ABSTRACT

REYNARD THE on: THE EVOLUTION
OF HIS CHARACTE' IN SELECT
MEDIEVAL BEAST EPICS
By

Diederik Lodewijk Spillemaeckers

The purpose of this dissertation is to determine

and investigate the Verwandlungen of Reynard the fox in

 

selected pieces of medieval literature. This exploration

is limited to five carefully selected and representative

works of the Beast Epic. They are:

I.

II.

lsengrimus, by Magister Nivardus: This work was

 

written in Latin hexameters ca. 1150. It is the
earliest known work in which the fox receives the
proper name of Reynard and where the characteristic
opposition between the fox and Isengrimus is
crystallized.

Li Plaid, or Branch I of the Roman de Renart cycle

 

according to E. Martin, is the first of the chosen
works in a vernacular. It is dated ca. 1179. This
work was selected because of its close thematic

relationship to a number of Isengrimus episodes and

Diederik Lodewijk Spillemaeckers

because it serves as a fountainhead for subsequent
vernacular versions.

III. Van den Vos Reinaerde: a free translation and

 

expansion of Li Plaid. It centers on "Le Jugement

 

de Renard." This early Middle Dutch contribution

was written ca. 1250 and is the work which contributed
much to making Reynard a popular figure in literature
and folklore. In effect, the properties of this
particular literary work reestablish or revive the
interest in the Beast Epic and determine the content
of later versions.

IV. Reinaerts Historie: a continuation of Van den Vos

 

 

Reinaerde, incorporates the earlier work with

 

alterations and adds approximately U300 new lines

beyond its predecessor's close. The attitude and

language found in the continuation of 1375 differ

significantly from those of the first Middle Dutch
work. I will primarily be concerned with the new

portion.

V. The History of Reynard the fox, a translation of one

 

of the editions of Reinaerts Historie is relatively

 

close to its Dutch source, but illustrates some of

the differences language can make.

These then are the five selected items. I have
purposely chosen works which are closely allied to one
another because in this fashion differences, which occur

in the comparable parts of the works, are more apt to

Diederik Lodewijk Spillemaeckers

reflect changing

attitudes which are purposely incorporated
than incidental or haphazard changes. In trying to illus-
trate how and in what direction these changes move, I

»rbitrarily selected a number of important topics which

{3

1

make up the literary personage of Reynard. These include
the fox's background and nature (as an animal), the impor—

tance of the changing epic structure to his Verwandlungen,

 

his reflective or introspective attitudes which reveal his

"social" nature. From this point I proceed to a related
topic, the religious nature of Reynard; I then treat the
sensual aspects of the literary personage and include a

rather important section on the effect of language in the

ct. The cunning of

(D

*3
m

interpretation of this parti ula sp

O

(T

S

F
m

Reynard makes up the chapter in the body of the work.
It serves mainly as a reference point to draw together all
the foregoing features of this character by means of a
common bond: the dominant characteristic of cunning. An
epilogue then follows to suggest how this particular genre
appears to be related to a subsequent literary phenomenon,
the picaresque.

In all these chapters, I assume a general familiarity
with the works concerning Reynard the fox. I have, however,
always endeavored to give the reader some sort of reference
point to allow easy comprehension of the particular aspect

in question. To do this, I have purposely selected a

limited number of examples to be treated. These deal

Diederik Lodewijk Spillemaeckers

primarily with the episodes leading up to and including
the court day of Reynard the fox. The element of
repetition therefore hopefully serves to point out the

Verwandlungen as well as helping the reader to follow

 

through the different versions. For example, in treating
the cunning of Reynard, I make a comparative evaluation
of specific parts in each of the five works and suggest
what it illustrates concerning the evolution of Reynard.
After analyzing the foregoing aspects, I arrived at
the following conclusions concerning Reynard: That there
was definitely an evolution, and that this evolution
reflected the changing attitudes of the dominant social

strata for which each work has been written. In Isengrimus,

 

Reynard reflected the clerical tone of the work. In
Li Plaid, Reynard had sensual-chivalric connotations. In

Van den Vos Reinaerde, he becomes a more independent burger,

 

and finally in Reinaerts Historie and its English trans-

 

lation, he reflects typical bourgeois viewpoints.

REYNARD THE FOX: THE EVOLUTION
OF HIS CHARACTER IN SELECT

MEDIEVAL BEAST EPICS

By

Diederik Lodewijk Spillemaeckers

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Comparative Literature Program

1970

;)Copyright by

DIEDERIK LODEWIJK SPILLEMAECKERS

1970

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

I. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BACKGROUND OF THE
FOX CHARACTER . . . . . . . . .

II. STRUCTURAL FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE
EVOLUTION OF REYNARD . . . . . .

III. THE INTROSPECTIVE ASPECTS OF REYNARD THE FOX
IV. THE RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES OF REYNARD THE FOX
V. THE SENSUAL ATTITUDES OF REYNARD THE FOX

VI. THE CUNNING OF REYNARD THE FOX

EPILOGUE

LIST OF REFERENCES

ii

iii

17
145
77
101:

130

165
176

INTRODUCTION

The fox as a subject of man's imagination can be
traced back as far as written records allow, and at an
even earlier place in time, the fox or fox-like figure
(one which survives by cunning and trickery) can be found
in the oral tradition of almost every culture. The
character is encountered on various levels of man's
consciousness, in such manifestations as totem figures in
various religious or clan tales or as a subject of fables.
He is also encountered in the medieval fabliaux, bestiaries,

and in Physiologus.l

 

In all these literary and nonliterary (folkloric)
forms, the characterizations have a number of things in
common, of which the most outstanding is of course
"foxiness," but there are also a great number of differences

in the light by which the fox is seen. In Physiologus, for

 

example, where he is.interpreted symbolically or tropol-
ogically, he has very definite evil, satanic connotations.2
In the other treatments, different characteristics are

expressed.

 

lAdolf Graf, Die Grundlagen des Reineke Fuchs, Eine
vergleichende Studie, in FF Communications, VII,
No. 38, Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki, 1920.
2William Rose, The Epic of the Beast, George
Routledge & Sons, Ltd., London, p. 191.

 

 

 

iii

From the two thousand or more years that the
literature of the fox has existed in written form, I
have selected for study a period of a little more than
three hundred years in medieval Europe, during which the
fox became the proverbial Reynard.3 It is also in the time
span between 1000 A.D. and 1500 A.D. that this product of
man's imagination became an important subject of signifi-
cant and valuable literary works. In the course of these
500 years, the now literary personage also reaches the
apex of its quality and popularity.

In this same period (1000-1500 A.D.) tremendous
cultural and social changes took place in Europe. I would
like to illustrate through a series of comparative,
chronological, literary sketches of the Reynard character-
ization how these social upheavals changed and influenced
the imaginative conception of Reynard, the character as
he is absorbed by various classes. With this in mind, I
will attempt to show what this particular fox was in his
early mature Latin stage under clerical satiric "direction"
(in Flanders); then his change in manner as he moved into
the vernaculars, first with regard to an early aristocratic
French romance ("Branche I" of the Roman de Renard cycle),
then in his return to the Low Countries where the bourgeois

class fits him for another suit of clothes or at least

 

3This is literally true as well as figuratively since
in the French language the word renard, because of the
popularity of the Beast Epic, has actually replaced gouoil.

iv

brings about major alterations in his old one. Finally,
I would like to use a late Middle English translation
from Dutch (the Caxton version) to illustrate what the
satiric character has become at the end of this part of

his Verwandlung.

 

I say "this part" because after the 15th century
Reynard still continued to change, but not in the same
way. Slowly he seems to slip back into the folkloric-
fable—Marchen setting from which he came. The reasons
for this literary degradation are not at all simple. One
can in part attribute the regression to the censorship
imposed on the Spanish Netherlands (Flanders and Brabant)

by the Inquisition, for Reynard the Fox was one of the

 

works listed in the Index librorum prohibitorum (Antwerp,

 

1570).“ The action may account for the later reduction
or deletion of invectives against the Church.

In the Northern Netherlands (Holland) under the
influence of a different religious outlook (Protestantism),
the Beast Epic underwent yet another evolution. Here the
fox becomes the subject of sermons and each of his adven-
tures is followed by moralizing glosses. This is very

evident in Heinrich van Alkmaar's Reinke de Vos.5

 

 

”w. Rose., p. XXXV.

5Dr. D. C. Tinbergen, De Nederlandse Literatuur in
de Middeleeuwen, N. V. Service, Den Haag, 1937, p. 29.

 

By the twentieth century, Heynard in Europe is tongue
tied or at least labially crippled. His messages no longer
contain the same amount of vitriolic satiric invective.

His adventures are at present but shadows of the early
medieval episodes. They are now moral tales for children.
For this reason I have selected the medieval part of the
evolution of Beynard for my study, since it is here that
the central, pivotal changes take place.

Since it is not possible to utilize all or even most
of the works dealing with Eeynard to show the changes in
his characterization and likewise in the nature of the
Beast Epic, I have selected a relatively small number of
works for this study. The selection of these works has
been a difficult problem. In the hope of making the study
as meaningful as possible, I have first eliminated those
works which form off—shoots from the main trunk, such as

Reinhart Fuchs, Le Couronnement de Renart, Renart le

 

 

Contrefait, a number of ununified French branches, and the

 

T

English 0f the Vox and of the holf and The Nonne Preestes

 

 

Tale by Chaucer. I do not wish to imply that these pieces
are of less literary merit; they simply do not form part
of the main stream.

After many considerations, I have arrived at what I

consider to be the five core works of the medieval evolution

 

6This slow erosion of literary value is already
manifest in the last two renditions to be studied in this
dissertation, i.e. Caxton's version and its Middle Dutch
source.

vi

of the Beast Epic. These works not only have individual
literary merit, but also form a chronological chain
because in drawing on only a single tradition, one may
attribute most of the changes, occurring in the successive
works, to the author's conscious or unconscious renovation
of characters and situations to bring the Beast Epic up to
date. Also, since all of these individual works were
relatively popular in the social strata for which they
were designed they must, in part at least, reflect concepts
or make criticisms that are real and acceptable to the
audience of that period.

The five chosen works are also spaced at relatively
large chronological intervals (ca. 1149, ca. 1179, ca. 1250,
ca. 1350, 1481) so that any change in the characterization

7
or the temper of the work will hopefully be more evident.’

w

Isengrimu he

“Li

m
d

irst work to be studied, represents

3

‘ase in the evolution of the

H
“C
:3

the religious "clerica

Beast Epic, and is also the earliest extant epic work in

 

7Tinbergen, pp. 27-30. Helga Jauss—Meyer, Le Roman
de Renart, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Manchen, 1965, p. 7. It
will be noted that the time intervals grow continually as
the year 1500 approaches. In my opinion, this is because
society tends to become more conservative when it is
bourgeois; therefore, fewer alterations or reworkings are
necessary to keep the spirit of the work up to date, i.e.
the social structural patterns which are reflected in
literature to some extent seem to be evolving more slowly
after 1250 in western Europe.

 

 

vii

which the fox receives the given name Reynard.8 It was
written by a Magister Nivardus ca. 1149—1152 near Ghent
in Flanders and is composed of 6,574 lines in Latin
hexameters according to the best manuscript. It is the
first work which attempts to weld the various adventures,
which must have already been circulating in popular tales,
into a unified narrative. A singular effect produced by
the combination of formal Latin meter and ludicrous
popular vignettes involving vilains, serves to heighten
the irony and satire. The narrative locates the adventures
in a real geographical setting which is obviously the
Flemish countryside as identified by such saints' names
as Pharaildis and Aldrada.9

Next I would like to focus on a vernacular branch

known as Li Plaid (or Branch I of the Roman de Renart).

 

It is one of the earlier French contributions (1179) and
is important because of its intrinsic literary value as

well as its function as a source for subsequent Flemish

10

contributions. This Middle French poem of 1618 rhyming

 

8

In addition to a number of other reasons, this was
one of the main factors in considering this Latin poem as
my point of departure since it is here that the epic of
Reynard actually begins.

9Dr. J. Van Mierlo, Het vroegste Dierenepos in de
Letterkunde der Nederlanden, N. V. Standaard—Boekhandel,
Gent, 1943, p. 13.
10The other numerous French branches lack the literary
unity that this work has, and perhaps it is in part for
this reason that subsequent Flemish poets selected Li Plaid
as a source for their efforts.

 

 

viii

lines11 is the source for the Middle Dutch romance Vanden

Vos Reynaerde written ca. 1250 by "Willem die Madoc maecte."

 

That Dutch "translation" freely expands the 1618 lines of

Li Plaid, and the Comburg Manuscript gives us a narrative
l2

 

(or fragment) of 3,472 rhymed lines. It is with this
version of Reynard the fox that the Beast Epic becomes most
popular, as is attested by the honor done to it between
1269 and 1272 by Baldwinus Iuvenus who translated it into
Latin, adding only short passages of commentary.13 This
Dutch poem is the third version of the Reynard saga which

I will examine.

As with many other medieval narratives, such as those
of the Grail cycle, continuations followed. Around 1350 or
1375, another Flemish poet increased the work to 7,816
rhyming lines or 7,794 lines excluding the prologue.lu In
this dissertation the emphasis will be on lines 3,489 and

following. This version, which is the fourth work I will

examine, includes a number of embellishments, especially

 

11For the purposes of this dissertation, I will use
the Li Plaid version of E. Martin as it is available to me
through Helga Jauss-Meyer. One could also use Mario Roques,
ed., Le Roman de Renart, Premiere Branche, Librairie
Ancienne Honoré Champion, Paris, 1948.

12Dr. P. De Keyser, Van den Vos Reynaerde, Klassieke
Galerij No. 8, De Nederlandsche Boekhandel, Antwerpen, 1965.

 

 

13Donald B. Sands, The History of Reynard the Fox,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1960,
p. 26.

luF. C. Willems, Reinaert de Vos, F. en E. Gyselynck,
Gent, 1836.

 

ix

in the second half, drawing on later French branches of

the Roman de Renart, for example Branch VI. It is essen—

 

tially from this work, entitled Reinaerts Historie that

 

William Caxton made his translation. Of course, one cannot
be absolutely certain whether the Englishman drew directly
on a poetic manuscript or translated the later slavish

prose edition of Reinaerts Historie printed at Gouda in

 

1479. (This work appeared under the title Die Historie

 

van Reynaert die Vos.) My study of Reynard's Verwandlung

 

 

will then terminate with William Caxton's translation
The Historye of Reynart the foxe, published in 1481 in
England.

These then are the works with which I will deal.15
All, it will be noted, are direct descendants from one

another, with the possible exception of the singular

Isengrimus, which has been denied as a direct source of

 

any of the others by such eminent scholars as Voretzsch

and Van Mierlo.l6 I do not entirely accept the validity

of their argument; in my opinion there are some underlying
structural parallels (to be discussed below) which indicate
that a strong probability does exist for a structural

affinity between this Latin poem and the subsequent

renditions. For this reason, I intend to include Isengrimus

 

15In selecting the editions, I have tried to use
standard texts.

l6Van Mierlo, p. 100.

in the chronological chain of works. However, it is not
necessary to found my comparison on the assumption of
derivation, since the analysis is based on a chronological
gradation and the corresponding changes in social class
which occur within the given time span. Hence, the
relationships between the works themselves will not form
the sole criteria for comparison.

Nevertheless it is of value to have a common denomi-
nator wherever possible. Because of the inferred structural
similarity it will not be necessary to account for as many
variables, i.e. explanations will not have to be made
concerning significance of plot congruencies or analogies.
If the plot remains generally the same, one can concentrate
on the changes in the manner of execution to determine
difference in outlook. Since this genre did remain long
popular because of its updating,17 it should be relatively
easy to note most internal changes in sentiment because the
basic structure remained the same.

The manner in which the central character of the fox
represents the varying points of view of the authors, then,
will be my focal point, but there are a number of other
factors which will contribute to the changing Gestalt of
Reynard in the reader's mind; for example, the place and

dominance of secondary characters with respect to Reynard.

 

l7Tinbergen, p. 29.

xi

It is obvious, even from the title of the first work,

Isengrimus, that the fox has not yet achieved dominance,

 

as a literary focal point, over the wolf. In Van den

VOS Eeinaerde, however, he stands alone above all the other
characters. He is in no way "dependent" upon them, whereas
by the time of the later continuations he becomes subservient
to such characters as Dame Rukenau from whom he accepts

advice in order to retain his skin. In Isengrimus, although

 

it is not as flagrant as in later works, his slyness is
already uncontested. Reynard's domination of the plot as
the central character, then, is already one major factor
by which to determine the changing conception of Reynard
himself.

If, as I believe, the different authors of the
numerous Reynard tales are often addressing different
social classes, how then does each class-—the clergy, the
aristocracy, the bourgeoisie--view him? What aspect of
his basic "nature" do they alter or elaborate on? How
does one evaluate the following interesting phenomenon?
As the Beast Epic evolves and adresses itself to lower
classes its artistic quality in general also tends to
decline after 1250. Is this phenomenon related to language
or to the social level, i.e. the outlook of the class
itself? Is the characterization of Reynard influenced by
the language in which he is portrayed? Does the Latin

dialogue of Isengrimus differ in mood from the dialogues

 

xii

of the French and later versions? Does the language, in
effect, create a different milieu in which the character

is set? In my opinion, all these ideas have some pertinence
and they will be explored.

In summary, I WiSh to outline the manner in which I
intend to structure my analysis of Reynard's changing
character.

1. I will present a brief introduction to the ecology
of the fox and the connotations he conjures up in men's
mind. That is, what does one think of when the word "fox"
is mentioned and how important is this to the understanding
of the epic?

2. I will give skeletal outlines of the five works
which form the material of my analysis. These outlines
will indicate structural similarities in order to establish
a sounder basis for my comparison. Since some of these
works are too extensive to be compared in their entirety,
only portions of them will be utilized in the comparative
analysis—-for example, only the first third of Isengrimus
(2,948 lines, the section leading up to the situation at
the court of King Rufanus) will be used. From the first
branch of the French Reynard cycle, according to Roques,

I have selected Li Plaid since it also leads up to a court

 

judgment. The same is true of the subsequent three works.
The reason for selecting those sections which focus on the

court-day are twofold. First, they form one of the oldest

xiii

and most dramatically unified segments of the traditional
epic. The theme involving the fox's appearance at court
is even treated in Aesop's fables.l8 Secondly, they build
to a fine climax in which to analyze Reynard's character
and the authors' approach.

3. I will analyze the episodes which compose these

selected passages, following through those elements which

seem most significant in illustrating character Verwandlungen.

 

I will always endeavor to do this on the basis of linear
structure so that the plot will also be apparent to the
reader in‘a relatively clear manner. Such elements as
repetition, embellishment, addition, deletion, irony,
sarcasm, satire, language, and the respective amounts of
similar literary modes and mechanisms will be used in
evaluating the changes.

4. There will be a final section on what Reynard's
position may be in literature when compared to some of his
human counterparts such as the picaresque hero.

The above points summarize what I will attempt to
accomplish. The following state what will fall outside
the scope of this dissertation.

1. There will be no expanded critique or literary

evaluation of the works themselves.

 

18Ben Edwin Perry, Babrius and Phaedrus, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1965, pp. 473-74 and
591-93. ‘

 

xiv

2. The reasons for structural or episodic organization
will be touched upon only in passing.

3. The works outside the scope of the five selected
European epics will not be used as evidence to determine
major points of alteration (such as a thematic source of

Reinaerts Historie, Branch VI of Le Roman de Renard).

 

 

4. No extensive attempt will be made to examine how
folk fantasy and folk empiricism lend veracity (veri-
similitude) and interest to the literary manifestation.

5. The discussion of Reynard's characterization will
not touch on all aspects of his makeup, but only on those
which form major points of value in the comparative
analysis.19

6. For the purpose of this study no portions of the
works other than those which illustrate new developments
or changes will be emphasized, irrespective of their
relative literary importance.

7. Sources of the Beast Epic will not be traced
through, nor will the etymological derivation of these
animal names be discussed.

8. I will not develop comparisons outside the scope

.of Western European literary traditions, nor will I

explore folkloric analogies to any extent.

 

191 do not intend to be arbitrary, but it is impossible
to discuss all the suggestions and implications relating to
the various facets of this characterization.

XV

CHAPTER I

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BACKGROUND

OF THE FOX CHARACTER

Before one can critically analyze a creation like
Reynard as a part of the Beast Epic tradition, one must
understand what the fox symbolized for the society in
which he became a literary figure. Around and within the
literary image of Reynard, there always seems to lurk the

living fox: Vulpus vulpus.l This creature of nature

 

continually colors the literary picture. In fact, one's
determination or evaluation of the literary character is

for a great part dependent on the picture the word "fox"
conjures up, even before one opens a volume. This must

have been just as true in the Middle Ages since it is
recognized that medieval artists were "subtle and sympathetic
observers of animal life, near relations to the trouveres

who drew the portraits of Reynard and Isengrin so faith—

fully, . . ."2

 

lWithin my experience when reading about Reynard in his
various forms, it has been extremely difficult at times to
bear in mind only what the author has written about the
character; invariably the image is sharpened for me by my
knowledge of the fox as an animal.

2Emile Male, The Gothic Ima e, Harper Torchbooks,
Harper & Row, New York, 1958, p. 5

 

It will be noted that certain of the real animal's
actions and qualities help to lend an air of expectation3
and sometimes further the plot of the Beast Epic. The
author's task was also lightened and enriched in that he
only had to describe a limited number of Reynard's
morphological peculiarities so the literary picture
remained sharp, unblurred by an overabundant amount of
detracting detail, the general aspects of the fox being
already well known to most readers.“ Such general know—
ledge as his notoriety for being a chicken thief in reality,
has established certain standard attributes for him in
literature.5
Among other peculiarities, the fox of all the
canidae is the most catlike in his habits. Unlike the
wolf he seldom hunts or gathers in packs, and to obtain
food he relies on craft and stealth, rather than other
hunting attributes such as speed, endurance and strength.

Again, these natural behavioral features become part of

the literary character. In fact, a striking part of

 

3For example, if there exist a possibility whereby
the fox can extricate himself from a dangerous situation,
combining his cunning and the ignorance of other animals,
the reader is almost invariably looking forward to the
manner by which the fox will accomplish this.

“When speaking of the readers or audience, I always
imply those of the Middle Ages unless otherwise specified.

5These attributes can be seen in the iconography of
the fox. cf. Kenneth Varty, Reynard the Fox, A Study of
the Fox in Medieval English Art. Leicester University
Press, 1967, Great Britain.

 

 

Reynard is that he most often seems to stand alone and
live "alone." (This is particularly so in the five works
which I have selected for discussion.) Besides his
immediate family, little counts; blood ties are all that
are honored although even blood relationships cease to
count because of his practicality. (De Keyser, 2141-2798).

Let us consider another aspect. The antics which he
goes through in the process of getting food often provide
the bridges which lead from one episode to the next. His
cunning in these interludes is sometimes combined with
sinister or sadistic comic relief. This fox in literature,
after having achieved his goal, not only rubs salt in the
wounds but pepper as well. Again, one can see how the
author expands on the traditionally accepted cunning of
the fox. However, there always remains an element of

practicality within the animal. In Van den Vos Reinaerde,

 

for example, while Bruun the bear is trapped by a split
log and being beaten by the villagers, the fox uses the
opportunity to steal a chicken, thereby showing that he
even uses the victims of his tricks to further serve a
practical purpose.

To indicate that in the documented behavior of the
fox his actions are no less incredible, I give a true
account of vulpine cunning which adequately conveys this
animal's learning capacity. While watching a fox hunt

from a hill one individual recounts the following. I

paraphrase: The fox was running quite a bit ahead of a
pack of hounds and the mounted hunters were again as far
behind the pack. When the fox came to a high stone fence
he passed through the gateway and ran parallel with the
fence for about two hundred feet. He then jumped on top
of it and crawled back to the same gateway and waited
until the last dog had passed by; he then jumped down on
the other side and backtracked the way he had come. While
the hounds were circling where the fox had crawled up the
fence, this "Reynard" ran right through the oncoming pack
of hunting horses and across a highway. Before the
hunters could round up the hounds and turn their horses,
the fox was gone.6 Such an example certainly illustrates
the more than human "nervy" nature of this creature.

The wily adaptability of the literary Reynard seems
again to be a reflection of reality. Scientifically it
has been stated that this is the main reason why the red
fox has been able to bear the changes which men wrought on
the European continent, better than any other mamalian
predator in the last 2,000 years. In his changing ecosystem
he has continually adapted to man's imposed restrictions
and come out ahead. Even though the present forests are
much smaller, the fox still manages to subsist. Remaining

in his underground den during the day, he comes out at

 

6Leonard Lee Rue, Sportsman's Guide to Game Animals,
Harper & Row, 1968, New York, pp. 125-26.

 

night to hunt.7 The shyness of this creature has not,
however, interfered with his intrepid nature for when he
does appear during the day one sees that he can still
lead man a merry chase. As in reality the fictional
Reynard is always suspicious or wary; the result is that
he seldom advertises his presence.

These patterns are presented in the episodes of the
beast fables and seem to form an inherent segment of the
lesson which the author wishes to impart to the reader:
"trust no one." This of course is not unusual. Medieval
scholars often preferred to draw on the exempla or use
symbols "offered" by God through nature. Medieval man's
avid symbol-searching was presumably initiated to offer an
opportunity for insight into the theological mysteries of
the divine Being through which man can obtain grace. But
at times, the significance given to these creatures, which
God so kindly supplied to teach man, seems anything but
obvious or logical judging by such medieval works as

Physiologus. The religious connotations which are given to

 

these creatures are often extraordinary and/or very
contrived. In the aforementioned work, for example, the
description of the Phoenix rising from its ashes is

equated with the resurrection of Christ.8 The pelican

 

7Desmond Morris, The Mammals, A Guide to Living
Species, Harper & Row, New York, 1965, p. 259.

8

 

Rose, pp. 222-24.

puncturing the skin of its side to revive its young with
its own blood is equated with Christ's sacrifice on the
cross to give man eternal life through the redeeming blood
shed by Him.9

Among these almost apocalyptic descriptions, it is
not surprising to find an interpretation of the fox along
similar symbolic lines, and even here some of his
"traditional" attributes are conveyed. He is described
as a very crafty animal and in the example given to

illustrate this slyness, one discovers a strong similarity

with the episode in Reynard the fox (Caxton edition) where

 

Reynard rolls on his back, holds his breath and bloates
his body so that he may appear long dead. The birds
believing that he is actually dead descend to eat him,

but are in turn dispatched and eaten.10 Physiologus further

 

equates this creature's slyness with that of the devil and,
therefore, also suggests an association with covetousness,
lust, and murder. A final scriptural insert from Luke 13,
32 where Herod is equated with a fox, is included.11

One might say that in Physiologus the fox received

 

his first series of anthropomorphic connotations which

 

9

10This vignette is also found in a Latin bestiary of
the 12th century. cf. T. H. White, The Book of Beasts being
a Translation from a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century,

G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1954, pp. 53-54.
11

Rose, pp. 229-30.

Rose, p. 191.

associates his slyness with that of the devil and evil
man.12 I refer to this characterization as "he" rather
than "it" because I believe the authors of the later
literary versions of Reynard intended him to be a literary
character as well as a personification of evil or good.

As the degree of anthropomorphism increases he does

become more "human" in deed and in fact.

If one analyzes the above "revelation" of the fox,
one can see how this personification spills over into
literature to form a foundation for Reynard's literary
being. In fact, in the course of this study, it will be
noted that aside from the changes which Reynard undergoes
during the chronological course of these five literary

works, there always remains a common ground with regard

to his real precursor, Vulpus vulpus. Reynard, therefore,

 

is a complex compound character. He is at once both real
and imaginary and this to my point of view illustrates
that Reynard the fox must in part be derived from folklore
and its ancient source, the observation of nature.

With this in mind I present reasons why I believe
the fox and therefore Reynard, received demoniac attributes
during the Middle Ages. The satanic implications regarding
the fox in literature have already been touched upon in the

discussion of Physiologus. This tradition is also continued

 

 

12It is perhaps significant that the fox in Physiologus
is referred to as "he" rather than "it."

in the later medieval bestiaries.l3 The fact that the fox
is a nocturnal creature and lives in a hole in the ground
also conjures up pictures of Satan, Hades, or Plutus. All
these spirits presumably live deep within the bowels of
the earth and all, especially Plutus, and Satan who may
have inherited this aspect from him, are said to know the
whereabouts of great underground treasures. This is
confirmed since Plutus is popularly said to be the God of

Wealth.lu

So it is not surprising that an author when creating
adventures about Reynard should at some point develop an
episode containing conscious or unconscious symbolism,
concerning a fabulous buried treasure which the fox knows
about. The author of Van den Vos Reinaerde invents exactly
such an episode, departing at this point from his French
precursors in doing so. Did the author create this myth
of Ermeric's treasure because it seems possible, logical,
or even credible to associate the fox with this subter-
ranean demoniac attribute? It seems probable, though
hardly subject to proof.

There are other indications which reinforce the
analogy between the devil and Reynard. Both he and Satan

are often "colored" the same way, i.e. red. In literature

 

13T. H. White, pp. 53-54.

1“Dan S. Norton and Rushton Peters, Classical Mythology
in English Literature, Reinhart and Winston, Inc., New York

l963, p. 171.

the fox himself stated "Reynaert, uwen neve, den fellen

"15 In addition, Satan is said to be foul smelling,

roden.
and again the fox lives up to his demoniac counterpart by
his odd odorous habits, such as rolling around in manure,
decomposing and other comparable substances.l6 This is not
all, however: the similarity goes even further. The
traditional stench of hell (or the hell hole) again finds

a very real parallel in vulpian reality. The fox, not being
a very good housekeeper, leaves the remains of his meals in
the den.17 The decomposition of these remnants is a major
cause of the stench in his abode, and could further endow
him with a decidedly strong aroma.18 A somewhat imaginary
anatomical similarity between the two figures at times
relates to the beard. The devil is often portrayed as
having one, and Reynard is sometimes given the epithet
"Diene met sinen brunen baerde."19 Of course the animal in
reality does not have a beard, only "sideburns." Again,

one may ask, is he given one to further accentuate the

analogy with his satanic counterpart?

