated measures analysis of variance of the index of response, it was neces- sary to calculate the gain scores for each class on each dependent variable. Each of the eleven tests were in a different metric, so in order to carry out the analysis of variance, the gain scores were placed in a comparable metric. To accomplish this task, each gain score was divided by the square root of the average within cell variance, on the appropriate variable. Utilizing the results-of this data, the analysis of variance was then conducted. CHAPTER IV STATI STICAL ANALYS IS A. Preparation of Data for Analysis Chapter IV presents results of the repeated measures analysis of variance of the index of response. To prepare the data for this analysis, it was necessary to calculate the gain score for each class on each dependent variable. (See Tables) Each of the eleven tests are in a different metric, so in order to carry out the analysis of variance, the gain scores were placed in a comparable metric. To accomplish this task, each gain score was divided by the square root of the average within cell variance, on the appropriate variable. Utilizing the results of these data, the analysis of variance was then conducted. B. Analysis of Variance Utilizing the results of the data previously de- scribed, the repeated measures analysis of variance of the index of response was then conducted. The results of this analysis of variance are indicated in table 14. 52 53 Table 2. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on achievement of community college students. Average Average Change Semester Method *Class Initial Final (Final- Score+ Score Initial) Lecture A 35.10 46.05 +10.95 a B 38.95 47.55 +8.60 Fall Debate C 32.00 41.45 +9.45 D 32.25 41.25 +9.00 Campaign E 41.05 48.60 +7.55 F 35.55 46.75 +11.20 Lecture G 35.00 42.25 +7.25 H 38.60 50.90 +12.30 Winter Debate I 35.15 42.40 +7.25f, J 33.60 45.15 +11.55 Campaign K 33.50 42.15 +8.65 L 32.45 41.95 +9.50 g; *The total sample from each class included 20 students. +The total possible score was 100. chance level score was 25. The ._See Chapter III for a complete description of the teaching methods. 54 Table 3. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of community college students: Attitude I: Support of the constitution of the United States *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 5.65 5.86 +.21 B 5.67 5.54 -.13 Debate C 6.05 5.95 -.10 D 5.66 5.89 +.23 Campaign E 5.69 5.89 +.20 F 5.42 5.59 +.17 Lecture G 5.54 5.86 +.32 H 5.87 5.85 -.02 Debate I 5.62 6.04 +.42 J 6.08 5.90 -.18 Campaign K 5.96 5.67 -.29 L 5.26 5.29 +.03 *A high score indicates a favorable attitude toward the present Constitution. national score is 5.7. The average 55 Table 4. Effect of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of community college students: Attitude II: Nationalism *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 55.45 46.95 -8.50 B 48.80 48.05 -.75 Fall Debate C 63.95 52.20 -ll.75 D 60.65 49.90 -ll.75 Campaign E 55.70 47.75 -7.95 F L 62060 47070 -14090 Lecture G 49.90 49.65 -.25 - H 49.05 51.00 +1.95 Winter Debate I 48.40 45.85 -2.55 J 49.85 51.80 +1.95 Campaign K 50.45 49.35 -l.10 L 46.55 45.15 -1.40 *The higher the score (above 51), the more favorable your attitude is toward nation- alism; the lower the score (below 51), the less favorable. Scores range from 1 to 107. Average national score = 51. 56 Table 5. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude III: Support of the Church *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score. Initial) Lecture A 4.60 5.01' +.41 B _5.06 5.44 +.38 Fall Debate C 3.97 4.15 +.18 D 4.53 4.50 -.03 campaign E' 5.03 4.97 -006 i F 4.57 4.47 -.10 Lecture G 5.50 5.77 +.27 H 4.58 4.86 +.28 Winter Debate I 5.23 5.62 +.39 J 4.41 4.47 +.06 Campaign K 4.68 5.01 +.33 L 5.45 5.95 +.50 *A high score indicates an unfavorable attitude. toward the Church. The average national score 5.6. 57 Table 6. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude IV: Support of Capitalism and Free Enterprise *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 55.35 56.15 +.80 B 54.15 53.80 . -.35 Fall Debate C 55.95 54.95 -1.00 D 56.20 55.25 -.95 Campaign E 56.15 56.95 +.80 F 58.20 56.45 -1.75 Lecture G 57.40 58.15 +.75 H 58.30 58.15 -.15 Winter Debate I 54.05 56.50 +2.45 J 58.15 58.95 +.80 Campaign K 58.85 57.90 -.95 L 54.70 54.50 -.20 *The possible score is 95. A high score indicates support of capitalism and free enterprise. 58 Table 7. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude V: Internationalism *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 55.10 57.90 +2.80 B 57.05 55.00 -2.05 Fall Debate C 53.95 55.25 +1.30 D 57.45 56.85 -.50 Campaign E 57.85 59.65 +1.80 F 56.50 58.20 +1.70 Lecture G 56.35 56.95 +.60 A H 55.65 56.55 +.90 Winter Debate I 58.35 60.20 +1.85 ' J 55.05 53.35 -l.70 Campaign K 59.75 56.30 -3.45 L 57.75 58.50 +.75 *Scores range from 16 to 80. A low score indicates hostility toward other nations (and a feeling of nationalism), whereas a high score indicates friendliness toward other nations (and a feeling of internationalism.) 59 g Table 8. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude VI: Support of the law *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) B 5.95 5.76 -.19 Fall Debate C 6.55 6.55 .00 D 6.46 6036 -.10 Campaign E 5.92 6.31 +.39 F 6.22 5.94 -.28 Lecture G 6066 6020 -046 H 6.25 6.63 +.38 J 6036 6.30 -006 Campaign K 6.74 6.12 -.62 L 6.02 6.17 +.15 *A high score indicates a favorable attitude toward the law. is 5.8. The average national score 60 Table 9. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude VII: Support of Communism *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 4.35 4.48 +.13 B 4.66 4.50 -.16 Fall Debate C 4.46 4.18 -.28 D 4.60 4.73 +.13 Campaign E 4.29 4.56 +.27 AA F 4.57 4.95 +.38 Lecture G 4.47 4.78 +.3l H 4.42 4.61 +.19 Winter Debate I 4.50 4.55 +.05 J 4.61 4.74 +.13 Campaign K 4.22 4.26 +.04 L 4.95 4.81 -.14 *A high score indicates a favorable attitude The average national score toward Communism. is 5.7. 61 Table 10. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude VIII: criminals Support of punishment of Change *Average Average Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- .1_ 1 Score Score Initial) Lecture A 4'51 4-25 “.35 B 4.27 4.17 -.10 Fall Debate C 4'76 4°55 “~11 D 4.59 4.66 +.07 Campaign E 4'55 4-'3 --12 I; F 4.35 4.35 .00 Lecture G 4'72 4-30 --42 H 4-39 4.31 -.08 Winter Debate I 4'24 4'11 ”~13 J 4.96 4.69 -.27 Campaign K 4.74 4.77 +.03 ‘ : L 4.12 3.87 -.25 *A high score indicates a favorable attitude toward the punishment of criminals. average national score is 5.6. The 62 Table 11. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude IX: Support of censorship Average *Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 4.14 4.38 +.24 B 4.22 4.01 -.21 D 4.76 4.53 -.23 Campaign E 4.11 4.00 -.11 ‘ F 4.25 3.99 -.26 Lecture G 4.77 4.01 -.76 H 4.17 3.84 -.33 Winter Debate I 4'19 4'13 -°06 J 4.62 4.21 -.41 Campaign K 4.54 4.44 -.10 L 3.82 3.63 -.19 *A high score indicates a favorable attitude Average national score toward censorship. is 5.0. 63 Table 12. Effects of three methods in teaching political science courses on political attitudes of com- munity college students: Attitude X: Scale of libera1*conservative civic beliefs *Average Average Change Semester Method Class Initial Final (Final- Score Score Initial) Lecture A 166.10 167.85 +1.75 B 165.45 164.70 -.75 Fall Debate C 153.30 177.30 +24.00 D 168.95 171.05 +2.10 Campaign E 162.50 167.65 +5.15 F' 173.50 181.00 +7.50 Lecture G 169.35 179.15 +9.80 H 175.10 175.10 .00 Winter Debate I 163.05 163.55 +.50‘ J 175.25 178.50 +3.25 Campaign R 163.65 171.60 +7.95 L 155.35 163.05 +8.70 T *Scores range from 60 to 300. indicates conservatism. A high score 64 unnamed: u z mmmao n o umumoEmm n m ucoEumeB n 9 «Ho HHU mm m m oao A: AMBEmoV m0 Hm mo >0 mm mu Awamnwov mo am we v0 mo mm «0 Awppuoqu Ho am He HHS OH: as m: as. m2 .m2 «2 ms «2 Hz cmwmmc ogu mo coaumfluomon .ma manna mp\mm u m: 65 unmowmwcwwmnsoz u .m.z mmmao n o oeumu m u m ousmmme u z moumovm came u m: “mummEom u m moumsvm mo neon H mm ucoEumoHu u a memom.a mom.nm~ mm Hma Hmuoe mvmwa.o mem.wm m cm menu: .m.z va.muo.~m vhmm.a mmwnn.a hhm.mm m on Ema .m.z mm.mnm.am omom.m mmamo.m ma~.om H oH Sm .m.z ea.muo.mm mwme.H emwoe.a mma.m~ m on 29 mmo.vm mQ..mwm mm.mnm .Hm oamo.oa Haemv.m Hem.em H OH 2 ommom.H mmm.m m m menu .m.z ea.mnm.mm mmmv.o mommm.o mam.H N m we .m.z mm.mum.am Hoo~.o mommm.o -m.o H H m .m.z va.mflo.~m mmhm.o mmmom.o mo~.H m m 9 mo. up oaumm Apmumpnemv coaumaum> m m coanma m m: mm mm no mo moousom .mHQMB mosmwum> mo mwmhamcd meanness coummmmm .vH manna 66 C. Interpretation of Analysis of Variance To interpret the results of the analysis of variance, 7 null hypotheses were tested. The hypotheses are the following: Ho 1: There will be no significant difference among the treatment groups. Ho 2: There will be no significant difference be- tween semesters. Ho 3: There will be no significant treatment by semester interaction. Ho 4: There will be no significant difference among the measures. Ho 5: There will be no significant treatment by measures interaction. Ho 6: There will be no significant semester by measures interaction. Ho 7: There will be no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. Differences Amqu The Treatment Groups The first null hypothesis stated: Ho 1: There will be no significant difference among the treatment groups. At the .05 level of significance, the null hy- pothesis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 0.3753 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with 2 and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.14.) 67 Differences Between Semesters The second null hypothesis stated: Ho 2: There will-be no significant difference be- tween‘semesters. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 0.2001 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with l and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.99.) Interaction Between Treatment & Semester The third null hypothesis stated: Ho 3: There will be no significant treatment by semester interaction. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of. 0.4338 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with 2 and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.14.) Differences Among the Measures The fourth null hypothesis stated: Ho 4: There will be no significant difference among the measures. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 10.0310 did exceed the tabled F ratio (F with l and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.99.) 68 Interaction Between Treatment and Measures The fifth null hypothesis stated: Ho 5: There will be no significant treatment by measures interaction. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 1.4928 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with 2 and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.14.) Interaction Between Semester and Measures The sixth null hypothesis stated: Ho 6: There will be no significant semester by measures interaction. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 3.2060 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with l and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.99.) Interaction Among Treatment, Semester, and Measures The seventh null hypothesis stated: Ho 7: There will be no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. At the .05 level of significance, the null hypoth- esis could not be rejected. The calculated F ratio of 11.8874 did not exceed the tabled F ratio (F with 2 and 6 degrees of freedom at the .05 level = 5.14.) 69 D. Composite Means The composite treatment group means (based on the z scores) were 1.892, (T1 = Lecture); 1.703, (T2 = Debate), and 1.918 (T3 = Campaign). The composite means for each semester were 1.887 (81 = Semester 1); and 1.788 (82 = Semester 2). The composite treatment by measures means (based on the z scores) are indicated in Table 15. (See Table 15) The overall composite mean was 1.837. E. Summary Chapter IV was a presentation of the findings of the study in narrative and tabular form. The first null hypothesis (Ho = 0) was not re- jected--i.e., statistical analysis showed no difference among the treatment groups. An F statistic of 0.3753 was obtained which was not significant at the .05 level of significance. Results were presented in Table 14. The second null hypothesis (Ho 2 = 0) was not re- jected--i.e., statistical analysis showed no difference between semesters. An F statistic of 1.2001 was obtained which was not significant at the .05 level of significance. The third null hypothesis (Ho 3 = 0) was also not rejected--i.e., statistical analysis showed no interaction differences between treatment and semester. An F statistic of 0.4338 was obtained which was not significant at the .05 level of significance. 