ABSTRACT

THE USE OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS FOR TRAINING COUNSELORS
USING INTERPRRSONAL PROCESS RECALL
By

James David Spivack

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects
of two different counselor training experiences on subse-
quent counseling skills of counselor candidates. The first
training procedure was an adaptation of the Interpersonal
Process Recall (IPR) technique within a developmental task
framework. The second procedure was a traditional class-
room counselor training experience using lectures, demon-
strations, and discussions.

The experimental approach was based on two assumptions.
The first was that counselors face a series of developmental
tasks during counselor preparation around which training
should be deve10ped. Four such tasks were defined: (a) to
become aware of and sensitive to one's own feelings during
the counseling process, (b) to become sensitive to, aware
of, and understanding of client communication, (c) to become
aware of the elements of effective communication behaviors
in counseling, and (d) to become sensitive to, aware of, and
understanding of the bilateral nature of the counseling
relationship and the mutual impact between counselor and

client. The second assumption was that if trainees were

James David Spivack

exposed to stimulated videotape recall and the use of simu-

lation materials, their sensitivity to interpersonal commun-
ication would be ehightened and their ability to communicate
effectively with clients would be increased.

The traditional method of classroom teaching consisted
of lectures, discussions, and demonstrations by a professor
in the Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and
Educational Psychology at Michigan State University and by
guest lecturers.

It was anticipated that the questions "Could some of
the newer IPR techniques deve10ped in a laboratory setting
be incorporated into the present training model?", and "Could
the training model be applied practically within the time
and financial limitations of an ongoing masters level pro-
gram?" would be answered in this study.

The trainees used in this study were 20 graduate
students at Michigan State University. (None of the students
had yet had a counseling practicum.) The subjects were ran-
domly assigned to one of two group treatment sequences (10
students per group), with group 1 first receiving the IPR
training and group 2 first receiving the traditional class-
room method of teaching. At the midpoint of the course, the
treatments were reversed, with group 1 now receiving the
traditional method and group 2 receiving the IPR. All IPR
tasks were supervised by advanced graduate students, and no

faculty members were involved in the IPR training procedures.

James David Spivack

During the first stage of IPR training, the Affect
Simulation Films were shown, with the purpose of having
trainees gain an awareness of their own feelings to situa-
tions depicted on film. The Affect Simulation Films were
shown, trainees were videotaped watching these films, and
a stimulated recall of this videotape was conducted. In
the second stage, a brief lecture on verbal and nonberbal
ways of communicating was presented; each individual then
had the Opportunity to role play counselor and client, which
was audiotaped. A stimulated recall was conducted for each
audiotape, with the purpose Of having trainees gain an
awareness of client communications. In the third stage, a
lecture was presented on the elements of effective communica-
tion behaviors in counseling. Training audio and videotapes
were played and trainees practiced rating these tapes on the
dimensions discussed. Trainees also had the opportunity to
role play and rate their own interview behaviors. During
the final stage, trainees role played counselor anc client
and were videotaped, "Counselor Recall" and "Mutual Recall"
sessions were conducted, with the purpose of having trainees
begin to understand the bilateral nature of the counseling
relationship.

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the two

treatments, a pre-mid-post design was used, using the pre,

James David Spivack

mid and post sessions to sample the trainees' behavior on
the Affective Sensitivity Scale and under two interview con-
ditions (coached client and role play). Judges used the
Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) and Empathic Under-
standing Scale (EUS) for rating audiotaped interviews of
each counselor under each interview condition for each of
three interview sessions (pre, mid, post).

An analysis of variance for repeated measures was per-
formed on the mean gain score changes from pre to mid to
post on the criterion measures (ASS, and on the CVRS and EUS
for the interview conditions), to ascertain whether there
were differences between groups 1 and 2 based on the treat-
ments they received.

Signiticant differences (p(.05) were found between
groups 1 and 2 on the understanding, specific, and explora-
tory subscales of the CVRS under the coached client condi-
tion and between groups 1 and 2 on the affective, understand-
ing, specific, and exploratory subscales of the CVRS under
the role play condition when the IPR method was directly
compared to the traditional method. No significant differ-
ences were found between the two groups in the level of
effectiveness for accurate empathy (EUS) and on the ASS
(although there was significant within group growth for the
group receiving the IPR training). The means increased in

the hypothesized direction on all dimensions.

James David Spivack

The analysis of the data suggests that the IPR techni-
ques which were developed in a laboratory setting were
successfully incorporated into the present training design.
The results take on added significance because this study
was a replication of another study conducted under laboratory
conditions, and the present program was effectively applied
within the time and financial limitations of an on-going
masters level program using advanced graduate students as

supervisors and trainers.

THE USE OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS FOR TRAINING COUNSELORS
USING INTERPERSONAL PROCESS RECALL

By

James David Spivack

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1970

,/’7

\"‘5

wa‘

DEDICATION

PEACE

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A number of individuals have contributed their inspira-
tion, support, encouragement and time. Without them, this
project would never have been possible:

To Norm Kagan, who always seemed to be there in time
of need, and who, through his guidance, perseveration,
creativity, and dedication, taught me the true meaning of
the word "Professional".

To Cecil Williams, who gave of himself freely and un-
selfishly, who always had time, and who enabled me to grow
and become a fuller, richer person.

To Bill Kell and Greg Miller, who showed patience,
understanding and support during the most trying of times.

To fellow colleagues, students, and friends Mary
Heiserman, Karen Rowe, Cathy Scharf, Bob Dende, Al Grzegorek,
Dan Munoz, Paul Schauble, Tom Spierling, and Bob Van Noord,
who offered their services freely generously, and unselfishly,
and to Sharyon Morgan who typed my dissertation.

Lastly, but most importantly, to my wife Barb, who
proved to be a source of comfort and inspiration and who

continually validated me and my purpose.

iii

Dedication.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List Of Tab
List Of Fig

List Of App

CHAPTER

les. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

ures O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C 0

end ices. O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . . .

Purpose Of The Study . . . . . . . . . . . .
Need For The Study . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical Framework. . .
Delimitations Of The Study . . . . . . . . .
Definition Of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III DES

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Traditional Approaches To Supervision And
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Technological (And Innovative) Approaches
To Supervision And Training . . . . . . .
Application Of Specific Techniques To Train-
ing And Supervision . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions And Implications . . . . . . . .

IGN AND m mommy I O C O O O O O O O O O 0

Description Of Experimental Procedures . . .
Description of Experimental Treatment . .
Description Of Control Treatment. . . . .
Coached Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Training Facility . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Affective Sensitivity Scale . . . . . . .
Counselor Verbal Response Scale . . . . .
Empathic Understanding Scale. . . . . . .

Scoring Of Criterion Measures. . . . . . . .

Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

PAGE
ii

iii
vi
viii

ix

35
36
45

56
75

78

79
87
93
95
97
99
100
102
103
106
109
112
114
114
116

CHAPTER

IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . .

Affective Sensitivity Scale . . . . .
Counselor Verbal ReSponse Scale And
Empathic Understanding Scale . . .
Coached Client Condition . . . . .
Role Play Condition. . . . . . . .
Intercorrelations Of Judges' Ratings.
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions An Interpretations. .
Implications. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clinical Observations. . . . . . .

Implications For Counselor Training.

Implications For Future Research. . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

APPENDICES O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O C O O 0

PAGE

118

121

126
127
134
141
142

145

145
152
163
163
173
178

181

195

TABLE

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

LIST OF TABLES

Schematic Representation Of Over-All Exper-
imental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Description Of Experimental Design. . . . . . .

Comparison Of Subjects On The Demographic Var-
iables Of Sex, Age, And Educational Level
In Groups 1 And 2 O O O O O O C O O O O O 0

Data Resulting From The Administration Of
Form B Of The ASS On A Pretest-Posttest
Basis To Sample Groups Of Counselor Educa-
tion Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison Of Mean Scores Of PhD And MA Coun-
selor Candidates On The Dimensions of
The CVRS O O O O O O O O O O I I O O I O O 0

Findings On The Therapeutic Effectiveness Of
Accurate Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Results Of The Analysis Of Variance Comparing
The Mean Gain Scores On The ASS Over Time
Intervals 1 And 2 Between Groups 1 And 2 . .

Comparison Of Group Raw Score And Gain Score
Means For Pre To Mid To Post Treatment
Measurements Over The Sequence Of Treat-
ments On The ASS Between Groups 1 And 2. . .