 

15Tr. "Reynard, your nephew, bad old red." De Keyser,
line 1944.

16Rue, p. 128.

17Morris, p. 259.

18To draw a generalization for one moment, I would like
to call to the reader's mind the older values of our Western
society which associates dirt and filth with evil, and
cleanliness with goodness.

19Tr. "The one with his brown beard." De Keyser, line

858.

10

There are other morphological analogies to be
accounted for: The sharp, erect, black-tipped ears of
the fox could easily remind one of Satan's horns and the
pointed angular snout adds to the evil "lean and hungry
look" of the fox. In fact, it does not require any
imagination to read demoniac connotations into his facial
expression. The movements of the fox supply another
possibility for comparison: his ability to hide himself
quickly and move about surreptitiously provides even more
fertile soil for the growth of his reputation as an evil
character.20

As already mentioned, this creature roams the
countryside at night as the devil presumably does, and
again an old connection between the nocturnal and evil,
and day and good is readily brought to mind. This is
another instance where man illustrates his ability to
generalize by association. Animals that hunt at night or
are found in dark, damp environments have suffered from a
general lack of man's esteem and are associated with
demoniac forces, (bat, snake, toad, frog, salamander,
wolf, etc.).

Another generality: the devil is seen as an enemy
of the people and in the Middle Ages he was a very real
enemy. The fox was also an enemy of man, robbing him of

part of his livelihood, especially the fowl he raised.

 

2OWhite, pp. 53-54.

11

But, being an enemy of mankind, the fox in literature
sometimes takes on the proportions of an avenging angel
of God administering temporal punishment. Like the
devil he sometimes seems to be an instrument of God's

21 In the medieval Beast Epic, for

inscrutable justice.
example, he in effect punishes greed, corruption, and
avarice, as embodied by the wolf, bear, cat, and lion.
The implimentation is almost always represented in such a
manner as to be poetic justice. In other words, pride
goeth before the fall; hope for illegal gains and ye shall
be deceived; ask not lest you be given (something other
than you might want); greed devours itself.

The above comments represent only a small portion
of what might be entitled the gospel according to Reynard
the fox. Although he is egocentric in one way, he seems
to become the unconscious servant of God in the end,
somewhat in the manner of the demon in Chaucer's "Friar's
Tale." (Canterbury Tales III, lines 1483-96.) The devil
is often believed to wear the crown of selfishness, as
the fox to some degree does too. These thoughts are
represented as factors to be borne in mind in the
evaluation of the literary Reynard.

Moving farther away from nature, one last major

factor which again strengthens the bonds between Reynard

 

21Dante in his Divina Comedia expresses this idea much
more succinctly by suggesting that the devils serve God in
Hell. This point is also made in Chaucer's "The Friar's
Tale."

 

12

and Satan is the fox's attributed qualities as a sensual
figure. This role is greatly exploited in a number of the
French branches and at least touched upon in all the works
of this study (suggesting that it may have been a core
element of the Beast Epic). This sensuality has no overt
counterpart in nature except perhaps for this creature's
delicate and beautiful (seductive) appearance. As with
the devil, his sex is not always clear; he seems both
masculine and feminine. The male aggressiveness he does
portray is limited to sexual encounters such as those
with Isengrim's wife, Hersent. Like the devil he tends
to be sly, but cowardly in combat, certainly never heroic.
Reynard in fact will go to any length to avoid a fight.
This perhaps suggests a feminine prototype, and his use
of guile reinforces this idea. In the Greek medieval
romances of a fox (not Reynard) of the 13th and 14th
centuries, the characterization is definitely female.22
But to return to his demoniac attributes in Western
Europe: like the devil, he is a cunning violator of
females and as with the devil, these occasions are inter-
preted variously as seduction or rape. In these instances,
both the fox and the devil are described as being sexually

attractive. We may then reach the same conclusion as at

 

22Dirk C. Hesseling, "De Vos in Griekenland" in
Uit Byzantium en Hellas, 1911, pp. 1-26.

13

least one researcher, who states that the fox is "a common
symbol for the devil during the Middle Ages expressive of
base attitudes and of the wiles of the adversary."23
In any interpretation concerning underlying implied
moods of a character, it is easy to begin contriving
evidence which might be presented out of perspective. I
have tried not to do this. The foregoing associations
are present, to a greater or lesser extent, in all the
works that I have read on Reynard. Unfortunately in
situations of this kind, it is difficult to take lines
out of context to prove an assertion. I do not wish to
give the impression that in the Beast Epic the fox is the
only animal with demoniac associations. The same can be
said in many cases for his uncle Isengrim, but in many
instances of the later vernacular Beast Epics (from 1250
on) the fox replaces the wolf as a symbol of evil; for
example, monkish depravity. In both characterizations,
however, where either the wolf or the fox wears the gar
of a monk, the invariable connotation is that the devil
hides beneath the cloth. This point is also important in

the evolution of the fox himself, since he does adopt these

and other characteristics initially ascribed to Isengrim.

 

23J. E. Cirlot, Dictionary of Symbolism, Philosophical
Library, New York, 1962, p. 108 (cf. George W. Ferguson,
Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, New York, 1954).

 

14

The psychological association of the devil with the
fox, as he has come down to us in literary works, seems
well established. This mammal's most important qualities-—
shrewdness, cunning, and craftiness--are almost automatically
equated in the human mind with the guileful demon. The
expressions found in Western languages further indicate
this core connotation of shrewdness with the devil as
illustrated by such expressions as "devilishly clever" or
"fiendishly clever." Why not "divinely clever?"

A problem always seems to center around this paradox
both in literature and in reality. Man presumably prefers
good to evil and yet evil is always the focus and preoccu—
pation of an "interesting" and qualitatively "excellent"
story. Literary works which have goodness at their core
are seldom seriously approached. Perversions, conflict,
strife, excite man's imagination, but never the bland
character he has made of "goodness." In fact literature
seems to create the axiom that evil is attractive and
goodness undesirable. Even Hell has always been a
preferred subject of literature. Hardly anyone has made
a literary impression with a discussion of Heaven. One
has only to recall the great author who wrote on all the
spiritual realms, Dante Alighieri.. Which of his works is
most avidly read and studied, his lofty Paradiso or his

concrete Inferno?

15

This interest of man in evil rather than in goodness
is reflected in the development of Reynard the fox, who
has in effect grown beyond any original natural proportions
and for this reason is somewhat grotesque and ambivalent.
After having read many editions of Reynard the fox, it is
still impossible to give a complete picture of his character;
all of his aspects have not been touched upon or drawn out
by the various authors and, therefore, the essential Reynard
always remains somewhat dark and enigmatic. What then could
be the purpose for such peculiar development of a literary
being?

Judging from the works in this study, I would
conclude that Reynard provides an outlet (a sort of
vicarious enjoyment) for man's ambivalent desires. The
human being exalts goodness, but is more attracted to
evil, especially to a number of iniquities which in our
western culture form the core of a "Babylon"——sadism,
sensuality, deceit, fraud, greed, and murder. All these
facets are represented in the Beast Epic; Reynard at one
point or another embodies them all and at the same time
attacks them all. This enables the reader to mollify
both his cultural and religious conscience while vicariously
satisfying his passions. Reynard himself is not a hero but
an éantihero (by definition he rarely stands for any ideals).
Offmsn, he is asocial, but more frequently he is antisocial.

The>:moral ambivalence of Reynard could in effect be a

16

mirror of the world at least in its didactic aspects or
elements, and this is not unlikely in view of the
didacticism of many other works from the 12th to the 15th
centuries.

The foregoing observations should serve to illustrate
in part at least, how the underlying bases of folklore,
natural history, superstition, religious symbolism, and
their associated value systems have helped to make Reynard

what he is in medieval literature.

CHAPTER II

STRUCTURAL FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE

IN THE EVOLUTION OF REYNARD

In establishing, tracing, and illustrating the
evolution of Reynard the fox, one can already find
supporting evidence in the very structure of the various
epics. Such aspects as the number of adventures in which
the fox appears, the order of the episodes, the deletion
or addition of adventures, and the replacement of one
character by another in certain episodes, all serve to
show changes in the work itself and, therefore, often

imply stages in the gradual Verwandlung of Reynard. In

 

this study, the emphasis of character development and
evolution will of course center on the fox.

This chapter will examine the complete structural
outlines of the several works to determine the extent of
the variations. But discussions will center upon signif—
icant and major alterations; there will be no attempt to
record every minor change. These outlines will encompass
more than the episodes selected for analysis, i.e. those
leading up to the court day (the judgment of Reynard or
the healing of the lion). The purpose of examining the

complete outlines of the epics is to show the reader that

17

18

the whole work substantiates the implications and evidence
drawn from the parts of the individual epics to be compared
in depth. It is by no means the author's purpose to
establish points, from the chosen episodes, which would not
be borne out in the context of the entire work.

These complete outlines have further practical value
in that they supply a brief overview of each individual
work as a whole. At the same time they will illustrate
the scopes of the individual works relative to one another.

Let us begin with the structure of lsengrimus. The

 

structure of this twelfth century Latin poem by Magister
Nivardus is generally chronologically and linearly episodic,
but it does include inner tales which are essentially
flashbacks. The episodes are often strung together rather
loosely and the transitions are at times abrupt. This
abruptness is reinforced even more by the introduction of
the internal (flashback) episodes. These inner stories,
which appear in the framework of the epic, suggest the
upcoming importance of Reynard. Contrary to the overall
work, they focus on Reynard to a much greater extent than
in the external tales (of the three internal tales, two
focus on Reynard). This narrative is usually divided into
12 adventures1 and opens with the episode of the ham in

which the two protagonists, Isengrim and Reynard, are

 

lVan Mierlo, pp. 59-62.

presented and the stage is set. The origin of their
traditional animosity is explained as resulting from the
fox's transgression with the wife of Isengrim.2 Both
characters are already presented in such a light as to
allow the reader to form opinions concerning them (the
wolf is presented as gluttonous, the fox defensively
shrewd). Isengrim is about to eat Reynard when the fox
enters with a counterproposal of obtaining a ham from a
passing farmer. While Reynard serves as decoy, the wolf
is to remove the prize which will later be divided. After
leading the farmer astray, Reynard returns to find the
ham already eaten by the wolf and he plans the revenge,
which is related in the second adventure, Isengrim's
fishing on the frozen pond and the loss of his tail.

In the third adventure, Isengrim surveys a field for
four rams to the detriment of his hide. The fourth adventure
tells of the curing of the sick lion and how Isengrim was
flayed. At this stage, the inner stories (flashbacks) are
introduced. The lion wishing to hear something enter-
taining while recuperating asks Reynard to relate some of
his strange adventures, such as how he was duped by
Sprotinus the rooster. The fox extricates himself from
this request by managing to have the poem, which Bruun the

bear composed on the subject, read.

 

2This is the first time that the fox and the she-wolf
affaire appears in literature, which gives the reader a good
idea concerning the antiquity of this particular theme.

20

The three following episodes precede the opening of
the Latin work chronologically. The fifth adventure
treats a popular folk theme, the traveling troupe of
animals, (for example "Die Bremerstadt Musikante”)3
which is altered here to a pilgrimage discussing how, in
the course of their voyage, Reynard frightens one wolf
with the head of another. The sixth pearl on this string
relates the encounter between Reynard and Sprotinus and
contains a subadventure which tells how the hungry fox is
rewarded with food for once having protected a shepherd's
flock against the wolf. This passage is used as a bridge
to the seventh adventure which relates the entry of
Isengrim into the monastery after the fox has beguiled
him with some of the fritters received from the shepherd
by pretending that they are a staple of the monastic diet.

An interlude follows concerning the transgressions

of Reynard and the she—wolf (who is not named in Isengrimus).

 

The third subdivision of this seventh tale tells of
Isengrim's adventures as a monk. This concludes the inner
stories, and as the author reverts to his former chron-
ological perspective, another motif is picked up as
Isengrim goes out looking for a new skin to replace the
one he lost. With that in mind the wolf encounters

Corvigarius the gelding in the eight adventure. Unsuccessful

 

3Harry Steinhaus, Deutsche Kultur, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1962, p. 36.

 

21

in his attempt, Isengrim continues his search and discovers
Joseph the Ram whom he tries to separate from his fleece

at the instigation of Reynard. With no more success he
returns home to wait for his skin to grow back.

The tenth adventure tells of the wolf's experiences
when he divides a prize equally with the king and his
consort and illustrates how Reynard learns from the wolf's
pain. The eleventh tale speaks of Isengrim's oath with
Carcophas the donkey and how the wolf loses a foot. The
twelfth and final adventure tells of Isengrim's death
when attacked by the wild pigs.

What then can one derive from the foregoing structural
outline concerning the evolution of Reynard? First, one
will note that of the twelve adventures, eleven deal signif—
icantly with Isengrim indicating, as the title does, that
he still plays the major role in this early effort. Although
Reynard is on a par with the wolf, he still has not
surpassed him as the focal point of the Beast Epic. There
is only one adventure which focusses on Reynard to the
exclusion of Isengrim and that is Reynard and Sprotinus.

All the others give Isengrim (or another wolf) a main or
substantial part.

This phenomenon is not unusual in the development
of medieval narratives. Characters shift in importance in
other works of epic proportion, and although it is not
always possible to tell which characters will be expanded

subsequently by other authors, they do evolve. One can

22

find parallels of secondary character developments in such
traditions as the Arthurian cycle. If one looks at the
early Welsh Arthurian material in Geoffrey of Monmouth and

parts of the Mabinogion, one finds Arthur playing a

 

dominant active role in the plot. However, with the advent
of Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval, and other heroes, he slowly
becomes a background figure, in effect a mechanical device
which initiates each romance, just as Gawain later becomes

a background figure of sorts, when he begins to serve as a
standard measure of excellence against whom the newer heroes
test themselves. Isengrim's regression as a major character
never goes quite so far, but in the end he is only a foil

or "straight man" for the fox. Second, of all these
episodes more than five associate Isengrim with a monk,
especially adventures four, seven, and twelve. This
prevalence of monastic satire, which tends to be thematic
rather than character-oriented, diminishes the importance

of Reynard as an individual. Magister Nivardus still
subordinates the characters to the message. The author's
moral philosophy is of major importance.“ The development
of Reynard's character is further limited or inhibited

because the wolf plays the dominant role in this epic. In

 

“I am not mistaken when saying that this cleric's
orientation is a nmumfl. worldly philosophy rather than an
abstract religious one (dealing with the hereafter).
Reynard in these five works is never concerned with
salvation (another facet which gives him devilish
connotations).

23

fact, the fox appears as a major "participating" character
in only five of the twelve adventures. These few foregoing
points do not exhaust the discussion of Reynard and his
place in this work, but I believe the other aspects will

be more obvious when discussed comparatively with the
subsequent epics.

The gap between Isengrimus and the first vernacular

 

poem Li Plaid is quite wide. In fact many scholars do

not believe that these two are in a direct line of descent.
I am inclined to believe that they are. If one looks at
the following outline of Li Plaid one can see an underlying
structural parallel. The poem begins with a court day and
the grievance of Isengrim against Reynard concerning the
fox's transgressions with the wolf's wife. This allusion
is the same as the one encountered in the first few pages

of Isengrimus and further references to episodes found in

 

the Latin poem are made by Reynard's nephew, Grimbert the
badger, when he defends his uncle's actions in Li Plaid.
Grimbert implies that the wolf has never dealt fairly with

the fox and he alludes to episode one of Isengrimus where the

 

gluttonous wolf ate the whole ham. In the French poem thi
episode is already cited in retrospect and only forms a
small inner vignette suggesting an earlier source, either

Isengrimus, another work ancestral to both, or popular lore.

 

The second adventure concerns a new episode, the

grievance of Chantecler against Reynard for the death of

24

Coupee the hen. This nullifies Grimbert's defense, until
then successful. The third episode also comprises a new
addition: the funeral of Coupee and the miracle associated
with her grave. The fourth episode initiates a series of
summoning tales: first Bruun the Bear is sent from the
court of King Noble to call Reynard before the tribunal
for breaking the king's peace. Bruun is unsuccessful and
suffers a physical loss, the skin of his forepaws and
head, at the hands of Reynard. This segment bears an
underlying similarity to the second episode of Isengrimus
where the wolf loses his tail in the ice through Reynard's
fault. In both instances, these creatures suffer because
of their gluttonous nature. The second summons delivered
by Tibert the cat comprises tale five. Reynard's temptation
also brings Tibert to nought. In the course of this
episode one finds the first clerical satire appearing in
the French romance. In this instance it is no longer
directed primarily at the regular clergy, but at the
secular priesthood.

The third summons, which forms the sixth episode,
involves Grimbert and the confession of Reynard wherein
the fox relates his various transgressions against other
animals. A major portion of the content of this confession
again reflects knowledge of the episodes or at least the

material contained in lsengrimus, for example, the loss of

 

the wolf's tail and his subsequent beating. However, in

25

Li Plaid, this already known material again forms a small
inner vignette, which here supplies background or insight
into the reasons for the hatred between the wolf and the
fox; in other words, it creates better motivation for
subsequent actions in the French version.5

The seventh adventure contains the arrival of Grimbert
at court. The eight concerns the speeches given by Reynard,
Noble, and Grimbert. The ninth adventure relates the
sentencing of Reynard to death by hanging. The tenth
connecting episode tells how Reynard escapes hanging by
confessing his sins and wishing to make a penitential
pilgrimage to the Holy land to do penance for his evils.
He manages to convert the king to his ideas and to leave
court.

The eleventh episode tells how he treats Couart the
hare who accompanied him on the beginning of his journey.
First, Reynard pierces Couart repeatedly with his pilgrim

staff, then ties him up and shouts insults to the king

and court. While thus distracted, Couart manages to free

 

5This pattern of drawing on popular or direct literary
sources pervades the evolution of the Beast Epic. In
Reinaert's Historie, for example, it is no longer Isengrim
who gets his tail cought in the ice, but his mate, Hersent,
who experiences the painful loss of her tail. In this
variation, the subsequent beating by villagers is still
found although in smaller measure. Also, in the same work
of 1375 it is not Reynard who cured Noble the Lion, but it
is the fox's father and the lion's sire who are involved in
the reminiscence.

 

26

himself and escape. The twelfth vignette or epilogue
shows Reynard being hunted by Nobel's retinue. Finally
exhausted and severely wounded he is able to withdraw
within the walls of his impregnable fort. This leads to
the second part of Branch I (according to Roques) referred
to as I-a "Le Siege de Maupertuis" which is then followed
by I-b "Renart 1e Teinturier."6
If the foregoing French version is analyzed, can one
ascertain any underlying similarities with Isengrimus?
The recollections of the episode with the ham and Hersent
have already been alluded to as has the corresponding
suffering of Bruun and Isengrim; however, these parallel
episodes might well be compared in further detail. Both
show basic relationships: Reynard wishes to escape from
mightier adversaries, the wolf and the bear. Appealing
to their gluttonous nature, he induces the first to catch
fish through the ice, knowing full well that the animal's
greed will induce him to wait until the hole is frozen
solid. The satire here is quite clear. Despite Reynard's
warning, the wolf waits until his tail is frozen fast
because he wishes to catch bigger fish. Bruun in an effort
to get at the promised honey reaches deeply into a split

log in which Reynard traps him. Both of the settings are

6g. Bossuat, Le Roman de Renard, Hatier Doivin,
Paris 6 , 1957, p. 1861 The divisions I—a and I-b were
originally proposed by E. Martin (cf. Mario Roques p.
XIII).

 

27

around villages. Both Isengrim and Bruun are beaten by
angry burgers.

In both instances, Reynard has made use of these
disturbances to depart unseen. But, before doing so, in

lsengrimus, he increases the wolf's distress by his

 

sarcastic moralizing. After stealing a rooster from the

priest of the nearby village, he tricks all the inhabitants

into following him to the trapped wolf. As the fox runs

by Isengrim, who implores him for help, Reynard says in

part: "Keep the fish for you alone, for me the rooster

suffices" (Voigt 1, line 826), 7 and continuing to "moralize"

he says to his uncle "Nothing should be more expensive than

its use." (I, line 839) "He who is wise figures out how much

something is worth and makes the labor equal to the

payment . . . honor is sold too dearly when the buyer pays

for it with his life." (I., lines 840-844.) Continuing

this sadistic verbal torture, Reynard returns for a moment

to remark that a priest, accompanied by a group of people,

follows with the intention of renewing the wolf's neglected

tonsure and forgiving the wrong done by the wolf because

he left the monastery. (Paraphrase from I, lines 855—858.)
In Li Plaid, Reynard's mockery becomes even more

devilish. After having retreated to Maupertuis, he comments

as follows when the bloodied bear passes by: "Bruun," says

 

7Ernst Voigt, ed., Ysengrimus, Halle a. S., Verlag der
Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses, 1884. All line references
of Isengrimus pertain to this volume. The Roman numerals
refer to the Book number.

 

 

28

he "Have you had enough of it now that you have eaten
Lanfroi's honey (beating) without me? Your untrustworthiness
will yet cause your downfall. It will certainly dash you
into misfortune, so that you will die without a priest," and
"Which order do you belong to that you wear a red cap?"8
In both cases, the episode closes with Reynard leaving
his victim to the mercy of the world.
The next adventure concerning Tibert is essentially
a repetition of the first and provides what I believe to
be evidence for the evolution of the character and the work
itself. It will be noted that beginning with the French
vernacular branches, certain motifs are repeated again
and again in different contexts because of their success.
The third summoning oi Reynard to the court of Nobel
is successfully accomplished by Grimbert. The emphasis on
the tripartite effort of Bruun, Tibert, and Grimbert to
bring Reynard to King Nobel for judgment reflects the legal
requirements of medieval law whereby all suspected criminals
(of the aristocracy) had to be formally charged three times

to appear before a tribunal before the accused could be

 

8Helga Jauss—Meyer, Le Roman de Renart, Klassische
Texte des Romanischen Mittelalters, Wilhelm Fink Verlag,
Munchen, 1965, p. 206, lines 692-699. (Roques, lines 708-
715) Henceforth, only line numbers will be used, the first
referring to Jauss-Meyers ed., the second to Roques. The
Helga Jauss-Meyer ed. is used because this is the only
printing through which E. Martin's ed. of Branch I (or
Li Plaid) is available to me.

 

29

condemned out of hand.9 This episode and that of Chantecler

and Copee do not correspond to any in Isengrimus (nor could

 

they, since Reynard is not yet a direct enemy of society
in the Latin poem).

Besides the specific parallels (of interspersed
adventures) already mentioned between the Latin epic and
the later vernacular version, there are general structural
relationships which one should not lose sight of. The basic
structural conformities further suggest that the French
Beast Epic is in part related to the Latin precursor, but
that it is at the same time evolving and growing away from
it. For example, the curing of King Nobel falls into the
background and the focus is on Reynard's court day (which
forms the final climax in the French romance). The illness

of the lion in Isengrimus overshadowed the fox's character

 

which may have disturbed the French author; at any rate,
he altered the situation in Li Plaid so that Reynard was
able to come to the fore.

The foundation for the three consecutive summoning
adventures in the vernaculars is already laid in Isengrimus

when a hare sent by King Rufanus warns Reynard of the

 

9The third summons of Reynard which is delivered by

Grimbert suggests the old Germanic legal requirement whereby
it was necessary that an accused be called three times
before he could be legally sentenced in absentia. If,
however, it was necessary to call the defendant three times,
blood relations considered it a loss of honor. cf. Achilles
Mussche, Reinaert De Vos, J. M. Meulenhoff, Amsterdam,

1964, p. 102.

 

g

30

displeasure he has incurred because he did not appear at
court with the nobles to offer support to the king in his
sickness. But at this stage the fox has to be called only
once before he complies with King Rufanus's demands. Also,
Reynard is not in the same dangerous situation as in the
French and Dutch romances where he is accused of a number

of crimes including breaking the king's peace. In the Latin
poem he is not yet a force directly hostile to society.

In fact, the bear, the boar, and rams all take side with
Reynard against the wolf who is the antisocial protagonist

in Isengrimus. In Li Plaid, however, Reynard becomes the

 

antisocial creature and it is society which has grievances
against him. This change in character shows how the fox
adopts the characteristics of his predecessor (the wolf)
thereby transferring and augmenting the depth and dominance
of his own literary personality.(Peculiarly enough the trend
of these changes clothes Reynard primarily with the
disreputable aspects of the wolf). It should be repeated
that the parallels alluded to only refer to the initial
group of episodes. Subsequent to the curing of the lion
eand its replacement episode, the formal judgment of Reynard,

structural similarities between Isengrimus and Li Plaid

 

tend to dissolve.
Of the twelve episodes recounted in the outline of

Id. Plaid, Reynard appears as a major and active character

31

in nine, compared with five episodes out of‘twelvelo in
which he appears in the Latin poem in a comparable status,
but where he still has to share the limelight with
Isengrim.

In the Middle Dutch Van den Vos Reinaerde one finds
the vulpine character coming even more to the fore. The
first 2,000 lines of this vernacular version follow the
Li Plaid section of the first French branch very closely.
One again encounters the accusation and defense of Reynard
at court, the intervening burial of Copee (Coupee), the
three summonses, including the confession of Reynard; then
in the fifth episode his appearance at court and his con-
demnation to death. The sixth adventure concerns Reynard's
public confession and allusions to his innocent youth. In
the seventh episode the fox purposely draws attention
away from himself by letting some information slip about
a supposed conspiracy against Nobel and about his knowledge
of the legendary treasure of Emeric and telling the fable of
the frogs. (The location of the loot at Hulsterloo and
Kriekeputte is also included.) With this seventh episode

the Flemish author really departs from his French source.

 

10One should also recognize that almost invariably
these works seem to separate into adventures which total
rnultiples of three, i.e. nine, twelve; the sacred triad
seeks well represented, as already noted in Van den Vos
.Reynaerde by De Keyser, p. IX.

32

No references are made to future storming of Maupertuis
and to Reynard the dyer.ll

In the eigth episode, before departing from court,
the fox manages to accuse three of his enemies of treason
and have them punished even though they are innocent.
Bruun the bear is to surrender part of his skin to be used
as the purse for a proper pilgrim and since the fox must
travel far he asks for the hind "shoes" of Hersent and the
fore "shoes" of Isengrim who, like Bruun, do not dare to
refuse because of the charges levied against them. In my

opinion, this again represents a remnant from the Latin

Isengrimus where the wolf was entirely flayed. In this

 

alteration, however, three animals suffer partial skinning.
The flaying (physical punishment motif) and the journey
pilgrimage remain in the same episodic although not
chronological order.

As the pilgrim leaves court, he is given Belin the
ram, (as chaplain) and Couart to accompany him to Maupertuis.
Reynard's revenge, which forms the ninth and final part of
this romance or fragment involves the successful dispatching
of Couart, as compared with the unsuccessful effort in

Li Plaid. The incrimination of Belin for the hare's murder

 

results in his and his descendants being delivered to the

 

11Also all three of the new variant episodes, seven,
eight, and nine, focus on Reynard and his actions.

33

wolf and the bear as legal prey, with the king's apology
for their false incrimination.

In these nine episodes, Reynard's increasing dominance
is further illustrated in that such subject matter as the
accusations of Chantecler and the burial of Copee have been
deemphasized and the associated miracles deleted. The
final result is nine adventures of which eight have Reynard
as a center figure (as compared with the previous five to
twelve and nine to twelve :ratios). Isengrim, it will be
noted, is far in the background and his importance is in
fact less than Bruun's, Tibert's, and Grimbert's (This is

also true in Li Plaid, but to a lesser extent).

 

Repetition plays a major role in the further evolution
of the Beast Epic in the Lowlands. In fact, the continuator

who created Reinaerts Historie echoes the organization of

 

Van den Vos Reinaerde and its literary sources in his new

 

plot which occupies the second half of his poem. He brings
Reynard back to court for another appearance and defense
(leading to a second climax at Nobel's tribunal). The
continuator draws thematically on Branch VI of the French
Reynard cycle. It must be pointed out at this stage,
however, that the Flemish reworking is substantially
different both in form and in execution.

One important question that immediately arises from
the foregoing plot material is this: why should there

exist such a remarkably continual and increasing use of

34

basic structural repetition in the Beast Epic? One could
logically hypothesize as follows: when a literary work
reaches a high level of popularity, recognition and/or
artistic acceptance, the characters and their adventures
become so well known that they can no longer be altered.
The medieval readers would not consider any significant
change realistically acceptable, since they identify each
character with certain circumstances. One might almost

say that at this stage the plot becomes ritualized. At
least, a tradition has been established. This means, for
example, that if Reynard is antisocial, or evil at the high
point of his popularity, he will tend to remain so, and if
the adventures of such a popular creation become well
known, to the point that they often exist independently

as anecdotes, the readers will no longer accept changes

in these established adventures. Hence the only alternative
that remains open for an author who wishes to employ this
well established personage is to provide a continuation
which introduces new adventures with perhaps a somewhat
different emphasis to conform to the desires of a later
period. This may have been exactly what happened with

Van den Vos Reinaerde (1250) and Reinaerts Historie (1375).
The author of the later work apparently decided that he
would not or could not change the already well known
adventures in Van den Vos Reinaerde's 3,400 lines, which

Eire reproduced relatively closely. There are, however,

35

some variations necessary to allow Reynard's involvement in
the new series of adventures. In the case of Reinaerts
Historie, the fox does not leave for the wilderness, as in

Van den Vos Reinaerde. He relents to his wife's wishes

 

and remains at Maupertuis with his family. This sets the
stage for the subsequent action.

