Date

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LIBRARY
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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

SELF-MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN
A WORK ADJUSTMENT SETTING

presented by

Terry L. Vander-Molen

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D . degree in Counseling

 

Major profflsor

 

February 26, 1981

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_, flit?) 1‘

 

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SELF-MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN

A WORK ADJUSTMENT SETTING

By

Terry L. Vander-Molen

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling,
and Educational Psychology

1981

534/

C}//

ABSTRACT

SELF-MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN
A WORK ADJUSTMENT SETTING

By

Terry L. Vander-Molen

This study tested whether the relatively new
treatment method of self-control could be incorporated

into existing work adjustment training programs. Peckham

'Vocational Industries, Inc. which provided this type of

program to handicapped individuals in the Greater Lansing,
Michigan, Area, made their facility available to this
researcher, for this purpose.

The intensive research design was selected be-
cause it emphasizes the careful monitoring of each individual
with respect to target behaviors, and has been effective in
defining treatment effects on the individual. The study was
of a pilot nature, that will influence future research.

The effects of this new treatment method on individuals

in work adjustment training are important, especially con-
sidering the diversity of handicapping conditions represented
by this clientele. Three subjects were selected by the
Peckham staff and this researcher. They represent primary
disabilities of physical limitation, emotional imparment,

and mental retardation. Each was referred separately, and

participated in the study at a different time.

Terry L. Vander-Molen

I

The procedure involved an initial baseline period
(Base I), a self-monitoring period, a second baseline period
(Base II), a self-monitoring + reinforcement period, and final
baseline (Base III). During the entire study data was collected
using ten minute observations out of the four periods of the
day (before and after morning break, and before and after
afternoon break), by the staff. The self-monitoring period re-
quired the subject to simply observe and record the target be-
haviors. The self-monitoring + reinforcement period involved
self-determined goals and self-selected reinforcers for goal
attainment, in addition to self—monitoring.

A logical approach to the data was taken instead of
extensive statistical analyses. Results were represented by
the use of graphs and median trend lines. In addition, means
and standard deviations for each period were presented to pro—
vide an opportunity to review the data from another perspective.

The research hypotheses were generally supported
by varying degree, indicating self-monitoring to be helpful
in altering target behaviors, self-monitoring + reinforce-
ment also to be effective, and thus self-control to have a
positive influence on work adjustment trainee behaviors.

It was concluded that self-control could be an
effective treatment method in a work adjustment training
program, as it was received well, with positive treatment
effects, by individuals with diverse handicapping conditions.
Thus, the study served its purpose by presenting data that

would support and encourage the pursuit of further research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In this section I wish to express my gratitude for
the assistance received toward my doctoral degree, and in
particular, the dissertation study.

First, I wish to acknowledge Dr. James Engelkes,
chairman of my doctoral committee, whose leadership and
guidance in the planning and evaluation of this research were
most crucial. Many thanks are due for guidance throughout the
the program, arranging for finantial assistance, and providing
opportunities to work with the students enrolled in the
Masters Program.

Likewise, I wish to express appreciation to other
‘ members of my committee. Dr. John Schneider assisted with
the development of the dissertation, and the successful
struggle through comprehensive exams. Dr. Richard Johnson
made specific recommendations that enhanced the develop-
ment and completion of this study. Dr. Charles Coker
represented the University of Wisconsin-Stout for whom this
pilot study was conducted. His background, expertise, and
years of experience in conducting research in the work
adjustment setting were invaluable in the development and
execution of the dissertation.

In addition, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the
partial support for this research provided by the Research
and Training Center of the University of Wisconsin-Stout,
through grant #16-P-56821/S, from the National Institute of

Handicapped Research of the Rehabilitation Services Adminis-

tration.

ii

My sincere appreciation must be expressed to Dr.
William Farquar for his personal interest, and assistance
with coursework, and occasional difficulties encountered
during the pursuit of the doctoral degree.

This study could not have been completed without
the consent, and assistance of the staff at Peckham Vocational
Industries, Inc., Lansing, Michigan. Glen Tarrant, Executive
Director, and Mitch Tomlinson, Director of Services, provided
the administrative leadership, and support necessary for
the research to.be initiated, and subsequently conducted.
Service Coordinators, Dean Manikas, Mary Smith, and Lisa
Breitzer assisted with client identification, and selection.
They were also available throughout the study, and provided
important input, and observations. Randy Van Amburg, Accoun-
tant, made production records available for review, which
provided information that was helpful in the development of
the study design. Teresa Bass, Clerical Work Adjustment
Instructor, assisted most directly with the selection of
Subject A. She also provided technical assistance, valuable
input, and kept the necessary records for the data collection
on Subject A. Subjects B, and C were training in the work-
shop. Industrial Supervisor, Marilyn Buchko was most
valuable to the data collection by arranging for them to
continue on the same job as much as possible. Her leader-
ship, and the assistance of_her work adjustment speacialists
Jim Crisp, Alan Collinsworth, Mike Dumeney, and Mary Gilbert,

made it possible for the data collection to be completed.

111

A special thanks to Debbie Luenberger for making observations
and collecting data points. Julie Goodman and Michelle Shortz
helped with supplies, copies, telephone messages, and general
technical assistance. I greatly appreciate the great deal

of personal interest shown by those mentioned above, and
considered it a privilege to have worked with each one.

The three individuals who served as subjects for
this study deserve special recognition. Without their
cooperation and willingness to subject themselves to new
experiences this study would not have been possible.‘ For
reasons of confidentiality they will remain anonymous, but
each has been personally thanked.

Recognition is due our parents, brothers, sisters,
their Spouses, relatives, and friends who were understanding
and supportive of the pursuit of this long term goal. Many
thanks to them for encouraging thoughts, words, and deeds
during these years.

The greatest debt of gratitude must be expressed
to my family. My son Todd, provided welcome diversions by
participating in sports. This allowed me the opportunity to
attend the events, observe his performance, and take pride
in his growth, and development. My daughter Stacie, afforded
me additional pleasure with her superior academic performance,
and excellent participation in the AWANA Club. Her interest
in music also gave me the pleasurable opportunity for
tutoring. Their patience, and tolerance of these difficult

years served as an inspiration to continue, when I became

iv

discouraged. My wife, Sue, deserves the most credit, and
recognition for the completion of this degree. She not
only worked full time in an effort to support us finantially,
but provided psychological, and emotional support as well.
She was understanding when we shared frustrations, and pro-
vided encouragment when I became despondent. In addition,
she typed the drafts, revisions, and final copy of this
dissertation.

In short, this degree was completed successfully
as the result of a family effort. Sacrifices were made in
changing from professional status to student status, but we

are looking forward to enjoying the rewards.

Chapter

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Problem . . . . . .

Introduction

Need . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . .
Research Question
Theory . . . . . . .
Definitions of Terms
Overview . . . . . .

A Review of Literature

Introduction .

Self Control . . .
Self Monitoring . .
Self Reinforcement
Work Adjustment .
Summary . . . . . .

Methodology . . . . .

Introduction

Sample . . . . . . .
Instrumentation . .
Procedures . . . . .
Hypotheses . .
Design . .'. . . . .

Intensive Research

Analysis . . . .

Results

Introduction .
Subject A . .
Subject B . . . .
Subject C . . . .

Treatment Phase Means

Trends and Similarities

vi

Design

Page

\lO‘U‘L‘L‘NI—u H

(D

10
16
22
28
35

37

37.
37

39
40
43
44

45
48
50

SO
50
57
61
65
69

Chapter ' Page

V. Discussion . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . 71
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Appendices
Appendix
A. Letter of Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
B. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

C. List of Reinforcers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
D. Original Data Points and Graphs . . . . . . . 97
E. Exit Interview Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . 117

References 0 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 118

vii

LIST OF

Mean performance
in each phase of

Mean performance
in each phase of

Mean performance

in each phase of

and
the

and
the

and
the

TABLES

standard deviations with-
study for Subject A . .

standard deviations with-
study for Subject B . . .

standard deviations with-
study for Subject C

Viii

Page

66

67

68

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
3-1. Sequence of interventions in work adjustment

training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3-2. An example of data considered supportive of

this study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4-1. Median trend lines of performance speed with-

in each phase of the study for Subject A . . 52
4-2. Median trend lines of performance accuracy

within each phase of the study for Subject A 53
4-3. Median trend lines of performance within each

phase of the study for Subject B . . . . . . 60
4-4. Median trend lines of performance within each

phase of the study for Subject C . . . . . . 64
B-l. Form used for recording data during the 10

minute observation periods . . . . . . . . . 95
D-l. Base I data points (Subject A: Typing speed) 97
D-2. Self monitoring data points (Subject A: Typing

speed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
D-3. Base II data points (Subject A: Typing speed) 99
D-4. Self monitoring + reinforcement data points

(Subject A: Typing speed) . . . . . . . . . 100

D-S. Base III data points (Subject A: Typing speed) 101
D-6. Base I data points (Subject A: Typing accuracy) 102

D-7. Self monitoring data points (Subject A: Typing
accuracy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

D-8. Base II data points (Subject A: Typing accuracy)104

D-9. Self monitoring + reinforcement (Subject A:
Typing accuracy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

D-lO. Base III data points (Subject A: Typing
accuracy) 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 106

D-ll. Base I data points (Subject B: Production
performance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

ix

Self monitoring data points (Subject B:
Production performance) . . . . . . .

Base II data points (Subject B: Production
performance) . . . . . . .

Self monitoring + reinforcement (Subject B:
Production performance) . . . . . . . .

Base III data points (Subject B: Production
performance) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Base I data points (Subject C: Production
performance) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Self monitoring data points (Subject C:
Production performance) . . . . . . . .

Base II data points (Subject C: Production
performance) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Self monitoring + reinforcement (Subject C:
Production performance) . . . . . . . . .

Base III data points (Subject C. Production
performance) . . . . . .

Page

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

CHAPTER ONE

THE‘PROBLEM

 

INTRODUCTION

In the mid-sixties the behavioral therapy technique
of self-control began to gain recognition. During the
seventies it became increasingly popular as evidenced by
the increasing number of studies appearing in the professional
journals. In 1972, a special heading (Self-Control) was

implemented as a separate category in the Psychological

 

Abstracts. A variety of descriptors, to include self-
directed, self-controlled, self-regulated, and self-managed
behavior change, were included. However, for the purposes
of this study, the term "self-control" refers to all of

the above and-incorporates the principle that the individual
has the capacity to control his/her own destiny.

Earlier studies involved non-handicapped individuals,
who dealt with behavior changes that would result in weight-
reduction, and the elimination of cigarette smoking. More
recent research however, examined a wider variety of behaviors
to include fingernail biting, personal hygiene, dating be-
havior, vocational career selection, studying, anger arousal,
lying, aggression, boring and ambiguious tasks, production
rates, and many others too numerous to mention here. In
addition, individuals with more diverse handicapping conditions

recently have been included, such as substance abusers,

schizophrenic children, post-polio victims, those with
muscular dystrophy, quadriplegics, and all levels of mental
retardation, at all ages. Self-control has been compared
to other techniques like the charting of behaviors, token
reinforcement, and social reinforcement; validated by the
use of biofeedback techniques; and examined in a variety

of settings to include elementary schools, universities,
facilities, and work adjustment programs.

Work adjustment programs provide training in the
skills needed by handicapped individuals to perform success-
fully in job settings. This training may include developing
appropriate responses to authority, increasing time-on-task
behavior, improving social skills with co-workers, encourag-
ing dependability and punctuality, learning effective job
seeking skills, and other behaviors that will enhance the
individual's potential to become employed. Adjustment
programs furnish an important transitional phase that assist
a person in advancing from a non-productive status to one of
being a contributing member of society. Thus, the study of
this relatively new, and popular self-control technique within
the work adjustment setting is encouraging to the field of
Rehabilitation, as more effective, and efficient techniques
for assisting the handicapped continuously are being sought.

NEED

A review of the literature revealed a paucity of
studies dealing with the handicapped who are enrolled in

work adjustment programs. This was unexpected as the field

of Rehabilitation has been mandated to serve the more severly
handicapped since the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of
1973, (PL 93-112). Since then more people, with conditions
that constitute a more significant handicap, are being dis-
charged from institutions, and integrated into local
communities. These individuals generally need more indepth
services in order to become employable, and work adjustment
training programs are designed to meet that need.

In view of the studies that present encouraging
results in terms of the feasibility, and effectiveness of
self-control as a technique, it seems logical that it be
examined in the work adjustment setting. The general approach
in this setting is to have the training goals, processes,
and reinforcers determined by the program, and the staff
operating it. However, an increase in clients with more
severe disabilities means that existing adjustment services
are being increasingly taxed (Sink and Field, 1978). Thus,
either the client—to-staff ratio must grow larger (a larger
~number of clients working with a single staff member) with
a corresponding decrease in the quality of service provided,
or the waiting list to access these services must grow longer,
which dictates correspondingly longer periods of idle, and
non-productive time for these persons. By introducing the
self-control technique it was expected that the recipient of
work adjustment training would have more input, influence,
and responsibility for the outcome of that training. This

could result in the client putting forth more effort,

acquiring a feeling of personal investment in his/her
rehabilitation program, and a corresponding reduction in
staff time necessary for interaction (Mahoney and Mahoney,
1976; Wehman, et. al., 1978; DeVries, 1976). This would
allow for a greater client-to-staff ratio without a re-
duction in the quality of services provided, reduce the
length of the waiting lists, and minimize the amount of
wasted time in the lives of these individuals.

PURPOSE

The specific purpose of this study was to examine
the utility of self-control techniques within a work adjust-
ment training setting. This was accomplished by 1) Specific
training of the staff and clients in the techniques of self-
control; 2) The selection of specific client behaviors to
be examined; 3) Self—monitoring by clients, and staff monitor-
ing of the frequencies of those behaviors; 4) Self-determina-
tion of target behavior goals; and 5) Self-reinforcement for
the appropriate manipulation of the target behaviors.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Considering the popularity, apparent effectiveness,
and efficiency of the self-control technique, and the in-
creasing demands being made on work adjustment services, it
seemed reasonable to examine their combined effectiveness.
The basic question for this study asked what effect self-
control has on controling and/or changing the behavior of

individual clients in a work adjustment training program?

