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I .‘ . . ., , 3:2... . . , ...; ......f: ‘ . ‘ Hg . .. 1.1-2}? L- -. 1 -Ir 2 - .‘llrzfilfl. \ ”HWY t . Michigan state , Unmaty, l is! ' y‘ - / This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Computer Awareness: A Staff—Development Model for Elementary—School Teachers presented by Joyce Elizabeth Harris Thomas has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Administration and Curriculum Major professor Date /;—2/-/}/ mum—Hr ,. . . r m . . ~ ~ 0.12771 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from up your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. M) NOT CiRCUlATE 3:; i'ifl'. 41w" 7 COMPUTER AWARENESS: A STAFF-DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS By Joyce Elizabeth Harris Thomas A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum I982 ABSTRACT COMPUTER AWARENESS: A STAFF—DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS By Joyce Elizabeth Harris Thomas The purposes of this study were to develop a staff-development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers; to evaluate the program on its content and format; and, as a result of the study, to suggest basic principles, content, and format in planning and executing computer-awareness programs. The CIPP evaluation model was chosen to evaluate the staff- development activity. CIPP, developed by Daniel Stufflebeam, is an acronym for context, input, process, and product evaluation. Not all components were used in evaluating the workshop. Only process evalua- tion was used, for it is formative, which means that information is provided the researcher for the refinement and revision of a product. To gather data, the researcher chose both a questionnaire and an interview. There were two parts to the questionnaire. First, participants were asked to rate six factors in each module--time, pacing, objectives, sequencing, methods, and materials. The second section of the questionnaire required participants to evaluate the overall quality of the workshop on the six factors. Each participant was interviewed by the researcher at the conclusion of the workshop. Joyce Elizabeth Harris Thomas As a result of the study, these findings are evident: l. Factors that should be considered in planning staff- development activities are: individual conceptual development institutional leadership project-implementation strategies institutional motivation 2. Content for a computer-awareness workshop for elementary school teachers should contain information on how to run a program, programming, the computer as a tool of instruction, selection of soft- ware and hardware, planning for the use of computers in instruction, history and application of computers, future and impact of computers on society, the computer as a manager of instruction, and resources available for computer education. 3. The general plan or format of the computer-awareness activity should include a laboratory session; varied methods and mate- rials; aid for teachers after the staff-development activity concludes; modules that can be an entity within themselves; and adequate pacing, sequencing, and time. Dedicated to the memory of the Williams in my life: William R. Harris, Sr., Father William R. Harris, Jr., Brother William Rowe, Grandfather and to Elizabeth, my mother, who also shares the memory of the Williams. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to and wish to thank my friends and colleagues for their support throughout my graduate program. I would like to express special appreciation to the following people who were instru- mental in the completion of this report. Dr. Louis Romano, my advisor and committee chairperson. His guidance, counsel, and encouragement throughout my doctoral program have been invaluable. Drs. Richard Chapin, Donald Nickerson, and Matthew Prophet, who served on my committee. Their comments, criticism, and sugges- tions served to make this manuscript better than it would have been otherwise. Sue Cooley, who prepared this manuscript for printing. She spent many hours typing the dissertation, suggesting changes, and otherwise helping in its preparation. Elizabeth Harris, Florence Hill, and Myrtle Y. Mitchell, mother, grandmother, and family friend. They provided encouragement and support when I needed it most. Roland Thomas, my husband. Without his forbearance and support, this paper would not have been completed. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ......................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ......................... ix INTRODUCTION ...................... l Rationale for the Study ................ l The Influence of Computers on Society ........ l Response of Education to Societal Demands ...... 3 Recognition of the Need for Computer Literacy and Teacher Training ................. 4 Purposes of the Study ................. l0 Research Questions .................. ll Assumptions ...................... ll Limitations ...................... ll Definitions of Terms ................. 12 General Procedures .................. 12 Organization of the Study ............... 13 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................ 14 Staff Development ................... l4 The Individual ................... 16 Institutional Motivation .............. 2l Project-Implementation Strategies .......... 22 Institutional Leadership .............. 22 Summary ....................... 23 The Computer: A Tool of Instruction .......... 24 History ....................... 24 Computer-Assisted Instruction . ........... 26 The Computer: A Manager of Instruction ........ 33 The Computer: An Object of Instruction ........ 35 Summary ........................ 37 METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................. 38 Educational Evaluation ................ 39 Educational Research and Educational Evaluation . . . 4O Summative and Formative Evaluation ......... 4l CIPP Model ...................... 42 Determination of Workshop Content ........... Digital Computer .................. Computer Application ................ Planning for Use of Computers in Instruction . Programming ..................... Impact of Computers on Society ........... Future of Computers ................. Funding for Purchase of Computers .......... Resource List .................... Vocabulary ..................... Factors Considered in Determining the Workshop Format . Procedure of Study and Collection of the Data ..... Treatment of the Data ................. Description of the Population ............. Research Questions .................. Summary ........................ IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................. Evaluation of Modules ................. Module 1: The Computer: How to Run a Program . . . . Module 2: Computer Programming (for TRS 80) ..... Module 3: Computer Programming (for TRS 80) ..... Module 4: Computer as a Tool of Instruction (CAI) . . Module 5: The Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selecting Software ................ Module 6: Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selection of Hardware ............... Module 7: Planning for the Use of Computers in Instruction .................... Module 8: The Computer: History and Applications Module 9: The Future and Impact of Computers on Society ...................... Module l0: Computer as a Manager of Instruction . . . Module ll: Resources ................ Evaluation Across Modules ............... Time and Pacing ................... Sequencing, Method, and Materials .......... Objectives ..................... Summary of Comments .................. Time ........................ Pacing ....................... Objectives ..................... Sequencing ..................... Methods ....................... Resources ...................... Results of Interviews ................. Page 43 47 47 SI 51 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ Summary of the Study ................. Conclusions ...................... Research Question I ................. Research Question 2 ................. Research Question 3 ................. Recommendations and Suggestions for Further Study . . APPENDICES ........................... A. RESEARCH STUDY REQUEST ................. APPROVAL FOR THE WORKSHOP ................ COVER LETTER FOR CONTENT-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . CONTENT-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE ............ moo WORKSHOP QUESTIONNAIRE AND MODEL ............ F. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................... BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... vi Table .9 0000 U.) bwwwwww \IONU'l-b x000 LIST OF TABLES Digital-Computer Objectives ............... Computer-Applications Objectives ............. Planning-for-Use-of-Computers-in-Instruction Objectives Programming Objectives .................. Impact-of—Computers-on-Society Objectives ........ Future-of-Computers Objectives .............. Funding-for-Purchase-of—Computers Objectives ....... Resource-List Objectives ................. Vocabulary Objectives .................. Evaluation of Module l: The Computer: How to Run a Program (TRS 80) .................... Evaluation of Module 2: Computer Programming (for TRS 80). Evaluation of Module 3: Computer Programming (for TRS 80). Evaluation of Module 4: Computer as a Tool of Instruction (CAI) ................... Evaluation of Module 5: The Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selecting Software ............ Evaluation of Module 6: Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selection of Hardware ........... Evaluation of Module 7: Planning for the Use of Computers in Instruction ................ Evaluation of Module 8: The Computer: History and Applications ...................... Evaluation of Module 9: The Future and Impact of Computers on Society .................. vii Page 48 49 52 53 53 53 54 54 56 67 69 7O 72 73 75 76 78 79 4.1] 4.l2 4.l3 Page Evaluation of Module l0: Computer as a Manager of Instruction ...................... 80 Evaluation of Module ll: Resources ............ 8l Evaluation of Factors Across Modules ........... 82 Ranking of Objectives by Means .............. 84 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.l Grades Taught by Participants .............. 60 3.2 Number of Years in Teaching ............... 6l 3.3 Training With Computer ................. 6l 3.4 Plan to Receive More Training With Computers ...... 62 3.5 Plans to Receive Additional Training .......... 63 ix The great, metallic beast . . . The genie we have raised to rule the earth. Obsequious to our will But servant-master still The tireless serf already half a god. . . . - Stephen Vincent Benet CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Rationale for the Study The Influence of Computers on Society Computers have pervaded nearly every facet of society. They control traffic, predict outcomes of elections, aid in medical diag- noses, facilitate information retrieval, process payrolls for many firms and institutions, control the microwave ovens in our homes, aid 1 and produce art.2 in the design and manufacture of many products, The scope of the computer's influence and pervasiveness defies delineation. Growth of the computer industry has been phenomenal. In little more than 30 years the industry has gone from one in which the product occupied l,500 square feet, weighed 30 tons, contained l8,000 vacuum tubes, cost more than one million dollars, and pro- cessed information in about three milli-seconds (3/lOOOth of a second)3 to a product that is smaller than a thumbnail, is contained on a sili— con chip that is l/90th of an inch thick and l/4 inch square, processes 1Gene Bylinsky, "A New Industrial Revolution Is on the Way," Fortune, October l5, l98l, pp. lO6-l4. 2Gordon B. Davis, Introduction to Computers, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977), pp. 32-5l. 3Gary B. Shelly and Thomas J. Cashman, Introduction to Com- puters and Data Processing (Fullerton, Calif.: *Anaheim Publishing Company, l98l), pp. 2l.-2.3l. information in a pico-second (one-trillionth of a second), and costs under a thousand dollars.1 Because of the new computer technology, many new jobs have been created. Systems analysts, programmers, computer operators, key-punch operators, data-base managers, and software developers are all titles and positions that have accompanied the birth and maturity of the new industry. Not only have new occupations accompanied this new technology, but its influence on science and industry has given rise to new technologies. In the field of electronics there are microelectronic engineering and optical computer technology.2 Changes have also been made in the way other industries operate. In geology, for example, it is no longer essential to drill holes in order to look below the surface of the earth. This can be accomplished with a computer.3 Computer technology has had other consequences for employment. New positions and occupations have been created, and many jobs are disappearing because of the automation made possible by computers. Plumbers no longer design and manufacture the hydraulic tubing for DC-lO's. The tubing is designed on the computer, and at the press of a button the needed section of tubing emerges from a computer-controlled 1Andrew Molnar, "The Next Great Crisis in American Education," AEDS Journal 12 (Fall l978): 14. 2"Technologies for the '80'5," BUSINESS WEEK, JUIY 5, 198l, pp. 49-50. 3 Ibid., p. 56. tube-bending machine.1 Point-of—sale terminals in retail and grocery stores have the potential of enabling automatic checkout and inven- tory management, with a consequent lessening of the need for labor in these functions.2 The mail, banking, and communications indus- tries are some of those in which electronics will change employment patterns both qualitatively and quantitatively.3 What these advances mean is not that fewer people will be needed in the work force, but that the skills required will be different. Response of Education to Societal Demands Our nation's schools have always responded to the changing needs of society. When the society was agricultural, the school year was set so that children were available to help in the fields during the summer months. The Morrill Act of l862 gave the states federal lands for the establishment of colleges offering programs primarily in home economics, agriculture, and engineering4 at a time when the United States was in a transitional period-~emerging from the agricultural era and entering the Industrial Revolution.5 When 1Bylinsky, "A New Industrial Revolution Is on the Way," p. l06. 2Arthur L. Robison, "Electronics and Employment: Displacement Effects," in The Microelectronics Revolution, ed. Tom Forester (Cambridge, Mass.: *MIT Press, 198lljip. 328. 3 4The New Columbia Encyclopedia, 1975 ed., s.v. "Land—Grant Colleges and Universities.‘r 5The New Columbia Encyclopedia, 1975 ed., s.v. “Industrial Revolution." Ibid. Sputnik was launched, interest in science became a catalyst for a major curriculum-reform movement in the schools.1 The federal gov- ernment, through grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Education Defense Act, provided funds for instructional material, equipment, and education for teachers so that students would be prepared for the Space Age. It is evident from the support given during the Sputnik era that schools and teachers are responsible for preparing students for the society and era in which they live. So it must be with the computer or information society.2 Andrew Molnar of the National Science Foundation, in a paper presented at the Second International Learning Technology Congress and Exposi- tion sponsored by the Society for Applied Learning, said: In an information society, a computer literate population is as important as energy is to an industrial society. Other nations have begun the task of restructuring their systems to include computers and unless we begin soon, the next crisis in American education will be the computer literacy crisis. Recognition of the Need for Computer Literacy and Teacher Training Support for schools in preparing students to use computer technology is forthcoming from both the National Institute of Educa- tion (NIE) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF has given the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium a research 1 2Daniel Bell, "The Social Framework of the Information Society," in The MiCroeleCtronics Revolution, ed. Tom Forester (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, l98l), pp. 500-50l. 3 Molnar, "The Next Great Crisis in American Education," p. 12. Molnar, "The Next Great Crisis in American Education," p. ll. grant to explore the influence of pre-college educational programs designed to increase computer literacy and the effects of human- computer interaction within the context of an instructional computer I environment. The NSF has also funded the Montgomery County Schools and the Human Resources Research Organization in Virginia to develop a set of computer-literacy goals for kindergarten through eighth grade.2 At its l980 convention, the National Association of Secondary School Principals showed its support of computer education by adopt- ing the following resolution: Computer Literacy WHEREAS, rapid advances in technology have made possible the development of inexpensive, small but powerful microcomputers; and WHEREAS, computer literacy--an understanding of the application of computers to problems and situations in the academic, busi- ness, and social worlds-~will be essential for individuals to function effectively in society in the very near future, there- fore be it RESOLVED, that NASSP encourage secondary schools to provide computer instruction so that every student will be able to develop computer literacy. If the use of computers is to become commonplace in the schools and if students are to become computer literate, educators must be knowledgeable about the use of computers in our society. As early as l97l, Gary Brooks, Director of the Office of Institutional Studies at the University of Texas, wrote that schools of education 1David C. Johnson et al., "Computer Literacy--What Is It?" Mathematics Teacher 73 (February l980): 9l. 2Carol Klitzner, "Coming to Terms With Computer Literacy," Personal Computing, August 198l, p. 60. 