It has already been stated that the readers identify
particular characters with a given set of circumstances as
they become well known. This is especially true of the fox
and his activities. If one is therefore limited by the
already created episodes, what better way than to take the
individual plots of the separate adventures and embroider
on them, but never varying them enough to alter the basic
structure so as to make it inconsistent with the already
known characterization.l2 This is the method the author
seems to have chosen to give his continuation, the second

half of Reinaerts Historie, a degree of unity with Van den

Vos Reinaerde as seen by the repeated motif of Reynard's

 

summons and trial in the terminal part of Reinaerts

Historie. I once again wish to make clear that Van den

 

 

12Further factors which could influence the prevalence
of repetition are first the general desire to reuse themes
in the same work; second, upon the successful presentation
of any literary work, continuations, enfances, and addenda
usually follow. These imitations often capitalized on the
success of the parent work rather than relying on the
inventiveness of their own contributions.

36

Vos Reinaerde and the second half of Reinaerts Historie

 

 

in effect form a whole in the Brussels manuscript and that
those variations which occur in the earlier Comburg version

of Van den Vos Reinaerde are small.

 

As the second and original half of Reinaerts Historie

 

begins, the story once again opens at the court of King
Nobel where another series of accusers charge Reynard with
various crimes, first Lampreel the rabbit, and then Corbout
the rook. The first speaks of the attempts to kill him and
the second of how Reynard ate Corbout's mate (This is the
episode where Reynard plays dead and entices the rocks
within range of his teeth). The next episode repeats the
wrath of the king in response to these accusations. Then
Grimbert again goes to Reynard to warn him that the king
will surely kill him and his family. So Reynard again
comes to court and again denies all the accusations. The
king tries to refute Reynard's justifications, but Dame
Rukenau, the she—ape, comes forth to defend and stand
surety for Reynard. She, in effect, does what Nobel's

mate had done in supporting Reynard in the previous French
and Flemish versions. However, at this point a significant
change in the evolution becomes manifest, i.e. the
importance and cunning of Dame Rukenau's assistance and
advice begins to overshadow Reynard himself. As will be

noted in the subsequent chapters, more creatures become

37

involved with the success of Reynard's defense in this
version.13 This gives the impression of a definite
decrease in the resourcefulness and selfreliance of the
fox, which of course means that his character is changing.

In the next section a parable or fable is told by
Reynard. It contains a moral similar to the one found in
the fable of the frogs and the heron in Van den Vos Reinaerde,
where the meaning seems to be: "Leave well enough alone."
(It relates an old tale of a man who released a trapped
serpent and is threatened by it for his help.)

The following adventure tells which of Reynard's
relatives support him and continues with Reynard's subtle
lies to explain the death of Couart the hare and other
transgressions. Here also he receives the forgiveness of
the king by his use of "beautiful parables" (inner tales).
These several digressions in Reinaerts Historie definitely
cause the action to stagnate, and detract from Reynard's
dominance in the work, hence reducing his strength in the
narrative. Add to this a number of new characters--Dame
Rukenau and her mate Mertin—-and Reynard's image suffers
an even greater personal dimming. He now is no longer the
sole center of attraction around which the action revolves.
This clutter, resulting from additional characters, in

effect tends to make Reynard one of the crowd.

 

l3Another ape, Mertin, the bishop's clerk, also
serves this purpose.

38

All these interruptions in the chronological sequence
of the narrative prevent the full development of any
particular character, including Reynard. This again forces
the message to the foreground as in Isengrimus (although

the messages in Reinaerts Historie seem to be on a much

 

less sophisticated and profound level). Hence, we may say
that the message dominates the narrative. To give the
reader an idea of how much some of these major digressions
detract from and interrupt the narrative, I list the number
of lines devoted to such incidentals in the second half of

Reinaerts Historie. The fable of the man who releases a

 

trapped serpent runs 185 lines, or about five pages in a
modern edition of the Caxton version, and this digression
only brings in the fox as a deus ex machina. A second
digression which follows almost immediately, contributes
further to the structural looseness. Here the fox tells at
ilength of the fabulous and miraculous qualities of the
jewels which he wants the court to believe he presented to
the king and queen through Belin the ram. This deviation
is much more extensive, comprising 560 lines, or roughly
nine pages in a modern edition of Caxton's prose version.
One additional short but more pertinent distraction
follows, relating the much earlier curing of the lion,

spoken of in Isengrimus, which is viewed so far in

 

retrospect in this Middle Dutch work that the characters

iJivolved are no longer Reynard and Nobel, but their male

39

parents. This recapitulation lasts seventy-two lines.
Now the story finally picks up the chronological action
of the present narrative after 1146 lines. Considering

that the second half of Reinaerts Historie contains only

 

4327 lines, one can see that roughly one quarter of the
work does not have anything to do with the actual
chronological advancing of the present plot. These

Abweichungen create more of a hazard to the coh rent

 

character development than the tapestry technique of the
romances, because of the relative brevity of this work.
If one summarizes the foregoing data concerning the
digressions, it is apparent that none of these interludes
actually advances the plot. On the whole, they do not
even relate to the characters of the animal epic. In

tself, the deviations act as

I

H-

torle

(I)

Reinaerts H1

 

distractions and levers which Reynard employs. The fable
about the man rescuing the serpent serves to illustrate

the past. The classical myths

Ho
:3

Reynard's wise counsel
about the judgment of Paris nd the wooden horse of
Cleometis serve to magnify the excellence of Reynard's
imaginary gifts. The tales of how the horse enslaves itself
to man, and how the ass would replace the hound in man's
heart discuss morals which are introduced to confuse the
court and whitewash the fox. The digressions which do
include secondary characters of the Beast Epic are presented

in such a light as to make the fox's enemies seem more

no

despicable than himself. Tibert's cowardly actions in

the adventure with Reynard's father and the wolf's
deception of the heron, serve well in this respect. Never-
theless, this incredible clutter of impertinent incidents,
one following directly upon the other, reduces the

. . I . . . . l4
elfectlveness 01 the fox's Characterization significantly.

When one compares the digressions in the structure of

the second half of Reinaerts Historie with the 3,472 lines

of Van den Vos Reinaerde wherein there occurs only a single

 

digression (of doubtful plot value) one realizes how much
these deviations influence the depiction of the fox. The
one Aesopian fable of the frogs and the heron (lines
2301-24 in the Comburg Manuscript, De Keyser edition) which
is found in Van den Vos Reinaerde, is proportionately
shorter, so that its use as a moral sermon does not affect
the balance of the rest of the poem. The interruption in
this earlier Flemish contribution does not detract from the

e ization, with the result that

"5

(‘1‘

unity of action or charac
the story is easier to follow and Reynard's character is
not as dispersed or diluted. On the contrary, he is more

emphatic in this brief passage because it contributes to

 

1“One of the possible reasons for the detracting
elements could be to burlesque the style of earlier
romances. There are other plausible explanations: The
author may love to moralize (and indeed much points to
this). Also he may simply be a bad narrative artist who
does not realize how these continual interruptions are
breaking up the natural flow of his narrative and the
:reader's image of the characters themselves.

41

the reader's understanding of the fox by illustrating
succinctly the extent of Reynard's shrewdness. With the
brash presumption of teaching everyone else a moral about
life, Reynard asserts his position of psychological
dominance.

After this explanation about the digressions, I would
like to return to the plot of Reinaerts Historie. The wolf
seeing that the tables are being turned on him is unwilling
to let matters stand as they do; hence, he accuses Reynard
a second time. This section is followed by a parable of
Reynard and the wolf and how they went together to the cave
of an ape. This little story re-emphasizes that Reynard
has a basic understanding of "human nature," which the wolf
lacks. This boorish callousness is always to the wolf's
physical detriment.

The next major section introduces an aspect important
to establish the structural evolution of the framework of
the Reynard epic. Since the author has again allowed
Reynard to excuse himself before the king, he must find
another climax. In an attempt to do this he creates the
burlesque of knightly combat. The order of events is as
follows: first Isengrim offers Reynard the gauntlet,
second Reynard accepts it and the king sets the day of
combat. Next, one again encounters the extreme subser—
vience of Reynard to Dame Rukenau.‘ When he is at a loss
£38 to what to do to overcome his stronger adversary, she

EMivises him how to fight.

J11
R)

The next episode tells how Reynard comes to battle
and fights with the wolf, how he almost loses, but by his
cunning and evil qualities finally manages to defeat the
wolf by fighting foully. In the next section at the
adjourning of the court, Reynard tells the king another
exemplum as a result of which he receives in trust the
position of bailiff over all Nobel's lands. The final
part of this episode sees Reynard and his relatives
departing from the king and going to Maupertuis.

The way the secondary characters, Dame Rukenau and

MertiN, influence Reynard's character Verwandlung has

 

already been discussed. The further decentralizing effect
of the frequent parables, fables, and exempla, has also
been commented on. This brings us to the nature of
the structural aberrations.

On the whole, the structural deviation in the

second half of Reinaerts Historic tends to be concerned

 

with moralizing and with social reintegration, as is seen
in the final adventure where the fox no longer retreats
alone to his castle Maupertuis, before fleeing to the
woestyne, but is seen departing from court surrounded by

a great number of faithful relatives. This completely
bourgeois version (second half of Reinaerts Historie) seems
to emphasize the communal spirit to strengthen its own
socially desired norms and at the same time weaken those

Of the aristocracy by its satiric ridiculing of knightly

43

combat and courtly proceedings. Whereas Van den Vos

Reinaerde suggests a parody on the courtly romance, the

 

execution of the second half of Reinaerts Historie is
sheer burlesque, as indicated by its loss of depth which
will be described in the subsequent chapters of this
thesis.

The final selection for study in this comparative
analysis, The History of Reynard the Fox by Caxton, is an
almost literal translation of Reinaerts Historie. For this
reason structural differences, which would suggest further
evolution, are not present. Indeed the lack of any such
change, despite a period in excess of 100 years, suggests
that the Reynard characterization and the work itself have
finally crystallized to form the end of the first and major
phase in the evolution of the Beast Epic and the character
of Reynard.

To summarize the evolution of Reynard the fox, as
seen from the viewpoint of structure, one can say the

following: in lsengrimus, where the fox is already well

 

developed as a personage, he has not yet attained the
dominance which he has in Li Plaid and Van den Vos Reinaerde.
His appearances and adventures gradually increase through
the latter two works where he becomes all-important and
overshadows all other characters.

The fact that in Van den Vos Reinaerde there are

even fewer digressions than in Li Plaid further contributes

44

to the growing dominance of this literary figure. This

is especially true
Reynard's physical

from Isengrimus to

 

presence makes him
early Middle Dutch

characterization.

in the sense of' Gestalt because
size actually seems to have increased

Van den Vos Reinaerde. His continuous

 

larger than life. Therefore, this
epic is the highpoint of the Reynard

In the second half of Reinaerts Historie,

 

the character again becomes diffused due to the addition of

multiple digressions and the introduction of strong secondary

characters. The same can be said for the translation by

Caxton.

CHAPTER III

THE INTROSPECTIVE ASPECTS

OF REYNARD THE FOX

Illustrating the evolution of a character in all its
aspects is not possible. Certain facets of the character-
ization are moods which pervade a particular work or part
of it, and to depict them would mean to render the entire
epic. In addition, many examples, when taken out of the
context of the work, lose much of their original spirit
and, in fact, may be transformed into something quite
different. In the foregoing chapters on structure and
background, I have been able to avoid such ambiguous areas.
In the following pages, however, it will be necessary to
use more quotations to illustrate points. These, when
seen in isolation, may not always be as emphatic as when
seen in their original context. Therefore, I will make
use of paraphrases and explanations in an attempt to render
implications more accurately when direct quotations do not
suffice.

When making comparisons, I will draw on situations
which are structurally equivalent. For example, I will not,
when describing the character of Reynard, draw on his

gwsrtrayal in a climax of one work and try to equate this

45

46

portrayal with that of an ascending action episode in
another work. In other words, when analyzing the

character, I will try to select passages of comparable
literary development (a climax with a climax, a denouement
with a denouement). Because of the problems mentioned
above, I have selected those passages for quotation which
are effective when read out of context, and I have endeav-
ored to center my study on those parts of the character-
ization of the fox which offer the least possibility for
disputable interpretation. There are of course a number

of ways to analyze characterization: through interpretation
of the creature's actions, the author's description (where
he himself lists his character's qualities), through the
creature's place in the structure (this we have already
done), through the viewpoints of other characters in the
work and how they describe the figure being analyzed, and
finally through what the character says about himself, his
life and his philosophy of it. Character, therefore, is

the compound image which is created in a reader's mind
through a literary figure's actions, manners and thoughts
of life, his environment, nature, habits, emotions, desires,
and instincts. From this summary the reader can immediately
realize that this most important aspect of a literary

‘work, the creation of "living beings" when it is successfully

——..--‘I

47

done by a real artist, is far too subtle, intertwined, and
subjective to be analyzed to everyone's satisfaction.l

When dealing with satire, the evaluation becomes
more difficult since inuendos, invective, mockery, irony,
sarcasm, humor and combinations thereof frequently make
conclusions and interpretations uncertain. Even more
importantly these elements are liable to react with the
analyst's own bias. If, in addition, one is studying
such a work located 600 to 800 years distant in time, in
another place and another culture, the conclusions drawn
become even more tenuous.2

It is for this reason that I have drawn on material
which, for a great part, represents a culture, geography,
and language that is "my own" (Flanders and Flemish).
Therefore, if ambiguity comes into play, at least I can
draw on traditions and thought patterns that are inherent
in me and approximate the original intent as closely as
my 20th century vantage point will allow.

In continuing the analysis proper, I believe it should
begin at the hub, with what the fox says about himself.

Therefore, I consider the most logical point of departure

the character's own revelations of his reasons for being

 

1W. F. Thrall and A. Hibbard, A Handbook to Literature,
The Odyssey Press, New York, 1936, p. 75.

2For example, the understanding of a language so far
renmved always presents problems of the interpretation of
meaning.

48

what he is, how he sees his surroundings and why he reacts
to them as he does, i.e. his philosophy of life. In three
of the five works: Isengrimus, Reinaerts Historie, and
The History of Reynard the Fox, Reynard lays bare his
approach to and understanding of life. These sentiments
appear in selfcontained units in all of the above works

and they provide an ideal place from which to study changes
in Reynard's character. The absence of these "reflective"
speeches in the two remaining epics, Li Plaid and Van den

Vos Reinaerde, gives the reader an entirely different

 

image of the fox. In the latter two works, he seems more
active because these contemplative passages are absent.
However, I do not wish to imply that the philosopher fox,
who appears in the first three works, is far removed

from life.3 Practicality, ability to survive, is still

at the core of his character in every epic, but when
rationalizing and explaining his approach to life, Reynard
changes in the reader's eyes; he becomes perhaps deeper,
more serious, more anthropomorphic.

The extended and self-sufficient selections wherein
Reynard puts forth his understanding and approach to his
world have been selected meticulously so that there would
be no misunderstanding concerning the way his statements

could be understood. I have been very careful in

 

3Note that, perhaps unjustly, I correlate activity
with practicality and philosophy with idealism and
inactivity.

49

interpreting his ironic, sarcastic and mocking passages.

I believe all the following selections are as close to
honest self expression and comment on social conditions

as the fox ever comes. In these isolated passages, the

fox divulges himself completely and shows gig understanding
of the evils of this world; whether he speaks satirically
or objectively, his thoughts are clearly represented in

his words. Also these are the only places where Reynard's
mask of deceit slips off possibly revealing the "true"
inner being or the author's didactic message.

At the dawn of the Beast Epic, one finds Reynard's
reflections and philosophizing in Isengrimus concentrating
almost exclusively on the social situation, as the sarcastic
speech by the fox to his uncle Isengrim indicates:

Reinardus patruum, si quicquam diceret ultra,
Irasci metuens fraude benignus ait:

Patrue, te insontem iusta ratione probasti,
Sicut iustitiam mos hodiernus habet:

Peius agit, qui plura potest, luit omnia pauper,
Scit sibi fautorem diues abesse deum.

Ignorante deo est pauper, quod prodigus ardet
Fundere, quodque tenax condere, pendit inOps,
Quod locuples, quod pauper habet, locupletis utrumque est,
Diuitis ex dono est pauperis omne parum;

Non igitur nostro quicquam de iure tulisti,

Tam mea quam tua res est tua, cuius eges,

Si minus edisses, stomachus tibi laxior esset,
Vestis et esca hodie cuncta licere iubent.
Nullius ignoscentis eges, uis imperat equo,
Indulgente sibi diuite, quicquid agit,

Accusatur inops, sit noxius ipse, sit insons,
Venalis uenia est, ut mereatur, emat,

Iustus inops sine iure, reus sine crimine diues,
Ipse sibi ignoscit pro pietate dei;

Ergo si locuples alibi indultoris egebit,

50

Nonne deus referet pro pietate uicem?

Conqueror ergo nichil, concordes simus ut ante!

(I, 49l-5l3)4

One will note from the above extract that repeated

use is made of such ideas as those expressed in: "The
worst is done by him who has the greatest powers. The poor
one, however, does penance for all." "The rich one knows
that God stands at his side. Without God bothering
himself about it, the poor one eats what the spender wants
to throw away." These last two sentences concerning God
are characteristic not only of Reynard's attitude but of
the narrator's. Throughout this epic, the narrator,
Reynard, and several characters utter invectives not only
against the Church and its hierarchy (the pope, cardinals),
but against God himself, seemingly for allowing such
conditions to prevail. In any event, the bitterness
Reynard evidences towards the Deity gives the impression

5

of a strong independent sceptical attitude. Further
statements in a stricter social vein go as follows: "What
the well—to—do and what the poor possess, both belong to

the well-to-do." (I, 499) It even goes so far that if a

rich man wishes anything that the poor man possesses, the

 

“This quotation is not translated since I wish to
illustrate the compactness of the social commentary in
the Latin version of the Beast Epic.

53y sceptical, I imply an untrammeled spirit, one
that has the power in effect to criticize the deity, already
one can see the strength of Reynard's character forming.

51

poor one is charged whether he is guilty or not. The poor
man who is in the right is without rights. (Paraphrase I,
506-510.)

The hate and sarcasm which Reynard expresses toward
his uncle the wolf (who represents the grasping affluent
classes both clerical and aristocratic) are wonderfully
depicted in the two following sarcastic remarks which
Reynard addresses to the wolf: "You have not taken anything
from my rights, what you need, as well mine as your own
possessions, belong to you." (I, 500-502) "You do not need
any excuse since force goes before justice." (I, 505)

These statements suggest that in Isengrimus Reynard

 

has aligned himself with the oppressed (the underdogs) and
his attack upon the rich is represented by bitter and
direct satire.6 One can also surmise from the context in
which this extract is found that there is not necessarily
evidence of a desire for revenge. Even though Reynard
tends to live on the defensive, persecution, deception, or
threats can make him a dangerous enemy, especially because
his reaction is calculated and cunning rather than
pure force.

The fox here seems to represent people taxed and

robbed dry who cannot react violently because of the

 

6Even though the fox's own identification with the
poor is not doubted in Isengrimus, Rufanus seems to doubt
it later when he smiles at Reynard's speech concerning his
enduring poverty.

 

52

superior strength of their opponents, and the fox teaches
that more can be gained by guile than force. Reynard seldom
reacts without forethought and therefore he never threatens
because it would alert his enemy.7 This is evidenced in the
following passage which closes the episode of the ham (the
one including the first social commentary addressed to the
wolf, I, 491-513). "He avoided the words 'I will act' so
as not to lose the possibility of later being able to say

'I have acted'." (I, 527)

Most certainly another maxim in use at present echoes
the above quotation: "Discretion is the better part of
valor." Magister Nivardus uses maxims or proverbs to
conclude various portions of his work. This is most effective
(as well as being in accord with current rhetorical practice)
since they usually recapitulate and distill what the author
has been saying previously. The chapter under discussion,
for example, concludes with the following line. "By delay
the hope is made certain; by rashness it is destroyed."

(I, 528) One can note from all these factors that Reynard
is sometimes molded by the author into something closely
akin to a freedom figure (a Robin Hood, a William Tell).
Besides merely commenting on oppression, Reynard's thoughts,

as presented by Nivardus, indicate (as can be determined

 

7Reynard often reminds one of Machiavelli and his
discourse on political effectiveness (The Prince) wherein
one also finds statements on the value of prudent
deliberation.

53

from the English quotation, I-527) that he plans to do more
than accept the situation. He will regain his rights and
his independence. The subsequent adventures with the rams
then illustrate how the fox begins to take revenge on the
wolf; further the flaying of Isengrim shows Reynard's
dogged pursuit of his enemy, which continues until the
wolf is finally killed by the wild pigs. One should not
conclude from the foregoing statements that I consider the
fox completely altruistic. He does not steal from the rich
to give to the poor, unless one considers him as the only
poor being, and even this assertion is uncertain because
the author describes the fox as plump and fat.8 Despite
this inconsistency of Magister Nivardus, Reynard almost
invariably associates himself with and takes the part of
the poor. This of course could reflect a subterfuge of
the fox to draw pity on himself.

From the author's ambivalence and inconsistency, one
can conclude that not all of this really represents the
fox's character. It is obvious that the author often

speaks through his creations thereby producing paradoxes

 

8Even though he bore no other baggage, he could
hardly carry his own weight for all the fat (paraphrase III,
315-316). The author continues along these satiric lines for
about four or five sentences describing the fox as being so
fat that his stomach covered his hind feet and dragged on
the ground (paraphrase III, 317-328). Consider how completely
inconsistent this is with the earlier description of the fox
nimbly eluding the farmer.

54

in the characterization. When he (Nivardus) himself
philosophizes (for example at the beginning of Book III
(the court day), I believe one can immediately recognize
the same style and manner of commenting; this suggests
to me that when the fox speaks, it could often be the
author talking.9 (Nivardus, at times, does not even try
to make a clear separation between his comments and the
character's monologues or dialogues.) Even the same
rhetoric is used to make the language more effective.
One example where the author ironically seems to be describing
Isengrim's impending plight or where he is editorializing
illustrates this basic congruence:

When fate oppresses the unfortunate, there is

no measure, more and more punishment is meeted out,

suffering does not soon reach its end. It does not

allow for real death, but forces the wish for

demise. (III, 1-5)

The similarity between the author's interjections
and the speeches of the fox is even more apparent in the
soliloquy Reynard delivers after being commanded to come to
the court of King Rufanus. The author leads into this
independent reflective speech with a concise evaluation of
one of the fox's characteristic practical values (Note how

difficult it is to determine where the author leaves off

and the fox begins, in terms of commentary and dialogue.)

9The digression which would be necessary to prove
this point is too elaborate and tangential to the topic
Of this dissertation to explore at this stage. However,
I believe this point holds true.

55

( . Everyone had come out of fear, with the exception
of Reynard.) He thought much more of his burg, which
protected him from the cold of the snow, and he pondered,
even before he was hungry on what he would eat.10 He
said to himself: 'You must be concerned with your own
well-being.' When will it be that he is cared for who
forsakes to help himself? The court has advanced those
who are rich and those who are eloquent, who advance by
shrewdness and their helpfulness: Would the court

summon those whom it does not know, whether they live
[or not]? The rich do not care whether the poor are
present or not. The court does not know whether a needy
one is foolish or wise, dead or alive. If it is known,
he is treated as if he were air. Therefore, the poor
man at court is either despised or not known. The rich
man believes that the poor one is a servant by right.

The wages for the help of the poor man consists of his
being allowed to serve. After completed services, he
remains as before, despised. When a serf asks thanks

for his help, he might take into account the following
questions: what, when, how much, who, for whom, whereto,
where. He who wants to find favor must do the necessary
work on order and also the desired work not ordered
continually. Should I come, must the King order it
expressly, orders I obey. The righteous eagerness to
serve is lost on thankless people, the bear and the boar,
the wolf, they can go! These important ones, who are
feared and made haughty by their wealth, are invited by
the court. He who receives can give back in return. He
who is always feared can fear himself! No one loves

the wretched. No one pretends to fear them. What do

I have to seek with the king besides life? Being poor
and, as this is the right of the poor, I will remain

so; I am not in anyone's favor and no one is in my favor;
I fear no one and also do not want to be feared by
anyone. (III, 65-92)ll

This loose translation should again give the reader an

idea of the significantly reflective nature of Reynard in

 

10This, more than anything else, points out the
fundamental practicality of the fox and again tends to
associate him with the exploited freemen and small farmers
(serfs).
llIlle secus meditans frigus pulsura niuosum
Munia, quid comedat, prouidet ante famem.
Talia tunc secum: 'tibi te sapere,’ inquit, oportet,
Quem tangat sibimet cura negantis opem?
Curia mandauit locupletes atque disertos,

56

Isengrimus. He is a complex "human" being in this epic

 

where anthropomorphization is carried far.l2 Reynard is a

shrewd man and the other animals are in effect also
abstracted human representations except in small vignettes
which bring the reader back to the animal world, in such
parts as Reynard evading the farmer, Reynard stealing a

chicken, and Reynard catching the cock Sprotinus. Beyond

these episodes very little is present to remind us that

 

Qui ratione ualent obsequioque iuuant;

Viuere quos nescit, deserneret aula uocandos?
Non curant proceres, absit an assit inops,
Desipiat sapiat, uiuat moriatur egenus,

Nescit; si scierit, tradit id aule notho;

Ergo aut uilis inops aut est incognitus aule,

Se dignam seruo paupere gaza putat. ‘
Pauperis obsequio est merces seruisse licere,

Et post obsequium uilis ut ante manet;

Queritur officio si gratia, cogitet auctor,

Quid, quando, quantum, qui, quibus, ad quid, ubi;
Utile iussus opus promptu, gratumque morando
Iniussus faciat, qui placuisse cupit;

Ut euniam, iubeat rex nomine, pareo iussus,
Ingratis probitas officiosa perit.

Ursus, aper, lupus (hos proceres, quos gaza timendos
Efficit et tumidos, curia mandat) eant,

Accipiens reddat, timeat, quicumque timetur;
Nullus amat miserum, nemo timere solet,

Quid sub rege michi nisi uiuere? pauper et (illud
Pauperis ut ius est) omnibus equus ero,

Nec cuiquam faueo nec quem michi credo fauere,
Nec quemquam metuo nec mutuendus ego.'

Voigt, Book III, 65-92.

12However not quite as far as in some of the later
‘French romances where the fox is depicted jousting on?
laorseback dressed in the regalia of a knight. Albert-
IWarie Schmidt, Le Roman de Renart, Editions Albin Michel,
Paris, 1963, Ms. photographs ill. Nos. 5, 8, 9.

 

57

the fox is an animal. This also creates problems: the
carrying of the anthropomorphic treatment of Reynard to
extremes sometimes leads to inconsistencies in character,
and that is why the fox seems so ambivalent at times.

In Li Plaid where one finds no such comprehensive
forthright or rhetorical expressions or inner feelings by
Reynard, there appear shorter speeches by the fox on the
same social subject-matter in approximately the same places
as in the Latin animal epic. In this French vernacular
version they are reduced both in length and comprehensiveness.
Therefore, the reader is not impressed with the same sense
of reflectiveness which appears in Reynard's character in
Isengrimus.

In the first passage of this vernacular work, Reynard
also comments on the exploitation of the poor by the rich.

But in Li Plaid, he does so in 31 lines (but in a less compact

fashion than in Isengrimus), rarely developing particular

 

aspects as he does in the Latin poem. 'And although the fox
still ostensibly identifies himself with the poor, his
assertions do not seem as strong as in the former poem.

In line 512 (Roques, 532), for example, (Qar povres hom
qui n'a avoir) Reynard does not refer to himself directly

but speaks of the poor in the third person.13

 

13Even though he sometimes speaks in the third person,
in the Latin poem this is usually (as in the foregoing
quotations) in direct connection with himself (cf. quotation

III, 65-92).

58

In this French version Reynard uses such comments
on poverty to distract Bruun and accomplish his purpose.
The speech itself is no longer separate from the plot of
the story, but serves functionally in the narrative. It
becomes an aid to ensnare Bruun by lowering his guard so
that Reynard can realistically seduce him with the imaginary
honey. The following complete speech will illustrate that
it is no longer really distinct, or a digression, from
the plot (i.e. not abstract) in the sense that the
reflective passages by Magister Nivardus are. In addition,
a single comment as short as this one cannot really provide
the character with a reflective nature.

Qar, Sire Brun, vos ne savez,
L'en dit, sire, lavez,

A riche home, quant il i vient.
Garis est qui ses manches tient.
De primes viant buef a l'egres.
Apres vienent 1i autre mes.

Quant 1i sire les velt avoir.

Qar povres hom qui n'a avoir,

Fu jet de la merde au diable.

Ne siet a feu, ne siet a table,
Ainz manque sor son giron.

Li chen li vienent environ

Qui 1e pain li tolent des meins.
Une fois boivent, c'est del mains
Ja plus d'une fois ne bevront,

Ne ja plus d'un sol mes n'auront.
Lor os lor gitent 1i garcon,

Qui plus sont sec que vif carbon.
Chacun tient son pain en son poing
Tuit furent feru en un coing,

Et 1i seneschal et 1i queu

Dont 1i laron ont a plente.

Qar fussent il ars et vente!

