A SURVEY OF PROBLEMS IMPEDING.
THE GROWTH OF INDEPENDENT STUDY
IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

IN THE UNITED STATES

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D;
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY _
MARY MAGDALA THOMPSON

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A SURVEY OF PROBLEMS IMPEDING THE GRWTH
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HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

presented by

Mary Magdala Thompson H

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ABSTRACT
A SURVEY OF PROBLEMS IMPEDING THE GROWTH OF
INDEPENDENT STUDY IN INSTITUTIONS OF

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE
UNITED STATES

BY
Mary Magdala Thompson

Problem

Although in principle, independent study has been
endorsed by many administrators, faculty, and students in
higher education, there has been some question as to their
whole-hearted acceptance of it in practice. The purpose of
this work was to study undergraduate liberal arts colleges
and universities in the United States in order to determine:

1. the extent to which independent study is imple-
mented and made available to all students regard—
less of academic class or superiority;

2. what factors on the part of the institution and
faculty prove inhibiting to the offering of inde-
pendent study:

3. why, when independent study is available, students
do not take advantage of the Opportunity:

4. what research on independent study should be

carried out in the future.

Mary Magdala Thompson

Design

A questionnaire was sent to a one-third, stratified
random sample of liberal arts colleges and universities in
the United States to determine the extent to which indepen—
dent study is made available in all departments and to all
students. In addition, institutions were asked what per-
centage of graduating students had taken advantage of the
Opportunity and whether or not the institution had attempted
to evaluate and/or study the cost of its independent study
program.

Twenty-two colleges and universities with reputa-
tions for commitment to independent study were visited, and
administrators, faculty and students were interviewed in
order to learn what factors limited the offering and use of

self-directed learning.

Findings

The questionnaire returns indicated that while
independent study practices exist in a number of institu-
tions, they are not often made available to all students,
and seldom have 100 percent of an institution's graduates
taken advantage of self-directed learning Opportunities.
Few institutions have attempted to evaluate their indepen-
dent study programs and fewer have studied their cost.

Visits to the campuses revealed that on the part

of the institutions and faculty: objectives are unclear:

Mary Magdala Thompson

departmental autonomy creates disunity and prevents inter-
disciplinary programs: and an unfree environment proves
hostile to the kind of flexibility which self-directed
learning requires. Student involvement is minimal because
of: student apathy; fear of self-direction; and discourage-
ment over red tape, coupled with prohibitions against what
students consider true freedom. They find the environment,
including faculty, little calculated to encourage initiative,
and the methods of evaluating their occasional attempts at
independent study disheartening.

Further research should attempt to: clarify inde-
pendent study objectives: identify compatible environment
and apprOpriate evaluation of outcomes, including student
self-evaluation: study cost of the Operation; and consider
independent study techniques appropriate to students with
differing abilities. Finally, research is needed on: those
recent methods of introducing independent study—-interim
programs and off-campus field work experiences; independent
study coupled with interdisciplinary programs and group
projects: and independent study programs with more sub-
stantial periods of freedom, unaccompanied by structured

courses .

A SURVEY OF PROBLEMS IMPEDING THE GROWTH OF
INDEPENDENT STUDY IN INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE

UNITED STATES

BY

Mary Magdala Thompson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1971

© C0pyright by
MARY'MAGDALA THOMPSON

1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge a deep debt of gratitude
to Dr. Paul L. Dressel for introducing me to independent
study, both as a dissertation tOpiC and a way of life. To
all members of the Office of Institutional Research at
Michigan State University, especially Marion Jennette and
Jane Gabel, I am grateful.

My sincere and lasting appreciation to:

— Dr. Maryellen McSweeney, for her valuable advice
and support;

- The members of my Community, the Sisters of Mercy,
for their encouragement:

- Dr. Lily Detchen of Chatham College, for the first
introduction to research in higher education:

- Kevin Hollenbeck, for his painstaking care in
handling questionnaire returns:

- The administrators, faculty and students at the
colleges and universities which I visited, for
their c00peration:

- My sister, Margaret, without whom this could not

have been done.

iii

Chapter
I.
II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . .
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sample Selection . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . .
Selection of Colleges for Visitation . .
Definition of Independent Study . . . .
Interview Technique . . . . . . . . . .

QUESTIONNAIRE FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . .

Institutions Offering Little or

No Independent Study . . . . . .
Institutions Offering Independent Study
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VISITATION FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . .

Purposes and Problems . . . . . .
Reasons for Limited Independent Study
Offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . .
Departmental Autonomy . . . . . . .
Unclear Objectives . . . . . . . . .

Reasons for Limited Student Use of
Independent Study . . . . . . . . . .

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . .

Student Apathy, Insecurity, and
Discouragement . . . . . . . . . .

Evaluation Problems . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

Page

24
24
25
28
3O
3O
32
32
33
4O
43
43
46
46
54
59
68
69

78
86

92

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX
I. INITIAL IDENTIFYING QUESTIONNAIRE
II. THE UNDERGRADUATE AND INDEPENDENT STUDY:
CURRENT PRACTICES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . .
III. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES VISITED
IV. INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR DIRECTORS OF
INDEPENDENT STUDY AND FACULTY MEMBERS
V. INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR STUDENTS .

Page
94

99

103

104

108

109

113

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Total pOpulation and selected sample of
liberal arts colleges in the United
States by support, accrediting region,
tYPe. and enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2. Institutions with little or no
independent study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3. Independent study activities by
institutional support . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4. Independent study activities by
accrediting region - . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5. Independent study activities by type of
institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6. Independent study activities by
enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7. Required programs of independent study . . . 39

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Hardly a new publication on curriculum, students,
innovation, or the future of higher education fails to
include at least some mention of independent study,
attesting to its value, describing attempts at its imple-
mentation, or predicting its future growth and development.
In principle, it is generally praised by administrators,
faculty and students: in practice, there is question of
their whole-hearted endorsement. Few'areas in higher edu-
cation today are so little understood, so loosely defined,
so little researched, and eulogized with such vagueness as
self-directed learning. I

Students, in their attempts to secure greater
freedom, view independent study as part of the package
of extended responsibility. Focusing more on student par-
ticipation in academic legislation and college management,
students nevertheless push toward greater involvement in
defining the learning process. Undergraduates have become
reluctant to accept the present structure of graduation
requirements and curricular patterns. They protest against

the packaging of courses, the excessive use of the lecture

system, the stipulation of hours, the demand for class
attendance and the letter-grading of results.

Long-time critics of higher education show a growing
incredulity that in the land of freedom, the university con—
tinues to exist as a monolithic bulwark of conformity. They
question a total system of prescribed programs which takes
some sixteen years to produce students who join society
unprepared for independent thought, decision making, and
continued unsponsored learning.

Some support for these concerns has come with the
appearance of the cluster college, a few innovative colleges,
and the investment of Ford Foundation funds in a number of
experimental programs Of independent study—-a11 Of which
have attempted to give the student independence and place
him at the center Of the collegiate Operation. Behind these
attempts to loosen the system is a background of beliefs
and hypotheses giving credence to the concept Of independent
study and its appropriateness for all students as early as
the freshman year Of college.

First, it is both Obvious and accepted that all
learning is accomplished by the learner. Second, research-
ers such as Bloom (1968), McKeachie (1963), and Minter
(1967) indicate that instruction needs to be suited to
students' individual differences and goals. Summarizing

research findings, Siegel (1968) concludes that

to be most effective, instruction must be

tailored to the needs, capabilities, and

histories of the individual learners. . .

(p. 149).
To accomplish this, the institution must develop and rely
on the students' self-direction.

Third, there is some evidence that independent study
need not be limited to the academically superior student but
should be extended to the creative and to the "respectable
learner." Concerning the creative student, Heist (1968) and
McKinnon (1968) have found that creativity is not related to
intelligence beyond some minimum requirement: yet creative
students are the very ones who perhaps above all need the
advantage of greater freedom. Heist's studies show that the
high attrition rate of these students may be associated with
the failure Of a system built on conformity to meet their
needs. The "respectable learner" according to Baskin (1962)
may need a good deal of freedom but for another reason:

Although independent study has been thought of
most Often as a release of the swift and able
learner from bondage to a plodding pace, permit-
ting him to leap ahead with joy, it may equally
well be thought of as an emancipation of the
slower but still respectable learner from a
dizzying pace that leaves him baffled and
defeated (p. 51).
Gruber (1962), too, in his study of academic ability and
self-directed study, claims that
On the whole, the results of the present study
provide little or no support for the notion of
a direct relation between intellectual ability

and capacity to profit from self—directed
study (Chapter 23, p. 8).

Fourth, there is evidence that the greater part of
change which takes place in attitudes, etc., during the
process of college matriculation actually takes form during
the first year (Lehman and Dressel, 1962). Gruber's find-
ings suggest that

Self-directed study may be best introduced in
the freshman year, not because it leads at once
to better performance but because it leads to
the most rapid change in educational values
(Chapter 23, p. 7).

Fifth, Loughary (1967) and others predict that
survival in tomorrow's society (and one might add survival
'9: it), demands life-long education requiring an educational
system characterized by individualized instruction. Indepen-
dent study which closely resembles later extra-institutional
learning is considered an appropriate preparation for tomor-
row's self—initiated, life-long learning.

Sixth, and of a more practical nature, is the fact
that higher education now faces a financial crisis, and in
spite Of the present plethora of teachers, may be unable to
afford sufficient numbers of instructors to continue the
present lecture pattern of education. The alternatives
offered are more tightly packed classrooms or greater use
of independent study. Seventh, more than instructors, peer
influence is highly effective in bringing about student
change (Wallace, 1963: Newcombe, 1969), giving weight to

belief in the potential for student-shared self-directed

learning. Contrary to the traditional conceptions,

independent study need not be "a solitary approach" to the
student, denying "the communal aspects of learning, teaching
and scholarship" and without the "stimulation of a joint
group venture" (The Superior Student, p. 1).

All of these factors are forces pointing to the
desirability Of encouraging the student from the time of his
arrival on campus, whether he be superior or not, to become
a self-directed learner, combining this self-direction when
appropriate with the advantageous sharing of the experience
with his peer group.

The fact remains, however, that there has been no
research which has proven either the superiority or the
economy Of independent study over other types of learning.
Churchill (1960) in a small college, and Gruber (1962) in a
large university both failed, as have many others, to find
hard facts proving significant superiority of this practice.
More recent evidence points to the fact that few attempts
have been made to take up the challenge and contribute more
supportive data. The 1969 volume by Feldman and Newcomb,
The Impact Qf_College 9g Students, having reviewed "every-
thing written Of any importance--during the past forty years,"
does not mention a single study of the effect of independent
study on students. Hatch (1960) reports only a few studies
of the economics of this practice, and they present "approx-
imations." In the past ten years, nothing significant has

been done to investigate the costs of independent study.

Based upon studies such as that of Dressel and
DeLisle (1969) which found little innovation in higher
education save "tinkering," it was the author's hypothesis
that the implementation Of independent study is not consis—
tently prevalent on today's campuses. With this belief, the
study was initiated to determine:

1. the extent to which independent study is implemented
on campuses in this country and offered to all stu-
dents

2. what factors prove inhibiting to this practice on
the part of the institution and faculty

3. why, when the possibility for independent study is
available, students do not take advantage of the
opportunity

4. what research on independent study should be done

in the future.

As we will see in the review of the literature,
earlier studies, because Of great differences in approach
and technique do not lend themselves to comparisons. The
plan of this study, therefore, is not based on any one of
them but attempts to update and parallel their findings.

The desire not to diminish the usefulness of the information
by delays which would outdate it before the compilation was
completed, influenced many of the decisions on methodology.

The use of a random sample of colleges rather than the total

I

(4'

.14

't‘i

EMO-

at.

pOpulation, for example, reduced the research time con-
siderably.

After gaining some understanding of past attempts
to ascertain the state of student responsibility in learning,
questionnaires were used to gain insight into the current
practices of institutions of higher education in this coun-
try. To substantiate what these questionnaires would pro-
duce, visits were scheduled to a number Of those instituions
which indicated that they endorsed independent study to a
high degree or in some unique manner. Realizing the limita-
tions of such a series of brief visits, the author attempted
to focus on a few specific reasons why even such institutions
as these had difficulty, if indeed they did, in expanding or
fostering possibilities of independent study. The difficul—
ties might arise in the institutional policies or in faculty
and student attitudes.

It must be remembered that this is a scrutiny of
problems in implementing independent study on the campuses
visited rather than a consideration of their successes. For
this reason it does not do justice to the many noteworthy
activities which will no doubt continue to stimulate further
progress in the develOpment of self-directed learning in the
colleges and universities in this country.

This report starts with the findings of past and

recent surveys: then presents the information derived from

the questionnaires, followed by insights gained by visits
to institutions and interviews with administrators, faculty
and students: and finally Offers some conclusions and state-

ments concerning the needs for future study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Few persons have attempted to ascertain the state of
student-directed study programs in this country. The first
Of these, a survey of honors course Offerings in.American
colleges and universities was conducted by the Division
of Educational Relations of the National Research Council.
_Its results were published in 1924 at a time when the term
"independent study" was not in general use and honors
courses were the formal means of Offering this type of
special work for superior students. This study edited by
Aydelotte (1924) presented a description of the various
forms Of honors courses as described in college and uni-
versity catalogues; but it is not clear how the particular
colleges were selected. Of those bulletins studied, thirty—
five indicated Offerings of honors work which was required
i§_addition to the usual work for a degree: nine others
either had plans for honors based on work replacing the
regular requirements or were in the process Of putting their
plans into Operation. Aydelotte regarded the practice of
this latter group of colleges, those who replaced usual

requirements with honors work, as an improvement over and

10

a natural outgrowth of the former, and predicted the next
step to be the cancellation Of the Old type Of program for
honors students to enable them to do individual work for at
least two of their four years.

This first survey served not only to point out the
paucity of any type of catalogue-listed independent study
but also Offered a basis for noting in a second look (1925)
that the number of institutions Offering honors courses had
doubled by the following year. In the 1924 study, empha-
sizing the underlying principles rather than the practices,
Aydelotte was more than satisfied to find that the move was
away from care of average students "for whom our ordinary
academic system works passably well," toward the "recog-
nition of the necessity Of allowing better students more
responsibility for working out their own intellectual sal-
vation" (Aydelotte, 1924, p. 5). He attached more impor-
tance to the promise which the results of the study implied
than to the actual achievement recorded, since it reflected

the feeling that our educational system has
hitherto devoted an undue amount of attention
to the mediocre or backward students and that
lock-step methods of instruction have made it
difficult or impossible for students Of more
than usual ability or ambition to do their
best work . . . (p. 18).
Aydelotte's recommendation for the future was that the stu-

dents be given not more coddling, attention, of instruction,

but more freedom, coupled with more severe requirements.

11

Using the colleges and universities accredited by
the Association Of American Universities (1929-30), on
the assumption that this group might include all the
institutions most qualified to give honors work, Taylor and
Sinclair (1934) found in a catalogue study that 103 colleges
appeared to be Offering honors work. Replies from deans
indicated that only 81 or 35.7 percent of the 227 insti-
tutions on the list were in fact doing so. Institutions
enrolling SOD-1,500 were the most numerous among those
offering honors work but the lack of information about the
nature of the sample makes this information inconclusive.
Only two institutions in this enrollment range had a sub-
stantial number of students engaged in honors work.

In this study, honors work was taken to mean a

program of independent study, under the direc-

tion of a faculty adviser superseding, either in

part or as a whole, regular classroom work . . .

as distinguished from recognition of work well

done under the conventional plan (p. 248).
Totals based on replies, many of which were estimates,
showed that of all institutions offering honors work, only
6 had 81 or more students involved in it, while 31 had 20
or less and 13 of these latter had only 1 to 6.