Results Of The Analysis Of Variance For Bet-
ween Group Differences In Mean Gain Scores
On The CVRS and EDS Over Time Under Coached
Client Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1
And 2 On Each Of The Subscales For The
Mid-Pre Time Interval Under The Coached
Client Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1
And 2 On Each Of The Subscales For The Post-
Pre Time Interval Under The Coached Client
Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

PAGE

80

81

102

105

109

111

122

123

128

127

129

TABLE PAGE

4.6 Comparison Of Group Raw Score Means On The
Five Subscales Under The Coached Client
Condition Between Groups 1 And 2 Over Time . 131

4.7 Results Of The Analysis Of Variance For Bet-
ween Group Differences In Mean Gain Scores
On The CVRS and EUS Over Time Under The
Role Play Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4.8 Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1
And 2 On Each Of The Subscales For The Mid-
Pre Time Interval Under The Role Play Con-
dition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4.9 Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1
And 2 On Each Of The Subscales For the Post-
Pre Time Interval Under The Role Play Con-
dition . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4.10 Comparison Of Group Raw Score Means On The
Five Subscales Under The Role-Play Condi-
tion Between Groups 1 And 2 Over Time. . . . 138

4.11 Intercorrelations Of Rater 1 And Rater 2 For
CVRS and EUS Measures Made At Each Of Three
Times For Role Play Interviews . . . . . . . 141

4.12 Intercorrelations Of Rater 1 And Rater 2 For
CVRS And EUS Measures Made At Each Of
Three Times For Coached Client Interviews. . 142

4.13 Summary Of Hypotheses Related To Between
Group Differences On The Criterion Measures
ove r Time 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O o 144

5.1 Comparison Of Mid-Pre And Post-Pre Treatment
Mean Gains On The ASS For Groups 1 And 2 . . 154

5.2 Descriptive Comparison Of Counselors At Var-

ious Levels Of Training On Each Of The
Dimensions Of The CVRS . . . . . . . . . . . 156

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

4.1 Mean Gain Scores For Groups 1 And 2 Over
Three Measures During Training . . . . . . . 124

4.2 Scattergram Of The Individual Gain Score
Means Obtained On The ASS Over Time
(Mid-Pre) Between Groups 1 And 2 During
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

4.3 Graphic Representation Of Group Raw Score
Means On The Five Subscales Under Coached
Client Condition Between Groups 1 And 2
Over Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-3

4.4 Graphic Representation Of Group Raw Score
Means On The Five Subscales Under Role-
Play Condition Between Groups 1 And 2
Over Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-40

viii

APPENDIX

LIST OF APPENDICES

IPR Counselor Verbal Response Scale And
Manual For Training Judges In Use Of
Counselor Verbal Response Scale

Empathic Understanding In Interpersonal
Processes Scale

Description Of Role, Function, And Train-

ing Of Interrogators.

Sample Typescript IPR Simulation Films .

Description Of Experimental Group ”Curri-

culum . . . .

Training Schedules And Syllibus For Pro-

cedures In Counseling Course. . . . . .

Rationale And Training For Coached Clients

Intercorrelations Of Gain Scores On The
ASS For Groups 1 And 2 Over Time Inter-

vals 1 And 2.

PAGE

196

212

217

223

226

243

247

254

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Because of the complexity of our society, and the
changing nature of social, economic, technological and polit-
ical variables, the field of counseling is continually pres-
sured to modify and upgrade its services to remain relevant
and helpful to the needs of the constituency it serves.
Individuals may be employed to perform counseling functions
without having attained a level of proficiency sufficiently
high to help effect personal growth in clients. The efficacy
of counseling and therapy was always in question. Eysenck
(1952) documented the lack of evidence in support of coun-
seling and therapy services, and other researchers (Arbuckle,
1968; Bergin, 1963, 1967; Cartwright and Vogel, 1960; Fair-
weather g5, a1,, 1960; Truax, 1963) have supported Eysenck's
premise that, rather than counseling and therapy doing at
worst no harm, apparently some counselors and therapists
produced negative changes in clients. Truax (1963) also
pointed out:

"Since we know that counseling on the
average is not more effective than no
counseling, that some counselors and in-
deed some clinics, counseling centers
and other units are therapeutic, while
other counselors, clinics and counsel-
ing centers are in fact, on the average,
harmful, the field of counseling itself
has an ethical responsibility in the
identification of participants and in-

gredients in therapeutic versus psychono-
xious counseling." (p. 213)

Truax's statement suggests the following formulation of the
problem: "How can counseling and therapy services become
more relevant and facilitative in the product it dispenses?"

If the responsibility for providing facilitative, help-
ing services falls on the practicing counselors, it must also
rest on those institutions preparing these professional coun-
selors. However, institutions preparing counselors have failed
to demonstrate their ability to produce effective, helping
counselors. Berenson (1967, p. 7) stated "...there are no
professional training programs which demonstrated their efficacy
in terms of translation to constructive behavioral gains in
clients."

Task groups (Whiteley, 1966), concerned with the need to
refocus research and training in counseling and counselor edu-
cation, have suggested that in order for training programs
to become more relevant to counselor education, and successful
in training effective counselors, a balance between existing
knowledge of affective and cognitive components in counseling
must be adequately achieved in training programs, using coun-
seling developmental tasks as an important vehicle for counselor
education.

The literature on counselor education contains suggestions
that counselor education programs must address themselves to
the development of effective training programs, the problems

inherent in training and supervision in counselor education,

and objective assessments of student progress through train-
ing programs. In view of the need to improve results of coun-
seling, the question of effectiveness in counseling must be
considered, and from it a program of training and supervision
for producing successful versus unsuccessful counselors needs

to be developed and evaluated.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the
effectiveness of a model of counselor education in which
affective and cognitive elements of counseling are combined
in a developmental sequence. More Specifically, this study
will evaluate the effectiveness of a counselor education
"course” in which neophyte counselors1 experience develop-
mental tasks in discrimination and communication skills,
designed to make them better counselors. The developmental
tasks in discrimination focus on becoming more sensitive to
and aware of their own dynamics, client dynamics, and the
relationship established between the counselor-trainees and
their "clients". Tasks in the development of communication
skills are designed to attune trainees to different ways of
responding, taking the discriminations they have made and
translating them into helpful counseling behaviors through

concrete communications.

 

1
No one had as yet had a formal counseling practicum and

all had only a few courses in counseling.

The effects of two types of counselor education exper-
iences on the subsequent behavior of the trainees will be
tested. One approach, the typical classroom approach to
counselor education is the traditional method of conducting
the ”course", while the use of a developmental series of
tasks using the Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) techniques
is innovative and has only recently been developed. The
question constituting the major focus of the present study
is whether there is any difference in the counseling behaviors
of neophyte trainees exposed to traditional classroom proce-
dures versus a program using developmental tasks in discrimin-

ation and communication (implemented by IPR).
Need for the Study,

Of late, a growing interest has been shown in the nature
of supervised counseling experiences during training. Although
the need for supervised training experiences has been noted
since the time of Freud (Jones, 1959), there has been little
agreement as to the basic method, content and structure of
this experience (Roeber, 1962)., For example, efforts have
been made by counselor educators to develop training programs
based on a distinct counseling vieWpoint, emphasizing cogni-
tive-didactic input, theoretical, empirical, and pragmatic
elements gr affective-experiential, intuitive, self-discovery

and self-exploratory elements. For instance, Levy (1968)

indicated that effective counselor education emphasizes
imagination, cognitive flexibility, and avoidance of "pre-
mature closure in the realm of ideas”, but Gibbs (1968)
indicated that an effective program of counselor education
stresses a quasi-therapeutic program built on on-going T-group
and related self-discovery experiences. In addition to this
lack of agreement, there have been relatively few objective
assessments of students' progress through training programs
(Carkhuff, 1966; Cash and Munger, 1966; Moss, Riegel, and
Schaeffer, 1962; Schmidt and Pepinsky, 1965).

In view of the stress placed on counselor education pro-
grams to find a successful blending of ingredients, to meet
the demands for bigger and better programs (KlOpf and Cohen,
1962; Munger, Brown, and Needham, 1964; Ross, 1963), it is
important to continually investigate and evaluate both
traditional and newer training procedures in an attempt to

find effective approaches for educating counselor candidates.

Theoretical Framework

Because the purpose of the present study is to develop
and evaluate a model for training counselors, it is necessary
to identify first those elements which should be included
in the model (to "put the horse before the cart", it is first
important to find out what skills you want candidates to

develop); from this knowledge, an attempt to devise a training

program for the acquistion of these skills can be made.