3Michigan Association for Media in Education, MAME Newsletter, January l982, p. 9. should require courses in computer science for their graduates.1 Brooks' premise that teachers should be knowledgeable about computer education has been supported in many subsequent studies. In fiscal year l980, an NIE award was given to the Bank Street College of Education for the identification of issues and problems related to the implementation of computer technology in the schools.2 Among the many problems and issues found in the study was the need to prepare teachers to use the computer. In a report for the National Science Foundation, Luehrmann cited research—and-development priorities for technology and educa- tion. Included in the priorities was the need for a basic computer- skills curriculum and teacher training. He stated that teacher inservice is needed to assure adequate staffing of computer-skills courses. He also emphasized that teachers of other courses will need specialized "subject matter" training to prepare them to apply stu- dents' computer skills to learning.3 The National Center for Educational Statistics polled super- intendents in l5,834 school districts regarding needs related to the 1Gary D. Brooks, "Computer Science: A Neglected Area in Schools of Education," Phi Delta Kappan 53 (October l97l): l2l. 2Karen Sheingold, Janet Kane, Mari Endrewiti, and Karen Billings, "Studies of Issues Related to Implementation of Computer Technology in Schools" (Bank Street College of Education), July l98l, pp. l-l09. (Mimeographed.) 3National Science Foundation, Directorate for Science Edu- cation, Division of Science Education Development and Research, "Technology in Science Education" by Arthur Luehrmann, in Technology in Science Education: The Next Ten Years (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, T979), p. 9. initiation or expansion of computer-based instruction in their schools. Paramount in the needs of half of the districts polled were computer-program assistance and teacher training.1 In a survey conducted by Stevens in l980, 94.4 percent of student teachers (out of a sample population of 227) felt unqualified to teach computer literacy. Seventy-three percent felt that "teacher preparation programs should include instructional applications of computers as part of preservice curriculum."2 In a Phi Delta Kappa publication, Baker observed that: Computer education for teachers is necessary to improve the quality of the teaching profession. Teachers must know multiple approaches for the teaching-learning process. Teach- ers must be skilled in maximizing the learning potentials of their students and capable of selecting the most appropriate alternatives. Moreover, teachers must prepare youngsters not only to succeed academically in school but also to integrate wholesomely in our society. For these purposes the computer is well suited. Computer systems make learning alternatives available to classroom teachers. In addition, computers accli- mate youngsters to our technological world. Without computer training, teachers are shortchanged in their preparation for their profession; they are handicapped in their classrooms. Computer education for teachers has become indispensable in professional training. Gerald Gleason, on a sabbatical leave from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, explored current applications of computer-assisted 1U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Educational Statistics, "Student Use of Computers in Schools" by Jeanette Goor, Arthur Melmed, and Elizabeth Farris. FRSS Report No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, Fall l980), p. l8. 2Dorothy Jo Stevens, "How Educators Perceive Computers in the Classroom," AEDS Journal l3 (Spring l980): 22l-32. 3Justine Baker, Computers in the Curriculum (Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa, T976; Fastback 82), p. 9. instruction; visited universities, public schools, and other insti- tutions to observe programs and facilities; discussed developments and projections with knowledgeable experts in the field; and observed and discussed strategies used by institutions to facilitate develop— ments in computer-assisted instruction. He stated in his summary: Development of computer literacy courses for the general public and in particular for teachers will require a major effort during the next several years. Of major concern is the need to incorporate computer literacy experiences into the requirements for prospective teachers.1 In an effort to provide training for existing staff in instructional uses of computers, many activities have been initiated. The Pennsylvania Department of Education's Division of Intermediate Unit Services has been charged to bring "state-of-the-art technology" 2 Paramount in its efforts is into all the classrooms of the state. inservice training for educators. In Florida, Dickerson and Pritchard have urged staff-development programs for teachers to use computer technology effectively.3 Providing staff-development activities for educators in the use of computer technology will prove to be a difficult task. Many colleges and universities do not offer classes in computer education, 1Gerald T. Gleason, "Microcomputers in Education: The State of the Art," Educational Technology, March l9Bl, p. l5. 2Gary Neights, "Pennsylvania's State-Wide Initiative," Instructional Innovator 26 (September l98l): 26. 3Laurel Dickerson and William H. Pritchard, Jr., "Micro— computers and Education: Planning for the Coming Revolution in the Classroom," Educational Technology (January 1981): 12. and for those that do, limited spaces are soon filled.1 In July l98l, only nine universities in the United States offered full-degree programs.2 Not only are there few full-degree programs, but there is also a lack of skilled personnel to provide materials and training.3 In addition to a lack of personnel to provide computer train- ing, there is also the problem of determining what a teacher needs to know to use computers effectively as both a tool and an object of instruction. Stuart Milner at George Mason University, in construct- ing a framework of training needs, listed instructional design, design of computer-based learning material, programming, hardware and soft- ware organization, computer uses in education, and computers and society as categories of courses or experiences a teacher should have.4 Frederick Bell at the University of Pittsburgh outlined goals for two courses. Their content includes the following: becoming acquainted with computer hardware, a programming language, computer terminology, and applications and limitations of computers in education and society in general; learning to use a large time-sharing computer system and writing, correcting, and running programs on a time-sharing system; and developing a computer-enhanced curriculum module in the respective 1Gleason, "Microcomputers in Education," p. l5. 2"From Micros to Mortarboards," Classroom Computer News l (July—August l98l): 54. 3Donald C. Holznagel, "A Clearinghouse for Educational Appli- cations of Microcomputers," Association for Educational Data Systems Proceeding§_(Detroit, Mich.: n.p., T979), p. 232. 4Stuart D. Milner, "An Analysis of Computer Education Needs for K-l2 Teachers," Proceedings of National Educational Computing; Conference (University Of Iowa: n.p., l979), p. 27. 10 subject areas.1 David Moursund at the University of Oregon included the same content as Milner and Bell in the computer program for teachers, as well as studies in artificial intelligence and graphics.2 NIE and NSF have issued a request for proposal entitled "Teacher Knowledge and Computer Use: A Study of Requisite Teacher Skills for Successful Classroom Computer Use."3 The purpose of the NSF/NIE proposal was to identify and link the kinds of knowledge that a teacher must possess to be successful with classroom computer use.4 In summary, the need for the present research may be seen from the following observations: l. The influence of computerscNiour lives. 2. The response of education to meet societal demands. 3. Recognition of the need for computer literacy for all citizens, especially teachers. Purposes of the Study The purposes of this study are (l) to develop a staff- development program on computer awareness for elementary-school educators; (2) to evaluate the program on its content and format; IFred Bell, "Computer Literacy and Computer Uses in Education: What Should They Be?" Proceedings of National Educational Computigg_ Conference (University of Iowa: n.p., l979), pp. l2-l6. 2"From Micros to Mortarboards," P- 55- 3National Institute of Education, "Teacher Knowledge and Computer Use: A Study of Requisite Teacher Skills for Successful Classroom Computer Use" (Request for Proposal, NIE, June 1980), n.p. (Mimeographed.) 4Ibid. IT and (3) as a result of the study, to suggest basic principles, content, and format in planning and executing staff-development programs on computer awareness. Research Questions The following research questions were posed in this study: I. What principles should one consider in planning staff- development programs? 2. How are computers used in instruction in K-6 schools? 3. What content and format should be used in implementing a staff-development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers? Assumptions This study proceeded from the following assumptions: l. Computers used in instruction will remain a part of edu- cation. 2. It is the responsibility of public schools to teach stu- dents about computers. 3. Educators using computers need to be knowledgeable about the uses of computers in instruction. 4. Schools have a responsibility to provide teachers with inservice training. Limitations This study was restricted to educators of elementary grades, defined as K-6, and to the use of computers in instruction. 12 Definitions of Terms Computer: A device designed to process information without human intervention. Computer—assisted instruction (CAI): Use of the computer to augment the educational process by providing students with programmed sequences of instruction under computer control. Computer awareness: A knowledge of the nontechnical and low- technical aspects of the capabilities and limitations of computers and of the social, vocational, and educational implications of com- puters. Computer literagy; A term used synonymously with computer awareness. format: The time, pacing, sequencing, methods, and materials of the workshop. Inservice: A term used synonymously with staff development. Staff development: A planned and organized effort to provide educators with the knowledge and skills necessary to facilitate improved student learning and performance. General Procedures To develop a staff-development program on computer education, it was necessary to implement the following procedures. To determine the content of the program, a survey of the literature was conducted; a synthesis of that which has been deemed essential for computer literacy was used to form the program content. A questionnaire was constructed and sent to a panel of experts representing the fields of 13 education, computer science, data processing, and the computer industry. These experts were asked to indicate those items that are essential for computer literacy, and they were given an opportunity to add items. The investigator used the input from experts and the literature regarding principles of effective satff development to develop a model program or workshop. This program was field tested with elementary-school teachers, and a formative evaluation was conducted. The data-collection tools used were a questionnaire and personal interviews. Organization of the Study This dissertation consists of five chapters, a selected bib- liography, and appendices. Chapter I included the rationale for the study, purposes of the study, research questions, assumptions and limitations, definitions of terms, and general procedures. Chapter II contains a review of the literature related to the topic. Included are staff-development research and research related to the use of computers in instruction. In Chapter III, the methods and procedures of the study are described and explained. An analysis of the data is presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains the conclusions and find- ings of the study, changes in the model, and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter is a review of selected literature related to the study. The review includes those studies and research in staff development; the computer as a tool, object, and manager of instruc- tion; and a summary. No attempt was made to include a large number of studies; rather, the writer included only those studies that were germane to the problem. Staff Development Staff development has become a major educational concern in recent years. Before the late 1970s and early 19805, there was a high degree of teacher turnover, and it was possible to hire teachers whose training was compatible with changes needed in the educational institutions. Now, however, school faculties have become relatively stable,1 and change must be accomplished with existing staff, through staff development. "In-service," "professional development," and "staff develop- ment" are all terms used by researchers and educators to define a process of improving or changing the way a teacher performs in the classroom, in order to effect a desired change within the organization. 1Dale Mann, "The Politics of Training Teachers in Schools," Teachers College Record 77 (February 1976): 323. l4 15 Schiffer defined "staff development" as a planned change process aimed toward creating a new future condition.1 "In-service" is a planned program for improving school personnel as well as curriculum, according to Corey.2 Even though the term differs, the concept of "professional development" is the same as that of "in-service" and "staff develop- ment." The Michigan Department of Education identified "professional development" as "a planned and organized effort to provide teachers and other professional workers with the knowledge and skills necessary to facilitate improved student learning and performance."3 In all of these definitions, one can see that the emphasis is on the same concept--change. Ultimately, the planned activity will effect a change within the organization. Planning for staff development requires attention to many factors within the school environment. Those factors include the individual to be trained, institutional motivation, project- implementation strategies, and institutional leadership.4 Each factor has a unique influence on success in meeting the goals of the staff- development activity. 1Judith Schiffer, School Renewal Through Staff Development (New York: Teachers College Press, l980), p. 158. 2Stephen Corey, "Introduction" in Inservice Education, 56th Yearbook, NSSE (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, l957), p. l. 3Michigan Department of Education, Professional Development for School Staffs: The Michigan Approach, n.d., p. 7. 4Milbrey Wallin McLaughlin and David D. Marsh, "Staff Develop— ment and School Change," Teachers College Record 80 (September 1978): 7l. 16 The Individual Just as the children in schools differ developmentally, so do the adults who teach them. Many individuals have assumed that human development is complete by the end of adolescence.1 Current research has indicated that adult learners differ on developmental variables in areas of cognition and interpersonal orientation. Harvey, Hunt, and Schroder, in their Conceptual Systems Theory, viewed adult development as progressing through four distinct stages and three transitional levels.2 These stages and levels are dimensions of conceptual development that range from concreteness to abstractness. The authors stated that the greater one's abstractness, 1. the greater his ability to transcend immediacy and to move more into the temporally and spatially remote, 2. and the more capable he is of abstracting relationships from objects of his experiences and/or organizing them in terms of their interrelatedness.3 At the other extreme, the greater one's concreteness, the greater the degree of stimulus "oughtness" in dictating his responses.4 The characteristics of the developmental sequences of the Conceptual Systems Theory are: Stage I: Unilateral Dependence. This stage is characterized by external control, by the acceptance of externally derived 1Richard H. Bents and Kenneth R. Howey, "Staff Development-- Change in the Individual," in Staff Development/Organization Develop- ment, 1981 ASCD Yearbook (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1981), p. 12. 20. J. Harvey, David E. Hunt, and Harold M. Schroder, Concep- tual Systems and Personality Organization (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1961), pp. 10-49. 3 4 Ibid., p. 25. Ibid. l7 concepts or schemata not up through experience with actual stimuli, and by the absolutistic nature of such concepts. Authority is respected as the source of new ideas and the determiner of right and wrong; learners in this stage are oriented toward the practical. Transition to Level II: During this period, the individual questions generalized norms and standards in terms of their applica- bility to situations and the purposes they serve.2 Stage II: Negative Independence. This stage represents a lessening of the importance of external control and the initial budding of internal control. The identification of this stage as "negative" does not relate to hostile reaction; rather, it denotes less need for control from authority and the first stages of internal control. This stage has been referred to as "freedom from" authori- tarian control.3 Transition to Level III: At this level, the definition of the self is not generalized to others as individuals.4 Stage III: Conditional Dependence and Mutuality. "This stage may be characterized by conditional or 'as if' functioning, in that it involves learning about one's relationship to the environment "5 in a more objective way. A person at this stage of development 1 4 2 Ibid., p. 94. Ibid., p. 97. 31bid., p. 98. Bents, "Staff Development," p. 22. 5Harvey, "Conceptual Systems," p. 101. 