La char lor enblent et les peins
Qu'il envoient a lors puteins.
Por tel afere con ge di,

Beaux sire, avoie des midi

Mon lart et mes pois afines,

59

Dont je me suis desjeunes:

Et s'ai bien mangle set denrees
De novel miel en fresces rees.
(SOS-536) (Roques, 525-556)

One will note from this speech that there are certain
peculiarities. The complaints are directed exclusively
against the aristocracy and, unlike one of the first
contemplative speeches in the Latin poem, God is not
critized for allowing such social conditions to prevail,
nor are the clerics put upon in the same sense. This
tendency towards exclusive criticism of the aristocracy is
reinforced by another shorter speech (seven lines) which
Reynard makes to his offspring before he leaves for court
with Grimbert. The second passage could be said to
correspond to the soliloquy in Isengrimus which Reynard
delivers after being warned of the situation at court by
the king's messenger, the hare.lu

In this later French version, the only thing that
remains to correspond with the second speech of the Latin
poem is Reynard's love for his place of habitation and

his hatred for the nobles, the main alteration in this

passage being Reynard's elevation of himself and his

 

1“One will note that despite the fact that the nature
of these speeches changes in Li Plaid and therefore illus-
trates a variation in Reynard's character, they still occupy
plot positions comparable to those in Isengrimus. In the
French poem, the first passage, where Reynard speaks to the
bear, can be equated with the bitter invective which he
delivers to the wolf in the Latin epic. The second speech
to his offspring in the French poem also precedes his
departure for the court of the lion, as the soliloquy does
in Nivardus's poem.

60

lineage. (1112) (Roques, 1130) He is no longer humble.
Whereas in the former epic, his independence was almost
a devoutly responsible search for freedom within the
community, in this short vernacular quotation it is evident
that Reynard begins to illustrate a contempt which he has
now developed for society.

Enfant 'fet il,‘ de haut lignaje,

Pensez de mes cateax tenir,

Que de moi doie avenir

Contre contes et contre rois:

Que vos ne troveres des mois

Conte, prince ne chasteleine

Qui vos forface un fil de leine.

(1112-18) (Roques, 1130-36)

It is easily seen how much more truncated and simplified
Reynard's ideas have become. His continued desire for
independence at this stage becomes aggressively hostile.15
This passion goes so far that sometimes he even throws
caution to the wind, something he would never do in the Latin
poem where he would realize the impracticality of antagonizing
and fighting all of King Nobel's court (i.e. setting himself
against society).

Also, from the context of this last passage, it would
seem as if Reynard is speaking about people from another
world to which he does not belong. Nor is there any

implication that this means that Reynard considers himself

of more humble origin than anyone at court; rather it

 

15To some extent this hostile independence gives the
fox more heroic proportions.

61

signifies his active withdrawal from society. Such a
withdrawal does not form an integral part of Reynard's

character in Isengrimus.

 

Let us turn for a moment to the structure of these
passages to illustrate how even their form may contribute
to changing the reflective image of Reynard. To begin with,
one has only to refer to the continued reduction in the
length of these comparable passages. In addition, rhetoric
and repetition are reduced or non-existent; the lines are
no longer the dense Latin hexameters, but rather the light
four beat rhyming couplets. Also, the passages are not
phrased with the scholarly dexterity and intellectual

acuteness which is so consistently high in Isengrimus.

 

All this creates a more lively and much less complex and
contemplative character.

Further, although Reynard conveys a similar bitterness
in Li Plaid, the satire is still not quite as sharp as in
the Latin precursor. In this respect, one might compare the
French epic to the Horatian mood, rather than the Juvenalian

bile found in Isengrimus. Because Reynard omits or passes

 

over a number of points cursorily, the final impression is
that the character attaches less importance to the pressing
social problems; hence Reynard appears less humane, and
again less serious and reflective.

The ambivalence of Reynard's identification with the

poor in the first French passage and his identification

62

with the rich in the second, further indicates Reynard's
utilitarian attitude towards the social injustices
prevalent at the time. Because of the aristocratic sphere
against which these short comments are directed, one
encounters new vocabulary elements, such as the use of the
word putaine. Therefore, the 31 line extract from L1 Plaid
could suggest a different point of view. The introduction of
mistresses and the atmosphere of sensual, moral and social 8
turpitude seems more striking in the French version.16

This tendency, together with the continuing decrease in

social responsibility and concern, persists in the translated

adaptation of Li Plaid, Van den Vos Reinaerde, in which both

 

the 31 lines of the French speech and its social satire
virtually disappear. In Van den Vos Reinaerde, the passage
is reduced to a five line statement concerning the plight of
the poor.17 At this stage it is no more than a fleeting
thought and, the biting satire of the earlier French and
Latin passages has completely disappeared from the earlier

Middle Dutch work. The fox in Van den Vos Reinaerde uses the

 

16The emphasis on this point already begins to provide
a glimmer of the sexual evolution which Reynard's character
undergoes in the French version.

l7De Keyser, lines 563-569, p. 21.
Heere Brune, u (h)at crancke have.
Arem man dan nes gheen grave:

Dat mooghdi bi mi wel weten,

Wie arme liede, wie moeten (h)eten
Hadden wijs raet, dat wi node (h)aten.
Goeder versscher honichraten

Hebbic couver (h)arde groet,

rt:

‘-

 

 

 

63

pretence of poverty to further his ends, even more than in
Li Plaid.

Here the identification of Reynard with the poor is
nothing more than subterfuge. Again he creates a pitiful
image only to lower the bear's guard and entrap him with
the lure of honey (line 568). Reynard no longer even
evidences sympathy for the poor; he only draws on these
social facts to serve his purpose which, in my opinion,
can only mean one thing, that Reynard's interest and concern
with the social injustices has now completely degenerated to
nothing more than a perfunctory and utilitarian device to
further his deception. It is for this reason that his

character in Van den Vos Reinaerde sometimes appears so evil.

 

The coldness of this unconcerned attitude (devoid of feelings)
contributes to the increasingly satanic overtones in the
fox's character. In addition, it creates the impression of
a separateness or independence which is just as pronounced
as in the foregoing French version, if not more so.
Regarding a possible parallel to the second passage
(Jauss-Meyer, 1112-1118) quoted from Li Plaid, there remains
no corresponding vignette in Van den Vos Reinaerde. Nothing
is left of the seven lines where Reynard literally and
figuratively attacks the aristocracy and asserts his
sovereignty. In its place, in the Flemish story, is a
comment on Reynard's consideration of his family's safety
before his own life. Whether or not this family-oriented

protectiveness is any outgrthh of the seven lines in

64

French, where Reynard warns his offspring against the
possible assaults of nobles against his castle, is impossible
to tell.18 The moods are very different. This does,
however, point out that Reynard's character changes because
he focusses on different aspects of life. In addition these
observations should satisfy any lingering doubts concerning
the decreasing reflectiveness of Reynard. This change, as
already intimated, results in other facets of this vulpine
character coming to the fore.

Reynard remains a bit more animal—like in this regard
because reflective thoughts, which are presumably charac-
teristic of a human being, are not present, and hence the
awareness of anthropomorphic elements is somewhat reduced.
In this French contribution to the Beast Epic, the image of
Reynard is captured not in self-revealing speeches, but in

19

the evaluation of his actions. This, however, will be
discussed in a later chapter. Although the innermost
thoughts of Reynard are not presented in the French version,
this does not mean that Reynard is introduced as a less
cunning creature. On the contrary, each of the actions by

which he defeats his adversaries (Bruun, Tibert, Isengrim,

shows considerable planning. The only difference here is

18One thing is certain, that the fox is much more a
family man in Van den Vos Reinaerde than in Li Plaid and
therefore he is at times a much more sympathetic figure.
Again this illustrates the utter ambivalence of a literary
creation which thirty lines later may easily return to its
underlying antisocial nature.

 

 

19Although various parts of his character are at times
revealed in the speeches of Grimbert, Nobel, and Isengrim.

65

that the motivation for his actions is not presented to

the reader on a moral or abstract level. This means that
one has a more externalized view of Reynard and, therefore,
that he is in a sense more natural.

In Li Plaid where Reynard is not given to contemplative
philosophizing, the change has resulted in a speeding up of
the action. So the picture of Reynard is more in keeping
with his natural counterpart, i.e. swift and agile. I do
not wish to imply, however, that in this French romance the
action does not at times stop to give the reader a moment of
respite, but the author does not use contemplative soliloquies
to create these pauses. Rather, he uses classical courtly
descriptions which alternate with the narrative, such as the
detailed rendering of the tomb of Coupee. This and a few
flashbacks describing Reynard's earlier victories over
Isengrim stop the action occasionally to provide modulation
of tempo.

On the whole, the fact that Reynard does not open
himself up to the audience makes him more enigmatic and
mysterious, all of which again lends itself to the creation
of a somewhat more vividly natural fox. However mysterious
his reticence, his actions leave no room for doubt; they
speak for themselves. In the Middle Dutch adaptation of

Li Plaid one again finds no sections that could be interpreted

 

as being reflective, or as elucidating Reynard's internal

thoughts. In Van den Vos Reinaerde certain elements, such

66

an the romantic conception and execution of Coupée's
funeral, have been deleted so that the action and the'

plot move forward even more swiftly. This makes the images
of Reynard even more cinematographic: for example, scenes
at court and at Reynard's abode alternate frequently, but
always in direct forwarding of the plot. Reynard's reaction
to society or certain individuals in this work is no less

hostile than in Li Plaid or Isengrimus: his vindictiveness

 

illustrates a continuation and enlarging of the same
characteristics represented in the Latin poem: Reynard's
desire to be left alone as a free spirit. His independent
nature is still an element that comes through clearly. He
understands the workings of the society and combats them in
any way possible when it concerns himself, only in this
instance his motivations seem more selfish than those

encountered in Isengrimus. Again, the emphasis shifts, as

 

Reynard's actions become more and more predominant; as the
interruptions and digressions are reduced, his character

. 20
becomes more overpowering.

It may also be noted at this stage that in the last

two works the amount of dialogue with respect to narrative

 

2OIn many places, it will be impossible for me to draw
on all the selected works equally since they will not all
contain every element which shows the evolution of Reynard.
In Li Plaid and Van den Vos Reynaerde, the point has been
made that no reflective internalized passages by Reynard
are present. This in itself I have tried to point out,
constitutes an evolution of the character. My analysis in
the various chapters may therefore not be balanced due to
a shift of emphasis.

 

67

(i.e. third person story—telling) is significantly greater.

The author of Isengrimus in effect is telling a story

 

rather strongly homiletic in tone, whereas the authors of

Li Plaid and Van den Vos Reinaerde allow the characters to

 

tell their own story through dialogue. Simply stated, they

are more dramatic. This again brings not only Reynard, but

the secondary characters much closer to the reader. In the

second part of the later Middle Dutch-Reinaerts Historie,

moralizing begins to increase and this is further expanded
21

in the later works such as the Low German Reineke Vos.

By the time of Reinaerts Historie, one has almost

 

come full circle. Again Reynard tends to be the sermonizing
and philosophizing teacher. However, in this epic it is
much more inconsistent with the characterization because

the second half of Reinaerts Historie is the continuation

of Van den Vos Reinaerde. Hence the character in the first

 

half of Reinaerts Historie differs somewhat from the one

 

in the second half of Reinaerts Historie. The inner
(reflective) speeches at first seem to be on the order of
Nivardus's social commentaries but more superficially so.
Reynard is no longer the learned doctor of medicine, but

a more folksy, cracker—barrel philosopher who for a moment

looks at the social problems in the world.22 Whether or

 

21Willems, p. 168.

22This impression may in part be due to the language
involved.

68

not the aspect of depth, seriousness or point of view is
related to a particulrr class and time is difficult to prove,
but in my opinion, logically, it can reflect little else,
for an audience must have enjoyed a literature which was
popular at that time,23 and therefore it must to some
extent reflect an intellectual level attractive to its
audience. It seems as if Reynard is here brought to the
level of the audience of Reinaerts Historie, the bourgeois
class, as is seen in the sermonizing and the simple subject—
matter outline of his reflective speeches.24

As in the first reflective speech which Reynard made
to Isengrim in the Latin poem, the first exposition of
Reynard's philosophy in Reinaerts Historie is also to a
second person (Willems, 4136—4273) in this case Grimbert,
to whom the fox explains why he has sinned and transgressed
man's law. First the fox says that in travelling through
this world, one is certain to be contaminated by it. He
implies here that creatures in essenCe are all inherently

unmoral or immoral; all are susceptible to the weaknesses

of greed and avarice and all are most certainly larcenous

 

or, as Reynard puts it: "he who handles honey, licks his
fingers." (4139) He further states: "The prick of my
23

Tinbergen, pp. 29-30.

2“At no time can one interpret the satire, if one wishes
to call it so, as being more than a sermon. Nowhere does it
Euxnsoach the bitter intensity that one finds in Isengrimus
altknaugh it treats substantially the same problems.

69

conscience often awakens me. I want to love God above all
and my Christian fellows as myself because it is God's will
and most right." (4141-45) Reynard wishes to rise above
the temptations of this world, but as soon as he comes
"back" to earth, again he finds many stones (temptations)
in his path so that soon the freedom which he had gained
(in religious contemplation) is lost (4171-73). These
three lines still suggest the continued interest of Reynard
in his freedom, but in an altered form. At this stage,
religious and social freedom are mixed and Reynard no longer
believes that he can retain them in this world, i.e. his
spirit is being debauched by the immoral attitudes he sees
around him. In Reinaerts Historie, the vulpine hero is
always drawn to the weaknesses of success and wealth which
form the basis of his association with what is now an
"urban structure."

Reynard says he learns from society and especially
court to think differently than he speaks, "to lie, to
dissimulate, to flatter, as the lords, ladies, priests,
and clerics are those who most often lie." (4180—84)

One dares not to tell these lords the truth, therefore
flattery must substitute and so, Reynard says, "if I am
not to be shut out I must lie and flatter too, (4185-86).
This is one statement which Reynard would not have made in
such a.context in Isengrimus, Li Plaid, or Van den Vos
Ififliuierde. In these works he would never have given in to

externial pressures.

70

In the second half of Reinaerts Historie and in Caxton's
translation of it, Reynard is in effect worried about being
ostracised. This makes his character appear weaker than the
independent one found in the three earlier works. It should
be noted that Reynard cheats just as much in these earlier
epics as in this continuation, but the motivation differs.
In the former he does so to remain independent of society.
In this latter one, as seen from the above extracts, he has
already given up his independence to become a member of
corrupt society. So Reynard is in effect slowly revealing
himself as just another corrupt parasite who has relin-
quished his freedom to remain part of the community and
live from the fat of the land. (4224)

This diametrically different viewpoint, in my opinion,
illustrates the evolution of society in the course of three
hundred years. In the clerical framework from which
Magister Nivardus speaks in 1149, it is still practicable
in the mind at least to fight against the evils and
corruptions in society, and if necessary, to stand alone in
this endeavor.25 Here the emphasis is on acquiescence to
society and its inherent evils. This I believe is a very
important point because, although both authors are using

sermons and satire to point out the evils within the human

25This may reflect the change from a dispersed agrarian
society in the 12th century to an urban monied one in the
14th and 15th centuries.

71

organization, the earlier Latin poem presents Reynard as
reacting against a hostile world and successfully surmounting
the corrupt structure, largely by corrupting it even further,
fighting fire with fire.26

The later author no longer suggests that it is possible
to resist these forces of evil even though they should be
eradicated from society. It is impossible to accomplish that
end, and this is what Reynard's character reflects. In fact
the author of this Middle Dutch continuation points out
towards the end of his epic in a little epilogue that man
has to begin by changing himself to change the world. This
is a very good Christian ideal, but when these Christian
truths become associated with Reynard they tend to weaken

the aggressive aspects of his character. In the second

half of Reinaerts Historie his character is already weakened

 

because of his dependence on the organized society and

certain secondary characters as we have shown in the foregoing
chapter of this study. Therefore, one could conclude that

the free yeoman type, the Robin Hood characterization of
Reynard, no longer exists. Beginning as a free spirit,
independent of the establishment but concerned with it, in

the Latin poem, he evolves into the antisocial hero of

26This is also true in Van den Vos Reinaerde and
Li Plaid where Reynard releases himself from the physical
peril brought upon him by the court by awakening many of
their corrupt instincts. The tree authors continually
imply that the evil habits of man are instinctive. (This
contrasts radically with the later indulgent viewpoint of
mankind which Goethe expounds.)

 

72

Li Plaid. At length, he attains the height of independence

and disdain for social structure, laws and regulations,

27

which he evidences in Van den Vos Reinaerde. In the second

 

half of Reinaerts Historie by contrast he sinks to the level

 

of a shrewd conniver who operates and survives by his wits
within a framework of social corruption and who wants to
remain part of it. One can see the entirely different
extremes in philosophy. To reiterate, in the Latin poem of
ca. 1150 there is a vengefulness, an activeness, a desire
for improvement, whereas in the Middle Dutch poem of ca.
1375 there is an acceptance of evil. Only a warning remains
that this is the inexorable way of the world, implying the
message which Reynard purveys: protect yourself against

the circumstances since you cannot change them.

Let us return to the fox's speech in Reinaerts Historie

 

(4136-4273). He continues to enlighten his cousin concerning
the reasons why he uses sophistry and flattery, but he says
that even lies must be dressed well, so that they seem fair
(4210-41). The rotten core must be covered so that only the
beautiful exterior is apparent. Reynard is of course making
the point that in effect man wishes to be deceived, that he

does not care how things are in reality, only how they

 

27Van den Vos Reinaerde, incidently, is the only epic
wherein the fox departs for the remote wide open spaces
to remain free from the infringement and oppression of
the court.

 

73

seem.28 He continues by stating that to get his small part
(possessions and advantage), he must lie beautifully,
cunningly. Lie well, he says, and it will be believed
more than the truth. He adds that it is most important to
entrap the audience into believing the lie. Then Reynard,
still repeating the same theme of a lying, deceiving world,
devotes his attention to the judges who learn "to see through
their fingers" (4250—51) when it is to their advantage or to
that of their friends. Reynard ends his speech summing up
by the generalization that there is no one who does not
ultimately succumb to these worldly temptations. (4210-41)
It will also be noted from the foregoing extracts of

Reinaerts Historie that in none of the pieces discussed

 

does Reynard identify himself with the oppressed and the

exploited, as he does in Isengrimus. In other words, he is

 

no longer speaking for a social level that is deprived, nor
does he belong to the poverty stricken majority. He is one

of the luxuriating rich who exploits others and lives from

 

28This question of reality is very important. One has
only to contrast our present conception of death with tha
of the Middle Ages to note the extreme difference. In
medieval times, it is not represented as being glorious or
deceptive, whereas now corpses are dressed to appear as
lifelike as possible which is after all only an evasion of
the full realization of death. Medieval people from the
lowest to the highest realized the reality of death. The
rich reminded themselves of the ephemeral nature of life
by purposely viewing corpses in various states of decom—
position; the poor could not escape the continual con-
frontation with death. All this led to that ability to
live with reality which Reynard shows in all his aspects,
despite all his changes.

74

the fat of the land, although he is not as yet as callous
as the other members of court who no longer see the evil

of their ways. One can see here how Reynard has clothed

himself with some of the despicable characteristics which
the wolf possessed in the Latin poem.

To summarize the evolution of Reynard, as determined
from the information in this chapter, is difficult because
it is necessary to generalize, thus losing or omitting
certain important details. One receives the overall

impression in Isengrimus that Reynard is not yet completely

 

independent of the author. He is still often an extension

of the author's messages, but aside from the inconsistencies

this may cause in the characterization, one is left with

the feeling of a freedom figure concerned primarily with

his own well being, who is at the same time also working

for the general welfare of other "defenseless creatures."
The primary evils in this epic are concentrated in

the personage of the wolf who, at this stage, is represented

as being antisocial and the one against whom Reynard directs

his efforts. But by 1180 the Reynard of Li Plaid has under-

gone a substantial change in that he no longer has his

earlier sense of social responsibility. (This is also

apparent from the lack of contemplative passages which often

evidence such patterns.) He is not yet corrupted by the

society, but he seems to begin withdrawing from it and

committing more hostile acts against it.‘ He is developed

75

in an objective fashion, so that one no longer encounters
the reflective passages found in Isengrimus; hence Reynard
becomes more enigmatic and in a sense less anthropomorphic.
On the other hand, the degree of anthropomorphism in this
version is increased by the number of courtly allusions
which form the setting. For example, Reynard does not walk,
but like Couart, Bruun, and other animals he rides a horse
in the chivalric fashion. Also the king's court is set in
a palace, not merely held in a certain place. (Branch 1,13)
(Roques, 18.)

Thus there exists a certain ambivalence with regard to
the degree of anthropomorphism in the French epic. In
Van den Vos Reinaerde, the French tradition is continued
in that the fox indulges in no introspection, and since
Reynard no longer has the anthropomorphic elements of
reflectiveness nor the courtly settings of palaces and
knightly accouterments, he becomes what I consider least
anthropomorphic in this epic. In Reinaerts Historie and
consequently Caxton's translation, there is a return to the
overriding importance of the moral message and the reflective
passages of Reynard. Hence one again sees a more anthropo-
lnorphic fox, although in this epic the presentation is quite
clifferent from all the precursors.

In Reinaerts Historie his reflective speeches show
that Reynard's social conscience is completely gone: he

iNants to remain a part of the corrupt court and have his

 

76

share. Very little remains to be admired in the character.
His evil nature has passed beyond the stage of his earlier
ambivalence (where the reader could sometimes excuse
Reynard's actions because of the nature of his opponents).
Now he is completely parasitic. Reynard has lost his
strength because he has again become a tool of the author
to reflect the conditions of society, the major change

in his character being the fact that he no longer stands
above the low grasping parasites at court. He is now
merely the cleverest among them, and in effect is used by
the author to exemplify all the evil at court and in society
in general. The translation by Caxton suggests the same

conclusions.

CHAPTER IV

THE RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES

OF REYNARD THE FOX

During the course of this study I have attempted to
build the image of Reynard in the reader's mind by first
establishing a basic framework utilizing those concepts
which epitomize the unique characterization of Reynard.

The most important aspects of his being should therefore
be reflected by the various chapter headings. Using each
of these concepts I have then selected specific examples
to put my assertions in the proper perspective while
simultaneously illustrating how that part of the image
changes at various stages in history.

The discussions of the reflective musings of Reynard
in the previous chapter have already suggested the importance
of their religious1 and spiritual aspects; hence this chapter
should logically focus on Reynard's religious and spiritual
attitudes. In addition it is also true that his concepts
of life eternal, sin and morality grow like those of man out

of his reflective capacities.

 

lI interpret or define "religion" in this case as
anything which deals with attitudes toward the hereafter,
the existence of a soul, and the exercise of the insti-
tutionalized approach to God (Roman Catholicism).

77

78

The spiritual evolution of Reynard has a subtlety all
its own: it does not seem to evolve in an ordinary way.
In fact, one's final impression of Reynard's attitude
toward spiritual and religious matters is that it seems
to remain the same; only the reasons or motivations change.2
In my opinion, this nevertheless involves an evolution of
the character. For example, one already knows that Reynard
has a perfunctory attitude towards God and religion in

Isengrimus. The reasons for this unconcern, however,

 

change in the course of the several works which follow.
Therefore, one might conclude that Reynard is still evolving
inwardly if not outwardly.

In the earliest work, Isengrimus, the situation is

 

complex, as suggested in the previous chapter; it is at

times difficult to distinguish the author's commentaries

or ideas from the personality of Reynard. Nivardus's

strong feelings on religion always come to the fore and
intrude upon the nature of Reynard. Due to the fact that
Reynard often expresses the author's ideas concerning the
corruption and immorality of various religious orders and
clerical ranks, there still exists an indefinable dividing
line where Reynard's own words and actions become incongruous

with certain parts of his character. Hence the author makes

 

2Reynard simply becomes more clearly set in his ways
as his spiritual character is presented chronologically.
This may make him appear to become more extreme.

79

his character seem schizophrenic and therefore the boun-
daries of certain sentiments within the characterization
remain undefined.

One passage which exemplifies this perhaps unconscious
shifting between character and author within the personage
of Reynard is the fox's reproval of his teeth, where he
says that they should follow the example of Anselmus (of
Tournai) (V, 110), not that pannifer (St. Bernard) of
Clairvaux.3 Almost the entire book V, wherein the above
invective is found, is scathingly critical. The tongue
lashing which Reynard gives his teeth in book V is in
effect a structural variation on the reflective speeches
that have been encountered in the previous chapter.“ The
reason it was not included earlier is because it falls
outside the proper limits set for this study.) Nevertheless,
it is sufficiently important as an indication of Reynard's
spiritual and religious sentiments to make it worth deviating
a bit from my set course. This passage, like similar ones
previously cited, concentrates and summarizes what is
essentially the author's purpose in the poem (satirizing

the clergy), and since it is expressed through Reynard to

 

3The Anselmus referred to in his invective was Bishop
of Tournai from 1146—1149. (Van Mierlo, p. 14)

“This reproval of his teeth is made by Reynard after
he loses a fowl and, as such, serves as an appropriate excuse
(for the author) to expand a cutting statement made in book
111, 506 (of variant Ms.E) concerning the avarice and
covetousness of Bishop Gerold. This theme is the one expanded
in book V, 25—134 to include Bishop Anselm and others.

80

some degree, it does augment parts of his character as seen
by the reader. From lines 25 through 134 of book V

(Isengrimus), one finds an invective against the excesses

 

and corruption of religious people on all levels, from
peasant to pope. Although one finds that the first half

of Isengrimus dealt primarily with satire of the monastic

 

orders, this discrimination is forgotten in the second part
and all are blamed equally. Reynard's words, here more
than anywhere else, reflect the author's knowledge of
classical satire as is evident from the following: In book
V, line 98, one finds such a reflection in the extent of
Reynard's disillusion with religion, even perhaps with God
himself, when he states that all are for sale: "Venit homo
argento, venit et ipse deus."5 Along these lines he
continues in the same passage by saying that simony prevails
everywhere, that the church has been corrupted by the
prevailing spirit of the world where the only nobility
that remains is the nobility of money. All serve the same
idol: people, clerics, bishops, and even the pope. (V,
99-100)

Within these few lines, one again finds an incongruity.
In the reflective passages and elsewhere, Reynard has

always allied himself with the poverty stricken people and

 

5Tr."When man comes with silver, God comes also."
Voigt, book V, line 98. Of course, the Latin may be
interpreted as meaning that God is for sale in a symbolic
sense through the corrupt practices of simony and sale of
sacraments.

81

yet in this particular passage and especially in book V,
line 99 the author or Reynard implies that the clerics',
monks', popes', and bishops' inclination for greed and
thievery merely reflect the example of the people.

All of the foregoing extracts fall outside of the
section to be analyzed in this study, but I include them
because they serve the important purpose of showing that
Reynard's invectives against the organized mismanagement
of the church by ignoring its tenets is continued throughout

the work and not merely in the portion of Isengrimus to be

 

dissected in this study. Within the body of the material
leading up to Reynard's appearance at court (which is the
subject of our analysis), one finds similar snide and
sarcastic remarks against various bodies of the clergy.
For instance when Reynard speaks to his uncle in the adventure
of the ham, he says: "Learn to grasp! . . . Uncle! Which
bishop, which abbot refuses to lay hold of (for himself)?
Taking possession is halfway a law, giving is an exception."
(I, 201-202)6 This quotation again emphasizes the fox's
recognition of the avarice of the organized clergy and how
they pervert the laws of Christ by making giving the
exception rather than the rule.

All of the aforementioned statements and implications,

if they are to be attributed to Reynard's character itself,

 

6Patrue, quis presul, quis sumere rennuit abbas?
Summere lex media est, regula rara dare (Voigt, I, 201-202).

82

certainly indicate an immeasurably deep cynicism regarding
not only the corruption within the earthly structure of
religion, but the bias of God himself. This has been
adequately related in the two reflective speeches of the
foregoing chapter where Reynard accuses God directly for
allowing such terrible social conditions to exist: "The
rich one knows that God stands at his side as a giver, God
is ignorant of the poor (I, 495-497) . . . the guilty rich
one remains without accusation and excuses himself because
of the friendship of God." (I, 510-511) It is almost as
if God is personally being associated with corruption.
Reynard is not the only character who criticizes the
corruption of religion. Other creatures such as the rams
and Corvigarius, the horse, slight it in the same fashion.
This would indicate that the ideas expressed by Reynard
might be mostly the author's own feelings since they are
not peculiar to Reynard. Nevertheless, the reader still
has a tendency to assimilate the author's incorporated
invectives as part of Reynard's character. Hence, it is
contradictory that an instrument of the author such as Reynard
should therefore express so little concern with religion
within his own personality. Reynard is completely enveloped
by the author's reforming religious zealotry and yet,
despite all the words that are put in his mouth, fundamen-
tally there remains the uneasy feeling that Reynard is

unconcerned with the world hereafter. There seems to be

83

no fear of retribution or punishment which is or was such
a formidable part of the Catholic dogma.

One point should be made clear to the reader about
the distribution and context of Reynard's irreverent
religious and spiritual comments. In addition to
the invective against his teeth, the religious satire and
criticism of spiritual matters is dispersed throughout the
(work. It is found in the form of short and sharp
sarcastic remarks.