The first portion of this section establishes guidelines
for the development of the counselor education model. These
guidelines will be followed in the development of the theory
and the identification of the components of the theory.

In the second portion of this section an attempt is made
to identify the elements which will be included in the train-
ing model presented in this study. Two models of interper-
sonal facilitation-counseling and individual counselor
supervision-are examined to identify counselor and supervisor
skills which lead to successful outcome in each respective
process. Once these skills and conditions are identified, a
training model can be developed to include these findings,
attempting to teach counselor candidates to develop the skills
which successful counselors and supervisors possess.

In the third portion of this section an attempt is made
to construct a comprehensive training model for counselor
education. This model is based on the assumption that effec-
tive counseling behaviors involve discrimination skills and
communication skills. The program is implemented by struc-
turing a series of developmental tasks in discrimination and
communication which demonstrates a logical learning sequence
for the acquisition of the skills for becoming an effective

counselor.

The final portion of this section is a discussion of
how to implement the program of developmental tasks most
effectively. The use of "machines" such as videotape and
audiotape recorders, films and television are considered, and
the relevance of the Interpersonal Process Recall technique

is discussed.

Guidelines for the Counselor Education Model

 

The following concepts serve as the guidelines for the
counselor education model:

1. One guideline is that the formulation should re-
present a broad spectrum to include whatever
"truths" can be gleaned from a wide range of
philosophies and vieWpoints; it should not be un-
necessarily limited by selecting only "truths"
from the orientation of one particular school of
counseling, to the exclusion of all others.

2. Another guideline is that the formulation should
consist of teachable concepts.

3. Another guideline is that the formulation should
clearly demonstrate a logical learning sequence
for the student which progresses from where a
student is likely to be at the start of training
(in terms of counseling skills) to the levels and
skills he will need in order to be an effective
counselor.

4. Another guideline is that the formulation should
clarify the distinction between what is counseling
and what is not counseling.

5. Another guideline is that the formulation should
be clearly defined so that replication is possible.

6. Another guideline is that the formulation should
permit the addition of new elements as new data
or observations are obtained.

The theoretical framework for the present development of the
program for training counselors will attempt to follow these
guidelines to synthesize a number of concepts from research,
inference, experience, and knowledge in the areas of coun-

seling and counselor training.

An Examination of Two Interpersonal Processes

 

1. Model of Growth in Counseling

 

The relationship established between the counselor and

client i3 counseling can expedite 9£_inhibit client growth

 

 

and change. Counseling can be conceptualized as an inter-

 

personal process between two (or more) persons, one indiv-
idual presenting problems in development, adjustment, and/or
coping in whom growth and change is desired (client), the
other being a professionally trained individual who offers
the conditions of helping to facilitate growth, self-explor-
ation, and change (counselor). The importance of this rela-
tionship between client and counselor is documented in the
research literature (Foreman, 1967; Hobbs, 1962; Kell and
Mueller, 1966; Krumboltz, 1966; Rogers, 1967; Sullivan, 1953;
Ullman and Krasner, 1964; Whiteley, 1966). According to
Hobbs (1962), counseling which leads to client gain (growth
and change) is characterized by the extent that a facilita-
tive relationship is established between counselor and client.
A counselor who is facilitative can work to establish a rela-

tionship with the client which can enable the client to work

towards realizing increased self-understanding and self-
experiencing; this exploration and increased experimentation
with alternative ways of functioning can lead to more satis-
factory ways of behaving. Hobbs further asserts that the
counselor, by helping to create an atmosphere in which the
client can explore and discover, provides an opportunity for
the client to experience closeness to another human being
without getting hurt, to relieve anxiety from those symbols
associated with negative and traumatic experiences, to learn
not to need neurotic distortions, to practice being respon-
sible for himself, and to clarify an old or learn a new way
of coping in his world (Hobbs, 1962). Further, Patterson
(1966), in reviewing a number of theories of counseling (ra-
tional, psychoanalytic, learning theory, perceptual-phenomeno-
logical, existentialist psychotherapy) concluded:

"Thus all approaches seem to deal with

clients who are in need of help, recognize

this need, believe they can change, believe

that the counselor can help them change,

and engage in some activity in the attempt

to change...a11 approaches, then, appear

to involve a relationship between a coun-

selor and client, each of whom contributes

to the relationship certain characteris-

tics which lead to client change...evidence

seems to be accumulating that the effec-

tive element in counseling is the nature

of the relationship established by the

counselor." (p. 500)

It can be seen that the counselor can have a profound impact

on the amount of client growth and change by the relationship

10

he establishes with the client.

The type gf_relationship the counselor establishes with

 

 

9f_elements. A core of facilitative conditions has been
identified which seem to be common elements to all helping
relationships. These are elements which the counselor must
possess to establish a helpful relationship with the client,
which enhances client exploration, discovery, and change
(Berenson and Carkhuff, 1967; Carkhuff, 1967; Pierce, Cark-
huff, and Berenson, 1967; Rogers, 1951; Truax and Carkhuff,
1967). These conditions are:

1. the facilitators must communicate an accurately
empathic understanding of the deeper as well as
surface feelings of the client (abbreviated as
HEN) .

2. the facilitators must communicate a very deep
respect for the other persons' worth as an individ-
ual ("R").

3. the facilitators must be freely and deeply them—
selves in a non-exploitative relationship (abbre-
viated "G”).

4. the facilitators must be helpful in guiding the
discussion of personally relevant feelings and
experiences in specific and concrete terms ("C").

Results from a series of studies of individuals under-

going counseling and therapy indicated that clients whose
therapists offered a high level of unconditional positive
regard, self-congruence or genuineness, and accurate emphathic

understanding showed significant positive personality and

behavioral change. Whitehorn and Betz (1954), in attempting

11

to account for the difference between successful and unsuc-
cessful counselors and therapists, found that differences

in counseling outcome were related to the counselors'
attitudinal approach to the counseling situation. Success-
ful counselors were seen as warm, and as attempting to
understand the clients in personal, immediate and idio-
syncratic ways. Less successful counselors tended to relate
to clients in a more impersonal manner, focusing on pathology

I

and more external kinds of 'understanding". Halkides (1958)
and Barret-Lenard (1962) investigated the importance of
non-possessive warmth, the therapists maturity, genuiness,
sensitivity and accuracy in understanding a clients' inner
experiences, and concluded that these traits were relevant
conditions for success in counseling.

Significant client growth seemed to be a product of
the depth to which clients engaged in self-exploration.
Rogers (1962) reported that the therapist conditions of
accurate empathy, unconditional positive regard, and thera-
pist genuineness were related to the depth of client self-
exploration, which was related to client growth. Truax and
Carkhuff (1967) also tested the experimental question of whether
client depth of self-exploration, which was determined by the

level of conditions offered by the therapist (they varied accurate

empathy and unconditional positive regard). They varied the pre-

12

presentation of these conditions over parts of the interviews and
found that when the therapists successfully lowered the level
of conditions of accurate empathy and unconditional positive
regard, there was a corresponding drop in the depth of
client self-exploration; when the conditions were raised,
there was a return to high self-exploration. These results
were taken to suggest a causal relationship between the
levels of conditions offered by the therapist and the depth
to which self-exploration and discovery occurs in clients.
Ih§_dimensions gf_warmth and respect, accurate empathy,
genuineness, and concreteness ig_the counselor have been
related §2_the establishment 9f_facilitative relationships
tive client gain when these conditions are present and
deterioration in_clients when absent for individual (Rogers,
1962; Truax, 1963; Truax and Carkhuff, 1964) a§d_ggggp_
therapy (Truax, 1961; Truax, Carkhuff and Kodman, 1966). Not
only must the facilitative counselor accurately understand,
empathize, and care about the client (in a sense, be able to
discriminate and differentiate stimuli), the facilitative
counselor must also be able to let the client know that he
accurately understands and empathizes with him, cares for

him, and genuinely is concerned about him (in a sense, to

13

communicate in a concrete way). As such, the conditions
of accurate empathy, genuineness, regard, and concreteness
are traits which seem to be related to skills which enable

the counselor to discriminate and communicate in facilitative

 

 

ways. Discrimination skills involve perceptual behaviors
and communication skills involve overt, interactional behav-
iors.

Discrimination skills involve recognition, understand-
ing, and an accurate empathy of the surface as well as
deeper meanings of behaviors, including being sensitive to
and aware of the cognitive and affective frames of reference
of oneself and of clients.