70 amflmmEmo fl m9 unnamed: u E mumnwn NB musuoon u as .ucofiumwne n a oao.H ~mm.o mpp.o omm.~ smm.~ oo~.m opos.H opo.~ mao.~ p-.H smm.m me opo.H ~5H.H ~mm.o ~oa.~ mps.o mom.a mmo.~ mam.a om~.~ mmm.~ amo.s Np mmv.o oo~.~ omm.H msm.~ mam.H ~pm.a som.o swa.~ mmm.o OHN.H m-.s Ha Ha: as: a: as as as ms 42 m2 «2 Hz .msmmz monommwz.mn ucmaumwue muflmomsoo .mH manna 71 The fourth hypothesis (Ho 4 =.0) was rejected at the .05 level of significance and an F statistic was obtained of 10.0310. The hypothesis that there is_significant differ- ence among the measures was accepted. The fifth hypothesis (Ho 5 = 0) was not rejected,-- i.e., statistical analysis showed no significant treatment by measures.interaction. An F statistic of 1.4928 was ob- tained which was not significant at the .05 level of sig- nificance. The sixth hypothesis (Ho 6 = 0) was not rejected,-— i.e., statistical analysis showed no significant semester by measures interaction. An F statistic of 3.2060 was obtained which was not significant at the..05 level of significance. The seventh hypothesis (Ho 7 =.0) was not rejected,-- i.e., statistical analysis showed no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. An F statistic of 1.8874 was obtained which was not significant at the .05 level of significance. Results were presented in Table 14. The composite treatment group means (based on the z scores) were 1.892, (T1 = Lecture), 1.703, (T2 = Debate), and 1.918 (T3 = Campaign). The composite means for each' semester were 1.887 (81 = Semester) and 1.788 (82 =~Se- mester 2). The overall composite mean was 1.837. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In this chapter, previous chapters are summarized, conclusions are listed, discussion of the research is pre- sented, and the implications for future research are stated. A. Summary In Chapter I, the problem of the degree to which formal education changes people's attitudes toward politi- cal issues and minority groups, was examined. The primary impact of education upon attitude change was viewed as a vehicle for reducing a provincial outlook and weakening primitive misconceptions. However, investigations in the study of attitude change have resulted in a limited amount of success. The purpose of the study was that of investi- gating the effects of teaching methods in political science courses upon community college student attitudes toward political issues and minority groups. Another purpose of the study was that of exploring the effects of teaching methods in political science courses upon the achievement of community college students. 72 73 The study's importance was built upon a need to in- vestigate the effects of teaching methods in political science courses, upon the attitudinal and achievement change of students, primarily for two reasons. First, substantial improvements in instructional methods and course objectives could be accomplished through such an analysis. Second, an assessment could be made to determine if they contribute significantly to the teaching of values in an American de- mocracy. The theory emphasized that relatively little in- formation combined with a high degree of involvement seems to be most conducive to bringing about a disposition to action and elicits low prejudice. In addition, during the first years of college, the impact of the formal curriculum has particular effect on student attitudes toward political issues and minority groups. The content of undergraduate social science courses, sociology, anthropology, political science, and psychology, all have significant effects on fashioning attitudes. The following hypotheses were formulated: H1: There will be significant difference among the treatment groups. H2: There will be significant difference between semesters. H3: There will be significant treatment by semester interaction. H4: There will be significant difference among the measures. H5: There will be significant treatment by measures interaction. 74 H6: There will be significant semester by measures interaction. H7: There will be significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. Chapter II.is a review of the literature in which the impact of formal education, political science courses, and teaching methods.upon.attitude change were presented. Research sources in each of these areas were cited. Studies based upon literature treating the effects of formal edu- cation, political science courses, and teaching methods upon attitude change were compared. The possible relationship between teaching methods and attitude change was established on the basis of studies discussed. Chapter III outlined and presented the research de- sign and methodology. The design consisted of 3 treatment methods, (Traditional Lecture, Debate, and Campaign), 2 Semesters (Fall, 1970, and Winter, 1971), 12 classes, (Po- litical Science Classes) 11 major tests, and 240 students. The study was conducted at Schoolcraft Community College in Livonia, Michigan. The tests measured attitudes of community college students toward political issues, and achievement of students in the content of an introductory political science course. Chapter IV outlined and presented the preparation of the data for analysis and the subsequent statistical analysis. A repeated measures analysis of variance on the index of response was conducted. 75 Findings resulted in failure to reject all of the null hypotheses, with the exception of the fourth. In null form the hypotheses are stated: Hol: There will be no significant difference among the treatment groups. H02: There will be no significant difference be- tween semesters. H03: There will be no significant treatment by semester interaction. H04. There will be no significant difference among the measures. H05: There will be no significant treatment by measures interaction. H06: There will be no significant semester by measures interation. H07: There will be no significant treatment by semester by measures interaction. For the repeated measures analysis of variance, the alpha level was set at .05. Statistical findings were pre- sented in tabular form and analyzed in Chapter IV. B. Conclusions This study has led to several conclusions based upon the theory presented in the first chapter: 1. No statistical differences were found to exist among the treatment groups. The three methods (Lecture, Debate, and Campaign) in the teaching of political science courses did not differ sig- nificantly in their effects upon attitude change. 2. No statistical differences were found to exist between semesters. The experimental results were relatively the same for both semesters. 76 3. No statistical treatment by semester interaction was found to exist. 4. Significant statistical differences were found to exist among the measures. 5. No significant treatment by measures interaction was found to exist. 6. No significant semester by measures interaction was found to exist. 7. No significant treatment by semester by measures interaction was found to exist. The three treatment methods (Lecture, Debate, and Campaign) in the teaching of political science courses did not differ significantly in their effects upon attitude change or achievement of the participating community college students. Attitude change was produced, but the results did not prove to be statistically significant among the treatment groups. C. Discussion In Chapters I and II, the theory was presented that relatively little information combined with a high degree of participation seems to be most conducive to bringing about a disposition to action and elicits low prejudice. Active participation was claimed to be more productive in producing attitude change as Opposed to the passive approach which produced relatively little, if any, attitude change. This study demonstrates that relatively minor differences exist among the three teaching methods. Although two of the three 77 treatment methods were participation oriented, (the debate and the campaign) nevertheless, they were not found to be of greater significance, statistically, than the passive ori- ented treatment method. (The Lecture) This study does not appear to support the conclusions of Paul DeKock. He claimed that simulations produce atti- tude change, but the results of this study do not appear to provide significant statistical proof to allow for this conclusion.~ It appears that this experiment probably yields evidence to support John J. Patrick's conclusion that formal instructional programs in civic education have little or no impact upon political attitudes and values. An examination of the study reveals some of the factors that might have resulted in the above conclusion. Perhaps the content of an introductory political science course does not have the full impact upon attitude change as claimed by Paul Lazarsfeld. Another possibility is that the treatment methods do not produce the expected attitude change due to the stabilizing effect of the content being held constant during this study. The content might have become a more potent force in reinforcing fixed attitudes and acted as a countervailing variable against the treatment methods. Ultimately, the results produced would be less significant in the area of attitude change. Another factor should be considered in this analysis. The cognitive structure of the attitudes within the 78 individual subjects might have been a causal factor for these findings. Most of the material presented in the controver- sial section of the political science course focused atten- tion upon arguments, about current topics, both affirmative and negative. When a person is confronted with this new information, two Opposing forces appear to be operating. One force is to incorporate all new input; another and con- flicting force is to maintain already existing information without modification, that is to maintain the existing cognitive organization. If the unorganized condition exists, then the conflict between these two forces would be rela- tively weak for the reason that little change in the cogni- tive organization would be necessary for input to be readily incorporated. However, as in this study, the value systems of the students appeared to exist in an organized condition; and if any of the elements of the structure had changed and become inconsistent with other elements, then a reorgani- zation of the entire structure would have been necessitated. Low intensity stimuli, provided by the three teaching methods in political science, were not incorporated because of the great changes that would have been required within the or- ganized structure. The input, of the treatment methods, was not sufficiently strong to outweigh the force to main- tain the structure as is. Other forces that appear to maintain the cognitive structure of attitudes also seemed to be operating. The 79 students not only retained highly structured intense at- titudes to begin with, but many of their reactions to new information might have been secretly unfavorable, especially when controversial issues appeared to be abnormal. This would result in less attitude change, because the amount of attitude change toward the source in a favorable direction is directly proportional to the degree of favorableness of the original attitude toward the concept, when the assertion is favorable; but is inversely proportional when the as- sertion is unfavorable. Another personality process that appears to main- tain the cognitive structure 0f attitudes is object apprai- sal. The students were judging the controversial issues in terms of their relevance to their own motives and interest. Probably it is very difficult to appraise each new issue afresh in all its complexity. Individual appraisal of the arguments surrounding the controversial t0pics did not re- sult in the conclusion, on the part of most students, that these issues were of significant importance to their own interests and enterprises. Such a conclusion might involve reality testing, and most students lack the desire to at- tempt such a behavior. The student attitudes not only embody a provisional object appraisal, but they also serve to mediate the kind of conception of self that the individual is motivated to maintain. Mediation ofself-other relationships, as a per- sonality process, reduces attitude change considerably. It 80 is essentially the conformity element that exists in a ma- jority of attitude structures. Such motivation, by orienting the student toward an ideal reference group, may make him relatively independent of immediate pressures such as the three teaching methods