Not only were the numbers of participants small,
but the amount of freedom allowed was minimal. The extent
to which independent study was permitted without class
attendance was generally limited, and the equivalent of ten

units was the maximum taken by any one student in the 69

institutions supplying data. There was little evidence that

12

colleges made provision for honors work by the addition of
faculty members, and it appeared to be an extra load for
instructors. Only one institution Offered honors work to
all students and for two others this was a goal. For the
most part it was reserved for the exceptional student and
was generally assumed impracticable for others.

Several of the colleges emphasized the lack of
student interest. Indifference or hostility of faculty
members was noted by some as was the need for funds. The
general impression was that in more than one-half of the
institutions honors work still was in the experimental
stage, using only selected students for the trial run.
Taylor and Sinclair Optimistically reported

The evidence seems to indicate that the honors
program, as a method of independent study, has
definitely established itself in this country
and is making satisfactory progress, although,
generally still in the experimental stage. At
any rate, the fact is significant that over 35
percent of our leading institutions of higher
learning have already introduced it: in many
cases, admittedly, under handicaps of faculty
limitations which make it necessary to restrict
rigidly both the numbers of students involved
and the amount of independent work . . . the
past 5 years show considerable progress away
from the earlier idea Of honors courses to a
broader program of independent study (p. 250).

In 1935, Umstattd published the results of a study
of 198 four-year college and university catalogues between
1929 and 1931, and 333 such catalogues during 1933. In the
first study, he found that 28, or 14 percent, of the insti—

tutions indicated Offerings in independent study and in the

13

second study, 54, or 16 percent. The manner in which the
colleges were selected for this study is not indicated and
it is with some hesitation that Umstattd speculates that
since he found one-sixth Of the institutions studied
announcing such practices, probably less than 175 Of the
total number of four-year institutions would have such a
plan.

Umstattd found that every type Of four-year college
in the sample except teachers colleges and normal schools
had independent study plans in the junior and senior years.
The 1933 catalogue survey indicated that (considering the
institutions by type Of support) 29 percent of the private
and municipal colleges, 25 percent Of the state and land-
grant colleges: and 14 percent of the denominational col-
leges announced plans and procedures for independent study.
Such practices in the freshman or SOphomore years were
reported by only one institution.

Admission to independent study was based predomi-
nantly on "conspicuous" ability and two-thirds of the col-
leges required "outstanding general scholarship" (Umstattd,
1935, p. 365). Although personal qualities were at times
considered, scholarship was the primary basis for approval.
In only a few institutions was the student permitted to
submit his own plan for study: the majority of institutions
required departmentally approved or planned prOgrams of

study. The implication Umstattd drew was that "most

14

institutions were not yet willing to throw the student
entirely upon his own resources in selecting and planning
his work" (p. 366), although over one-half of the insti-
tutions with independent study allowed the student to pursue
any subject by independent study.

About twenty years after editing the first survey
of honors programs, Aydelotte in 1944, still intensely
interested in this growing movement and realizing that a
connected account of it had not been given, set about to
compile such a report. Acknowledging the limitations Of
using catalogue descriptions and questionnaires, he and
members of the Swarthmore faculty visited 130 of the 200
colleges and universities on the approved list Of the
Association of American Universities. Those visited were
chosen because they had fully organized plans for honors
work. About one—half of these were described in his book,
Breaking the Academic Lockstep: four-fifths of those omitted
fell in the category of part-time honors programs. This
category was between the two which he had set up in his
earlier work, i.e., honors work as an extra, and honors work
on a full—time basis. NO attempt was made in the publica-
tion to give complete descriptions of particular plans,
since the purpose was to show similarities and differences
in providing a basis for discussing the principles behind
the practices. Typical plans and some unique variations

were explained.

15

After pointing out the irony of the "bewildering"
freedom given to students in the area Of course selection,
coupled with demands for a common standard of achievement,
and the extensive personal freedom combined with lack Of
responsibility for their intellectual develOpment, Aydelotte
attempted to show what was being done by the honors plan to
rectify this mistake.

The programs identified as "honors work as an extra"
(i.e., work elected by the honors student in addition to his
regular requirements) were fewer in number than the "part-
time honors plans." The latter, the typical American honors
plan which had the largest number of members, substituted
special honors courses or programs for a portion of required
work. A limited number of institutions allowed "honors work
on a full-time basis," replacing large portions Of course
work, as much as the two last years, with independent work
Of some kind.

Aydelotte's study showed: that the tendency to
provide for the superior student was growing in colleges and
universities: that in too many places the burden of honors
work was borne by the faculty as extra hours of teaching:
that state universities found it more difficult to provide
for superior students: and that "excessive departmentaliza-
tion of our undergraduate colleges is one Of their greatest
evils" (p. 74). The latter made it difficult to Offer

interdisciplinary programs. Although no evidence was given

16

that figures were available, instances were cited as a
basis for suspecting general increases in cost for faculty,
library and laboratory, as well as an expensive loss in
faculty time from scholarly pursuits. Aydelotte felt jus-
tified, however, in predicting that "higher standards and
freer, less rigid methods of instruction will gradually
permeate our whole academic system" (p. 52).

Ten years later, in 1954, Bonthius published the
results of the first total pOpulation survey of programs of
independent study. Based on a study of "current" catalogues
of 1,086 of the 1,093 four-year colleges and universities in
the United States granting bachelor's degrees (except the
B.C. and LL.B.), the survey limited itself to programs which
were

planned and provided by and for the institution

as a whole, given official publicity as a part

of the general curriculum, and participated in

by all or most of the departments of the insti-

tution (Bonthius, 1954, p. 412).
Whereas previous studies had included seminars and other
group activities as independent study, here the definition
was more limited. It referred only to

study by individual students under the guidance

of faculty advisers independent of organized

courses, for honors only or for credit toward

graduation, available to students who meet cer-

tain requirements or required of all students

(p. 412).

Bonthius found that 286 or 26.3 percent of the

institutions had some type of independent study plan.

17

Questionnaires sent to 120 with programs for which credit
toward graduation was given, indicated that the student
participation was very meager. He made a major distinction
between voluntary and required programs, favoring the latter
and pointing out that of the 93 voluntary programs,62 of
them enrolled only 19 or fewer students. Of the 32 required
programs, however, only 18 actually enrolled 100 percent of
the students. Over one-half of the voluntary programs were
Open to superior students only: and in most Of the honors
plans the students began as juniors or seniors, making
independent study according to his survey an upper-class
phenomenon. Bonthius found that church-related institutions
Offered nearly as many programs as all other institutions
together. He felt that generally there was an increase in
the number of programs Open to all undergraduates: where
Umstattd had estimated that one-sixth of the four-year
colleges had independent study programs, Bonthius found
one-fourth. Since their populations do not match, it is
difficult to make valid comparisons. Bonthius also felt
that a smaller percentage of the voluntary programs than

was implied in the Umstattd survey specified minimum aca-
demic standing for the student who wished to elect inde-
pendent study. This suggested to Bonthius a trend toward
acceptance of greater freedom for the average student.

Conspicuous ability, however, was still as at the time of

18

the Umstattd study, the chief requirement for admission to
voluntary types of programs.

Over one-half of the honors programs were in insti-
tutions enrolling 300-799 and 800-l,499, but as Bonthius
points out, the existence of 68 programs in the group of
over 3,000 indicates that "independent study can be an
important part of the undergraduate program even in the
largest institutions" (p. 29).

In 1957, a book length report of his survey was
published by Bonthius g£,gl. in which the original findings
were followed by detailed accounts of the program at Wooster
College. Apparent throughout is the view that a required
program of independent study indicates a greater commitment
on the part of an institution to self-directed learning.

His conviction is reflected in the fact that while only 13
percent of the country's reported programs were required,

50 percent of the 20 colleges he selected for visitation

had required programs. Bonthius found that in most colleges
the independent study method seemed to achieve more depth
than breadth. He described the typical project as rela-
tively independent work with a faculty “senior partner"
rather than completely independent inquiry. The most fre-
quently mentioned program weakness was inadequate advising,
partly because the ten programs on a voluntary basis did not
provide faculty course load reductions for student guidance

in independent study.

19

As far as cost was concerned, "the more expensive
programs were estimated by their administrators to have
increased instructional costs by as much as 25 percent"

(p. 215). None of the twenty colleges visited had indepen-
dent study budgets but depended upon other funds for their
support. This made evaluation difficult, but Bonthius on
the basis Of the visits concluded that "it should be recog-
nized that independent study is expensive, especially if it
is required“ (p. 215). He also found that even the more
advanced programs occupied only a relatively small part of
the college student's time and the greatest limitation of
most voluntary programs was that they reached relatively few
students. Looking to the future he recommends

If the values (Of independent study) are con-

sidered central in undergraduate education it

would seem in order to point course work toward

them. If this were done wholeheartedly, inde-

pendent study programs would be responsible for

a revolution in undergraduate study. Indepen-

dent study plans might reach their full flower

if this occurred, or perhaps separate programs

might no longer be necessary for the realization

of the desired values (p. 217).

In the spring of 1963, Felder (1964) surveyed 520
institutions Offering four-year degree programs and having
enrollments exceeding 200. Sixty-eight percent Of the 445
which responded offered independent study. The type of
study selected by students most frequently limited them to

gathering and analyzing material derived from library work

alone, although nearly two-thirds of the institutions

20

mentioned field studies as independent study involvement.
Conferences of students and advisers, in all but three of
the colleges, were a regular practice, ranging in frequency
from weekly to every two or three weeks. A few institutions
Offered one or two seminars each semester planned as an
orientation to the independent study program. Over one-half
of the colleges surveyed did not grant freshmen and sopho-
mores independent study privileges, but during the last two
years most colleges permitted students to take at least 20
percent of their work through independent study. Felder
suggests that the culmination of independent study should
be

a critical examination of the student's under-

standing and ability in the area studied.

Ideally, evaluation of independent study should

aim at determining the student's total grasp of

the subject or problem, his understanding Of the

interrelations of ideas and concepts, and his

discrimination in the use of his knowledge

(p. 337).
And he suggests that

if increased freedom is to be matched by in-

creased responsibility, partial motivation for

carrying out this responsibility could well

come from the knowledge that individual study

will be critically evaluated by someone other

than the faculty member directly involved with

the student (p. 338).

In 1969, Brick and McGrath in Innovation ig Liberal

Art§,College§_published the results of an attempt to esti-

mate some of the trends and thursts toward innovative

practices in liberal arts colleges Of the country. Using

21

the Education Directory, Part 3, Higher Education, published
by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1965-66, they polled all four-year institutions in the
United States offering a program of liberal arts. As one
form of innovation, independent study was surveyed and its
growing availability to all students on all levels rather
than to superior students in the upper classes was noted.
They also found: greater appreciation of the relationship
of independent study to the student's personality and char-
acter, the area studied, and educational goals, in addition
to the usual relationship to intellectual capacity: growing
experimentation with interim or winter terms: and increasing
interest in independent off-campus projects. Concerning the
number of institutions Offering independent study, Brick
noted that since 1961, independent study both for superior
students and for all students has increased. At the same
time the number of institutions Offering honors programs

has decreased.

Using a random sample Of four-year liberal arts
colleges listed in the American Council on Education's
Amerigan Univergities and Colleges (1969), Dressel and
DeLisle (1969) found in their study of catalogues that inde-
pendent study is among those individualizing aspects Of the
curriculum which have shown the most marked change. They
reported a tendency toward independent study's being made

available earlier in the college experience to all students

22

rather than its being restricted to superior, advanced,
students; and they found it linked with such calendar
experiments as the off-campus terms, experimental college

programs, the interim or middle term and general honors.

S_um_m2£1

An attempt to make comparisons among the data from
previous surveys of independent study practices is all but
impossible because of the lack of commonality in the mate-
rial used in them. First, the definition Of independent
study ranged from a very general category including anything
an institution cared tO call by this name to a specific
type--individual study. Second, the understanding Of what
constituted a program varied. At times it was a plan for
honors students: at times, any program of individual study
which granted credit or honors: at times it was not consid-
ered a program unless it had offerings in all academic areas.

Great variety also existed in the selection Of the
colleges and universities studied. Such diverse groups as
all four—year colleges and universities, those approved by
the Association of American Universities, those with enroll-
ments over 200, or those listed in certain publications have
been studied. The variety of methodologies was another con-
sideration since some conclusions were based to a great
extent upon the findings in catalogues, some on question-

naires, some on visits, and some on a combination Of these.

23

Compounding this is the fact that from year to year, the
number Of colleges changed as did their categories, e.g.,
private and municipal colleges were classified together in
one instance. The variations were sufficient to discourage
any strong comparative conclusions.

A few statements can be made, however. Independent
study which existed in the 1920's for the most part in the
form of honors programs for superior juniors and seniors,
has increased through the years and has become an Opportu-
nity for more students, superior or otherwise to direct
their own learning in a variety of ways from the first year
Of college. While originating as an on-campus activity lim-
ited to the regular academic calendar, it has been broadened
to include activities exercised Off-campus and outside of
the regular session, adapting innovations such as the
interim session and field work, and at times continuing
through the summer. Persisting throughout and handicapping
the progress of this form Of innovation have been the prob-
lems Of faculty time and financial hardship.

Although the major purpose Of these surveys was to
determine the extent of implementation of independent study,
there are striking evidences throughout that what growth
there has been was not based on solid research findings of

either the value or economy Of self-directed learning.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The last general questionnaire survey of independent
study supported by campus visitation was published in 1954
(Bonthius). This present study was undertaken to determine
whether or not there was evidence that this innovation had
realized the expanding future predicted for it. It included
also an attempt to Obtain some information on the factors
which served to prevent its expansion, using institutions
which purportedly experienced independent study at its best

or most unique, either quantitatively or qualitatively.
Sample Selection

From the 1,126 liberal arts colleges and univer-
sities listed in the 1969 edition of the American Council
on Education's publication, American Universities and
Colleges as types: b, d, e, f, j, and k, a 33 1/3 percent
sample (372) was selected by stratified random sampling.
This represents the following kinds Of colleges and uni-
versities:

b. liberal arts and general

d. primarily teacher preparatory

24

25

e. both liberal arts and general, and teacher
preparatory

f. liberal arts and general, terminal-occupational
and teacher preparatory

j. liberal arts and general with one or two
professional schools

k. liberal arts and general with three or more
professional schools.

Excluded were the following types:

c. liberal arts and general, and terminal-
occupational

9. professional only (not including teacher
preparatory)

h. professional and teacher preparatory

i. professional and terminal-occupational.

This sample group of 372 colleges and universities
was found also to represent the accrediting regions, enroll-
ment, and sources of support (public, independent, Protes-
tant, Catholic) in about the same prOportion that they were

represented in the total pOpulation (Table l).
Questionnaire

The original questionnaire (Appendix I) asked the
president of the institution to indicate whether or not the
college or university Offered some form of independent study,
including any Offerings such as: research projects, experi-
mental courses, class attendance exemption, course waiver by
special examination, independent reading, independent study

groups, computer assisted instruction, programmed learning

26

Table 1. Total pOpulation and selected sample Of liberal
arts colleges in the United States by support,
accrediting region, type, and enrollment

 

 

 

 

 

Total
Population Sample Percent
(N= 1,126) (N=372) (33.0)
Support
Public 379 122 32.2
Independent 186 63 33.9
Protestant 315 108 34.3
Roman Catholic 238 79 33.2
Other 8 O ...
Accrediting Region
Middle States 217 72 33.2
New England 96 31 32.3
North Central 393 133 33.8
Northwestern 55 15 27.3
Southern 287 y 96 33.5
Western 78 25 32.1
Type*
b 72 24 33.3
d 31 10 32.3
e 535 179 33.5
f 138 46 33.3
j 130 42 32.3
k 220 71 33.3
Enrollment
0-750 212 76 35.9
751—1,000 140 44 31.4
1,001-1,500 202 63 31.2
l,501-2,000 104 44 42.3
2,001-5,000 205 64 31.2
5,001-10,000 140 37 26.4
10,001-20,000 76 25 32.9
20,001-30,000 30 12 40.0
30,001-40,000 9 3 33.3
40,001- 8 4 50.0

 

*Type b, liberal arts and general: g, primarily teacher
preparation: g, liberal arts and general and teacher prepar-
ation: f, liberal arts and general, terminal-occupational,
teacher preparation: 1, liberal arts and general with one or
two professional schools: 5, liberal arts and general with
three or more professional schools.