Communication skills involve responding along certain

 

behavioral dimensions which can lead to growth or retarda-
tion in relationships. Facilitative counselor communication
entails translating the discriminations of client behaviors
(along verbal, postural, tonal, and gestural dimensions)
into concrete and specific terms so the client concerns and
behaviors can more clearly and easily be understood in light
of the client's problems. The "knowledge" of what consti-
tutes facilitative communication has been derived from

research evidence, inference, deducation, and experience,

 

l
A description of these behavioral dimensions can be

found be referring to the Counselor Verbal Response Scale in
Appendix A, and by referring to the Empathic Understanding
Scale in Appendix B.

14

and this knowledge and skill can be cognitively taught
(Carkhuff, 1966, 1968; Martin and Carkhuff, 1968; Pierce,
Carkhuff and Berenson, 1967; Truax, Carkhuff, and Douds,
1964).

In retrospect, a counselor who can establish a relation-
ship which is facilitative for clients is able to differen-
tiate and discriminate what the client's concern(s) is 32d
is able to translate these discriminations into effective
and helpful counseling behaviors by communicating with
clients in a concrete and clear manner.

2. Model of Growth in Counselor Supervision

Counseling and psychotherapy apg_their training pgp:
cedures can pg_looked upon as instances p£_all interpersonal
processes. Those instances which can be constructive or
destructive in human relationships have the same effect in
counselor and therapy, and can be shown to have the same
types of effects in counselor training. It is proposed that
in counselor training, the relationship between the trainee
and his supervisor can expedite or inhibit the trainee from
developing those intrapersonal and interpersonal skills
required for effective counseling, just as the quality of
the relationship in counseling can influence the development
of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills in clients leading
to growth and change.

Counselor education and supervision of counselor trainees

 

 

15

share many commonalities with the process pf counseling.
Supervision and training of counselors are instances of inter-
personal relationships sharing many similarities with the
counseling relationship. If the counselor offers high
levels of interpersonal facilitation encompassing the condi-
tions of accurate empathy, regard, genuineness, and con-
creteness, a relationship can be established in which the
client may feel free to explore and discover new ways of
perceiving and responding without fear of reprisal. The
effective supervisor can also create an atmosphere in which
the trainee is not threatened, but is accepted, understood,
and respected, so he is free to analyze and explore his re-
lationships with clients. According to Kell and Mueller (1966);

"The good supervisor, we believe, combines

in his own person those qualities which

cause others to believe that he can control,

if necessary, and also that he is emotion-

ally supportive of exploration, experimen-

tation, and learning for its own sake.

Further, the good supervisor does not or-

dinarily experience these qualities in

himself as being emotionally competitive

or antithetical." (p. 99)

The conditions which appear to be conducive for the
establishment of a facilitative relationship and client
gain in counseling appear to be the conditions of super-
vision which achieve desired results in trainee growth.

The presence of a core of facilitative conditions in the

supervisor can free the trainee to engage in self-explora-

16

tion, experimentation, and discovery of ways he can behave
constructively and helpfully. Recently, Carkhuff (1969)
reviewed 16 studies dealing with mean levels of overall
functioning1 of beginning and advanced trainees and their

trainers, and concluded that:

"...trainer level of functioning appears

most critical with trainees moving in
their functioning in the direction of
their trainers. Trainees tend to gain
the most with high level trainers and
lose the most or terminate with low level
trainers when the discrepancies between
trainer and trainee level are greatest.
Those programs proving most effective
were those concentrating systematically
and behaviorally upon the facilitative
and action oriented dimensions." (p. 238)

The level of functioning of the counselor trainer and the
quality of the relationship established by him (based on the
presence or absence of the core of facilitative conditions)
can expedite or inhibit trainee growth as a person and
counselor.

If significant client growth is due to the depth of
self-exploration engaged in by the client, it should also

follow that the trainee will experience a deeper understand-

ing of his relationships with clients if he has a supervisor

 

Level of functioning was defined according to the de-
gree of presence or absence of the core of conditions of
empathy, regard, genuineness, and concreteness.

17

who can enable him to explore and discover who he is, what
effects he has in his relationships with clients and other
people, and how his perceptions influence his thoughts, feel-
ings, and behaviors. The deeper the trainee can explore,

the more fully he can (a) come to understand his own needs,
(b) understand client needs, (c) differentiate his own dy-
namics from those of others, and (d) achieve a more profound
understanding of the bilateral nature of his relationships
with his clients.

In sum, the supervisors who offer high levels of the
core of facilitative conditions can enable trainees to SE?
plppg and discover new ways of behaving and also didactically
Eggpp_trainees gppp£_effective ways of behaving, and can
provide a role mpdgl of a person who can live effectively.
The process of the development of counseling skills in trainees
can therefore be shown to involve experiential and cognitive
learning.

Experiential learning emphasizes exploration and dis-

 

covery, where the trainees internalize, experience, and under-
stand the meaning of the ”feeling" qualities of their rela-
tionships; growth as a person and as a counselor can be
realized from this new-found understanding (Altucher, 1967;
Gysbers, 1964; Hansen and Barker, 1964; Kell and Mueller,
1966; Lister, 1966; Orton, 1965; Peters and Hansen, 1963).

Experiential learning focuses on examining certain perceptual

18

and attitudinal conditions in trainees based on the belief
that trainee growth will result from discovery and exploring
of these experiences. The trainees can come to recognize
themselves as beings with needs, emotions, and conflicts
unique to themselves and different from others. At the same
time, they can become more aware of, sensitive to and under-
standing of the needs, emotions, and conflicts of others and
can come to affectively understand why facial expressions,
tonal quality, body attitudes and posture, and verbal and
non-verbal behaviors are reflections of underlying feelings
and emotions. In generalizing from trainees' own personal
experiences, the flow is inductive. Because these learnings
involve recognition, understanding, and an accurate empathy
of the surface as well as deeper meanings of behaviors, exper-
iential learning can be viewed as a process used to acquire
discrimination skills.

Cognitive learning refers in this discussion to cogni-
tive input, teaching, guiding, and modeling behaviors, by
which trainees can learn objectively derived and defined
behavioral correlates of what is considered effective, facili-
tative counseling practice (Bandura and Walters, 1966;
Fleming, 1964; Korner and Brown, 1952; Moore, 1963). The
trainees can be instructed in how to communicate with clients
along certain dimensions, how to encourage clients to communicate

with them, what facial expressions, tonal quality, body

l9

attitudes and posture, and verbal and non-verbal behaviors
mean in light of behaviors of oneself and clients, and
whether these behaviors conflict and/or support one another.
This approach entails a "passing down" of accumulated know-
ledge to trainees; they incorporate these "established
premises", from which they may deduce that there are a
number of ways of behaving. Cognitive learning can be in-
volved in the acquisiton of discrimination and communication
skills. Discrimination skills can be sharpened by learning
to identify certain types of behaviors which might have under-
lying heightened emotionality. Communication skills can be
sharpened by learning that there are certain dimensions and
ways of responding which can communicate in a concrete way
and certain ways of responding which are vague, non-specific
and do not communicate clearly with clients.

It has been demonstrated (Carkhuff, 1966, 1968; Martin
and Carkhuff, 1968; Pierce, Carkhuff, and Berenson, 1967;
Pierce and Schauble, 1969) that counselor candidates can
be trained to effect significant constructive gains in
clients following a training program emphasizing discrimina-
tion and communication of those interpersonal skills related
to individual growth and change. Trainees in counselor educa-
tion can learn to develop discrimination and communication
skills in themselves (with the assistance of "teachers” who

can provide the conditions conducive to self-exploration and

20

the development of cognitive flexibility), which can lead
to their becoming more facilitative counselors.
Model of Counselor Education and Training

The development of a comprehensive model of counselor
education begins with the identification of the components
which will be used to construct the program. It is postulated
that counselor education should look to the processes of
counseling and supervision, and attempt to teach trainees to
develop those skills that have been found to lead to growth
and change in clients and counselor candidates. The previous
two portions of this section dealt with identifying certain
skills which were possessed by both facilitating counselors
and supervisors. In the portion dealing with a model of
growth in counseling, the relationship established by the
counselor, shown to directly effect the amount of growth a
client may realize, was affected by the degree of the pre-
sence or absence of discrimination and communication skills
in the counselor. Similarly, in the portion dealing with a
model of growth in individual counselor supervision, it was
shown that the relationship established by the supervisor
with the trainee, shown to be directly related to the develop-
ment of counseling skills in the trainee, was also affected
by the degree of the presence or absence of discrimination
and communication skills in the supervisor.