in political science. Closely connected with the mediation of self-other relationships, is the influence of ego defense mechanisms upon a majority of the students. This motive is demonstrated when an essentially weak ego puts up a facade of strength that requires bolstering through identification with the strong, the conventional, and the in-group; and rejection of the weak, the immoral, the out-group. In any event, object appraisal, the mediation of selféother relationships, and the influence of ego-defense mechanisms may have a major effect upon student attitudes. The unique way in which the student views particular political situations probably bears the mark of the individual's stylistic traits of personality as well as of the purposes they serve for him. Another process_should be mentioned in an analysis of the results of this study. The students apparently ex-. perienced the acquisition of dissonant cognitions while studying the arguments surrounding the controversial issues. Dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) postulates that incon- sistent cognitions result in tension and that individuals attempt to reduce this tension by reducing this inconsis- tency. Regardless of the method employed in the teaching 81 of political science, the presence of new arguments appar- ently produced feelings of tension within the attitude struc- ture of the students; and they attempted to reduce this tension by alleviating the inconsistency in the controversial arguments. This is especially the case when new arguments conflict with the broader values adhered to by a majority of the society. However, dissonance theory predicts more attitude change when the subjects are under high involve- ment. Results of this experiment do not indicate that evi- dence can be advanced to support this claim. Satisfaction might_havewbeen listed as one of the components within the personality processes that produced the statistical results of this study. Within the self- perception concept, of a majority of the students, rested a feeling of satisfaction, while relating new attitudes to their more traditional attitude structures. They failed to perceive any necessity or desire to change in the light of new arguments and new issues. Manipulation of teaching methods in political science provided relatively minor threats to their self esteem. Another process of attitude change, that could possibly explain the results of this study, is internali- zation. Internalization can be said to occur when an indi- vidual accepts influence because the content of the induced behavior is intrinsically rewarding. In this case, the results of the experiment indicate that the students may 82 have failed to internalize the new attitudes gained by the manipulation of the teaching methods. They perhaps felt that the controversial issues and the resulting new atti- tudes, were not intrinsically rewarding or congruent with their value systems. Perhaps the quantity of stimuli in the form of a great number of new arguments presented to the students produced less attitude change. The time element played an important role in limiting the effects of the persuasive communication. One of the key elements in the attitude change situation is that ample time must be provided to stimulate the individual to think both Of his initial Opinion and the new Opinion recommended in the communi- cation. Apparently, the experiment included such a wide variety Of controversial issues that the student attitude structures were overwhelmed by the new material. They may have lacked the time to incorporate rehearsal variables necessary to bring about significant attitude change. Group factors could also tend to diminish attitude change. Peer groups in the college community might produce attitude conformity; and since this type of group member- ship is extremely valued, the effects could be particu- larly reinforcing. Both the valuation Of membership and knowledge of group norms appeared to make the students more resistant to counternorm persuasion. 83 Possibly, the involvement of the students in the simulation methods, (debate and campaign) focused their anxiety on the mechanics of debates and campaigns, to such an extent, that their attention was drawn away from the con- tent of the controversial issues they were presenting. The passive controls, established in the traditional lecture groups, might have resulted in students attending more to the content of the arguments, since public speaking was not of concern to them. This would account for the equalizing effects, produced statistically by the three methods, when an analysis of the participation variable is evaluated. Superiority of active over passive exposure was not found to exist, primarily because the attention of the students in the simulation groups probably was focused upon the mechanics of debates and campaigns rather than the content Of the controversial issues. Their anxiety during the par- ticipation process was directed toward procedure as Opposed to substance. However, this anxiety appears to be produced by the students themselves; and the fear of these methods was artificial. The instructor deliberately avoided anxiety threats by stressing a minimum of perfection in the pre- sentation of the speeches in the simulation groups. Another force that appears to maintain the structure of attitudes is the lack of environmental support for °Pinion change. Student attitudes might have been changed 84 briefly, through the momentary impact of the persuasive communication of the three teaching methods in political science; but this change, all by itself is inherently un- stable, and will disappear unless environmental or behavioral change can be brought about to support and maintain it. Other influences, such as the community, the family, and the church provided for the maintenance of the structure of at- titudes that originally were held by most of the students. Thus, prior training of the students could have established a number of pretreatment variables which would act as sta- bilizing forces in resisting persuasion attempts. One possible conclusion is that both simulation methods produced greater motivation in the students. (De- bate and Campaign Methods) If this were proven, it would support the research Of Metcalf, Cherryholmes, and Festinger. However, the achievement scores reported in Chapter IV do not support this conclusion. One might suspect that simu- lations do produce greater motivation from surface evalua- tion, but the statistical evidence does not prove this to be an accepted fact. Although the evidence indicates a lack of statis- tical significance in producing attitude change, it is in- teresting to observe some of the directional changes Of attitudes reported in Chapter IV. One observation can be made regarding-the direction of change of attitudes toward nationalism. A majority Of the classes moved toward a more 85 liberal approach to nationalism,--i.e., they became less favorable toward nationalism, as reported in Table 4. This observation appears to support Edgar Litt's conclusion that civic education appears to influence students away from "chauvinism". Another Observation is that a majority of the classes changed in their support of the church. Most of the scores indicate a tendency Of an unfavorable atti- tude toward the church in the directional change as in- dicated in Table 5. A third observation reveals an interesting direc- tional change in the scale Of liberal-conservative civic beliefs, as reported in Table 12. In this scale, the directional change of an overwhelming majority of classes leaned toward the acceptance of conservatism. The students appear to continue in their acceptance Of moderate values as the above trend seems to indicate. The second major conclusion focused attention upon the semester variable. No statistical differences were found to exist between semesters. The experimental results relatively the same for both semesters. It is particularly interesting to notice the composite means for each semester, 1.887 for Semester I and 1.788 for Semester II, as reported in Chapter IV. These results appear to support the relia- bility of the experiment. Also, no statistical treatment by semester interaction was found to exist which tends to 86 support the reliability of the experiment. The same pattern of scores resulted in both semesters for the 3 treatment methods. The fourth major conclusion focuses attention upon the measures variable. Significant statistical differences were found to exist among the measures. This conclusion was expected, and it demonstrates the fact that each of the measures differed from the others. It was a natural and necessary statistical result, because one of the major pur- poses Of the.selection of the 11 tests was to insure the testing of a wide variety of political attitudes. Further- more, it supports the breadth and width of the design of the study on the measures variable. Conclusions 5, 6, and 7 indicate that interaction among the semester, measures, and treatment variables was not significant. All evidence appears to indicate that the same type of pattern results emerged regardless of the interaction of the 3 variables mentioned above. This con- clusion provides additional support for the reliability Of the experiment. D. Implications for Future Research One of the positive features of the design of this study was the use of 10 controversial issues and 10 units of study in an introductory course in political science. Most Of the research specialists agree that this design measured 87 a wide variety of attitudes within the belief patterns of community college students. However, future research might concern itself with attitude molecules, isolated within or- ganized attitude structures Of the individuals, rather than attempting to measure the total ideology of groups. Types Of issues selected for the experiment involved attitudes which were susceptible to modification through communication. However, future research might concern it- self with an increased number of exposures to arguments, in an attempt to explore the effects of several reinforcement variables upon attitude change. A very likely possibility-is that the students be- came involved in the mechanics Of debates and simulation, to such an extent, that the participation variable became a stability factor rather than a catalytic agent. A future study might concentrate upon the selection of students with the mechanical skills in debating and campaigning for the experimental groups. Another type of future research might be conducted in the area Of reality testing of the information gained in the process of studying political science. Students could be given an Opportunity to test many of their new beliefs by being allowed to join a variety of political groups, or writing political essays, or by demonstrating some other form of political behavior. 88 Future research might concern itself with the satis- faction variable, and its effects upon attitude change. A possible strategy would be if the experimenter differentially administered social rewards and punishments, for the pur- pose Of varying the satisfaction variable, under conditions in which the teaching methods were held constant. One of the positive features Of the design Of this study was the use of two semesters, allowing for the 0p- portunity to compare the results of the experiment, during two time periods. This approach should be continued in future research to insure the reliability of these experi- ments. Psychologists could explore the effects of person- ality processes upon attitude change in future research. Some test should be developed to measure the traits Of students to determine their personality processes with Spe- cial emphasis upon an analysis of ego defense mechanisms. Future research could determine the amount of change within the personality structures of individuals and their effects upon political attitudes. An Obvious need exists for a more comprehensive theory analyzing the major components of a framework for the understanding of the relationships be- tween personality and politics. Psychologists need to explore the functions of at- titudes as a specific target of study. An interesting focus 89 of inquiry might be an investigation into the gratification and interest variables. Functions played by attitudes in fulfilling basic needs would be a fascinating subject of study. Research could determine the causal relationships of motivational factors produced by attitudes and the be- haviors ultimately emerging from such a relationship. Functional analysis leads not only to an understanding of the process of attitude change, but it also might begin to explain the connections between attitudes and behavior. If students are provided with a behavioral situation in which they are given the Opportunity to exchange arguments about significant controversial issues, will this type of participation result in future behaviors reflecting their attitude structures? This hypothesis could prove to be challenging for future research studies. On the other hand, another question immediately arises.