'27

and any other form of self-directed learning. The question—
naire indicated that the term independent study would be
limited in meaning ggly by the exclusion of usual class
assignments such as term papers or reports. The next
question the president was asked was whether or not the
institution would participate in the study, in which case

he was requested to name a representative with whom further
correspondence might be conducted. A catalogue and any
information concerning the program of independent study or
Offerings in independent study were requested.

In answer to this questionnaire and three follow-up
letters, 96.7 percent (360) of the institutions responded.
Of these 360, 14.7 percent (53) indicated that they did not
have sufficient independent study to participate; 7.5 per-
cent (27) indicated that they had programs Of independent
study but did not wish to participate: 1.1 percent (4) had
either closed or were no longer in the appropriate catego-
ries: and 76.6 percent (276) indicated that they had pro—
grams and would participate. The latter group received
lB-item questionnaires (Appendix II) and after two follow-up
letters, 91.6 percent (253) were returned completed. Includ-
ing the response from institutions who had no independent
study, this would still represent 82.2 percent (306) Of the

total 372 sample colleges.

28

Selection of Colleges for Vigitation

In addition to the overall picture of the status of

independent study, the writer wanted a more in-depth picture

of a number of institutions which appeared to have imple-

mented independent study practices to a marked degree.

Limitations in identifying such institutions permit at best

the statement that the group studied was lg some ways repre-

sentative of institutions with more extensive independent

study programs than most.

tative
1.

2.

Difficulties in the selection of the most represen-

institutions are Obvious:

Independent study has not been fully identified:

Information concerning the role and the state of
independent study on particular campuses is not
always shared, hence some administrators, faculty
and students cannot assess the situation:

Catalogues and literature do not present an accurate
picture of the role of independent study at a
college:

Smaller colleges and the less-known institutions do
not easily gain a reputation for their innovative
practices which remain relatively unknown:

Much that is publicized in the way of innovation is
found on closer inspection to be more the desire or
enthusiasm on the part of the initiator or adminis-
tration than actual practice:

Replies from some institutions did not meet the
deadline.

The following selection procedures were used:

29

1. From the sample of colleges completing question-
naires, colleges were selected when they combined
the following or evidenced any one to a high degree:
a. A high percentage of seniors who had partici-

pated in independent study (apart from required
senior tutorials or required interim attendance),

b. Independent study Offered to all students
regardless Of class or ability,

c. Catalogues indicating deep commitment to self-
directed study:

2. Some colleges not in the sample whose names were
mentioned in various surveys Of independent study
were selected. For several of these, added assur-
ance Of their involvement was ascertained from
questionnaire responses:

3. A few colleges known by consultants to be involved
in independent study were selected;

4. Because of the interest Of cluster colleges in
independent study, whole units Of three Of these
were selected.

An attempt was made also to include a geographic
spread as far as possible and the following states were
represented: Colorado, California, Connecticut, Maine,
Maryland, Iowa, Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin (Appendix III).
The group of twenty-two colleges included coeducational
institutions, single sex institutions, state controlled,
independent, and church related. It included five of the
six accrediting regions and ranged in student population

from close to 300 to somewhat over 19,000.

30

Definition of Independent Study

Independent study in the original request to presi—
dents (Appendix I) was defined as excluding only "the usual
class assignments such as term papers or reports." In the
questionnaires and interviews, independent study was also
loosely defined, in accord with the views of Martin (1969)
in his study of innovations when he felt that "it would be
best for individuals in participating colleges and univer-
sities to tell the researchers what they meant." In this
way, administrators, faculty and students were free to
define their concept of independent study, thus decreasing
the possibility of excluding any form of self-directed

learning.

Interview Technique

Although there were specific questions concerning
objectives, etc., and outlines were used (Appendix IV and V)
there was a deliberate attempt to keep interviews Open-ended
in order to prevent the particular interviewee from resort-
ing to a brief formal response pattern. Frequently, after
the standard responses were completed, the interviewee
became much more forthright.

In regard to the choice of those to be interviewed,
the burden was placed on the institution. The president

selected the liaison person who then was responsible for the

31

selection of those other than himself who were to be ques-
tioned. It was anticipated that the tendency would be to
provide the most representative picture Of the institution
by someone who was most familiar with the situation. The
possibility of having the institution put in the best light
was more desired than feared since the interviewer was seek—
ing the problems of independent study under the best circum-
stances. Intricate systems Of random selection of inter—
viewees did not seem warranted.

Most interviews were done individually, although on
some occasions faculty and students were scheduled in groups.
All interviewees agreed to have the conversation taped.
Recorded on an inconspicuous SONY Casette, TC-llO, the
interviews were then either transcribed or reviewed by

replay.

CHAPTER IV

QUEST IONNA IRE F INDINGS

Ingtitgtions Offering Little or NO
Indepe ndent S tudy

Of the 372 institutions contacted, 360 (96.7%)
responded. Of this group, 27 (7.5%) indicated that while
they had programs of independent study, they did not care to
participate in the survey. In order not to be deprived of
all information on these institutions, the writer obtained
catalogues of 20 of them. Of these 20, five catalogues made
no mention of independent study in any form, and the others
did not give evidence of any deep commitment to this prac—
tice. Accordingly, one can assume that most Of those insti-
tutions not participating were motivated, at least in part,
by the recognition of the limitations Of their independent'
study Opportunities.

Of the 360 institutions which responded, 53 (14.7%)
indicated that they either did not have any independent
study or had too little to participate. Recalling that
only "usual class assignments such as term papers or re-
ports" were excluded from the definition Of independent

study, we can safely regard these institutions as being

32

33

without self-directed study. According to region, type of
institution, enrollment and support, these 53 institutions
admitting to little or no independent study and the 20 whose
catalogues showed little evidence of independent study, fell

into the categories shown in Table 2.

Institutions Offering Independent Study

The full questionnaire was completed by 253 (91.6%)
of those institutions which indicated that they would par-
ticipate. Questionnaire responses demonstrated the extent
to which the institution was involved in independent study
by reporting:

1. the number of departments in the college or
university in which independent study was available:

2. whether or not it was available to all students,
freshmen through seniors and students other than
those who are superior:

3. the percentage of graduating seniors who partic-
ipated in independent study:

4. whether or not the program had ever been evaluated:
5. whether or not the cost of the program had ever
been evaluated.

We will consider in Tables 3-6 the answers to these
questions according to the following categories of institu-
tions: support, accrediting region, type Of institution,
and enrollment. Table 7 indicates the number Of institu-

tions with required programs.

34

Table 2. Institutions with little or no independent study

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total No. with
in Little or Percent of
Sample No 1.8. Total in Sample
(N = 372) > (N = 73) (N = 19.6)
Region
Middle States 72 16 22.2
New England 31 8 25.8
North Central 133 22 16.5
Northwestern 15 1 6.7
Southern 96 21 21.9
Western 25 5 20.0
TXE§*
b 24 l 4.2
d 10 3 30.0
e 179 34 19.0
f 46 15 32.6
j 42 12 28.6
k 71 8 11.3
Enrollpent
l-l,000 120 27 22.5
l,001-5,000 171 36 21.1
5,001-20,000 62 7 11.3
20,001-40,000 15 3 20.0
40,001- 4 0 ...
Support
Public 122 25 p 20.5
Independent 63 14‘ 22.2
Protestant 108 18 16.5
Catholic 79 16 20.3

 

*Type p, liberal arts and general; g, primarily teacher
preparation: p, liberal arts and general and teacher prepar-
ation: i, liberal arts and general, terminal-occupational,
teacher preparation: 1, liberal arts and general with one

or two professional schools: 3, liberal arts and general
with three or more professional schools.

35

 

 

 

 

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.m magma

36

 

 

 

 

 

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Z37

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38

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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39

Table 7. Required programs of independent study*

 

 

No. in Category NO. with Percent with

 

 

 

 

Responding to Required Required
Questionnaire Program Program
(N = 253) (N = 35) (13.8)
Region.Accredited
Middle States 50 9 18.0
New England 17 4 23.5
North Central 96 7 7.3
Northwest 12 2 16.7
Southern 59 11 18.6
Western 19 2 10.5
Support
Public 82 9 11.0
Independent 44 12 27.3
Protestant 80 8 10.0
Catholic 47 6 12.8
Enrollment
l-l,000 69 8 11.6
l,001—5,000 120 16 13.3
5,001-20,000 53 7 13.2
20,001-40,000 9 4 44.4
40,001- 2 0 0.0
Type
b 16 6 37.5
d 7 0 0.0
e 125 16 12.8
f 24 4 16.7
j 26 0 0.0
k 55 9 16.4

 

*Required of:
all seniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
all superior seniors . . . . . . . . . .
all superior seniors, superior juniors .
all seniors, superior freshmen . . . . .
all juniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
all freshmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
all students . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

Questionnaire responses other than those relating

to the questions above are beyond the sc0pe of this study.

Summary

Questionnaire results indicate that while over half
the sample institutions (69.2%) make independent study
available in all departments and close to 90 percent make
it available in 50 percent or more (89.3%), comparatively
few (24.T%) allow students to participate regardless of
ability or class. Considering student use of this Oppor—
tunity, there is again a tremendous drOp both in the per-
centage of institutions graduating seniors 100 percent of
whom have participated (4.7%), and of those graduating
seniors 50 percent or more of whom have used independent
study (19.4%). The failure of 70 percent to attempt an
evaluation of such programs may suggest a lack Of concern
over the present status of independent study and a lack Of
interest in expanding it. Acknowledging the close relation-
ship between finances and the implementation of programs,
there is added support for the hypothesis of an interest
lag, in the fact that 82.2 percent Of the sample institu-
tions have never even attempted an evaluation Of the cost
of such a program.

In terms of the types of institutional support, the
independent college stands out with its high percentage of

institutions making independent study available to all

41

students and in student use of this opportunity. By region,
it is more difficult to single out one area as most repre-
sentative, although the Western region has by far the most
institutions with 50 percent or more students participating
in independent study, and institutiOns in which independent
study is available in all departments. Although in the
Middle States area more institutions by percentage make
independent study available to all students, it ranks fourth
of the regions in students taking advantage of the possi-
bility. The EXE§.Of institution seeming most receptive to
independent study is the liberal arts and general college
which leads the others in availability to all students and
in student participation, in the latter case leading both

in institutions with 100 percent and 50 percent or more
graduating students using the Opportunity. Institutions
with teacher preparation programs d, e, and f take turns

in last place or share last place in five of the eight clas-
sifications. By enrollment, although the 20,001-40,000
institutions make independent study available to students

in more instances and have a higher incidence of 50 percent
or more students using the Opportunity, the small number (9)
in the sample and in that of the 40,000 and above (2) forces
us to look at the smaller institutions. Of the three other
groups, the l-l,000 enrollment colleges lead in most catego-
ries, and when they do not, they are only a few points from

first place.

42

While it is interesting to see the distribution of
independent study activity by support, region, type, and
enrollment, no particularly enlightening patterns are formed.
The important fact is that few of the institutions indicat—
ing that they present Opportunities are seriously engaged in
these activities. If we add to this the fact that an addi-
tional 73 institutions have little or no independent study,
we can extend some of the percentages to an even greater
degree. Based on the addition of the 73 colleges, we can
say with some confidence, for example, that 73.6 percent
of the responding colleges do not make independent study
available to all students. Since over 80 percent (82.2%)

Of those colleges which offer independent study have never
evaluated the cost, and 70 percent have never even evaluated
the program itself there are ample grounds for believing
that there is no present rush in the direction of either
usage or understanding of independent study as either an

improved learning technique or a financial saving.

CHAPTER V

VISITATION FINDINGS

Purposes and Problems

It has been established that little independent
study appears to exist in colleges and universities today.
Two questions therefore must be considered: what problems
make it difficult for institutions to Offer independent
study to all students: and why, when independent study is
available, do students not take advantage of the Opportu-
nities? Answers to these questions could have been solic-
ited in the questionnaires since it was suspected at the
outset that a problem did exist, but the desire for a better
understanding of total institutional difficulties demanded
broader discussion that could best be handled by the visita-
tion of a number Of colleges and universities. By talking
with administrators, faculty and students in institutions
appearing to be committed to the concept Of independent
study, insight could be gained into problems which persisted
even for those colleges intent on their solution.

The concern for and interest in independent study
by tOp administrators Of the selected institutions was evi—

denced by the graciousness with which they agreed to accept

43

44

a campus visitation, the Openness of responses, and the
availability of administrators, faculty, staff and students
for interviews and assistance.

Some of the visits coincided with the arrival of
American troops in Cambodia and this forcibly injected
another controversial element into whatever particular prob-
lems were current on the respective campuses, e.g., Vietnam,
R.O.T.C., environmental pollution, the free university. In
some institutions this disruption made interviews more diffi-
cult to schedule because of the urgency of faculty and stu-
dent meetings planned tO cool tempers.

Open-ended interviews provided a breadth of insight
which more than compensated for the problem of presenting
them in a systematic summary. They also made it difficult
to limit the discussion of independent study to the two
proposed questions. Faculty and administrators in searching
for possible explanations, expanded the topics, expressing
their attitudes on problems of overall organization, curric-
ulum, finance, pressures of student dissent, black power and
a multitude Of related ideas. Students commented on faculty
in-fighting, administrative weaknesses, over-radical and
over-conservative fellow students, political involvement,
national, local and institutional issues. There were
lengthy conversations about existing forms of independent
study, the development of interim periods and off-campus

terms, the impressive studies which some students have

45

conducted through independent study, the contributions made
by these programs and attempts (or the lack Of them) at
evaluation. AlthOugh all areas discussed were in some way
related to situations compatible with or alien to the kind
of student independence which makes self—directed learning
possible, those included here deal directly with the two
main questions: why is more independent study not available:
and why do students not avail themselves to what is there?

Because participating colleges were given the assur-
ance that they would not be identified, their anonymity has
been safeguarded. This has been made easier by the fact
that individual institutions are difficult to characterize.
Just as higher education prides itself on its diversity, so
may individual institutions lay claim to great internal dif-
ferences. While these serve to promote the tensions which
stimulate growth, at the same time they make it difficult
to typify the total Operation. For this reason, by design
and by constraint, a tOpical approach has been taken in
identifying areas where difficulties are typically found,
instead of singling out specific institutions demonstrating
inhibiting factors.

Comments from administrators and faculty were used
for a better understanding of the institutions' failure to
provide either an Opportunity for self-directed learning or
an incentive for participation. Remarks from students

supplied examples Of problems militating against their use

46

of existing possibilities or the initiation of other
Opportunities. In addition, generalizations have been made
on the basis of an overall review of the interviews and
Observations.
Reasons for LimitedéIndependent
§tudnyffering§

The size of this paper requires that the number of
inhibiting causes discussed be limited to a few Of those
seeming to be of more general importance. While the follow-
ing deterrents to independent study are experienced on most
campuses, it is impossible to place them in any order of
significance since they have varying effects on different
campuses. The frequency with which they were mentioned

indicated faculty and administrative concern.

Environment

Not only was environment frequently considered
inadequate in providing the proper encouragement for in-
dependent study, in many instances it was referred to as
hostile. Among the many administrators and faculty inter-
viewed, two men, one in a college with only limited under-
standing Of the meaning of independent study and one in an
institution supportive of it to a high degree, most clearly
described the attitudes and environment which they felt were

most conducive to independent study at its best. Drawing

47

parallel pictures of the climate in which student self—
direction could best grow, one spoke from the frustration
of having attempted to promote, against great odds, the
establishment of such an environment, the other from the
strength Of having experienced it.