Because a core of conditions and skills has been identified

21

(involving skills in discrimination and communication) as
components which are needed to establish facilitative rela-
tionships, and since studies have shown that these conditions
and skills can be taught and developed, it is posited that coun-
selor candidates should be exposed to a series of experiences
of different types which are designed to help them develop
skills to discriminate and communicate so they in turn can
establish facilitative relationships with their clients.

The implementation of the counselor education model
can be accomplished through the use of counseling develop-
mental tasks. The concept of developmental tasks can pre-
sently be used for constructing a logical learning sequence
for the acquisition of discrimination and communication
skills. This can be particularly relevant for training coun-
selors because the students can progress from where they
are likely to be at the outset of training in terms of
skills possessed to the level of skill needed in order to
be a successful counselor. The following tasks in the
development of these skills face the trainees as they learn

to be facilitative counselors:

Discrimination Skills

1. The counselor-trainee must be aware of and sensitive

 

1This model is a modification of a design for counselor
supervision developed by Goldberg (1967).

22

pp his owp feelings and communications during the inter-

personal encounter. Basic to this premise is the belief

 

that unless the counselor is keenly, confidently, and com-
fortably aware of who pp_i§_and i§_becoming, he will not
provide clients with the most effective experience. Appel
(1963) states:

"The most significant resource a counselor

brings to a helping relationship is him-

self. It is difficult to understand how a

counselor unaware of his own emotional

needs, of his expectations of himself as

well as of others, of his rights and pri-

vileges in relationships can be sensitive

enough to such factors in his counselees."

The beginning of a helpful counseling experience, there-
fore, starts with the counselor or therapist. The thoughts
and feelings the counselor has about himself are reflected
in his thoughts and feelings about others; conversely, how
he thinks and feels about others will reflect how he thinks
and feels toward himself (Berenson and Carkhuff, 1967). In
order to have a truly therapeutic effect on another indiv-
idual, the counselor must have a profound depth of under-
standing of his own fully experienced personal needs and
conflicts so they do not intrude in a deleterious manner;
above all else, the counselor must learn to trust his own

motives. Carkhuff (1967, in Berenson and Carkhuff, 1967)

feels that:

23

"The counselor must trust his own exper-
ience, for in the end all that he has to
offer the client is 100% of his own exper-
ience...trusting his own motives and exper-
ience will enable the counselor to be open
to the feedback that he gets from his client.
Trusting the feedback that he gets from his
client will enable him to be shaped by what
is effective for the client...the beginnings
of potent practice, therefore, involves a
self-experiencing and self-knowing counselor
who is shaped by what is facilitative for
his client.” (p. 5-6)

To achieve this awareness and sentitivity, it is
theorized that the trainee must remain open to his own
experiences so as to understand his own emotional needs,
expectations, and conflicts; this can make him more aware
of the affective messages which emanate from clients. By
knowing that it is permissible to talk about and have
feelings, and knowing how profoundly they influence his own
behavior, the trainee can come to respect others for their
feelings and concerns, can more accurately empathize with
them because he too has had related experiences, and can
more clearly conceptualize client concerns in light of his
own previous experiences. Rogers (1951) indicated that
personal growth of the counselor-trainee should be given
high priority in counselor education, and Landsman (1965)
noted that existentialist focus on the "self" of the trainee

and his enrichment in training shows great promise for coun-

selor education. The model for counselor education should,

24

therefore, include experiences designed to enable the trainees
to become as fully-functioning and experiencing individuals

as possible.

2. The counselor-trainee must become aware pf.apd_
sensitive pp client feelings and communications. The coun-
selor-trainee must become sensitive to, aware of, and under-
standing of the affective themes and connotive implications,
as well as the cognitive aspects of client concerns which
permeate clients' behaviors. This involves the development
and refinement of a critical perceptive ability in trainees
of the ability to recognize the more subtle as well as
blatant affective messages and their meanings emanating from
clients, and an understanding of what these behaviors mean
in terms of the clients' behaviors.

It is further posited that the counselor-trainees must
be able to identify clients' verbal and non-verbal cues and
commentary (verbal, postural, gestural, tonal) during coun-
seling. The role of "Interrogator" was deve10ped (Kagan,

1., 1969) to facilitate client self-analysis of under-

pp.
lying thoughts, feelings, images, expectations and general
pattern of reacting; training in this skill is relevant

to the development of counselor skills in identifying poten-

tially important areas of concern for clients. Training

 

1Complete description of the training procedure and role
Of interrogator can be found in Appendix D.

25

involves developing the trainees' sensitivity to specific
types of cues which are of assistance in recognizing client
communications which may be indicative of heightened under-
lying emotionality (Some examples are seen in abrupt shifts
in theme during interviews, change in voice level, tone or
pace, use of vocabulary, shifts in body posture, change in
visual focus and eye contact, and innappropriate affect).
If one considers an accurate empathy and understanding
of the surface as well as deeper meanings of client concerns
to be important factors in the outcome of counseling and
therapy, then this task is relevant to attempting to attune
trainees to recognize these cues in client communications,

and understand what they mean in the light of client concerns.

3. The counselor-gpainee must become sensitive pp_§pg_
aware p£_the bilateral nature pf_the counseling interaction
and the mutual impact between counselor and client. The
counselor-trainee can become a more potent agent of change
for clients by recognizing and differentiating his own feel-
ings and conflicts from those of the client, and by under-
standing that he establishes a relationship with clients which
has a reciprocal impact on his behavior and the behavior of

the clients. According to Goldberg (1967):

26

"...it becomes necessary for the trainee
to be aware of his impact and influence
and to understand the meaning of his
interaction with the client. Perhaps,
even more important, however, the trainee
needs practice at examining his rela-
tionship with the client using the coun-
seling session itself and the client/
counselor interaction as both subject

and object of the counseling process.”

(p- 19)

It is posited that because the trainee has certain
reactions, feelings and thoughts, and clients have certain
reactions, feelings and thoughts, there is more than
likely going to be an interaction between some of these
elements. The more fully the trainee examines his relation-
ships with clients, the more fully can be come to understand
that he begins to hold a Special meaning for the clients,
in a sense, a model and social reinforcer for the client.
Further, the client also holds a meaning for the counselor,
and the counselor will react to various client behaviors
based on his own previous experiences. Often these reactions
will be facilitating, but they can also serve to inhibit
clients from exploring further. It is this dynamic inter-
action which can be examined, and the counselor-trainee can

learn those behaviors which will be effective for his clients.

Communication Skills
The counselor-trainee mpst become increasingly aware pf_

elements p£_effective communication ip_counseling. Truax,

27

Carkhuff and Douds (1964) suggested that trainees be made
aware of the relevant dimensions of counseling by presenting
the trainees with a model rated high in the therapist
Offered core of conditions. By presenting trainees with a
model of communication skills which involve responding
behaviorally along concrete dimensions (facilitating versus
non-facilitating), the trainees can learn what constitutes
an effective, helpful response; the trainees can practice
making and rating their own responses and interactions (and
those of others) along the identified dimensions and under
various circumstances.

Certain types of responses and dimensions of reSponding
can facilitate client growth, inhibit or negate growth, or
result in impasses in counseling. Research by Kagan pp, p1,,
(1967) led to the identification of certain dimensions of
responses which led to the development of the IPR Counselor
Verbal Response Scale (C.V.R.S.),1 which was an attempt to
describe counselor statements and responses to client com-

munications on four dichotomized dimensions:

1. affective-cognitive
2. understanding-nonunderstanding
3. specific-nonspecific

4. exploratory-nonexploratory

 

1The C.V.R.S. is described fully in Appendix A.

28

These dimensions deal with types of responses which can be

made by counselors, but not with the quality of the re-

sponses. The effectiveness of counselor responses depends

also on the level at which they were communicated by the

counselor. Research by Carkhuff and Berenson (1967) and

Truax and Carkhuff (1967) has led to the identification of

five levels of reSponse at which counselor communications

can be made; the level of the response directly influences

the effectiveness of

The five levels

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

the counselor-client interaction.

1

are:

The verbal and behavioral expressions

of the counselor either do not attend

to or detract significantly from those
of the second person.

The counselors response subtracts
noticeable affect from the client
communications.

The counselors responses are essen-
tially interchangeable with the clients'.

The counselors responses add noticeably
to client expressions and communications.

The counselors responses add signifi-
cantly to client expressions and com-
munications.

Implementation of a Model for Counselor Education and Training

The use of "machines," such as audio and video-tape re-

corders, films and film projectors, and closed circuit tele-

vision has begun to demonstrate its applicability to the

complex processes of counseling and counselor preparation.