‘ Will future behavioral situations experienced by the students result in significant change within their attitude structures? Both of the above issues present challenges for psycho- logical research.- Functional analysis Of attitudes might provide many of the answers, and ultimately produce a more comprehensive theory of attitude change. Functional analysis will deal with factors that are genuine psychological variables, and result in the devel- opment Of some generalizations about human behavior. It ‘will consider a number of motivational forces and their 90 effects upon subsequent behavior of individuals. Specific types of conditions, under which attitude change takes place, can be evaluated and discussed. This study provided initial analysis of the ego-defensive function of attitudes, in which the student protects himself from acknowledging the basic truths about himself or the harsh political realities in his external world. It also provided commentary on the value-expressive function of attitudes, in which the in- dividual derives satisfactions from expressing attitudes appropriate to his personal values and to his concept of himself. The knowledge function, based upon the individual's need to give adequate structure to his universe, was also briefly analyzed. Results indicate that the students re- tained original attitude structures in an attempt toward better organization of perceptions and beliefs to provide clarity and consistency for the individual. Future research could explore these remifications in greater depth. Another path for future research, in this area, is to attempt to specify the conditions which will evoke a given attitude. Identifying the determinants of attitude arousal was partially the purpose of the present study. Three teaching methods in political science as applied to class groups, did not appear to create the conditions for attitude arousal which would ultimately produce attitude change in students. Other studies could explore a variety of enrichment methods tO determine their significance in the 91 change process. They could also investigate personality traits such as verbal hostility, direct hostility, and apathy, in an attempt to measure their effects upon attitudes toward political issues. Many of these dimensions possibly allow the individual to absorb changes without major modi- fication of attitudes. Perhaps, a need exists to explore personality dimensions, on an individual basis, in future research studies. One Of the major purposes of the present study was that of investigating attitude change on a group basis. Psychologists, on the other hand, might wish to ex- plore the individual personality processes of students, under isolated conditions, without the stabilizing effects of the influences of the group. Another possible avenue Of research could be Opened as a result of this study. Most of the theories, based on the principle of consistency or balance, predict that at- titude is a part function of the mean amount-Of affect as- sociated with an individual's beliefs. Future studies might explore Fishbein's summation theory, and attempt to predict if an individual's attitude-toward any Object would be a part function of the total amount of affect associated with each of the individual's beliefs about the object. Results of this type of research would add further support to the hypothesis that attitude organization and change is a pro- cess of cognitive summation and not a process of cognitive 92 balance; and point once again to the necessity of reexamin- ing the validity of the consistency principle in attitude research. It is possible that the assignment of one instructor, to the twelve classes participating in this experiment, might have produced a spillover effect among the treatment groups. However, rigid time controls could be established, to insure equal consideration of the major concepts, by utilizing one instructor. Future research might investi- gate the effects Of this variable to determine if spillover results in any type of interaction among the variables. One Of the ultimate conclusions, as a result of this study, is that the composite ideology Of students reveals a moderate orientation, rather than a radical trend. 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Place a cross (X) next to any statement with which you disagree. I suppose there may be some places where the Consti- tution is weak. I believe that the Constitution is out of date. We should show respect and reverence toward our Constitution. Several parts of the Constitution might be improved. Aliens who criticize our Constitution should be sent out of this country. Our Constitution is a great document even though it is not perfect. Complete freedom to criticize the Constitution should be allowed at all times. I am undecided about changing the Constitution. Our Constitution is in every way the worst governing document ever written. Right-thinking Americans never criticize our Consti- titution. Our Constitution is sacred. The principles of government contained in our Con- stitution are as perfect as man can ever make them. Our Constitution is the greatest document in all the world today. 103 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 104 We can never make any progress so long as we keep our present Constitution. Any criticism of the Constitution should be construc- tive. Out Constitution should not be discarded because of a few evils connected with it. The Constitution might have been great once but it isn't anymore. The Constitution has not been such a wonderful suc- cess as most people believe. We should be careful about criticizing the Consti- tution. Too much danger is involved in revising the Constitution. We ought to have a new Constitution. ATTITUDE SCALE 2: NATIONALISM I believe that the United States is just as selfish as any other nation. Censorship is a gross violation of our constitutional rights. We have too many laws. Censorship is needed because people are unable to judge for themselves. I'm for my country, right or wrong. The law is more than the enactment of Congress; it. is a sacred institution. I have great respect for the.American people. Censorship might be warranted if we could get some reasonable consors. I prefer to be a citizen of the world rather than of any country. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 105 Workers can hardly be blamed for advocating commu- nism. ' The law is the true embodiment of eternal justice. Our national morality is safeguarded by censorship. The American ideal of bigger, faster, and more doesn't appeal to me. The communists are on the right road. When I see so much corruption in the government of my country, I can't support it wholeheartedly. We should have complete freedom of speech even for those who criticize the law. Nobody has the right to dictate to me what I shall read. This is in every way the greatest nation in the world. Censorship can never be justified in a free country. If Russia today is a sample of how communism works, we don't want it. Censorship is effective in raising moral and aes- thetic standards. Plays and movies should be censored, but the press should be free. We should not reject communism until it has been given a long trial. We had better keep our eyes on Russia for a while longer before making up our minds about Communism. The hatred of the U.S. by foreign countries is caused mostly by envy of our freatness. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 106 ATTITUDE SCALE 3: THE CHURCH I enjoy my church because there is a spirit of friendliness there. I like the ceremonies of my church but do not miss them much when I stay away. I respect my church member's beliefs but I think it is all "bunk". I feel the need for religion but do not find what I want in any one church.‘ I think the teaching of the church is altogether too superficial to have much social significance. I think the church is a parasite on society. I believe in sincerity and goodness without any church ceremonies. I do not understand the dogma or creeds of the church but I find that the church helps me to be more honest and creditable. I think the church is a hindrance to religion for it still depends upon magic, superstition, and myth. I think the church tries to impose a lot of worn- out dogmas and medieval superstitions. When I go to church I enjoy a fine ritual service with good music. I feel the church perpetuates the values which man puts highest in his philosophy of life. Sometimes I feel the church and religion are neces- sary and sometimes I doubt it. I think too much.money is being spent on the church for the benefit that is being derived. I think the organized church is an enemy of science and truth. I like to go to church for I get something worth while to think about and it keeps my mind filled with right thoughts. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 107 I believe the church.is a powerful agency for pro- moting both individual and social righteousness. I believe the churches are too much divided by factions and dominations to be a strong force for righteousness. I believe in what the church teaches but with mental reservations. I believe the church is the greatest institution in America today. I am careless about religion and church relation- ships but I would not like to see my attitude be- come general.‘ The church represents shallowness, hypocrisy, and prejudice. I feel the church services give me inspiration and help me live up to my best the following week. I think the church keeps business and politics up to a higher standard than they would otherwise tend to maintain. 108 .mmcsuHOM muo>flum omnma Ham om D D < fim mo xasn may wuwomflmcoo casonm mmxmu mocmyflnmscH .v .omumomflmcoo ma mwfioocfl ummHmH map mo coauuom kumwum on» Donn muoxomun Dm D D < «m wEoocfl momma on» :H swan 0m on oasonm moxmu mEoosH .m .mumasasoom ou omonHm Doc 0Hm3 mOCDuH0m ummum am a a a am ma muucsoo man now Hmuumn How on UH503 DH .N .m>aumauflcfl Hmsofl>flocfi mamaum ou aamxfla ma DH moch nuamwB mo coausnfluumflo co>m once om D D < «m may mmommo UHDODm m3 .H mmummmwo mmummmfln UmoHomocD moumfl wmum< Dawsonum hamcouum .s3onm mm mmcwawmm usom mwnfluommw ummn SOH£3 :Edaoo mnu cw Hmbsm pomnuoo on» mafiaouflo an mucmEmumum DCHBOHHOM man no comm :0 coacwmo H90» mumoHDcH "monBUmmHD mfiflfimz mmB m0 ZOHBDmHmBmHD “v Wqfium MDDBHBB< 109 Dm G D é mm D D d mm D D d Om D D ¢ .mmmwnmumusm Hafiosmawm can mmmcflmnn moan How Hmuflmmo mo muCDOEm mmuma hammam on mummmmomc madmufl> «m an mmcsuuom man no ucmEmoam>m© may mmmusoocm Dasonm m3 .m .musmumm Hamsu mo:mmcsuH0m mos: mnu.uflumsaw wasosm sown mum> mm ms» mo.cmupaflno may was» manm nuwmmocs.maamw00m ma DH .n- .mpsmn meau ca mammuma omomHm MHHDMDADHH ma auucsoo was» mo spammS may .mmfiuumSUGw mamom Immuma mo mEmHnoum memEoo ms» 4m mcflawcmz mo manmmmo mum manomm 3mm m Mano mocwm .w .mHmOmQ 3mm m mo mvamn man oucw spamm3 mo sowumuucmocoo mnu uflfihmm ou mmumum UmuHGD ¢m ,mnu mo manomm man no mummnmucw may on hummusoo ma DH .m mmummmwa mmmwmmfla Dmcflomch mmumfi hamcouum mmumd hamcouum 110 Dm G D Om D D Dm G D Dm D D Dm G D .omumasfiso Ion m>ma mmau aowaz mmssunom a 4m mmsa may m>umnm© uoa 0p manomm mauammz Hso mo umoz .MH 4 4m .ma casoam aw mm hamumeflxoummm pmusawuumwo 30c ma muucsoo mflau mo auammz maB .NH .cofluma umau cw omcamuum mmasuuom manna map so usmfimmosn maa Show oasoam « 4m mao auammz Dam hufiummmoum m.aowums m mcflmwsn aH .HH .mamomm man Ham macaw Dmusaflnumwv hasuomwca mnoe a am ma oasoam aowu mHmEmuuxm man no auHmm3 mDOEHoam mas .oH .Umusafluumwomu ma paaoam auamm3 mo mwamums3o mau mzoam mmwuflm Immomc Hmauo can Doom mo hammsm d «w lum>o no mo momm ma» CH mnmmam3 How vmms mmHMH mae .m mmmmmmwQJ.mmHmmmHD nmpfiomocD mamaouum mmuw< mmuw4 Mamcouum 111 .mocmumfixm ca 30a mum mm mmauuHOM mmza aosm mnwsvom on mamsow>fl©aw mm D D 4 am you maaflmmomfiw pa mama on uamuo unmacum>om maB .mH .mmxmu >>mma mcwmmm aw mumam am a a 4 «m news» can» mace ounce momma Ian mum hauamm3 maB .ba .muwsvom Manamaoa hue mco hmaoe mo unseen map coma muwafiam mm D D a «m Q30 m.mso ummoxm aowuofluummu on ma DHsoam mumae .wH .huwnmao Dam mocmwom ou mumam maoum Iamm man an mmasuHOM ummum mo monmumwxm mau pmflmwuman mamsm om D D a «m m>ma mmumum DmuflaD may aw manomm ummwauamm3 mas .mH .auammz mumuflomuma mo sowumxmu Ho aowumuwfiwa