The first man, an administrator, referred to the
importance of a unified outlook:

You can't have on one side a regimented situa-
tion and then on the academic side a kind of
well of freedom so that the student can move
about and explore. It's just incongruous and

it hampers the whole develOpment. . . . If you're
moving toward independent study you're trying to
create a certain climate and even your custodial
regulations and the rest of the institution have
to correlate. . . .

He continued with an explanation of the need for an
atmosphere of trust in the student, claiming that indepen-
dent study is a situation

where the student himself assumes the responsi-
bility of 90% of whatever is done. . . . It's
kind of a contractual arrangement where he comes
in with a program that he wants to work on laid
out. What the student has to find then is some-
one who can evaluate what he has done. That's
the critical thing. So if he wants to work on
some topic in parapsychology, we wouldn't be
able to find anyone here. His professor might
agree to have his work eValuated by someone from
another institution. . . . In terms Of the pro-
fessor's time in independent study, it's used in
critically scrutinizing what the student wants
to do and at that point deciding whether he can
judge what the student comes up with and then
not seeing the student again until he turns in
what he has finalized--a paper, a series of
paintings, composition in music. . . . At that
point it's evaluated. SO in terms of the time
of the professor, it's judgment in the beginning

his

48

and judgment at the end and maybe there's four
hours tied up in the whole thing over the
semester.

He concluded by describing the attitude of one Of
own colleges toward the meaning of independent study.

When they talk about independent study it is in
terms of tutorials, the student seeing the pro-
fessor regularly, continual progress reports,
conferences or a few small seminars. That to
me is not independent study. What the student
winds up with then is not the student's, it's
the professor's.

The second man, a faculty member, claiming that the

atmosphere Of permissiveness toward independent study was

the

greatest incentive for its continued practice, went on

to explain:

Any student who wants to do_something that he

has to petition for is going to be discouraged
from it and the more you raise the barriers, the
more you hassle him over his petition, the less
likely he is to see it through. I think that's
the nature of students. They lack the confidence
that is necessary for seeing a complicated peti-
tion through all the signatures it needs to get.

Continuing with his belief as applied to student

field-study Off-campus:

We tend not to formalize that kind of business
but just trust the individual faculty and indi-
vidual student to do what they perceive as best,
which is where we really are in the whole busi-
ness. In independent study or regular studies,
you have to recognize that they will Often do
things that you don't think wise. But peOple
are so different that what is worthwhile and
what is meaningful to peOple differs so much
that you just have to tolerate a great deal of
variety of things going on for academic credit.
As long as we're stuck with this incredible
system of giving formal credit for everything

49

a student does, ultimately summing it up in this
ridiculous institution of degrees, then we're
just going to have to tolerate great differences.

Both men acknowledged the need for orientation to
this kind of freedom, one Of them outlining a sequential
program to prepare students from the freshman year for
increasing responsibility.

These views cannot be considered the ipstitutional
views of more than a few Of the campuses visited, but they
represent the thinking of many administrators and faculty
members attempting to explain why independent study does not
work. They feel that existing practices create an environ-
ment which stifles Opportunities for real self-direction.

An Older study (Gruber, 1962) focusing on the
development of characteristics which lead to independence
found that

curiosity cannot lead to information-seeking and
continued mastery of material if the environment
presents §_with demands that are antagonistic to
independent information-seeking. Thus, isolated
experiments in self-directed study can have only
limited effects (Chapter 3, pp. 2-3).
Most campus attempts to develOp independent study have about
them a certain isolation: single faculty efforts in a hos-
tile or apathetic department: single departmental attempts
in a disinterested college; or single college stirrings in
an unconcerned university. Another form of isolated expe-

rience is brought about by the practice of great liberality

in the social realm accompanied by academic narrowness.

50

Rarely do all segments share the same free climate. The
results reaffirm Gruber's doubt that single innovations can
bring the profound changes in college atmosphere that will
enlarge the student's responsibility for his own education.
Some advocates of independent study who might tend
to lean toward greater liberality feel threatened by the
dangers inherent in what they consider the excessive con-
fidence of those institutions which place little faith in
orientation to independent study and depend on students to
adjust by their own means. Critics of this "instant inde-
pendence" hear rumors Of students debilitated by so much
freedom that they are unable to handle the numerous Oppor—
tunities and varieties of choice. There is a significant
difference of Opinion on how real this danger is because
of the self-selection process whereby students who are
attracted to a very permissive institution are prepared to
exercise their freedom to a marked degree. In addition,
final success or failure of this lpipgez faire attitude
is dependent upon the institution's attitude toward student
failure and risk-taking. In one college where the environ-
ment is one of general student freedom, a number of both
faculty and student representatives expressed enthusiasm for
the sink-swim theory which allows a freshman to completely
squander Opportunities and slowly come to realize that any
success will be generated by him alone. Failure, when it

occurs, is hopefully followed by academic conversion,

51

assumed responsibility, eagerness to compensate for lost
time and a conviction Of the relevance of curricular pur-
suits. Little is said, however, about those who drOp out
(and their number is large) without having attained a new
lease on education and who depart from the institution with
little more than painful regrets and feelings Of guilt.

In addition to the two extremes, freedom hobbled by
restriction and excessive freedom, are two illusory situa-
tions. .First, there are institutiOns which have succeeded
in developing an environment which makes possible and
encourages individual study and creates the illusion that
this represents independence when in reality there are such
restrictions that it amounts to prescribed learning.

I think it's safe to say that lip service has
always been paid at our college to the idea of
what you mean by independent study: but I don't
know that in fact we have succeeded in creating
an environment which fosters it. I would almost
be inclined to argue . . . that we have probably
created an environment which Offers a large num-
ber of Opportunities for individual study and
created the illusion that these represent inde-
pendent study, but that the number of students
actively engaged in genuinely independent study
is still relatively small with us.

These institutions may offer a disservice even
greater than those which are overtly antagonistic because
they tend to lull students into settling for a modicum of
self—direction.

Second, and more difficult for students to under-

stand, are the institutions which create the illusion that

they are what they once were, highly oriented to student

52

academic independence and innovation. Living on their
laurels, their earlier momentum having been Of sufficient
force, they continue to sustain the public image of pro-
gressiveness and attract students who identify with the
avant garde and enroll only to become disillusioned with
the environment. These colleges have not turned back
ideologically, but inertia prevents implementation and
perhaps presents a prelude to the following stage, one of
regression from their former commitment.

In this latter category are institutions turning
back from a climate of student freedom. Ironically,
institutions which were among the first to establish warm
environments for independence, have found the free-wheeling
practices of this earlier period taking on structure. In
the late 50's one such institution placed great emphasis
on both experimental work and independent study and formed
colleges based on these concepts. They, in time, began to
change and have taken on a different visage.

One of the ironies of history is that although
these colleges started out as very loose in
their organization, they have over a period of
time (and there may be some kind of sociological
law) tended to become more and more highly
structured so that by this irony or paradox we
find ourselves in the position of having the
colleges occasionally making more severe cur—
ricular demands on students, in the structural
sense, than the rest of the program. Neverthe—
less in their early days they were of tremendous
importance in helping establish a climate which

moved students in the direction of independent
study.

53

There is much evidence to substantiate Martin's
(1969) claim that "sustaining innovation is a bigger chal-
lenge than initiating it," especially if change has to do
with important aspects of the institution.

It is true that major innovations for educa-
tional institutions have been hard to initiate,
harder still to transfer into the care of those
who did not come under the originator's persua-
sion, and hardest to sustain over any consider-
able length Of time, particularly if the new
venture involved holistic innovation (Martin,
1969, p. 128).

Educators easily fall back into the safe and tried
role that institutional organization has encouraged. Al-
though there is today a strong force struggling toward
increased student responsibility, we may still say of the
national scene what Gruber (1962) had to say about his
single institution.

The picture . . . that emerges from the present
study is one Of an environment fundamentally
hostile to independent intellectual work on the
student's part. Therefore, no single innovation
in education [sic] method could be expected to
produce the profound change in atmosphere neces-
sary to give the student greatly enlarged respon-
sibility for his own education. . . . (Chapter 23,
p' 9).

Faculty and administrators do not see that indepen-
dent study will not be implemented to a significant extent
until independence itself is stimulated by the catalytic
force of the kind of freedom in all areas of the college

and university which is conducive to the develOpment of

responsibility and maturity.

54

Departmental Autonomy

Although the climate or environmental atmosphere of
a college, whether free or fettered, is in a gestalt sense
more than the sum Of its individual parts, certain compo-
nents were seen by faculty and administrators as inhibiting
the development of the climate necessary for student self—
direction. One of these was departmental autonomy which
sometimes fractured institutional efforts.

As pointed out by Dressel pp g1. (1970) a high
degree Of departmental autonomy is not unreasonable if
develOped together with responsibility and effectiveness.
At present, however, as related to self-directed study,
autonomy exists without significant evidence of either of
the latter. Departments differ in their attitudes, and
those within the departments are often even more at odds
Eoncerning independent study practices. In one institution,
for example, a department has ruled that a faculty member
can direct only one "special topic" (independent study).

A faculty member complained,

this is a real problem if independent study is
to function. . . . There are real limits.

In another institution professing almost unlimited
Opportunities for independent study,the faculty, numbering
in the neighborhood of 180 full-time members, are permitted
only three independent study projects each if they carry an
average teaching load, which most do. This serves upward

to 1,000 students.

55

At the other extreme, the chairman of another
department, although he had misgivings about some unorthodox
forms of self-directed projects, ran the Operation according
to the proverb "better grow a thousand weeds than crush a
single flower." Although approval of the department head
was routinely required, he never refused a project or lim-
ited activities.

Differences in attitude on the part of departments
ranging from great permissiveness to rigidity are dependent
upon many factors other than the chairman's attitude. These
include whether or not those involved feel that the partic-
ular discipline is one which lends itself to student self-
direction; the conservatism or liberality Of the members Of
the department: and the dependency of the department upon
the good will of financially influential administrators.
Students are confused by the differences in attitude from
department to department, some to the point Of finding them-
selves in second choice majors because Of rejection or in-
difference in the department offering their first choice.

Interim programs offer some examples Of extremes in
attitudes. A social science professor commented,

Our trouble comes from a number of things, one

of which is the difference in approach in depart-
ments. What we demand is entirely different from
what the math department will do. . . . I think
our department is the laxest of any. If a kid
comes in and wants to hitch-hike across the coun-
try, fine, hitch-hike across the country. Our
feeling here is that this is your time to do

independent study and if you want to fritter it
away, go fritter it away.

56

This hardly speaks for the entire department and at
times there are great internal differences depending upon
current committee membership.

There are great differences within our depart-
ment. When I'm on the interim program committee,
I have a meeting of the majors in November and
tell them what is required of them, what they
must turn in before they leave and so on. . . .
When Professor is on, he doesn't have
any meeting; the kids don't know what's going on.
SO there are various invidious distinctions.

Frequently, science and mathematics departments veer
away from self-directed study supposedly to give their stu-
dents a better chance of getting into the best graduate
schools.

I suppose the more professionally oriented the
student and faculty are in the specific fields,
the less attractive this is. It's hard for
grad schools to interpret. One student wrote
to a med school and was told that he had to be
in regular courses.

Faculty Often claim that those in the sciences are
more likely to take a conservative stance. A scientist him-
self, one professor stated that

scientists in general . . . tend, I think, to

be educationally very conservative. They still
feel themselves the possessors of a body of
knowledge which has to be squeezed into unrecep-
tive heads. They're reasonably authoritarian in
the whole educational picture that they have.

. . . Scientists are much more concerned that a
student get professional guidance and not make
mistakes. . . . Probably many of the science
faculty feel that essentially everyone graduat-
ing from their program will go on to graduate
school and they must give them preparation to
get them all into Harvard. That's not true at
all in the humanities and social study areas.

. . . And the fact that someone should come out

57

with a chemistry B.A. and not know some little

detail--that would reflect badly on all chemists

at this institution who had certified him. . . .
The most usual types of independent study in the area of
science are individual laboratory research projects and
self—learning in the use of particularly SOphisticated
equipment such as the electron microsc0pe. Independent
study takes the form of field work in the social sciences
and education, and in the latter area frequently becomes
another name for practicum, student Observation and student-
teaching.

Another example Of sharply divided departmental
differences, this time not so much dependent upon the
uniqueness Of the discipline but more likely upon the indi-
vidual differences Of the faculty, is in the area of honors
programs which assume the responsibility for independent
study. Extreme differences can exist in the rationale for
the original invitation to membership, final selection and
survival of students in the programs. In one institution
two language departments together accepted only five stu-
dents in the last five years and of these only two finished
in the program. Another department, Open in its policies,
saw numbers Of students invited, admitted and graduated from
the program.

Charging that independent study is a luxury which
they cannot afford, departments have little evidence to

substantiate this claim and have made almost no effort to

58

determine ways in which self-directed study might become
economical. Chairmen seem satisfied to presume that it
would require a one to one relationship with teachers who
are already overburdened with large classes Of students.

. . . it's tremendously expensive and time-

consuming. Since you must be doing what the

student is doing, the effectiveness is cut down

if you have many students doing different things.
Prohibitions provide a legitimate excuse for those faculty
members who wish to refrain and an added challenge and feel-
ing Of benevolence for those who insist on overextending
themselves. ,Even when departments seek to prevent the
latter by denying credit, they are aware that faculty are
in a position to circumvent any such move by various devices
among which is having the student register in an existing
course. Faculty ingenuity is exercised in different ways
depending upon the various Obstacles set up both in the
department and in the general structure of the college or
university.

Dressel (1970) regards the departmental demand for
complete curricular autonomy as highly dubious. The regular
curricular review suggested by him would serve to increase
the possibility of: greater innovation: decisions based on
greater knowledge Of the financial implications; and hOpe-
fully some unity among departments. The present claim to

unity lies in the fact that most departments provide devices

which safeguard faculty from doing what they do not care to

59

do and inadvertently encourage others toward what they might

not have attempted.

Unclear Objectiveg

Conversations with faculty and administrators about
objectives of independent study made it apparent that while
on most campuses both groups shared the desire of Offering
to students the best academic Opportunities, the goals of
independent study differed not only between the groups but
among their members, especially among faculty. These
diverse Objectives do not allow for a well—used, unified
program.

First, let us consider the faculty. Since the
attitude toward the amount and kind of independent study
depends upon whether or not it is seen as a valuable learn-
ing process regardless of the outcome, or as only a means to
the more important end—product of accumulated knowledge,
faculty members were asked to express their feelings in
this regard. Many faculty unhesitatingly expressed the
belief that its value lay in engendering an approach to
learning, not amassing facts.

The process is the more important objective
because it carries over. The process if success—
ful and sound will carry over into the way a stu-
dent views his entire college experience and life.
He can use this kind Of independent approach and
thinking in all kinds of situations. This is one

of the most important things that can be done in
the undergraduate school.

60

Another faculty member saw the process as a means of pre-

venting the stifling of interest that comes from prescribed

study.

I guess I can only answer for myself. I'm
more interested in the process. . . . If the
student is to be self-generating he ought to
have a chance to do that within the framework
Of his undergraduate years. Then too I'm look-
ing toward the future. All too many students
have had it by the time they get their A.B.'s:
and they don't read anything or take any real
intellectual interest. It seems to me that if
they have seized upon an interest and tried to
develoP it on their own they are much more
likely to do it later on.

One of the strongest expressions of faith in the
process of independent study regardless of quantitative
results came from a faculty member in one of the institu-
tions with the most flexible system of independent study.