18 views others less in terms of his own motives and less in terms of absolute standards.1 Transition to Level IV: At this stage of conceptual develop- ment, individuals realize that it is essential to relinquish some of their individual standards for the common good.2 This results in an orientation toward developing interactions that maintain the integ- rity of the individuals involved while obtaining desired ends.3 Stage IV: Interdependence. Its chief characteristic is the willingness and ability of group members to validate their self-concepts with other members. The fear of rejection fades when tested against reality. Some of the values that seem to underlie . . . this phase in groups are: (1) Group members can accept one another's differences without associating "good" and "bad" with the differences; (2) Conflict exists but is over sub- stantive issues rather than emotional issues; (3) Consensus is reached as a result of rational discussion rather than through a compulsive attempt at unanimity; (4) Members are aware of their own involvement, and of other aspects of group process, without being overwhelmed or alarmed; (5) Through the evaluation pro- cess, members take on greater personal meaning to each other. This facilitates communication and creates a deeper understanding of how the other person thinks, feels, behaves; it creates a series of personal expectations, as distinguished from the pre- vious, more stereotyped, role expectation. In cognitive conceptual development, psychologists have iden- tified four distinction stages and three transition levels. These stages and levels have distinct characteristics of which planners of staff development should be cognizant so that they can design a pro- gram and learning environment that is appropriate and efficacious. 1mid. 2Bents, "Staff Development, p. 22. 31pm. 4W. G. Bennis and H. A. Shepard, ''A Theory of Group Develop- ment," Human Relations 9 (1956): 433. 19 Staff-development personnel should also be aware that an individual's developmental level should not be seen as a permanent classification, but rather as a current preferred mode of functioning.1 David Hunt of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education and his associates conducted a comprehensive set of studies regarding adult teachers. Hunt was able to document through research that teachers at higher stages of development (conceptual level) were viewed as more effective classroom teachers. They were more adaptive in their teaching style, more flexible, and more tolerant.2 This finding is congruent with the characteristics of Stage IV of the Conceptual Systems Theory. Also, Hunt's research demonstrated that individuals at more concrete levels of conceptual development (Stages I and II) function best in structured environments, whereas those at more abstract levels can function effectively in either high— or low-structured environ- ments;3 From this it may be concluded that staff developers must structure their inservice activities in such a manner than individuals at all conceptual levels can benefit from the activity. In addition to conceptual levels, Joyce and McKibbin indi- cated in their research that psychological stages of the individual must be considered in planning inservice activities. They posited that degrees of self-actualization may combine with conceptual 1David E. Hunt and E. V. Sullivan, Between Psychology and Education (Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden, 1974), p. 15. 2 Bents, "Staff Development," p. 15. 31pm. 20 levels--as defined by Hunt and his associates-~to help explain how teachers learn and why traditional incentives operate differentially.1 Joyce and McKibbin identified five psychological states that are identical to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. These categories are: 1. An orientation toward the satisfaction of basic physical needs. In contemporary societal terms, a person at this orientation is concerned primarily with economic security, the maintenance of food, the management of a physical exis- tence. 2. An orientation toward psychological safety. At this level an individual is seeking security in a predictable future and is concerned with psychological danger. . . . 3. An orientation toward love and belonging. Persons in this state feel accepted, wanted, and respected. . . . 4.. An orientation toward achievement. Persons in this state feel considerable self-esteem and believe they are regarded as valuable and competent people. . . . 5. An orientation toward self-actualization. At this level persons strive to expand their horizons and develop new possibilities for growth. Through interviews, Joyce and McKibbin assessed all teachers who had participated in staff-development activities for a period of four years to determine the psychological state in which they could be classified. The researchers also determined the degree to which each teacher had implemented the training/skills gleaned from the staff—development activities. They found that the higher the imple- mentation score, the higher the psychological state.3 1Michael McKibbin and Bruce Joyce, "Psychological States and Staff Development," Theory Into Practice 19 (Autumn 1980): 248. 2 Ibid., p. 250. 31bid., p. 252. 21 Joyce and McKibbin theorized that persons in levels one, two, and three of the psychological states enumerated could not bene- fit from the rich, supportive, cooperative, multioption program.1 Institutional Motivation The Rand Corporation conducted a four-year, two-phase study of federally funded programs designed to introduce and spread inno- vative practices in public schools. The study closely examined the local process of change and the factors that support teacher growth.2 It was found that four factors were crucial to the success and imple- mentation of continued local change efforts. Among those factors were institutional motivation, project-implementation strategies, and institutional leadership.3 Commitment of teachers to changes within the institution is influenced by the motivation of district managers, project-planning strategies, and the scope of the project. The Rand study found that the attitudes of district administrators about a change effort were a signal to teachers as to how seriously they should take a special project. Not only should interest in the project be manifested, but it is. essential that this interest be shown at the inception of the project. This idea supports Goodlad's premise that change in human llbid. 2 p. 70. 3 McLaughlin and Marsh, "Staff Development and School Change," Ibid. 22 behavior requires a supportive environment.1 Planning for staff development should not be done unilaterally by either principal or central-office staff. It should be a cooperative effort of both administration and staff. Results of the Rand study indicated that this planning strategy resulted in effective implementation of inno- vations and continued successful practices.2 Project-Implementation Strategies Implementation strategies can be classified as either staff- training activities or training-support activities. The Rand study discovered that if teachers only participated in staff training, which is traditionally skill-specific, the resultant change was short-lived when the support was removed. However, if there were additional staff-support activities, such as classroom resource personnel, use of outside consultants, and project meetings, there was a greater possibility that teacher change would be evident long after the project was terminated. Institutional Leadership Long-term change is achieved through the efforts of an enthusi- astic and competent project director and a supportive and interested central-office staff. Most critical, however, is the attitude of the building principal. The attendance of principals in project training imparts an important message to teachers about the value of the project. 1John Goodlad, Dynamics of Educational Change (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1975), p. 25. 2 p. 73. McLaughlin and Marsh, "Staff Development and School Change," 23 Planners of staff-development activities should invest in identifying competent leadership for such activities. Research by the Rand Corporation indicated that the more effective the inservice director, the higher the percentage of goals and objectives attained.1 The principal is more important than the staff-development coordinator to long-term project outcomes. At the end of the planned activity, it is the principal who must make a variety of decisions that explicitly or implicitly influence what happens to project methods and materials within a school. Summar A staff-development planner must consider many factors in planning activities. First of all, he must view staff development as a component of change within the school setting, for ultimately that is the purpose of inservice. Because adults, like children, vary in their cognitive development, project planners must consider the types of activities that can best be employed to accommodate various learning rates and styles. One must garner the support of central administration and, most important, that of the school prin- cipal. Planning for the activity is best done collaboratively by both administrators and teachers. Adults will commit themselves to change when the goals and objectives of the inservice activity are realistic and important to them. Ibid. 24 The Computer: A Tool 0f Instruction History The use of computers in education is not a recent phenomenon. During the late 19505 and early 1960s, school districts throughout the United States used computers for such administrative tasks as student accounting, grade reporting, payrolls, accounts receivable, and accounts payable. Research by Goodlad, O'Toole, and Tyler revealed that computers were used in nearly all states and in both large and small school districts.1 During this same period, efforts were underway to use com- puters in instruction. This is known as computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Donald Bitzer, at the University of Illinois, developed and invented a teaching system called PLATO-~Programmed Logic for Auto- matic Teaching Operations.2 Initially geared for college and univer- sity populations, this program has been revised four times and still exists today. The original purpose of PLATO was to determine the potential of CA1 in education and to design an economically and edu- cationally viable CAI system.3 In 1963, Patrick Suppes and others in the Institute of Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences at Stanford University 1John I. Goodlad, John F. O'Toole, Jr., and Louise L. Tyler, Computers and Information Systems in Education (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1966), pp. 115-37. 2Justine C. Baker, The Computer in the School (Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1975), p. 19. 3Paul G. Watson, Using the Computer in Education: A Briefigg for School Decision Makers (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1972), p. 8. 25 received a grant from the Carnegie Foundation to initiate a program of computer-based instruction for elementary-school children.1 The first program, introduced on December 12, 1963, was one of mathemati- cal logic.2 Every year thereafter the program has been expanded, so that it now encompasses reading, computer programming, and Russian in school districts in Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, Ohio, Washington, Tennessee, Washington, D.C., and Texas,3 to name a few. Researchers at Stanford University and the University of Illinois were not alone in their experimentation with CAI. During 1964, 1965, and 1966, research and development activities were also underway at Pennsylvania State University, the University of Pitts- burgh, Florida State University, Howard University, the University of Texas, and the Philadelphia School System.4 In addition to sup- port from the Carnegie Foundation for the project at Stanford, the National Science Foundation and IBM aided some of these programs. Other projects evolved during the early l970s, such as TICCIT-- Time-shared Interactive Computer Controlled Information Television, and PLAN--Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs,5 but none of these made CAI a part of daily instruction in most schools. 1Patrick Suppes, Max Jerman, and Dow Brian, Computer-Assisted Instruction: Stanford's 1965-66 Arithmetic Program (New York: Academic Press, 1968), p. 8. 2 Ibid., p. 9. 3Baker, The Computer in the School, p. 22. 4Watson, Using the Computer in Education, p. 11. SBaker, The Computer in the School, pp. 22-25. 26 All of the early efforts with CAI were done by time-sharing: Terminals were placed in one location, and the central computer was often hundreds of miles away. School districts paid fees to lease the service. It was not until the late 19705 that schools owned microcomputers. The advent of the microcomputer has made CAI a reality for many K-12 schools.1 Computer-Assisted Instruction Whether instruction using the computer is accomplished through a time-sharing arrangement or is done with a microcomputer, the basic instructional modes are the same. Stolurow identified five basic modes of instruction:2 1. Drill and Practice: Learning materials in reading, math, science, or other school subjects are presented to the student in the same sequence and format. Students have repeated opportunities to respond. Courseware using this mode usually gives the student imme- diate feedback and can individualize the exercise level for each student. 2. Tutorial: In this mode the student actually receives his instruction under the control of the computer: The computer is the teacher--it provides the instruction. 1U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Educational Statistics, Student Use of Computers in Schools, by Jeanette Goor, Arthur Melmed, and Elizabeth Farris. ERSS Report No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, Fall 1980), p. 2. 2Lawrence M. Stolurow, "Some Factors in the Design of Systems for Computer-Assisted Instruction,“ in Computer-Assisted Instruction: A Book of Readin 5, ed. Richard C. Atkinson and Hal A. Wilson (New York: *Academic ress, 1969), pp. 81-82. 27 3. Simulation and Gaming: In the simulation and game mode, the computer replicates a real situation or phenomenon. The computer can be programmed to tell students how a simulation situation would change if certain alternatives were chosen. 4. Problem Solving: This mode allows the student to use the computer as a tool. A problem is presented to the student by the stu- dent or someone else in his environment. The student writes a program and enters the data. The computer then processes the data for the correct solution to the problem. 5. Inquiry Mode: The student asks questions of the computer. The computer, using key words and search algorithms, retrieves a response. Computers are used widely in many subject areas, in general and special education, and in many countries. Computer Curriculum Corporation, a private computer firm headed by Patrick Suppes of Stanford University, lists its courses as including mathematics, reading, language arts, algebra, English, and problem solving. These courses are for students in both elementary and high schools, as well as adult education.1 Taylor and Parrish conducted a national survey on the uses of and attitudes toward programmed instruction and computers in public school and college music education. They found that of the 1Patrick Suppes, "Third Annual Dean Lecture: The Future of Computers in Education," Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 6 (August 1979): 5. 28 public schools surveyed, 21 percent used computers in music educa- tion.1 Computers are used in science, as well. Tocci developed an independent biology curriculum as part of 17 learning-activity packages. Students are required to learn how to use the computer as an aid in mastering specific learning objectives. All modes of CA1 are used in Tocci's program, and students are required to program in BASIC.2 Continued courseware development in various subject areas has been supported by private foundations and by the National Science Foundation. Courseware development in such diverse subjects as hand- writing, reading, music education, science, mathematics, engineering, and architecture has been funded by the Foundation for the Advancement of Computer-Aided Education--originally chartered as the Apple Educa- tion Foundation.3 The National Science Foundation Funded a primary- level math project at Wittenberg University in Ohio. The computer games are now being field tested. Program content covers ten basic skill areas identified by the National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics.4 1Jack Taylor and James W. Parrish, "A National Survey on the Use of and Attitudes Toward Programmed Instruction and Computers in Public School and College Music Education," Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 5 (August/November 1978): 16. 2Salvatore Tocci, "The Microcomputer/Biology Interface," The Science Teacher 48 (May 1981): 60-62. 3"Awards Announced for Microcomputer Projects," Classroom Computer News 2 (January/February 1982): 14. 4"Computer Games for Primary-Level Math," Classroom Computer News 2 (March/April 1982): 63. 29 Some states have found the use of computers in their schools to be pervasive. The Montana Office of Public Instruction surveyed its schools and found that computers are used in nearly all subjects and on all grade levels.1 CAI is also used with preschoolers. In field testing instruc- tional material for Apple Corporation, Piestrup found that using the computer was effective in teaching basic concepts to preschoolers. The preschoolers in the sample used the computers easily and gained in skills.2 Researchers in Texas have found that computers can assist three- and four-year-old children in the initial learning of basic skills and sophisticated concepts.3 Computers are also being used to help those students identi- fied by schools as being handicapped. Harris used the computer and computerized toys to teach directionality and sequencing to two special-education first graders.4 Handiterm was developed as a 1Daniel T. Dolan, "Montana Office of Public Instruction Surveys Computer Education Activity in Schools," The Computing Teacher 9 (May 1982): 58. 2Ann McCormick Piestrup, "Pre-School Children Use Apple II to Test Reading Skills Programs" (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Repro- duction Service, ED 202 476, 1981), p. 12. 3Kathleen M. Swigger and James Campbell, "Computers and the Nursery School," National Educational Computing Conference Proceed- ings, 1981 (Denton, Texas: n.p., 1981), pp. 264-67; Corleta Lori Lewis, "A Study of Preschool Children's Use of Computer Programs," National Educational Computin Conference Proceedings, 1981 (Denton, Texas: n.p., 1981), pp. 272- 5. 