THEORY

The principles of learning theory provided the basis
for this research. Learning theory claims that personality
is developed in response to a series of rewarding or punish-
ing consequences of behavior. The behaviors which result in
aversive consequences (punishment) decrease in the probability
of recurrance. Behaviors which result in positive conse-
quences (reward) will increase the probability of recurrance.
As several repititions of reward or punishment of this type
occur, the person's predictable behavioral pattern is formed.
Through this process, the individual deveIOps sequences of
behavior which promote individual growth. In addition,
antecedent cues or situations occuring just prior to a re-
warded or punished behavior become related to the prediction
of the consequence of the behavior. The ability to recognize
cues and to understand consequences of behavior forms a
basis upon which behavioral control is predicted. Within
this broad concept of learning theory are countless principles,
techniques, and definitions (DeVries, 1976).

Of particular importance to this study were the
selected principles of operant behavior and contingency
management. Operant behavior is a physical response to a
stimulus or cue in the environment which causes a measurable
effect on that environment. Each activity the person finds
rewarded by the environment increases the probability of
its recurrence; those met with punishment through condition-

ing, decrease their probability of recurrence. Contingency

management is the control of the various stimuli or rein-
forcements which affect the probability of recurrence of a
selected behavior. By controlling the situation or the
specific rewards which usually serve to produce or maintain
the behavior, the behavior itself can be controlled. Speci-
fically, the theory of self-directed or self-controlled
behavior is the basic concept to be considered as background
for the study. This concept will be defined in the following
section, and elaborated upon in the next chapter.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Self-control: Personally controlled behavior change
where the target behavior, and the specific change to be made
are self-suggested or self-prescribed, and clearly identified
in objective, observable terms. The technique includes:
self-monitoring of target behaviors, and self-recording
performance concerning those behaviors; self-determined goals
for the target behaviors; and self-selected, and self-
administered reinforcement for achieving those goals.

Work Adjustment: A treatment or training process
utilizing individual, and group work, on work related
activities, to assist individuals in understanding the meaning,
value, and demands of work; to modify or develop attitudes,
personal characteristics, and work behavior; and to develop
functional capacities, as required in order to assist
individuals toward their optimum level of vocational develop-

ment (Sink et. al., 1978).

OVERVIEW

In the following chapter a review of the literature
is provided with respect to the application of self-controlled
behavioral techniques in a work adjustment training program
setting. Specific studies relevant to self-control, self-
monitoring, self-reinforcement, and work adjustment will be
included in separate sections. In chapter three the specific
procedures for conducting the study will be described, and
testable hypotheses stated. The analysis of results will
comprise chapter four, and the discussion, limitations,
implications, and recommendations will be presented in

chapter five.

CHAPTER TWO

A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 

INTRODUCTION

The learning theory of behaviorism has been con-
sidered mechanistic as it views the individual as a complex
accumulation of the modification of innate responses, and
the responses to stimuli, which have been determined by the
consequences and reinforcements received. Behaviorists have
historically viewed the development of personality, and in-
dividualized behaviors as the result of interaction with the
environment, and events external to the individual. Humanists,
on the other hand, believe personality and behavior to be the
result of cognitive processing of information and events by
the individual, including the perceptual processes highly I
unique to that individual (Rogers, 1961). Behavioral therapy
is an emerging trend that incorporates the principles of
empathy, warmth, genuineness, and a primary concern for the
individual, with the efficient and effective tools of be-
haviorism. This combination generally results in effective
behavioral change, and the development of a therapeutic,
interpersonal relationship with the individual (Gomes-
Schwartz, et. al., 1978). This relationship allows the in-
dividual to feel more secure in the counseling environment
and thus express, and deal with, more personal and private
concerns, and emotions. The powerful tools previously
described can then be appropriately utilized within this

secure environment. Hence behavioral therapy can be

effectively applied to external behaviors, internal emotions,
‘ and perceptions as well.

The newest development in this trend is the self-
control technique, which utilizes the humanistic, and
mechanistic approach to problem solving, and behavior mod-
ification, and in addition, places the individual in complete
control of the therapeutic process. This technique demands
a self-realization of the cues which surround the behavior,
and the reinforcement contingencies which affect it. In
addition, as mentioned in the first chapter, self-controlled
behavior necessitates a self-established standard for the
behavior, self-monitoring, and a self-controlled reward system.

Work adjustment programs, as previously described
were envisioned by early leaders in the field as highly
sophisticated processes utilizing the psycho-social components
of work to modify behavior, shape work attitudes, and generally
prepare handicapped people for the labor market. Teaching
concommitant community survival skills was another goal
‘deemed necessary, and beneficial to achieve the primary
vocational functioning objective (Wainwright, and Couch,
1978). Striving to achieve these goals provides a valuable,
and necessary function that assists in the rehabilitation of
more severly handicapped individuals. As a result of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the growing trend toward
de-institutionalization, existing services are having
difficulty responding to the increasing need, and studies
in innovation, effectiveness, and efficiency are in order

(Sawyer, and Baker, 1978; Sink, and Field, 1978).

10

This study was an attempt to meet those needs, and
in doing so relevant literature was examined. Reviewed here
is that body of literature which evaluates the specific
areas of self-control, self-management, and self-reinforce-
ment in terms of their proven effects on behavior. Studies
investigating work adjustment training programs, and various
techniques used in them are also presented. In addition, a
few studies were located that applied self-control programs
to sheltered workshop, and work adjustment clients, and they
are summarized.

SELF CONTROL

The individual who is credited with making the
largest contribution to the advancement, experimentation,
and deve10pment of operant conditioning is B.F. Skinner.
This is important here as much of self-control is based on
the application of the principles of reinforcement to operant
behaviors. In one of the original writings on the topic of
behavioral self-control, Skinner (1953) envisioned it as
the reinforcement of those behaviors which make punished
behavior less probable, and called this process the self-
determination of conduct. He explained that when the
punishing effects of certain behaviors are reduced, the
behavior causing the reduction is rewarded by the reduction
of the punishment. When that behavior is rewarded, its
probability of recurrence thus increases, and the in-
dividuar then is seen as operating under self control. In

other words, the individual will more probably engage in

11

behavior that is reinforcing, less probably engage in be—
havior that is punishing, and is in control of making these
choices.

Perhaps the most complete review of self-controlled
behavior theory, and application is that of Mahoney, and
Thoresen (1974). They agreed with the basic principle that
behavior is controlled either by antecedents, and/or cues to
behavior. If one wishes to change a given behavior, one
must recognize both the typical consequences of the behavior
as well as the cues that elicit that behavior. Mahoney, and
Thoresen indicated research has verified that for selfn
control to be effective, at least one of three elements must
be present: self-observation, environmental planning, or
behavioral programming.

The concept of self-observation allows a variety
of technical alternatives including the use of graphs, and
charts or any other systematic recording of behavior. The
use of any form of an immediate feedback device by which the
individual can judge progress is recommended. Self-obser-
vation is simply the routine, accurate reporting of the
activity level of a target behavior that one does for oneself.
Environmental planning, according to Mahoney, and Thoresen,
involves changing the environment so that either the cues
that precede the behavior or the consequences that follow
it are changed. This may necessitate avoiding situations
which elicit the behavior or avoiding those situations in

which a choice is allowable. The final recommended procedure

12

is behavioral programming. This last recommendation involves
altering the consequence which will change the frequency of
the behavior.

In a somewhat more theoretical evaluation of the
topic of self-control, Klausner (1965), provided considerable
input. He considered self-control to be the freedom from
external social dictates, or the internalizing of authori-
tarian dictates. According to Klausner, self-control is the
ability to control the environment, and its impact. He
indicated, however, that self-control is not so much total
control of self but rather the control of selected aspects
of the self.

Cautella (1969), described self—control as a response
repertiore in which the individual can make responses to in-
crease or decrease a response probability that is perceived
as injurious to oneself or to others. He endorsed the con-
cept of self-control because he felt the individual is more
apt to maintain a level of new behavior if he is responsible
for that change. Cautella described the method of self-
control within an operant framework, which utilized reinforce-
ment, and punishment. Also described was reciprocal in-
hibition, which utilizes the processes of relaxation, thought
stopping, or covert sensitization.

Rimm, and Masters (1974), defined the process of
self-control as replacement of nonproductive behaviors with
productive behavior. As others have indicated, the impor-

tance of the personal awareness of stimulus situations in

13

the environment which affect the probability of the desired
behavior, and the response consequences of the desired be-
havior are emphasized. In other words, one must be aware

of the causes, and consequences of the behavior. These
authors also felt that alternative or competing behaviors
are essential, as are the use of the principles of approxi-
mation (or shaping) to the desired behavior. Also important
are the chaining of behaviors, and the control of the early
parts of the chain, and the importance of self-monitoring.

In a critical article, Catania (1975), analyzed the
concept of self-reinforcement, and concluded that because of
internal logical contradictions, self-awareness is a more
accurate term. He indicated the essential component of
situations typically cited as instances of self-reinforce-
ment was not the involvement of self-administered rein-
forcement but rather the establishment of self-discrimination
or self-awareness.

Self-control has been used in combination with
other theories. Radin, and Wittes (1974), discussed the
findings, impact, and implications of the Michigan Early
Education Program. The project developed a preschool
curriculum, based primarily on Piaget's theory of the
sequential development of intelligence, to use in the class-
room, and in a home tutorial setting. The program also
developed a group parent education program which used be-
havior modification principles to teach mothers how to

foster the growth of self-discipline in their children.

14

In a book written by members of the Transactional
Analysis Institute in New York, R. G.Abell, a psychol-
analyst, presented a new approach to self understanding, and
psychotherapy which was based on Transactional Analysis,
Gestalt Therapy, nonverbal techniques, and traditional
psychoanalytic procedures (Abell and Abell, 1976). Through
personal experience, and exemplary case studies the author
told how the reader can use psychological techniques to
increase self-awareness, and control, manage, and "own" ones
own life.

Career development theory has also been influenced
by self-control studies as Thoresen, and Ewart (1976), main-
tained that the selection of a career is more complicated
than studies generated by the typology theory of J. L. Holland,
and the self—concept approaches suggest. Using an adapta-
tion of J. D. Krumboltz's social learning model of career
selection, it was argued that vocational decision making
required a variety of self-control competencies. It was
noted that while existing career studies frequently do not
satisfy the scientific criteria of systematic observation,
and rigorous instrumentation, self-control research could
be devised to meet the requirements of intensive research
design.

As evidence that the self-control technique is
useable by lay individuals, Wallace (1977), made a statement
that indicated how he, and others, used behavioristic methods--

specifically, self-recording charts, and regularly scheduled

15

daily work hours--to accelerate, and maintain their writing
outputs. 0n the basis of his statement, and an analysis of
his self-recorded data, it was argued that a meaningful and
useful analogy could be drawn between writing a novel and
emitting a simple operant response on a regular schedule.
This was accomplished by these writers without specialized
training in behavioral therapy.

In addition, Perri, and Richards (1977) conducted
an investigation into naturally occuring episodes of self—
controling behaviors. They indicated that this was a common
experience that had received little attention from re-
searchers. Through a structured interview procedure, a
demographic questionnaire, and a paper-and-pencil test,
they determined those factors and methods that were crucial
to successful self-management. Several college students
were interviewed about their attempts to use self-control
techniques for overeating, smoking, studying, or dating.
Results indicated the following conclusions: a) Successful
self-controllers reported using more techniques for longer
periods of time; b) The use of self-reinforcement procedures
was an important discriminant of successful self-management;
c) The methods used by successful self-controllers seemed
to vary according to the problem with which they were
dealing.

Santrock (1976), examined the influence of various
factors on the performance of a motor task. Three components

of a situation--the ecological setting, the child's cognition,

16

and the social agent-~were imbued with positive, neutral,

or negative affect to determine if they were functionally
related to the continued maintenance of performance at the
task. The most powerful effects occurred when the affect

of the ecological setting was changed: Those who experienced
a happy room with happy pictures, and faces persisted longer
than those in the sad or neutral room. Also, those who
thought about happy things persisted longer than the sub-
jects who thought about sad or neutral things.

Thus, self-control has been widely researched,
examined in a variety of ways, studied in combination with
other theories, and observed in many settings. One of the
basic principles of this technique will be reviewed in the
next section.

SELF MONITORING

One of the primary components in changing behavior
by self-control methods is self-monitoring. Few published
studies were found, but several individuals examined the
concept of self-recording, and its overall effect on behavior,
in their dissertation studies.

Walls (1969), stated in his discussion of the
application of behavior modification to rehabilitation that
the most expeditious plan in observing behaviors is to have
the client count, and record target behavior. He went on
to note that in many cases no reinforcement other than auto-
recording may be necessary to accelerate desired behavior.

Mahoney, and Thoresen (1974), supported this same'contention

17

when they indicated that self-monitoring may be more than

an assessment tool, it could also be a treatment strategy.

They called this possibility the reactive component of self-
monitoring, and suggested that a baseline of self-monitoring

is essential to understanding other specific treatment effects.

Kazdin (1974), in an extensive review of the litera-
ture wherein self-monitoring was part of an experimental
approach, found studies where self-monitoring had an effect
on behavior, and studies where it apparently had no effect.

It was his conclusion that self-monitoring has not been
consistently influential in behavior change. He also
addressed the issue of the reactivity of self-observation.

It was his belief that whether the reactivity issue was or
was not a problem depended on how the self-gained information
was to be used. He noted that in many cases, the effects of
self-monitoring seemed to lose impact on behavior change

over time.

Richards, et. al. (1976), conducted an investigation
dealing with the self-control of study behavior of college
students. They replicated support for a previous finding
that self-monitoring does change study behavior. In addition,
they examined whether information feedback, and self-
administered consequences had an effect on self-monitored
study behavior. They found that information feedback did
account for some of the behavior change but manipulating
the quantity, and quality of information feedback, and self-

administered consequences had little or no effect on the

18

changes produced. An additional finding was that students
lacking accurate information about the extent (i.e., amount)
of their study behavior benefited more from self-monitoring
than those who were already knowledgeably about their study
behavior.