 

l

The E.U.S. is described fully in Appendix B.

29

The Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) technique, deve10ped
by Kagan pg, 31. (1967) using videotaping and simulation
film materials seems to have relevance as a means of imple-
menting training procedures.

Videotaping the counseling session, using films to
simulate personal encounters, and replaying the video-recording
of these encounters for trainees is intended to capture the
maximum number of cues (verbal and non-verbal) for trainees
to examine, explore, and understand. The verbal and non-
verbal data is available for immediate playback and recall,
under the guidance of a clinical interrogator especially
trained to focus on the salient features of the on-going
relationship, dynamics in the interview, and personal re-
actions to the simulated materials, reproduced on videotape.

The IPR techniques seem to have the following applica-
tions for counselor educations:

1. Use of simulation materials affords the oppor-
tunity to create situations in a laboratory setting,
designed to make trainees more aware of and sensi-
tive to their own dynamics and ways of reacting,
and to the dynamics and ways of reacting of other
individuals, is specific instances and circumstances.

2. Use of videotape recall affords the opportunity
for the trainee to see himself and clients in a
new light, and to explore attitudes which influence
and effect counseling behavior; this maximizes
learning by providing immediate feedback to the
trainees.

3. Use of IPR techniques can afford the opportunity to

focus on essential components of counselor-client
communication.

30

Use of the role of interrogator, training in the
role of interrogator, and serving as an interro-
gator builds skills which have direct application
in counseling.

The IPR techniques therefore seem to be an appropriate vehicle

for the development of discrimination and communication

skills in counselor-trainees.

Delimitations of the Study

 

Generalizations of the results of the present study are

delimited by the following:

1.

There is no attempt to obtain a geographic or
historic sampling of students. The nature of

the group used in the present study may not be
representative of groups in counselor education
at another point in time at the same institution,
or of a group in counselor education at another
institution.

No attempt is made to seek a stratified sample or
to in other ways control all possible relevant
characteristics of the student counselor sample.
The sample of individuals comprising the group may
vary along dimensions not accounted for in the
present study:

control for sex of student

differences in personality types
differential rates and ways of learning
different experiences and background
different reasons for taking the program
differential level of involvement and com-
mitment to the treatment procedures.

"dl‘dUOtfiP

The level of skill and ability to function effectively
as a trainer, supervisor, and interrogator may vary
among different individuals, deSpite attempts to
control for consistency.

Coached clients are used instead of "real” clients.
The coached clients may be functioning in a dif-
ferent and inconsistent fashion over trainees,

31
despite training and practice aimed at achieving
some consistency Of performance.
5. Ability to be effective with the coached clients is

not identical to ability to function with real
clients.

Definition of Terms

 

Special terms, used in this study, are defined as
follows:

Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR): The term used to
describe the technique of video-recording of counselor
trainees' personal interactions (to simulation materials)
and interpersonal interactions (e.g. counseling interviews)
and then playing back the videotape to enable the parti-
cipants to examine their intrapersonal and interpersonal
dynamics in the original experiences.

Stimulated Recall: The phase of IPR where videotape
is replayed to trainees(s) and a clinical "interrogator"
helps to stimulate trainee(s) examination of the underlying
thoughts and feelings during the recorded session.

Interrogator: The label given to a third person (coun-

 

selor, therapist) whose function is to facilitate trainee(s)
self-analysis of thoughts, feelings and reactions to filmed
simulation materials and interpersonal encounters in train-
ing; the term "interrogator" was selected because this per-
sons clinical function is limited to actively probing the

trainees' immediate reactions.

32

Affect Simulation: The technique of using films designed

 

to simulate various kinds and degrees of intensity of
emotional states. The films are designed to confront
individuals viewing them with various interpersonal stress
situations. The reactions to these situations can be
examined in order to develop understanding and awareness of
typical ways of responding to these stressful situations,
and for identifying new and possibly more satisfying ways
of responding to the interpersonal situations depicted on
the films.

Facilitative: "...that which frees the individual to

 

attain higher and more personally rewarding levels of intra-
personal and interpersonal functioning" (Berenson and Cark-
huff, 1967). (also helping, effective, successful)

Core of Facilitating Conditions: "...to denote those
counselor dimensions of attitude and sensitivity that create
a therapeutic atmosphere enabling the client to relate
constructively to the counselor and to himself within the
therapeutic encounter” (Berenson and Carkhuff, 1967). In
this study, the conditions of accurate empathy, genuineness,
regard, and concreteness are components of this core of
conditions.

Cognitive: The term used to refer to didactic (intell-
ectual, reasoning and thinking) behaviors which involve in-

formation gathering and evaluative processes.

33

Affective: The term used to refer to experiential
(emotional) behaviors involving exploration, discovery, and

understanding of "feelings".

Assumptions

 

1. Changes in counselor trainees' affective sensitivity can
be measured and changes in affective sensitivity can be
determined.

2. A counselor trainee's within-interview behavior can be
measured and changes in interview behavior determined.

3. The rating of 20 consecutive counselor responses, taken
from the middle segments of an interview will be a re-
presentative sample of counselor trainees' performance
throughout the interview.

Hypotheses

An experimental research design was formulated which

would permit the testing of the following general hypothesis:

A program using specific developmental
tasks in interpersonal discrimination and
communication, employing stimulated video-
taped-recall sessions and affective simu-
lation materials (IPR) will be more effec-
tive in bringing about changes in trainees'
interview behavior on discrimination and
communication dimensions than will trainees
receiving a more traditional classroom
approach to counselor education.

More specifically:

l. Trainees exposed to a program of specific develop-
mental tasks in counselor education, implemented
by using IPR techniques, will develop greater
ability to discriminate (and differentiate) affec-
tive stimuli and conditions than trainees exposed

34

to a more traditional classroom approach to
counselor education.

2. Trainees exposed to a program of specific develop-
mental tasks in counselor education, implemented
by using IPR techniques, will develop greater
ability to communicate in a facilitative way

than trainees exposed to a more traditional
classroom approach to counselor education.

91w

There is a need for counselor education programs to
provide relevant experiences to the process of becoming a
facilitative counselor. In the present study, an attempt
is made to delineate a series of developmental tasks in dis-
crimination and communication skills using IPR techniques
as a vehicle for the training model. Chapter II will con-
tain a review of the literature focusing on traditional
and more innovative, technological approaches to counselor
supervision and training (including research using IPR).
Chapter III offers a detailed paradigm for a model program
designed to train individuals to be facilitative counselors.
Chapter IV will contain an analysis of the data generated
from the study. The relevance of the outcomes of this

approach to counselor education is presented in Chapter V.

CHAPTER 11

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

Included in the first chapter was the identification of
a number of skills which training programs in counselor educa-
tion should seek to develop in counselor candidates. The
review of literature in this chapter will not retrace related
literature about this material, but will focus on both
traditional and some of the more innovative approaches for
teaching trainees to develop counseling skills. This
chapter contains reviews of: (a) traditional approaches to
supervision and training, including the role of didactic
input, role playing, the counseling practicum and adjunct
group counseling experiences, and an integration of didactic
and experiential elements in training, (b) technological-
innovative approaches to supervision and training using
electronic devices, beginning with the use of audio-tapes
and progressing to more recent innovative devices such as
videotapes and simulation materials, and (c) the application
of three Specific approaches to training and supervision
(Microcounseling, Video-Simulation, and Interpersonal Pro-

cess Recall).

35

36

Traditiongl Approaches To
Sppervision and Trainipg

 

Overview

It has long been believed (Foreman, 1967; Gysbers,
1964; Hansen and Barker, 1964; Lister, 1966; Orton, 1965;
Patterson, 1964; Peters and Hansen, 1963; Truax, Carkhuff,
and Douds, 1964) that self-awareness and self-understanding
are critical components of the skills which counselor candi-
dates should develop. Others who share this belief (Appel,
1963; Arbuckle and Wicas, 1957; Arnold, 1962; ACES Standards,
1967; Lister, 1964; McKinnon, 1969) indicated that this
understanding can help trainees find a fuller acceptance of
their clients. While this importance of self-understanding
for trainees is accepted by many counselor educators, how
this understanding should be achieved is not agreed upon
with nearly as much unanimity (Bonney and Gazda, 1966). A
number of people have noted that while programs provide
both didactic and experiential training experiences, there
is a growing concern that possibly this integration is not
accomplished often enough or successfully enough (Chennault,
1964; Landsman, 1963; Lister, 1964; Perronne and Sanborn,
1966). There, therefore, appears considerable support in the
literature for the premise that for a program in supervision
to accomplish its goals, it should provide a successful

blend of didactic and experiential tasks which could lead

37

to the development of whatever skills one wishes trainees
to possess.