4Linda Harris, "Which Way Did It Go?" Classroom Computer News 2 (May/June 1982): 35-36. 30 communication system for students who are motor and speech impaired.1 The provision of a vehicle for speech enables students to attend school and to be active participants in the class. More is being done in artificial-language labs to enhance students' communication capabilities. Fletcher and Suppes2 developed and evaluated CAI for hearing- impaired students to see whether CAI would significantly benefit them. More than 4,000 deaf students in five states participated in the project. The students received CAI in algebra, logic, computer programming, and English, with the math and language arts being empha- sized. It was concluded that CAI could be used successfully with deaf students. The gains were two to three times what is expected in classroom instruction.3 The United States is not the only country to have made a com- mitment to computer literacy in its schools. Japan, Israel, and particularly France have formulated national plans to incorporate computers in their schools.4 During the early 19705, France's nation- wide program consisted of: 1Apple Computer, Inc., Personal Computers for the PhysicalLy Disabled (n.p., n.d.), p. 5. 2J. D. Fletcher and Patrick Suppes, "The Stanford Project on Computer-Assisted Instruction for Hearing Im aired Students," Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 3 (August 1976): 1-12. 31mm, p. 11. 4Takaghi Sakamoto, "The Educational Use of Microcomputers in Japan," Educational Media International, September 1981, pp. 18~24; Ben Zion Barta, "Microcomputers in the Israel Educational System," Educational Media International, September 1981, pp. 4—7; Daniel Gras, "The French Experiment,“ Educational Media International, September 1981), pp. 8-12. 31 - properly planned, job-oriented training for teachers in all subject areas (between 1970 and 1976, over 500 teachers took in-depth courses of training lasting one year); - the installation in 58 lycees of machines of flexible and (for their time) light-weight design; - the development of a single programming language suited to Ehgnggeds of teagheESIandinozn asLLSE (Language Symbolique gnemen ym 0 1c eac ing anguage . French educational leaders hope that, between now and 1986-87, CAI can be employed in all 1,160 lycees in France.2 CAI has been credited with having positive effects on student achievement and attitudes. Surveys of current research indicated that CAI can be effective in producing higher levels of achievement and positive attitudes toward learning. Romero, in studying the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in mathematics at the middle school, found a significant difference in achievement between students using CAI and non-CAI 3 In a similar study, Smith found that the use of CAI students. increased math-achievement grade-level scores slightly more than grade level. Not only did CAI improve the reading score, but its use also improved daily school attendance and school library usage.4 1 2 Gras, "The French Experiment," p. 8. Ibid., p. 11. 3Samuel Ruben Romero, "The Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Instruction in Mathematics at the Middle School" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of the Pacific, 1979); Dissertation Abstracts International 41 (August 1980): 577-A. 4Elizabeth Skinner Smith, "The Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction on Academic Achievement, School Daily Attendance, and School Library Usage at Margaret Murray Washington Career Center (Ph.D. dissertation, University of the Pacific, 1980); Dissertation Abstracts International 41 (December 1980): 243l-A. 32 A study that employed the materials of the Computer Curricu- lum Corporation in language arts, reading, and mathematics estab— lished that "achievement gains exceeded one month grade level per "1 In one school dis- month students were enrolled in the CAI program. trict in California, the Los Nietos Elementary School District, the use of the Computer Curriculum Corporation materials reversed a l6-year decline in standardized achievement test scores. Broderick described a biology program in which a teacher taught both with and without the use of CAI. Matched scores of the groups showed a significantly higher level of achievement for the CA1 students.2 Many researchers have extolled the virtues of CA1. Gerard identified five benefits that CAI presents to students: 1. Better and faster learning since the student can time his learning at his own convenience; Better instruction at many levels and in many areas; Automatic measurement of progress; Personalized tutoring; and 01-wa The opporgunity to work with rich materials and sophisticated problems. Not only does achievement improve with CAI, but attitudes improve as well. Feldman and Sears found that learners in a CAI classroom became 1David B. Thomas, "The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Secondary Schools," AEDS Journal 12 (Spring 1979): 105. 2W. Broderick, Computer-Aided Learning Project (London, England: 1973) (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 129 281, 1973). 3R. W. Gerard, "Computers: Their Impact Upon Society," Journal of American Information Pr0ce$sing Societies 27 (1965): 33-40. 33 more academic in their classroom behavior.1 In general, students using CAI tended to have positive attitudes toward the process and toward the subject being studied.2 Some researchers have reported "less truancy and vandalism in an 'ethnic minority' school following introduction of CA1."3 The Computer: A Manager of Instruction Just as a computer can be used to instruct, so it can be used to manage instruction and to facilitate management tasks. Computer- managed instruction (CMI) is a combination of CAI and administrative categories.4 In using CMI, a student enters a program or system by taking a battery of tests that will indicate his achievement levels. "The computer then selects an appropriate set of objectives and recommends a program of study including a listing of appropriate modules of learning materials.”5 Educators at some schools have developed a computerized mathematics testbank. The computer is then used to generate and 1David H. Feldman and P. 5. Sears, "Effects of Computer- Assisted Instruction on Children's Behavior," Educational Technology 10 (March 1970): 13. 2H. J. Hallworth and Ann Brebner, Computer Assisted Instruc- tion in Schools: Achievements, Past Developments, and Projections for theTFuture (University of Calgary, June 1980), p. 178. (Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 200 187, 1980). 31bid. 4Watson, Using the Computer in Education, p. 18. 51bid., p. 29. 34 score tests.1 Wilkins reported that at an Arizona junior high school the computer was used to monitor and track students through an incre- mentized mathematics program. "The computer scored and recorded student test scores, listed sources of learning activities for each increment, maintained cumulative records on all students, and directed students to appropriate increments based on past performances."2 Many CMI systems have been developed. William Bozeman at the University of Iowa conducted a study in 1979 to determine the state— of—the-art of CMI systems. He asked two questions during the inves- tigation: What CMI programs are available? and What evidence exists concerning the effectiveness of CMI?3 The major CMI systems Bozeman identified were: PLAN, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs; WIS-SIM, Wisconsin System for Instructional Management; NAVY CMI System; MICA, Managed Instruction with Computer Assistance; and TRACER, developed by McGraw-Hill. He found that CMI is an "effective alternative to traditional manage— ment processes and should be considered by schools requiring assist- ance with educational decision making and record keeping."4 1Victoria Overton, "Research in Instructional Computing and Mathematics Education," Viewpoints in Teaching and Learning 57 (Spring 1981): 31. 21pm. 3William C. Bozeman, "Computer Managed Instruction: State of the Art," AEDS Journal 12 (Spring 1979): 118. 4 Ibid., p. 134. 35 The Computer: An Object of Instruction Even though schools categorize the study of the computer as an object of instruction as computer literacy and 85 percent of 7,606 districts surveyed stated they had programs in computer literacy,1 research on this subject is almost nonexistent. Part of the problem in finding research studies in computer literacy is due to the fact that computer-literacy courses accompanied the advent of the micro- computer in the mid-19705, and the subject is still in its infancy. The meaning of "computer literacy" varies greatly. Kurshan developed and validated a computer-literacy curriculum for secondary schools, which included Computer Components, History of Computers, Flowcharting, Programming, and Computer Awareness.2 Arthur Luehrmann, from the University of California at Berkeley, stated that computer literacy relates only to the study of programming. He insisted that individuals must understand how to use the computer in its own lan- guage.3 Moursund defined computer literacy as: . . a working knowledge of computers. This knowledge should be at a level compatible with the other knowledge and skills that a student is acquiring in schools. It is a knowledge based upon understanding how computers can help one learn, how computers can help one solve problems, how computer 1 2Barbara Lynn Kurshan, "The Development and Validation of a Hierarchical Computer Literacy Curriculum for Secondary Schools" (Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni- versity, 1976). 3Arthur Luehrmann, "Computer Literacy," Mathematics Teacher 27 (January 1982): 27. - Goor, Student Use of Computers in Schools, p. 5. 36 knowledge is essential to a modern understanding of some topics, what is included in the field of computers and information sci- ence, and computers as a form of entertainment.1 In her presentation for the National Education Computer Conference in June 1980, Hunter defined computer literacy functionally as: . whatever a person needs to know and do with computers in order to function competently in our information- based society. This definition highlights the fact that specific skills, knowl- edge and values required will vary from person to person, from job to job, and from time to time. Specialized knowledge required for a career as a computer designer, programmer, tech- nician, or analyst is usually excluded from the computer lit- eracy domain.2 While the discourse of what constitutes computer literacy continues, certain research issues warrant the attention of research- ers. In other subject areas, researchers have determined the sequence in which certain skills are best taught. With programming, one of the most critical of the computer-literacy areas, what are the prerequi- site skills that students must possess to be successful? After these prerequisites are determined, in what sequence should they be taught? When students graduate from high school, what are the competencies needed in computer literacy? If a youngster decides to attend col- lege instead of terminating his education after high school, what competencies does he need? It is hoped that some of these issues will be addressed in future research. 1Jean Rice and Sandy O' Connor, "Computer Literacy in the Elementary Classroom," Proceedings of the AEDS Conference (Minneapolis, Minn: n. p. , 1980), p. 229. 2 Ibid. 37 Summary The use of computers in education began in the late 19505 and early 19605; they were used first in administrative tasks. In the early 19605, pioneers in CA1 like Suppes, Bitzer, and their associates gave education good instructional programs and a mode of learning that is exciting for many youngsters. The computer has had positive effects on student achievement and attitudes. Many individuals have produced effective programs that can be used with both general and special education, in most subject areas, and at all age and grade levels. Even though the computer is no panacea for problems in education, it has proven to be the most versatile tool used in instruction. Not only is the computer a tool of instruction, it is a manager of instruction as well. Computer-managed instruction in many ways serves as an aide to the teacher and as a tutor for stu- dents. Many CMI systems exist and are tailored to various educational settings. Computer literacy, with its much-debated meanings, is the "newcomer" to education. The introduction of the microcomputer has emphasized the need for study in this area. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES The purposes of this study were (1) to develop a staff- development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers; (2) to evaluate the program on its content and format; and (3) to suggest principles, content, and format in planning and exe- cuting staff-development programs on computer awareness. Since this study was an evaluative one, part of the CIPP model developed by Daniel Stufflebeam was selected as the evaluation model. This model has gained a great deal of recognition in educa- tion as a decision-making tool. Elementary-school teachers who volunteered to participate in the staff-development program were asked to evaluate each module of the activity and to give a written evaluation of the entire workshop. Each evaluator was encouraged to provide any written comments regard- ing each module within the program. The procedures and methods used in conducting the study are presented in this chapter. These include an overview of educational evaluation and the CIPP model, procedures used in determining the content of the staff-development activity, factors considered in determining the program format, the collection and treatment of the 38 39 data, a description of the population and procedures of the study, the research questions, and a chapter summary. Educational Evaluation The nature and purpose of educational evaluation have been explored by many experts in the field. Borg and Gall viewed evalua- tion as a process of making judgments about the merit, value, or worth of educational programs, products, and techniques.1 Ire. Encyclopedia of Educational Evaluation states that the primary purpose of evaluation research is to provide information from which to make 2 J. W. Asher of Purdue Uni- decisions about an educational program. versity defined educational evaluation as the process of obtaining and using information for judging which alternative should be selected in making a decision.3 Wolf embraced Beeby's definition of evaluation, which stated that evaluation is "the systematic collection and inter- pretation of evidence leading, as part of the process, to a judgment of value with a view to action."4 Although the definitions of "educa- tional evaluation" vary, there is general agreement that it is a 1Walter R. Borg and Meredith Damien Gall, Educational Research: An Introduction, 3rd ed. (New York: Longmans, Inc., 1979), p. 598. 2Scarvia B. Anderson et al., Encyclopedia of Evaluation (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1975), p. 136. 3J. William Asher, Educational Research and Evaluation Methods (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1976), p. 197. 4Richard M. Wolf, Evaluation in Education: Foundations of Competency Assessment and Program Review (New York: Praeger Publish- ers, 1979), p. 3. 4O process of judging the value, merit, or worth of educational programs, products, and techniques for the purpose of decision making. Educational Research and Educational Evaluation There is a great deal of overlap between educational research and educational evaluation. Borg and Gall stated that both methods make use of research designs, data-collection tools, and analysis of the data.1 Yet there are significant differences between educational research and educational evaluation. Evaluation is conducted when there is a need to make a deci- sion about the value of an educational program. In contrast, research is conducted for the purpose of testing a hypothesis about the rela- tionship between two or more variables. "The critical difference between the two fields is in the emphasis that is placed on making practical decisions versus accepting or rejecting a hypothesis.”2 The two methods differ in external validity or the extent to which the results of the study can be generalized. Research is concerned with the production of knowledge that is as generalizable as possible, whereas evaluation seeks to produce knowledge specific to a particular setting.3 Another difference between evaluation and research concerns judgments of value. Evaluation studies are designed to yield data concerning the worth, merit, or value of educational phenomena. 1 2 Borg and Gall, Educational Research, p. 601. 3 Ibid. Wolf, Evaluation, p. 9. 41 Research studies are designed to discover the truth about educational phenomena.1 Summative and Formative Evaluation Scriven classified evaluation according to purpose or role. He stated that an evaluation of an educational phenomenon can be either a formative one or a summative one.2 Formative evaluation produces information that is fed back during the development of an educational program to help improve the activity. Such evaluation provides needed information to the develop- ers.3 Preliminary field tests and main field tests illustrate the formative role of evaluation. The summative role of evaluation occurs after the program is fully developed. It is usually or best completed by an outside evaluator, and it is conducted to determine how worthwhile the final program is. According to Borg and Call, Formative and summative evaluation often differ in instru- mentation, research control, and generalizability. Formative data tend to be collected through observation, questionnaire, and interview; research control and generalizability are not major concerns. . . . In contrast, summative data tend to be collected with standardized instruments having high validity and reliability. Research control and generalizabilitymu vcmucmum 4 am ”mpoz Fm. mm. so. mm. mm. on. Pm. mm. mm. mm. mm. om mappmm WFchmumz mm.¢ vp.¢ m~.¢ mo.¢ mp.¢ om.¢ om.¢ o_.¢ —¢.¢ mm.¢ mm.¢ and: mm. mm. we. om. mm. om. Fm. we. Fm. om. om. om Nw.¢ ¢~.¢ mm.¢ op.¢ mr.¢ om.¢ om.¢ mm.¢ m¢.¢ mm.v Fv.¢ can: mm. «N. mm. mm. om. mu. Pm. me. mm. um. no. em oceumm mcwocmscmm ow.¢ mm.¢ mm.¢ co.¢ mo.¢ —¢.¢ om.¢ mm.¢ om.¢ mm.¢ m¢.¢ emu: om. mm. me. mo.F mo._ we. eo.