In an unpublished doctoral dissertation Hutzell
'(1975), researched the effects of self—recording a neutral-
valued behavior. Eyeblinking was selected as the neutral
behavior, and was self-recorded by different experimental
groups. The primary results indicated that self-recording
had a reactive effect upon eye-blinking rates. The direction
of the effect was not the same across all subjects, but pro-
duced a decrease in eye-blinking rates for the majority of
subjects. However, the subject's expectancies for change
as manipulated by the procedures of the investigation had
no significant relationship with the actual direction of
change in eyeblinking rates. In a related study, Katz, et.
al. (1976), investigated the effects of self—monitoring as
a function of expectancies for change, and incompatible
response training. The monitored response was fingernail
biting behavior performed by college students. Results
showed that self-monitoring alone did not reduce nail biting,
nor did the addition of an incompatible response reduce that
activity. However, the reactivity of self-monitoring seemed
to be determined by the expectancy variable.

A study that investigated the relative therapeutic

utility of self-monitoring, and self-instruction, applied to

19

covert responses related to depression was conducted by
Nystedt (1976), in his doctoral dissertation. Although the
study found no group differences on the behavioral measures
of depression, the group that combined self-monitoring with

a self-instructional procedure to generate covert positive
self-statements showed a significant increase in the rate

of recorded positive self-statements. The group’that self-
monitored their positive, and negative self-referenced state-
ments only, failed to modify the rate of recorded positive
self-statements.

Self-monitoring was compared to thought-stopping,
and applied to smoking behavior by Cochran (1976), in her
dissertation. In this study self-monitoring alone was less
effective than when used in combination with other self-
control procedures (i.e. suggestion influencing expectation,
and thought-stopping).

In another dissertation, Grace (1976), examined the
effectiveness of self-monitoring in the modification of
obesity in children. Children were taught to monitor, and
graph the frequency of their eating, and exercise. These
children lost significantly more weight than controls at
post treatment. They also showed maintenance of weight-losses,
along with continued weight loss, at one, and two month
follow-up contacts.

Blumberg (1976), studied the effectiveness of self-
monitoring in the treatment of enuresis, for his disserta-

tion. Subjects were required to monitor their reactions

20

to increasing the daily amount of liquid intake, and the
time each would voluntarily retain urine after first feeling
the desire to void. Fifty percent of the subjects attained
correction (14 consecutive nights without bed wetting), and
another 16.7 percent reported improvement over baseline.

In a feasibility study, Moinat, and Snortum (1976),
tested the usefullness of a 9 week program for training
incarcerated female drug addicts in the use of self-manage-
ment techniques, to include self-monitoring, and contingency
management. Seventeen separate projects were completed
which included the self-control of smoking, calorie intake,
fingernail biting, hair-twisting, and lying. All but one
of the projects demonstrated an improvement in final per-
formance compared to baseline levels. Two indirect behavioral
measures suggested that the subjects were methodical, and
honest in self-monitoring their responses. There was no
evidence that subjects using tangible consequences for goal
attainment made greater progress than those employing only
self-praise or social—reinforcement.

Another dissertation study combined the techniques
of self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement, and tested their
effectiveness in a medical rehabilitation setting (DeVries,
1976). Using an intensive research design, three patients
residing in a medical rehabilitation treatment center werel
studied in terms of the effects of this treatment on specific
behaviors that were directly related to their rehabilitation

process. Although the results were somewhat equivocal, an

21

analysis of the overall process indicated the patterns of
behavior changed dramatically after the self-reinforcement
treatment period, back to levels similar to the baseline in
many cases.

Self-monitoring, and reinforcement were examined in
reference to the study behavior of college students, in a
research project by Tichenor (1977). Subjects were asked
to observe, and record the number of minutes studied for a
course. Reinforcers were points toward that subject's
course grade. Results indicated a significant increase in
study time, suggesting this approach is possible, and effec-
tive in the natural environment.

Another study used a self-monitoring/self-rein-
forcement combination that was shown to be effective in
modifying the inefficient spending habits of college under-
graduates (Paulsen, et. al., 1977). Spending, and the carry-
ing of checkbooks or credit cards were self-recorded, and
self-reinforcement was administered for the avoidance of
these behaviors. The treatment group produced a significantly
greater change (55 percent reduction in spending) than placebo
control subjects, who showed a slight average increase. A
three month follow-up suggested that the improvement was
maintained.

Rekers, and Varni (1977), used the self-monitoring,
and self-reinforcement combination in an intensive research
design to decrease feminine behavior in a cross-gender-

identified six year old boy. The subject was taught to

22

Self-monitor his own sex-role behavior, and then to reinforce
himself for appropriate gender responses. A follow-up con-
ducted 12 months after the termination of treatment showed
that the subject exhibited no evidence of feminine behavior
or mannerisms, and appeared more calm, relaxed, and socially
responsive than at the beginning of therapy.

The current literature generally showed self-
monitoring to have some effect on the behavior involved but
not in a systematic nor predictable fashion. In addition,
behavior changes as a result of self-monitoring seemed to
be temporary in some cases. However, the effectiveness of
this treatment appears to be improved when used in combination
with other techniques, leading to significant changes in
behaviors that have been maintained over time. The most
effective combination seemed to be self-monitoring with self-
reinforcement, which produced the most significant, and
consistant results. Hence, this combination was selected to
be incorporated into this study.

SELF REINFORCEMENT

Another major component within the_self—control
concept is the management of reinforcers that will change
the target behavior. Bandura, one of the leaders in the
field, has published, in conjunction with others, several
articles on the topic (Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove, 1967;
Bandura, and Perloff, 1967; Bandura, and Whalen, 1966). In
these articles, the authors were generally concerned with

the combined effects of role modeling on the

23

self-establishment of reward standards, and the effects of
self-reinforcement on the individual. In a study of 80
children, Bandura, and Perloff (1967) reported that the rein-
forced subjects as a group performed better at a given task
than did the non-reinforced group. They noted no significant
difference in the performance of the externally or self-rein-
forced children. They did note however, that the self-rein-
forced group seemed to establish higher levels of performance
than was necessary in terms of minimal standards for reward.
Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove (1967) discovered that when
children were exposed to role models, they tended to establish
a standard for their own behavior in terms of the modeled
standards, even if the schedule was very demanding, and lower
performances were possible to obtain the same reward. The
common observation in each research team was the negative
personal effect that the potential for failure had on the
children, as well as the undue expectations they often held
for their own performance. Based on this research, it might
be worthwhile in any self—reinforcement program to be alert
to the tendency of persons to be overly demanding in establish-
ing behavior standards for the amount of reward obtained.

Sola, and Resnick (1973), conducted two experiments
with 7 year olds from schools in a black, lower socioeconomic
status neighborhood, to test the hypothesis that self-pro-
duction of sensory reinforcement enhances its effect relative
to identical reinforcement which is externally provided.

Completion of a work period led to a reinforcement period,

24

where different groups either controlled visual input or
received the same input externally controlled. It was
found that, over extended trials, the group with autocontrol
of visual input completed more trials before dropping out,
and responded at a higher rate during the reinforcement
period, than did groups with the externally-produced input.
It was concluded that self-production is an important factor
in determining the effectiveness of sensory reinforcement.

In a much different research design, Lovitt, and
Curtiss (1959), reported the results of a comparative study
on reinforcement techniques. In a single case study design
of a twelve-year-old student, the researchers found that
self-administered rewards by the student for Correct be-
havior prompted a higher performance for a specific class-
room behavior than either a teacher-dominated point system
or other teacher-dictated reward. In a repeated measure
experimental study, these findings were reproduced, thereby
confirming the hypothesis that a self-directed reinforcement
program produces more of a desired change in a specific
behavior than does an externally devised system.

In another single subject study, Nurnberger, and
Zimmerman (1970), applied the concept of self-controlled
behavior to study habits. They found, through the use of
self-administered punishment, that a graduate student
significantly changed his behavior with respect to work on
his dissertation. The student increased his study behavior

when he required the researchers to spend his money on social

25

programs with which he was in basic disagreement, if his
behavior was below a self-established standard. It is
surmised by DeVries (1976), although not described in the
article itself, that the reinforcement gained by the student
for productive behavior undoubtedly served to increase his
motivation to continue such goal directed behaviors as well.

In a comparative study, Mahoney, Maura, and Wade
(1973), found there was a significant difference in weight
loss between groups using self-reward, self-punishemnt, or a
combination of the two, to control eating. They discovered
that the self-reward group lost the most weight over a period
of time. The self-reward/self-punishment group was less
effective in weight loss than the first group but more
effective than the self-punishment only group. This seemed
to indicate that the utilization of self-reinforcement has
more applicability than self-punishment, however, there may
be some consideration given to applying both principles in
a self-control study.

Introducing another aspect into the self-reinforce-
ment research, Reschly, and Mittman (1973), examined the
relationship of self-esteem status, and task ambiguity. In
a study with male, and female 7th graders, a direct, positive
relationship between self-esteem status, and self-reinforce-
ment rates was found. The higher the individual's self-
esteem, the more appropriately, and effectively self-rein-
forcement was integrated. In addition, these authors

successfully replicated previously reported generalizations

26

concerning an indirect, negative relationship between amount
of task ambiguity, and rates of self-reinforcement.

In a similar vein, Rozensky et. al. (1977), examined
the relationship between depression, and self-reinforce-
ment behavior in medical patients in a Veteran's Administra-
tion Hospital. Those referred for psychological evaluation
were divided into high, and low depression groups, and were
compared with a control group on a memory task. Results show
that the high depression group gave themselves fewer self-
rewards, and more self-punishment following their task
responses than either of the other groups. This was true
despite the fact that there were no differences in the number
of correct responses.

Speidel (1974), studied the motivating effects of
contingent self-reward on an intellectual, though boring,
task. College students were instructed to work on simple
addition problems for as long as they wished. Subjects in
the self-reward condition presented themselves with sections
of a television film, contingent upon a fixed ratio schedule,
that they had selected from three alternatives. An experi-
menter-rewarded group received the same movie sections auto-
matically. A control group received rest periods instead of
the film. Results partially support the hypothesis that con-
tingent self-reward can have motivating effects. The self-
reward group completed significantly more problems than the

control group, while there were no significant differences

27

in number of problems completed between the self-reward, and
the experimenter-rewarded groups.

Kanfer, and Duerfeldt (1967), in a three-phase
research design utilizing three groups, also tested the
effects of self-controlled versus other-directed reinforce-
ment. Three groups of subjects were shown geometric designs,
and asked to select correct designs based on a pre-given
criteria. Two of the three groups were initially reinforced
for responses without any relationship to correctness; the
third group was not reinforced for any response. The second
phase of the study continued the non-contingent external
reward system for one group, the second group was asked to
reward themselves if they felt they were correct, while the
control group continued on a no-reinforcement program. The
final phase of this study was an extinction period for all
three groups. The results showed a significant difference
in the final phase behavior with the self-reinforcement
group correctly choosing more designs than the other groups.
This study supports the hypothesis that training in self-
administered reinforcement enhances performance under
extinction.

Based on the data presented in the above studies,
some general conclusions can be drawn. Without any doubt,
there is reason to believe that the use of reinforcement,
whether externally controlled or self-directed, enhances
the likelihood of change in a target behavior. Although

the literature was not conclusive on the differences between

28

the externally controlled, and self-directed reinforcement
programs, there are some subtle points to be made. It seems
apparent that the use of self-directed reinforcement causes
individuals to set higher goals for themselves in terms of
an acceptable standard of behavior. Once established, this
behavior pattern seems to exist for a longer period of time
than does the behavior pattern of an externally reinforced
group. These considerations are of utmost importance when
considering the behaviors of clients in work adjustment
settings. If an individual can be helped to produce be—
haviors that are more appropriate to the work setting, his/her
employability will be enhanced. Since a major portion of
the clients' time is spent in situations that are not
immediately reinforcing, teaching the principles of self-
reinforcement for use in those situations would perhaps help
increase the likelihood of those behaviors necessary for a
successful, and efficient rehabilitation, in terms of pro-
ductive employment. Thus, the possibility of teaching self-
control behavior patterns that will,persist into these
situations is another major reason for conducting a study
of this nature.

WORK ADJUSTMENT

Special programs to teach work-appropriate behaviors
to handicapped individuals have been in existance for many
years. The passage of Public Law 78-113 in 1943, gave
impetus, and special attention to these programs. Rehabilita-

tion workers were authorized to provide any service necessary

29

to render a disabled individual fit to engage in remunera-

tive employment. Some advances were made in military hospitals
during World War II, and more comprehensive rehabilitation
centers were established. However, no real gains were made
until the 1954, Rehabilitation Act (PL 83-565) authorized the
use of rehabilitation funds for the establishment of rehabilita-
tion facilities. This encouraged the building, and develop-
ment of facilities, and the services provided in them gradually
gained sufficient recognition, and growth to warrant special
legislation. The passage of Public Law 89-333 in 1965,
authorized the provision of vocational evaluation, and
adjustment services for up to 18 months to persons suffering
from catastrophic disabilities. Programs for the mentally
retarded, emphasized by President Kennedy; and the manpower
development programs, and special services for the mentally
111, as part of President Johnson's "Great Society", all
included a strong work adjustment component. In 1967, the
Vocational Evaluation, and Work Adjustment Association was
chartered as a professional division of the National
Rehabilitation Association to particularly represent work
adjustment specialists, and vocational evaluators. By 1976,
VEWAA had grown to become the second largest professional
division of NRA. Finally, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973,

(PL 93-112) placed a greater emphasis on services specifically
for the severely handicapped. The provision of such services
places a great responsibility on the adjustment specialist,

and adjustment programs in general (Sink, et. al., 1978).

30

Studies have been conducted to assess the effec-
tiveness of work adjustment programs, most of which have
been generally favorable. An example is Growick's (1976),
investigation of the effects of a work adjustment program on
the rehabilitation status, and personality of emotionally
handicapped individuals. The personality variables employed
included measures of manifest anxiety, and work attitude.
The subjects were 30 clients who shared a major diagnosis of
emotional disability, possessed a minimum of an eighth-
grade education, and were referred by the Department of
Vocational Rehabilitation to a work adjustment program for
services. Analysis of the data revealed that the work
adjustment program appeared to improve the rehabilitation
status, and work attitude but not the manifest anxiety level
of the participants.