As one continues with the vernacular poems, however,
one does find a definite pattern beginning to appear in
the grain of the works in Reynard's sarcasm and spiritual
comments. Although I may have left the reader with the
wrong impression concerning the preponderance of clerical
satire in the Latin work, this is due to the fact that
Reynard is not yet the dominant character of the later
versions and his ideas on religion and spiritual values,
therefore, do not stand out any more than the ejaculations,
on the same topic, by the other creatures. In Li Plaid
this begins to change. Although there are fewer lines of
religious satire, in the French version it comes more into
Reynard's domain because his character is now more central.
(Hence, more important central ideas are expressed by him
or at least include him.) This is reinforced further by the

fox's adoption of many of the wolf's clerical and antisocial

84

characteristics and associations from the earliest vernacular
versions on.7
In Li Plaid, religion is no longer a major theme or
whipping boy and yet Reynard seems to use it more, for
example, new motifs such as the confession which Reynard
makes to his cousin, Grimbert, are introduced. The lack
of seriousness with which Reynard treats this sacrament
indicates his mockery of the irreverance towards formal
religion. His respect for confession is but a feigned one
because as soon as Reynard has completed his penance he
immediately reverts to his former nature, coveting a
convent's fowl as he follows Grimbert to the court of
King Noble.8
In a second episode Reynard exploits religion to save
his skin by promising King Nobel to go to the holy land on
a pilgrimage. He contrives this punishment by suggesting
that it would be more Christian and worthy of the king to

allow Reynard the opportunity to save his soul by making a

pilgrimage. By not having the fox killed, it is implied

 

7It is always difficult to treat only one part of a
work and evaluate any aspect based only on the evidence
derived from that single section. I can assure the reader
at this stage that I am not making generalizations which
are not reflected throughout the rest of the work or are
not in keeping with the tone of the entire epic.

8The question of the fox's nature and the inability
to conform to social or religious rules is stated by
Reynard himself when he says in the second half of Reinaerts
Historie that it is in his nature to steal and devour fowl.

 

85

that Nobel would also have the benefit of this penitent
pilgrim's prayers. Again, Reynard shields himself behind
religious ideals which he himself completely disregards.
Afterwards, in the third incident, as the hare is conducting
him from court, Reynard commits the ultimate sacrilege when
he attempts to murder Couart using the symbol of peace and
penitence, his pilgrim staff. These three new incidents in
the French romance serve to illustrate the increased
religious and social amorality of Reynard.9 Nowhere does
the fox bring about or even preach reform any longer. Also,
a definite atheistic note now appears more obviously in his
character. The consequent implication of his unconcern
about possible punishment in the hereafter most definitely
reinforces the satanic implications which are beginning to
manifest themselves in Reynard. In this respect, his
religious attitudes parallel and develop the ones expressed
in the Latin poem.

Aside from the three specific incidents or motifs
which make up part of the plot of Li Plaid, there are also

certain small passages, not coupled with the plot, as in

 

9Here again Reynard reflects his times and culture
where social and religious amorality were inextricable.
(There are Eastern religious structures in which morality
does not become a part of religion or the spiritual
experience.) Despite my reference to three new incidents
in the French romance, I do not wish to imply that these
are the only passages which illustrate this facet of his
nature. Some become so disgusting that one wonders where
the limits of Reynard's irreverence end. (Jauss-Meyer
1511-1518) (Roques, 1571-78)

86

the more eclectic Isengrimus which tell something further

 

about Reynard's spiritual attitudes. The first one which

appears in Li Plaid again illustrates the ambivalence of

 

Reynard's nature. It is one of the only places where
Reynard shows any fear of lying before God, indicating that
at least in the French version he sometimes has certain
reservations about how far he will go in provoking the wrath
of the Lord. The wolf relates that when Reynard was asked
to affirm his denial of having any sexual relations with
Hersent, Isengrim's wife, by swearing to this effect upon
V the relics, he disappeared, (37-42; Roques,39-44) the
implication being that he removed himself for fear of
swearing falsely upon these relics.:LO In a second small
passage, one can find further elucidation concerning
Reynard's contrary spiritual attitudes as viewed by another
secondary character of the Beast Epic. When Tibert is sent
out to summon Reynard, he makes the following little
prayer for protection from Reynard to God and St. Lienart
who frees prisoners:

Qu'il 1e gart par ses oreisons

Des meins Renart son compaignon:

Car il le tient tant a gaignon

Et a beste de put conroi,

Neis a dex ne porte i1 foi.
(748-752; Roques, 764-768)

10This inconsistency can easily and logically be
explained away. The author could be satirizing the misuse
of oaths on relics, implying ironically that any one as
evil as Reynard would not be more reticent to lie upon these
Sacred objects than the lords, clerics, and high officials
Who did so often.

87

The explanation and illuminating comments by the author in
lines 750-752 further define Tibert's conception of Reynart's
spiritual character. They show that the cat considers
Reynard a "scoundrel (butcherdog), an animal of bad company
that not even believes in God." (750-752; Roques,767-768)
This last statement reinforces the supposition that
Reynard is in effect a cynic and renders a grim picture of
his implacably hard spiritual being. Nevertheless, there
are further passages which point out the more commonplace
aspects of Reynard's religious viewpoints. In Li Plaid,
for example Reynard speaks of the false monks he knows at
Cluny and Clairvaux, as he spoke of monastic dissipation

in Isengrimus:

 

Qar fusse je moignez rendus

A Clugni ou a Cleresvox,

Mes je connois tant moines fax

Que je croi q'issir m'en conviegne.

(1012-15; Roques,1030-34)
What makes this ironic observation on spiritual hypocrisy
the more biting is the matter of fact way in which it is
delivered. One might almost conclude therefrom that
Reynard thought such deplorable circumstances to be normal
in religious establishments of the time. In addition, the
context in which this short quotation is found again points
out, as his confession to Grimbert and his feigned

pilgrimage, that Reynard readily adheres to the tenets of

religion when they can afford him protection from physical

88

11 As with social laws, Reynard only acknowledges

pain.
their existence when they can benefit him, further estab-
lishing that Reynard will not be constrained by civil or

religious rules, nor by the unwritten moral code of society

in a world which corrupts every one of its ideals.

4:21

It is difficult to tell whether Reynard does not
believe in religion and God because he is inherently
evil and therefore an opposing force, or because such

a belief would mean his destruction, since it would leave

‘5.— —-_-.—i-n_- - in.

him vulnerable to his enemies. Reynard may simply be evil
so that he can survive. This conclusion supports the
disturbing assertion made in the chapter on the background
of Reynard where goodness, weakness, stupidity, and there-
fore vulnerability were said to go hand in hand as
contrasted with strength and evil. This is manifestly
important to the evaluation of Reynard because it is
precisely through cunning and evil that Reynard makes a
place for himself and further he is never punished for his
transgressions; rather he is rewarded for all the evils he
has done. This would suggest that Reynard was inherently
cynical, but again his duality or ambivalence prevents us
from establishing with certainty the reasons for all his
attitudes.

One can see that in Le Roman de Renard, Branche I,

 

religion and spirituality enter into the story on a less

‘

llThe abuse of benefit of clergy was rampant at this
time. After having committed a crime, the accused party
would almost invariably ask to be tried by an ecclesiastical

89

pervasive level than they do in Isengrimus even though

 

Reynard becomes more involved with the exterior manifestations
of religiosity. There is no certain way to describe his

inner orientation towards spirituality other than through

his actions, and these, I believe, tend to show his

increased detachment from the honest religious and spiritual
concern which was more than occasionally manifested by his

comments in Isengrimus. The vacuum created by the diminuation

 

of these honest statements is filled by a perfunctory
observation of religious tenets on a very hypocritical
plane. The deceptiveness of Reynard on a general level is
expanded to include this two-faced religious—spiritual
attitude.

It has been said by such authors as Van Mierlo,l2
that in Isengrimus the heartlessness of Reynard already
approaches hypocrisy and that, although he appears to be
a do—gooder by ridding the world of the avaricious monk
Isengrim, who represents all the vices of the religious
life, Reynard is still basically conscienceless. He is
said to perform this purgation for self preservation, rather
than for altruistic motives. I do not believe this entirely
so, since Reynard embodies so much of the author, Nivardus,

that he does have socially constructive aspects. Not

merely do the results of his actions bring about a better

 

court, if he had any right to it at all, because of the more
lenient sentences and the sanctuary which was also offered.
12
Dr. J. Van Mierlo, Het Vroegste Dierenepos in de
Letterkunde der Nederlanden, N. V. Standaard Boekhandel,
Antwerpen, 1933, p. 69.

 

 

90

existence for himself and those around him, but it seems
from the qualities evidenced by his reflective nature

that there is some pity for others in him. This
suggestion can no longer be made in Li Plaid, nor can one
say that the conscience of Reynard is rehabilitated in the

re-worked version, Van den Vos Reinaerde. The Flemish

 

poem, although following the same plot outline, adds and
subtracts a number of incidents and passages. Some of these
changes give an insight into Reynard's evolving attitudes
towards religion.

The French version contained three basic (religious)
incidents: the perfunctory confession of Reynard, the false
pilgrimage, and the attempted murder of Couart. What follows
illustrate how some variations already occur in these
passages. When Reynard successfully murders Couart in

Van den Vos Reinaerde, he no longer uses symbols of religious

 

piety (the pilgrim staff). The incident has become secular.
The only spiritual impression it leaves is that of Reynard's
chilling and indifferent attitude towards killing. This
does not mean that discussion of Reynard's religious
sentiment decreases throughout, for one finds at least

two additional passages in the Flemish contribution which
enlarge upon the anticlerical foundations laid in the
French version. In the first new vignette, Reynard is
trying to teach Couart his Credo and during this process
Would have killed the hare if it had not been for the

intervention of Pancer, the beaver. (De Keyser, 158-169)

91

The fact that Reynard is ostensibly teaching a creature

to sing part of the mass again indicates how he uses
religion as an artifice to obtain his goal. It is at

this stage that Reynard begins to envelop himself even more
with the cloak of religious hypocrisy. The incident of
Reynard's killing Chantecler's offspring is expanded and
changed from its nonclerical context in the French version
to a decidedly clerical one in Van den Vos Reinaerde.

In the Middle Dutch version, Chantecler is addressing king
Noble and telling him how Reynard came as a hermit carrying
with him a sealed letter from his majesty which declared
peace throughout his kingdom for all animals including the
birds. He adds that Reynard further said that he was now

a recluse doing penance for his many sins. To prove this
he showed the rooster his staff and pilgrim's cape, and
added that now the lord Chantecler would no longer have to
fear for his life because, since he had taken up the stgla
(cloak or shoulder band of a priest), he had given up the
eating of all meat. Reynard took leave of Chantecler saying
that he must now go pray and say prime for this day, but
instead he lay in ambush. (De Keyser, 355—358)

The account given by the cock tells a number of
things about Reynard's spiritual attitudes. Any qualms
which he may have had about using the sacred symbols of
religion to deceive, are undeniably gone. He clearly uses

the accouterments of a recluse and the habit of a hermit

92

to deceive and betray his society. This paraphrase further
indicates that Reynard has no fear of punishment either from
God or the religious authorities on earth. Even further,
the sealed letter declaring the king's peace, which he is
violating, indicates he does not have any respect for
temporal authority either. This small passage again shows
Reynard to be cynical, antisocial and amoral, completely
devoid of any social or religious restraints.

There are a few earlier lines wherein the character
of Reynard as a hermit is already suggested, perhaps in
preparation for the above passage. These occur when
Grimbert suggests the ascetic qualities of his uncle.

(De Keyser, 265-275)

The first main incident described in Li Plaid, the
perfunctory confession, is translated very closely in the
Flemish version and Reynard's spirit in this passage seems
to remain much the same. His confession shows a contempt
for the sacredness of this sacrament similar to that shown

13

in the French poem.

Besides being used as a symbol to illustrate abuses
of sacraments and religious tenets, Reynard ironically
continues to point out the weaknesses of servants of the

Church. Their proverbialwealth is recounted again and

‘

13The idea of confess today and transgress tomorrow
Inust have been as serious an object of satire in the Catholic
Church of the 13th century as it is a hot point in criticism
Oi‘the Catholic Church today.

93

again. For example, if there is one chicken to be had Reynard
finds it in the priest's yard. A second example which points
out the generality of this accusation by Reynard is found in
his confession to Grimbert. Here Reynard relates how he got
Isengrim in dire straights while invading the priest's larder
which is always well filled. Further, in a third example,
where does Reynard see fat fowl but in a convent yard which
he and Grimbert pass on the way to court. What does all this
indicate concerning Reynard's conception of the clergy? In
my opinion, he sees them as a legally invulnerable class:
parasitic, gluttonous, and often avaricious.

These statements hold true for Li Plaid, Isengrimus,

and Van den Vos Reinaerde. The association of the sins of

 

lust and gluttony among the clergy is traditional in satire,
but it is seemingly so prevalent a misuse that when it is

represented in Van den Vos Reinaerde and Li Plaid, Reynard is

 

no longer angry at the affluence in which these priests live.
This in my opinion means that contrary to Reynard's attitude
in the Latin poem, he now believes that corruption is a normal
inescapable part of the clerical estate. Another incident
with cogent religious implications is found in Li Plaid

and again in Van den Vos Reinaerde where it is expanded to
include secular incentives. Reynard uses his wiles to
extricate himself from his impending execution, but unlike
the development in the French version, which rests almost

entirely on the religious benevolence of King Nobel, the

94

author of Van den Vos Reinaerde adds to this the profit

 

motif of the treasure at Hulsterloo. This would indicate
that there does not even remain a semblance of religious
motivation for Reynard's pilgrimage. Greed for gold governs
Nobel's and his wife's decision to allow Reynard to make a
pilgrimage and do penance. Reynard, of course, has
developed his defense in such a manner that the king can
release him under the guise of religious leniency without
losing face by having it said that he released Reynard in
return for the treasure. This shows that Reynard even
manages to recognize and tap the religious hypocrisy in
others.
Another indication of Reynard's disregard for spiritual
integrity comes to light in the process of convincing the
king and queen of the truth of his words. Putting on a
sorrowful countenance, Reynard addresses the queen as
follows:
Noble queen, even if you had not admonished me [to
tell the truth] I am one who believes he will die, I
would not let anything lie on my soul, because if it
were so that it happened to me, I could be in hell
because of it, where there is torment and pain.
(De Keyser, 2182—88)

The king is still not very sure of Reynard's sincerity so

he, as the queen just did, asks if Reynard is telling the

truth and again despite the fact that he is in peril of

95

death he lies using, as before, the same argument:14

building confidence on the idea that a condemned man
wouldn't lie and consign his soul to hell. This indicates
one of two things concerning Reynard's spiritual attitude:
either he is not afraid of punishment in the hereafter, or
he does not believe in the soul and life after death. These
viewpoints are heresy or at least unorthodox.

Thus the interest of Reynard in religion and his
spiritual develOpment still continue to diminish, although
the passages of the stories which illustrate this unconcern
have increased and worked themselves into the grain of the

vernacular versions.

In Reinaerts Historie, the mood of Reynard's religious

 

attitude, as found in Van den Vos Reinaerde, is continued.
The story opens with Lampreel the rabbit complaining before
king Nobel and showing how Reynard has hurt and almost

killed him the day before. "Dressed properly as a pilgrim,"

 

“De Keyser, lines 2203-2210, p. 80:
"Waer?" sprac Reynaert, "vraechdi mi des?"
Jane weet ghi wel hoet met mi es?
Ne bewaent niet, edel coninc,
Al bem ic een aermijnc,
Hoe mochtic sulke moert ghetemen?
Waendi dat ic wille nemen
Eene loghene up mine lange vaert?
En trauwen neen ic, sprac Reynaert.

15This of course may also be a comment by the authors
on the general veniality of the worldliness of mankind.

96

(Willems, 3525)16

he had deceived the rabbit as he had the
cock and the motif of Couart the hare singing his credo is
reiterated in a vague way. Again the motif of confession
is repeated in the second half of Reinaerts Historie with
the same results. No sooner has the fox completed his
penance than he reverts to his former nature. One peculi-
arity in both these confessions is that Reynard does reveal
his true nature; he does not lie to Grimbert his confessor.
Of course, this may simply be a mechanism of the author by
which he can reveal Reynard's character to the reader and
introduce short episodes or vignettes which could not
logically be included into the story any other way.

After Reynard cleanses his soul and Grimbert warns
him that having sent back the head of Couart to court will
hurt his cause much, Reynard explains his attitude towards
religion and life in one of the reflective passages. First
of all, he said that since he has confessed he is no longer
afraid to go to King Nobel.17

The sophistry of the speech wherein Reynard depicts
his realistic attitude towards the world has the result

that Grimbert answers that with all his insight Reynard

should have become a priest. Grimbert further states that

 

16In the same passage, he is addressed by the author as
"die rode scalke pelgegrijn" (3500) indicating the diversity of
the attitudes towards the same personage. The rabbit is trust-
ing, the author is cynical concerning Reynard's adoption of

the faith.

l7Willems, lines 4120—4122, p. 163. (This is the same
passage analyzed in the chapter on reflective aspects of the

fox.)

97

he and all others should come and confess to Reynard,
indicating that Reynard's compromising, hedging approach
towards the spiritual ideals of life personifies the
priesthood to characters such as Grimbert.

In the English translation of this passage, Caxton
increases Reynard's emphasis on clerical weakness by
concessions made for reasons of temporal practicality and

sloth. Where Reynard stated in the second half of Reinaerts

 

Historie that he cannot keep on the straight and narrow

because of the many temptations of this world, Caxton has

Reynard make more allusions to the moral weakness of the

priests, as is seen in the following quotation:
But in a short whyle after whan the world cometh in me
thenne fynde I in my waye so many stones/ and the fote
spores that thyse loos prelates/ and riche preestys goo
in/ that I am anone taken agayn/ . . . /And I here that
these prelates and richer curates preche and says a1
other wyse/ than they thynke and doo/ There lerne I to
lye/ the lesynges ben moste used in the lordes courtes/
certainly lordes/ ladyes/ prestis and clerkes maken
moste 1esyngis.l8

The English translator primarily emphasizes Reynard's

traditionally contemptuous view of the servants of the

Church, whereas these sentiments are presented in an

informal fashion in Reinaerts Historie. The way Caxton

 

phrases them gives both Reynard and his words additional

strength.

18Edward Arber, ed., The Histogye of Reynart the Foxe,
The English Scholar's Library of Old and Modern Works, 1,
London, 1878, p. 94. As with the previous editions, all
subsequent references to Caxton's translation will be from
this edition, utilizing page numbers of the text.

 

98

To return to the Middle Dutch work and its religious
sentiment: Reynard tells his cousin that it is impossible
to live in this world and remain uncontaminated by its evils;
that he would like to rise up to God and follow all the
tenets prescribed by Christ, but that invariably he falls
back into his former ways. The spiritual picture Reynard
has sketched of himself in this passage in my opinion
represents the almost classic stereotype of the Pharisee.

Unfortunately, (in these passages and subsequent
quotations) the importance of the words and their weight
relative to their context varies enormously. For example,
initially Reynard's criticism of religion commenting on the
spiritual dissipation of most of the world is presented
in a very serious context. However, the spirit is lighter
in the vernacular versions than in the bitter Latin poem;
even an air of acceptance and humor begins to inject itself
into such passages. This is why I treat the following
excerpts out of their normal order.

In Li Plaid, when Tibert is caught in the priest's
barn, he manages to extricate himself after having partially
emasculated the priest with his claws, and, as he runs away
the cat makes a passing comment that many a bell tolls well
with one clapper. The anti-clerical inference and
scatological implication in Li Plaid are expanded and
placed in Reynard's mouth in the Van den Vos Reinaerde.

This creates a situation wherefrom the reader derives the

99

definite impression that Reynard treats the infractions of
the priest (living with a concubine, as in the French

version, or married, as in the Flemish version) as an

19

opportunity for coarse humor. In Van den Vos Reinaerde

 

the fox addresses Dame Julocke, after she has complained
about the priest's loss and her consequent misfortune, 3
because he would no longer be able to play the "sweet game,"
as follows: Be silent Julocke, sweet lady, and let sink
this grief; even though your lord has lost one of his
clappers, it will trouble him very little. It is no shame
that he'll toll but with one bell. Thus Reynard consoled
Dame Julocke. (paraphrase lines 1290-99)

From this passage, the reader can easily determine
the lack of respect which Reynard has for the clergy and
their manner of living. This feeling persists because in

the later manuscript, Reinaerts Historie,one finds the

 

same passage given a prominent place, in addition to which

the author of Reinaerts Historie also returns to the more

 

classical form of clerical satire which (as in Isengrimus)

 

speaks of the simony and general corruption of the bishoprics
and papal courts.

In Reinaerts Historie, when the fox explains to King

 

Noble about his excommunication, he invents the story about

 

19The French contribution does not develop this
opportunity for low comedy which does so much in the
Dutch works to indicate Reynard's complete lack of respect
for the clerical position.

 

his uncle Mertin, the ape, "who is wiser than any priest

3n20

[matters and he continues that

0
cf.
H-
0
Q)
t...)

in learned and pra
Mertin had told him not to worry about the absolution from
Rome because, he said, there lived his uncle Simon who was

powerful and very elevated. He enjoyed helping those who '

would give something. There also reside Prentout, Luisterwel, ~1
Scalcvont, Geeftm', and Greepsnel, who are all our next of

.. . ,_, 21

kin. (paraphrase 4556—61) “a

 

From this short parrphrase of Reynard's statement,

the reader can observe the return to the classical preoc-
cupation with simony as a major organized church corruption
as contrasted with the sensual indiscretion and gluttony

of the individual priest. As Reynard continues his story

to King Nobel, he uses religion and his supposed association
with the power structure of the Church of Rome to intimidate
the ing, for he says that xertin told him not to fear that
the king might harm him. For if he did, the ape would have
the entire land brought under papal interdict, so that no
one could be buried, no mass could be sung, and no baptism

or consecrations could take place. Reynard continues by

. 22
alluding to a cardinal ’an Valoot, who was young and very

 

Nillems, lines 4422-23, p. 173. ”die weiser is dan
enig paap van grammarien ende practiken."
21 , ,.
These names could respectively be translated as
Graspall, Listenwell, Tricky-intriguer, Giveme, Graspfast.

Etymologically Van Valoot could relate to the
expression in F1 mish veel lood, meaning having much lead
or being heavy with money or, as I have been told, it

could be translated in English as Cardinal Plenty loaded.

 

101

influential, the real power behind the papal throne. His
concubine (another comment on the depravity of Rome) just
happened to be the niece of Mertin and she would, upon his
urging, advance their cause (4590-4617). Caxton's free
translation makes this passage even more explicit when he
states: "And the cardynal of pure gold hath alle the myght
of the court" (Arber, p. 71). In this particular episode
concerning Mertin's help, the author accomplishes a number
of things through Reynard's stentorian delivery before the I
king. He shows the cleverness of Reynard and his boldness

at using pretended pressures from the Church at his weakest

moment to threaten the king, invariably employing religion

as a weapon for evil. It is now possible, I believe, to

make a few acceptable generalizations about Reynard's

attitudes towards religion. From the first work to the last,

Reynard shows that he has no real personal interest in

religion, God, the hereafter, or any internal development

along these lines. Reynard seems only concerned with the

problems and the practical necessities of this world.

Although in Isengrimus he does not entirely withdraw himself

 

from taking a serious viewpoint in his satire on spiritual
matters, he personally remains unaffected. His invectives,
when directed against every level of society, including
even God himself, seem merely to reflect the author's
ideas; the statements never appear to be part of Reynard's

character. [Paradoxically, when reading these passages

102

they seem to reflect heartfelt sentiments (the authors'?)
with no hypocritical, snide, or sarcastic intent.] In the

first 2950 lines that were utilized for analysis of Isengrimus,

 

the religious aspects are not yet a fundamental part of the
plot (although they are in the second half of the Latin poem).

In the French vernacular contribution, there is a

.1-km-AL- Ha.

general tendency to build religious satire into the plot,
although the intended audience is a more secular one.

This religious satire becomes more important to this study

 

in the vernacular versions because it invariably centers
around Reynard. Also, the fox adopts more of the evil
clerics' grasping and corrupt characteristics, which
emphasizes his involvement even more. It is in this
version that one can see a definite element of change
occurring in Reynart's outlook on religion. More and more
he begins to use it to serve selfish secular ends. His

attitude lacks whatever depth it may have had in Isengrimus.

 

This acceptance and adoption of corrupt clerical
methods to obtain his goal is continued and expanded in

Van den Vos Reinaerde where the criticism is, however, made

 

in a lighter, almost off-hand manner by Reynard himself,
as well as by the author. One might almost say that the
vices are treated as foibles. In Van den Vos Reinaerde,
the fox by his more tolerant attitude toward infractions
by clerics shows that he is beginning to accept clerical

gluttony, corruption and sensuality as an inevitable fact

103

of life, although he himself does not yet become enslaved
to this corruption. He only uses his various deceptive
ploys to stay alive and obtain food, not for social gain.

In Reinaerts Historie, on the other hand, he pays
continuous lip service to religion, and explains in his
reflective passages that he can do little more because of
the bad example set by the clergy in general; therefore he
also continues his practical exploitation, but now in a
more parasitic fashion. This same vein is continued in
Caxton's translation where, in my opinion, it becomes
even more conventional.

I would conclude that as far as Reynard's character
is concerned, his viewpoint towards religion tends to
become increasingly utilitarian and cynical as the Reynard
tradition develops. The greater the egocentricity of
Reynard becomes, the less believable are his invocations

of God.

u 1'2 1' PM all

 

CHAPTER V

THE SENSUAL ATTITUDES

OF REYNARD THE FOX

This chapter on the attitudes of Reynard toward
sensual pleasure and sex follows the one concerned with his
reliEious nature in order to enable the reader to contrast
these seemingly divergent but actually closely related
facets of life.

The spiritual, or more formally and narrowly the
religious core of a human being is closely related to his
sensual mores, and the latter are often an outgrowth or
a reflection of the thoughts instilled by the former. The
intimate relationship between these two sets of experience,
thoughts and/or feelings (concerning the religio—sensual
aspect) is made abundantly clear in a number of mystical
treatises. It is equally apparent in such evocative works

as The Divine Comedy where the link, fundamental love, the

 

binding force of life, transcends the confines of the human
body and mind and learns to approach, if not understand,
the Divine.

In the character Reynard the fox, the evolution of
his sensuality is not unlike that of his spirituality.

Perhaps this is because of the already mentioned relationship

104

 

105

between these two connected and yet different aspects of
life. It has been pointed out in the previous pages that
Reynard ultimately had a very shallow, temporal, and
pragmatic viewpoint of religion. By and large, one can

say the same thing of his sensual attitudes. There is no
love in Reynard's character, except for one notable exception
in two of the vernacular works. But in these instances the
love is of a domestic nature. (1400—30) (3885-3940) It

does not include amor or its religious equivalent.

 

There are a few examples which suggest caritas,l as

opposed to amor and those occur in Isengrimus when Reynard

 

reflects on the dire fate and exploitation of the poor.
Because the fox is generally incapable of the spiritual
experience which makes a Christian a Christian and on a
temporal level a human being more human, he seems to set
himself apart from society.2 He rarely makes errors in
judgment, everything is calculated to attain a goal.
Emotional weaknesses rarely obscure his discernment. This
in a sense makes the fox a completely rational being,

something the anthropomorphic animal society with which

 

1However, the charity of Reynard, even in Isengrimus,
again presents the perplexing problem of whether or not the
sentiments expressed are the author's or Reynard's (Love,
pity, and interest in his "fellow man").

21 only use the term "Christian" in this statement
because it relates specifically to the medieval Catholic
context in which Reynard is immersed. On a philosophical
plane these experiences, of course, transcend the boundaries
of any one religious doctrine.

 

106

he is involved seldom is. Of course, this also implies
that the fox can only discern on one level. Reynard is
incapable of the religious experiences which a "true"
believer can attain because his emotions or feelings will
not depart from the practical. His level remains a
terrestrially restricted one. The general inability to
convey tenderness or feeling in the religious sphere
overflows into his sensual attitudes where he is not able
to express love or compassion either.

In the earliest work, Isengrimus, one already begins

 

to have an idea of the unscrupulousness of Reynard on the
sensual level. Although in Manuscript A of Magister
Nivardus's work the allusions to sexual transgressions are
still very vague, one can determine from a few lines spoken
by the wolf himself how unfeeling Reynard is in this regard.
In this earliest work the implication of revenge against the
wolf is not even present, making Reynard's transgressions
even more heartless. This is made clear in the resigned,
almost uncomprehending words of Isengrim when he comments
on Reynard's behavior:
0, Reynard, what an uncouth Brabander you were one night
But here, however, you would have been a patient
Englishman if you had not played Satan!

What shame should I allude to first, the one you
did to my wife, or the one to my children?3

 

3Ha, Reinarde, illa quam Brabas nocte fuisti!
Ilic, nisi te Satanas glutiat, Anglus eris!

Quid mea, quid referam, que natis probra meeque
Feceris uxori? nonne fuere palam?

Voigt, lines 49-52, p. 7. (Cf. chapter concerning
cunning)

J

"L

 

107

The shame obliquely referred to here by the wolf is presumably
the rape or seduction of Hersent, although the reader will
note that it is nowhere formally described as such in
Manuscript A. (It does appear more concretely in Manuscripts
B, C, and D and in the subsequent vernacular versions,
particularly 11, Va and I of the French branches.)u

It is of sufficient importance to recognize that at
this early date the implications of Reynard as a seducer
or ravisher already exist. One will note that among the

implications of sexual transgression, in Isengrimus, there

 

exists the association of Reynard with Satan and perhaps
Satan's well—known reputation in this field. Whether it
is because of the author's sense of propriety or his lack
of interest is hard to determine, but he never goes into
specifics on this sexual theme. The passages are left
unemphasized.

In the only other vignette which could be interpreted
as involving sexual or sensual characteristics of Reynard,
one finds Nivardus callously describing the nature of the
shame which Reynard did to the wolf's offspring, urinating
and defacating on them, but that part of the description
concerning the female wolf's shame is by no means so
precise. The situation is as follows: the wolf is at a

monastery. Reynard has invaded his cave and defiled his

 

“Manuscript A is the one referred to in this

dissertation unless otherwise stated.

lhfl".