I think it's immaterial what the student leaves
the university with as far as what's in his
head. You can give marvelous courses which
teach him an incredible number of facts and
destroy his interest in the subject so that
five years later he's forgotten the facts and
hates the subject. In theory, I am almost
completely unconcerned with what the student
learns. I think it's important for students
to make decisions for themselves. Anything
that moves in that direction--even if the stu-
dent flounders in the freedom--It's the only
way to mature.

Some few, on the other hand view the objective as
the specific knowledge which the student wants and which,
because Of a particular curricular problem, he cannot Obtain
in any way except through independent study. It is then

considered to be

61

a means of exploring aspects of the discipline
that have either been treated preemptorily or
ignored . . . he can't get it any other way.

. . . If we had a wide range of courses perhaps
the number of "independents" would automatically
decline. . . . Quite honestly, I don't think
that many "independents" sponsored in this
institution are undertaken so carefully and
considerately that the processual aspect of it
is consciously in the mind of the instructor.

I don't think there is any conscious attempt

to have the student explore the process.

Another faculty member discounts the process to the
point of negating independent study which he seems to equate
with totally unassisted study.

We discover quite generally that the student
who is capable Of handling independent work is
generally most interested in getting a broad
background which can be best gotten in a formal
course rather than in independent study. It's
a lot easier to have a guide through an advanced
science course than for the student to do it
alone. The student then has to do what the
instructor does--go through all the literature,
weed out the chaf, organize the grain into a
solid whole—-an exhaustive process.

Simply stated another said,

process is important: but from the standpoint
of gathering knowledge it is a total waste.

Other faculty do not feel that they can put process or
product in an order of importance. They see the product
as the motivating influence, the process as the means.

The processual part of independent study would

not be possible without the student's being

motivated toward some particular objective that

he was really desirous of knowing.

Sanford (1970) is baffled by the inarticulateness of

colleges about their aims. With ill-defined institutional

objectives, it is not strange then that college and

62

university administrators have difficulty in setting forth
goals for their programs or Offerings of independent study.
What is absent in the way of clean-cut objectives is more
than balanced by reasons for its introduction. Most deans
and directors are quite honest in admitting that independent
study is for them one or several of the following:

1. a way of competing with larger institutions
which Offer relatively the same education
for considerably less tuition:

2. a means of expanding the curriculum when
faculty shortages make the institution unable
to meet students' demands for more relevant
courses:

3. a method of doubling dormitory space by
replacing students engaged in Off-campus
activities with other students:

4. a means of receiving the same tuition for
short periods Of student attendance while
students receive remuneration for their
off-campus activities:

5. a way of satisfying black students by
allowing them to become engaged in group
study in otherwise unavailable black
culture courses:

6. a means of keeping abreast of other
colleges.

A few comments to this effect will express some of
their attitudes:

In the sense that it attracts students, indepen-
dent study makes for economy. It also relieves
pressures when students want to study something
that is not offered . . . there are all kinds

of schedule problems and problems of credit
shortages that lead to solution by independent
study.

63

Our response to the discovery that the black
students did not really want to become members
of the WASP establishment was to accede to
their request that a mode Of independent study,
though a corporate mode, be established for
them.

***

If we could have a program like this (Off campus
independent study). . . . It would be possible
to save some faculty time, bed space in dorms
and lessen the total cost of the student's edu—
cation by moving a student out for at least one
of the eight semesters or even two.

*‘ki:

Administrators, deluged with reasons, seek to fit
the use to the need without the answers to three important
questions: first, is independent study better than other
forms of education? Second, if so, is it better for their
particular institution, taking into consideration its pro-
gram, faculty and particular student body? Third, is it a
more expensive type of education?

Even though they have no proof of the superiority
or economy of independent study, most administrators either
do not see the value of their studying the effectiveness of
independent study on their own campuses or do not have the
staff to direct such inquiry. 0n the basis of current
writings and the reputation of institutions which introduced
self-directed learning much earlier, and strengthened by the
foregoing practical reasons, many administrators conclude
that it is good. Few have the time, staff, or inclination

to explore its highest reaches, and leave to circumstances

64

and student pressure the amount and type of implementation.
Most Of the above mentioned reasons for its use are satis-
fied when independent study is advertised as available, and
implemented, in certain limited ways, i.e., work study types
of Opportunities or interim term programs.

There are almost no institutions having clear-cut
independent study goals with sequential plans and adequate
orientation, expressed concisely and published or promul—
gated to the entire institutional community. Programs are
more an accretion of regulations Often expressed in a nega—
tive way and developed out Of safeguards based on misuses
of the past or on practical needs.

Although most interim periods lead one to believe
that the idea of independent study is of primary concern,
the objectives for its inauguration in many institutions was
the resolution of the problem of "what to do with January"
which had become a lame duck session and for some a hazard.

Students would have been working straight
through from September until January. If a
virus hit, everyone would be flat: if a balmy
period arrived, there would be riots.

Even in institutions where faculty and students were
aware of the extent Of the possibilities of independent
study, which Often they were not, they frequently differed
in their interpretation Of what was permissible. Their
unfamiliarity with objectives and procedures indicated dis-

use or at least infrequent occasion for reference to them.

65

As one director described it, some types of independent
study are "buried in’the catalogue." This results in either
Of two extremes-~reluctance to become involved or hesitation
on the part of faculty to be anything but permissive. The:
latter solution at times has the distinction of giving the
students the Opportunity not only to learn but to feel that
they are getting away with something by doing so. So said
a student:

One good thing about independent study that I've

noticed is since the faculty is by and large not

very sure of what it is or what you're required

to do . . . you can go in and if you approach it

the right way you can do anything you want. You

can go in and say "This is what I'm going to do

in your class. I'm going to do this paper and

this paper and I'm not going to take any tests

but I'll do a special project for you and then

I want you to fill out this little formJ'.And

the professors by and large will say O.K. and

that way you do what you want and you actually

spend most of your time learning things because

the things you didn't want to do probably

wouldn't profit you much anyway.

Overwhelmed by the tension between the ideals of
independent study and the accumulation of immediate needs,
practical problems and preventive measures, deans and
directors reason themselves into the position, often con-
vincing, that looseness of purpose is the best means for
implementing apprOpriate plans. Individual students and
faculty members are free to work out their programs, and
social Opinion is considered adequate pressure to correct

consistent failures by causing faculty to get "pushed back

from an unsuccessful pattern."

66

There are sufficient expressions of desire for more
definite goals to avoid concluding that the looseness of
structure is intended even though it is at times effective.
Two such expressions will exemplify this.

I don't think we are able to define them
[objectives] well enough or understand what they
should be. But certainly just from this last
year we've found a wide variance in interpreta-
tion so we haven't gotten across Objectives to
the faculty even though it's spelled out in the
handbook and in the catalogue.

***

A lot of faculty members who serve as advisors
to students don't really have a grasp exactly
on the duties and responsibilities that they
should have. So many times I think they will
just say, "Well, take an independent study if
you like."

***

An attempt to clarify objectives is not made easy
by the fact that one form of independent study, the tutorial,
one-tO-one faculty—student relationship, is often equated
with independent study and in many instances, attempts to
expand the former into wider use meet great resistance from
faculty who "have a tough time turning loose Of tutorial."

I think a lot of us faculty talk about how
mature these kids are, how we think they ought
to be released from authoritarian control we've
had over them; and yet it amazes me how so many
faculty assume that no learning will take place
unless that faculty member's around. And that
seems to be diametrically Opposed to independent
study.

67

It's possible that faculty have to have company.
We have to have somebody listening to us.

***

In summary, a few institutions find the lack of
clearly defined Objectives either liberating or disastrous.
The majority however fall somewhere in between, handicapped
by the lack of a common understanding which would allow for
differences in implementation while prOposing basic goals.
Some institutions look hOpefully to the building of Objec-
tives which are flexible enough to stimulate creativity and
fixed enough to allow survival. Certain that this cannot be
done by the faculty alone, they view the students as impor-
tant to the planning process.

I think the issues have to be faced squarely
and honestly by faculty members and students
together, talking it through. I think it's
irrelevant that some kind Of mandate about how
much emphasis should be placed on independent
study comes from on high. It is meaningless.
In my view it has to grow up as teachers talk
about what does count for them, what they view
a learning experience to be or the best way to
spend time as a college student.

The fact remains that the objectives of "independent
study" are dependent upon the meaning of the two words, and

American higher education is a long way from understanding

or defining either independence or study.

68

Reasons for Limited Spudent Upg.
of Independentggtudy

Students were interviewed individually at the first
few institutions since this was the original plan. The
individual approach was prompted by the desire to obtain a
forthright Opinion without peer pressure. At one college,
however, interviews fell behind schedule and, in an attempt
to reconcile the problem Of the late hour and waiting stu-
dents on a Friday afternoon, a secretary sent in the next
three students. The resulting interview was so effective
that group interviews were adOpted as a continuing practice
for the rest of the visits whenever possible. Rather than
inhibiting honest expression, the group interaction encour-
aged the exploration Of all aspects of both dissatisfaction
and satisfaction. Each student's comments served as a basis
for further discussion.

Since Our purpose here is to identify some deter-
rents to independent study, we will limit our discussion to
negative reactions. Students more apt to be content with
structure and rigidity would most likely exist in somewhat
smaller numbers on the campuses visited because of the
institutional images of liberality. In addition, most
students interviewed were selected by the respective
directors, and one would expect them to be chosen on the
basis of their experience with or interest in independent

study. The views expressed, therefore, are largely those

69

of students with impulsive strivings toward independence.
Three of the areas around which they shared common concerns
were: the inhibiting nature of the environment: the problem
of student apathy, insecurity and discouragement: and
inapprOpriate evaluation of students' efforts toward

independence.

Environment

Berelson's (1960) suggestion that there is wide-
spread automatic institutional allegiance to the symbol of
independent study without supportive practice, may explain
a climate which students find 'dishonest.‘ An intellectual
atmosphere is, to many Of them (Heath, 1968), the most sig-
nificant determinant in the develOpment Of academic skills,
and a climate of real freedom reinforces and in turn is
reinforced by this intellectual atmosphere. Most students,
whether interested in independent study or not, find their
collegiate environment constrictive. Called by one student
(a senior in an institution frequently labeled as one of the
most liberal) "rigorous, rationalistic, fairly traditional,
enforcedly distributive liberal arts education," the closely
structured programs stifle students' incentive to strike out
on their own.

In such a climate, which independent study might
help to alleviate, the first and most Obvious deterrent to

student use of self-directed learning is ignorance of its

70

existence or of its possible application in their academic
lives. A senior student who regretted having no knowledge
of it earlier in her career commented:

I started private reading just this year. Up

until then I didn't know that it was possible

which is too bad. . . . I think I would have

been ready as a freshman to do this. . . . I

think I lost a lot of confidence in myself and

in my intelligence after a year in classes here.

The college is filled with a lot of smooth talk-

ing intellectual people and in class this is

sometimes intimidating.

Most institutions seem to depend upon the catalogue
to identify independent study Opportunities, yet frequently
it is not up to date and even directors and deans, checking
their publications in the presence of the interviewer,
seemed unfamiliar with what they found there. One faculty
member suggested that the catalogue description seemed
designed to discourage students or to give the faculty a
way to say "no" to students whom they don't want. "It's
a kind of paper protection" making possible faculty selec—
tion of those students whose superior accomplishments will
redound to their "sponsors."

Some students feel that knowledge of independent
study's existence is not sufficient to impel them toward it.
They need positive encouragement.

While verbally it expresses great concern for
independent study, College actually
does very little to encOurage it institutionally.
There's not much direction. I don't think there
is that much value placed on it. It's the class-

room: It's sitting there getting what the pro-
fessor has to say.

71

Another reason why students pass up independent
study possibilities is the absence of high caliber programs
they were promised. As mentioned earlier, some colleges
project an image of freedom which no longer exists. Stu-
dents who are impressed to find that the emphasis in the
prospectus is on individuality, soon after arrival learn
that in reality programs are somewhat less flexible. Some
transfer, others accept the situation and adjust. Members
of a third group either wait hopefully for change until it
is illogical to withdraw, or attempt to accomplish some
reform. The latter never content themselves with less than
they originally expected.

Some Of us have been trying for years to bring
the College closer to that image of being
experimental and avant garde and relevant. We
failed, however, and there's now an attempt to
prevent the College from attracting students
who are going to be disappointed, very seri-
ously in some cases.

The feeling that faculty lack confidence in student
initiative contributed in no small measure to the students'
hesitation toward attempting self-direction. This failure
on the part of some faculty is borne out by the statement
of one, a professor in an institution with a sizable number
of superior students.

I guess in 15 years at College, I've
had two or three students whom I could say were
capable Of working in such a way that they could
come in to see me once a month. The average stu-
dent, particularly the underclass student, to me

needs constant reinforcement. They don't know
what book to go to next.

‘72

This was in an institution with a reputation for top quality
students.

Students want faculty trust in their ability not
only to select courses but to become more active in wider
kinds of decision making and curriculum planning.

The faculty's position basically is that stu-

dents are not capable of participating in making

decisions about curriculum and personnel . . .

or the direction of the college because they're

not professionals.
Where students find this they lose interest in attempting
to assume greater responsibility and, using the faculty's
own argument against them, question the justification of the
latter's usurpation of some administrative functions and
decision making for which faculty are professionally
unqualified.

The shortage of faculty available for independent
study frequently caused students to lose interest when they
realized that faculty were restricted and overworked. There
was a great deal of sympathy on the part of students for the
faculty overload.

Faculty don't deliberately hibernate. They just
don't have the time. They have committee obliga—

tions and some have 12 or 15 independents in
addition. They can't prepare competently.

***

That's an enormous problem. . . . But even as
it is, it can be greatly facilitated by . . .
letting professors do things they're accom-
plished in and making it known what their areas
are. The breakthrough will come when faculty

73

and administrators get things worked out so
the professors get course credit for partic-
ipating in so many "independents."

***
Interestingly enough, administrative solutions to faculty
burdens do not always work toward students satisfaction.
At one institution where faculty have what the students call
a "huge reduction in course load for taking independent
study," students view this as one of the most seriously
damaging factors, militating against successful independent
study. They see it as the "politics" of a committee which
evidently allots the positions on the basis of seniority,
making over half of the most senior members of the faculty
independent study advisors. This means that many of the
young faculty are not involved and according to the students,
many of these younger members don't even know what self-
directed learning is.

Students at no time blamed the administration for
the faculty burdens but attributed them to financial prob—
lems, especially since proclamations of future "austerity"
living had already been made by some presidents earlier in
the year.

In view Of the traditional and continued attack of
students on administrators, it is interesting that Martin
(1969) and a number Of administrators interviewed see stu-
dents tending now to identify the preventive role of faculty

in the area of educational reform. As Martin says:

74

. . . The closer they [students] come to the
center of the intellectual city, the more they
are likely to find the barriers manned by
faculty, not administrators. The more serious
the academic challenge, the more faculty are
threatened. . . (p. 6).

Students in one college felt the conservative
faculty were responsible for most of the handicaps to
independent study.

The structure of the school is one in which
the faculty is almost in total control . . .
it's not so much that the faculty get control,
but a certain conservative minority within the
faculty have control of the faculty and that's
the real problem.

In two institutions, students complained that
attempts at independent study in multi-department projects
were impeded by faculty failure to COOperate on an inter-
disciplinary basis.

We're very idealistic, wide—eyed students
really. . . . We felt the potential of a small
liberal arts college like College
was to get away from just representing individ-
ual fields but to try to get some direction to
the fields. It's amazing how the biologist and
the chemist don't even talk to each other most
of the time. The chemists sit together at
lunch, the biologists sit together: and as a
consequence, the real problems which are inter-
disciplinary . . . are never dealt with. . . .
The whole integration, relevance kick is what
it is in a way, but I think at
College what I expected was really that kind
Of interdisciplinary activity and that to me
is independent study.