Research has also examined the effectiveness of
behavior modification techniques in the work adjustment
setting. Carter (1973), studied the effect of behavior
modification techniques upon the production, self-evaluation,
and vocational adjustment of retardates. The investigation
compared the effect of teaching sheltered workshop skills
utilizing behavior modification (Operant conditioning)
techniques with the effect of teaching workshop skills by
conventional modes. Production data were gathered, the
clients rated themselves, and were in turn rated as workers
by the staff at two intervals during their stay at the

sheltered workshop: 1) At the conclusion of a three week

31

evaluation period; 2) and upon completing the thirteen week
personal adjustment training period. It was hypothesized
that the behavior modification group would obtain signifi-
cantly higher scores in production, self-evaluation, and
vocational adjustment than the conventionally taught group,
and all three hypotheses were supported beyond the .001
level of confidence. It was concluded that behavior
modification techniques appeared to be a better way of
increasing the production of retardates than conventional
modes of teaching. Another conclusion was that this
technique helped clients to evaluate themselves more realisti-
cally. It was further determined that the conditioning
technique greatly improved vocational adjustment, and was
probably preferable to the conventional teaching technique
with which it was compared.

Three types of behavioral techniques were used by
Moore (1974), in her doctoral dissertation. The effects of
behavioral charting, token reinforcement, social reinforce-
ment, and combinations of behavioral charting with token
or social reinforcement, upon the production rates of
sheltered workshop clients were investigated. The experi-
mental period consisted of six five-day treatment stages
that applied the above mentioned treatments. It was
determined by an analysis of variance of the resulting
weekly group production means that the cumulative effect of
all reinforcement modes applied was highly significant.

However, multiple comparisons of treatment means failed to

32

detect significant differences between most of the specific
reinforcement modes. Charting combined with social rein-
forcement appeared to have the best results with the clients
but this combination procedure was only slightly better than
using charting or social reinforcement alone. Both token,
and social reinforcement were moreeffective than charting
alone. All modes of contingent reinforcement employed were
better than unmanaged reinforcement. These findings led to
the conclusion that positive reinforcement, and specifically
social reinforcement used both alone, and in combination with
behavioral charting, can be a very effective mode of rein-
forcement for sheltered workshop clients.

Ortega, et. a1. (1976), used an intensive research
design to examine the use of social reinforcement to increase
productivity, and develop self-monitoring skills in a mentally
retarded assemblyfline worker. This case study was con-
ducted with a 27-year-old male Down's Syndrome retardate, in
a sheltered workshop. Baseline production was determined,
and in the treatment phase, social reinforcement, in the form
of attention, and verbal praise, was given. The goal for
the study was to improve the client's production rate to
double that of baseline. The subject was instructed in the
use of a simple timing device, and record keeping. Results
showed the subject's production rate did improve to more
than twice that of baseline. The case is offered as further

evidence that teaching self-monitoring skills, plus the use

33

of social reinforcement, can add significantly to effective-
ness in a work adjustment workshop.

The effects of social reinforcement, and visual
feedback on work production among mentally retarded sheltered
workshop clients were assessed by Daniels, and Hansen (1976).
In their investigation four mentally retarded persons re-
ceived both verbal, and visual reinforcement for performance
on a sorting task in a sheltered workshop. Eight others
were nonreinforced controls. Results supported the hypo-
thesis that positive reinforcement would increase work
productivity over a brief period of time for sheltered work-
shop clients. These findings suggested that production for
such individuals can be increased without tokens or other
material reinforcers.

Another study was conducted by Helland et. al.
(1976), where they compared self, and external-reinforcement
using trainable level retarded persons. They used perfor-
mance on a workshop task to study the effectiveness of self-
reinforcement relative to external reinforcement, on
residents of a facility for the trainable mentally retarded.
Their findings indicated that those individuals could learn
self-reinforcement techniques, and the effects of self-
reinforcement were comparable to those of experimenter
reinforcement.

Mahoney, and Mahoney (1976), pointed out the advan-
tages of using selfecontrol techniques with the mentally

retarded. They stated that using a retarded person as a

34

self-change agent had been successfully demonstrated using
three components of self-control: Self-monitoring, antecendent
cue alteration, and consequence changes. They further'
specified that preliminary inquiries indicated self-regula-
tory skills could be developed in areas ranging from personal
hygiene, and aggression to academic performance.

Another article dealing with the issues of behavioral
self-control with mentally retarded clients was written by
Wehman (1975). He discussed this topic in an attempt to
elucidate the role of a rehabilitation counselor in the
training of self-management skills to the mentally retarded.
One conclusion germane to this study, was the self-control
training was vital for mentally retarded individuals to reach
their full potential.

In a later article, Wehman, et. a1. (1978), des-
cribed three studies utilizing the intensive research design
to investigate the differential effects of externally admin-
istered, self-administered, and self-determined reinforce-
ment contingencies on the work production rates of develop-
mentally disabled workers. The results of experiment I in-
dicated that a profoundly retarded 18-year-old male worked
at equivalent rates under externally administered or self-
administered reinforcers. Experiment II indicated that a
severely retarded 34-year-old male also worked at a high
work rate under a self-determined reinforcement contingency.
Experiment III replicated these findings in a more con-

trolled design with a 29-year-old retarded male, who also

35

had a mild spasticity (quadriplegia) condition which inter-
fered with his ambulation, speech, and finger dexterity.
Different tasks adapted from community workshops were
utilized in each study.

SUMMARY

The studies reviewed have indicated that self-
control, as a technique for achieving behavior change, has
been widely examined, with primarily favorable results.
Self-monitoring contributes to behavior change, but not in
a systematic nor predictable manner. It has been suggested
that self-monitoring is most effective when used in com-
bination with other techniques, and that its effects should
be examined individually, as well as in combination. The
literature review also reveals that reinforcement enhances
the likelihood of behavior change, and that self-administered
reinforcement will cause the individual to set higher goals
for him/her self, and the effects will be more long lasting.
Effective rehabilitation programs train behaviors that are
expected to carry over into situations that are not immediately
reinforcing. Work adjustment programs are responsible for
developing the full employment potential of handicapped
individuals. They are increasingly working with more severely
handicapped individuals, who require more indepth services
on a longer term basis in order to realize their potentials.
No studies were found where self-control, utilizing primarily
the principles of self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement,

was investigated within a work adjustment training program.

36

Thus, the pilot project described here will explore this
unique combination, and is expected to set the stage for
more extensive research into developing, and substantiating
more effective, and efficient treatment techniques that can
be utilized in the work adjustment setting.

One of the most current publications dealing with
work adjustment was a monograph outlining a work adjustment
cirriculum development project written by Coffey, and Ellien
(1979). It summarized a one year effort of a group of
leaders, and workers in rehabilitation to define the role,
and function of the adjustment specialist, the development
of appropriate curricula, and the integration of final re-
sults, and recommendations. Among the many useful, and
informative outcomes, and recommendations was one that
applied specifically to this study. One of the highest
priority training needs for work adjustment specialists
is to learn, and incorporate behavior change techniques,
with an emphasis on practical experience, and skill
development. This study is an attempt to meet that need,
directly for the staff working with this project, and
indirectly by contributing to the literature, and research
information available that would assist in meeting that

need on a larger scale.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

 

INTRODUCTION

The earlier chapters have noted the need for
further research in the area of work adjustment training.
~It has also been suggested that the link between behavioral
procedures, and work adjustment be studied in greater
depth. The theory and practice of self-controlled behavior
modification have been reviewed, and the overall positive
effect on selected behaviors have been noted. It then
seems reasonable to study whether the introduction of this
popular and effective program into work adjustment train-
ing has a positive effect on selected client behaviors.

In this chapter the design, and implementation
procedures for such a self-control program in a work adjust-
ment setting will be considered. The sample selection,
instrumentation, experimental procedures, hypotheses, re-
search design, and method of analysis will be described in
the following sections.

SAMPLE

This study intended to test the effect of a self-
control program, to include self-monitoring, self-established
goals, and self-selected and administered reinforcement on
work adjustment clients. A facility delivering work

adjustment training provided the population from which a

37

38

sample was selected. Further, because the study concentrated
on the individual effects of an experimental treatment on
specific behaviors in an intensive design, only a small
number of work adjustment trainees were used.

The subjects were selected from those clients
being referred to the work adjustment training program at
Peckham Vocational Industries, Incorporated. Peckham is a
facility offering vocational evaluation, and work adjustment
training to handicapped people in the Greater Lansing, Michi-
gan, area. They provide these services to several referring
agencies, although their primary source of referrals is the
Bureau of Rehabilitation. Their clientele is made up of
individuals possessing a wide variety of disabling conditions.

This study was designed to test the application of
self-control theory in a different setting than had previously
been used. The intensive design was chosen over a group
comparison design. This intense study permited a greater
in-depth analysis of the effects of self-control on
individuals, as opposed to attempting to prove that self-
control makes a significant change in all work adjustment
clients.

Three clients were selected (to be studied
individually), to provide ample opportunity to test the
effects of the principles of self-control on specific
behaviors. A cross-section of disabilities was included in
order to examine the effects of the treatment on a variety

of handicapping conditions. The nature of the study was

39

briefly described to the case managers, and the work adjust-
ment program staff. They were asked to recommend indivi-
duals whose work adjustment plans included the need to
improve production levels, change behaviors inappropriate
to the work setting, and become more responsible for their
actions. The ability to perform simple record keeping
was also reviewed. The staff then asked the clients if
they would consider participating in the study. If an
individual agreed the referral source was so informed, and
a meeting was arranged between the case manager, the client,
and this researcher. The study was briefly described, and
appropriate target behaviors were discussed. The three
subjects to be included in this study were the first three
to provide a complete set of data. A letter of agreement
was drawn up, and signed by all concerned, and is included
in Appendix A.

INSTRUMENTATION

Several reports containing a wealth of descrip-
tive, and diagnostic data were available through the refer-
ring source. In addition, an individualized work adjustment
training plan that lists specific objectives to be ac-
complished was also available. The primary instruments
used in this study were the behavioral charts maintained by
the staff, and the subjects themselves, primarily consisting
of production rates. Other data was considered, as were
other behaviors specific to the individual subject. The

clients served as their own control, with the frequency of

40

target behaviors being compared with baseline in an effort
to assess the effectiveness of the self-control intervention.

PROCEDURES

The procedures, forms, and guidelines were speci-
fically generated for this project, as it constitutes a
pilot study for a research proposal from the Research and
Training Center, University of Wisconsin-Stout. Examples
are included in the appendices.

The staff at Peckham involved in this study were
given an overview of the study in terms of the research
design, and hypotheses to be tested. They were introduced
to the concept of self-control, the principles of self-
monitoring, and self-reinforcement, and how this study planned
to investigate the effectiveness of these techniques within
the work adjustment setting. They were also trained in be-
havior observation based on the Point Sampling Technique
described by Coker, and Schneck (1979). This system is based
on the concepts of the behavior hierarchy (a way or arrang-
ing tasks so each step is increasingly more specific than:
the one preceding it), operational definitions (accurately
describing the specific characteristics of the behavior to
be examined), and sampling (the observation of behavior for
a short period of time, at regular intervals). The specific

procedures utilized are described in Appendix B.

41

Base I

A 5-day pre-treatment baseline period began after
the client had adjusted to the new environment in work
adjustment training. This consisted of staff-monitoring of
the target behaviors on each subject, and recording this
information on a regular basis. As previously mentioned,
the target behaviors were discussed with the subject, the
adjustment program staff, and the case manager. Production
rates were targeted for each client involved, and additional
behaviors were selected specific to each subject.-

Self-Monitoring

 

At the end of the fifth day of Base I, the subject
was informed of the specifics of the behaviors being observed.
Subjects were asked to begin keeping records of those behaviors
themselves, on the following day. In most cases this record
keeping required only counting, and recording, and was con-
tinued for a 5-day period. After the fifth day, subjects
were asked to stop keeping records, although staff observa-
tions continued throughout the study.

Base II

Another five day baseline period immediately
followed the self-monitoring period.

At the conclusion of the five day Base II period,

a conference was held with each subject individually to
explain the concept of reinforcement for performing the target
behaviors. A discussion was held regarding the kinds of

things that would be rewarding to them. A standard of

42

behavior was established by the subjects, incorporating the
information gathered during the self-monitoring period. The
specific reward to be self-administered upon achieving that
standard was selected from a list of those available (see
Appendix C). This information was then recorded in the staff,
and subject monitoring records.
Self-Monitoring + Reinforcement

For the next 10 days each subject self-monitored
his/her performance, and self-reinforced the achievement of
their respective, self-determined goals.
Base III

The last five day period was another baseline
where staff observations only were recorded.

The sequence of events is clearly shown in

Figure 3-1:

 

Base I Self-monitor Base II. Self- Base III,
monitor
+ reinforce-
ment
(A) (B) (A) (C) . (A)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3-1: Sequence of interventions in work adjustment
training.

The study adheres to an ABACA design: A, represent-
ing a baseline period where staff observation data only was
collected; B represents a self-monitoring only period; and
C represents the combination of self-monitoring, and self-

reinforcement.

43

HYPOTHESES

The purpose of this study was to test whether the
establishment of a self-control program, including self-
monitoring and self-reinforcement, would have an effect on
the selected target behaviors of rehabilitation clients in
a work adjustment training program. The design of the
experiment was such that the following directional hypotheses
could be tested:

Hypothesis 1:

The implementation of a self-monitoring program

for selected client behaviors will increase the

occurence of the behaviors toward competitive

levels over a pre-treatment baseline period

(Base I).

Hypothesis 2:

The implementation of a self-monitoring + self-

reinforcement program for selected client behaviors

will increase the occurence of the behaviors to-

ward competitive levels over a pre-treatment base-

line period (Base II).

Hypothesis 3:

As a result of the self-control intervention the

occurence of selected behaviors during the post

treatment period (Base III) will be improved

over the pre-treatment baseline period (Base I).

An example of data that would support these
hypotheses is shown in Figure 3-2. As performance approaches
competitive level (1002) it becomes more difficult to con-

tinue improvement. Thus, semi-log graph paper was used in

an effort to reflect increasing difficulty.

44

 

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10
Base I Self-M Base II Self-M+R Base III

Figure 3-2. An example of data considered supportative
of this study.