_7;._

mt '13 '

108

children. Their mother seeks revenge and Reynard goads
her into carelessness, and in pursuing Reynard she becomes
stuck in a narrow opening. When Reynard is certain that
she cannot extricate herself, he jumps out through another
opening and without pity he begins to throw all sorts of
insults in the face of the unfortunate one, and then "he
jumped to all sides and showed his joy in his actions,
wherefrom developed even greater pain for the emprisoned
one; thus Reynard jested and made his joy known."5 Again,
the reader may be hard put to determine from this selection
if there is any sexual connotation present. Lines 816—818
which speak of Reynard jumping to all sides and showing his

joy is the pivet point around which much discussion can be

centered. The other manuscripts of Isengrimus are a little

 

concrete in their presentation and Voigt, judging from the
interpolations and his comments on the different versions
in Latin, describes Reynard as the seducer of the she—wolf,
although she herself is presented as a sensual and rather
lascivious creature6 in some manuscripts as she is in

Branch II of Le Roman de Renard.7 A passage of this early

 

vernacular contribution points out an unsettling similarity

 

5In faciem misere ludiera probra iacit
Circumquaque salit, gestu sua gaudia testans
Ut magis herentis cresceret inde dolor.
Voigt, p. 305, lines 816-818.

6Voigt, p. 305—306.

7The influence of Hersent's character invariably
reflects on the reader's conception of Reynard's orientation
in this respect.

 

"TI

109

8 .

between the passage of Isengrimus and Branch II. I make

 

no suggestions or implications about which came first, but
in both situations where the female wolf is attacked she is
tricked into a narrow opening from which she cannot extricate
herself.

In analyzing the implication of Reynard's sensuality,

in both Isengrimus A and the other manuscripts, we find that

 

the reason for Reynard's actions are not his sexual urges
or romantic inclinations, but a desire to hurt both Isengrim
and his family by making him a cuckold and by defiling his
offspring.9 '
This theme, as already suggested, is continued an
enlarged in a number of French versions. Li Plaid opens
with an exposition and description of Reynard's sexual
transgressions, further indicating the importance of the
sensual theme in the Reynardian epic as a motivating

factor that is similar to, but more concrete than the one

found in Isengrimus. The opening lines of the narration

 

serve the same purpose as the words spoken by the wolf in
the Latin poem; they inform the reader about the reason
for the fundamental conflict, the only difference being

that in Isengrimus the shame which Reynard does to the

8

In this early French contribution, the she-wolf also
becomes trapped in a narrow opening where Reynard takes out-
right sexual advantage of her as in Isengrimus, the main
difference being that in Branch II the language is much more
explicit (1250—97) and the female wolf's reply (lines 1281—
82) suggest psychological acquiescence if not desire for
sexual relations. (cf. Jauss-Meyer, pp. 70—72.)

9Voigt, p. 305-306.

 

 

 

my! P

 

__A——

 

110

wolf's mate is not as explicitly stated as in Li Plaid,:LO

nor is the revenge of Isengrim as clearly suggested in the
Latin precursor. The French branch continues with the

major theme as the dialogue of the story begins and the

wolf denounces Reynard, at the court of King Noble, for

q

I O 1 l q’ I 0
his sexual tran ares3ions.L initially, the wolf in Branch

(1)
C

I is somewhat reserved and ambiguous concerning the how's

and why's of Reynard's transgression, as in Isengrimus,

 

but soon his descriptions become abundantly clear by
recurrent references to his wife's misfortune. In addition,
the impartial explication of the author (example lines 8-10),
reiterates the preoccupation with the fox's sensuality in
Branch I.

This continued emphasis stretches the sensual-sexual
aspect of Reynard's character out of all proportions and
he begins to appear more sexually oriented and more
licentiously rapacious than later narrative and dialogue

l2
3

evidence bears out. In lines 93 and 94 of Li Plaid,

 

10 v

Jauss-meyer, ne 8— 0, p. 174 (Roques, 3—5)

De la grant f ‘ c' r
Que Renart fi

Envers Dame H

11 .. . l .
Ibld., lines 30-35, p. 174 (Roques, 30—37)

Car me fai droit de l'avoutire

Que Renart fist a m'espossee

Dame Hersent, quant l'ot serree

A Malpertuis en son repere,

Quant il a force 1i volt faire,

Et conpissa toz mes lovaux:

l2 .. . - A _ . .
Ibld., lines 93-94, p. 178 (Roques, 93—98)

Eust ma fame en sa baillie

Contre son gre l'oust sesie:

 

111

the wolf makes it seem as if the situation is rape and

deception, as in Isengrimus, rather than seduction. Lines

 

99-10213 continue the wolf's invective which now turns
against his wife. The continued preoccupation of Isengrim

with this matter makes it seem as if he were trying to

J?

convince himself of his wife's involuntary involvement.lu

Ironically, he continues reprimanding her in the French

~m“;

version.

In Isengrimus, one finds no such implications. In

 

fact, as already suggested, the entire statement by the

wolf concerning Reynard's transgressions only comprises

two or three lines which do not contain any allusion to

the wolf's possible disappointment by his wife's conduct.

In Li Plaid, the Latin poem's simple reserved statement is
expanded to fit the chivalric romance tradition and its
preoccupation with sensuality and courtly love. Again, I
believe it important to emphasize that Reynard seems to be
artifically thrown into this courtly context and even

though he is made to seem more sensual, the sexual motivation

of the character is still not consistent with his complete

 

l3Ibid., lines 99-102, p. 178 (RoqueS, 99—102)
Hersent, dont vos vint en coraje,
Quant Renart qui est fox garcons
Vos monta onques es arcons.

1“The character of the wolf in this passage appears
much like the traditional stupid cuckold husband of the
romances who draws his shame down around his own ears.

112

being. The added comments by Hersent confuse any conclusion
which the reader may have formed concerning Reynard's
character. She asserts that there was no.rape or seduction
and addresses Grimbert explaining that "Reynard never did
anything with her that he could not have done with his
mother."15
Since the reader, because of the previous knowledge
supplied by the author, already knows the truth concerning
this matter, it only makes Reynard and Hersent appear in
a worse light. She continues her defense by asserting that
her mate is entirely too preoccupied by his belief that he
has been made a cuckold. Other animals, such as Bruyant,
also accuse the she-wolf.l6 One notices the graphic language;
there is no beating around the bush. This statement by the
bull takes Reynard's transgression out of the courtly milieu.
The only thing which brings Reynard back into the context

of the chivalric romance is the answer which Grimbert gives

to Lord Bruyant explaining that:

 

13Jauss-Meyer, lines 149—150, p. 180 (Roques, 147-148)
C'onques Renart de moi ne fist
Que de sa mere ne feist.
In Li Plaid some of the expressions already begin to take
on the characteristics of fabliaux rather than romances,
however, it is my belief that Reynard still fits most
comfortably in the category of romance in this work.
l6Ibid., lines 100-103, p. 178 (Roques, 100-103)
Certes ce fu molt grant damaje,
Quant Renart qui est fox garcons
Vox monta onques es arcons.

 

113

since Reynard had not used force nor broken into the
house, nor transgressed the king's peace, if he joined
her rather because of love, then anger and accusation
are not justified. Since he has loved her (for a long
time), she did not feel reluctant about it if he did
so, but by my head, Grimbert added, Isengrim took it
too hard.l7

These three contradictory passages express the
different ways in which Reynard is seen in Li Plaid. He is
presented as innocent, coarse, and courtly, all within fifty

lines. The resultant total impression is that Reynard is a

 

courtier of evil proportions, somewhat like Don Juan. His
own later statements during his confession further indicate
his hypocrisy.

Further emphasis is placed on the theme of Reynard's
sensuality when it is resurrected during his confession to
Grimbert, at which time Reynard speaks with false courtly
modesty about his transgressions with Hersent. Unfortunately,
this passage does not clarify Reynard's intentions since he
gives no reasons for his transgression. It is merely an
admission of guilt. (This passage is almost exactly the

same in Van den Vos Reinaerde.) The topic is broached once

 

 

17

Et puis qu'il n'i ot force fete,

Ne huis brisie ne treve enfrete,

Si Renart li fist par amors,

N'i afiert ire ne clamors.

Pieca quil l'avoit amee

Ja cele ne s'en fust clamee,

S'en 1i en fust: mes par mon chef

Ysengrin l'a trop pris en gref.

Jauss-Meyer, lines 109-116, (Roques, 107-114)
Unlike the Latin poem, the point is made that Reynard did
not enter the wolf's domicile by force.

114

again at Reynard's trial before King Noble where he defends
himself by enquiring how, if Hersent did not complain about
his indiscretion, he could be called the attacker of his

friend.18 The cunning use of words such as "friend" (amie)

 

in the foregoing paraphrase illuStrates how the fox influences
his judges avoiding the possibility of developing latent
hostility by putting this situation in an entirely different

context. Note also the continued detachment of any passionate

 

elements. Reynard, when he speaks of this past transgression,
sometimes seems to be talking about someone else's experience.

This idea of detachment is consistent from Isengrimus through

 

Caxton's Historye of Reynart the Foxe. This makes the

 

legitimacy of any assertion concerning the real sensual
nature of the fox doubtful, despite the fact that the theme
of Reynard's rape-seduction of Hersent is much discussed and

expanded in Li Plaid.19

 

l8 . - .
Jauss-Meyer, lines 1256-1258, p. 232, (Roques, 1289—1291)
Et quant ele ne s'est chamee,

Sui ge lecheres de m'amie?

Li fox jalox en a envie:

19Reynard's sexuality is also an extremely important
and central theme in a number of other French branches,
such as II and Va. Referring especially to Branch II, pages
70-72 of Helga Jauss-Meyer, lines 1261-1296, and Branch V,
p. 78-80 of Jauss—Meyer, lines 265-275. It will be noted
that of the five earliest works in medieval French, three
contain this sensual theme and develop it. The two earliest
branches II and Va, written in 1176 are very much concerned
with it as is Li Plaid (Branche 1) written in 1179. (Cf.
Helga Jauss-Meyer, page 7.) The proverbial French preoc—
CUpation with matters of the "heart" seems justified in this
case at least, although this theme decreases in later French
vernacular branches as it also does in the late Flemish
Reynard. This, in my opinion, indicates that the class

115

In the subsequent Middle Dutch contribution, Van den

Vos Reinaerde, sensuality is deemphasized and Reynard's

 

love of family replaces the void created by the deletion
of a number of standard courtly embellishments (such as

the extended unpleasant commentary by Isengrim against
Hersent). The concern of Reynard with his family has its
beginning in Li Plaid but on a different plane than in the
later bourgeois versions. In the aristocratic French
sources, the love is not expressed as a personal quality
which guards the safety of an individual. On the contrary,
in Branch I love seems to be expressed in the respect for

family honor. It is not until Van den Vos Reinaerde that

 

the fox becomes preoccupied with what we understand as
family love. In my opinion, this again reflects the change
in social orientation of the particular author. The

Middle Dutch contribution seems to be bourgeois in outlook
showing the initiation of a bourgeois value system in which
the husband and family man is a more developed creature.
This may be the partial answer to explain the Middle Dutch
parody of courtly life. The obvious point seems to be that
each author reshapes Reynard's sensuality to conform with
the norms of the class he represents. For example

Isengrimus barely touches the theme of Reynard's sensuality;

 

 

for which a literary work is written, very much determines
the mood and development of the character involved, and
also which aspect is stressed.

 

116

Li Plaid, however, expands it greatly, whereas Van den Vos
20

 

Reinaerde emphasizes his familial attributes.

In Van den Vos Reinaerde, the fox seems very sincere

 

and warm with regard to his wife and especially his offspring.
He is ready to endanger his own life rather than sustain a
siege in his castle which might endanger the lives of his
family. The idea is not developed in Li Plaid, and going

even farther back to Isengrimus, one finds no suggestion of

 

any family life for Reynard. This aspect, which is

realistically and sentimentally developed in Van den Vos

 

Reinaerde is repeated with almost nauseating false

 

sentimentality in the second half of Reinaerts Historie
where the fox is again summoned by Noble and brought to
court by Grimbert. The over—developed emotional outburst

in Reinaerts Historie is of course in keeping with the sly,

 

parasitic hypocritical character which Reynard assumes in
this late Middle Dutch continuation. As Reynard's family
sense degenerates in the second half of Reinaerts Historie
so does the picture of his sensuality. This is not so in

Van den Vos Reinaerde where various courtly elements are

 

continued in the fashion of Li Plaid although they are
always deemphasized and somewhat curtailed. For example,
in matters pertaining to the fox's assault on the she—wolf,

there is no long discussion in Van den Vos Reinaerde between

 

 

2OThis bourgeois version stresses elements which
contribute to a strong family structure. (It is surprising
how consistently each of these various authors portray their
chosen class ideals.)

117

the various animals concerning Hersent's rape or seduction.

To illustrate this point more clearly, the author of Van den

Vos Reinaerde, when he presents the matter of Reynard's

 

assault on Hersent, does not construct a long argumentative
discussion in the courtly manner of the French Branch I.

On the contrary, the subject is deemphasized and.presented
more as only one of the many complaints by a number of
creatures against Reynard. Isengrim's shame is no longer

a central cause around which the work revolves. However, as
in all the foregoing works, one again encounters the initial
two—line complaint by the wolf concerning the mistreatment
of his wife and children.21

Returning to the central theme of sexuality, Grimbert,

in Van den Vos Reinaerde successfully defends his uncle, as

 

he did in Li Plaid. He stresses the courtly love aspect of
the relttionship between the fox and Hersent suggesting that
Reynard knew her long before her marriage and that he had

her troth.22

 

21F. De Keyser, lines 73—77 and 95-98, pp. 3 and 4:

Dat hi mijn wijf hevet verhoert,

Ende mine kindre so mesvoert

Dat hiese beseekede daer si laghen

Datter twee noint ne saghen

Ende si(jn) worden staerblent.

Ne ware mijns wives lachter

Ne mach niet bliven achter

No onversweghen no ongewroken"

Doe Ysengrijn dit hadde ghesproken,
22P. De Keyser, lines 235—245, pp. 9-10:
Dat hi claghet on sijn wijf
Dier Reynaerde hevet a1 haer lijf
Ghemint, so doet hi hare.

_ 3' 1.. .i ‘4'

_ .9“. ‘.

 

118

Despite the superficial similarity between these
passages in the old French and Middle Dutch version, there
is an underlying change. The san differs. Even though

the Grimbert of Van den Vos Reinaerde attempts to create

 

the sophisticated French attitude, there are a number of

factors which make the picture a parody of the French f?
precursor. Partially it may have been the author's intent !

to satirize French courtly conventions, but the added

element of the difference in language enters into this 8
situation. For example, the courtly lover whom the badger

describes in Van den Vos Reinaerde just does not seem to

 

be real, partly because the language simply does not allow
the same sophisticated courtly expressions, as lines 235-
245 of the Middle Dutch version indicate. The image
portrayed by Grimbert is one of a country squire, in
contrast to that of the sophisticated courtier in the
French version. It is not far fetched to suggest that
this difference in presentation reflects on the sexual

picture of Reynard himself. Indeed, the rural courtliness

 

Al ne makeden zijt niet mare,

Ic dart wel segghen over waer

Dat langher es dan .vij. jaer

Dat Reynaert hevet hare trauwe.

Omdat Haersint, die scone vrauwe,

Dor minne ende dor quade zede

Reynaert sinen willen dede,

Wattan, so was sciere ghenesen!
This, in my opinion, suggest the feudal courtly covenant
whereby the lover became the vassal and the beloved his
liege lady.

119

of Grimbert alters one conception of Reynard to render a
more robust picture.23
The trickster who comments on the priest's loss of
one of his vital organs, (vital, that is to Dame Julocke),
as a result of Tibert's defense, is much more in keeping

with the easy going relaxed attitude towards sensuality

which is developed in Van den Vos Reinaerde. In effect,

 

sex becomes a subject of humor to Reynard rather than a
possible source of passion, as is common in the fabliaux
tradition. His consolation to Dame Julocke already
discussed in the previous chapter on religion is the most
explicit example. The subject of sensuality is nevertheless
fleetingly recalled in Reynard's confession to Grimbert

with an additional satirical comment by the fox which

again places Reynard outside the courtly context. He tells

of the necessity to speak with the greatest delicacy about

 

23There is a peculiarity about the picture of Reynard's
sensuality as it is presented. Only once is his sexual
transgression touched upon in direct narrative. In all other
instances, one sees him from the various viewpoints of the
other animals. This of course means that one has no standard
point of departure, but a number of conflicting viewpoints
which serve to create an image of Reynard by association
rather than by direct narrative. This is true in all the
discussed versions of the Beast Epic where Reynard's sexual
transgressions are always viewed in retrospect by a third
party. The elaborate emotional courtly concern with love
which was illustrated in L1 Plaid is deleted as new family
foci are created.

 

120

such matters as the sexual adventures of his aunt Hersent.2u

Considering the mock seriousness with which Reynard makes
the above statement, he again seemingly laughs at the
sexual preoccupation and flowery embellishments of the
aristocracy. It is worth mentioning that in the French
counterpart of this passage, although the words seem very
similar when Reynard refers to his transgression (Branch
1), the mood is entirely different; the propriety of his
careful speech in this instance seems to be made seriously
by him. There is no comic intent that I could discern.25
Mockery has not yet appeared. The importance that the
language plays in all these versions will be commented on

separately towards the end of this chapter.

Continuing on to Reinaerts Historie, one finds only

 

one major passage which comments on Reynard's sensuality.

It is a description by the wolf of his wife's rape while

 

ZuP. De Keyser, lines 1650-54, p. 60:

Jeghen hem, sone roucke ic niet
So zeere, als dat ic verriet
Vrauwe (H)erswenden, sijn scone wijf,
Die hi liever hadde dan sijn selfs lijf.
God die moet mi vergheven.

P. De Keyser, lines 1665-70, p. 61:
Reynaert sprac: 'Neve Grimbeert,
Ware dat hoofschede groot,
Of ic hadde gesheit a1 bloot:
'Ic hebbe gheslapen bi miere moyen?‘
Ghi zijt mijn maech: (h)u souts vernoyen,
Seidic e(e)neghe dorperheit.

25Jauss-Meyer, lines 1030—31, p. 222 (Roques,1048-49)
Sire, g'ai este entechez
De Hersent la feme Ysengrin.

 

121

she is caught in icy mud. This episode seems to be a

synthesis of the earlier vignette in Isengrimus of how

 

the wolf lost his tail, which is now identified with

Hersent and Branch II where Reynard rapes the she-wolf

 

 

while she is trapped. On the whole it suggests that R
Reynard's sensual character has changed for the worse. The A
mood can only be expressed by the original passage. There g

is no longer any hint of romantic love or courtliness left. +_
This is pure and vulgar rape as the following highlights

indicate:

So wat si tooch, si en mocht niet loos

Uten ise; doe hi dat sach,

Liep hi daer toe a1 dat hi mach,

Ende spranc (haer) achter op tlijf: 2
Och, daer vercrachte hi mijn wijf! (6300—04)

Ic sach hem beneden op haer staen
Crijtsen, lijtsen, steken, slaen, 27
Als men pleegt tot sulken spele. (6311—12)

Dits moor t, cracht ende verraet, 28
Dat u scerpelinc te rechten staet. (6353—54)

What gives the above passage veracity for the reader

in both Caxton and Reinaerts Historie is the fact that

 

 

26Tr. "And however much she pulled, she could not free
herself from the ice. When he saw that, he ran there as
fast as he might and jumped upon the hind part of her body.
0, there he raped my wife." Willems, 6300— 04.

27Tr. "I saw him below standing on her, scratching,
forcing [entry], sticking, and hitting as one does at such
games." Willems,6311-12.

28Tr. "This is murder, rape, and treason that you
must mercilessly (sharply) do justice to." Willems,6353—54.

122

Reynard does not attempt to deny his physical actions. On
the contrary, he describes them using many of the same
potentially incriminating words which Isengrim utilizes.
This, of course, increases the plausibility of his explanation
when he states that he was pushing and pulling at Hersent
only to free her from the ice. Any suggestion that Reynard
might be speaking the truth simply does not fit his
character at this stage. The fox would never help free

any one, much less the mate of his enemy, but there still

is no direct information to explain his assault on Hersent.
The impression remains the same as in the previous works:
Reynard delights in producing physical and psychological
pain in others. This impression is reinforced by continuous
examples of Reynard's fiendish forms of vengeance, such as

the flaying of the wolf in Isengrimus and the partial

 

29

skinning of Bruun, Hersent, and the wolf from L1 Plaid on.
This evidence, in my opinion suggests a sadistic approach
on the part of Reynard from which one might conclude that
his passions (if he has any) would be satisfied by sadism
rather than ordinary sexual relations.

In The History of Reynard the Fox, one finds a very

 

close translation of the foregoing quotation and yet the
mood differs. If the reader will compare the following

lines, he will note from the outset that there is a

 

29The attack on Hersent, however, is difficult to
interpret as vengeance because in each instance it has
occurred before the contemporary action of the epic.

 

123

difference in milieu created by the relative formality of
Caxton's English

she helde her tayl so longe that it was frorn
Harde in the yse and coude not plucke it out/And when
he sawe that, he sprange up after On her body. Alas
there rauysshyd he and forcyd my wyf so knauisshly
that I am ashamed to telle it, (Arber, p. 94)

I sawe hym bynethe upon my wyf shouying and stekyng
as men doo whan they doo suche werke and playe (Arber,

pp. 94-95)

. this is murdre/rape/and treson/whiche ye ought
to doo justyce theron sharply. (Arber, p. 95)

If one compares the foregoing excerpt with the more colloquial

appearance of the Middle Dutch passage in Reinaerts Historie,

 

one immediately notices that the different combinations of
sounds simply present another picture of Reynard.3O

There are specific vocal qualities in each of these
allied languages and in my opinion they help to create a
different Gestalt because of their respective idiomatic
configurations. Each vocabulary by its nature places
Reynard in a different milieu. It is the difference in
the sequence of vocalizations which alter the reader's
impression of Reynard through the different versions. This
is not only true for the sexual- sensual aspect of Reyr ar d,
but it is most obvious here because more strenuous emotions
are involved. I would make one observation on the foregoing
hypotheses: the Germanic languages on the whole seem to be
able to convey descriptions of crudity and vulgarity much

more vividly than their counterparts in the Romance languages.

 

30I suggest that the informality of the Dutch version
may also be related to the verse form.

Effifl

124

The sounds themselves are used by the author of

Reinaerts Historie to create a strong sense of repulsion.

 

For example, in line 6312 of Reinaerts Historie the words

 

crijtsen, lijtsen, steken, slaen, by their sound as well as

 

 

their meaning when read in sequence effectively convey the

7

Ar
_\.I ~[

manner by which Reynard commits this rape. Caxton's words

loose much of this power when he merely says shouyng and

.ol.":‘lhill:'l

 

stekyng. The sounds and meaning of these words form a

 

more detached and reserved picture. Therefore, Reynard is i
also viewed in a more detached manner in the reader's mind,

which ultimately means that the reader is not as intimately

and emotionally involved with the Reynard of Caxton as he

is with the one of Reinaerts Historie. Of course, it must

 

be pointed out that these authors are not ignorant of the
influence of linguistic qualities. It is my belief, for
example, that Caxton is purposely making Reynard a bit

more impersonal to allow him to be more of an exemplum.

The importance of the language, in this respect, can

also be ascertained in some of the earlier contributions.

If one takes an episode from Branch II wherein a vignette

is presented, which is surprisingly analogous to the foregoing

passage in Reinaerts Historie, one finds an immense

31

 

difference.

 

31Jauss-Meyer, lines 1274-1280, p. 70:
Et Renars prist la queue aus dens
Et li reverse sor 1a croupe
Et les deus pertuis 1i destoupe;
Puis 1i saut sus liez et joianz,

125

From the content, one could easily suggest that the
author of Reinaerts Historie used branch II as a source.
One can observe, however, that although the image is just
as clear in this French passage, the author's narration in
this vernacular does not add to the grossness of the image.
The sounds of the French language are more sonorous and
therefore they do not add to the crudity of the picture as
the Germanic examples do.32 Going back to the earliest

source in Isengrimus, the statement concerning this supposed

 

rape is made as follows:

In faciem misere ludiera probra iacit,

Circumquaque salit, gestu sua gaudia testans,

Ut magis herentis cresceret inde dolor; (V, 816-818)
Again, this episode of Book V reflects the same basic
architectonics of the chronologically later passages in
other works, which have already been discussed. In this
instance it also forms part of the author's narration. One
can see from the configuration of syllabic sounds that

although the language has a more intrinsic melodious quality

than the Germanic tongues, it is not as musical as French.

 

Si 11 a fait ses iex voianz,
Ou bien li poist ou mal li plaise,
Tout a loisir et a grant aise.

32One simply does not seem to encounter the same
strident sounds in sequence in a Romance language. I add
to the foregoing statement and to all the conclusions and
suggestions I make in the text of this dissertation regarding
linguistic properties that they express my personal opinions.
It is to be understood that comparing sound and languages in
an esthetic sense is artistic and, therefore, subjective by
its very nature.

 

126

There does exist the possibility for strident rasping
sounds to compound the emotional vulgarity of this passage,
but the author has chosen not to use them. In my opinion,
Latin is more versatile in this respect than French. Hence,

the author can use the sounds of the language itself to ,

' F's; "F,
Iva ""

D

conjure up or reinforce more diverse feelings.
Thus far, I have touched only on the coarser elements

and how they are affected by language. I have not yet

 

spoken of the linguistic properties of Li Plaid and Van den

Vos Reinaerde, which follow a more reserved and courtly

 

tack. Nevertheless it is possible to compare the more

elevated philological elements of these works and ascertain

a similar influence resulting from the inherent characteristics.
For the sake of simplicity, I will return to some of the
quotations which have already been employed in my discussion

of the early Flemish and French contributions. In attempting
to present a sophisticated elucidation of courtly love,

Van den Vos Reinaerde is able to convey some delicacy but

 

,the sgg which the French linguistic form can help to impart
simply cannot be realized within the limits of the Middle
Dutch language. The sounds of the early Flemish fight the
idea for which the author is striving. Nevertheless, he does
manage to create an aristocratically believable picture of
Reynard's sensuality. If one compares the quotation where

Grimbert speaks:

127

Dat hi claghet om sijn wijf,

Die Reynaerde hevet a1 haer lijf

Ghemint, so doet hi hare.

Al ne makeden zijt niet mare,
Ic dart wel segghen over waer
Dat langher es dan .vij. jaer
Dat Reynaert hevet hare trauwe,

Om dat Haersint, die scone vrauwe,

Dor minne ende dor quade zede
Reynaert sinen wille dede,
Wattan, so was sciere ghenesen!

with its source in Branch I:

Et puis qu'il n'i ot force fete,
Ne huis brisie ne treve enfrete,
Se Renart 1i fist par amors,

N'i afiert ire ne clamors.

Pieca que il l'avoit amee.

Ja cele ne s'en fust clamee,

S'en 11 en fust: mes par mon chef

Ysengrin l'a trop pris en gref.
Voiant 1e roi et son barnaje,

(235-245)

Gart Ysengrin a son damaje! (109-118; Roques, 107—116)

One notes that the difference in sounds colors the defined

meaning of the words to create a courtly context which

cannot be portrayed half as well in Middle Dutch by chosing

only a few words from each of the immediately foregoing

quotations: door minne ende kwade zeden, compared with

 

Ii fist par amors, one can ascertain the inherent sophis-

 

tication of the French over Middle Dutch. To put it another

way: one language supplies a truly courtly setting and the

other a country squire imitation wherein the morals are

simplified, rectified and somewhat criticized, since minne

and kwade zeden are equated, something the true French

 

san of courtoisie would never allow.

 

Hence, one can conclude that each language has an

inherent outlook peculiar to itself.

This outlook is given

qt— .

128

purpose by the mode of thinking which predominates in each
linguistic group and this in turn is due in part to the
predominant social strata. (Generalizing somewhat, one
finds, as far as the Reynard epic is concerned, that
chronologically Latin may be roughly equated with the tone
of the clergy; French with that of the aristocracy; Dutch,
English and German with that of the bourgeoisie.) Therefore,
one might conclude that each language most clearly conveys
the sentiments for which its pre-eminent cultural ideals of
that time stand. It is quite apparent that this influences
the reader's conclusions concerning Reynard as a sensual
animal. For example, of all the versions encountered, it
is my opinion that in the French version his presentation
seems infinitely more courtly when compared to English,
Dutch, or German contributions.

In summarizing this chapter, I will follow established
procedure and confine myself to the general impression each
work left regarding Reynard's sensuality. The evolution of
Reynard's sensual-moral aspect, in my opinion, resides as
much in the individual author's relative emphasis of the
topic as in any variations which he may supply. Structurally
it remains in the same fundamental position of a flashback.
The Latin version circumvents or bypasses the issue almost
entirely. Li Plaid reemphasizes it and uses the wolf's
complaint as a more striking point of structural and social

departure with many of the coarse implications of Branch II

 

129

removed. Van den Vos Reinaerde continues the Li Plaid

 

tradition, deemphasizing the courtly setting and expanding
the familiar life to overshadow the sensual aspect of

Reynard as presented in Branch 1. The author of Reinaerts

 

Historie and Caxton reemphasize this old topic (sexuality)
with the vulgar elements going beyond the bounds of Branch
II. This increase is due in part to the differences between
the qualities of the Germanic and the Romance languages and
the respective class outlooks on the same subject. The
overall impression is that Reynard's sensual-moral character
degenerates.

If one were to make any generalizations at all, it
would be to concur with the conclusion in the foregoing
chapters which state that the authors tend to degrade
Reynard's character as the tradition of the Beast Epic

becomes older.