 

 

Students differ in their conception of a climate
conducive to greater independence. The views of some are

reflected in the words of a student who felt keenly the

75

failure of his institution to break down some of its rigid
structure, although he advocated less than drastic measures.

I guess I'm not asking as some kids are that
College become experimental and
gyant garde. I'm asking that it become plural-
istic, that it allow various types of functions
within its environment--within its umbrella of
academic rigor. The kids here are brilliant-—
almost all Of them are very bright. The faculty
are very capable--almost all of them. I guess
that's the most heartbreaking thing about my
four years here, that the potential is enormous
and it's not being used. It's being funneled
into the agonies of taking required courses
that you have no business being in and not into
things which could be meaningful.

 

An example of the kind of freedom some students want was
given by a student who had just completed an independent
study project.

I did this completely on my own. I discussed
it at the beginning and at the end I gave him

a report on it and this was unlike some of the
other projects where there were constant meet-
ings between the professor and the students or
even occasional ones. . . . Mine was completely
independent and this was what I wanted. For
the first time I found I could actually do it
on my own without any help in between.

Other students want the system modified even more,
to give them the freedom they feel they need to become
self-directed.

I don't think you solve anything any more by
requiring independent study--or anything. If
along with requiring it . . . the structure
would be modified to make it possible for
students to do an entire semester of indepen-
dent study . . . your whole view toward inde-
pendent study would be greatly enlarged and
peOple would do a substantially better job of
it.

76

Half measures frustrate students. One frequent
complaint was the reluctance on the part of faculty and
administrators to accept independent study for required
courses. Students found this harassing. While self-
directed learning was attractive and exciting to them, its
use for other than required courses Often distracted them
from the areas in which they were most seriously engaged:
and frequently they were forced to forego the Opportunity
when a heavy major or a change of program left them with
little time to elect courses. It also postponed the use of
independent study for many until the junior and senior years.

The peOple I've talked to on the freshman and
SOphomore levels don't do it (independent study)
because they're trying to get their requirements
out Of the way. I started taking them junior
year . . . I'd like to see it start in the
freshman year.

These handicaps lead some students to prOpOse that
limitations on time, place and direction be set aside as the
institution delivers an Open and continuing challenge, say-
ing to students (to quote one student's suggestion):

We're absolutely sure that there are things

you want to know and we're giving you the
resources and the time and the Opportunity to
do it . . . go out and find out about these
things. And if the students are not interested
in education, they're not going to stay here.

Compensating in force and enthusiasm for what they
lack in number, still other students want to see drastic

change. Convinced that desiring anything less is naive,

they often, at the same time, realize that desiring more

77

is equally unrealistic. Recognizing the restrictions
placed on the college by the systems below and above it,
they believe that both the secondary school which begins
the molding process and the graduate school which glazes
the formed undergraduate product must also change.

It seems to me that if there is going to be

any adequate change it's going to have to be

the whole scene . . . that includes high

school and graduate school.

To a generation devoted to discussion and dialogue,
climatic freedom means that "there must be much more reli-
ance on the individual, on the ability to persuade, to talk
to the student rather than to require and to force compli-
ance." Confident that reason will prevail, a very small
number of students ask for no non-negotiated demands on
the part of the institution.

I don't think that there should be any require-
ments whatsoever. I think that my philosophy

of education basically is that by the time a
student is ready for college he is also ready

to be persuaded or dissuaded from taking a
course of study. It seems more consistent with
philosophies Of a rational group of men such as
our professors, to persuade peOple to take or not
to take language courses or math courses rather
than to require them. . . . If you want to Oper-
ate on the principle that everybody's an intel-
ligent rational person, then there seems no

reason why you just can't let that reign across
the board.

It is difficult to say what percentage of students
represent the mild pleas for freedom and how many want the
extreme liberation, but it is clear that most students who

find independent study inaccessible or unattractive feel

78

that in order to participate, the environment must be more
conducive: they must know of the existence of independent
study possibilities and then find faculty support and
encouragement and a freer atmosphere in which to pursue it.
All of this is necessary to overcome the apathy, the insecu-
rity and the discouragement which constitute another threat
to the implementation of independent study.

Student.Apathy, Insecurity, and

Discogragement

Students' reasons for failure to take advantage of
independent study or their explanations for limited partic-
ipation range from apathy to strong feelings of insecurity
or discouragement. Apathetic students, because of their
particular personalities, their background education or the
current invisibility of independent study Opportunities on
some campuses, are disinterested in assuming the additional
responsibility inherent in self-directed learning. Given
the fact that the number of independent study Opportunities
is not great, the number of apathetic students must be
large; otherwise, there would have been more dissension
concerning the subject than there has been to date.

Dearing (1970) places some of the blame for the
failure of higher education to improve instruction on the
students themselves.

Unhappily, for all their fancied radicalism,

students are quite as conservative as faculty
in their resistance to change (p. 223).

79

Much of the so-called student resistance to change such as
that introduced by independent study is in reality merely
apathy, not only toward the particular innovation but toward
the collegiate experience. One student described the atti—
tude of a number of fellow students on his campus.

Everyone here is smart and probably most of
the people here are doing a lot less than they
could be doing. They figure if they get in
here, just stay in. Most Of them don't know
what they are going to do when they get out

so they just do enough to stay.

On many campuses, students of this type while putting in
their time choose the easiest way.

I see a lot of kids who'd just as soon take a
class that has a lecture three times a week and
a mid-term and a final . . . they think indepen-
dent study is too personal. You have to meet
the teacher and you can't show up with nothing
or its pretty point blank that you don't have
anything. A lot of students take advantage of
the fact that in lecture class you can get
lost. . . . I really think that they'd just as
soon be a number in some cases where they don't
have to be responsible for their actions except
for a mid-term and a final.

***

I imagine that there are a lot of students who
just take a course because it's an easy A or B,
or even an easy C if that's all they want.

The guy they're living with has a COpy of the
test: and teachers when they teach a long time
don't change them.

***

The effort required by self-directed learning is

beyond what many students bargain for.

80

You have to be a person who can discipline
your time and keep at it because it seems that
so Often it gets to the end and you realize
that you haven't worked.

A student heavily engaged in independent study,
making reference to those outside the program, indicated

that

some students feel more comfortable in a more
structured program where the professor gives
them a reading list . . . some of the kids
will say to us once in a while, "I'm going
to take a regular course so I won't have to
think."

Turning from the apathetic students to those who
profess an interest in self-direction, we find that they
frequently blame their inability to appreciate the full
possibilities of independent study on the attitudes toward
education formed prior to their college experience.

Our early conditioning in high school and ele-
mentary school has made us look on education

as something that ends when you're 21 or 22
with college or high school depending on what
class you're from and if we could decondition
ourselves to think Of education as a life-long
process, then we wouldn't be hung up on credits.
You know, "I've taken 32 courses. I have 32
blocks of knowledge."

Responding to a question concerning the ideal edu-
cational process, another student in the group said,

We've been trained for so long that we've built
up such feelings toward certain things that I
couldn't honestly say at this stage what would
be an ideal situation. It would take me a good
year of reaction to all the past. . . . I'm
sick of papers. I'm so tired of having to pro-
duce, that it would take a lot of time just to
undo all the past. Deconditioning is going to
be necessary.

81

Another group of students confessed that they found
the lecture system and all that related to it so ingrained
that they suspected that self-directed learning would have
to begin in kindergarten. Most students would not reach the
desired level of independence prior to college but would be
more disposed toward its develOpment. A faculty member made
this Observation in response to a question concerning stu-
dent disinterest in independent study.

On one level a lot Of them think that they
aren't capable of it. My own personal opinion
is that we don't allow the children to do this
in grammar school or junior high. By the time
they get to high school most typically it's sit
down and the teacher talks at you. Our students
echo this. They feel very strongly that their
high school experience did not encourage them
to go Off on their own. We scare them . . .
make them think we know everything when what we
should teach them is that all we know is a few
places to start looking.

Growing out of this unfamiliarity with freedom is
strong apprehension.

Another valid reason is fear. I didn't want to
take an independent study. I was so used to the
structure that I wanted to go to class and get
down exactly what he thought was meaningful so
that I could write back exactly what he wanted,
almost verbatim. There have been a few teach-
ers I've had who gave you an "A" if you got
everything verbatim. So I was so scared about
taking an independent study, I didn't know what
I was going to do and I knew I couldn't disci-
pline myself. . . . It just so happened that I
had a schedule conflict and in order to gradu-
ate when I wanted to I had to take independent
study.

The experience is for some students at least uncom-

fortable, but a number consider it traumatic.

82

Eric Fromme was right when he referred to escape
from freedom. A lot of students talk about want-
ing to be out on their own, doing their own
thing, etc. but it is a very traumatic situation
to be in when you have the horizons wide Open
and there are no limits or channels or guide-
lines, directions, goals, purposes. You go out
and read fifteen books and come back hOpefully
with some sort of synthesis. In a college con-
text like this you can let those things ride,
you have other course commitments, you have to
turn in other term papers. You have the day-to-
day classroom discussions, etc. and you can sort
of get a feeling Of anomie. This independence
is a nebulous, fuzzy sort of thing which you're
not comfortable in.

***

I talked with another senior who was just ap-
palled at the idea of taking two independent
studies at one time. She would rather have the
direction that a class gives her.

***

This inability to cope with new-found freedom some—
times leads to and emphasizes the inadequacy of the outcome.
If the outcome is the prime consideration in an institution,
students feel they have performed inferiorly and are reluc-
tant to attempt other unstructured projects.

Facing yourself is a problem. When you have
courses that are structured, assignments by
assignment, there's no difficulty in pacing
yourself. The professor has done it for you.
The problem comes in an independent when you
don't have this kind of discipline and you have
to be your own taskmaster which I think can be
the best but most difficult and it tends Often
to suffer because you can put it off . . . usu-
ally independents are done in a very short
period of time--in the last three weeks of the
semester. I don't think you get this overall
comprehensiveness that is wanted ideally.

83

Often when the apprehension concerning independence
is borderline, the existence of highly regarded courses is
sufficient to tip the scales against the risk.

For me one of the problems was that I was very
attracted to the courses here. There are a lot
of good courses that I could take and when I
took an independent last semester I did it at
the expense of something I also wanted to take.
You do have a certain amount of guarantee when
you take a good course from a good professor in
a good subject that you don't have when you take
an independent.

Turning now to students who are thoroughly convinced
Of the value of, and their need for, independent study, we
find that discouraged, many of them dissipate much of their
energy trying to break down the excessive structure.

We're so bound into the course structure--rather
enervating to say the least. The fifty minute
period is like saying, "Well, how do you suppose
they have exactly a half hour of news every day?"
It's a hassle to be pressured to fit into the
right size box. I've gradually developed sort
of a hide about it. . . . I think the course
work and what the projects are expected to be
come through faculty who are quite tied into
their departments and who are structured by
them.

Continuing, another student elaborated.

It turns out the departments say, "Oh, great,
you're in independent study," and then I fill
exactly the same requirements as everyone else.
The only difference is that I don't get grades:
but I'm doing the same exact crazy little blocks
of knowledge. You know "This is your one class
in learning theory; and now you know learning
theory." So I wind up doing a lot Of it in
classes.

Some departments make it more difficult than others to break

out of the structure.

84

I know peOple here who came with a very good
knowledge who really didn't need to take the
social studies courses. These are the kinds
of peOple who would have been able to crawl
out of those requirements and charge forth on
an independent program. Most people can get
an exempt from science and language courses,
but I don't think I've ever known anybody who's
been exempted from social studies. There was
one guy in our course who was Obviously over-
prepared. He really had it. I think he could
have been doing something else.

Even the most independent students view the role of
the faculty as very important but differ in their opinions
Of how much influence they should exert. Pointing out what
he considered a real danger inherent in independent study
without prOper contact with faculty, a student said,

Being removed from structure can be both a boon
and a bane. You can do greater things, get into
something you enjoy, something you've been think-
ing about but with that comes the potential of
losing all contact with any educational structure
and coming out with a real bust.

Another student suggested that faculty members at times
knowingly add to the feeling of insecurity.

The rapport between the student and the profes-
sor is not sufficient now. The professors are
either afraid or think that at this point the
student wants to be left completely alone and
wants no structure or guidance or discussion
of the material and tends to leave you just
alone. What I would have enjoyed much more
would have been to be doing most of the work
on my own but discussing what I was doing with
the professor from my point of view, from my
interest. He would somehow be a resource
person.

A quiet independent student who needed help at a

crucial point in her planning was unable to find it.

85

I couldn't narrow my research down. It was
really hard to get any helpful hints and if I
came across anything that really interested me
and it was esoteric, like mesoamerican arche-
ology, which is no longer esoteric, nobody knew
how to narrow it down or give a suggestion. So
I wasted so much time floundering, psychologi-
cally and actually, trying to find materials or
to figure out how I was going to narrow it down,
trying to find a professor to sponsor something.
I'd go in and talk to them for hours. It didn't
help me that much.

***

I've had a hard time finding peOple to "rap" to
and my style is one where the kind of stuff I'm
working on makes it really important to talk to
other peOple about it, to kind of get a feel
for the idea.

***
The quality of the relationship of student and
faculty member is important for the success of the venture.
Another problem is that you're working so
closely with one faculty member that if it does
happen that there is no rapport or poor rapport,
you're really in a bad situation for a semester.
You start out and this is your anchor, your
guide: and if you think he's fundamentally
mixed-up or Off base in his educational views,
you're really in a bind.

The individual differences of students makes it
apparent that the Offer of complete freedom which excites
some students is interpreted by others as disinterest and
a lack of sufficient support. A student tried to sum up
many of the aspects of student participation in independent

study Opportunities with reference to the areas in which it

may fall short.

86

The personality of the student enters in. We
can't talk about independence as a broad, gen-
eral, all-encompassing sort of thing. With
independence as with course work in general,
it's the intentions, the motivation, the per-
sonality the student brings to the problem and
the rapport and the constructive suggestions of
the professor. The ideal is that the student
will be self-motivated, inner directed, having
a zealous desire to learn this thing. He will
be able to regiment himself. . . .

Such is one ideal. For now, however, student hesitation
born of insecurity seems, in the total picture, to outweigh
the desire for more freedom. The student continues,

At the same time, I think, more and more pro-

fessors are coming to realize and some students

too, that indeed to have it be a valuable expe-

rience there should be a little more structure

involved.
Evaluation Problems

According to the findings of The Committee on the

Student in Higher Education (1968),

With greater or less vigor, the new college

student hates and fears the rankings, evalua-

tions, the comparisons, the gradings, of the

higher educational system (p. 24).
The hate and fear exist perhaps to an even greater estent
when such criteria are used to judge the success or failure
of independent study and like innovations.

In order to better understand the inhibiting effect

of the present evaluation system on students' independent
study activities, it is necessary to consider the students'

objectives. Since the determination of success or failure

in attaining goals is the purpose of evaluation, one must

87

know what students hope to have accomplished. One senior
expressed the feeling of many others when he said,

The objectives of independent study are to help
the student to become resourceful, to learn to
look to himself for answers and to learn how to
ask the right questions. It makes it possible -
for him to go beyond something which he was
introduced to in a formal classroom situation

in more depth. . . . Most important to me, it's
a chance to develOp a methodology. an approach
to study and material which you don't have an
opportunity to do in a classroom structure. . . .

When students have these kinds of goals, they want to see
some relationship to their achievement of them when evalua-
tion takes place. A student in a program of nearly total
independent study said,

Sometimes I feel that I don't know as many
facts as students in the other program. That's
find. I want to read books on all sorts of
things. It changes your whole way of thinking.
It can energize everything that's going on
already, instead of making it tired and weary.
By the time some students get out of the insti-
tution they've had it and never want to see it
again. I see so many peOple graduating with a
sigh of relief; whereas, I don't want the learn-
ing process to stop.