DESIGN

Chapter two provided support that the theory of
self-directed behavior has utility. It has been applied in
a wide variety of settings with apparent success. It has
also been shown that the application of behavior modifica-
tion principles has been employed successfully in rehabilita-
tion settings to promote desired behavior change. Therefore,
in an attempt to understand the dynamic effects of self-

monitoring, and self-reinforcement on behavior change in a

45

work adjustment training program, the intensive case study,
or an N of 1, research design was chosen.

Intensive Research Design

 

The supporting rationale for the intensive research
design or case study approach is provided by several authors
(Anton, 1978; Frey, 1978; Leitenberg, 1974; Shapiro, 1966;
Thoresen, 1972 & 1978; Thoresen, and Anton, 1974; Thoresen,
and Ewart, 1976). Each of these authors noted, among
many other reasons, that research of this type emphasized
the careful monitoring of each individual with respect to
the target behaviors. Since this is a necessary element
in behavioral research, the intensive research design or
case study approach seems reasonable.

Another rationale for choosing this design is the
diversity of the population in a work adjustment training
program. Because one client's condition is different from
another's, and since each treatment program is unique,
considering the severity, and complexity of the disability,
it is practically impossible to establish a true comparative
group study. Establishing comparative groups on some
selected demographic variable would necessitate the use of
several work adjustment programs or a time lapse study, both
of which are susceptible to confounding possibilities. The
use of a single subject study permits the subject to be
his/her own control, and the various hypotheses can be tested

in a within-subject manner (Chassen, and Bellack, 1966). If

46

more than one research subject is used, a comparison across
subjects is also a potential evaluation consideration.

Another consideration given to the choice of the

intensive case study approach is based upon its effective-
ness in defining treatment effects on the individual. As
Anton (1978), Chassen, and Bellack (1966), Frey (1978),
Shapiro (1966), and Thoresen (1972 8 1978) indicated, the
problem with the comparative group design is that a
statistically significant effect may, in fact, reflect a
true effect in very few subjects but the influence in those
individuals is strong enough to deviate the entire group
norm. These authors noted further, that the specific effect
of treatment on the individuals involved is lost to the
researchers.

Davidson (1969), summarized all of the above con-

siderations giving four supporting reasons for such a design:

1. It (single case study design) reduces...the
error variance by eliminating the usual con-
founding between variations in behavior
associated with different values of the
independent variable, and the variations
between individuals.

2. This design may be used with considerable
effectiveness... in clinical practice... in
which each individual represents a unique case.

3. The within-subject design makes it possible to
study differences between individuals in the
characteristic way.

4. The functions which are apparent when the in—
dividual design is employed may be lost or

distorted when average values are substituted
as required by the group design. (p. 508)

47

A final consideration given to the choice of the
intensive case study approach is the ability to include the
multiple baseline time series design, where appropriate.

This design is recommended for intensive case studies by
several authors (Anton, 1978; Frey, 1978; Thoresen, 1972; and
Thoresen, and Anton, 1974). In the multiple baseline time
series design there is an emphasis on direct observation,

and continuous recording of data over time for an individual
subject. Data are viewed in "time series", and the patterns
of change from one point in time, or from one intervention to
another, can be analyzed by both logical and statistical means
(Frey, 1978). Thoresen (1972) described the use of this
design as most applicable when an experimenter is concerned
with the effects of a treatment on several behaviors of the
person or treatment effects on the same behavior in

different settings. Wolf, and Risley (1971) observed this
design to also be useful when carried out across two or more
different responses under the same environmental con-
dition(s), and on the same subject(s), or across two or

more environmental conditions with the same response(s),

and on the same subject(s). In addition, the multiple
baseline time series design is considered the best alter-
native to control for the potential effects of internal
confounding factors.

The design of this experiment, then, is geared to
observing the effects of a treatment on specific individuals

and specific behaviors. Thoresen (1972) postulated that

48

research in counseling must get back to "the basics" meaning
there is a need for direct observation, careful description,
and systematic planned interventions with individual sub-
jects. The intensive case study, including multiple baseline
where appropriate, provides the research design for fulfill-
ing such a statement. .

ANALYSIS

As was previously noted, one of the benefits of
conducting an intensive case study is to assess the specific
effects of a treatment program on individual subjects. This
analysis can be both statistical, and nonstatistical in nature.
One need simply to observe the graphs of the data obtained,
and draw some general conclusions about the treatment effects.
The non-statistical approach will also include consideration
of the subjective climate during the study, the individual
influences that may effect client behaviors, and any changes
in daily procedures which might cause a variation in be-
havioral observations.

Another proposed way of assessing the effects of
treatment on behavior is a dynamic analysis. Instead of
concentrating on the analysis of the data as it is grouped
through summations, and statistically comparing the values
of the grouped data, the dynamic analysis of data keeps each
of the data points separate. The analysis is done based on
the general distribution of the data points. This method,
described by White (1971, 1972) is built from a relatively

simple computation of the median slope of the distribution

49

of points for any period of the research with a comparison
of the slopes for each phase.

This computation of trend lines improves greatly
over the least squares regression line in its predictability.
White (1971, 1972), in an examination of 166 previously
completed research studies of classroom behaviors, found
the median method proved to be the most effective predictor
of future performance over either the more typical regression
model, or a "Quickie Method", a shorter method of calculating

the median slope (a corrected median slope method).

 

The median slope of the data is that trend line
which divides the data points in half. This method is not
then greatly influenced by the extreme deviation of one or
two grossly deviant data points. What the median slope line
becomes, then, is that line above or below which 502 of any
given individual's data points can be expected to fall. By
projecting this slope into the future, the researcher can
test whether the number of data points actually falling
above or below the projected trend line is significantly
different than expected. The regression line, on the other
hand, tends to be more affected by major deviations of
scores. Because of this influence, the slope of the line may
be significantly changed, and may not provide accurate
prediction for future data.

Since this study was conducted in a relatively
new work adjustment training program, there were no long

term contracts in-house that would produce steady work for

50

the duration of the study. In addition, daily problems, such
as running out of parts, meeting production deadlines, etc.
made it necessary for the clients to work on a variety of
jobs. In an effort to render the data comparable, the actual
production of the subjects will be expressed in terms of a
percentage of competitive employment rates. This is per-
fectly acceptable, and easily determined as each job in the
workshop has a piece-rate that is comparable to competitive
employment. In other words, each piece completed is worth
a certain wage, and the competitive rate would be the number
of pieces completed per hour in order to earn minimum wage.
For example, if each piece completed earned 2c, then 155 per
hour would equal the current minimum wage of $3.10/hr. This
is common practice within the majority of workshops, and
training programs throughout the country (Dolnick, 1963) and
is the method utilized within Peckham Vocational Industries,
Incorporated.

Subsequent references to competitive levels, and
rates throughout this study will include, and refer to the
concept described above. The goal of the program is for

individuals to achieve 100% of competitive rate.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will present the data collected during
the entire study. Since the research was conducted utiliz-
ing the intensive research design (N of 1 study), the data
gathered on each of the three subjects will be presented
separately. Subsquently, a comparison of treatment phase
means will be presented to represent another perspective.
Finally, all data will be analyzed across subjects, in an
effort to glean similarities, and trends.

SUBJECT A

Subject A was a female, 28 years old, divorced, and
head of her household. She suffered 2 auto accidents, and
has a medically defined back problem that is aggravated by
strenuous activity. Thus, she was unable to continue working
}n the factory setting. The State Bureau of Rehabilitation
sponsored her retraining in a combination work adjustment,
and skill development program. This program is designed to
build on, and improve typing skills previously learned, and
teach behaviors appropriate for an office setting. She was
highly motivated, and viewed the program as an excellent
opportunity to improve her vocational horizons, and upgrade
her life style. At the beginning of the study, her two

adolescent sons had just returned home, after spending the

51

52

summer with their father. The boys requested to live with
their father on a permanent basis, and this was causing
emotional distress for this woman.

Specific behaviors that needed improvement were
not identifiable for the study. She was punctual, attended
regularly, and maintained a positive attitude throughout
her program. The instructor commented on her high level
of motivation to do well in the program, and felt she was
performing to capacity at all times. Thus, data was collected
only on her typing performance in terms of speed (words per
minute), and accuracy (errors).

Results showing trends within each of the phases
may be seen in Figure 4-1. Semi-log graph paper was used in
an effort to reflect increasing difficulty as performance
approached higher levels. For example, the improvement from
90% to 1002 of competitive rate is much more formidable to
achieve than an improvement from 30% to 40%. This graph
paper compensates for, and thus, reflects that increasing
difficulty. Competitive rates were based on 50 words per
minute, and five errors, as demanded by most entry level
positions where typing skills are a requirement. For the
sake of clarity, these figures will show only the slope of
the median trend lines. Complete reflections of all data
points, and trend lines are contained in Appendix D.

This subject's typing speed (words per minute),
and accuracy (errors) for five minute timings were recorded

through all phases of the study by the instructor. Her

53A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Each Phase of the Study for Subject A.

533

120

 

110

 

100

 

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Percent of Competitive Rate

80

 

 

70
60
50
40
Base I Self-M Base II Self-M+R Base III
Figure 4-2. Median Trend Lines of Performance Accuracy

Within Each Phase of the Study for Subject A.

54

performance during the Base I period showed dramatic
improvement, with an increase in speed, and reduction in
errors. This period included Subject A's third week in
the work adjustment/skill training program. According to
the instructor, the third week generally shows the most
improvement for clients who have had previous training in
typing (as this one had). The improvements noted during
this phase could be considered unusually high, as normally
when typing speed increases, accuracy decreases, and

vice verSa. .

During the self-monitoring phase her speed continued
to increase, while the error rate was maintained above
competitive rate. The instructor evaluated this improve-
ment to be very good. The influence of the self-monitoring
period is again demonstrated when compared to the Base II
phase. There is a noticable reduction in speed, and a
large decrease in accuracy with no break in time between
the periods (i.e. self-monitoring ended on Wednesday the
10th, and Base II began on Thursday the 11th). Typing
.speed recovered nicely, and improved rapidly throughout
this phase. The error rate improved but did not reach the
competitive level.

When asked to establish her goals for the next
phase, this individual chose 50 words per minute with 5
(or less) errors. This goal was selected without influence
'by the instructor or this researcher, but was coincidently

the same as the goals of the program. The instructor agreed

55

that the goals were too high, but due to the self-control
nature of this study, we did not attempt to interfere with
her goal setting process. She did not select a reinforcer
for goal attainment, as none of the reinforcers available
were in any way rewarding to her. Thus, the instructor, and
this researcher indicated that if she reached her goal we
would reward her with a suitable reinforcement. As previously
noted, this subject was highly motivated to achieve in her
program. The goal of 50 words per minute with S or less
errors was highly significant as she measured her success

by its achievement. She expressed it as a.strong personal
goal that she wanted to accomplish in order to launch her
new career. Self-reinforcement was not used although self-
monitoring, and self-determined goals were performed, as
planned. Though self-reinforcement was not implemented
according to the study design, she was intrinsically
motivated, and goal attainment likely would have produced

a great sense of self satisfaction.

During the self-monitoring + reinforcement period
her typing speed did not improve above the highest achieved
in the Base II phase. Her accuracy decreased to a level
lower than Base II, and did not improve to competitive
rate. In addition to setting her goals unrealistically
high this subjects' personal life was interfering with her
performance. During this time period she, and her ex-
husband were engaged in final negotiations over her sons'

moving in with him, involved with their lawyers, and going

,56

to court for the final settlement. She was also disappointed
in her inability to reach her goals. Base III data indicated
a dramatic increase in speed that diminished, and leveled
off at the competitive level. (This increase is more
realistically reflected in Appendix D, Figure D-S, as com-
pared to Figure D-4.). Rate of errors continued to be a
-problem, as accuracy did not reach the performance criterion.
This phase included the end of her training program, during
which time she worked as a supplemental secretarial assistant
in the front offices at Peckham Rehabilitation Center. In
addition, she did volunteer work at Peckham after her program
terminated, in order to keep up her skills while she
attempted to locate suitable employment. Thus, her training
program was not as consistant as during the previous phases,
and five minute timings were not taken as regularly. Her
emotional state, the inconsistancies in her program, and
possibly the lack of self-reinforcement were felt to have
negatively influenced her performance during this phase of
the study.
For Subject A, hypothesis one was supported for
typing speed as it continued to improve to higher levels
than Base I. Hypothesis one was also supported for
accuracy as it exceeded competitive level, and maintained
this excellent performance during this phase. This level
was not again achieved throughout her training program.
Hypothesis two should be considered equivocal for

speed as it was maintained at a higher level than the

57

earlier phases. However, no improvement took place during
this period, and the hypothesis could have been rejected on
that basis. It was rejected for accuracy as her error

rate was actually higher than during Base II. However, it
did improve during this phase, while speed remained constant,
indicating good progress.

Hypothesis three was supported for speed as it was
noticably above all previous phases, and above the competi-
tive rate. Her performance in Base III is more than double
the Base I level. This hypothesis was rejected for accuracy
as performance was lower during Base III than either Base I
or Base II. A large improvement was noted but the competi-
tive level of 100% was not attained.

SUBJECT B

Subject B was a 47 year old male, who was short in
stature, and lived with his brother, and family. According
to the records of the Community Mental Health Agency, his
primary disability was Schizophrenia, and secondary
disability described as borderline mental‘retardation. The
records further indicated a long history of mental health
problems, and institutionalizations. His parents were
deceased, and several of his siblings also had mental health
problems. He had approximately a 3rd grade education, and
was considered in stable condition while taking medication
regularly. He was in the Vocational Adjustment Training
Program at Peckham, and expected to be referred to the State
Bureau for Rehabilitation as productivity approached

competitive standards.

58

The primary reasons for his being in the program
were to gain exposure to, and experience in a work setting,
develop favorable work habits, and increase production
rates to near competitive standards. The specific behavior
identified for the study was distractability from his work.
Upon closer examination, the primary reason for being dis-
tracted was his strong desire to be helpful to others. He
would talk to his fellow workers, asking if they needed help,
and whenever he noticed someone having a difficult time he
would leave his work station to help them get parts, lift
boxes, fix a stapler, find an empty box, etc. The decision
was made to concentrate on improving production, rather than
attempt to specifically reduce this behavior. Thus, data
was gathered on production rates only, for fear that specific
intervention would place a negative connotation on otherwise
desirable behavior. It was concluded that a concentration
on production rates would tend to reduce all behaviors that
were incompatible with increasing production speed.
Observations were made, and data recorded primarily by the
work adjustment assistant, whose responsibilities included
recording observations on all clients in the work adjust-
ment program.