 

CHAPTER VI
THE CUNNING OF REYNARD

THE FOX

This chapter, like the previous ones, describes an

aspect of Reynard's character which cannot be taken in it

 

isolation. When I discussed Reynard's reflective and
religious nature, it was necessary, in order to clarify

my analysis, to include many factors which were not strictly
speaking a part of those special aspects of his character.
The same is true in this instance. To separate Reynard
into portions is no more possible than to arbitrarily
compartmentalize the character of a human being, and after
all one must repeatedly remind oneself that Reynard,
although ostensibly an animal, thinks and acts like a
human being. I do not believe it possible in the general
sense of the word to envisage this personage as an animal.
One identifies oneself too closely with the thought
patterns of Reynard.

To return to the reason why this chapter on cunning
cannot be taken in isolation and must be placed at the end
of this dissertation, one only has to recall two facts:
the first that cunning is such an all-enveloping principle

in the character of Reynard that it emerges and dominates

130

131

almost every aspect of his literary life. Cunning, it will
be noted, is the common bond between all the elements
discussed in the preceding chapters. Secondly, it is only
logical that it be discussed towards the end of the character
analysis, since its all—pervading spirit can help draw
together the many elements that compose this personage and
create a coherent picture of the whole being.

Before initiating any discussion of a comparative
nature, I believe it necessary to define certain terms and
to suggest some of their implications. For example, cunning
as the major feature of the fox's personality has been known
since time immemorial. It was a major feature of Aesop's

fables, as it was in Physiologus and in the later bestiaries.

 

Therefore, it is not surprising that this element of
Reynard's make-up should remain a mainstay in the development
of a number of episodes in the Beast Epics. When speaking
of cunning, however, it is necessary to be able to differ-
entiate and associate certain allied mental faculties.

These are intelligence, learning, and wisdom. Each of these
words suggests something besides its defined meaning and
each contains a series of connotations. Intelligence, for
example, is a relatively neutral word which has rather few
associations with good or evil. Learnedness, perhaps a

more narrow range of cerebral competence, suggests a less
innate faculty of the mind. After all, this represents

acquired knowledge. Wisdom, on the other hand, is usually

We" 703.“...-
J I.

132

something associated with good. It represents knowledge

in the form of experience and age, and in a sense combines
the faculties of intelligence and learning. Cunning,
however, has entirely different connotations. It is
associated with an innate intelligence and at times learning,
but rarely with goodness and, therefore, seldom with wisdom.
On the contrary, a personage of evil reputation is often
said to be cunning. It is for these reasons that this
particular term applies best to Reynard's tendencies of
temperament.

In this chapter, I will endeavor to show how the
factors of shrewdness,l intelligence, learning, and evil
come together in different quantities to create the
individual formulas of cunning in each of the beast epics.
Throughout the various works, there is a definite variation
in the composition of Reynard's cunning character. For

example, in the earliest of the beast epics, Isengrimus,

 

Reynard's learned nature comes to the fore, and if his
character ever has any benevolent ideals associated with
wisdom, it is in this story where the author occasionally
confuses the reader by injecting his own ideals into
Reynard's personality.

In Magister Nivardus' contribution, Isengrimus, there

 

are basically three methods of indicating cunning upon

which I will draw. Type A consists of episodes peculiar

 

lMeaning cunning without evil implications.

133

to this Latin Beast Epic. Type B encompasses the different

epithets which reflect Reynard's other mental capacities

in addition to his cunning. Type 0 represents those

episodes which are echoed in later beast epics. Some of

the motifs of this category remain in an unaltered form,

whereas others change in the course of their adoption or I
are replaced in later contributions.

Of type A, I will only use one example to establish
the basic principles of Reynard's cunning which will serve
as a foundation for the analysis of his crafty exploits in
later versions. At the opening of Isengrimus, the wolf
is about to devour the fox, who has been cornered by his
own carelessness. The first thing Reynard does is to
initiate a delaying tactic, trying to ingratiate himself
with the wolf by constantly referring to him as uncle.
Next he uses sophistry to gain more time, to cool the
wolf's temper and appeal to his adversary's vices, in this
case gluttony. First Reynard speaks self-effacingly, then
he asks his uncle what honor he would derive from killing
a poor helpless creature. Next the fox adds that his
death would only bring damage and shame to Isengrim.
Moreover the wolf would no longer be able to receive

Reynard's counsel.2 Reynard emphasizes and elucidates

 

2Voigt, I, lines 170-78. This statement regarding the
counsel of Reynard in my opinion traces back to the old
belief that the word Reynard meant counselor, although this
is only one of the etymological definitions of Reynard's

name. (cf. Willems,'LVIII).'

1 134
this point by concluding with the moral that "shrewdness
lifts the obstacle of weakness."3 This is the ultimate
in audacity. Reynard is in effect telling Isengrim that he
will deceive him. As the episode continues, the fox uses
another basic ploy from his bag of tricks. He utilizes the
existing circumstances to better his situation. In this 1
instance, he sees a farmer walking by carrying a side of “a
bacon on his back and immediately creates a cunning plot
whereby the wolf and hopefully he himself can obtain some
victuals. The plot has the alternate purpose of drawing

the wolf's attention from the fox.

In aspect A of Reynard's cunning in Isengrimus, I

 

have illustrated two basic principles, found in all beast
epics, concerning the working of Reynard's mind:

1. He plays for time to calm the temper of his adversary
(delay tactic).

2. He seizes whatever opportunity is available to
distract his adversary and focus attention upon
something or someone else, always using the Achilles
heel of the animal. This might be a machination of
the fox's mind as in the instance of the court day
of the vernacular versions, or a fortunate circum—
stance, such as the appearance of the farmer with

the side of bacon in this vignette.

 

3Exiguos artus cumulata peritia pensat,
Conciliant artes debilitatis onus. (Voigt, lines 177-

78)

135

The foregoing represents but one of the examples in this

category which could be drawn on in Isengrimus.

 

Category B, the epithets or images applied to Reynard
by the author or another character, tend to divulge or
explain part of Reynard's cunning character. These statements
usually give insight into the variation or ambivalence of
Reynard's image as other personages see him, depending upon
the circumstances. Reynard is repeatedly referred to by the
wolf and the farmer as Satan, in this episode, because of
the cunning he exhibits. This is evident from two represen—
tative passages that follow:

Perna michi, dabitur? quo ratione Satan?
[Voigt, 1, line 190 (Wolf addressing Reynard)]

Non equidem vulpes, sed quater ipse Satan!
[Voigt, 1, line 344 (Farmer cursing Reynard)]

These epithets tell quite a bit about Reynard and his
cunning ways. Although one might receive the impression

that in Isengrimus the animals do not see through Reynard's

 

wiles, this would be incorrect. The wolf, when he is about
to lose his skin, carefully avoiding a situation which might
make his fate worse, remarks, with obvious reference to
Reynard: "Scorpio blanditur uultu, pars postera pungit,"
(III, 595). Another reference to the hypocrisy and danger of

Reynard's cunning is in III, line 767. In III, lines 908-10,

 

“Other examples involving the comparison with Satan

and his cunning are found in 1, lines 21, 50, and 227.

136

Joseph the ram finally sees through Reynard's cunning and
says so in open court accusing the fox of ulterior motives
and dissembling:

Reinardus praua calliditate uiget,

Ut fauet, hortatur, non ut sapit, inuidet ergo,

Abba bone, auspiciis emoriturque tuis; (III, 908-10)

These epithets as the foregoing show how Reynard's

character is slowly constructed in the reader's mind through
the reiterated statements.

Other epithets relate to Reynard's more intellectual

aspects. In Isengrimus, for example, he has the title

5

 

physician. The wolf is presented as a quack doctor, a
foil for Reynard's real knowledge gained to some extent as
a graduate student in the famous Italian medical school
(Salerno). He is well versed in the interpretation of
celestial phenomena, the analysis of urine and the use of
herbs. It is also suggested that he knows a number of
languages, since he is able to count in Hungarian, Turkish,

and Latin.6 Other epithets which refer to his shrewdness

are found when such words as archiater and its variants are

7

 

used. These epithets should give a good introduction to

 

5Voigt,ZIII,1ines 261, 821, 867, Reynard is repeatedly
referred to as physicus or medicus.

6Ibid., III, line 382 (see footnote in Voigt which
gives interesting insight into Reynard's parentage.)

7Ibid., Reynard is also called callidus archiater,
turbidus archiater, and cautus ut archiater respectively
in lines 775, 1087, and 1113, to cite a few expressions
of this nature in Book III.

 

_ v—“v ."y

137

where and how these short statements help to determine and
elucidate Reynard's cunning and wisdom for the reader.

Li Plaid gives us a few more epithets which bear on
Reynard's mental characteristics. In this vernacular

version, he is often referred to as an evil thief, a person

7 ‘—'—v

whose diabolic nature deceives the whole world as the
following quotations indicate:

Fors dan Renart tant solement
Le mal lere, 1e soulduiant, (22-23; Rogues, 21-22)

Se cil qui tot 1e mont conchie, (92; Rogues, 90)

Con oi ore grant diablie
De Renart qui si me conchie! (923—924; Rogues, 941-942)

These are only three of the comments made upon Reynard's
cunning by the author and King Noble respectively. The
first quotation by the author indicates the vieWpoint that
he himself has concerning Reynard. Somehow the theme always
returns to Reynard's ability to deceive. This information
is still in keeping with Magister Nivardus' earlier
description. However, in Li Plaid there are few if any
references to Reynard's learning, especially with regard

to being a physician. Instead, one finds his cunning
turning in a direction associated more with lechery.8 This
observation corroborates the statements already made in the

chapter on the fox's sensuality and this seems only logical.

 

80f. Jauss-Meyer, ed. after Martin, lines 892, 1164-65,
1172-73. Corresponding lines in Roques are 910, 1182-83,
1190-91.

138

Reynard's mind could hardly be oriented in this direction
without the purpose of his cunning being influenced by it.

The epithets in Van den Vos Reinaerde alter this

 

picture again. In this instance, there are few references
to his learnedness and only one to cunning that could
involve sexuality. He is cften called simply evil (fel), .
but unfortunately this word in its medieval context tells
little concerning the actual implications of Reynard's
mental qualities. However, one quotation already used
echoes what the Middle Dutch evaluation of his mental
nature is:

Hi sal (h)u smeeken ende lieghen

Mach hi, hi sal (h)u bedrieghen

Met valschen woorden ende met sconen 9

Mach hi, bi Gode, hi sal (h)u honen. (485-88)

This statement by King Noble summarizes what Reynard was

to a great extent both in Isengrimus and Li Plaid and it

 

illustrates the same methods which he uses everywhere:
beautiful false words, lying, deceitful and pleading words,
all designed to harm (honen) his adversary in the end.10

Only in Van den Vos Reinaerde the purpose already begins

 

 

9Tr. "He will plead and lie to you. Can he deceive
you, he will. With false and beautiful words can he, by God,
he will do you damage." De Keyser, lines 485-488. De Keyser
lines 2519, 2883, and 3404 also illustrate the variety of
expression wherein Reynard's lying deceit is shown.

loThe fox is also called liar in Isengrimus, but the
connotation does not seem as prevalent: Ex. "Commentator
ad hec, leuiter sanaberis', infit." (Voigt, I, line 589.)

 

 

 

139

to shift to the cunning use of words themselves rather than
the actions they evoke.

When Reynard describes himself, he does not particularly
emphasize his deviousness, but does indicate how important a

part of his character this aspect is

if. "r; II"

Kendi Reynaert den rybaut
Den roden scalc, den fellen ghier! (938—40)

The meaning of the word sgalg in this particular context is

clear, meaning either deceiver or trickster. The other

word rybaut is simply a variation of the word §2a12_with the
added connotations of a vagabond or free spirit and poacher.

On the whole, in Van den Vos Reinaerde, there is a more

 

repeated emphasis on his deceitful and corrupt nature as
reflected by his cunning. This means that when the reader
analyzes the cunning of Reynard in this particular version
through these reiterated epithets, he receives the picture

of a personage whose orientation for survival lies outside
the society. His deceits are never curbed, or limited by

any moral qualms which a society might impose upon its
citizens. In Reinaerts Historie, this tradition is continued

11 . .
to some extent. However, there are some new additions

 

which, if anything, define the form his cunning takes in
this version more clearly than the epithets have in any of

the earlier contributions:

 

11Again the words scale, fel, reappear as expressed
in lines 3502 and 3503.

 

140

Met synre gevensder tale
So waer gi spreect daar windi die pleit!
So scoon kundi u fallacien! (3641,3780-81)
Deze valsche moordenaar fel!
Hi can syn loosheit cleden so wel.
Recht oft ewangelie ware. (4647-49)
What do all these epithets indicate about the course of
Reynard's cunning? As it has evolved from Li Plaid through '

Van den Vos Reinaerde and finally through Reinaerts Historie,

 

the emphasis on shrewdness in speaking much more than in
thinking has finally become plain. One might say that in

Isengrimus when Reynard has a cunning thought, it is worked

 

out in the action of his adversaries, whereas in the
original parts (second half) of Reinaerts Historie and the
earlier vernacular versions it gradually becomes more of a
cunning rebuttal at a trial. Here Reynard disposes of all
charges and evidence against him because of his ability to
speak well. This is certainly what the above quotations

indicate. Words such as pleit (3780) refer to a formal suit

 

at a trial. One will also notice that his speeches are so
cunning, as seen by other animals (Lampreel, lines 4647-49),

that his lies literally seem like gospel (ewangelie). It

 

should, however, be pointed out that Reynard's cunning use
of language is not the only quality which leads to the

formation of epithets; repeated use is made of the word

141

"murderer" which places his cunning in an even worse light

than one limited simply to deceit.12

This selection of epithets from Reinaerts Historie

 

should suffice to indicate the orientation of Reynard's
cunning in this work. There are other outright references
to his listich (crafty) and te rade (deliberating) nature,
which do not bear bad connotations, but none compensate for

13

the ones which present him in a less favorable light.

' I

These particular statements, when found in Caxton's trans- ,
lation, do not present anything really new. Hence, one can

summarize the evolution of Reynard's cunning, as concluded

from the epithets, as one which gradually moves away from

the complex intellectual and learned orientation in

Isengrimus to the barrister debate form which one finds in

 

Reinaerts Historie and Caxton's History of Reynard the Fox.

 

One will note that among the epithets discussed, there
was always a constant reference to Reynard's deceit. This
element was already reflected in the bestiaries and even in

Physiologus. The one moderating factor, which may explain

 

Reynard's use of lies and trickery, is the supposition that

during the Middle Ages the only way a weak and poor individual

 

12The word moordenaer is not only used in line 4647
of Reinaerts Historie, but it is reiterated in lines 3819,

5757 and 6933.

 

 

13In essence, lines 7096-97 echo the sentiment
expressed by Magister Nivardus in lines 177-78 of Book I,
Voigt ed.

142

could sustain life was by deceiving his oppressors. One
might say that this was initially true of Reynard in the
early Latin version (ca. 1150). However, by the time of

Reinaerts Historie (ca. 1375). the fox's actions are no

 

longer merely defensive.

In the discussion of the type A example, basic
patterns of Reynard's shrewdness have been revealed. In
enumerating the epithet examples, classified as type B,
one tendency in the evolution of Reynard's cunning has been
established and that is the gradual focusing upon Reynard's
speaking ability, because adversaries, such as the wolf,
are presented in less personally violent opposition to the
fox. As Reynard becomes an enemy of more creatures in the
vernacular versions, the animals no longer attempt to take
personal vengeance for the ills done by him; they all turn
to the court of Noble for justice. Therefore, it is only
natural that as a trial situation evolves, the importance
of Reynard's glib manner of speaking should become more
evident. Under these circumstances, it is necessary for
Reynard to become a shrewd barrister to refute the
accusations and survive. So his methods evolve to meet

the challenge. In the early Isengrimus, there was no

 

particular structural provision for such a debate form
since Reynard was not yet an enemy of all the other
creatures. In the following portion of this chapter, I

will show the importance of the wolf, bear, and Tibert

V—

 

143

adventures, contrasted with the court episodes as represen—
tative examples of type C: those episodes which are static
and those which contain variations.

The first category of type C encompasses examples
which follow the same basic mechanisms put forth in

Isengrimus. One type of episode, describing Reynard's

 

cunning, remains the same. The format of the fishing

episode in Isengrimus and the adventures of Bruun and Tibert

 

in the subsequent vernacular versions is the same. Reynard
simply touches on a topic which both distracts his adver-
saries from their purpose and shortcircuits their ability
to reason logically. The ironic part of Reynard's cunning
in these episodes is that he often warns his adversaries

of possible danger. In this manner, of course, Reynard

protects himself. For example, in Isengrimus, the fox

 

admonishes the wolf to observe the golden mean and not be
greedy or he will do himself damage. The wolf, of course,
disregards this advice because of his gluttonous nature
and as a result of wishing more fish his tail becomes
frozen in the ice. It is at this point that Reynard's
cunning expands to encompass sarcasm. Once his enemy is
trapped, the fox enjoys his victory by ridiculing the
defeated adversary. This triumph plays a large part at
the end of each successful stratagem. Reynard has no
mercy, as his words point out. Perhaps this is because

he cannot excuse stupidity, which is the only thing that

144

entraps his enemies. In an effort to make the imprisoned
Isengrim's pain greater, Reynard remarks: Do not fear

the priest and people who follow, they will renew your
tonsure . . . . With God's help you will catch even more
and be richer. (paraphrase I, 855-858; 902-903) Both of
these statements have an archly ironic double meaning,

each suggesting the pain and the beating the wolf will
receive, as well as the literal interpretation of the words.

The comparable episodes of Li Plaid and Van den Vos

 

Reinaerde follow exactly the same pattern of distraction,

 

deceit, and sarcasm. In the case of Bruun, when the fox
speaks of honey, the bear's weakness, the same plan is
developed. Again he warns the animal to adhere to the rule

of mesure, as the following quotation from Van den Vos

 

Reinaerde indicates.

 

Etet te zeden ende te maten,
Dat ghi (h)u selven niet verdervet. (666-667)

Bruun, as the wolf, disregards Reynard's warning and as a
result is trapped by Reynard in a split log. As the wolf,
Bruun is finally free, but only at the cost of his foreclaws
and the skin of his head.

The confusion caused by both the imprisoned animals
in the various works allows Reynard the opportunity to turn

his tricks to a more practical advantage. In Isengrimus,

 

the fox steals a rooster in a nearby village and the
inhabitants of course pursue him. To rid himself of these

vilains, he passes by the water where Isengrim is imprisoned

1145 i.

and when these people see the wolf they are distracted

from their purpose. Thus Reynard has satisfied both

goals: he has obtained food for himself and a beating for
the wolf. In the vernacular version, while the villagers
are distracted by the imprisoned Bruun, the fox steals a
fowl. Later, returning with his booty, Reynard encounters f
the distressed animal along the river bank and again
initiates his devilish sarcasm. (943-951) In the subsequent
adventure, one finds that Tibert's experience is simply a
variation of Bruun's misfortune. At the conclusion of his
cunning trick, Reynard again sarcastically adds fuel to the
fire when his adversary is in dire straights. (1211—12)
These episodes have become static. They are so character-
istic of Reynard's cunning that they show little change

from Li Plaid through Caxton's History of Reynard the Fox. I

 

The foregoing reference to stagnant episodes also I
serves to illustrate the medieval convention of repeating
or elaborating on a successful motif, in this instance, a i
basic pattern of Reynard's cunning. Some more central and a
climatic episodes of the Beast Epic do, however, show some i
change in the fox's subtlety. One episode which, I believe, '
illustrates this clearly and continuously is concerned with
Reynard's appearance at court. This particular episode is
found as a first and/or terminal climax in almost every
version of the Beast Epic. I do not believe that its

importance can be underestimated. Therefore, I think,

146

that any changes which are represented in this part should
be of great interest.

Before initiating a comparative discussion of these
court days, I would like to remind the reader of their

structural positions within the respective Beast Epics.

 

In Isengrimus, this episode occupies Book III which places '

it almost in the middle of the complete work. In this

Latin version it serves as a first climax. In Li Plaid

(or Branch I according to E. Martin), it is found at the

end of the work. It could be thought of as being in the

middle of the first branch if one considers the episodes

"Renard 1e Teinturier" and "Le Siege de Maupertuis" as part

of this first branch.lu
By 1250, however, when the Beast Epic is adapted in

Middle Dutch, one finds that this episode definitely

becomes a terminal climax and is much expanded in Van den

Vos Reinaerde. The second Middle Dutch version, Reinaerts

 

Historie, retains the episode of the 1250 version, and
adds a second court day, in the second and more original
half, which is significantly different when compared with

the episode of Van den Vos Reinaerde. Therefore, in my

 

opinion, it represents an adaptation which was necessary

to augment the first version or to satisfy the changed

 

l“Branch I encompasses only Li Plaid or "Jugement de
Renart" according to E. Martin. Branch Ia encompasses
"Siege de Maupertuis;" and Branch Ib is "Renart 1e Teinturier,"
whereas the three parts together compose Branch I according
to M. Roques.

147

tastes of the readers around the year 1375. Both of these
sections are again found in Caxton's translation in a more
or less unaltered form. This appears to indicate that
the Beast Epic by 1481 had been successfully adapted to
the new cultural viewpoints and therefore was under no
pressure for further development.

Because of the complexity of the court day episode,
I will draw on only a few specific quotations to illustrate
the cunning of Reynard.15 To put the entire picture in
perspective, I will however outline the procedure of
Reynard's activities in each example. The reader can
observe during the course of the following discussion that
Reynard's cunning involves a number of the elements discussed
in previous chapters.

The plot of the court episode in Isengrimus begins

 

to take shape when the sick lion Rufanus calls all animals
to his court and the fox alone does not appear. The fox's
absence provides an opportunity for Isengrim to speak
against Reynard. The king then has Reynard summoned by

the hare, who at the same time warns the fox of the wolf's
treachery. The next day, Reynard arrives at court carrying
a number of worn out shoes and counting them in Hungarian

and Turkish. He then falls down before the king seemingly

exhausted from his long journey in search for an agent to

 

15Some of this material has already been discussed
earlier and will therefore not be repeated (cf. chapters on
the introspective nature of the fox and structure of the
selected beast epics).

148

cure Rufanus. To this end, Reynard has traveled all the
way to Salerno. He has now returned with a prescription
which calls for herbs and the skin of a three-and-a—half
year old wolf. This is of course Reynard's way of obtaining
vengeance. A

The shrewdness of Reynard in this portion resides in
the fact that he must develop a situation in which the
wolf is given no alternative but to lend his skin. In the
set of circumstances created by Reynard, if the wolf refuses
he is doing a great wrong to his liege lord. The wolf
stalls, but sees that he cannot escape his flaying. A
number of excuses are offered. In one of these the wolf
stated that he is not the right age, being thirty-two years
old as his grey hairs testify. The fox cunningly counters
by saying that he will ask other animals to testify to the
wolf's age and that he will only accept the truth. This,
in effect, already precludes a judgment that the wolf
could be anything but three-and-a-half years old. The wolf
still hesitates and Bruun grows impatient. Again Reynard
illustrates his hypocrisy by asking the bear to be patient
saying that the wolf does not fully understand. Ultimately
Isengrim is skinned and a bloody description of the flaying
process is included.

After the torture is over Reynard initiates another
attack against the wolf accusing him of treachery and

deceit because he wears a shimmering purple tunic beneath

 

149

his grey skin (the blood covered flesh). Turning to the
barons, he says that Isengrim is guilty on a number of
counts: masquerading as a high clergyman, a bishop or
abbot, wearing royal purple under his skin. (This, after
all, is a sign of overbearing pride and a wish to detrone
the monarch.) Finally he is also guilty of waiting so long
to remove his skin. The wolf, not being as clumsy an
animal as in later vernacular versions, sees that nothing
will be gained in denying these accusations and therefore
he falls prostrate before the king and pleads for mercy.
Reynard becomes angry at seeing his hopes for Isengrim's
hanging dissolve and momentarily loses his self control.
(This is important in view of later contributions.)
Reynard presents some arguments, but the king calls him
over and tells him to grant the wolf mercy in his name.
Reynard again illustrates his deviousness when he tells
his uncle that he has calmed the anger of his king and
thereby helped the wolf to regain his freedom and his skin.
To summarize this episode, one notes that Reynard's
position shifts, depending which way the wind blows. Also
Reynard's cunning is at one of its cruelest stages, but
not at its most efficient stage; after all he does allow
his emotions to supersede his cunning at one point.
However, there are a number of things that Reynard has
shrewdly accomplished. He has excused himself, cured the
king, incriminated the wolf and avenged himself through

the flaying of Isengrim.

150

In Li Plaid, the situation is quite different. The
fox is now summoned to Noble's court, not to cure the king,
but to account for crimes: the treacherous conduct against

Bruun and Tibert, the rape or seduction of Hersent, and the

16

killing of Chantecler's offspring, among others.

The basic pattern is repeated as Reynard approaches
the court with fear in his heart. He dissembles and puts
up a front of fearless righteousness. In answering the
accusations of Tibert and Bruun, he says that they only
got into trouble because they were peasants who could not
observe the laws of mesure, as the following quotation
indicates.

Qar cil qui sont serf par nature
Ne sevent esgarder mesure. (1231—32; Roques,l253—5A)

The reader will recall that Reynard had warned Bruun not
to be too greedy.
Again, the usual routine is followed. Reynard draws

the attention from himself by attacking everyone else.

16This vignette concerning Chantecler, although it
falls outside of the context of present material,is worth
alluding to because it illustrates the evolution of Reynard's
cunning on a smaller scale. In Isengrimus, Reynard is still
outwitted by the rooster Sprotinus, but in later episodes in
the vernacular, he manages to deceive Chantecler completely
by a more complex stratagem. This should indicate the
refinement of his cunning. In Isengrimus, he asked the
rooster to close his eyes so that he could hear him sing
like his father and during this moment the fox, of course,
captures the rooster, but only temporarily (a very simple
ruse). In the vernaculars, Reynard is disguised as a
pilgrim with the evidence of a sealed letter declaring the
king's peace throughout the land. In this fashion he lures
the fowl from their protected farm yard (a complex and more
anthropomorphic stratagem).

 

 

 

151

Concerning the Hersent affair, he asks why he should be
charged with attacking his friend, if she herself does not
complain.

It is interesting to observe that the fox does not
directly deny the charges; he simply circumvents them.

The king notices this and says that Reynard debates well
but that this will not help him, adding:
N'i vaut vostre renardie
Molt savez de la fauve annesse. (1290-91; Roques,
1322-23)
It is significant that even at this early stage Reynard's
name is synonymous with cunning.

In the end, despite his cunning, Reynard is condemned
to death by the council of barons. Reynard denies his guilt
of these crimes, but states that he has committed many sins
and therefore would take up the cross to do penance. This
of course gains him sympathy. It would be the ultimate in
cruelty during the Middle Ages to kill a man before he has
repented, denying him the opportunity of life everlasting.
Grimbert adds to this that Reynard is of high lineage,
"prous et courtois." (line 1401) As a result, Nobel allows
the fox to make the pilgrimage, but he must stay abroad.
(In effect the fox is banished.)

In Li Plaid, his cunning up to now seems less evil
although he speaks of revenge between his teeth. (1455;
Roques, 1515) When being escorted out of court by Couart,

Reynard is unable to restrain himself. Using his pilgrim's

152

staff, he strikes Couart the hare from the saddle. He then
climbs a mountain overlooking the court so that Nobel and
the barons below may see his triumph. To bring the king's
blood to the boiling point, Reynard even throws down a
number of sarcastic remarks. While enjoying this pleasure,
he does not notice Couart untying himself and escaping. The
king, after Couart's return, orders Reynard to be taken,
which results in a chase. Reynard is forced to run until
he foams at the mouth: "La boche 1i vet escumant."
(1585; Roques,l645)

This last part again illustrates that although Reynard
has shown greater control during the judgment at court than

he evidenced in Isengrimus, where he loses control momen-

 

tarily when he sees the wolf slipping out of his grasp,
Reynard still cannot restrain himself from taunting the king
with his assault on Couart. This almost causes him to lose
everything that he has gained and he is forced to flee to
Malpertuis. One can observe in Li Plaid that, although
Reynard retains control of himself longer, sometimes he is

still subject to emotional inconsistencies as in Isengrimus.

 

Reynard has still some sense of honor as far as his person
is concerned. Being forced to grovel before Nobel, in my
opinion incites him to this revenge. Unfortunately the
vengeance is premature and therefore unwise.

Turning to Van den Vos Reinaerde, one finds a similar

situation, the general plot being the same. Reynard,

153

although afraid, arrives at court putting on a bold front.
He denies everything he is accused of, using the argument
that if Bruun and Tibert go out stealing without his counsel
he cannot be responsible for what happens. After all he
had warned them to be careful as he did in Li Plaid. Never-
theless he is still declared guilty and again sentenced to
be hanged. Reynard pleads with Isengrim for mercy, at
the same time cunningly planning revenge if he survives,
as the following demonstrates:

Deus wat joncheeren

Nu 1aetse springhen ende loepen

Levic, si sullent noch becoepen

Hare overdaet ende hare scampye

Mine gebreke reynardye. (2036—40)
In this instance, as in the French version, Reynard's name
appears as a word symbolizing shrewdness. Even though he
is planning to avenge himself upon his adversaries, he
further states that he would rather see them far than
near. (2041—45) This particular sentiment suggests that
although the fox relies primarily on cunning to escape a
dangerous situation he would much rather be left alone. In
this vernacular version, Reynard defends himself very

professionally, not giving vent to emotional outbursts.