— mm. om. em. me. am mcpumm mcwumm mm.¢ mm.v oo.¢ om.m mm.m mp.¢ ow.m mm.m mo.¢ nm.¢ mo.¢ can: mm. ow. we. mm.— mm. mm. oo.~ No._ No._ am. me. am mcpumm meme Pm.¢ om.¢ ow.m oo.e mo.¢ mm.¢ Pm.m mo.m mm.¢ mm.¢ mm.v emu: PF o_ m m N m m a m N _ mcopumu mmFsuoz .mmpzuoe mmocum mcopumw mo cowpmspm>muu.mp.q anaH 83 below 4.0. The standard deviation was greatest in Modules 5, 7, and 8. This indicates that although the participants' mean ratings indicated that the pace of these modules was too rapid, there was also a great difference of opinion in their ratings of the modules within the pacing factor, as indicated by the standard deviations. Sequencing, Method, and Materials The sequencing, method, and materials factors fared particu- larly well in the evaluation. All mean ratings exceeded 4.0, and the standard deviations reflected consensus. These three factors should remain unchanged in future workshops. Objectives The objectives of the entire workshop were ranked by their mean scores. This was done to identify those objectives that were of the most value to workshop participants. Only one objective received a mean rating below 4.0; it was deleted in the revision of the work- shop. In general, the first ten objectives listed in rank order in Table 4.13 are those designed to teach the participants to use the equipment, identify resources, and aid in the purchase and operation of the equipment. The second ten objectives are those that, for the most part, would help teachers program the computer, use the computer in the classroom, and identify the computer's effect on society. 84 Table 4.13.--Ranking of objectives by means. Rank Mean Object1ve (To . . .) Order Module Rating SD Identify resources in their school district to aid computer education. 1 11 4.96 .21 Connect componentsparts to the computer. 2 1 4.90 .29 Load a program. 2 1 4.90 .29 Evaluate software/courseware. 2 5 4.90 .44 Select appropriate software/courseware for instructional purposes. 5 5 4.82 .39 Use review sources for evaluation. 5 5 4.82 .39 Run a program. 1 4.77 .43 Identify appropriate courseware for instructional purposes, i.e., for simu- 8 4 4 72 46 lation, tutoring, drill and practice, ° ' problem solving, and gaming. Select appropriate hardware for the needs of the school. . 9 6 4.64 .95 Identify these components and their purpose: power supply, video monitor, 9 l 4.64 .49 keyboard, processing unit, and cas- sette recorder. Identify some effects of the computer on our lives in employment, threats 1] 9 4 62 50 to privacy, and information retrie- ' ‘ val and access. Use the BASIC commands: Run, List, and New. 12 2 4.59 .50 Select CMI software. 13 10 4.55 .74 Use the BASIC statements: Print, Let, Rem. l4 2 4.50 .60 Use BASIC to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. 14 3 4.50 .51 Plan a unit for introducing a computer in a classroom. 16 l 4.45 .60 Know the meaning of hardware, RAM, Input, CLOAD, Break, Bit, Software, ROM, Output, Enter, Cursor, Byte, 17 l 4.32 .48 Courseware, BASIC, Run, Clear, Central Processing Unit. 85 Table 4.l3.--Continued. . . Rank Mean Object1ve (To . . .) Order Module Rating SD Save a program. 18 3 4.27 .94 Plan a unit for use in the classroom (Computer programming using state- 18 2 4.27 .55 ments and commands). Plan a unit for use in the classroom (Computer programming using arith- 20 3 4.23 .69 metic operations). Plan a unit for use in the classroom (Future and impact of computers on 21 9 4.19 .87 our lives). Define a digital computer. 22 l 4.18 .73 Identify computer applications in society in business, government, law enforcement, librarianship, 22 8 4’14 '36 manufacturing, and education. Define CAI and its modes. 24 4 4.10 .00 Write a plan for the use of the computer in the classroom. 25 7 4.09 .11 Classify computer by size and type. . . 26 8 4.05 .22 Plan a unit on the history and applications of computers for 26 8 4.05 .22 classes. Identify "robotics" and tell how it is influencing our lives. 26 9 4.05 .38 Define "artificial intelligence" and relate some of its uses. 29 9 4.00 .45 Identify the capabilities of the first, second, and third generation 30 8 3.86 .73 computers. 86 The objectives in the third stratum are principally those that teach about the computer. Although these were of value to the teachers, as indicated by the ranking, they were not deemed critical. Summary of Comments Time The data in the summary-of-comments section of the evaluation form were consistent with those given in the evaluation of each module. The factors indicated most often as needing change were time and pacing. Some of the comments given by participants were: Given the completeness of the workshop, I feel more time needs to be spent in programming and in planning classroom units for teachers. There's too much content for the time allotted. Computers are all new to me, and I felt I needed more time operating them. Another participant thought that the time allotted the entire workshop was adequate, but she felt the total amount of time (38 hours) might not be realistic unless teachers took the workshop for credit or for pay. Piciflfl "Most of those units requiring programming or the reviewing of software just went too fast. Workshop participants were not allowed adequate time." This statement sums up the sentiment of the group. It was essential to cover a great deal of material, but the partici- pants wanted more practice time. 87 Objectives One of the most praised aspects of the workshop was the content or objectives. This is consistent with the ratings given the objectives. Some comments from participants were: I like the scope of what's been covered. Great! The objectives of the workshop were clearly stated in behav- ioral terms! Great job! The objectives are clear and, most of all, are very appropriate for the educator to learn so they may in turn teach the children. Squencing A few of the written comments indicated that the sequencing within modules was fine, but some indicated that the sequence of the modules within the total workshop could be changed. Methods Most of the workshop participants felt the methods and activities were excellent. They requested that the previewing of software and the programming laboratory sections be expanded. These modules were of tremendous value to them. Some comments follow: Appropriate, continue emphasis on practice and use of micros. All of the methods and activities are good. The activities were appropriate for the nature of the workshop. 88 Resources The participants deemed the resources excellent and approp- riate. They praised the variation in resources. Many were pleased to know that all of the resources were available for their use and for use with their students. Results of Interviews Because individuals often fail to write their responses, the researcher interviewed each participant at the conclusion of the workshop. The following questions were asked: 1. Was the time adequate for the entire workshop? 2. Was the pacing appropriate? Did we spend too much time on some items and not enough on others? 3. Were there any objectives you felt should have been included or deleted? 4. What is your evaluation of the sequencing of objectives within and among modules? 5. Were the methods varied enough? If not, how could they be changed? 6. Were the materials appropriate? 7. What would you change about the workshop? The responses to the first six questions were repetitions of those received in the summary evaluation of the workshop and in the evaluation of each module. Those comments will not be repeated here, for all of them have been cited two or three times already. The question that did elicit different responses was: What would you change about the workshop? Most of the respondents to this query expressed the need to have each module be independent--taught 89 separately and on demand. They stated that although the content was needed, it was not all needed in the same time span. Also requested were self-instructional modules that could be placed in a resources center. This would provide an opportunity for participants to learn at their leisure and at their own pace. It would also give them an opportunity to review items they did not understand in the formalized setting. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents a summary of the purposes and method- ology of the study, conclusions, and recommendations and suggestions for further study. Summary of the Study The purposes of this study were (1) to develop a staff- development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers; (2) to evaluate the program on its content and format; and (3) as a result of the study, to suggest basic principles, content, and format in planning and executing staff-development programs on computer awareness. The purposes were fulfilled through development of a computer-awareness workshop, which required a literature search and a survey of professionals in data processing and computer science; presentation of the workshop; and evaluation of the workshop by the participants. The workshop was composed of 11 modules that contained 30 objectives and required 38 hours of instruction. The participants in the study were volunteers from three elementary schools. As a group, they taught all grades, had had at least four years of teaching experience, and had had some exposure to computers. 90 91 The research method chosen was one of evaluation. Of the many evaluation models available, one of the CIPP evaluations was chosen. CIPP is an acronym for context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation, and product evaluation. Process evaluation was chosen because it met the study objectives. Evaluation for this study was formative; that is, evaluation was conducted during the formation of the model (workshop). The evaluation process provided information for the revision and refinement of the model. To gather data, the researcher used both a questionnaire and personal interviews. The questionnaire elicited two types of infor- mation. In the first section, workshop participants were asked to rate six factors in each module: time, pacing, objectives, sequenc- ing, methods, and materials. In the second section of the question- naire, participants were asked to evaluate the overall quality of the workshop on the aforementioned six factors. The data derived from the questionnaire were subjected to statistical analysis to determine a mean and a standard deviation for each factor. Those factors that were rated 4.0 or higher were retained in the revised model. The standard deviation provided information regarding the degree of consensus on each factor. Because individuals are often reluctant to write responses, the researcher interviewed each participant at the conclusion of the workshop. The responses were recorded. A content analysis of the interviews was done to provide for a classification of responses. Comments were edited, being careful not to distort respondents' 92 opinions or to introduce the investigator's bias. The results of the interviews were then reported. An evaluation was made of each module and then of the factors across modules. This was done in an effort to determine where revi- sions and improvements should be made. Conclusions Through the use of a literature search and process or forma- tive evaluation, data were produced that enabled the investigator to answer the research questions. The research questions are restated below, followed by answers based on data elicited in the study. Research Question 1 What principles should one consider in planning staff- development programs? Through a literature search of information on inservice and staff-development programs, it was ascertained that the following factors must be considered: the individual to be trained, institu- tional motivation, project-implementation strategies, and institu- tional leadership. Since adults differ as much developmentally as children do, their individual development must be considered in program planning. Those who function at a higher conceptual level must have a warm, supportive, unstructured, multioption environment. Individuals at the more concrete levels of conceptual development function best in a structured environment, whereas those at more abstract levels can function effectively in high- or low-structured environments. Hence 93 it was concluded that staff developers must structure their inservice activities in such a manner that individuals at all conceptual levels can benefit from the activity. This workshop accommodated individuals with both concrete and abstract levels of conceptual development through a structured work- shop from which both types of individuals could benefit. Also, those activities that required individuals to plan for classroom instruction afforded each an opportunity to plan in a manner compatible with his conceptual development. Support from the administrators in a school district is essen- tial for effective change. District administrators' attitudes are a signal to teachers as to how seriously they should respond to an individual project. Even though administrative support is encouraged, it is imperative that planning an activity should be a cooperative effort of both administration and staff. Administrative support for this workshop was evidenced through the provision of hardware and software for the teachers to use in their schools. In addition, both central administrators and principals attended some sessions. In implementing staff-development activities, it is advisable that additional staff-support activities be available for teachers after the planned inservice program. Teacher change will be evident long after the program has terminated. As much as possible, an effort should be made to have building administrators attend staff-development activities. Such attendance imparts an important message to teachers about the value of the project. 94 Factors that should be considered in planning staff-development activities are: (1) individual conceptual/psychological development, (2) institutional leadership, (3) project-implementation strategies, and (4) institutional motivation. Research Question 2 How are computers used in instruction in K-6 schools? Computers have been used in ore-college schools since the late 19505 and early 19605. At that time the computer was used for administrative tasks and for computer-assisted instruction. Since the advent of microcomputers, computers have also become an object and a manager of instruction. Computers have not only been used as a tool, an object, or a manager of instruction, but they have been used in nearly all subjects at all levels. In many schools, the use of computers is pervasive. Computer-assisted instruction uses five basic instructional modes: drill and practice, tutorial, simulations and gaming, problem solving, and inquiry modes. In the drill and practice mode, the com- puter becomes an "electronics workbook," but it is a thousand times more effective. New material is introduced in the tutorial mode. In the simulation and gaming mode, the computer replicates a real situation or phenomenon. Students use the computer as a tool in problem solving. A program is written and data are processed for correctly solving the problem. In the inquiry mode, the student asks questions of the computer. The computer, using key words and search algorithms, retrieves responses. 95 Many researchers have reported the use of computers in science, math, foreign languages, social studies, and music. It is an effective tool with both special and general education, in pre- school programs, and in the regular elementary grades. CMI or computer-managed instruction is a combination of CAI and administrative categories. The computer selects an appropriate set of objectives and recommends a program of study, including a listing of appropriate modules of learning materials. In using the computer as an object of instruction, the stu- dent is taught programming languages. Also, students are taught the effect and future of computers in society. Research Question 3 What content and format should be used in implementing a staff-development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers? The content that should be included in a staff-development program on computer awareness for elementary-school teachers is included in the workshop model formulated in this study. (The model is included on the following pages.) It was evident from the evaluation of the model that the general plan or format of the workshop should include: a laboratory session (or practice time on the computer); varied instructional methods and materials; aid for teachers after the workshop concludes; modules that can be an entity within themselves; and adequate pacing, sequencing, and time. The starred items in the model indicate revisions or additions to the pre-evaluation model. These changes were made as a result of 96 the teachers' evaluation of the workshop. See Appendix E for the pre-evaluation model. COMPUTER AWARENESS: A STAFF-DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS We are living in a computer-oriented society. The students we teach must possess the skills to be intelligent and informed consumers of this technology. It is the responsibility of schools to prepare students for this ever-changing society. It is on these premises that this workshop was developed. The purpose of this workshop is to inform teachers of the use of computers in our society and in education. It is not the intent of the workshop to have teachers emerge as computer experts; rather it is hoped that they will become informed consumers of the technology in the classroom. This workshOp is only the beginning in a series of experiences essential for competency in computer education. There are two objectives for this workshop, and they are: 1. To identify the content essential for a computer-awareness inservice activity for elementary-school teachers who have had little or no experience in using a computer. 2. To determine what activities, resources, sequence of objec- tives, pace of instruction, activities, and materials are effective and appropriate for a computer-awareness workshop. All of the content of this workshop does not have to be present. Note the prerequisites before a module is chosen for presentation. This flexibility allows teachers to request only the information they need and want. It is recommended that no more than eight to ten participants attend a workshop session at a time within Module 1, unless the instructor uses a networking system. It is difficult for one person to provide all the individual attention needed. 