Figure 4-3, shows the resulting trends within each
phase of the study. Base I shows a good general increase
in production rate. The self-monitoring phase did not show
a continued increase in the rate of production, but reflected

a continued performance above that achieved during Base I.

59

The self-monitoring effect is also noticable when looking at
Base II, as performance fell off as soon as the self-monitor-
ing procedures were removed, and no time break occured
between the phases. Production improved during Base II but
did not attain the average level maintained during self-
monitoring.

This subject also set his goals too high, and
adjustments were made each day until a realistic, attainable
goal was established. He selected as a reinforcement extra
time in the Adult Basic Education Classroom working on math,
reading, and spelling. Thus, each day when he achieved his
goal, he was automatically free to leave the work area, and
pursue his studies. On days when the production goal was
reached, he spent 20-40 minutes in the classroom.

His performance during the self-monitoring + rein-
forcement phase showed immediate decline at the beginning
of the period, followed by gradual, and steady improvement
throughout until it ultimately passed the level achieved
during the self-monitoring phase. Base III data shows a
continued increase in production, without the large change
between phases.

Hypothesis one was considered equivocal for this
subject. The production rates during self-monitoring were
maintained at a level higher than during Base I, although a
decrease in performance was noted.

Hypothesis two was considered equivocal as the

rate of increase during self-monitoring + reinforcement was

6O

_. __- .-__~.—L—.———- »_ .

 

l
. _ .l-.....-

Percent of Competitive Rate

 

Base I Self-M Base II Self-M+R Base III

Figure 4-3. Median Trend Lines of Performance Within Each

Phase of the Study for Subject B.

61

improved over Base II, but at a similar level since a
noticable drop in production occured at the beginning of
this phase. The highest rate of performance did, however,
surpass the level achieved in Base II.

Hypothesis three was supported as Base III data
reflects the best production rates for this subject through-
out the study.

SUBJECT C

Subject C was a 31 year old female who was living
in a community residential setting. She was moderately
mentally retarded, and has been treated successfully for
cancer of the thyroid glands. She had been institutionalized
for approximately 20 years, and was continuing to recover
from that isolation. She was referred into the Work Adjust-
ment Program by the State Agency for the Mentally Retarded,
to be involved in long term interventions that would improve
her skills, provide her with work experience, and improve
her productivity. Plans were to refer her to the State
Bureau of Rehabilitation when her productivity approached
the competitive rate.

In addition to improving production, a primary
reason for referral into the program was to reduce her
distractibility within the working environment. As the
study began, however, this behavior had improved to the
point where it was no longer of concern. The staff, case
manager, and this researcher could not identify another be-

havior in need of changing, as she exhibited very appropriate

62

work habits (good attendance, punctual, staying at work
station, working steadily, etc.). The most significant
problem remaining was her slow rate of production--generally
between 15-25% of competitive rate. Thus, production rate
was selected as the only behavior of concern, and data was
collected on her production speed. Observations were made,
and data recorded primarily by the work adjustment assis-
tant, whose responsibilities included recording observations
on all clients in the work adjustment program.

The trends of performance within each phase of the
study are recorded in Figure 4-4, for Subject C. It became
impossible to use the same job for data collection, due to
the nature of the work flow in the workshop. Thus, baseline
data was gathered for the three jobs to be used, and are
reflected in the Base I section of the graph. The legend
identifies the specific packaging job performed so that an
appropriate comparison can be made. The double line in
the Base II section reflects the median trend line for the
combined performance during that phase.

During Base I a gradual increase in production
rates were noted. The self-monitoring period showed a
marked increase at the beginning (from 36% at the end of
Base I to 50%) with a gradually increasing trend throughout
the phase. Base II showed a high rate of production at the
beginning, and a decrease throughout the phase. This was
somewhat influenced by a change in jobs performed during

this period. At the beginning she performed the same job

63

that was available during the self-monitoring phase,
(packaging pin stripe tape). This job was being completed
at the time, resulting in generalized pressure to finish

it quickly, so that it could be shipped out on deadline,

and billed. This subject seemed to be influenced by this
rush, and improved her performance accordingly. This result
should be considered favorable progress toward competitive
employment as similar demands are made, and she demonstrated
appropriate responsiveness. During the latter part of this
phase she began working on a different job (valve extensions)
that was quite similar, as both were involved with the
packaging of small parts. Her rate was reduced from the
previous job, but maintained at a level approximately twice
that of her Base I performance on valve extensions.

The self-determined goals established by this sub-
ject were set at a level easily reached at the beginning of
the self-monitoring + reinforcement phase. The goals did
seem realistic however, when compared to her actual achieve-
ments during self-monitoring. A third job was performed
during this phase (numbers, and letters).~ It too was a
small packaging operation, but was more complex, with
several more steps involved. She began producing at a level
much higher than Base I, demonstrating generalized improve-
ment in her overall performance. She agreed to have her
goal increased periodically, to her actual performance
level, and felt confident that she would be able to exceed

it. The trend line reveals that she did so very effectively

100

90

80

70

60

Percent of Competitive Rate

50

40

30

20
10

Figure 4-4.

64

it .1: "

_..-.. -—

 

- IEGLA Pin Stripe Tape L- ' ' -’ .
---- - Lette P3 gauglllZDbEI'S ""—'_——-i

VaIVe tansions;'-

 

 

 

- m“-..

 

Base I Self-M Base II Self-M+R Base III

Median Trend Lines of Performance Within Each

Phase of the Study for Subject C.

65

throughout the period. The reinforcer she selected was to
perform as an assistant to a work supervisor as soon as her
production goal for the day was met. Noticable, and impres-
sive improvement was made throughout this phase, and she
thoroughly enjoyed the status of assistant supervisor. The
Base III phase reflected another change in jobs where she
was again performing the packaging operation (valve exten-
sions) that was available during the latter part of Base II.
There was a noticable drop in performance at the beginning of
Base III but very good improvement during this phase, to a
higher level than previously reached on this job.

Hypothesis one was supported as production rates
during self-monitoring were maintained at a much higher
level than Base I, in addition to the maintanence of an
increasing trend.

Hypothesis two was also supported as performance
during the self-monitoring + reinforcement phase started
at a level similar to Base II, and markedly improved
throughout this period.

In addition, hypothesis three was supported for
this subject as her performance during Base III was more
than double that of Base I. In this case, Base III pro-
duction was also higher than, and showed a greater increase
than the self-monitoring phase.

TREATMENT PHASE MEANS

Means and standard deviations of Subject A's

performance throughout the study are recorded in Table 4-1.

66

A sizeable difference may be noted between Base I and the

self-monitoring phase where speed was noticably increased

from 53 to 76 percent of competitive rate.
rates were based on 50 words per minute,

required by most entry level positions.)

A similar

(Competitive

and 5 errors, as

difference exists for accuracy as she exceeded the com-

petitive rate through this phase.

During Base II her

average words per minute continued to increase, but not as

much as during the self-monitoring.

from above competitive level to only 79%.

Accuracy decreased

During self-

monitoring + reinforcement her speed continued to improve,

but accuracy continued to decline.

During Base III speed

again increased but more noticably than between the other

phases,

monitoring.

prove,

Accuracy reversed its trend,

except for the difference between Base I,

but did not reach competitive level.

Table 4-1

and self-

and began to im-

Mean Performance and Standard Deviations Within Each Phase

of the Study for Subject A.

 

 

 

 

 

,29.1

 

 

 

BASE I SELF-M. BASE II SELF-M + RFMT BASE III
E 53.06 76.39 86.92 90.96 108.26
WPM
6 11.44 9.4 9.91 9.31 12.3
E 83.89 110 79.23 64.62 73.91
ERROR
g 29.09 30.5 31.77 30.89

 

 

67

The mean performances of Subject B in each phase
are contained in Table 4-2. A large difference between Base I,
and self-monitoring was noticable, with little change in
standard deviation. The mean for Base II was less than self-
monitoring, which was expected if treatment effects were
experienced. The self-monitoring + reinforcement mean was
somewhat higher than Base II, but does not reflect the leVel
achieved during self-monitoring alone. The Base III phase
produced the highest mean throughout, and indicated a noticably
higher level of performance than Base 1. The gradually de-
creasing standard deviation indicated this subject's per-
formance also stabilized, and became more consistant during
the study. This consistancy, at a higher level of produc-

tion, indicated a noticable, generalized improvement in this

subject's performance, indicating positive treatment effects.

Table 4-2

Mean Performance and Standard Deviations Within Each Phase
of the Study for Subject B.

 

BASE I SELF-M BASE II SELF-M + RFMT BASE III

 

E 33.84 49.53 44.17 46.49 52.1

.11 7.52 5.54 4.26

PRODUCTION
RATE IN 2
fl
0
u
N
o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4-3 contains the mean performances of Subject

C during each phase of the study. The mean for self-monitoring

68

was more than double that of Base I, showing a noticable
increase in her production rate. The Base II mean is also
increased but not as much as between Base I, and self-
monitoring. Continued increase is noted during the self-
monitoring + reinforcement phase, and it must be remembered
that it was more difficult to improve as one approached

100% of competitive rate. The mean for Base III was de-
pressed, partially due to the change in jobs. Recognition
must be given to the fact that even though depressed, this
mean was higher than Base I, and self-monitoring. The
standard deviation increased with self-monitoring but then
diminished, indicating more consistant productivity while at
a higher rate. This was, again, an indication of generalized
improvement, and the improvement was expected to be main-

tained over the long term rehabilitation plan.

Table 4-3

Mean Performance and Standard Deviations Within Each Phase
of the Study for Subject C.

 

BASE I SELF-M BASE II SELF-M + RFMT BASE III

 

 

R 26.48 54.33 64.35 76.03 59.87

10.12 7.96 8.67 6.05

PRODUCTION
RATE IN 2
m
0‘
E

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

69

TRENDS AND SIMILARITIES

A review of similarities and trends may be accom-
plished by examining the above data across subjects. All
subjects showed improvement in their respective production
rates during Base I, indicating general improvement in their
performance without treatment intervention. All subjects
demonstrated better performance during the self-monitoring
phase, than in Base I. This was accomplished by either con-
tinued improvement or the maintanence of a production rate
higher than that achieved in Base I. When self-monitoring
was terminated, the Performance of all subjects changed
noticably. The rates drOpped for Subjects A and B, and
raised for Subject C. As previously mentioned, the rush
throughout the workshop to finish the job influenced
Subject C to work faster. All subjects individually re-
quested to continue self-monitoring after the end of that
phase. They were uniformly informed that they could be
asked to resume those tasks at a later date.

Comparison of Base II data with Base I data in-
dicated higher performance levels within the Base II phase,
in all cases. .All subjects showed an improvement in per-
formance within the self-monitoring + reinforcement phase
over Base II. This was again demonstrated by the main-
tenance of a level higher than the average in Base II and/or
continued improvement. In addition, Subjects A and C per-
formed better during the self-monitoring + reinforcement

period than in the self-monitoring alone phase. Subjects

70

B and C demonstrated good improvement trends within the
self-monitoring + reinforcement period. Base III perfor-
mance by Subjects A and B was better than Base II, and as
previously mentioned, a job change between the self-
monitoring + reinforcement and Base III periods for

Subject C may have influenced that reduction in performance.
However, in all cases, Base III performance far exceeded
Base I. Subject B improved from approximately 1/3 of the
competitive rate to over 1/2. Subjects A and C, however,
more than doubled their respective Base I levels.

The analyses revealed that all hypotheses were
supported to at least some degree by the subjects involved
in this study. Thus, it is felt that the research has
served its purpose in providing information of a pilot
nature that substantiates the pursuit of this investigation.
The discussion, limitations, implications, and recommendations

for this pursuit will be presented in the final chapter.

CHAPTER FIVE

’ DISCUSSION

 

INTRODUCTION

This study was designed to test whether self-
control could be effectively incorporated into a work
adjustment training program. Self-monitoring, self-deter-
mination of target behavior goals, and self-selection of
reinforcers were incorporated into this project. The
hypotheses were generally supported to varying degrees by
the data collected. This chapter will discuss the results
presented in the previous chapter, identify limitations,
and present implications, and recommendations for future
research.

DISCUSSION

As indicated in chapter 4, all subjects showed
marked improvement during Base I. This reflects favorably
on Peckham as it demonstrates progress within the existing
program without this specific treatment intervention. In
addition, it can be logically assumed that a practice effect
was involved. The scope of this study did not include the
methods nor controls to examine critically this effect,
nor determine the actual cause of this increase. The noted
improvement during baseline also made it difficult for

treatment effects to increase the rate of progress.

71

72

All of the subjects demonstrated better performance
during self-monitoring than in Base I. This performance was
interpreted as a treatment effect due to the unobtrusive
design of the study, and the strength of the intensive re-
search design in controling internal confounding factors.
This result tended to disagree with Katz, et. a1. (1976) whose
conclusion implicated self-monitoring to be ineffective un-
less associated with expectancies for change; and Nystedt
(1976) who found self-monitoring effective only when
associated with self-instruction. The finding supported
Grace (1976), and Blumberg (1976), both of whom found self-
monitoring alone to be effective in changing target be-
haviors. Mahoney and Thoresen (1974) suggested a baseline
to examine the effects of self-monitoring when used along
with other specific treatment effects, as they indicated
self-monitoring alone could be used effectively as a treat-
ment strategy. This study tended to support that contention.

During the self-monitoring + reinforcement period
all subjects performed generally better than Base II rates.
This was noted in terms of continued progress, a greater
increasing slope of the median trend line, and/or continued
progress at a higher level. This was also supported by the
means of the two relevant phases. With the exception of
accuracy for Subject A, all means for self-monitoring +
reinforcement were above those for the Base II period. This
finding supplemented the conclusion of Tichenor (1977),

Paulsen, et. al. (1977), and Rekers, and Varni (1977),

73

whose research demonstrated the effective combination of
self-monitoring, and reinforcement to change target behaviors
significantly. This result was also noteworthy as Base II
performances of all subjects were higher than Base I, due

to the influence of the self-monitoring.