ham ma Dmammemc mm D D a «m ma non wasoam m>flumwuflafl Dam Duauauhamscw>wcaH .vH mmummman mmnmmmwa wmnwomoaD mmuma , mmuma hamaouum hamaouum 112 .ms oum3ou m>Hm Immnmm ma on hamafla uoa mum mmau nmflugasoo umauo wumzou am a o < «m haocmflum mm mmumum swung: mau «a umau acflau H .N .mmfluucaoo “mauo aufl3.meumu afloamwum so ma ou mawmuu am a o a «m as o>mm masonm mmumum woman: man .aoflawmo >8 aH .H mmHUMmfiD mmnmmmwo ompwomch mmnma mmuma mamcouum mamaonum mZOHfidnmm AfiZOHBm .mucmfiaum>om ma manuamm on mm D D a «m mazes“ Dam mumaow>aw pama ma umse huummoum mo ammo: .mH mmHDmeD mmummmwo omofiomoaD mmnmw mmnmd mflmaonum hamaouum 113 am am am am am am ¢ dm dm dm fim flm fim .mmumam omuch may no mumuam3 may 0» Hmwuammmm ma Haw? Doom.Hmaowuma Inmusa .coflawmo he CH .m pumaoe mo mamas n ma mmwupcsoo,cmflmuom mammamn awn» xcazu H .5 .mmfluuasoo Hmauo auw3 om>ao> law mawuumm ma Daflmalaams can mmmaflmmma H50 amflu u.apasoam m3 .GOHcfimo he CH .m .Emau mumm: umau huuasoo Dam on mamwumumfi Dam Doom Damn DHsoam .m.D ma» umau m>mflama H .m .gmammmnu mm uonamflmc may m>oaa ou mmcmm coeeoo afimam umsn ma meowumamu Hmcowumc lumucw umau Hmmm H .e .Uauoz cumoofi map cw mcwaumcm amflHmEooom coo mmmcfiaoamfium Hmcoaumsumusfl umau m>mwama mumfimmuw ameoom maao .aowsflmo he CH .m mmummnwa mamcouum mmMDMmHD Dmofiomch mmumm mmumfl hamaoup m 114 Om D D Dm G D am 0 D Om D D Dm G D Dm G D .mEmHaonm HmcoHuma lumucH mcH>H0m aH mama Hmmu m 4 4m mH mGOHuma Hmapo auH3 aHpcmHHm maHmn pun» xcHnu H .vH .mumz 4 4m ouaH ms mcauumm mhmsz mum mmHHu :csoo Hmauo umau acHau H .mH .uoa Ho DH Ho #50 Hmwo Imam DGHaDMGM umm m3 Hmauma3 4 4m .maoHuma HHm mHma ou mu» DHsoam m3 away mcafimmm ME nH uH .mH .Doom cmau Ehma mHoE 0o HHH3 4 4m mmHHuasoo Hmauo auws thcmHHH maHmn umsu xcHs» H .HH .HHH3 Doom Ho no: mum msoHum: Hmauo mmsmoma :.cm& on 4 4m HHH3 Doom .auumm so momma: m>ma u.amo m3 umau Hmmm H .OH .m.D mau Ho momucm>pm mama ou mmHuu umau 4 4m muuasoo ham auH3 am>m umm stoam 63 away HmHHon as mH uH .m mmummmHD mmummmHD cmuHomosD mHmcouum mmum4 mmummx mHmcouum 115 .mmHHu 1:900 Hmauo auH3 hHocmHHH ma on mm D D 4 4m mawmup :H m>mHHma mHmomm mHaHm Icmm HHm .coHaHmo he sH .oH .ms umcwmmm maHu am D D 4 4m IDOHQ amumo mum mGOHum: Hmauo umnu HmHHwn He mH HH .mH mmummmHD mmummmHo pmwwomoaD mmum4 mmum4 hHmcouum aHmsouuw 116 ATTITUDE SCALE 6: THE LAW DIRECTIONS: Place a check mark.(J5 next to any statement _10. 11. 12. _13. 14. 15. 16. 17. with which you agree. Place a cross (X) next to any statement with which you disagree. We have too many laws. Law is the greatest of our institutions. The law is just another name for tyranny. Individual laws are frequently harmful but the law as a whole is sound. In a long run law and justice are synonymous. I believe in the use of force to overthrow the law. We should have complete freedom of speech even for those who criticize the law. Between a society completely bound by law and a state of anarchy there is a happy medium. The law is more than the enactments of Congress, it is a sacred institution. The law represents the wisdom of the ages. Men are not all equal before the law. We should obey the law even though we criticize it. After all, the law is merely what people do. The sanctity of the law should be taught in all schools. The law is made in response to the pressure of lob- bies in Washington. Some laws command our respect while others are mere regulations. The law is often the refuge of the scoundrel. 18. 19. 20. 117 It is not judges who punish criminals, it is the law. Law is the enemy of freedom. The law prevents wholesale crime and murder. ATTITUDE SCALE 7: COMMUNISM DIRECTIONS: Place a check mark (V6 next to any statement 10. 11. 12. 13. with which you agree. Place a cross (X) next to any statement with which you disagree. Both the evils and the benefits of communism are greatly exaggerated.‘ It is only the ignorant and incompetent that want communism. The whole world must be converted to communism. Workers can hardly be blamed for advocating communism. Communism is a much more radical change than we should undertake. Police are justified in shooting down the communists. Give Russia another twenty years or so and you'll see that communism can be made to work. If Russia today is a sample of how communism works, we don't need it. Communism should be established by force if neces- sary. The communist may be rough but he has the right idea. I am not worrying for I don't think there's the slightest chance that communism will be adopted here. The communists are the most destructive element in our civilization. Communism is the solution to our present economic problems. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 118 We should be open-minded about communism. The ideals of communism are worth working for. I am not sure that communism solves the problems of capital and labor. The whole communistic scheme is unsound. Communists should set up a dictatorship of the workers in the United States. We should not reject communism until it has been given a longer trial. If a man has the vision and the ability to acquire prOperty, he ought to be allowed to enjoy it himself. ATTITUDE SCALE 8: PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS DIRECTIONS: Place a check mark (40 next to any statement with which you agree. Place a cross (X) next to any statement with which you disagree. A person should be imprisoned only for serious offenses. It is wrong for society to make any of its members suffer. Hard prison life will keep men from committing crime. Some criminals do not benefit from punishment. Most prisons are schools of crime. We should not consider the comfort of a prisoner. A criminal will go straight only when he finds that prison life is hard. No punishment can reduce crime. Prison influence is degenerating. Only habitual criminals should be punished. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. _13. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 119 We should employ physical punishment in dealing-with all criminals. I have no opinion about the treatment of crime. Punishment of criminals is a disgrace to civilized society. Solitary confinement will make the criminal penitent. It is advantageous to society to spare certain criminals. Only humane treatment can cure criminals. Harsh imprisonment merely embitters a criminal. No leniency should be shown to convicts. Many offenders become dangerous criminals after a prison term. Failure.to punish the criminal encourages crime. Only by extreme brutal punishment can we cure the criminal. The more severely a man is punished, the greater criminal he becomes. A criminal should be punished first and then reformed. One way to deter men from crime is to make them suffer. Punishment is wasteful of human life. A bread and water diet in prison will cure the criminal. Brutal treatment of a criminal makes him more dangerous.‘ A jail sentence will cure many criminals of further offenses. Prison inmates should be put in irons. We should consider the individual in treating crime. 31. 32. 33. 34. 10. 11. 12. 13. 120 Even the most vicious criminal should not be harmed. It is fair for society to punish those who offend against it. Humane treatment inspires the criminal to be good. Some punishment is necessary in dealing with the criminal. ATTITUDE SCALE 9: CENSORSHIP I doubt if censorship is wise. A truly free people must be allowed to choose their 3 own reading and entertainment. We must have censorship to protect the morals of young people. The theory of censorship is sound, but censors make a mess of it. Only narrow-minded Puritans want censorship. The whole theory of censorship is utterly.unreason- able. Until public taste has been educated, we must con- tinue to have censorship. Many of our greatest literary classics would be suppressed if the censors thought they could get away with it. Everything that is printed for publication should first be examined by government censors. Plays and movies should be censored but the press should be free., Censorship has practically no effect on people's morals. Censorship is a gross violation of our constitu- tionalsrights. Censorship protects those who lack judgment or ex- perience to choose for themselves. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 121 Censorship is a very good thing on the whole al- though it is often abused. Censorship is a very difficult problem and I am not sure how far I think it should go. Education of the public taste is preferable to censorship. Human progress demands free speech and a free press. Censorship is effective in raising moral and aes- thetic standards. Censorship might be warranted if we could get reasonable censors. Morality is produced by self-control, not by cen- sorship. 122 Om Om am am mm D D 4 dm 4m 4m 4m 4m .Houusoo Hmumomm mHamuHmmoss unoauflz umem amo mHHmHHm HMOOH :H aoHummHoHuumm Hmumpmm .m .mHamHoumuoHc cu wmmHumHHHmm Immoma.uoc mmoc muameaum>om ma maHGGMHQ Hmwoom Dam UHEOG loom umau m3oam huoumwm .¢ .HmsoH>HUaH mau mo muamHH may monummp on moamp ucmsaum>om .Ho COHumNHHmuuamO .m .MDHHmsvm HmoHuHHom o» umuowuummu ma Doc oHsoam HHHHmsvm Ho mwuH 6:9 .N (.muamEHHm humchmEH msH>ma mHmomm auwz cowuma use HHHH Dam monmoamum mHmoHcmE :Hsu DHso3 msHOHDmE omuHHMHoom .H mmnmmmHD mamaouum mmummmwo vmowompsD mmum4 mmnm4 aHchMu m mmmHAmm UH>HU “0H MA4Um mDDBHfifid 123 mm mm am am am .coumaHammz CH omummz mH “was mscHE .aoma amaofi mHau 4 4m mocmn cmau can mmumum mau mmxmu usmfiaum>om Hmumpmm maB .oH .ucmsaum>om pmNHHmuu Ismo cmau Hmuuma mHmomQ may Ho mOHo> may muammmummn can 4 4m auoz um momuooamo muoounmmmnm .mH ucmEch>om HmUOH .m .muamHH m.mumum coma ucmaanm>om Hmumcmm ma» Ho Dameaomouocm 4 «m may mH Hun use me mammH HmoHuHH tom mDOHHmm umoe mas .m .m.uusoo memumsm man no: .mmmc 4 4m nHmsa muH ma oHsoam mHooaom muH auwz mmoo mumum m umaz .n .aHmm HucOmHmm HHmau How hHumoE 0m oo .cowumumnmumuaH HMCOHDsuHumcoo HmumaHH can usmEaHm>om cmNHHmuu Icmo uncwmmm uamwm Mao m5 m>Hm 4 4m on m: mcwmus.>a usmEmmmmmmm aommnm oa3 .mmumumwoz .w mmummmHD mHDcouum mmummmHD DmoflomcaD mmumm‘ mmum4 hHmaouum 124 x J “‘10 ha! 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I Dm G D Dm G D Dm G D Dm G D Om D D .mfioaoom mum>HHm H50 aH mmmmuocH am mm HHm3 mm magma amasa mHmHumm on usmEch>om Ho mmHuH>Huom ma» 4 4m Ho mummuosH am com: mocmmmo >80 Icoom H90 Ho au3oum maa .mH .Doom UHHasm ummummum may mosooum ou mummmmo m3mH oweoaoom Hmusgmc .mummumucH IHHmm :30 HHmau onHoH op mmHH 4 4m ummH mum mumsdmaoo cam mnmosp loam HmscH>HuaH awn; .vH .mucm3 UHEocoom H50 DGHMH ImHumm How cHuo3 :HmUOE map CH 4 4m Emumam mHamxHoz DHHmmH mHso map mH mmHHmumuam mum>Hum .MH .huucnoo H50 GH >uw>Huosooum.HHnm.mH9mmm on >m3 umma ma» mH .Houucoo Dame 4 4m Icum>om mo ESEHGHE.mu5HOmam am auH3 .mmHHmumusm mmum .NH .mucmecum>om mumum meow swap mHmomm.mau 4 4m Ho m>HumucmmmHmmH mHOE amumo mH usmesum>om Hmumomm mas .HH mmHmmmHD mmummmHD omowompcD mHmaouum mmum4 mmumm mHmsouum 125 Om D D mm D D mm D D Dm G D Om D D 4 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m .mHHH ,mHHHuCCoo HCo.mHCo ou auos Duma ou aoma umm.UHCoam m3. .om .m>HuoCCoumCOC mH quECHm>om moCHm .>EOCoom man on umOH mH mmxmu ha CH memu mmCoz .mH .mmHuHHHus oHHnsm mm aoCm mmHHOQOCOE Ho mmmmo CH mHCo HCooo DHCoam umaume may Ho COHDMHCmmH quECHm>ow .mH .mumm ImmomC mmmCHmCa Ho COHDMHCmmH HmquECHm>om mmamE mCoHumuomHoo mmHmH Ho au3oum mas .hH ..moCmHmHHmuCH HmquE ICHm>om usoaUHz Emumhm mmmC IHmCa H50 Cum>om DHCoan aOHa3 3mH HMHCDMC m mH COHuHummEoo mmum Ho mHmHOCHHm mas .mH mmummmHD mmmmmmHD DmvHomUCD aHmCouum mmum4 mmnm4 mHmCouum 126 Dm G D Dm G D mm D D mm D D mm D D Dm G D Dm D D .mHmma 4m omlsomlmMImmm C CO ma UHCoam mCHDCQO quECHm>om HH4 .hm .Hm3 Ho mEHu CH hHaHm 4m Imom ummoxm DUHHOQ UHHaCm cma m mH DCHpCmmm UHOHHmD .mm .mmCmmxm OHHaCm Hm Chommm 4m DOCCmo mHmEHm m3 DHCoam mmCHau mCHow mH quECHm>om maa .mN .uCo ma DHCoam,mmxmu muHHmmH 4m CH usa mHamemEEoo nH mCHmHH Comm mmxmu Qmma OB .vm 4m .mmxmu mmHMm Cmau mHamuHCDm mHOE mum mmxmu mEooCH .mm .CHou nH uH umaz 06 pass mCo HmHHmEm mau umau mH .mCo HmHHmEm m on quECHm>om Ho 4m uHCC HmmHMH m Scum .COHumoCDm on CHM Ho mOHHm mas .NN .mEHu menu man an DCH30HD mH mEOOCH HCCOHumC may 4m HH usoam hnuo3 on mCHaHOC nH Damp HMCOHumC DCH30HD 4 .HN mmuwmmHD (wmummmHD DmoHomeD hHmConum (mmHm4 mmum4 mHmCouum 127 Dm G D mm D D Dm G D mm D D mm D D Om D D .mmoH>Hmm DCmECHm>0D How DCmmm cu DHoH 4 4m Imm hHHmmH Cmo mHmomm mau Cmau mHoE DCHUCmmm mum m3 .mm 4 4m .HCHmumms aHHmHCHMC mH mCHUCmmm quECHm>ou .mm .quECHm>om How mmHmHoCHHm Doom mHHmsvm mum 4 4m mmHHmHmqu mum>HHm H0H.mmHmHo ICHHQ HMHOCCCHH Doom .Hm .mmxmu HMCOHDHUDM cmmC ou mCHom mum 4 4m m3 .mmmnmoum mama on mum mumum map can Huucsoo may HH .om .mmxmu mCHmmmHOCH Ho amCOE mCH30HHoa amConau .wnmmmmomC HH 4 4m .mHmomm may no mommC may ummE UHCoam quECHm>om maB .mN .thoE koHHoa DHCoam quECHm Ibom map aoHa3 Mom mmCHau >HCo may mum COHpoCHumCoo quCmEHmm 4 4m Hmauo DCm .mpmon .mmCHcHHCa UHHaCm mmEHu SHMCHDHO CH .mN mmnmmmHD mmumomHD DmpHomeD mHmCouum mmum4 mmum4 aHmCouum 1.3.