What continues to depress me is the narrowness
of faculty measurement. If you say you learned
something, they say o.k., let's measure that.
Most professors are still very much locked into
the paper and pencil type of evaluation.

Whole departments are often locked into the system
of term paper evaluation.

The sad thing about independent study is that
it degenerates into a term paper with more time
to do it than you would have in a course. One
of the limitations in some departments is that
you must have something written for an indepen-
dent.

88

One form of paper evaluation heavily criticized for violat-
ing the spirit of independent study was the comprehensive
examination when used as a duplication of earlier appraisal.

What I objected to was having to take a compre-
hensive examination. If you've done a paper, a
research project, the only reason you need an
exam after that is the same old syndrome. You
know, "we've got to have something to prove it."

Comprehensives after independent study say,
“We're going to let you work independently:
but boy we're going to make sure you know

it."
New forms of learning, especially those resulting
from freer student activity, present problems for students

when faculty cannot accept their validity for evaluation

purposes.

An older professor is so used to research
paper criteria that he can't see how a film
can be educational. I'm working on a film
and I've spent the better part of a year on
it. How many credits is it worth?

Students seem generally to appreciate the written
evaluation sometimes substituted for grades but find that
there is some difficulty in maintaining the original purpose.

When faculty are supposed to evaluate with a
statement, they end up with a grade. It wasn't
designed to do that. That's because a lot of
professors couldn't get out of the syndrome.

A faculty member best summed up student comments on
written evaluations in preference to grades.

[It] permits the student to be a lot less
locked into what the faculty member wants him
to learn and better able to study what he wants
to learn himself: because the evaluation tends
to discuss those things that the student has

89

done. If he gets interested in one aspect,
the evaluation will say that and it won't make
some invidious comparison with somebody else
who towed the mark and did every last little
thing the instructor put on the requirement
list. So the students are much freer to fol-
low their own bent in courses. I think the
evaluation system is the primary thing that
frees them for this.

Actually, it is the attitude toward evaluation and
its adherence to the "system" which is more objectionable
than the specific form it takes.

Our work in independent study now is being
evaluated in terms of "you've done the equiv-
alent of so many courses" which is impossible

to do because the whole point when it was first
set up was to get away from that and be able to
study something in depth and nobody but you
could tell whether you'd done more or less.

Now you worry about it. You get psychologically
hung—up on the fact that you might not be doing
as much as everybody in the college.

***

I was in another country for two months and
when I got back I explained that I had taken

a language for four and a half or five hours

a day and courses in education, had written a
sociological study and my advisor asked, "Now,
how would you evaluate that in terms of course
credits?" It was really sad.

The credit system comes in for a good share of
criticism. As students become more involved in large blocks
of self-directed learning, they no longer like to speak in
terms of credits.

I think we're too hung-up on credits. I think
that's one of the problems. The system of edu-
cation before you get to college is set up on

getting credit and meeting deadlines and by the

time they're done, they've convinced the student
very effectively that he cannot accomplish the

90

work without deadlines and that he cannot find
any value in his own education without having
been evaluated by an outside source.

Even those who concede the possible need for using credits,
find the idea of a preconceived number of credits matching
a particular amount of work a cause for annoyance.

I'd like to see independent study without a
specific amount of credit set, so you could
sit down with your professor and look at what
you have done and say, "I think I did five
hours of work or six hours."

Now we're right down to the gut level of what
education is all about. . . . What does 4 hours
mean? You and I both know that for some courses
you work very hard and for others you don't.
Independence itself suffers from expansion of
this idea of credits and hours per unit that
you must put in. If we're willing to place a
premium on independent study . . . how much
value will the institution place on it?

Campbell (1963) found in his study of self-directed
learning that one of the keys to releasing the capacity for
independent study was self-conscious appraisal by the stu-
dent of his own learning activities, for as he described it,

We broke their set for passive instruction, a
set to do just as they are told, which is deeply
ingrained after a few years of formal education

(p. 14).
Whether or not students are aware of this advantage of self—
evaluation they find it more valuable than outside appraisal.

I think it should be a self—evaluation program.
I have a feeling that we'd be a lot more strict
and a lot more honest with ourselves than they
are with us. When you find you can get the
same amount of credit by studying the night
before a test and taking a test, I don't think
that's as honest as when you have to sit down

91

In front of the teacher and say, "I know this
about this, but I don' t know this about this.
I really don't think I' ve learned anything
and I'd like to do some more work. . . .

***

If I had been asked to evaluate myself in one
of my exam fields, Russian literature, I would
have said I haven't done enough work and I
really can't say that I've learned that much.
. . . However, I spent nine hours on the exam
and passed it so that I have the credit,al-
though I don't remember anything.

***
I don't think the college should be put in the
position of doing the certification. When you
evaluate yourself you're doing it on all sorts
of levels. You evaluate how much you know in
subject matter, then there's the area of growth
in being a sensitive,mature,individual in terms
of,I guess,your own criteria, or your Openness
to other ideas and to other feelings and reac-
tions. I think you can go through college
without ever having done that. And I think

it's just as important an aspect of education
as the technical fact knowledge.

* * *

For students committed to the independent way of
education, their strongest confidence in it stems from their
belief that it prepares them for the years to come. Some of
their unwillingness to be evaluated upon the completion of
particular projects is a reflection of their belief that
only the future will determine the success of the process
in which they have been involved. One student suggested
that evaluation be done in ten years, since the greatest

value to her is preparation for continued learning.

92

I have great faith that we'll be reading for
the next 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 years; whereas so
many peOple just leave and they don't pick up
a book because it's not required. . . . Like
I want to do a project this summer. Nobody
will see the project; but it's something I
really want to do.

Somehow these students, and they_are few, do not
feel they need faculty to provide their initiative and by
the same token are reluctant to turn to faculty for evalua-
tion. They are not sure that faculty even understand their
long-term,unstructured, interdisciplinary, attitudinal as
well as cognitive,goals. Hence, it seems inapprOpriate for
faculty to judge student success in attaining them--even in
their incipient stages. An indication of how little stu-
dents care about the value placed upon the credit process
in general can be seen in a statement made by a member of
the faculty of a college enrolling a group of very indepen-
dent students.

A growing number of students are asking for
radical alternatives. They'd like the option
of getting a certificate rather than a diploma.
It would certify only that they were here and

enrolled as students, to show that "we did our
thing."

W

The complexity of colleges and universities makes it
difficult to isolate particular institutional factors which
inhibit greater development of independent study, but we can
identify some deterrents. Administrators and faculty see

environmental factors, departmental autonomy, and unclear

93

objectives posing problems which work against the expansion
of opportunities for student self-direction.

Limited student use of available independent study
results from: an environment seen by students as alien;
apathy, insecurity and discouragement: and problems with
evaluation. Students most prepared for independent study
will not be satisfied until they are permitted to seek
self-selected goals by self-chosen means, culminating in

self-evaluation.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It has been the purpose of this study to identify
some factors which have inhibited the growth of independent
study in institutions of higher education in this country.
Past surveys of independent study practices have shown that
while they initially develOped as honors programs out of
concern for superior students, some soon offered Opportu-
nities to all students regardless of ability or class. The
present study confirms the existence of these Opportunities
in some institutions but demonstrates the limited use that
has been made of their potential. Even when made available,
an insignificant number of students take advantage of them.

A survey of literature and the questionnaire returns
indicate that little has been done to evaluate programs of
independent study or determine their cost. Even without
this information, it is generally presumed that self-
directed learning is a desirable academic innovation, but
one that is usually too expensive for heavy indulgence.

Most of the problems recognized in the early studies,
or implicit in them, persist, compounded by the increase in

the size of enrollment, institutional complexity, financial

94

95

hardship and growing student pressure for change. Objec-
tives remain unclear; departmental autonomy continues to
create disunity and prevent interdisciplinary programs:
the tutorial concept of independent study still finds
faculty too burdened to encourage student participation;
and an unfree environment proves a hostile climate for
the kind of flexibility self-directed learning requires.

Visits to institutions found little student in-
volvement because of: student apathy, insecurity, border—
ing on fear of self-direction, and discouragement with red
tape and prohibitions against what they consider true free-
dom. They found the environment, including faculty, little
calculated to encourage initiative, and the methods of
evaluating their occasional attempts at independent study,
unacceptable.

If independent study is to develop in institutions
of higher education, certain changes seem imperative.
Research accompanying attempts to initiate the following
would be essential:

l. Clearer objectives must be developed for independent
study, based on institutional objectives and pro-
viding evaluative criteria which can be applied to
assess the impact of such study.

2. Steps must be taken to create a freer total envi—
ronment within which independent study practices

can develOp--one which is not bound by credits,

96

superficial evaluation and grades. Although much
research has been done on environment, application
of the findings must be made to its effect on
independent study.

A regular curricular review should be made so that
in the various departments innovative practices such
as independent study may be: (a) based on common
institutional objectives, (b) evaluated in terms of
outcomes, and (c) considered in terms of financial
investment.

Ways should be found by which faculty not only agree
to sponsor independent study but stimulate the
apathetic to engage in it, encourage the fearful,
and allow a maximum of freedom to those prepared

to do it.

Faculty who more often than not come from a highly
structured and lecture-oriented background must be
prepared to guide students to increasing self-
direction through independent study.

Studies of student self-evaluation are needed to
determine the extent to which it can supplant
present grading systems.

Independent study must be distinguished from the
one to one teacher-student relationship of tuto-
rials. Based on a belief in a high potential for

student self-direction, independent study programs

10.

ll.

12.

97

must gradually wean students from faculty by early
orientation to independence and a sequence of in-
creasingly free activities. Only then can they be
evaluated in their own right.

Research is needed on the application of various
independent study techniques (individual and group)
to different ability groups.

Evaluation of independent study practices must be
so designed that the degree of their success is not
misrepresented by participants who are not prepared
for self—direction.

In order that college students may achieve a high
degree of self-direction, secondary education or
even lower levels of learning must begin the process
of developing independence. More research on
earlier use of independent study is necessary.

Cost studies must be done on independent study,

and cost and success of patterns which require less
faculty time than most tutorial systems requires
investigation.

The role of pass/fail grading, the interim program,
and off-campus field work in develOping self-
direction and introducing independent study

programs should be studied.

98

13. When, after the necessary orientation and develOp-
ment of self-direction, students are ready to spend
a complete term doing independent study, they should
be allowed to assume great responsibility in program
design and project selection.

14. Interdisciplinary independent study should be made
more available and its impact studied.

15. More experiments with group independent study should
be done with students who have already develOped a
facility for individual self-direction.

16. External degree programs and the use of the College
Level Examination Program should provide Opportuni-

ties for significant studies of self-direction.

We have waited nearly thirty years for the fulfill—
ment of Aydelotte's prediction that less rigid methods of
instruction would permeate the academic system and unless
there is more effort than is evident at present, we may well

wait another thirty years for its realization.

B IBLI OGRA PHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Aydelotte, Frank. Breaking the Academic Lock Step.
New YOrk: Harper & Bros., 1944.

Baskin, Samuel. "Independent Study Methods, Programs, and
For Whom?" in Current Issues ig,Hiqher Education.
Edited by G. Kerry Smith. Washington, D.C.:
Association for Higher Education, 1962.

Berelson, Bernard. Graduate Education in the United States.
New YOrk: McGraw—Hill Book Co., 1960.

Bonthius, Robert H., F. James Davis and J. Gerber Drushel.
The Independent Study_Program in the United States.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1957.

Brick, Michael, and Earl J. McGrath. Innovation in_Liberal
Arts Colleges. New York: Columbia University Press,
1969.

Campbell, Vincent H. Self Direction and Programmed
Instruction for Five Different Types g; Learning
Objectives, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, December, 1963.

 

Cole, Charles C., Jr., in COOperation with Lanora Lewis.
Flexibility in the Undergraduate Curriculum.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962.

Dearing, Bruce. "The Student On His Own: Independent
Study," in Higher Education: ggme Newer Developments.
Edited by Samuel Baskin. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1965.

. “Abuses in Undergraduate Teaching," in
TwentyrFive Years 1945-70. Edited by Kerry Smith.
San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, Inc., 1970.

Dressel, Paul L., Craig F. Johnson, and Philip M. Marcus.
The Confidence Crisis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
Inc., 1970.

 

99

lOO

Dressel, Paul L., and Frances H. DeLisle. Undergraduate
Curriruclum Trends. Washington, D.C.: American Council
on Education, 1969.

 

Feldman, Kenneth A., and Theodore M. Newcomb. The Impact 9;
College gg_Students. San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, Inc.,
1969.

 

Gruber, Howard E. The Farrand Hall Experiment. University
of Colorado Behavior Research Laboratory Report No. 1?.
Boulder, Colorado: University of Colorado, 1961.

Gruber, Howard E., and Morris Weitman. Self-Directed Study:
Experiment§_ig_Higher Education. University of Colorado
Behavior Research Laboratory Report No. 19. Boulder,
Colorado: University of Colorado, April, 1962.

Heath, Douglas H. Growing gp,ig_College. San Francisco:
Jossey—Bass, Inc., 1968.

Heist, Paul. The Creative College Student: Ag Unmet
Challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968.

 

Keppel, Francis. The Necessary Revolution ig_American
Education. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Lehman, I. J., and Paul L. Dressel. Critical Thinking,
Attitudes, and Values ig_Higher Education: Final
Report g: Cooperative Research Project N2. ggg,
East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1962.

 

Martin, William Bryant. Conformity. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1969.

McKeachie, W. J. "Research in Teaching at the College and

University Level," in Handbook gf_Research gg_Teachers.
Edited by N. L. Gage. New York: Rand McNally & Co.,
1963.

McKinnon, D. W. "Educating fOr Creativity: A Modern Myth?"
in The Creative College Student: Ag Unmet Challenge.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968.

Minter, John W., (ed.). The Individual and the System.
Boulder: Western Interstate Commission for Higher
Education, 1967.

Sanford, Nevitt, (ed.). The American College. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962.

101

"The Goal of Individual Development," in
Twenty-Five Years 1945-70. Edited by G. Kerry Smith.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1970.

Siegal, Laurence. "Implications of Recent Research," in
Learning and the Professors. Edited by Ohmer Milton
and E. J. Shoben, Jr. Athens: Ohio University Press,
1968.

Singletary, Otis A. (ed.). American Universities and
Colleges. Washington, D.C.: American Council on
Education, 1968.

Wallace, W. L. Peer Groups and Student Achievement: Egg
College Campus agg_;£§_5tudents. Report No. 91.
Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, University
of Chicago, 1963."

Publications

Aydelotte, Frank. "Honors Courses in American Colleges and
Universities," Bulletin g: the National Research Council,
VII, Part 4, NO. 40 (January, 1924), 9-18.

. "Honors Courses in American Colleges and
Universities," Bulletin gf the National Research Council,
X (April, 1925), 1-96.

Bloom, Benjamin S. "Learning for Mastery," Evaluation
Comment, Center for the Study of Evaluation of Instruc-
tional Programs, I, No. 2, Los Angeles, University of
California (May, 1968).

Bonthius, Robert H., F. James Davis and J. Gerber Drushel.
"Independent-Study Programs," The Journal gf_Higher
Education, XXV, NO. 8 (November, 1954), 411-416.

Felder, Dell. "Independent-Study Practices in Colleges and
Universities," The Journal gf_Higher Education, XXV,
NO. 6 (June, 1964), 335-338.

Hatch, Winslow R., and Ann Bennett. Independent Study.
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1960.

"On Independent Study," The Superior Student, III, No. 8
(December, 1960), 1-3.

102

Taylor, Mary Barbara, and J. H. Sinclair. "Honors Work in
Institutions Accredited by the American Association of
Universities," School and Society, XXXIII (February 14,
1931).

Umstattd, J. G. "The Prevalence and Practice Of Independent
Study," The Journal p§_Higher Education, VI (October,
1935), 364-376.