97 MODULE 1: The Computer: How to Run a Program (Designed for a TRS-8O Model 1, Level 2) OVERVIEW . . This module is an introduction to the computer. Workshop par- t1c1pants will be introduced to elementary facts essential to operat- 1ng a computer and running a program. Materials and methods used are the same that can be used with students in the classroom. OBJECTIVES Time: 3 Days (2 hours per day) When participants have completed this module, they should be able to: 1. Define a digital computer. 2. Identify these components and their purpose: power supply, video monitor, keyboard, processing unit, and cassette recorder. 3. Connect component parts to the computer. 4. Load a program. 5. Run a program. 6. Know the meaning of: a. Hardware b. Software c. Courseware d. RAM e. ROM f. BASIC 9. Input h. Output i. Run j. CLOAD k. Enter 1. Clear m. Break n. Cursor 0. Central processing unit p. Bit q. Byte 7. Plan a unit for introducing a computer in the classroom. *8. Understand error messages. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. A videotape explaining the component parts of the TRS-8O model 1, Level 2 and the correct way to connect the TRS-80 system will be shown and replayed in order that workshop participants may complete required tasks. 2. The vocabulary used in the videotape will be reviewed. 98 MODULE 1 (Continued) Programs will be loaded and run and appropriate time will be allotted for participants to become comfortable and compe- tent in using the computer. The content of the module will be reviewed using the first chapter of Bob Albrecht's TRS-80 BASIC. Jointly plan a unit for use in the classroom. RESOURCES 1. *3. Videotape (Developed by Susan Halverson, Lansing School District) Albrecht, Bob et a1. TRS-8O BASIC. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1980. pp. 1-9. Operating manual for the TRS-80. *Prerequisites: None. 99 MODULE 2: Computer Programming (for TRS-80) OVERVIEW Elementary BASIC programming concepts are presented in this module. Participants will be taught the purpose and use of some BASIC statements and commands. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants have completed this module they should be able to: 1. Use these BASIC statements in a simple program: Print, Let, Rem. 2. Use the BASIC commands: Run, List, and New. 3. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. *4. Edit a program. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Use a sound filmstrip to explain the meaning and purpose of each statement and command. 2. Write a short program that will use these statements and commands. *3. Use Introduction to BASIC to explain the editing process. 4. Complete a short activity sheet that reviews a unit to explain these concepts to students. RESOURCES 1. BASIC: An Introduction to Computer Programming, by Center for Humanities. 2. Radio Shack. Introduction to BASIC, part 1, pp. 2-1 to 2-6. *Prerequisites: Content of Module 1. 100 MODULE 3: Computer Programming (for TRS-80) OVERVIEW Basic arithmetic operations in BASIC will be explained in this module. Also, workshop participants will be shown how to save programs. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this module they will be able to: 1. Use BASIC to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. 2. Save a program. 3. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Commercially prepared material will be used to instruct work- shop participants in using BASIC to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. 2. Instruction and practice will be given in loading and saving a program. 3. Jointly plan a unit for use in the classroom. RESOURCES 1. Radio Shack. Introduction to BASIC, Part I, pp. 3-1 to 4-7. 2. Albrecht, Bob et a1. TRS-80 BASIC. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1980. pp. 23-27, 333-334, 329-331. *Prerequisites: Module 1. 101 MODULE 4: Computer as a Tool of Instruction: CAI OVERVIEW The meaning and modes of computer-assisted instruction will be discussed. Appropriate courseware will be demonstrated. OBJECTIVES *Time: 3 days (2 hours each day) When the participants complete this module they will be able to: 1. Define CAI and its modes. 2. Identify appropriate courseware for instructional purposes, i. e. , for simulation, tutoring, drill & practice, problem solving and gaming. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss CAI. (Pamphlets used as resources should be dis- tributed a week ahead of time.) 2. Demonstrate courseware for the five modes of instruction. RESOURCES l. Moursund, David. Precollege Computer Literacy: A Personal Approach. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Com- puters in Education, 1981. 2. . Teacher's Guide to Computers in the Elementary School. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Computers in Education, 1980. 3. Rogers, Jean 8. An Introduction to Computers and Computing. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Computers in Education, 1981. 4. Appropriate software available from vendors. *Prerequisites: Content of Module 1. 102 MODULE 5: The Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selecting Software OVERVIEW Participants will develop skill in selecting and evaluating software. OBJECTIVES *Time: 4 days (2 hours per day) When the participants complete this module, they will be able to: 1. Select appropriate software/courseware for instructional purposes. 2. Evaluate software/courseware. 3. Use review sources for evaluation. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Both excellent and mediocre software/courseware will be demonstrated. 2. As software/courseware is being demonstrated, participants will be asked to classify them by instructional modes. 3. Review sources for the software/courseware will be presented. RESOURCES 1. Appropriate software from various vendors. 2. Review journals: Booklist, Creative Computing, Classroom Computer News, Electronic Learning, Electronic Education, The Computing Teacher, Queue, Byte, and SEhool Microware. *3. A software-evaluation form developed by local-school-district computer-education personnel. *Prerequisites: Content of Module 1. 103 MODULE 6: Computer as a Tool of Instruction: Selection of Hardware *(Optional Module) OVERVIEW Workshop participants will be informed of the differences and features of six computer systems. They will be given an opportunity to examine each system. OBJECTIVES *Time: 3 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to select appropriate hardware for their purposes, considering the following: cost, portability, memory cassette reliability, execution time, program loading speed, composite video system, editing capa- bilities, graphics resolution, screen size, color, user-definable graphics, the keyboard, and sound. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES l. The features of each system will be identified. 2. Each system will be demonstrated for the group via tele- vision monitor. 3. Participants will be given an opportunity to operate each of the six systems. RESOURCES l. Vendors for the following companies will be asked to display their equipment: Atari Apple Tandy Corp. (TRS-80) Commodore Pet IBM Texas Instruments "thQOU’Q-l *2. Summary sheet for each computer. *Prerequisite: Content of modules 1, 2, and 3. 104 MODULE 7: Planning for the Use of Computers in Instruction OVERVIEW Planning is one of the most important tasks in using computers in instruction. Many purchase computers without giving any thought to how they are to be used. Planning for the purchase of computers in instruction involves determining your goal and objectives, software selection, and hardware selection. OBJECTIVES *Time: 3 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to write a plan for the use of computers in their classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Explain what must be done before either hardware or software is purchased for instruction. 2. Discuss with a computer-education consultant how systems and software are selected for instruction. 3. Jointly plan for the purchase of a computer system for instruction. RESOURCES 1. Visiting educational consultant. 2. Review journals for software and hardware. 3. Catalogs from software and hardware vendors. *Prerequisites: Modules 1-6. 105 MODULE 8: The Computer: History and Applications OVERVIEW A brief history of computers, the application of computers in our society, and the classification of computers will be explored. The methods and materials can be used with students in the classroom. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours *When participants have completed this module, they should be able to: l. Classify computers by size (main frame, mini-computer, and microcomputer) and type (special or general purpose and digital or analog). 2. Identify computer applications in society in such areas as business, government, law enforcement, librarianship, manu- facturing, and education. 3. Plan a unit on the history and applications of computers for their classes. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Filmstrips will be shown that relate a brief history of com- puters in our society, the types of computers, and various applications of computers in our society. Discussion will follow each showing. 2. Popular and technical magazines will be examined for articles on the applications of computers in our society. 3. Using the resources--magazines and filmstrips--workshop par- ticipants must plan a unit for their classes. RESOURCES Computers: From Pebbles to Programs, by Center for Humanities. Computer Awareness, by Society for Visual Education. Popular and technical magazines: a. Science Digest 1. Family Health b. Science j. Popular Computing c. Technology '82 k. Classroom Computer News d. Personal Computing 1. Electronic Education e. Creative Computing, m. Electronic Learnigg_ f. Time n. Any issue of a magazine 9. Fortune that contains a computer h. Newsweek article *Prerequisites: None. 106 MODULE 9: The Future and Impact of Computers on Society OVERVIEW Workshop participants will have an opportunity to discuss the future and impact of computers on our society. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to: 1. Identify "robotics" and tell how it is influencing our lives. 2. Define "artificial intelligence" and relate some of its uses. 1 3. Identify some effects of the computer on our lives in employ- ment, threats to privacy, and in information retrieval and access. 4. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. View a film and filmstrips. 2. Discussion of the film and filmstrips with a visiting computer scientist. 3. Jointly plan a unit for classroom use. RESOURCES 1. The Computer Revolution, by IBM. 2. Careers in Computer Science and Service, by Center for Humanities. 3. At Home With the Computer: What Can It Do for You?, by Center for HUmanities. *Prerequisites: None. 107 MODULE 10: Computer as a Manager of Instruction OVERVIEW Not only is the computer an object of instruction and tool of instruction, it is a manager of instruction. Participants will have an opportunity to preview CMI software. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When participants have completed this module, they should be able to select CMI software for their use. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Uses of CMI will be discussed. 2. Software for computer-managed instruction from various vendors will be previewed. RESOURCES CMI software from vendors. *Prerequisites: Modules 1-5. 108 MODULE 11: Resources OVERVIEW Support for classroom activities is always needed, and computer education is no exception. Workshop participants will be apprised of resources available to them in their school district. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When workshop participants complete this module, they will be able to identify resources in their school district to aid in computer education. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES This workshop session is to be held in the computer resource room. The resources will be identified. RESOURCES 1. Curriculum guides from other school districts. 2. Dealer catalogs for hardware and software. 3. Software for evaluation and use. 4. Hardware for evaluation and use. 5. Supplementary books for classroom instruction. 6. Films and filmstrips for instruction. 7. Research articles in computer education. 8. Library books about computers. 9. Announcements of computer conferences. 10. A listing of college programs in computer education. 11. A monthly newsletter to inform teachers. 12. Periodicals (computer). *Prerequisites: None. 109 Recommendations and Suggestions for Further Study This study examined what elements are essential in developing computer awareness in elementary-school teachers. As a result of the research that was done to determine elements recommended for computer awareness, it was clear to the researcher that much needs to be done in computer education. The following are recommendations and sug- gestions for further study: 1. A long-term evaluation should be made of what teachers did with computer education in the classroom after attending a computer-awareness workshop. 2. As computer-awareness/literacy requirements change, the content of workshops on computer awareness should be redetermined. 3. A determination should be made of what a student needs to know to be computer literate. 4. Research should determine how expert a teacher needs to be in computer education to make effective use of computers in teach- ing students. In addition, there are other issues that should be addressed in computer education. These include the following: 1. For those schools that do have "mature" computer-education programs, a study should be conducted to discover whether the skills taught and the competencies required of the graduates were sufficient and/or necessary. 2. A longitudinal study should be conducted to determine what changes computers have promoted in education. 110 3. The effect of computers on a child's development-- cognitive and affective--should be studied. APPENDICES 111 APPENDIX A RESEARCH STUDY REQUEST 112 .,“. - a 113 Return to: Revised 9/80 Grace Iverson Office of Evaluation Services Lansing School District 600 W. Lenawee Lansing, MI 48933 RESEARCH STUDY REQUEST Office of Evaluation Services Lansing School District Individual conducting study: (517) 487-8676 (Home) Name Joyce G. Thomas Phone No. (517) 374-4257 (Office) Professional title, if any Asst. Director - Department of Media Services Address 5815 Wise Road; Lansing, MI 48910 Institution, organization, or agency with which individual is associated, if any: Lansing School District Reason for study: College or university course requirement Partial fulfillment for Master's degree Partial fulfillment for Doctor's degree X Other If study is being conducted for course requirement or for a degree, please provide course instructor's name or name of major advisor. Name Dr. Louis Romano Full Title Professor, Department of Higher Education and Administration 114 4. Title of Study Computer Awareness: A Staff Development Model for Elementary Teachers 5. Statement of hypothesis and/or objective(s) of study The objectives of the study are to: (l) deve10p a com- puter awareness staff development program model for elementary teachers, and (2) evaluate the model in order to outline basic principles, content, and format needed for computer awareness staff development activities. 6. Briefly describe the procedure you will use in involving pupils or teachers as subjects. That is, what will they be required to do, will they be involved individually or in groups (how many in a group). (Use attachment) 6.a. Date project to begin March 11, 1982 6.b. How much time will be involved? Thirty-eight (3g) hours per teacher 7. Pupils as subjects: How many? - At what grade(s)? Particular characteristics, e.g., boy, girl, high or low ability, etc.: 8. Is a specific school or geographic area required? Yes If so, explain: The principals and staffs of the following schools have agreed togparticipate in the study if it is approved: Averill, Northwestern, Wexford, and Main. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 115 Will teachers be required to help in the study? Yes If so, in what way? Teachers will be asked to evaluate the staff development model. Will other school personnel be involved in the study? No If so, in what way? Will school records be required? No If so, to what extent? (Please specify) Will additional supplies or equipment be necessary? No If so, to what extent? How will the students/staff of Lansing benefit from this study? (Use attachment) Will a copy of this completed study be forwarded to the office? X yes no How does your request fit district priorities listed on procedures' memo? (Use attachment) 116 13. Teachers will benefit from participation in this study for they will be: a. Instructed in the uses of the computer in instruction; b. Provided with computer awareness activities they can use with their students; c. Informed of computer resources, both print and non- print, that are available to aid them in planning instruction; d. Instructed in the factors essential for software and hardware selection. 