“. 128 am am am Om Dm G D 4 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m .mCHOD 30C_mH DCmECHm>om DmaD.mmCHaD maD Ho MCmE HmDDma ow DHCoo mmHHmumDCm mDm>HHm .mm .mummHm3 HMHmCmm maD mDOEOHm 0D mHOE OD DHCoam UCm Cmo DCmECHm>om HCO .hm .mCmmE m.mCo cHgDHs mcH>HH Ho DmsuunowaummH m>ma mHMC©H>HoCH DCm mmmC IHmCa HmaDo msDHH> mHaHmCmm maD Damoom DHCoam mmmHmCou .mm .mEOCoom m.C0HDmC maD DCHEHma DCoaDH3 nm0H>Hmm DCmE ICHm>om DCMDHOQEH Dom mCHoCmmm mmCmHoCH HHHDm UHCoo m3 .mm .DCmECHm>om Ho Hm>mH HMOOH maD Dm HCHmDmm3 DmmmH CCm .Hm>mH mDMDm maD Dm HCHmDmm3 om DOC .Hm>mH Hmumwmm maD Dm HCHmDmms Dmoe mH mmCoa CMD Ho mCHpCmmm DCm mCHDomHHoo mas .vm mmummmHD aHmCoqu mmnmmmHD pmcHomUCD mmnm4 mmum4 hHmCOHD m 129 Om D D mm D D Dm G D Dm G D Om D D Dm G D .mEmHaOHm C30D HHmEm ow HMHCD oCmDm IHmDCC DOC OD mDmeHmmH mDHo 4 4w mmCmoma mHamHHmmeC mH DCmECOHD Inommmmu m>HDmHmHDmH .¢¢ .Eoummumxm.HMC©H> IHDCH Cm mommHOCH awe mamumoum 4 4m mHMHHms HMHOOm maD CH mmOH>Dmm DCmECHm>Om nmmmmHOCH .mv .mmmC 4 4m IHmsa HO mfimCm maD DOC mH mmDmDm DmDHCD maD CH DCmECHm>Om .mw .mmsoum DHCDCCHO> 4 4m OD DHmH ma DHCOCm DmmC CH mmoaD DOD mmOH>Hmm mHamDHDmaO .Hv .mHooaom OHHaCm HCO CH MOMHOOEmv 4 4m aommD OD CmaD EmHCCOHDmE4 aommD OD DCCDHOQEH mnoE mH DH .ov 4 4w .CmCHm>Om DmCmH maD mH meDm>Om Dmma maB .mm mmHDMmHD mmummmHD cmOHomeD hHmCOHDm mmDm4 mmnm4 mHmCOHDm 130 u 1. . .1 2......r.... ... 1.“$\a..\!_avs.. .. .. . c: Dm G D mm D D 0m 0 D Dm G D Dm G D 4 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m .EHa DODm Cmo DOCH can meEmHDxm DCa mCHaDOC .Uuma xDO3 OD mCHHHH3 mH UCm COHDHa lam amCOCm mma mCO HH .mv .DHHMOHmmam UCm .mHHMCOHD .IOEm .mHHCDCmE HOHDmHCH mCCD ICC ma mum mmomu meow .m¢ .mDHHmCma mmmchO UCM .mmmm3 .DCmEmDHDmH .aDHmma HO mHmD an8 CH >DH>HDOM mDH mummHOCH UHnoam DCmECHm>Om mas .hv .mmHHDCCOO DmH IHmHOOm CH 6mm: mcoaDmE OD HmH IHmHmm hHmCOHmmme mum .mDCDmC mxHH HO mzmH CCm .mkMH mDamHD HH>HO DCmmCHDDm mDOE .mDHHComm HCHOOm,amCODaD Cmmm maD OD OHM .nHooaom OD CHM Hmumwmm .mv .EODmCO ha HO 3MH ma DH OD Cm>Hm DOC mnm3om omECmmm mma DHCOU mEmDmCm mas .mv mmDmeHD mmuwmmHD DmcHomOCD hHmCOHDm mmHm4 mmDm4 hHmCODD w "I. | El ...... 5.1! 131 Om Gm am mm mm D D 4 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m .DCmECHm>Om IHHmm HO mHDCQMOCH mHCDMC ma mum mmHDDCCOO UmQOHm>mU IHmDCC DmOE HO mHmomm .qm .EmHDOODnOU HO DHHHmm m ma mCOH OOD CmDm>HDOE Cmma mma DOHHOD CmHmDOH HCO .mm .anmDm DmDHCD maD ha HOD onm thHOOm mCH IDmamU HMCOHDMCDmDCH Cm meooma mma mCOHsz DmDHCD maa .Nm .mmDmDm OmDHCD mas HO mmOHOh cmEH4 maD ma cmCHMD ICHmE CCm pmNHHmDH>mH ma CHCOCm mCHHDOOD mOHCOz mas .Hm .mmHDHHmHD ICmDom HHCH DHmaD mNHHmmH OD mHamCC ma HHH3 mmCOHm MDHHOCHE HO CmucHHao mCmE .mCOHDHUCOo HMHOOm mmCmao m3 mmmHCD .om mmummmHD mHmCODDm mmummmHo CmcHomcCD mmDm4 mmum4 mHmCOHD m 132 Dm G Dm 0 Dm G Dm G Dm G Om D 4 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m .mmmDDmDooa C30 HHmaD an as mm>HmmEmaD HHCQ OD mCHH IHH3,mDm3 oa3 mCOmHmm ha Dmmum mpme mm3 auDCCOO mHaa .om .mmCmao HMHOOm.DOH mOHCOm Hmm Loam maD mH.mOCmUmomHm .mm .HHm3 mm mDamHD CCECa Dsa mDamHD NDDmQODm MHCO DOC mCHDomDOHm HOH mDHHHaHmCOQm ImH m mma DCmECHm>OD .mm .mmHCmmmE mummHmz HCHOOm DmaDO UCm .mmOH>Hmm aDHmma .mDHDComm HMHOOm mm.mmCHaD aOCm DOH DmmC mHDDHH ma CHCO3 .mHmaD .ngO DmaECC HO mumo maMDg DHCO3 mCO>Hm>m HH .Hm .mHsm Immum mEOm CCm COHDHDmmEOO Com: wmmma EmDmMm40HEOCoom Cm CH DmmDmmHm mH COHDOCOODH .mm .DCmECHm>Om HO mEDOH HHmaD HO m>onmmm m3 DmaD mCHhHmEH DCOCDH3 CCHaO Omm mm aOCm mCOHD ICC mNHCmOomD OHCOO m3 .mm mmummmHD mmHmMmHD MHDCODDm wmuHomccs mmnm4 mmum4- hHmCOHDm APPENDIX B THE ACHIEVEMENT TEST APPENDIX B THE ACHIEVEMENT TEST The Fundamental Charter _2__1. The major challenge facing the delegates to the Philadelphia Convention Of 1787 was: 1. How could the governmental system be changed so as to establish a real democracy? 2. How could they establish a new government which could provide the unity needed for stability W without destroying the states? 3. How could the Articles be modified so that a single unified national government could replace the diversity of state sovereignty? 4. How could they establish an effective check and balance system which would eliminate tyranny and provide majority rule? 1 2. A bill of attainder is: l. A legislative conviction of an individual. 2. A conviction of an individual for an act which was not a crime when committed. 3. A device used by the courts to convict a group Of people. 4. A bill enacted by a legislative body changing judicial rules of procedure. 2 3. Congress and the state legislatures are prohibited by the Constitution from enacting ex post facto law is a statute which: 1. Reverses the decision Of a court. 2. Makes punishable a previous act which was law- ful at the time it was performed. 3. Amends an existing criminal law. 4. Convicts an individual of a common law crime. 4 4. An individual held by police Officials may be set free by a writ of habeas corpus. The writ is: l. A demand for a legislative hearing to determine the fairness of judicial processes, as applied to the individual. 133 The been formally amended is proposal by: 1. 2. The the 1. 134 A court order declaring that the person held by the police is innocent. An executive order holding that the individual's rights have been unfairly restricted by police officials. A court order directing Officials to produce the prisoner for judicial inquiry into the legality of his detention. typical method by which the Constitution has A national convention and ratification by state legislatures. Both houses of Congress and ratification by state legislature. Both houses of Congress and ratification by state conventions. The state legislatures and ratification by Congress. -—'_ ”HEEL.” . 1 afar nature of the constitutional system created by framers tended to reflect: Their strong preference for monarchial insti- tutions as a means of gaining stability for the new nation. Their views as men Of wealth who sought means to promote and protect their interests. Their strong belief in democratic institutions which had characterized the era of the Revo- lution. Their views that small farmers and artisans make up the backbone of any stable government. A common Objective of the three amendments to the United States Constitution proposed by the "General Assembly of the States" in 1962 was: 1. 2. 3. 4. All To strengthen the hand of the Federal judiciary. To weaken the position Of the Congress in the national government. To strengthen the position of the states in the Union. To restore balance to the three branches under the separation of powers. but one Of the following ideas were embodied in the The l. 2. philosophy Of the Declaration of Independence. exception is the idea that: All men are created equal, with certain unalien- able rights. ' Governments are instituted among men to secure these rights. 135 3. When the government fails to secure these rights, the people may abolish it and form a new government. 4. A written constitution setting forth these rights is essential to democratic government. 4 9. All but one of the following are great principles which the framers embodied in the American Consti- tution. The exception is: l. Federalism, which divides governmental powers between two levels of government. 2. Separation of powers, which distributes powers in the national government among three branches. 3. Protection of individual rights, which safe- guards individual freedom from arbitrary govern- mental action. 4. Direct democracy, which permits the people to make their own decision. i‘,‘ 3 10. All but one of the following statements concerning the United States Constitution are accurate. The exception is: l. The framers borrowed many ideas from existing state constitutions. 2. Its language is brief and general, hence capable of being broadly interpreted. 3. Its longlife has been due to the ease with which it can be amended. 4. Its popular support was secured by the framers' use of many existing political institutions. Interests and Pressure Groups _3_ l. The real test of the effectiveness of a democratic system is: 1. How large a percentage Of eligible voters par- ticipate. 2. Is the election a partisan or non-partisan contest. 3. Are the voters informed on issues and candidates. 4. Is the decision at the polls made by a majority of the population. 4 2. National origin interest groups exert their most significant and continuing influence in government policies in the area Of: 1. Civil liberties. . Citizenship and voting. . Immigration. . Foreign policy. uwa 3 3. 3 4. 4 5. 1 6. 4 7. 2 8. 136 Pressure groups, such as labor unions, are greatly concerned about public issues because: 1. The government could destroy them be revoking their charters. 2. The only way they can achieve their goals is through legislation. 3. Their economic bargaining position can be di- rectly affected by government policies. 4. It is good training for their members and en- ables them to cope with organization problems. A lobbyist can best be defined as: 1. The president of a pressure group who provides its leadership. 2. An individual who wants government to do things his way. 3. A pressure group representative who tries to influence government policy decision. 4. A pressure group representative who seeks to influence political party decisions. Least influenced by pressure group activity, typic- cally, are: . The Executive Department. . The independent boards and commissions. . The President and his cabinet. . The judges. DWNH All but one of the following constitute broad clas- Sifications of the nations major political interest groupings. The exception is: 1. Education. 2. National origin. 3. Religion. 4. Color or race. All but one of the following are groups which can be defined as pressure groups. The exception is: l. The American Civil Liberties Union. 2. The Daughters of the American Revolution. 3. The National Council of Churches of Christ in America. 4. The Socialist Workers' Party. All but one of the following methods are typically used by pressure groups seeking to exert influence on government decisions. The exception is: 1. Active participation in the electoral process. 2. Joining together Of various groups to form a new political party. 137 3. Creation of a favorable atmosphere of public Opinion. 4. Indirect persuasion, by arousing peOple to write to their elected representatives. All but one of the following are positions typical of those taken by right-wing organizations, such as the John Birch Society and the Christian Anti- Communist Crusade. The exception is: 1. Repeal of the federal income tax. 2. Curtailment of many federal government functions. 3. Federal guarantees to ensure equal rights to all Americans. 4. Drastic action against Communists and Communism. All but one of the following are activities typically carried on by pressure groups in their relations with political parties. The exception is: 1. They try to influence nominations in primary elections. 2. They seek to influence the formulation of party platforms. 3. They try to make enduring alliances with one major party or the other. 4. They participate in the general election cam- paigns. The Political Parties 3 l. The rise Of the Republican party to major party status illustrates how a new party may fill a political vacuum when: 1. It can draw solid support from all sections of the country. 2. The two existing major parties join together into a new coalition party. 3. An existing major party fails to provide ef- fective Opposition on a great issue. 4. The country is involved in war. The most "pro-change" party or faction in the period of the 1960's in the United States is: l. The Republicans, who want freer trade and more social and economic reforms. 2. The "radical left", who want more drastic action taken against communism. 3. The-Domocrats, who want higher tariffs and re-: ‘duced government expenditures. 4. The "radical right", who want to alter the cons- titution and limit the natural government. F"‘ 138 An example of a "third party" which developed into a major party is: 1. The Socialist party. 2. The Democratic party. 3. The Republican party. 4. The Progressive party. "Third parties" which have enjoyed some measure of political influence and success in the United States have usually been: 1. Strong on principle. 2. Sectional or local in their Operations. 3. Allied with a major party. 