For Subjects A, and C, performance in the self-
monitoring + reinforcement period was noticably better than
during the self-monitoring alone phase. This agreed with
the conclusion by Cochran (1976) that self-monitoring alone
was less effective than when used in combination with other
self-control procedures. The average performance of Subject
B was not higher however, the trend of behavioral change was
opposite: Improvement was noted in Subject B's self-monitor-
ing + reinforcement phase, while a decline in performance
was demonstrated in self-monitoring alone.

Base III performance exceeded that in Base I in all
cases. Subject B demonstrated an average performance of
approximately 34% of competitive rate during Base I, and
improved to an average of over 52%. Except for the accuracy
of Subject A, all other average performances of Subjects A,
and C more than doubled in Base III over their respective
Base I levels. In a similar study (Ortega, et. al., 1976) a
subject doubled his production rate over baseline, within a
workshop setting. These data tended to support, and replicate
that finding.

The above results were considered treatment effects

as other sources of variation, and confounding were controlled.

74

As Thoresen (1972) has noted, the intensive case-study design
(N of 1 study) is a time-series design described, and sup-
ported by Campbell, and Stanley (1966). Such designs control
for all internal sources of invalidity which might influence
experimental data. In addition, the study was unobstru-
sively incorporated into an existing program so that the
Hawthorne effect was also controlled.

Comparison of the median trend lines with the
mean performance, and standard deviation of each phase of the
study showed the data to be consistant from both perspectives.
Each presented a slightly different picture, as the trend
lines revealed improvement or decline in performance within
each period, while the means provided a point of comparison.
The standard deviations examined consistency of performance,
and reflected noticable improvement for Subjects B and C.
Thus, the combination of methods presented a more complete
picture of the data collected, and added strength to the
logical analysis of the results.

The changes between one phase, and another were
described as a result of treatment on each individual.
These changes were not always in a favorable direction, but
their presence demonstrated that the individuals were
affected by the procedures. Noticeable changes occur.at
the end of the self-monitoring phase. Subjects A and B
decreased their performance indicating self-monitoring to
have a definiteg positive effect in their activity. Subject
C increased, but it is suspected the rush in the workshop

affected her performance.

75

Another noticeable change was between the self-
monitoring + reinforcement phase, and Base III. Subject A
dramatically increased typing speed, but accuracy again
dropped. At this point in time her decisions were final,
she accepted her boys' desire to move in with their father,
and it was finalized through the courts. Her training
program was drawing to a close, she was working in the front
offices at Peckham, and the five minute timings were not as
consistantly taken. Thus, a decline in performance was |

noted, however, the lowest level of speed remained above

. 1‘.“ _.1 ._.'_

 

the criterion level of 100%.

Subject B did not show a noticable change between
self-monitoring + reinforcement, and Base III, but change
existed for Subject C. This was addressed previously as it
was suspected that a change in jobs was influential. A
similar change was noted with the job change in the Base II
period, for Subject C.

At this point the differences among the three
subjects will be described. Subject A was a normal adult'
female with a physical disability that was not severe, nor
noticeable. She was under some emotional stress, but demon-
strated the potential to be successful in her newly chosen
career. She was considered highly motivated by the in-
structor, and thought to be performing to capacity at all
times. Self-monitoring alone resulted in a positive effect
on her performance, and seemed more beneficial than the

self-monitoring + reinforcement. In addition to the

76

emotional stress involved during the latter phase, having
set goals that were not achieved appeared to have a negative
affect on her. This was demonstrated by reporting her
progress (and lack of accomplishment) to this researcher

in a lowered tone of voice, poor eye contact, and looking
down during the exchange.

Subject B was more severely handicapped by his
mental disability, and was unable to live alone, and manage
his own affairs. He lived in his brother's home, and was
trying continuously to please this individual. The case
manager reported the brothers' attitude to be negative
toward the subject. He expressed the belief that the
subject was incapable of learning, totally dependent, and
had no potential for improvement. This subject demonstrated
insecure, and dependent behaviors throughout the study by
asking questions frequently, and persistantly checking to
insure he was performing correctly. In addition, he counted
his parts prior to assembly, usually more than once, and
counted the completed product prior to recording his pro-'
duction, again more than once. He also requested that a
staff person check his count to insure correctness. While
he voiced positive feelings toward participation, the pro-
cedures were distracting to him. If he were able to utilize
the procedures over a longer period of time, it is expected
they would have become less distracting, and his production

may have increased to an even higher level.

77

The disability of mental retardation also prevented
Subject C from living independantly. Her history of residing
in institutions, and other dependent living facilities re-
stricted the deve10pment of her potentials. Thus, her per-
formance was limited to what she was told to do, and met
minimal expectations. While the program at Peckham was
concerned with her production goals, there was no formal
procedure for increasing her rates. Progress was being made
during Base I, but this subject responded most favorably
to the treatment. She seemed pleased with her increasing
production during self-monitoring, and showed her recordings
to staff members. The most noticable improvement occured in
self-monitoring + reinforcement. Since she was exceeding
her goals so easily, the possibility of increasing them was
discussed. She readily agreed, and this was accomplished
several times. The goals were increased to a level approxi-
mately 10% below her actual production for the preceeding
two days. Toward the end of the phase, she became rather
flippant, feeling confident that she could exceed any goal
that was reasonably close to her actual production rate.
This air of confidence continued as her job tasks changed,
and she was pleased with her newly discovered abilities
and potentials. It appeared as though she internalized
this confidence as she was noticed to be more assertive,
happy, and outgoing with staff members, and fellow workers.
Thus, for this subject, the treatment uncovered hidden

potentials, and reinforced their development. Many staff

78

members made unsolicited comments about the distinct im-
provement that occured over a shorter period of time than
had been anticipated.

Throughout the study, ongoing communication was
maintained with the staff. Daily exchanges were made with
the work adjustment training, and typing personnel. Periodic
check-in was accomplished with the administrative individuals
and case managers. The improvements of the subjects in-
volved were noted by these staff members, especially where
Subject C was concerned. It naturally followed that these
individuals would react favorably toward the subjects for
positive steps toward their program goals. Thus, informal
social reinforcement was allowed to develop naturally, and
was provided normally, without intervention by the research
design. Daniels, and Hansen (1976), and Moore (1974) con-
ducted formal studies to examine the effects of social
reinforcement, and visual feedback on work production, and
found that combination to effectively increase work pro-
ductivity for sheltered workshOp clients. The social rein-
forcement received by these subjects then, although not
controlled for in this study, was expected to have a
generalized positive effect on them.

An exit interview was conducted by asking each
subject to respond to a list of questions (see Appendix E).
All made positive statements about the experience, and en-
joyed their participation. Each expressed a noticed

difference between the baseline periods, and treatment

79

periods. They became more aware of their actual performance,
and recognized the increase in their production. Subject A
felt frustrated by having goals established that she was
unable to reach during the time alloted. Subjects B, and C
liked having a goal as a target, and were pleased when it
was reached. Subjects A, and C indicated they would rather
record their own progress. Subject B also liked recording
his progress but would rather have the staff count his
production for him. The only recommendation for improving
the recording were to allow larger spaces on the recording
form. There were no suggestions for making the process
more useful. Subject A expressed emotional factors surround-
ing her sons' desire to move to their father's home as
affecting her involvement with the project. In addition,
she was planning to move to the State of Texas to pursue
employment in her new occupation, and felt this excitement
may have distracted her from maximum performance, toward
the end of her involvement. Subject B indicated difficulty
adjusting to the demands, and constant changes in his brother's
behavior. His performance was affected by having good, and
bad days, especially earlier in the study. The holiday
season caused some excitement for Subject C as a long bus
trip alone, to visit her dad, took place over Thanksgiving.

LIMITATIONS

One of the limitations that developed in the study
was the lack of specific behaviors available for treatment.

All subjects needed to improve their production rates, but

80

other behaviors were not abundant within the work adjustment
plans of these individuals. This was due primarily to the
limited number of subjects involved. The lack of additional
behaviors may have actually been beneficial, as Subjects B
and C asked several questions, and had some difficulty
understanding the procedures. If other target behaviors
would have been involved, the treatment program may have
been too complex for them to perform successfully within

the limited time available.

Another area of concern was the self-determination
of goals. Bandura, and Perloff (1967) pointed out that those
in a self-reinforcement program established higher levels
of performance for reward than those in an externally-
reinforced program. Subjects A, and B set goals higher than
they could reach within the time limits. The goals for
Subject A remained the same throughout, while Subject B's
goal was reduced to near his current production level._
Subject B made improvements in the self-monitoring + rein-
forcement period, while Subject A did not. If Subject A's
goals would have been reduced, perhaps she too would have
improved. However, this is speculative, especially since
significant emotional distress was present during this
period. Subject C set appropriate goals compared to her
self-monitoring production. However, her continued im-
provement during Base II increased beyond the self-monitor-

ing level.

81

Another problem was the performance of more than
one job by Subject C during the course of the study. This
became necessary due to the irregular work flow, and the
short term nature of the contract work available to the
program. The situation required that the data be transformed
into percentages of competitive rates so that performance
on one job could be quantitativly described in similar
terms to that of a different job. This was necessary for
the data collection on Subject C, as previously mentioned,
and also for the sake of comparative analyses across subjects.
Even though all jobs performed during this study were
similar small packaging operations, differences in the
rates of performance were noted for Subject C. This problem
also caused difficulty in the collection of data for Subject
B. Occasionally the workshOp ran out of parts, and it was
necessary for him to work on another job. Data was not
collected on those days due to the gross differences in
jobs performed.

‘Another limitation was the time distribution across
the phases of the study. In some instances it took approxi-
mately three weeks to collect enough data for one five day
phase. This was obviously not equivalent to collecting
data for a five day phase over a five day period. Such
things as history, maturation, and/or environmental changes
may have had more opportunity to influence the individual

and his/her performance, over the longer period of time.

82

The self-monitoring + reinforcement phase was
scheduled for a ten day period while other phases were
scheduled for five days. This was so designed as the self-
monitoring + reinforcement phase was considered the most
complex. Thus, more time was allowed for the subjects to
understand, and adjust to the procedures. The amount of
increase was recorded over a longer period of time, and
could thus be somewhat inflated. Allowing for this does
not change the direction of change during this period,
but would somewhat reduce the slope of the median trend
line, and slightly affect the mean performance.

The amount of'time involved by the staff, and this
researcher, in conducting the study was also considered a
limitation. In the early stages meetings were necessary to
inform the staff of the nature of the study, to screen clients
for use as potential subjects, and to train workshop super-
visors in behavior observation based on point sampling. In
addition, it was necessary for observations to be made
during each time period of the day (before and after morning
break, and before and after afternoon break). This was
not always remembered due to daily involvements, and it
became necessary for this researcher to be physically
present at the workshop to coordinate, and initiate staff
observations. Daily visits were made for approximately
three months, that involved roughly five hours each.

Finally, as mentioned in chapter three, this inten-

sive design study proposed to test the effects of

83

self-monitoring alone, and self-monitoring + reinforcement on
selected subject behaviors. While such a design controls

for sources to internal invalidity, the small number of
subjects used does not allow for the results to be genera-
lized to work adjustment training program populations as

a whole.

IMPLICATIONS

The process of conducting this study has revealed
at least a dozen issues that should be considered by those
intending to replicate, or expand on this research. First,
the design did not allow for an analysis of the practice
effect. Thus, it was impossible to separate treatment
effects from improvement due to repetition of the same task,
over a period of time. It could be enlightening to extend
the original baseline until stabilization of subject per-
formance is achieved. Another approach might be the use of
pa.cnntrol group, in_an effort to.determine.the;separate
effects.

Another practice effect may have occured in staff
observations. During the Base I phase of Subjects B, and C
substantial increases were made in production. Part of
these increases may have been due to improved accuracy, and
more intense attention to the regular observations. Even
though several practice observations were made on a pilot
subject, the reality of the official study, and the incor-
poration of the observations into the daily activity of the

staff may have contributed to the noted increases. The

84

practice observations on a pilot subject should be included
as a part of the official study, yet excluded from the
final analyses.

Second, a similar study conducted with a larger
number of individuals with the same disability is suggested.
More extensive information on the effects of the procedures
on a specific disability group would result, in addition to
allowing more generalization to that group population. It
might also be helpful to conduct a study with those of
similar personality types. This would identify the psycho-
logical characteristics of individuals most receptive to
these procedures, and those most favorably assisted by
self-control.

It may be advisable to include an identification of
internal-external locus of control for the subjects to be in-
volved in the future research. In an extensive review of the
literature, Strickland (1978) supports the premise that in-
dividuals with an internal locus of control prefer treat-
ment interventions that allow them freedom, and the ability
to control their own programs. Those with an external locus
of control seem more comfortable with a structured program
that is more directed by others. This may be an important
variable in selecting appropriate subjects for research,
and examining the treatment effect differential.

Social reinforcement has been demonstrated to have
a positive effect on target behaviors (Daniels, and Hansen,

1976; and Moore, 1974). Thirdly, a closer examination of

85

their effects may be in order to determine the most effective
method of administering this type of reinforcement, and
identify the staff members who are most influential in
providing positive verbal feedback, and encouragement.

It remains necessary, as a fourth consideration,
to examine whether these treatment methods would be effective
with target behaviors other than skill development or pro-
duction rate. Another study might identify specific be-
haviors to be used as targets for change, or admit into the
investigation only those individuals with identified, and
confirmed behaviors needing change, in addition to improving
their production.

Fifth, more formal procedures need to be identi-
fied, and utilized concerning the self-determination of
goals. A method for adjusting goals set too high or too low
should be in place, as it is counterproductive to strive for
unreachable goals, and not sufficiently motivating to reach
goals that are unchallenging.

As mentioned in the Limitations section the single
most troublesome issue was the lack of a single task for
the subjects to perform for the duration of the study. It
lengthened the time necessary to collect sufficient data,
affected the results, and required data manipulation into
common terms. As a sixth consideration, it is highly re-
commended that the research be conducted with only one job
or task on which to base production rates. This action

should produce more homogenous results.