15. One of the district's priorities is staff develOpment, and for many years much time, effort, and resources have been devoted to providing quality inservice programs for teachers. This study has as its intent the development of a computer awareness inservice that can be used by the Department of Media Services. Note: Four experts in computer science and data processing have been asked to validate the content of the workshop. Nick Colovos, Director of Data Processing, is one of those persons. APPENDIX B APPROVAL FOR THE WORKSHOP 117 118 LANSING SCHOOL DISTRICT RECEIVED MAR 101382 arms: or EVALUATION SERVICES DEPT. OF MEDIA SERVICES 500 W. LCNAWIC uusma. mama»: ones: March 11, 1982 Joyce 6. Thomas Assistant Director Department of Media Services 5815 Wise Road Lansing, MI 48910 Dear Joyce: Your request to conduct research in the Lansing School District has X been approved, has not been approved. The following comments apply to your study: If you have any questions or need additional information, please contact me (374-4347). Thank you. Sincerely, MM Grace Iverson Director cc: Research Review Committee Members APPENDIX C COVER LETTER FOR CONTENT-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE 119 120 1263 West Stoll Road DeWitt, Michigan 48820 23 February 1982 Dear The attached questionnaire is part of an effort to develop a computer awareness inservice model for educators in schools that serve grades K-6. This workshOp is designed to be the first in a series of workshOps dealing with computer education and has as its purposes to acquaint teachers with (1) various computer applications; (2) the component parts of any computer and knowledge needed to operate a microcomputer; (3) languages used in programming and an exercise in BASIC; (4) the impact on and the future of computers in our society; and (5) the planning process for instituting a computer program in a school. No record will be retained of your responses to the items on this questionnaire. All responses will be pooled and the results analyzed on the basis of predetermined categories. I would like to share the responses of this study with you. If you circle the number found on the first page of your question- naire, you will receive a summary of responses to this question- naire, a digest of recommendations of this study, and a copy of the model. I would appreciate receiving this questionnaire by March 3, 1982, so other phases of this research can be continued. Please use the enclosed stamped envelope for return of the instrument. Thanks very much for aiding me in this study. Yours truly, Joyce H. Thomas APPENDIX D CONTENT-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE 121 122 Zip Code CONTENT EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE COMPUTER AWARENESS: A STAFF DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS This questionnaire asks you to evaluate proposed content for a computer awareness inservice activity for elementary teachers who have had no experience in using a computer and who know very little about its uses in and its impact on our society. This staff development activity or inservice is intended to beauiintroduction or overview to other workshops that will examine, in depth, computer-related topics. For this questionnaire "computer awareness" is defined as "a knowledge of the non-technical and low technical aspects of computers and of the social, vocational, and educational implications of computers." "Staff development" is defined as a "planned and organized effort to provide educators with the knowledge and skills necessary to facilitate improved student learning and performance." The statements of content are written as terminal objectives. The four—point scale used for the evaluation of the content ranges from "not essential" to "very essential." Please circle the number on the scale that represents your evaluation of each information element. . Not Somewhat . Very Scale. Essential Essential Essential Essential 1 2 .3. 4 1.1 The Digital Computer Before teachers explore computer applications and the impact of come puters on our society, it is deemed necessary that they know what a computer is, what the physical components are, how computers are classified by size and purpose, and what inventions and innovations have aided in the computer's growth and development. How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the content of a computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VB 1.1 Definition_gf_a digital computer Know what a digital computer is l_ 2_ _3 §_ 1.2 Operation 9: a_microcomputer Be able to connect peripherals to a microcomputer l_ _2 .2 .3 Know how to load a program from a disk or tape _1 _2 3. fi_ 123 1.3 History 2: the digital computer Understanding the contributions of the Chinese, Blaise Pascal, Charles Babbage, Dr. Herman Hollerith, and Dr. Howard Aiken Know of features of ENIAC and EDSAC Understand the capabilities and features of the first, second, and third generation computers 1.4 Types 9: digital computers Understand that digital computers can be classified by size (main frame, mini-computer, and micro— computer) Understand that digital computers can be classified by type: special or general purpose 1.5 Physical components (hardware) Recognize some input devices (e.g. card, tape, disk, CRT, optical character recognition) Know some output devices (e.g. printer, CRT, and computer output microfilm) Know the auxiliary storage devices (tape, disk) Know the function of the central processing unit Know what a computer system is 2.0 Computer Applications NE IH IH IH he IH IH IH IH IH SE he IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN hp [N R» [N h» R» IN My VE Lb Lb In Lb Lb In I» I» In To understand the impact of the computer in our society one or two business, govern- applications in the following fields will be presented: ment, meteorology, law enforcement, librarianship, manufacturing, trans- Most of the emphasis will portation, medicine, the arts, and education. be upon educational applications. 124 How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the content of a computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VB 2.1 Business applications Know the uses of computers in retailing (e.g. point of sale terminals, inventory control, purchasing, word processing) IH IN up Lb Be aware of the uses of intelli- gent terminals in car leasing IH IN Lb Lb 2.2 Government applications Know the uses in basic operations of governmental bureaucracies (e.g. predictions, record-keeping, census) he IN N» Lb Know uses in the political and electoral process (e.g. campaign records and lists, automatic mailings, projected election results) he ho h» Lb Understand the uses in national defense IH IN hp Lb 2.3 Meteorology Recognize that the Croy-l is used for weather prediction at the National Center for Atmos— pheric Research IH IN hp Lb Know that the output of satellites is used in weather prediction IH IN My Lb 2.4 Law enforcement Know uses in various law enforce— ment activities (e.g. tracking persons and interstate communica- tions between police agencies) [P IN hp Lb Understand use of computer to verify evidence related to crime (e.g. electronic matching of identification evidence such as ballistics, voice, and finger- print analysis) IH ho hp Lb 125 Librarianship Understand that the circulation records are kept by computers Know that materials are cataloged by computers Recognize that regional and national data bases can be accessed and searched for research information Manufacturing Understand the processes of com— puter—assisted design (CAD) and computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) Know some uses of robots in manufacturing Transportation Know some uses of the computer in aviation (e.g. air traffic control and air pilot's training) Medicine Know that the computer aids physicians in diagnoses and in medical research The Arts Know the applications of the computer in art (e.g., analy- sis of art works and composi- tion in new art works) Know applications of computers in music (computer—generated music, research in analyzing, and in instruction) NE IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH IH SE IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN lw Iu Iu IN Iw Iu Iw IN IN VE Ib Ib Ib Ib Ib Ib lb 126 NE SE E VE 2.10 Education Know the uses of computers in computer-assisted instruction (Modes of material are tutorial, drill and practice, simulation, games, and problem-solving) he IN hp Lb Understand that computers are used in all subject areas: art, music, mathematics, language arts, science, and special education he IN hp Lb Understand that computers can also be used for record keep— ing, scheduling, and for managing instruction he ho hp Lb 3.0 Planning for Use of Computers in Instruction Planning is the most important task after one has decided s/he wants to use computers in instruction. Many purchase computers without giving adequate thought to how they are to be used. Planning for the purchase of computers in instruction involves determining your goals and objectives, software selection and the hardware selection. How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the content of a computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VB 3.1 Determining gpals and objectives Know that these steps must be followed before a computer is purchased for instruction (1) Determine the proposed use of the computer IH IN hp Lb (2) Establish goals and objec— tives for use he IN hp Lb (3) Research the market for hardware information to determine the advantages and disadvantages of each computer system as they relate to objectives IH IN hp Lb 127 NE SE E VB (4) Research the software market for availability of software within the area of instruc- tion that has been evaluated for effectiveness or field tested 1 _2_ 3 _4_ (5) Determine all costs and expenses required by the system selected .1 .2 §_ _4 3.2 Selection gf Software (for micro— computers) Recognize that the following should be considered before software is purchased (1) Cost 1 2_ _3 4 (2) Portability l_ '2 ‘3 ‘4 (3) Memory 1 _2_ _3 i (4) Cassette reliability .1 _2 §_ .3 (5) Execution time ‘1 ‘2 §_ _3 (6) Program loading speed .1 _2 3_ ‘fl (7) Composite video system _1 __ §_ _§ (8) Editing capability _l _2 §_ _4 (9) Graphics resolution _1 _2 §_ .4 (10) Screen size 1_ 2_ __ ‘3 (11) Color available .1 .2 3. _4 (12) User—definable graphics _1 _2 §_ .3 (l3) Keyboard _l g_ .3 _4 4.0 Programming Programming is an art and one does become proficient after a period of training. It is not the intent of this awareness training session to have the participants write programs. Rather the participants will be 127 NE SE E VB (4) Research the software market for availability of software within the area of instruc- tion that has been evaluated for effectiveness or field tested 1_ _2 .§ ‘3 (5) Determine all costs and expenses required by the system selected 1_ _2 .3 '4 3.2 Selection pf Software (for micro- computers) Recognize that the following should be considered before software is purchased (1) Cost _1; 2 2 fl (2) Portability 1_ .2 ‘3 §_ (3) Memory _1_ 2 _3_ 3 (4) Cassette reliability _1 _2 §_ .4 (5) Execution time _ 2 2 f: (6) Program loading speed .1 _2 g. _£ (7) Composite video system .1 _2 §_ .4 (8) Editing capability _l _2 3. _4 (9) Graphics resolution 1' ‘2 ‘3 .3 (10) Screen size _1 _2 §_ .3 (11) Color available __ _2 §_ .3 (12) User—definable graphics 1_ _2 .3 ‘3 (13) Keyboard I _2_ _3_ g 4.0 Programming Programming is an art and one does become proficient after a period of training. It is not the intent of this awareness training session to have the participants write programs. Rather the participants will be 128 required to know the names and common programming languages and to be aware of the steps in writing a BASIC program. How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the content of a computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VE 4.1 Know some of the commonly used programming languages 1_ _2 ‘3 .3 4.2 Understand the steps involved in writing a BASIC program 1_ g_ _3 §_ 5.0 Impact of Computers on Society Computers have had a profound effect upon our society. Among them have been the creation of new professions, change in employment needs, and a threat to our privacy. How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the content of a computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VB 5.1 Know some of the new jobs created by the computer industry ‘1 _2 §_ _4 5.2 Recognize how some jobs have changed because of computers (e.g. drafting, secretarial work, postal clerk) l_ _2 _§ .4 5.3 Be aware that access to data bases/ banks threaten our right to privacy 1_ _2 .3 3_ 6.0 Future of Computers There are very few fields in which change is as rapid as in the com— puter industry. Two areas of the computer industry will be surveyed. How would you evaluate the following for inclusion in the computer awareness workshop? NE SE E VB 6.1 Know that robotics will drastically change the manufacturing industry 1_ _g .2 fi_ 6.2 Recognize what artificial intelli- gence is and how it is being used _1 _§ §_ _3 129 7.0 Funding for Purchase of Computers Capital outlay for computers can be great. Public schools or non- profit institutions can profit from foundations giving grants. How would you rate the following for inclusion in a computer aware- ness workshop? NE SE E VB 7.1 Be aware of private funding services for the purchase of computers 1_ _g _3 .3 7.2 Be aware of governmental funding services for the purchase of com-' puters l_ _2 .§ ‘3 8.0 Resources List Classroom teachers need professional literature and other resources to help them plan for students. Given to them will be resources that will aid them in planning for instruction. How do you evaluate the following for inclusion in a computer aware- ness workshop? NE SE E VE 8.1 Know of print sources that can help in instructional planning (books, magazines, and journals) 1 2 3 4 8.2 Be aware of non-print source that can aid in instructional planning (audiovisual software) _1 _2 §_ ‘4 9.0 Vocabulary Throughout the workshop new concepts and vocabulary will be intro- duced. Listed are those words and concepts teachers should know for com- puter awareness. How do you rate the following for inclusion in a computer awareness workshop? 130 BASIC Bit Byte Cathode ray tube Central processing unit Chip COBOL Computer Computer system Control unit Cursor Data Data base Debug Digital computer Documentation Floppy disk FORTRAN Hardware Input Kilo Main frame Memory Microcomputer Mini computer he he he he he he he I--‘ he he he he he he he he he he he I he he he ho ho ho ho ho to ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho ho Io: IO) lo: Io: Io: Io: Io: Io: Io: IO: Io: Io: IO: IUD ID: IO: o: lo: Io: Io: Io: IO: Io: IUD hp Ib~ I£~ Ic~ |n~ |¢~ I£~ I£~ Ib~ I£~ Ib~ I¢~ |b~ I£~ |b~ |b~ I£~ b~ |b~ In~ |b~ Ib~ |c~ Ic~ |b~ Lb 131 NE SE E VE Output l .2. 2. 4 Pascal _1_ _2 _3_ ‘ _4 RAM .1. .2. .3. .4: ROM .1. _2_ _3_ .4. Software I _2_ _3_ A 10.0 Additions If you have additional items, please indicate below. Also indicate whether the item(s) you added is an essential or very essential element. APPENDIX E WORKSHOP QUESTIONNAIRE AND MODEL 132 133 WORKSHOP QUESTIONNAIRE COMPUTER AWARENESS: A STAFF DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS We are living in a computer-oriented society. The students we teach must possess the skills to be intelligent and informed consumers of this technology. It is the responsibility of schools to prepare students for this ever- changing society. It is on these premises that this workshop was develoPed. The purpose of this workshop is to inform teachers of the use of computers in our society and in education. It is not the intent of the workshop to have teachers emerge as computer experts, rather it is hoped that they will become informed consumers of the technology in the classroom. This workshop is only the beginning in a series of experiences essential for competency in computer education. There are two objectives for this workshOp, and they are: 1. To identify the content essential for a computer awareness inservice activity for elementary teachers who have had little or no experience in using a computer. 2. To determine what activities, resources, sequence of objectives, pace of instruction, activities, and materials are effective and appropriate for a computer awareness workshop. It is recommended that no more than eight to ten participants attend a workshop session at a time with module 1, unless the instructor uses a networking system. It is difficult for one person to provide all the individual atten- tion needed. 134 DIRECTIONS 1. Read each module and complete the evaluation form that follows. 2. After you have evaluated each module, complete the last form which is an overall evaluation of the workshop. Thank you for your cooperation and assistance. PERSONAL INFORMATION DATA SHEET Please answer the following questions by circling the letter before your response. 1. Grade taught: A. K B. l C. 2 D. 3 E. 4 F. 5 G. 6 H. Other-- 2. Number of years in teaching: A. 1-3 yrs. B. 4-7 C. 8-11 D. 12-15 E. 16+ 3. Training with computers: (Circle all that apply) Formal training (college classes) . Self taught Workshops in school district Vendor-provided workshops (Radio Shack, etc.) Other ----------- DJUOCDIP' 4. Do you intend to receive more training? A. Yes B. No 5. If you answered "yes" in number 4, tell how you intend to receive more instruction. 135 MODULE 1: The Computer: How to Run A Program (Designed for a TRS-8D Model 1, Level 2) OVERVIEW This module is an introduction to the computer. Work- shop participants will be introduced to elementary facts essential to operating a computer and running a program. Materials and methods used are the same that can be used with students in the classroom. OBJECTIVES Time: 3 days (2 hours per day) When participants have completed this module, they should be able to: 1. Define a digital computer. 2. Identify these components and their purpose: power supply, video monitor, keyboard, processing unit, and cassette recorder. 3. Connect component parts to the computer. 4. Load a program. 5. Run a program. 6. Know the meaning of: a. Hardware b. Software c. Courseware d. e. ROM f. BASIC 9. Input h. Output i. Run j. CLOAD k. Enter 1. Clear m. Break n. Cursor 0. Central processing p. Bit q. Byte unit 7. Plan a unit for introducing a computer in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES l. A videotape explaining the component parts of the TRS-8D model 1, Level 2 and the correct way to connect the TRS—8D system will be shown and replayed in order that workshop participants may complete required tasks. 2. The vocabulary used in the videotape will be reviewed. 3. Programs will be loaded and run, and appropriate time will be allotted for participants to become comfortable and competent in using the computer. 136 4. The content of the module will be reviewed using the first chapter of Bob Albrecht's TRS-8E BASIC. 5. Jointly plan a unit for use in the classroom. RESOURCES l. Videotape (Developed by Susan Halverson, Lansing School District). 2. Albrecht, Bob. et. a1. TRS-82 BASIC. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1980, pp. 1-9. 136 4. The content of the module will be reviewed using the first chapter of Bob Albrecht's TRS—8D BASIC. 5. Jointly plan a unit for use in the classroom. RESOURCES 1. Videotape (Developed by Susan Halverson, Lansing School District). 2. Albrecht, Bob. et. a1. TRS-8D BASIC. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1980, pp. 1-9. 137 EVALUATION: Module 1 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N module is adequate. 