4. Country-wide in their appeal for votes. In a diagram of the organization of a major political party, the chief difference between appearance and reality lies in the fact that: l. The ultimate power within the party is not at the‘top. 2. The party is.more unified and cohesive than the structure implies. 3. The governors exercise most of the decision making power. 4. Party machinery is important only during an election year. In the states, the most influential element of party organization is: l. The state committee. 2. The state chairman- 3. The local party organization. 4. The congressional campaign committee. Political bosses and political machines are typically found: 1. At the national level. 2. At the state level. 3. At the city and county levels. 4. Only in the big cities. The most effective means used to maintain and run a political machine is: l. The employment Of the direct primary system. 2. Bribery of elected officials. 3. A close alliance with key national party leaders. 4. Dispensing of patronage. A political machine must, in the final analysis, depend for its survival upon: 1. State party leaders. 2. Popular approval. 10. 139 Funds received from the state and national party committees. The fostering of an opposition party. most important purpose behind party organization party activity is to: Provide cohesion among American.voters. Simplify the political process. Win elections. Take a stand on important issues. The Nominating and Electoral Processes 2 1. When there is no accepted method of narrowing the choice which voters must make on election day, the result usually is: 1. 2. 3. Anarchy, because voters lose all faith in government. Confusion among the voters, because Of the pro- fusion of names on the ballot. A bitter contest, with the winners needing bi- partisan support ot win. A cancelled election, because none Of the can- didates is able to secure a majority vote. party primary can best be described as: A bi-partisan selection process. A non-partisan selection process. Selection of nominees by party delegates. Selection of nominees through a nominating election. A run—Off primary system is intended to guarantee that: 1. Losers in the primary may have a second chance in the general election. The winner will be the strongest candidate of any party. The winner has the support of the party leaders as well as Of the voter. The winner has received a majority of the votes case. Endorsement of an aspirant by his party organization is important in a primary election because: 1. 2. Primaries turn out large percentages of inde- pendent voters who often follow such advice.- In most states an aspirant cannot legally run without his party's endorsement. 140 3. Primary votes are usually light and party regulars Often make the decision. 4. It places the full financial support of the party organization behind the aspirant. The concept of "availability" is less significant today because: 1. The American peOple want a man of experience. 2. The higher salary makes the presidency more attractive. 3. The presidential primaries have become decisive. 4. Intra-party struggles result in compromise candidates. The total electoral college vote in presidential elections is based on: 1. State population. 2. The total representation Of all states in the Congress. 3. The total representation of all states in Congress plus 3 votes for the District of Columbia. 4. The total representation of all states in Con- gress plus 10 votes for the territories. The basic problem facing a candidate in an election 1. How can he become known to the voters. 2. How can he get the party organization to back him. . What stand should he take on issues? 4. How can he keep his Opponent on the defensive. One of the great dangers concerning the use of tele- vision in political campaigning is that: 1. One party will monopolize the TV stations and networks. 2. TV is an entertainment medium and candidates may be rated as performers. 3. TV will destroy the "popular image" of most politicians. 4. TV will completely replace person-to-person con- tacts which enliven campaigns. Studies of motivational factors in voting tend to show that: 1. Most "uninterested" persons vote out of a sense of duty. , 2. Nonvoters understand the American system than voters. 141 3. The "best-informed" Often refuse to vote as a form of protest. 4. Most voters are motivated mainly by ideological considerations. 3 10. Corrupt practices laws have generally proved inef- fective in holding down campaign expenditures because: 1. Labor has rejected such laws as unconstitutional. 2. Business has refused to accept their limitations on free spending. 3. Many loopholes exist in the laws. 4. The laws are merely advisory and provide no criminal sanctions. Congress: Making the Laws 3 l. The tax levied by Congress on Oleomargarine was an __— example of: l. A tax levied for the purpose of raising revenue. 2. An unconstitutional tax levy. 3. A tax levied primarily for purposes of regula- tion. 4. A tax levied to equalize tariff rates on com- peting products. 1 2. The authority of Congress to set minimum wages and guarantee farm prices is based on the constitutional power of Congress to: l. Regulate interstate commerce. 2. Borrow on the credit Of the United States. 3. Exercise all powers essential to the nation's defense. 4. Regulate industrial and agricultural production. 2 3. Congress has double control over the spending of the taxpayers' money in that: 1. Both houses must approve all apprOpriations bills twice. 2. Two bills must be passed, one authorizing the project and the other providing funds. 3. Appropriations bills can be passed only after specific tax bills have been approved to finance the projects. 4. The appropriations committees Of both'houses must approve all items in appropriations bills. 142 To expedite the reorganization Of executive agencies, the l. The in waH Congress has: Delegated full powers to the Civil Service Commission. Given reorganization powers to the Civil Service Commission. Streamlined its internal procedures so as to speed through reorganization bills. Delegated power to the President to propose reorganization plans. actual selection of the men who are the leaders the House and Senate is: A partisan affair. A power vested in standing committee. Based strictly on congressional seniority. A bipartisan affair. Most bills receive their most thorough consideration at bWNI—J In it 4. the state of: Floor debate. Introduction into each house. Committee action. Caucus action. examining the committee structure in Congress, is accurate to say that: The chairman of each committee is the member with the longest service in the congress. The Senate has more standing committees that the house. Most are joint committees with members from both chambers. In each house, the majority party holds a majority on each committee. Most bills sent to committee for consideration are: Reported out for floor action. Amended by committee action. Killed in a closed-door session of the committee. Sent to the Legislative Counsel for redrafting. power of the Rules Committee stems from: Its power to block consideration of bills by the House. Its power to recommend passage or defeat of a bill to the House. Its ability to vote down amendments prOposed on the floor of the House. Its power to veto conference committee decisions. 143 Senator George Norris' ten year fight to establish the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a good How the people may reject a congressman at the How a representative must "mirror" the interests The subordination of local interests to the The importance of local interest pressures when vast government expenditures are involved. The most important concern which helps guide cont gressmen in their actions and their votes is: Their continuing worry over re-election. Their desire to stay in the good graces of the Their constant concern that their party must Their fear of political retribution by pressure A congressman's success in securing passage of bills which are important to his constituents depends His ability to take a strong stand on principle His relationship with committee chairmen and How effectively he can arouse his constituents to bringpressures to bear on the Congress. How effectively he can argue his case before his 1 10. The cloture rule is designed to achieve: 1. Majority rule. 2. Minority rule. 3. Bipartisan agreement. Congress: Representing the People 3 1. example of: l. polls when he ignores local wishes. 2. of his constituents. 3. national interest. 4. l 2. l. 2. President. 3. remain unified and strong. 4. groups which have been offended. 2 3. mainly on: 1. and not waver. 2. leaders of his party. 3. 4. fellow members. 1 4. Under the custom of senatorial courtesy, Senators show courtesy to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Each other. Political appointees. Political leaders. The President. lo. 144 A congressman's "errand-running" or "service" func- tion is a serious problem because: 1. Whenever he helps a constituent it involves a conflict of interest problem. 2. It is impossible to keep his constituents happy. 3. It Often involves him in conflicts with other branches of the government. 4. It is time-consuming and can detract from his legislative duties. If a voter wished to thoroughly check on how ade- quately a congressman was representing him he would: 1. Take a sample poll. 2. Read his hometown newspaper each day. 3. Study the Congressional Record. 4. Subscribe to a good national news magazine. One provision of the Constitution which cannot be amended without the consent of the states affected is that which guarantees: 1. That each citizen be represented equally in the Senate. 2. The direct election of Senators by the people. 3. That each state have equal representation in the Senate. 4. The bicameral nature of the Congress. Redistricting of congressional districts is a de- cision usually made by: l. The state central committee of the majority party. 2. The majority party in the Congress. 3. The partisan majority in a state's legislature. 4. The Bureau of the Census. The voters most adversely affected by malapportion- ment of congressional districts in recent years have been: 1. The big city voters. 2. The rural voters. 3. The suburban voters. 4. The small town and village voters. Political parties Often contribute to the lack of responsibility in the Congress because; 1. They foster individualism and add to the chaos. 2. They lack internal cohesion and discipline. 3. They encourage party-line voting. 4. They tend to increase controversy and strife within the Congress. 145 The Presidency _;3_ 1. The main lesson to be learned from defeat of the Versailles Treaty by the Senate is that: 1. Sectional sentiment favoring isolationism can- not be overlooked. 2. A President cannot ignore the people on major foreign policy questions. 3. A President should not let a major treaty be- come a partisan issue. 4. The Senate will not support a President's foreign policy stands during an election year. 2 2. Executive agreements are sugnificant because: 1. The Congress has no control over them. 2. They have been used by Presidents with increas- ing frequency in recent years. 3. They permit Presidents to do things which would 4 be unconstitutional if done by treaty. . They are not binding on the United States. 3 3. If used effectively, the greatest single asset a President has in making legislative policy is: 1. His staff aide in the Executive Office. 2. His role as a prominent liberal or conservative. 3. His party leadership. 4. His budgetary powers. 3 4. A President's ability to influence congressional decision is usually at its peak: 1. During a President's second term. 2. Near the end of a presidential term. 3. In the first months Of a new administration. 4. Following the off-year congressional elections. 4 5. Executive orders issued by the President are usually based on: 1. The President's inherent powers. 2. The impliedjpowers of the Constitution. 3. Custom and usage. 4. Statutes granting him the authority. 3 6. When Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency upon the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the two in- dividuals next in line of succession were: 1. Chief Justice Earl Warren and Senatore Mike Mansfield. 2. Secretary Of State Dean Rusk and Secretary of the Treasury Douglas Dillon. 146 1. 2. 3. 4. 3. Representative JOhn W. McCormack and Senator Carl Hayden. 4. Not known until designated by the Congress. _l;_7. The significance of cabinet decisions; 1. Depends upon the President. 2. Depends upon whether they deal with domestic or foreign policy issues. 3. Is great because Congress tends to back them. 4. Results from the fact that they are legally binding on a President. _3_ 8. The tOp cabinet post is that of: 1. Secretary of Defense. 2. Attorney General. 