Unpublished

Churchill, Ruth. "Evaluation of Independent Study in
College Courses." Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1960.

Loughary, J. W; "Educational System Requirements and
Society." Address at Conference on Educational Infor-
mation System Requirements During the Next Decade,
University of Oregon, August, 1967.

APPENDIX I

INITIAL IDENTIFYING QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX I

INITIAL IDENTIFYING QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Our institution offers some form of independent study.*

Yes No

3. We agree to participate in the study. Yes No

3. Further correspondence concerning independent study can
be continued with

 

Name

 

Title

4. We are sending you our 1969-70 catalog and any informa-
tion we have concerning our program of independent study
or offerings in independent study. Yes No

 

 

*Independent study in this survey will refer to
offerings such as: research projects, experimental courses,
class attendance exemption, course waiver by special exam-
ination, independent reading, independent study groups,
computer-assisted instruction, programmed learning and any
other form of self—directed learning. It will pgp include
the usual class assignments such as term papers or reports.

103

APPENDIX II

THE UNDERGRADUATE AND INDEPENDENT STUDY:
CURRENT PRACTICES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

IN THE UNITED STATES

APPENDIX II

THE UNDERGRADUATE AND INDEPENDENT STUDY:
CURRENT PRACTICES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

INSTRUCTIONS: Enter the NUMBERS or CHECKMARKS (X) indicating your responses to the following items
on the lines provided in the right-hand margin. Do not enter any information in the shaded boxes.
Use the back page for additional comments if necessary. Your answers will be punched into IBM
cards, computer processed, and summarinzed along with the responses of all institutions completing
the questionnaire. Neither individual respondents nor institutions will be identified, unless used
as an example of an unusually effective program.

1. Independent Study is available in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._______ (9)

1. All departments
2. Only certain departments (If only in certain departments please check which ones.)

 

Business . . . . . . . . . . .____.———(10)
Education. . . . . . . . . . . _______(11)
Engineering. . . . . . . . . ._______.(12)
Fine Arts. . . . . . . . . . ._______(l3)
Humanities . . . . . . . . . ._______(lh)
Life Science . . . . . . . . . _______(l5)
Mathematics. . . . . . . . . ._______.(l6)
Physical Science . . . . . . ._______.(17)
Social Science . . . . . . . .._______(18)
Other (SPECIFY) Z%%%%%(l9-2S)

 

 

 

 

2. Independent Study is available to: (Check all applicable)

 

1. All seniors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._______(26)
2. Superior seniors only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._______(27)
3. All juniors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._______.(28)
A. Superior juniors only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._______(29)
5. All sophomores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _______(3o)
6. Superior sophomores only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .____.___(3l)
7. All Freshmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .________(32)
8. Superior freshmen only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .________(33)

(REMARKS) %%%%%é(3h)

   

 

 

 

3. Independent Study is reguired 0‘: (Check all applicable)

1. All seniors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (35)
2. Superior seniors only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (36)
3. All juniors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (37)
A. Superior juniors only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (38)
5. A11 sophomores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (39)
6. Superior sophomores only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (#0)
g. All freshmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (:1;
. Superior freshmen only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(REMARKS) Wm)

 

 

 

 

1(14

CD

105

Does Independent Study provide a sequence of experiences which place increased
demands on the student and provide increased opportunity for independent efforts

over the four year period? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _____(AA)
1. Yes
2.

No
(IF YEs, EXPLAIN How)

 

 

 

 

 

The percentage of graduating seniors who have participated in Independent Study

is approximately: (Put percentage on line). . . . . . . . . . ______(h6-h8)

The above percentage is based on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _____(A9)

1. Complete data
2. A systematic sampling
3. General estimate
(EXPLAIN IF NECESSARY) ( so)

 

 

 

Do you have a common procedure for introducing students to the concept of In-

 

 

 

 

 

dependent Study (personal responsibility, initiative, self—direction, etc. . . (51)
1. Yes
2 No , .
(REMARKS) -(52)
Independent Study projects include the following: (Check all applicable)
1. Independent reading aided by reading lists and study guides ______(53)
2. Independent study groups . . . . . . . . . . . _____.(5A)
3. Replacement of required courses with Independent study . . . . . . . . _____(55)
A. Independent research projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ______(56)
5. Community service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _____(57)
6. Study abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.Independentartprojects....
8. Independent laboratory experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Others (SPECIFY Y)

 

 

 

 

 

The objectives of Independent Study in our institution are: (Rank in order of
importance. EXAMPLE: If 'student acceleration' is the first objective, enter
a 2 on line 67.

1. Operational economy ____.(67)
2. Student acceleration .____(68)
3. Self—reliance and self—direction _____(69)
A. Development of continuing curiosity ______(70)

Other (SPECIFY AND RANK)

 

 

 

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(REMARKS)

 

 

 

 

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10. Selection of participants in Independent Study is based upon: (Check all applicable)

High school performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some form of intelligence test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
College grade-point average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evidence of student' 3 creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Student' 3 desire to participate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendation of high school principal or counselor . . . . . . . . .
College faculty or staff member's recommendation . . . . . . . . . . .
Other (SPECIFY)

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11. Concerning self-evaluation of our program of Independent Study, we have. . . .

1 Never attempted a formal evaluation
2. Tried unsuccessfully to formally evaluate it
3. Evaluated it with limited success
A. Evaluated it to our satisfaction
(REMARKS)

 

 

 

 

12. Studies have been made at our institution of: (Check all applicable)

1. Our college environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Our students' goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(REMARKS)

 

 

 

13. In studying the college environment, we used: (Check all applicable)

1. College Characteristics Index (CCI). . . . . . . . . . . .
2. College and University Environment Scales (CUES) . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Does not apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other (SPECIFY)

 

 

 

 

1h. We have studied the cost of Independent Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Yes
2. No

 

 

 

 

___(19)

,(20—21)

__ (29)

 

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15. We have found that Independent Study leads to. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._______(30)
1. An increase in expense
2. A decrease in expense
3. Some increase and some decrease
. NO change in expense
(REMARKs) -(31)
16. The increase in expense is found in the following areas: (Rank in order, from
greatest increase to least. EXAMPLE: If library expense has increased most,
enter a 2 on ling 32. All items need not be used.)
1. Faculty (32)
2. Library (33)
3. Laboratory equipment (3“)
A. Planning (35)
5. Facilities (36)
6. Program direction (37)
7. Program coordination (38)
Others (SPECIFY AND RANK) (39)
8. (A0)
9. (1+1)
10. (A2)
11. (A3)
12.
(nu-u7>
(REMARKS)
17. The decrease in expense is found in the following areas: (Rank in order, from
greatest decrease to least. EXAMPLE: If 'faculty’ expense has decreased most,
enter a 1 on line A8. All items need not be used.
1. Faculty (A8)
2. Library (A9)
3. Laboratory equipment (50)
A. Planning (51)
5. Facilities (52)
6. Program direction (53)
7. Program coordination (5A)
Others (SPECIFY AND RANK) (55)
8. 56)
9. (57)
10. (58)
11. (59)
12.
(REMARKS) (60-63)
18. Reports or informal summaries of evaluation studies are available in the following

areas and will be returned with this questionnaire.

. Effect of Independent Study on participants.
. Financial effect of Independent Study. . . .
College environment. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Student goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4:me

(Check all applicable)

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APPENDIX III

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES VISITED

APPENDIX III

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES VISITED

Antioch College
Yellow Springs, Ohio

Beloit College
Beloit, Wisconsin

Claremont Colleges
Claremont, California

Claremont Men's College
Scripps College

Pitzer College

Harvey Mudd College
Pomona College

Colby College
Waterville, Maine

Goucher College
Baltimore, Maryland

Grinnell College
Grinnell, Iowa

The Johns HOpkins University
Baltimore, Maryland

108

Oberlin College
Oberlin, Ohio

Reed College
Portland, Oregon

University of California
at Santa Cruz
Santa Cruz, California

Crown College
Merrill College
College V
Cowell College

University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado

University of the Pacific
Stockton, California

College of the Pacific
Raymond College
Callison College

Wesleyan College
Middletown, Connecticut

APPENDIX IV

INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR DIRECTORS OF INDEPENDENT

STUDY AND FACULTY MEMBERS

APPENDIX IV

INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR DIRECTORS OF INDEPENDENT

STUDY AND FACULTY MEMBERS

I. How extensive is the practice of Independent Study?
1. Regular program
1.1 All students?
1.11 All classes: seniors, juniors, etc.?
1.12 All ability levels--not limited to

superior students?

1.2 All departments and disciplines?
1.3 All faculty members?

2. Interim program, mid-term, mini-mester, etc.
2.1 All students?
2.11 All classes: seniors, juniors, etc.?

2.12 All ability levels--not limited to
superior students?

NNN
O
boob.)

All departments?
All faculty members?
Is its primary purpose independent study?

3. Honors program

What students?

What departments?

What faculty members?

Is its primary purpose independent study?

unnuaw
cswah‘

4. Experimental college

4.1 What students?

4.2 What departments?

4.3 What faculty members?

4.4 Is its primary purpose independent study?

109

7.

110

Senior project or tutorial

5.1

(n01m
91px)

What

What students?

What departments?

What faculty members?

Is its primary purpose independent study?

percentage of your graduating seniors have

participated in independent study?

What

percent of their senior program was made up

of independent study?

II. Basis of selection of students

8.

Qualifications

QCDGDQCDODm
\lO‘U‘lnhWNH

High school performance?

Intelligence quotient?

Grade point average?

Creativity?

Desire to participate?

Principal's or counselor's recommendation?
College faculty or staff member's recommendation?

(Does this match earlier comments on practice of
independent study in regard to open or closed
admission policy?)

III. Objectives of the program or practice of Independent
Study

10.

11.

12.

Have
with

10.1
10.2

10.3

What

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

HOW

objectives been formally stated and published
rationale and are they known to:

Faculty. Do they have a common understanding
Of what independent study means?

Students. Do they have a common understanding
of what independent study means?

Are faculty members for the most part committed
to independent study?

are the objectives?

Operational economy?

Student acceleration?

Self-reliance and self—direction?
Development of continuing curiosity?
Other?

are faculty and students introduced to the

Objectives and rationale for independent study?

IV.

111

12.1 Orientation meetings
12.11 Director?

12.12 Other?

12.2 Literature distribution?

12.3 Peer influence?

12.4 Informally by chance?

Kinds of Independent Study

13. What kinds of independent study projects are
included at your institution?

13.1 Independent reading aided by reading lists and
study guides?

13.2 Independent study groups?

13.3 Proficiency exams replacing required courses?

13.4 Independent research projects?

13.5 Community service?

13.6 Study abroad?

13.7 Independent projects in regular courses?

14. Is independent study restricted qualitatively or
quantitatively?

14.1 Is it limited to electives?

14.2 Is it permitted only when courses are not
available?

14.3 Is the number Of courses per semester, per year
or per student limited?

14.4 Is credit allotment restricted; or are faculty
members permitted to allot a number of credits
apprOpriate to completed work?

15. Does independent study provide a sequence of
experiences which place increased Opportunity for
independent efforts over a four-year period?

16. Are so-called independent projects so structured
that they really do remain independent?

17. By the senior year, is a significant part of the
student's time spent in independent study or is it
limited to two or three courses?

Evaluation
18. Have you ever evaluated your program of Independent

Study?

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4

Did

Never?

112

Tried unsuccessfully?
Limited success?
To your satisfaction?

as well as the outcomes?

you evaluate the process of independent study

Do you feel that the environment of the institution
influences independent study?

20.1 Positively?
20.2 Negatively?

Have you found that independent study leads to a
change in expense?

21.1

21.2

Increase?

21.11
21.12
21.13
21.14
21.15
21.16
21.17

Faculty?

Library?

Laboratory equipment?
Planning?
Facilities?

Program direction?
Program coordination?

Decrease?

21.21
21.22
21.23
21.24
21.25
21.26
21.27

Faculty?

Library?

Laboratory equipment?
Planning?
Facilities?

Program direction?
Program coordination?

What problems have you encountered
study?

in independent

What problems do you anticipate in independent
study?

What do you see as the most important outcomes of
independent study at your institution?

What do you see as the future of independent study
in your institution?

APPENDIX V

INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR STUDENTS

APPENDIX V

INTERVIEW OUTLINE FOR STUDENTS

How extensive is the practice of Independent Study?
1. Regular program
1.1 All students?
1.11 All classes: seniors, juniors, etc.?
1.12 All ability levels--not limited to

superior students?

1.2 All departments and disciplines?
1.3 All faculty members?

2. Interim program, mid-term, mini-mester, etc.
2.1 All students?
2.11 All departments?

2.12 All ability levels--not limited to
superior students?

2.2 All departments?
2.3 All faculty members?
2.4 Is its primary purpose independent study?

3. Honors program

3.1 What students?

3.2 What departments?
3.3 What faculty members?
3.4 Is its primary purpose independent study?

4. Experimental college

1 What students?

2 What departments?

3 What faculty members?

4 Is its primary purpose independent study?

huh-hub

113

114

Senior project or tutorial

What students?

What departments?

What faculty members?

Is its primary purpose independent study?

II. Knowledge of and interest in Independent Study

6.

Personal knowledge of and interest in independent
study.

6.1 How much of your program has been made up of
independent study?

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.11 As a freshman?

6.12 As a SOphomore?

6.13 As a junior?

6.14 As a senior?

Have the Objectives, rationale and regulations

concerning independent study been clear to you?

6.21 Did you know the objectives of indepen—
dent study from your first year at the
college?

6.22 Did you know when and why you were
eligible to participate?

What are the Objectives of the program as you

know it?

6.31 Operational economy?

6.32 Student acceleration?

6.33 Self-reliance and self-direction?

6.34 DevelOpment of continuing curiosity?

6.35 Other?

How were you introduced to the objectives and

rationale for independent study?

6.41

6.42
6.43
6.44

Orientation meetings

6.411 With the director?
6.412 With the faculty member?
6.413 Other?

Literature distribution?
Fellow students, formally?
Fellow students, by chance?

III.

115

7. General student knowledge of and interest in
independent study

7.1 How many of your friends are participating in
independent study?

7.2 Do you know students who are doing much of or
most of their study independently?

7.3 Do students, to your knowledge, react to the
idea of independent study?

7.31 With enthusiasm?

7.32 With general acceptance?
7.33 With toleration?

7.34 With disinterest?

7.4 Do you feel that most students are aware of the
possibility Of participating in independent
study?

7.5 Do you feel that most students have a clear
idea of the objectives and rationale of
independent study?

Kinds Of Independent Study
8. What kinds of independent study projects are in-
cluded at your institution?

8.1 Independent reading aided by reading lists
and study guides?

8.2 Independent study groups?

8.3 Proficiency exams replacing required courses?

8.4 Independent research projects?

8.5 Community service?

8.6 Study abroad?

8.7 Independent projects in regular courses?

9. Is independent study restricted qualitatively or
quantitatively?

9.1 Is it limited to electives?

9.2
3

9.
9.4

Is it permitted only when courses are not
available?

Is the number of courses per semester, per year
or per student limited?

Is credit allotment restricted; or are faculty
members permitted to allot a number of credits
apprOpriate to completed work?

IV.

116

10. Does independent study provide a sequence of
experiences which place increased Opportunity for
independent efforts over a four-year period?

11. Are so-called independent projects so structured
that they really do remain independent?

12. By the senior year, is a significant part Of the
student's time spent in independent study or is it
limited to two or three courses?

Evaluation

13. Is there any special advantage or disadvantage of
independent study to you?

13.1 Advantage?
13.2 Disadvantage?

14. Do you think the climate here affects the practice
of independent study?

14.1 Postively?
14.2 Negatively?

15. What do you think of the future possibilities of
independent study at this institution?

         
  

      

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