86

Seventh, the time allotted to each phase of the
study needs to be consistant. The length of time should be
sufficient for comprehension, and incorporation into the
subject's daily activities. This would be influenced by the
characteristics of the subjects involved, as lower function-

ing individuals need more time for this adjustment.

 

Eighth, this study added to the body of research 3“
that supports self-control as a treatment technique, self— 5
monitoring as an effective method of changing behavior, and 3
the specific combination of self-monitoring + reinforcement. i
E’

Mahoney, and Mahoney (1976), and Wehman (1975) supported the
use of self-control with the mentally retarded. Wehman et.
al. (1978) demonstrated the effective use of self-determined,
and self-administered reinforcers within a workshop setting.
The results of this project extended this concept a step
further toward the practical application of self-control
into the rehabilitation plans of handicapped individuals in
need of work adjustment training.

Ninth, the procedures were straightforward, and-
simple, and received well by the subjects involved. They
were easily incorporated into the existing program, making
them available for immediate application, and further
research. The primary reason for referral of clients into
the work adjustment training program was to increase pro—
ductivity. The treatment promoted an accelerated increase
in production, which in turn contributed to the amount, and

frequency of verbal reinforcement, and provided successful

87

experiences contributing favorably to the individuals'
self-worth. Although this was not specifically measured,
it is commonly accepted that improved self-concept, and
increased self-worth follow positive, and successful
experiences that have been rewarded.

It should be recognized that Peckham Vocational
Industries, Incorporated interacts regularly with the
university. It serves as a classroom setting, providing
laboratory experiences for graduate students. It provides
a site for student practicum, and internship experiences.

It also houses a university-based program that innovatively
combines the expertise of engineering with the needs of
rehabilitation clients. Thus, Peckham may be unique in its
receptiveness to new ideas, original approaches, and finding
a better way. As a tenth consideration, this should be
considered by those planning to conduct further research, and
selecting an appropriate site.

Finally, the treatment procedures utilized in this
study appeared to have brought about improvements at a
faster rate than normally expected. This could be a major
step toward relieving the pressures on existing work adjust-
ment programs to provide more indepth services to the more
severely disabled (Sink and Field, 1978). If a client be-
comes more responsible for his/her rehabilitation program a
corresponding reduction in staff time is necessary for
interaction (Mahoney, and Mahoney, 1976; and Wehman, et. al.,

\

1978). Thus, more clients could be served by the same number

88

of staff personnel without a reduction in the quality of
services provided.

IMPACT

This research has served a useful purpose as a
pilot study for the pursuit of further research by the
Research and Training Center, University of Wisconsin-Stout.

It has influenced the program at Peckham Vocational
Industries as they have incorporated the procedures into
their existing program so that all clients in the work
adjustment training program are participating in its benefits.

The study has influenced the staff at Peckham as
two separate requests were made to include two specific
clients. The staff felt these clients could benefit by the
self-control techniques. The procedures were applied to
these clients, although no formal data were collected.

Valuable assistance was provided to the three
subjects involved. They enjoyed participating, and became
more aware of their performance, and progress. Their lives,
and rehabilitation programs have imprdved as a result of
their assistance.

This dissertation project has been more than an
academic exercise. It has done more than produce research
for the sake of research. It has proven to be a valuable
endeavor that has made significant contributions, and pro-
duced information that is directly useful in an applied
setting. It has paved the way for additional research that
will further refine the procedures, and make them more

applicable to a greater variety of handicapped individuals.

APPENDICES

.‘.“_'

APPENDIX A

LETTER OF AGREEMENT

 

89

LETTER OF AGREEMENT

I, understand the
general purposes of this study are to examine, and compare
various methods of observing, and recording behaviors per-
formed in the work adjustment training program.

I understand that any personal information gathered
during this project is confidential, and will not be released
to anyone without my expressed written consent.

I give Peckham permission to allow the project direc-
tor to obtain diagnostic, and descriptive information from
my personal file. I understand that in any report written
about this study I will not be identified by name, and other
identifying information will be changed to protect my
identity.

I am participating on a voluntary basis, and under-
stand that I may stOp at any time without affecting my

training program, and services received.

 

Signature

 

Date

 

Witness

APPENDIX B

PROCEDURES

90

ORIENTATION MEETING WITH POTENTIAL SUBJECT,

INCLUDING STAFF MEMBER

We are conducting a study in the work adjustment
training program.

The study is examining different ways of observing,
and recording behaviors.

If you agree to help with the study you will engage in
the same activities as usual in the workshop.

You will continue to pursue your individual work
adjustment training program.

If you decide to participate, you will be asked to
observe, and record certain behaviors periodically.

If you refuse to participate, it will in no way affect
your program. Involvement is voluntary.

If subject agrees, discuss behaviors that he/she would
like to improve.

Also discuss reasons for their being in work adjustment.

Secure signature on letter of agreement.

91

STAFF ORIENTATION

I. SELF-CONTROL: Personally controlled behavior
change where the target behavior, and the specific change
to be made are self-suggested or self-prescribed, and
clearly identified in objective, observable terms. The
technique includes: Self-monitoring of target behaviors,
and self-recording performance concerning those behaviors;
self-determined goals for the target behaviors; and self-
selected, and self-administered reinforcement for achieving
those goals. Self-control utilized the humanistic (a la
Carl Rogers) and mechanistic (behavioral) approach to
problem solving, and behavior modification. It also places
the individual in control of the rehabilitation process.

II. SELF-MONITORING: The observation, counting,
recording, and totaling of target behavior performance.
This process generally has some effect on those behaviors,
but not in a systematic nor predictable fashion. In
addition, behavior changes as a result of self-monitoring
seem to be temporary in some cases. The effectiveness of
this treatment appears to be improved when used in com-
bination with other techniques, such as self-reinforcement.
This combination seems to be most effective, leading to
significant changes in behavior that have been maintained

over time.

92

III. SELF-REINFORCEMENT: Providing oneself with a
reward for achieving a pre-selected goal. Reinforcement
enhances the likelihood of change in a target behavior. The
use of self-directed reinforcement causes individuals to
set higher goals for themselves in terms of an acceptable
standard of behavior. Once the behavior is changed, the
new behavior pattern seems to be maintained over longer a
period of time

IV. OVERVIEW OF STUDY: Base I, self-monitoring,
Base II, self-monitoring + reinforcement, Base III.

A. Staff observations are maintained throughout all
phases.
B. Last day of Base I period: Ask client to observe,
count, and record target behaviors on form.
1. Review operational definition of target behavior.
2. Demonstration of tally, and recording.
C. Last day of Base II period: Ask client to establish
daily goals for target behaviors.
1. Review information from self-monitoring period
for guidance.
2. Present list of available reinforcers (See
Appendix C).
3. Ask individual to select a reinforcer, to be
available upon achieving daily goal.
4. Insure that all staff members are aware of goals,

and self-reinforcement to avoid interference.

93

5. If a client finds none of the available rein-
forcers rewarding, researcher, and staff may
negotiate a suitable reinforcer for that
individual.

V. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES

Ten minute observations will be made four times per

day.

One observation will be made during each of the

four periods of the day (before, and after morning

break, and before, and after afternoon break).

The specific time for the observation should be

randomly selected from each period so that they

are not made at exactly the same time everyday.

The observation period should begin as the client

reaches for the first part in the packaging process.

Only those units completed within the ten minute

 

period should be counted.

Secondary target behaviors, specifically, and
objectively described for each subject, will also

be recorded during this ten minute observation period.
Comments regarding the clients non-productive behavior
during the time period should be recorded such as:
Away from station to get parts; looking around while
not working; talking to others; examining, organizing

or arranging parts, etc.

94

VI. RESPONSIBILITY
These observations will be made primarily by the
staff member responsible for all behavioral
observations on the workshop floor.

If this individual is unable to make a scheduled
observation, the subject's immediate work super-
visor should serve as back-up to insure the
observation is completed during the appropriate

time period.

 

95

INSTRUCTION: NAME

 

1. Record Time Period & Date.

2. Tally Behaviors.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Make Comments.
OBS DAY 1: DAY 2: DAY 3: DAY 4: DAY 5:

1

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z

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FIGURE B-l: Form used for recording data during the 10

minute observation periods.

APPENDIX C

LIST OF REINFORCERS

UPON REACHING YOUR GOAL FOR THE DAY, YOU MAY:

96

LIST OF AVAILABLE REINFORCERS

 

Work on another job of your choice, in the workshop, or; fir
Have an extra break in the lunchroom, and a free coke, or;

Be an assistant supervisor in the workshop, while earn-

ing minimum wage, or;

Co have a counseling session with your case manager, or;

Spend extra time with your studies, in the Adult Basic

Education Classroom, or;

Go home early.

If you reach your goal every day in the week you may

choose a longer lunch hour on friday.

APPENDIX D

ORIGINAL DATA POINTS

AND GRAPES

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APPENDIX E

EXIT INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

117

POST TREATMENT INTERVIEW

Tell me about the experience. How did you feel about it?
What difference did you notice between when you were re-

cording, and when you weren't?

 

What difference between recording the first time, and
recording with goals,,and reinforcements?

Would you rather record your progress or have the staff
do it?

How could the recording be made easier?

How could the process be more useful to you?

What other things were going on in your life that may

have affected your involvement in this project?

REFERENCES

118

REFERENCES

Abell, R. G. & Abell, C. W. Own Your Own Life. New York:
David McKay, 1976.

 

Anton, J. Intensive experimental designs: A model for the
counselor/researcher. Personnel and Guidance
Journal, 1978, 26, 273-278.

 

Bandura, A., Grusec, J., & Menlove, F. Some social deter-
minants of self-monitoring reinforcement systems.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
1967, 2, 449-455.

 

Bandura, A., & Perloff, B. Relative efficacy of self-
monitored and externally imposed reinforcement
systems. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 1967, 1, 111-116.

 

Bandura, A., & Whalen, C. The influence of antecedent
' reinforcement and divergent modeling cues on
patterns of self-reward. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 1966, 2, 373-382.

 

Blumberg, L. M. A self-monitored, non-mechanical condi-
tioning treatment for nocturnal enuresis. Un-
published doctoral dissertation, United States
International University, 1976.

Campbell, D. T. From description to experimentation:
Interpreting trends as quasi-experiments. In
C. W. Harris (Ed.), Problems in Measuring changg.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963,
212-242. '

 

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. 8. Experimental and Quasi-
Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1966.

 

Carter, T. G. A study of the effect of behavior modifi-
cation techniques upon the production, self
evaluation, and vocational adjustment of retar-
dates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New
York University, 1973.

Catania, A. C. The myth of self-reinforcement. Behaviorism,
1975, 2, 192-199.

 

Cautella, J. Behavior therapy and self-control. In C. M.
Franks (Ed.), Behavior Therapy: Appraisal and
Status. New York: McGraw Hill, 1969.

 

 

119

Chassen, J., & Bellack, L. An introduction to intensive
design in the evaluation of drug efficacy. In
L. Gottschalk & A. Auerback (Eds.), Methods of
Research in Psychotherapy. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1966.

 

Cochran, N. N. A methodological analysis of two self-con-
trol procedures: Self-monitoring and thought-
stopping applied to smoking behavior. Unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation, University of
Mississippi, 1976.

Coffey, D., & Ellien, V. Work Adjustment Curriculum De-
velopment Project: A Summary. Monograph,
Menomonie, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1979.

 

Coker, C. C., & Schneck, G. The point sampling approach
to assessing and monitoring behavior in adjust-
ment services. Project No. 41, Progress Report
Number Seven, Rehabilitation Research and Train-
ing Center, University of Wisconsin, 1979.

 

Daniels, L. K., & Hansen, K. P. Effects of social rein-
forcement and visual feedback on work production
among mentally retarded sheltered workshop
clients. Psychologdcal Reports, 1976, 22, 664.

Davidson, G. Behavior modification techniques in insti-
tutional settings. In C. M. Franks (Ed.),
Behavior Therapy: Appraisal and Status. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

DeVries, E. J. The effects of self-reinforcement on
medical rehabilitation patient behaviors. Un-
published doctoral dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1976.

Dolnick, M. M. Contract procurement practices of shel-
tered workshops. Washington, D. C.: U. S:
Government Printing Office, National Society
for Crippled Children and Adults, Inc., 1963.

Frey, D. H. Science and the single case in counseling
research. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1978,

29, 263-268.

Comes-Schwartz, B., Handley, S. W., & Strupp, H. H. Indi-
vidual psychotherapy and behavior therapy.
Annual Review of Psychology, 1978, 22, 435-471.

Grace, D. L. Self-monitoring in the modification of
obesity in children. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, State University of New York at
Buffalo, 1976.

120

Growick, B. S. Effects of work adjustment program on
emotionally handicapped individuals. Journal
of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 1976, 1,
119-123.

 

Helland, C. D., Paluck, R. J., 8 Klein, M. A comparison
of self and external reinforcement with the

trainable mentally retarded. Mental Retardation,
1976, ii (5), 22-23.

Hutzell, R. R. Analogue self-recording therapy: Expec-
tancy effects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Florida State University, 1975.

Kanfer, F. 8 Duerfeldt, P. Motivating properties of self-
reinforcement. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
1967, 32, 237-246. .

Katz, R. C., Thomas, S. L., 8 Williamson, P. Effect of
self-monitoring as a function of its expected
benefits and incompatible response training.
Psychological Record, 1976, 36, 533-540.

Kazdin, A. Self-monitoring and behavior change. In M.
Mahoney 8 C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Self-Control:
Power to the Person. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth, 1974.

 

Klausner, S. (Ed.). The Quest for Self-Control. New
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Leitenberg, H. The use of single-case methodology in
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(Eds.), Psychotherapy and Behavior Change 1973.
Chicago: Aldine, 1974.

 

Lovitt, T., 8 Curtiss, K. Academic response rate as a
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Mahoney, M; J., 8 Mahoney, K. Self control techniques with
the mentally retarded. Exceptional Children,
19769 El) 338‘339.

 

Mahoney, M., Maura, N., 8 Wade, T. Relative efficacy of
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Mahoney, M., 8 Thoresen, C. E. Self-Control: Power to
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Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas
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behavior: An alternative to conventional moti-
vational inferences and unconscious determination

in therapeutic programming. Behavior Therapy,
1970, l, 1.3.

Nystedt, G. A. Self-monitoring and self-instruction:
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