3. Secretary of State. 4. Secretary of the Cabinet. _3_ 9. The President receives most of his day-to-day help in planning, managing, and directing the executive branch from: 1. His unofficial friends and advisers. 2. The cabinet. 3. The Executive Office. 4. The National Planning Board. _2_10. One of the serious omissions by the framers in pro-~ viding for presidential succession was their failure to Specify: l. The line of succession beyond the Vice President. 2. Who determines that a President is unable to serve. 3. That a Vice President must be of the same party as the President. 4. That the Vice President should be a regular member Of the Cabinet.. The Law and the Judges 2 1. Equity courts are important because: They can supersede statutory law in criminal cases. They add flexibility to the common law. They provide for trial by jury in all cases. They do not Operate on the principle of precedent. 147 The common law has been modified and brought up to date largely by: 1. Judicial codification. 2. Statutes. 3. Constitutional law. 4. Equity. A court will not accept a case: 1. Unless both parties have qualified lawyers. 2. If the government tries to become a party in a civil suit. If both parties argue for the same results. Unless both parties accept the jurisdiction of the court. be») no The primary geographic unit of jurisdiction for state courts in most states is the: . County. . City and township. . State judicial district. . Special judicial region ubbJNH The jurisdiction of United States district courts can best be described as that of: 1. General original trial jurisdiction in most federal cases. 2. Appellate jurisdiction to review cases from state courts and lower federal courts. 3. Mostly hearing and deciding appeals from de- cisions.of administrative agencies. 4. General original trial jurisdiction in all federal cases. Appellate courts review decisions Of lower courts to determine whether: 1. Jury verdicts of guilty are justified. 2. Verdicts of guilt or innocence can be supported by the facts. 3. Errors of law have been made on the conduct of the trial. 4. The questions involved are important enough to be decided by the Supreme Court. The loser in a state court of highest jurisdiction can appeal to the United States Supreme Court when: l. The questions at issue are ones over which the state and federal courts have concurrent juris- diction. 2. A civil suit involves a sum Of $10,000 or more. 148 3. The state court has clearly failed to uphold the principles of the state constitution. 4. A substantial federal question is involved in the case. 3 8. Contributing the least to the workload of the Supreme Court during a typical term are: 1. Petitions for certiorari. 2. Cases in which the federal government is a party. ‘ 3. Cases involving the original jurisdiction of the Court. 4. Cases concerned with the interpretation of federal statutes. 2 9. Justices of the Supreme Court in reaching decisions are: 1. Objective and scientific. 2. Influenced by their personal convictions about the proper role of government. 3. Influenced by partisanship and personal ambi- tions. 4. Influenced by sectionalism. l 10. Contributing most to the independence of the federal judiciary is the constitutional provision that: 1. They serve for an indefinite term on good behavior. 2. They cannot be impeached and removed.‘ 3. Their salaries cannot be changed during their term on the bench. 4. They cannot be retired until the age of seventy. Government, Foreign Policy, and Nationa1.Security _4_ 1. America's "splendid isolation" has fallen victim primarily to: l. The treats of communism as an.a1ien ideology. 2. The rise of fascism in the world. 3. A new world era in which power is a state's only defense. 4. The development of science and invention. 1 2. The case in which the United Nations was most suc- cessful in arousing world public Opinion and using it to stop aggression was in the attack upon: 1. Egypt by Israel, Britain, and France.‘ 2.. Hungary by the Soviet Union. 149 3. South Korea by North Korea. 4. Tibet by Communist China. To block Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey the United States in 1947: l. Placed its reliance for security upon the United Nations. 2. Adopted a policy Of containment. 3. Entered into an alliance with Western Europe. 4. Adopted a policy of technical and financial aid to underdeveloped countries. Some critics Of the National Security Council have charged that it endangers the American principle of: l. The President as Commander-in-Chief. 2.~ Separation of powers. 3. Unity of command. 4. Civilian control of the military. Two independent operating agencies which have been placed under the Secretary of State's policy- directing power are: l. The National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency. 2. The National Aeronautics and Space Agency and the Foreign Service. 3. The United States Information Agency and the International Cooperative Administration. 4. The National Security Resources Board and the International Trade Organization. Under the Constitution, ambassadors sent to foreign nations represent: 1. The American people. 2. The President. 3. The national government. 4. The nation as a sovereign entity. Rivalry among the three branches of the military service stems from the basic question: 1. How they should divide the lump sum military apprOpriation made by the congress. 2. Which should be given the key position of chair- man Of the Joint Chiefs Of staff. 3. Which service should develop new weapons like guided missiles. 4. What kind of war the United States should prepare to fight. 150 3 8. The size of the American export trade depends largely upon: 1. Relations with the Communist bloc. 2. The amount of gold mined in foreign countries. 3. The size of the American import trade. 4. Our political relations with the rest of the world. 2 9. Walter Lippmann's view of foreign policy making holds that grave danger results in a democracy when: 1. Important questions.like that Of going to war are decided by a direct vote of the peOple. 2. Politicians cater to public Opinion by sup- porting popular rather than sound policies. 3. Public Opinion is ignored by an aristocratic clique Of policy makers. 4. Important national decisions are made by exec- utive Officials not elected by the people. 4 10. In elections in which foreign policy issues dominate, American voters are most influenced by: 1. Their ideological sympathies. 2. Their overseas investments. 3. Their government's existing policies. 4. Their national origin interests. Civil Rights 2 l. The "clear and present.danger" test for determining ——_ the limits of free speech means that speech may be curtailed if: 1. The-country is clearly in danger.from a foreign aggressor. 2. It creates an Obvious and immediate danger that an illegal act will be committed. 3. It seeks to change the economic or social systems. 4. It advocates a radical change in the govern- mental system. 4 2. The "bad tendency" test means that speech may be limited if: 1. It deals with nuclear weapons and other major national secrets. 2. The average person tends to regard the speech as bad or dangerous. It» All the The l. 2. 3. 4. 151 There is a tendency for persons Of low moral character to believe it. It makes the occurrence of an evil act more likely. but one Of the following describe decisions Of Supreme Court in the area Of religious freedom. exception is: A state may furnish bus transportation to parochial school children. Religious instruction for pupils in a public school building is unconstitutional. Religious instruction in a parochial school during school hours is unconstitutional. A compulsory flag salute in a public school violates a pupil's freedom of religion. Most cases involving questions of "due process" arise out Of: 1. 2. The Trials in Federal District courts. Actions and decisions of the regulatory boards and commissions. Controversies among justices of the Supreme Court. Trials in the state courts. n criminal cases, an "information" is: An indictment rendered by a grand jury. A "true bill" voted by a grand jury. A statement of charges drawn up by a prosecutor. A set of instructions given by a judge to the jurors. major problem involving civil liberties during time of national danger is: 1. 2. All How can radicals be detected if not allowed to speak out freely? How can the real intentions of radicals be de- termined if they are given the same protection as other Americans? How can a balance be struck between the needs of national security and the protection of rights. How can we be sure that civil liberty guarantees will be restored following the period of national danger? but one of the following describe the meaning of 1'due process". 1. 2. Government actions must be reasonable. Government actions must be swift and effective. 3 8. 3 9. 4 10. 152 3. Government actions must be fair and equitable. 4. Government actions must be just. Civil rights legislation proposed in 1963 would reduce the discriminatory nature of literacy tests by: l. Bringing them within the meaning of the fifteenth amendment. 2. Substituting federal literacy tests for state tests and providing for their administration by by federal voting referees. 3. Prohibiting oral tests and requiring that a sixth-grade education. 4. Requiring that an applicant be adjudged literate in all states if he is capable of signing his own name to the registration list. All but one of the following statements describe the situatiOn which exists in public education a decade after the epic Brown desegregation decision. The exception is: 1. Fewer than one-third of the segregated school districts of 1954 have been integrated by 1964. 2. Integration has occurred mainly in the border states. 3. A few northern states continue to maintain strict segregation laws. 4. Integration of at least one college or univer- sity in each Of the fifty states has been ac- complished. All but one of the following are reasons why the question of equal rights for Negroes has become a major American political issue. The exception is: l. The South has changed from an agricultural to an industrial society. 2. Large numbers of Negroes have migrated to Northern cities. 3. The ideological struggle in the world has awakened Americans to the dangers of discrim- ination. 4. The states have vigorously enforced anti- segregation laws in recent years. APPENDIX C TIME CONTROLS II. APPENDIX C TIME CONTROLS Summary Description of Time Controls: The Campaign Simulation Campaign Presentation Period (30 minutes) A. Presentation by student candidate 1: (5 B. Presentation by student candidate 2: (5 C. Presentation by student candidate 3: (5 D. Presentation by student candidate 4: (5 E. Presentation by student candidate 5: (5 F 6: . Presentation by student candidate (5 Question Period (20 minutes) A. Questions are presented by class members candidates. minutes). minutes). minutes). “ minutes). minutes). minutes). to the B. Emphasis is placed upon activity and of individual student's involvement. Class votes to determine the winner. FIDO Summary Description of Time Controls: The Debate Emotional appeals are utilized by the candidates. Differences of Opinion among candidates emerge. Formal Debate Presentation Period (30 minutes). A. Presentation by affirmative debater l: (5 minutes). B. Presentation by negative debater l: (5 minutes). C. Presentation by affirmative debater 2: (5 minutes). D. Presentation by negative debater 2: (5 minutes). E. Presentation by affirmative debater 3: (5 minutes). F. Presentation by negative debater 3: (5 minutes). 153 II. 154 Open Debate Period (20 minutes) A. B. C. The Debaters stand before the class. Emphasis is placed upon activity and involvement of the students in team participation. Class votes to determine which team has presented the better arguments after the termination of the question period. Logic and formal proof are required. Differences of Opinion between teams emerge. Summary Description of Time Controls: The Traditional Lecture Constitution and Politics (Lecture I) Definitions of Politics (20 minutes) . Pursuit and exercise Of power Who gets what, when, and how The art of compromise Series of human activities related to the adjustment of social disputes 5. The art of the possible DWNH Convention of 1787: Politics in Action 1. Founding fathers: Aristocracy a. Motives b. Pursuit of power 2. Compromises a. Great compromise b. Election of the president c. Supreme court justices d. Treaties e. Slavery f. 3/5 compromise 3. Basic Elements of American Government a. Separation of powers doctrine b. Checks & balances c. Federalism d. Limited government e. National supremacy f. Civilian control of the military M71111111171111)!(1111711111111(ITS 177 3181