The following is a review of a number of components
which are usually included in a counselor training program:

A. Didactic Input

 

Although many counselor educators would agree that
knowledge of counseling theory is a necessary part of
achieving awareness and becoming a counselor (Brammer, 1966),
there appears to be a question as to its place in training.
Brammer's (1966) point of view regarding didactic (cognitive)
input seems to represent the position which advocates the
necessity of the didactic facet of training. He noted that
exploration and understanding of various theories and approaches
to counseling can serve to help the counselor conceptualize
what he is doing so he can examine his behaviors critically
in light of his assumptions about clients' behaviors and
needs. This didactic input can help trainees cognitively
understand their behaviors, and develop a frame of reference
for thinking of their behaviors, client behaviors, and the
way each person in the relationship can interact and influence
each other. A possible criticism of Brammer's point is
that he seemed to emphasize the role of theoretical material
almost to the exclusion of practical and applied (discovery)

types of experiences.

38

B. Role Playing,

A technique relating theory with practice has been
the use of role playing (Sperle, 1933) to introduce trainees
to interviewing procedures, to develop a "feel" for the
nature of the counseling relationship (Hoppock, 1949;

Rogers, 1951; Wrenn, 1962), to illustrate and stimulate
student discussion of the counseling process (Bridgewater

and Cookston, 1952), as a means of increasing students'
awareness of non-verbal components in counseling (Thompson
and Bradway, 1950), and to increase counselor skills by
helping students grasp the understanding of the relationship
between their internal and external behaviors (Lister, 1966).
According to its advocates, using role playing procedures
enabled trainees to analyze and understand many facets of

the problems they might be faced with in counseling and their
reactions to these problems without having to assume respon-
sibility for "damaging” a real client. The argument continues
that trainees can also experiment with new and different

ways of responding in the relative safety of a laboratory
setting.

Although role playing seems to many to be a useful
method for simulating counseling experiences, limitations
were also noted. Roark (1969), in an attempt to study the
influence of training on counselor responses in actual and

role playing interviews, concluded that there was a difference

39

in response patterns between (typescripts of) role playing
and actual interviews. One possible explanation he gave

was that role playing situations are somewhat different

from actual counseling encounters since they closely approxi-
mate but do not actually duplicate the true counseling
experience. In any event, while differences were found,

he did not consider them of the type or magnitude to contra-
indicate the use of role playing in research and training.
However, Roark did note that generalizations from role
playing to actual counseling situations should be made with
caution.

C. The CounselingiPracticum and Adjunct Group
Experiences

Actual client contact is considered by a number of
counselor educators to be the most effective and appropriate
way of realistically training counselors (Landy, 1953;
Black, 1953; Kirk, 1955). According to Haseley and Peters
(1966), the counseling practicum where trainees are assigned
real clients and fieldwork experiences, seemed to provide
opportunities for studying the counseling process as it
occurred with trainees directly involved in the process.
Because the (on-campus and off-campus) practicum involves
counseling with real clients, it has been referred to as
the "heart of counselor preparation" (Hansen and Moore, 1966;

Haseley and Peters, 1966).

40

The use of group counseling as an adjunct experience
to the practicum has recently received much attention (Bonney
and Gazda, 1966; Dreikurs and Sonstegard, 1966; Foreman,
Poppen, and Frost, 1967; Lister, 1966; Meek and Parker, 1966),
founded on the assumption that the group experience can
help trainees achieve the self-understanding needed to
be a successful counselor. Gazda and Ohlsen (1961) indicated
the following benefits which a group counseling experience
could provide for trainees:

1. to discover that Others have problems like

themselves, which can be helped by counseling

2. to extend their knowledge of human behavior
and understand the behavior of others

3. to observe a qualified counselor at work who
can serve as a model for effective practice

with clients

4. to practice the role of "co-therapist" to help
others.

Although group counseling has received support as an
adjunct practicum experience, Betz (1963) reviewed the
literature and concluded that there have been few controlled
studies favorably evaluating the impact of group counseling
on trainees and that little experimental evidence existed
to demonstrate the value of group techniques in counselor
training. As a result of this review, he undertook to
evaluate the use of group procedures in training. Spec-

ifically, he took 30 NDEA counselors and attempted to

41

ascertain whether an affectively oriented or cognitively
oriented group counseling approach would have a greater
impact on these counselor trainees. The affective group
focused on feeling tone and emotional material produced by
the group; the cognitive group focused on cognitive material
and informational needs of the group. Betz found that
after 14 hours of group experience, trainees exposed to the
affective group experience gained in ability to respond to
clients' affect when they counselled individually and inde-
pendently of the group; trainees in the cognitive group did
not. Betz concluded from this study that an affective group
counseling experience can have value in counselor training
since trainees became more affective in their approach to
clients as they became more aware of their own feelings.
However, despite Betz's findings, there has been a lack of
consistently significant results using a group procedure
as an adjunct to the practicum (McKinnon, 1969; Wirt, Betz,
and Engle, 1969). These findings can mean that group
counseling does not always favorably effect outcome measures.
In attempting to explain these findings, certain consider-
ations might be kept in mind. For example, these incon-
sistencies may not necessarily mean that group counseling is
not an effective adjunct experience. Betz (1963) did achieve
significant results in an affectively oriented group experience

which covered a fairly long period of time. This might

42

imply that an adjunct group approach in training may require
a long enough period of time to allow for the impact of
these experiences to become integrated and translated into
behavioral changes. Further, it should be pointed out that
a number of studies did achieve positive results. These
studies may need to be replicated, controlling for consis-
tency within studies (using large samples, tight designs,
and longer periods of time) and across studies (length of
time and type of treatment) to improve the credibility of
results (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). Finally, the level
of functioning of the supervisor, which has been shown (in
Chapter I) to be directly and consistently related to the
amount of growth in clients and trainees, may have to be
more closely measured and controlled to finally conclude
that supervisors can be effective agents of change.

D. Integrated Didactic and Experiential Elements
in Training

Carkhuff (1966) has noted that while a number of
counselor training programs advocate the direct experiential
involvement of trainees in supervision (Arbuckle, 1963;
Patterson, 1964; University of Minnesota Counselor Education
Staff, 1960), none have researched the process or outcomes
of their programs. As a result of this lack of empirical
validation, he found that there has been a trend away from
programs of supervision advocating only experiential exper-

iences toward more balanced, "eclectic", integrative programs,

43

which focus on three sources of learning which operate in
counselor training: (1) the didactic, or direct shaping of
behavior; (2) the experiential base of learning; and (3)
the role model for effective counseling established by
the trainer (Carkhuff, 1966). Truax, Carkhuff and Douds
(1964) suggested that approaches to supervision should com-
bine didactic and experiential elements into one model, which
entailed shaping trainees' behaviors with quasi-therapeutic
activities. They found the benefits of this combination to
be threefold:

l. trainees could experience an analog of therapy

2. trainees could receive a role model of effective
counseling from supervisors

3. trainees had Opportunity for self-exploration.
Using an integrated approach to supervision, they found that
trainees could be brought to levels of interpersonal func-
tioning comparable to experiences professionals, and clients
of these trainees evidenced greater constructive behavioral
change than a comparable control group after 100 hours of
training. However, attempts to replicate these findings in
shorter periods of time (20 hours; Berenson, Carkhuff, and
Myrus, 1966) have resulted in failure to reach the same
level of functioning achieved in the longer programs.

The inconsistent results obtained in the studies re-
viewed so far give rise to a number of questions and invite

speculation concerning the length and depth of these experiences.

44

One might be led to postulate that a reason for the inability
to replicate these results in shorter periods of time, and
for the inconsistent support for group counseling experiences
might be the depth at which learning occurred. Longer
exposures to treatment techniques may have the advantage of
allowing for the integration of new learning, building upon
this learning, proceeding to deeper and more intense levels
of experiencing and understanding. Shorter exposures could
result in integration of experiences at a more superficial
level of understanding. Thus, based on particular approaches
to training, a longer period of time may be necessary to
realize the development of counseling skills in trainees
using particular teaching-learning models.

On the other hand, the length of time may not be as
important a variable as the intensity of the treatment pro-
cedure. Traditional means of implementing and operationalizing
training programs may lack the potency and impact to acceler-
ate the learning process. Longer periods of time may be
necessary simply because a particular techniques does not
allow for the process of discovery and integration of
learning to occur more rapidly. This points up the need for
studies seeking to identify those types of training proce-
dures which can result in the quickest and most effective
learning, based on the task at hand. One study is relevant.