5 4 3 2. The pacing is apprOpriate. SA A N 5 4 3 3. These objectives are essen- SA A N tial for this module. 5 4 3 a. Define a digital SA A N ' computer. 5 4 3 b. Identify these compon- SA A N ents and their purpose: 5 4 3 power supply, video monitor, keyboard, processing unit, and cassette recorder. c. Connect component parts SA A N to computer. 5 4 3 d. Load a program. SA A N 5 4 3 e. Run a program. SA A N 5 4 3 f. Know the meanings of SA A N the vocabulary given. 5 4 3 g. Plan a unit for intro- SA A N ducing a computer in 5 4 3 the classroom. 4. The sequencing of the SA A N objectives is appropriate. 5 4 3 5. The method(s) is/are appro- SA A N priate for this module. SD 6. 7. 138 The materials are suitable for this module. Comments. SA h)U 139 MODULE 2: Computer Programming (For TRS-8E) OVERVIEW Elementary BASIC programming concepts are presented in this module. Participants will be taught the purpose and use of some BASIC statements and commands. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants have completed this module they should be able to: 1. Use these BASIC statements in a simple program: Print, Let, Rem. 2. Use the BASIC commands: Run, List, and New. 3. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Use a sound filmstrip to explain the meaning and purpose of each statement and command. 2. Write a short program that will use these statements and commands. 3. Complete a short activity sheet that reviews a unit to explain these concepts to students. RESOURCES 1. BASIC: An Introduction to Cpmputer Programming, by The Center for Humanities. 2. Radio Shack. Introduction to BASIC, Part 1, pp. 2—1 to 2-6. 140 EVALUATION: MODULE 2 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree D - Disagree A - Agree SD - Strongly Disagree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N D module is adequate. 5 4 3 2 2. The pacing is appropriate. SA A N D 5 4 3 2 3. These objectives are essen— SA A N D tial for this module. 5 4 3 2 a. Use the BASIC state- SA A N D ments in a simple 5 4 3 2 program: Print, Let, Rem. b. Use the BASIC commands: SA A N D Run, List, New. 5 4 3 2 c. Plan a unit for use in SA A N D the classroom. 5 4 3 2 4. The sequencing of the SA A N D objectives is appropriate. 5 4 3 2 5. The method(s) is/are appro— SA A N D priate for this module. 5 4 3 2 6. The materials are suitable SA A N D for this module. 5 4 3 2 7. Comments 141 MODULE 3: Computer Programming (For TRS-8D) OVERVIEW Basic arithmetic operations in BASIC will be explained in this module. Also, workshop participants will be shown how to save programs. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this module they will be able to: 1. Use BASIC to add, subtract, multiply and divide. 2. Save a program. 3. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Commercially prepared material will be used to instruct workshop participants in using BASIC to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. 2. Instruction and practice will be given in loading and saving a program. 3. Jointly plan a unit for use in the classroom. RESOURCES 1. Radio Shack. Introduction to BASIC, Part I, pp. 3-1 to 4—7 0 2. Albrecht, Bob et. a1. TRS-82 BASIC. (New York: J. Wiley & Son, Inc., 1980), pp. 23—27, 333-334, 329—331. 142 EVALUATION: Module 3 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree D - Disagree SD — Strongly Disagree N — Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N D module is adequate. 5 4 3 2 2. The pacing is appropriate. SA A N D 5 4 3 2 3. These objectives are essen— SA A N D tial for this module. 5 4 3 2 a. Use the BASIC to add, SA A N D subtract, multiply and 5 4 3 2 divide. b. Save a program. SA A N D 5 4 3 2 c. Plan a unit for use in SA A N D the classroom. 5 4 3 2 4. The sequencing of the objec- SA A N D tives is appropriate. 5 4 3 2 5. The method(s) is/are appro- SA A N D priate for this module 5 4 3 2 6. The materials are suitable SA A N D for this module. 5 4 3 2 Comments. 143 MODULE 4: Computer As A Tool of Instruction: CAI OVERVIEW The meaning and modes of computer-assisted instruction will be discussed. Appropriate courseware will be demonstrated. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When the participants complete this module they will be able to: 1. Define CAI and its modes. 2. Identify appropriate courseware for instructional purposes,iuen, for simulation, tutoring, drill and practice, problem solving and gaming. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss CAI. (Pamphlets used as resources should be distributed a week ahead of time.) 2. Demonstrate courseware for the five modes of instruction. RESOURCES l. Moursund, David. Precollege Computer Literacy: A Personal Approach. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Com- puters in Education, 1981. 2. . Teacher's Guide to Computers in the Elementary School. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Computers in Education, 1980. 3. Rogers, Jean B. An Introduction to Computers and Computing. Eugene, Oregon: International Council for Computers in Education, 1981. 4. Appropriate software available from vendors. 144 EVALUATION: Module 4 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree D — Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N module is adequate. 5 4 3 2. The pacing is appropriate SA A N 5 4 3 3. These objectives are essen- SA A N tial for this module. 5 4 3 a. Define CAI and its SA A N modes. 5 4 3 b. Identify appropriate SA A N courseware for instruc- 5 4 3 tional purposes, i.e., for simulation, tutoring, drill and practice, problem solving and gaming. 4. The sequencing of the objec- SA A N tives is appropriate. 5 4 3 5. The method(s) is/are appro- SA A N priate for this module. 5 4 3 6. The materials are suitable SA A N for this module. 5 4 3 Comments. SD ‘0 145 MODULE 5: The Computer As A Tool of Instruction: Selecting Software OVERVIEW Participants will develop skill in selecting and evaluation software. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours per day) When the participants complete this module, they will be able to: 1. Select appropriate software/courseware for instruc- tional purposes. 2. Evaluate software/courseware. 3. Use review sources for evaluation. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Both excellent and mediocre software/courseware, as indicated by review sources, will be demonstrated. 2. As software/courseware is being demonstrated participants will be asked to classify them by instructional modes. 3. Review sources for the software/courseware will be presented. RESOURCES 1. Appropriate software from various vendors. 2. Review journals: Booklist, Creative Computing, Classroom Computer News, Electronic Learning, Electronic Education, The Computing Teacher, Queue, Byte, and School Microware. 146 EVALUATION: Module 5 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N module is adequate. 5 4 3 2. The pacing is appropriate. SA A N 5 4 3 3. These objectives are essen- SA A N tial for this module. 5 4 3 a. Select appropriate SA A N software/courseware for 5 4 3 instructional purposes. b. Evaluate software/ SA A N courseware 5 4 3 c. Use review sources for SA A N evaluation. 5 4 3 4. The sequencing of the objec— SA A N tives is appropriate. 5 4 3 5. The method(s) is/are appro— SA A N priate for this module. 5 4 3 6. The materials are suitable SA A N for this module. 5 4 3 Comments. 147 MODULE 6: Computer As A Tool of Instruction: Selection of Hardware OVERVIEW WorkshOp participants will be informed of the differ- ences and features of six computer systems. They will be given an opportunity to examine each system. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to select appropriate hardware for their purposes, considering the following: cost, portability, memory cassette reliability, execution time, program loading speed, composite video system, editing capabilities, graphics resolution, screen size, color, user-definable graphics, the keyboard, and sound. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES l. The features of each system will be identified. 2. Each system will be demonstrated for the group via television monitor. 3. Participants will be given an opportunity to operate each of the six systems. RESOURCES Vendors for the following companies will be asked to display their equipment: Atari Apple Tandy Corp. (TRS-8D) Commodore Pet IBM Texas Instruments ONUl-b-WNI-J 148 EVALUATION: Module 6 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N module is adequate. 5 4 3 2. The pacing is appropriate. SA A N 5 4 3 3. This objective is essential SA A N for this module. 5 4 3 Select appropriate hardware. 4. The sequencing of the objec- SA A N tives is appropriate. 5 4 3 5. The method(s) is/are appro- SA A N priate for this module. 5 4 3 6. The materials are suitable SA A N for this module. 5 4 3 Comments. 149 MODULE 7: Planning for the Use of Computers in Instruction OVERVIEW Planning is one of the most important tasks in using computers in instruction. Many purchase computers without giving any thought to how they are to be used. Planning for the purchase of computers in instruction involves determining your goal and objectives, software selection, and hardware selection. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 days (2 hours each day) When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to write a plan for the use of computers in their classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Explain what must be done before either hardware or soft- ware is purchased for instruction. 2. Discuss with a computer education consultant how systems and software are selected for instruction. 3. Jointly plan for the purchase of a computer system for instruction. RESOURCES 1. Visiting educational consultant. 2. Review journals for software and hardware. 3. Catalogs from software and hardware vendors. following scale. 150 EVALUATION: Module Please rate these statements on the basis of the Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree A — Agree N - Neutral The time allotted to this module is adequate. The pacing is appropriate. This objective is essential for this module. Write a plan for the use of computer in the classroom. The sequencing of the objec- tives is appropriate. The method(s) is/are appro- priate for this module. The materials are suitable for this module. Comments D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree asp ms» ms? m>> msw ms» «>3» UJZ uaz uaz UJZ uaz OJZ 151 MODULE 8: The Computer: History and Applications OVERVIEW A brief history of computers, the applications of computers in our society, and the classification of computers will be explored. The methods and materials can be used with students in the classroom. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When participants have completed this module, they should be able to: 1. Identify the capabilities of the first, second, and third generation computers. 2. Classify computers by size (main frame, mini-computer, and microcomputer) and type (special or general pur- pose and digital or analog). 3. Identify computer applications in society in such areas as business, government, law enforcement, librarianship, manufacturing and education. 4. Plan a unit on the history and applications of com— puters for their classes. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES l. Filmstrips will be shown that relate a brief history of computers in our society, the types of computers, and various applications of computers in our society. Dis- cussion will follow each showing. 2. POpular and technical magazines will be examined for articles on the applications of computers in our society. 3. Using the resources--magazines and filmstrips-—workshop participants must plan a unit for their classes. RESOURCES 1. Computers: From Pebbles to Programs, by Center for Humani- ties. 2. Computer Awareness, by Society for Visual Education. 152 Popular and technical magazines: a. Science Digest i. Family Health b. Science j. Popular Computing c. Technology '82 k. Classroom Computer News d. Personal Computing 1. Electronic Education e. Creative Computing m. Electronic Learning f. Time n. Any issue of a magazine 9. Fortune that contains a computer h. Newsweek article. following scale. 153 EVALUATION: Module 8 Please rate these statements on the basis of the SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree N - Neutral The time allotted to this module is adequate. The pacing is appropriate. These objectives are essen- tial for this module. a. Identify the capa- bilities of the first, second, and third generation computers. b. Classify computers by size and type. c. Identify computer applications in society. d. Plan a unit on the history and applica- tions of computers. The sequencing of the objec- tives is appropriate. The method(s) is/are appro- priate for this module. The materials are suitable for this module. Comments. Circle your choice. D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 154 MODULE 9: The Future and Impact of Computers on Society OVERVIEW Workshop participants will have an opportunity to discuss the future and impact of computers on our society. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours (each for 2 days) When workshop participants complete this unit, they will be able to: 1. Identify "robotics" and tell how it is influencing our lives. 2. Define "artificial intelligence" and relate some of its uses. 3. Identify some effects of the computer on our lives in employment, threats to privacy, and in information retrieval and access. 4. Plan a unit for use in the classroom. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. View a film and filmstrips. 2. Discussion of the film and filmstrips with a visiting computer scientist. 3. Jointly plan a unit for classroom use. RESOURCES l. The Computer Revolution, by IBM. 2. Careers in Computer Science and Service, by Center for Humanities. 3. At Home with the Computer: What Can It Do for You?, by Center for Humanities. 155 EVALUATION: Module 9 Please rate these statements on the basis of the following scale. Circle your choice. SA - Strongly Agree D - Disagree A - Agree SD - Strongly Disagree N - Neutral 1. The time allotted to this SA A N D module is adequate. 5 4 3 2 2. The pacing is appropriate. SA A N D 5 4 3 2 3. These objectives are essen— SA A N D tial for this module. 5 4 3 2 a. Identify "robotics" SA A N D and tell its influence 5 4 3 2 on our lives. b. Define "artificial SA A N D intelligence" and 5 4 3 2 relate some of its uses. c. Identify some effects SA A N D of the computer on our 5 4 3 2 lives in employment, threats to privacy, and in information retrieval and access. d. Plan a unit for use in SA A N D the classroom. 5 4 3 2 4. The sequencing of the objec- SA A N D tives is appropriate. 5 4 3 2 5. The method(s) is/are appro- SA A N D priate for this module. 5 4 3 2 6. The materials are suitable SA A N D for this module. 5 4 3 2 7. Comments. 156 MODULE 10: Computer As A Manager of Instruction OVERVIEW Not only is the computer an object of instruction and tool of instruction, it is a manager of instruction. Participants will have an opportunity to preview CMI software. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When participants have completed this module, they should be able to select CMI software for their use. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Uses of CMI will be discussed. 2. Software for computer-managed instruction from various vendors will be previewed. RESOURCES CMI software from vendors. following scale. 157 EVALUATION: Module 10 Please rate these statements on the basis of the SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree N - Neutral The time allotted to this module is adequate. The pacing is appropriate. This objective is essential for this module. Select CMI software. The sequencing of the objec- tives is appropriate. The method(s) is/are appro- priate for this module. The materials are suitable for this module. Comments. Circle your choice. D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 158 MODULE 11: Resources OVERVIEW Support for classroom activities is always needed and computer education is no exception. Workshop participants will be apprised of resources available to them in their school district. OBJECTIVES Time: 2 hours When workshop participants complete this module, they will be able to identify resources in their school district to aid in computer education. METHODS AND ACTIVITIES This workshop session is to be held in the computer resource room. The resources will be identified. RESOURCES 1. Curriculum guides from other school districts 2. Dealer catalogs for hardware and software 3. Software for evaluation and use 4. Hardware for evaluation and use 5. Supplementary books for classroom instruction 6. Films and filmstrips for instruction 7. Research articles in computer education 8. Library books about computers 9. Announcements of computer conferences 10. A listing of college programs in computer education 11. A monthly newsletter to inform teachers 12. Periodicals (computer) following scale. 159 EVALUATION: Module ll Please rate these statements on the basis of the SA - Strongly Agree A - Agree N - Neutral The time allotted to this module is adequate. The pacing is appropriate. This objective is essential for this module. Identify resources in the school district to aid in computer education. The sequencing of the objec- tives is appropriate. The method(s) is/are appro- priate for this module. The materials are suitable for this module. Comments. Circle your choice. D - Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 SA A N D 5 4 3 2 160 EVALUATION OF THE WORKSHOP Directions: the areas listed. whole. 1. Time allotted for workshops Pacing of modules opjectives of the modules Sequencing of objectives Methods and activities Resources Other comments Please write summary statements about each of Consider the workshop as a 160 EVALUATION OF THE WORKSHOP Directions: Please write summary statements about each of the areas listed. Consider the workshop as a whole. 1. Time allotted for workshops 2. Pacing of modules 3. Objectives of the modules 4. Seqpencing of objectives 5. Methods and activities 6. Resources 7. Other comments APPENDIX F INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 161 162 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Was the time adequate for the entire workshop? Was the pacing appropriate? Did we spend too much time on some items and not enough on others? 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