In Van den Vos Reinaerde, the fox again tries to play

 

on the psychological attitudes of his peers. He himself
suggests that the gallows be erected. Bruun, Tibert and
Isengrim are sent to prepare it. This leaves Reynard free

to play his hand and incriminate his powerful accusers. He

154

asks a favor of the king before dying. This consists of
permission to confess his sins publicly, so that all may
hear his deeds and no one else may later be blamed for
them. Although a superficially magnanimous gesture, it

is of course deceptive. The fox in Van den Vos Reinaerde

 

is planning not only to escape the grasp of his enemies,
but also to punish as many of them as he can for trying to
have him hanged. To reach this goal he recounts the events
of his life in a very sympathetic manner laying a foundation
for the supposed treachery of Isengrim and referring to a
mysterious treasure almost inadvertently.

One can see at this point how Reynard's cunning and
the plot start to diverge from the representation in

Li Plaid. The minute Reynard speaks of this wealth of

 

Ermaneric, the king and queen become attentive, and another
stratagem of the fox becomes successful. He speaks of how
resplendent and how great this treasure is and how his own
father had wanted to use it in a conspiracy against King
Nobel, to equip an army to depose the monarch. However,
Reynard's father was not the only plotter. Grimbert,
Isengrim, and Tibert were all supposedly ring leaders too.
Nobel, of course, immediately asks how this could be true,
and the queen supplies the answer which Reynard had
calculated she would. After all, who would lie about such
things when he is about to be executed and incriminate

such close relations (Grimbert and his father). Reynard,

155

as if wounded to the quick by the king's doubt, remarks:

"You ask me this . . . do you believe I would take such a

lie with me on my long journey?" (2203 and 2208-9) The
cunning here goes so far that Reynard's depravity cannot

be suSpected by his judges. No one could imagine endangering
one's eternal life for a lie (cf. chapter on religion).

Reynard then continues and explains how he and his
wife had found out about the treasure and hidden it from
his father, so that he could not carry out the intended
revolt. Even though there are still doubts, Reynard is
forgiven in the hope that he will tell the king and queen
where the treasure is and also to thank him for saving their
thrones. In thanks for his freedom, Reynard says that the
treasure can be found at Kriekeputte. The king, still
suspicious, wants the fox to go along, but Reynard cunningly
gets around this problem by saying that he is excommunicated
by the pope because he helped Isengrim leave the monastery,
and therefore it would not be becoming to accompany the king.
Nobel then says that Reynard will be excused and that he
will receive the accouterment of a pilgrim so that he can
do penance and thus have the excommunication lifted.

With his freedom regained, Reynard turns his cunning
towards revenge. When Isengrim and Bruun return to court
from preparing the gallows, they are caught and bound for
their participation in the imaginary preparations for

revolt. This allows Reynard to request something from

156

each of his adversaries. To equip Reynard for his pilgrimage,
Isengrim has to give up his fore shoes, Hersent her hind

shoes (so that Reynard may walk easier) and Bruun must part
with a piece of fur from his back to make the pilgrim's

purse. Tibert, who was smart enough not to return, is

spared any torture.

The king then orders Belin the ram to read prayers
over Reynard. The fox, continuing his deception, in turn
promises to pray for the monarchs. Couart and Belin
accompany him home where Reynard, not having gained the
enmity of the king as in Li Plaid, peacefully withdraws
into his castle with Couart and kills him there. He and
his family then devour the hare. To incriminate the ram,
who is still waiting outside, the fox takes his pilgrim's
purse, wraps the head of Couart in it and sends it back by
Belin saying that a few letters are contained within which
will make the king happy and that Belin can obtain some
credit if he says that he helped compose them. Of course,
when Belin returns to court and refers to his involvement,
he immediately condemns himself as an accessory to the
murder of Couart. Therefore, the king decrees that Belin
and his descendents be delivered up as prey to Isengrim,
Bruun and their descendants.

In summary, the basic difference in Van den Vos

Reinaerde is that the fox achieves all of his revenge and

 

never displays his true emotions. He even precludes the

possibility of the siege of his castle by removing his wife
and himself to a remote wilderness where they do not have
to give up their lives and their freedom. (3330-32)

One point in the evolution of Reynard's cunning should
be stressed at this stage. As the lies of the fox gradually
become greater and more involved, greater success also
accompanies Reynard's efforts. It should also be observed
that as these lies become more difficult to believe, his

cunning becomes more and more a tour de force.

 

In the second half of Reinaerts Historie, however, the

 

situation becomes quite different. Reynard is summoned to
court a second time. (In this version he has not left for
the wilderness.) Grimbert again delivers the words of
King Nobel who threatens a siege if he does not come. The
fox arrives and again manages to explain away almost every
accusation in a cunning fashion. His complicity in Couart's
death is disposed of when he says that he had given three
jewels as royal gifts to be carried back by Belin, but that
the ram must have killed Couart along the way and hidden the
presents. Of course, since Belin is dead, he can hardly
refute this. The animals still complain that Reynard is
trying to deceive the king, but Isengrim seeing that the
fox's explanations are again being believed, challenges him
to personal combat for raping his wife.

At this point, a major change is seen in Reynard's

cunning character. The fox can no longer extricate himself

158

17

from the impending danger, as he himself states in the
following lines:

Dat ic mijn campspel moet bestaen,

Tegen desen sterken vraet?

Nu ben ic teinden minen raet. (6766-68)
Reynard takes heart that the wolf is already partially
crippled because of the removal of his foreclaws, but it
is Dame Ruckenau who tells him how to fight. The advice
she gives shows how low Reynard has sunk and what the
cerebral level of the audience desires. The fox is told
to shave his body and tail and rub it with oil so that he
will be slippery in the battle and the wolf will therefore
not be able to hold him. He is also advised to drink much
liquid so that he may better urinate on his naked tail and
then slash it across Isengrim's eyes to blind him. One can
see that any vestiges of courtly ritual, which may have
been retained, are burlesqued beyond recognition. The
cunning at this stage is no longer intellectual. During
the course of the actual battle, Reynard again initiates
the old stratagem of delay by pleading for mercy and doing
the following while the wolf is distracted:

Die wile dat hi dus tegen hem sprac,

Sijn ander hant hi onder stac

Beneden tusschen sine been,

Ende grepen, recht alst wel sceen,

Doe vast bi beide sijn hoden,
Ende duwede so, dat hi van noden

 

17This situation is already foreshadowed when Dame
Rukenau stands surety for Reynard earlier in the second
half of Reinaerts Historie.

 

 

159

Wel lude moest criten ende hulen.

Doe tooch Reinaert uut sijnre mulen

Sijn hant, die daer te voren in stac.

Doe had Isengrim sulc ongemac,

Met dat Reinaert hem so sere tooch,

Dat hi bloet vant persen spooch,

Ende hem ooc mede sijn grove urijn l8
Achter ontgleet van grooter pijn. (7357-70)

As the wolf faints because of pain, the king stops the
"combat" and makes Reynard one of his most accepted
counselors. One of the major alterations in the evolution

of Reynard's cunning is that in Reinaerts Historie he has

 

to rely on someone else's brain to survive. Also, his own
tricks become cruder and less accomplished.

This rather lengthy section on cunning should again
draw together many other aspects which are reflected in
Reynard's character and which have been discussed throughout
this dissertation. To summarize, one can see that in

Isengrimus Reynard is completely self-reliant, but that his

 

cunning has not yet been able to achieve all of his goals

18This passage as all the foregoing implications
regarding the fox's cunning in Reinaerts Historie are found
again in Caxton's translation, almost verbatim, as the
following passage of the above quotation indicates:
In the mene w(h)ylle that ysegrym was thus spekyng.
The foxe bethoughte hym how he myght helpe hym self.
And stack his other hond after bytwene his legges. And
grepe the wulf fast by the colyons. And he wronge
hem so sore that for woo and payne/he muste crye lowde
and howle/ Thenne the foxe drewe his other hond out
of his mouth/ The wulf had so moche payne and anguyssh
of the sore wryngyng that the foxe dowed and wronge
his genytours/that he spytte blood/And for grete payne
he byshote hym self (Arber, p. 111)
It is also of interest that if it is possible to say
that one picture is more disgusting than the other it would,
in my estimation, be the vignette created in 1481 by Caxton.

 

 

FJ
O\
0

immediately. (He still makes some errors in judgment.) In
Li Plaid, his emotions still get in the way when he carelessly
ridicules the king and endangers his own life. In Van den

Vos Reinaerde, he is able to extract himself from the most

 

dangerous situations and continues dissembling until he is
out of Nobel's reach in the wilderness. It is also at this
stage that Reynard's excuses tend to become unbelievable.
Circumstances are so handled as to accentuate his cunning.

In Reinaerts Historie, the fox's shrewdness is no longer

 

that of a self reliant personage and it is also reflected

in a less subtle and coarser fashion. In the previous
versions, he does not stoop to such low tactics, i.e. his
cunning has been degraded. The same can be said of Caxton's

translation, History of Reynard the Fox, since it is essen-

 

tially the same as Reinaerts Historie. Of all the qualities

 

discussed, I believe that it can be stated that Reynard's-
cunning, since it permeates all the works and is so well known,
changes most noticeably with respect to the degree of its
perfection and later degradation.

Although the several character traits which conscitute
the foregoing chapters by no means exhaust the possibilities
for the character study of Reynard, I believe they are
sufficient and conclusive enough to bear out the hypotheses
of this dissertation. Despite the schematic nature of the
presentation, it is clear from the foregoing evidence that

a literary personage, in this case Reynard, can evolve as

161

different classes and agents treat and reinterpret the same
personality and material. The extent of alteration may vary
a great deal. But it has been established that the

evolution or Verwandlung of a character tends to follow a

 

certain pattern.
In an effort to evaluate the data from the foregoing

chapters, I will select those elements which stood out and

..\-——— mu... I

should therefore in and of themselves supply the conclusions

to the analysis of Reynard's evolution.

 

Beginning with the clerical Isengrimus, one finds the

 

fox to be a substantially anthropomorphic being who has
strong reflective characteristics and is relatively socially
oriented. He is still ostensibly allied with the court and
does help the more defenseless creatures, safeguarding them
from the avaricious "wolves." At this stage, however, the
picture is not chivalric. The sexual aspects of Reynard's
character are kept in the background and deemphasized. His
cunning is still growing. The independence of Reynard is
already established.

In the courtly Li Plaid, one no longer encounters the
reflective personage; there is another major change. Reynard
now becomes the antisocial hero that he continues to be in
subsequent vernacular versions. He replaces Isengrim as
the enemy of the animals. In this epic he has very few
friends at court, the one notable exception being Grimbert.

In this early French version, the sexual elements are

162

emphasized and expanded. This poem embodies a number of
courtly elements which definitely influence the Gestalt of
Reynard although in this respect some irony may be implied.
The cunning is not yet completely matured. The fox is still
careless and emotional at times. In this particular poem

he evidences a haughty independence. His attitude towards
the Church and God is perhaps not as cynical as the view-

point expressed in Isengrimus, but it still reflects much

 

disdain. He is still anthropomorphic with regard to courtly
accouterments and knightly customs, such as riding horses.
In this version, and the subsequent Middle Dutch one,
Reynard's prominence in the works increases immensely.

Van den Vos Reynaerde shows the fox as a creature that

 

is again not reflective. Reynard, in this version, is still
antisocial, resolutely independent, but in this instance

the independence is that of a yeoman, not a nobleman. The
court situation is the same although Reynard does not appear

to be as courtly a figure as in Li Plaid. There is less

 

anthropomorphization (for example, Reynard no longer rides

a horse). Reynard himself seems to parody or laugh at some
courtly traditions [example: the refined way to speak about
a lady (Hersent)]. At this particular stage, the cunning
nature of Reynard is mature. There are no more emotional
outbursts. Religion is treated by Reynard in a lighter
vein. On the whole he is a more robust and well rounded
individual. In fact, the love of family even replaces the

sexual emphasis found in the French version.

163

In Reinaerts Historie, the fox's character again

 

incorporates reflective elements in his monologues or
dialogues. In these passages, he analyzes and explains
human behavior which, in this case, serves a practical

purpose rather than the ideal found in Isengrimus. Reynard

 

now expounds on the reasons and ways to lie and cheat best.
In effect, the character has become morally degraded and
parasitic in this later bourgeois version. From this point
on Reynard loses momentum. He rejoins the community as one
of its shrewdest hypocrites. In the end he is reconciled
with the court, gaining many false friends, in contrast with

the ending of Van den Vos Reinaerde where he alone withdraws

 

from the corruption of society into the wilderness.

The second Middle Dutch version can no longer be
described as a parody of courtliness. It seems to approach
burlesque most closely. The religious attitudes reflected
by Reynard in this case show profiteering and participation
in the corrupted use of ecclesiastical laws. In the earlier
vernacular versions he used the loopholes offered by
religious custom, but on a simpler scale. The cunning that
Reynard now evidences has become almost completely verbal.
His underhandedness appears worse because at this stage he
has to accept the advice of Dame Rukenau which makes his
activities appear like collusion. As a result, the
independence of his cunning thought and also of his

antisocial existence has dissolved. There are a few

164

depraved variations of his own which the fox initiates during
the combat with Isengrim. However, these are but a pale
image of the earlier sophisticated workings of his mind. The
cerebral contortions are now replaced by vulgarity. His
sexuality suffers the same degradation since now any
allusions to delicacy or refinement of motivation have been
deleted from his character.

The last contribution, The History of Reynard the Fox,

 

by Caxton, illustrates that the character a hundred years

later (1481) is at about the same stage as in Reinaerts

 

v

Historie except that it tends to be more depersonalized

and serves, at least ostensibly as an exemplum.19 This
depersonalization tends to make the character somewhat less
real because the reader is less involved with Reynard.
Ostensibly, the structure and the representation, if not

the mood, are translated.

In effect, Reynard reflects the author and the society

of the time of the work. In Isengrimus, the cleric shows

 

through; in Li Plaid, the nobleman; and the subsequent three
versions show a character that incorporates the elements

desired by the bourgeoisie.

 

19Both Caxton's translation and Reinaerts Historie
have a short moralizing epilogue at the end. (Arber,
pp. 119—120; Willems, lines 7782-7816.)

 

EPILOGUE

Up to this point I have only analyzed Reynard as an
independent or separate identity. However, I do not wish
to imply by any means that this character is unrelated to
any subsequent literary development. With this in mind I
would like to devote the epilogue to some hypotheses con-
cerning the literary position and relations of this character.

It is probably apparent to the reader that the Beast
Epic is possibly one of the most continuously successful
literary genres in Europe, and aside from this aspect its
parallel oral and fable traditions recede even further into
the mists of time. To set forth certain hypotheses con-
cerning the possible reason or reasons for this continued
popularity, I would like to suggest a possible relationship
between Reynard and other anti-heroic, comic-heroic, mock-
heroic, or picaresque characters developed early in the
Renaissance.

Through folkloric studies it has been established
that man has almost continually identified himself with
animals. These affinities run the gamut from Indian totems
to the highly literary and anthropomorphic representations

in medieval and Renaissance satire.l It is beyond the

 

1All of these works still bear the marks of religious
influence or affiliation.

165

166

scope of this paper to go into the psychological and
anthropological reasons for these phenomena; nevertheless

it is possible to suggest by a summary analysis of Reynard's
character why he has remained so important and how he has

in a sense lived on in subsequent literary developments.

The type of hero Reynard represents can be described
in various ways at successive stages of his development (as
illustrated in the preceding chapters). He seems to have
been initially a timid creature who survived in the early
Latin versions mainly by his wits and coincidental good
fortune. Only later does he become aggressive. The authors
continually suggest that Reynard understands human nature;
that he recognizes, and in fact illustrates that truth, hard
work and diligence in the end lose out to deceit and cor-
ruption. He follows the old adage that a lie well told is
more believable than the truth, and so he repeatedly dupes
others by telling them lies which they wish to believe. He
appeals to the weakest part of their nature; greed, gluttony,
avarice, or wantonness, but almost never allows himself to
be trapped by any of his own weaknesses. Eternal vigilance
is his calling card. Because of this alertness and a never
ending desire for independence, Reynard almost invariably
stands alone against all comers. These factors present

Reynard as an antisocial or an anti-heroic hero, for he

 

2True blood ties are important, but to save his skin,
Reynard would and does degrade his father's memory and his
cousin Grimbert.

167

obeys and uses the structure of society only when it
serves his needs.

Nevertheless, despite all precautions and foresight,
Reynard is not always successful in his adventures, and this
periodic fallibility presents just enough suspense to make
the outcome of the feud between Reynard and Isengrim doubt—
ful. The fox's ultimate ability to pull himself out of his
difficulties at the last moment not only creates literary
momentum and impetus, but gives him a satiric and sardonic
quality because of the disreputable means he employs.

If one then draws all these loose ends together, the
resultant potpourri presents a roguish antisocial or
anti-heroic hero with devilish connotations, whose life is
governed by his wits and who increases the probability of
his success by manipulating the situations which Dame
Fortune provides for him.

The foregoing summary in my opinion describes most
of the characteristics of a picaresque hero, and indeed if
one searches through the picaresque literary narratives of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, one finds a number
of analogies to illustrate how Reynard the Fox could be
considered the animal counterpart of the human picaro. I
draw on two exceptionally well-known characters which fall
into this category. The first one that comes to mind is
the northern German Ulenspieghel who also manages to survive

in his fictional world by deceit and stealing. He, as

168

Reynard, enjoys inflicting pain upon others. The secondary
human characters encountered here also lead themselves into
this pain through weaknesses such as avarice, gluttony or
greed (all of which impair their ability to reason clearly).
Further similarities are found in the structural
organization of the episodes themselves. Again the story
develOpment follows a pearl-string arrangement, i.e. one
episode, often unconnected with earlier ones,follows directly
upon the other with little if any transition. Among these
episodes, a few seem to reflect or imitate Reynard stories.
In the German version, for example, Ulenspieghel also
barely escapes the gallows.3 Once more, similar satire
is to some degree directed against all classes, clerical
as well as lay, king as well as pauper, and Tyl, like
Reynard, is described as "meester in alle scalcheyt."u Of
course, there are significant differences which should also
be mentioned, such as the fact that Ulenspieghel is created

in the image of a Renaissance jester, but still the same

 

3K. R. H. Mackenzie, Master Tyll Owlglass--His
Marvellous Adventures and Rare Conceits. George Routledge
& Sons, Ltd., London, E. P. Dutton & 00., N. Y., printed
in Great Britain.

“L. Debaere & P. Heyns, Het Volksboek van Ulenspieghel,
Klassieke Galerij No. 42, De Nederlandsche Boekhandel,
Antwerpen, 1948, p. VII.

 

 

169 . 1

moral vein and underlying didactic nature are evident
throughout, even in the interpretation of his name.5
Turning South, one finds another literary genre of

the sixteenth century, the Spanish picaresque, which also

bears a substantial resemblance to the Reynard stories

.- 'i'

especially in san, and although the gross humor found

in Reynard and Ulenspieghel is not evident in their southern

 

counterpart, the sadistic joy of inflicting pain is still
well represented. The earliest hero of this genre, r

o 6 a o 1 a o
Lazarillo de Tormes, as Reynard in the Latin Isengrimus,

 

is initially the butt of much physical abuse until he

learns to survive by his wits. Again the structure of the
story is organized along the same independent episodic lines
(one dealing with his adventures with a blind man, the next
with a priest, and the third with a young nobleman). As the
young boy Lazarillo goes from one master to the other, he
learns to survive more adeptly. This picaresque represen-
tation also teaches and moralizes using the school of hard

knocks; and it satirizes the clergy in much the same manner

 

5Tyl Ulenspieghel as he is known on the continent,
or Tyll Owlglass as he is known in England, presents
different European connotations concerning the attributed
cerebral qualities of the owl. On the continent the owl
has an alternate connotation of stupidity in certain
instances. Therefore, the hero's name when analyzed
through folk etymology means an agent which causes mankind
to see its follies mirrored in the foils to the hero.

6

Tales from the Italian and Spanish. Lazarillo de
Tormes. (First published at Burgos, 1554) Copyright
The Review of Reviews Company, New York, 1920, p. XIV.

 

 

170

of the Reynard and Ulenspieghel adventures. In one case,
for example, the boy Lazarillo makes the following comment:
"One can hardly wonder at the priest or friar, the one
robbing the poor, the other his convent for the sake of

,.7

their fair and devout believers Social commentary
and irony are also significant parts of this work, though

I could not find parody repreSented, as it is in versions

of Reynard the fox.

As with Reynard, there is also an evil connotation
when Lazarillo's blind master says: "You rogue, . . . you
ought to know that a blind man's boy should have more
cunning than the very devil himself."8 In the same episode
the blind master's physical dominance over Lazarillo takes
on the same perspective as Isengrim's initial dominance
over Reynard. The blind man, like the wolf, at first
manages to deprive the boy of his justly earned share. The
youth, like the fox, has to learn how to obtain his portion
and give better than he gets which he, like Reynard, does in
the end.

Vengeance or poetic justice is also a partial theme

in Lazarillo's story and the wolfish nature of priests is

again reflected.9 The avarice of the priests is further

 

 

 

 

171

illustrated when Lazarillo voices his feelings concerning
the niggardliness of the priests as follows: "It would
be hard to say whether he inherited this disposition or
whether he had adopted it with his cassock and gown."10

Another point of congruency is the roguishness of
both Lazarillo and Reynard the fox which has passed into
proverbs. Lazarillo has become a synonym for the "leader
of the blind."ll As with Reynard, this could represent a
blindness of spirit which the hero is able to make use of
to obtain his end. In the Low Countries the expression
"he is a real Reynard" equates that individual with the
epitome of cleverness.

A later Spanish picaresque narrative likewise shows

affinities with the Beast Epic. In Guzman de Alfarache,

 

written in 1599, one again finds a satiric review of every
level of society (including attacks on the church).12 But
even more striking is the golden rule of rogues which the
hero Guzman learns through hard experience: "Do unto others
as they will do unto you, and do it first."13 Once more the

name of the hero has become proverbial, this time not only

in Spain but also in France and Germany. England even

 

14.

 

XV.

 

p
p
Ibid., p. 47.
p 47.

 

172

showed the work's general acceptance by referring to a
notorious criminal as a Guzman.lu
The reader may well ask if there is any documentation

to further establish a possible affiliation beyond the

spirit of these works. Indeed there is. Lazarillo de

 

Tormes which was initially published at Burgos in 1554 was
already reprinted at Antwerp the next year and the same

Antwerp publisher, after a second (subsequent) edition,

15

offered a continuation. Guzman de Alfarache also appeared

 

in France and Flanders within a year of its publication in
Spain.. Another picaro, Ulenspieghel, although of Saxon-
German origin soon found a home in the Lowlands too. Like
the Spanish hero, he also became popular in England.16
Considering this convergence of analogous material upon
the region where Reynard's stories were current, i.e.
France, Flanders, Germany and England, I would consider
the possible affiliation and the emphatic acceptance of
these foreign works as signs of the audience's continued
interest in the rogue hero and their eagerness to find
similar characters which could introduce new or varied

adventures to a now static "picaresque” animal tradition.

The events and adventures of Lazarillo and Tyl were still

 

lulbid., p. 48.

lSIbid., p. XIV.

l6Ibid., p. 47.

173

being formed and could therefore be added to, but all the
episodes of Reynard had become crystallized over 500 years
and so he could not evolve much further. All his charac—
teristics were too well and too widely known; hence later
human counterparts walked in his footsteps while making
some variations in the tracks that were left.

The next question one might ask oneself is:

What do these picaresque characters suggest in terms
of their attractiveness to the respective audiences of
their day? By way of an answer, let us note their
similarities:

1. They are all associated with an adventurous
existence.

2. The characters are romantic in that they can do
things impossible in real life and therefore may
represent a psychological urge on the part of the
readers for identification with the character
and/or his actions (empathy).

3. They are associated more with evil than with good
and hence psychologically create a more intensely
attractive picture of the prankish "devil".

4. They all illustrate the ability of an individual
to survive and conquer all the pressures brought
to bear against him by a corrupt and unjust society.
This retention of individuality and struggle for

personal freedom again provide a formidable force

174

contributing to the audience's identification with

these characters.
These four ideas, I believe, are main factors in the
continued success and popularity of Reynard, and they
suggest reasons for the Renaissance development of the
southern and northern picaresque characters of Lazarillo
de Tormes and Ulenspieghel which continue the interest in
this type of rogue character. This attraction never ceases
because the wish to achieve the freedom and abandon of
these fictional "heroes" is eternal in the individual
(escapist elements).

It is my contention that when the character of Reynard,
at the waning of the Middle Ages, tended to become the static
instrument of exemplum, the development of the picaresque
revived his earlier independent nature, but this time in
human form, and hence closer to home. While also bringing
the episodes into a newer form approaching the novel, it is
to be noted that the versions of the Reynard epic after
Caxton's edition tend to avoid the single episodic arrange-
ments of adventures and develop the story as an integrated
whole. This is also true of the southern picaresque genre.

Whereas the original segments of Lazarillo de Tormes are a

 

series of adventures, the later picaresque forms, such as

Guzman de Alfarache tend to take on the structure of a

 

novel,--a development which terminates in Gil Blas, where

the simple picaresque foundation seems almost unrecognizable.

175

Perhaps these observations lead us rather far afield;
nevertheless I believe, even after this cursory overview,

that it is not possible to deny the Geistesverwandfichaf

 

of these characters. In fact, one can reasonably suggest
from the foregoing that Reynard is the picaresque hero of
the animal epic and a precursor of the picaresque hero in

the human epic.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Primary Texts Cited

Arber, Edward. The History of Reynard the Fox, tr. and
printed by William Caxton, June 1481. The English
Scholar's Library of Old and Modern Works, Southgate,
London, N., 15 August, 1878, No. I.

3e Keyser, P. Van den Vos Reynaerde. De Nederlandsche
Boekhandel, Antwerpen. Vijfde druk, 1965.

 

Jauss—Meyer, Helga. Le Roman de Renart. Klassische Texte
des Romanischen Mittelalters in zweisprachigen
Ausgaben. Band 5. Wilhelm Fink Verlag. Mfinchen
1965. (This volume contains the Ernst Martin text
of Li Plaid).

 

 

Voigt, Ernst. Ysengrimus, Halle a.S., Verlag der
Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses 1884.

 

Willems, Jan Frans. Reinaert De Vos. Episch Fabeldicht
van de twaelfde en dertiende Eeuw, met Aenmerkingen
en Ophelderingen, by F. en E. Gyselynck, Boek-en
Steendrukkers, Gent, 1836.

 

 

 

 

Other Works Cited

, . . . . e
Bossuat, R. Le Roman de Renard, Hatier DOiVin, Paris 6 ,

1957.

 

Cirlot, J. E. Dictionary of Symbolism. Philosophical
Library, New York, 1962. (cf. George W. Ferguson,
Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, New York, 1954).

 

 

Debaene, L. and P. Heyns. Het Volksboek van Ulenspieghel,
Klassieke Gallerij, No. 42, De Nederlandsche Boekhandel,
Antwerpen, 1948.

 

Graf, Adolf. Die Grundlagen des Reineke Fuchs, Eine
vergleichende Studie, Pub. in FF Communications VII,
No. 38] Suomalainen Tiedeaktemia, Helsinki, 1920.

 

 

Hesseling, Dirk C. "De Vos in Griekenland" in Uit Byzantium
en Hellas, 1911.

 

 

176

177

Mackenzie, K. R. H. Master Tyll Owlglass--His Marvellous
Adventures and Rare Conceits. George Routledge &
Sons, Ltd., London. E. P. Dutton & Co., New York.
Printed in Great Britain.

 

 

Male, Emile. The Gothic Image, Harper Torchbooks, Harper
& Row, New York, 1958.

 

.Morris, Desmond. The Mammals, A Guide to Living Species,
Harper & Row, New York, 1965.

 

Mussche, Achilles. Reinaert De Vos, J. M. Meulenhoff,
Amsterdam, 1964.

 

N rton, Dan S. and Rushton Peters. Classical Mythology
in English Literature, Rinehart and Winston Inc.,
New York, 1963.

 

 

Perry, Ben Edwin. Babrius and Phaedrus, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965.

 

Roques, Mario, ed. Le Romankde Renart, Premiere Branche,
Jugement de Renart, Siege deCMaupertuis, Renart
teinturier. Editée d'apres 1e Manuscrit de Cangé.
Librarie Ancienne Honoré Champion, Paris, 1948.

 

 

 

 

Rose, William. The Epic of the Beast, George Routledge
and Sons, Ltd., London.

 

Rue, Leonard Lee III. Sportman's Guide to Game Animals,
Harper & Row, New York, 1968.

 

Sands, Donald B. The History of ngnard the Fox, translated
and printed by William Caxton 1481. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1960.

 

Schmidt, Albert-Marie. Le Roman de Renart, Editions
Albin Michel, Paris, 1963.

 

Steinhaus, Harry. Deutsche Kultur, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1962

 

Tales from the Italian and Spanish. Vol. 6. Copyright the
Review of Reviews Company, New York, 1920.

 

Tinbergen, D. C. De Nederlandse Literatuur in de Middeleeuwen,

 

N. V. Service, Den Haag, 1947.

Thrall, W. F. and A. Hibbard. A Handbook to Literature,
The Odyssey Press, New York, 19361

 

178

Van Mierlo, J. Het vroegste Dierenepos in de Letterkunde

der Nederlanden, Isengrimus van Magister Nivardus, N.V.

 

Standaard-Boekhandel, Gent, 1945.

Varty, Kenneth, Reynard the Fox, A Study of the Fox in
Medieval English Art. Leicester University Press,
Leicester, England, 1967.

 

White, T. H., The Book of Beasts being a Translation from
a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century, G. P.
Putnam's Sons, New York, 1954.

 

 

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