Reddy (1968) attempted to identify which types of situations

45

can produce the most effective learning. He examined the
differential effects of immediate and delayed feedback of
knowledge of results in the learning of empathy in counselor
training, and found that trainees learned most effectively
and efficiently when immediate knowledge of results was
given. He concluded by noting the importance of the need

to consider and evaluate different methods of teaching and
learning in an attempt to discover the most relevant methods

for training.

Technological (and Innovative),Approaches
To Supervision and Training

The use of technological devices has begun to be
applied to the training of counselors. Onder (1970) noted
that the recent willingness of the professions of Psychiatry,
Psychotherapy, and Counseling to take advantage of technology
reflects a general shift in the phiIOSOphy of the process
of therapy from the notion that the therapist/client relation-
ship could not be disturbed by another person or device
without jeopardizing client benefits to the willingness to use
"extra-personal" devices. Onder further asserted that the
development and use of electronic devices in this profession and
its training procedures heralds a greater acceptance of techno-
logical devices.

A. Audiotapes

In the 1940's, the use of audiotapes became an

integral part of counselor education (Covner, 1942; Rogers,

46

1942). Early use of audiotapes for stimulated recall was
conducted by Gaier (1951). He audiotaped classroom dis-
cussions and replayed the tapes to each Of 11 subjects in
an attempt to gain understanding of the students' covert
behaviors and experiences during a learning situation.
During replay, the tape was stopped at pre-selected points
and stimulated recall of students' conscious thoughts at
the time of the original experience was conducted. Gaier
noted the implications of this technique of inquiry into
obtaining data for reporting inner thoughts and feelings.
The use of audiotapes, and stimulated recall has since been
adopted for supervisory activities in counselor training
(Beiser, 1966; Holmes, 1964; Kubie, 1958); those advocating
this use of audiotapes found that by using this approach in
supervision trainees were able to achieve a greater self-
awareness with audiotapes than without their use.

According to many, the addition of audiotapes represented
an improvement in supervision, and has become an integral
part of the supervisory process. However, a number of
limitations were noted. Some deleterious effects have been
reported, such as potentially constricting the naturalness
of the counseling situation (Eckstein and Wallerstein, 1958),
increasing counselor anxiety (Covner, 1942), and being unre-
presentative of the total process which could result in

distortion in supervision of what actually occurred (Heimann,

47

1964). Ryan (1969) noted that while the naturalness and
anxiety dimensions could be overcome as the counselor and
client became more comfortable in the situation, certain
other weaknesses could not be overcome. According to him,
audiotapes did not appear to capture non-verbal behaviors
and a full representation of the on-going process. In

1., (1967) reported that when

addition to this, Kagan pg.
verbal and non-verbal behaviors were recalled, they were
subject to the personal distortions of the trainees. For
example, they noted that when audiotapes of previously
transcribed counseling sessions were replayed in supervision,
trainees recalled their interviews in retrospect, often
forgetting the way verbal and non-verbal behaviors actually
occurred in the original situation. The supervisor often
interpreted client behaviors to trainees, albeit without a
complete record of data from the interview. Kagan and

his associates concluded that while supervisors dealt with
impasses trainees experienced in counseling, their recall
was somewhat removed from their original occurrences.

B. Videotapes

 

The use of videotape has recently begun to be used
in the training of counselors. Gruenberg, Liston, and Wayse
(1969) indicated that vidoetaping improved the procedure of

supervision for the following reasons:

48

1. The supervisor can feel a sense of encounter with
the client which he could not feel before using
videotape.

2. The supervisor was able to see the client for
himself and did not have to rely on the subjective
reports of the trainee; this allowed the super-
visor to form his own impressions and conclusions.
They claim the supervisor can function more
effectively when videotape is used, and this
transfers to improved supervision of trainees
(this ultimately transfers into subsequent client
growth as a result of improved trainee skill).

3. Videotaping provides a complete and comprehensive
record of what transpired in the counseling ses-
Sion.

4. The use of videotaping seemed to increase the amount
of therapeutic activity during therapy. They in-
dicated that "...when one is under intense scrutiny,
whether it be in doing psychotherapy or surgery,
it is reasonable to expect a more intense invest-
ment of attention to the problem at hand (p. 104)."
Trainees, being aware that their behaviors in
counseling were to be closely reviewed, showed a
tendency to more actively participate and invest
themselves in the process.

A number of studies have been conducted using videotape
procedures for counselor training and supervision.1 Landsman
and Lane (1963) and Walz and Johnston (1963) explored the
effects of videotaping a counseling session and its subsequent
replay on a counselor's attitudes toward himself and his coun-
seling behaviors. Landsman and Lane had trainees role play

interviews and videotaped the interaction. These interviews

 

1
All studies relating to the use of the Interpersonal

Process Recall (IPR) technique in counselor training and
supervision will be discussed in a later section of this
chapter.

49

were later replayed for the trainees to watch. The authors
concluded that a greater understanding of their own behaviors
was possible for trainees watching a replay of videotaped
role playing than was possible using audiotapes. Walz and
Johnston attempted to assess the effects of watching a
videotape replay of trainees' counseling behaviors (using
coached clients) on trainees' attitudes toward their coun-
seling behaviors. An Interview Check List was administered
to measure changes in counselors' self-perceptions as a
result of viewing a video-replay of their in-counseling
behaviors. The authors concluded that counselor candidates
exhibited a greater agreement with the supervisors' view of
their interview behaviors after video-viewing than before
watching the replay. This result was supported in a later
study by Poling (1964).

Other studies have demonstrated the possible benefits
of the application of videotape for counselor supervision.
Videotape was a useful tool for increasing trainees' under-
standing of interview dynamics of the counselor and client,
including non-verbal communications which added material for
the supervisory session (Schiff and Reivich, 1964; SueSS, 1966),
for improving the development of empathic responses of coun-

l., 1965), to critique counseling

selors (Buchheimer, 33.
sessions and achieve a greater understanding of the process

of counseling (Poling, 1968), and to develop an effective

50

repertoire of counseling response leads (Delaney, 1969).1

In sum, the use of videotaping in counselor training
(and in client/patient growth) seems to add dimensions not
previously available. By viewing a total picture of the
counseling interaction between the trainee and client, cues
of a non-verbal nature can be identified and discussed, and
the counseling dyad can be scrutinized in more objective
terms. The use of videotaping shows promise as a means of
increasing self-awareness and accelerating the discovery
process (as indicated in the studies by Landsman and Lane,
1963; Poling, 1964, 1968; Schiff and Reivich, 1964; Suess,
1966; Walz and Johnston, 1963). However, a possible criticism
of most of the studies reviewed so far can be that the train-
ing models and exercises presented have attempted to assess
only the changes in self-understanding achieved by trainees
using paper and pencil attitude scales (e.g. Interpersonal
Checklist) and supervisor ratings. No attempts were made
to help trainees translate this understanding into behaviors.
With the exception of a few studies (Delaney, 1969; Eisenberg

and Delaney, 1970; Goldberg, 1967; Ivey pg. 1., 1968), there

 

l
The use of videotape and videotape replay has also been

reported related to changes in self-understanding as perceived
by patients in conjoint marital therapy (Alger and Hogan, 1967),
psychiatric in-patients in a V.A. Hospital (Boyd, Vernon, and
Susney, 1967), and in patients in psychodrama at Langley-Porter
Institute (Goldfried and Levy, 1968).

51

has been a dearth of attempts to use videotape for developing
behavioral skills in counselor candidates. A number of
researchers (Bordin, 1965; Carkhuff, 1966) take the position
that studies are needed which evaluate the application of
this understanding to developing counseling behaviors and
skills.

Limitations in the use of videotape have been noted in
the literature. One area in particular was the amount of
threat caused by viewing one-self behaving.1 Poling (1964)
studied the impact of videotaping counselor trainees in
counseling interviews in three different physical environments.
He reported that the first video-recorded interviews and their
subsequent critique resulted in higher defenses, hostility,
and resistance in trainees. Along similar lines, Goldberg
(1967) found that videotape, by capturing an abundance of
material, can flood the trainee with an overwhelming amount
of data which is too difficult to sift through and interpret.
He suggested that when videotape is used in supervision, the
supervisor should have had experience with videotape and
stimulated recall techniques; also, trainees should be grad-
ually introduced to this wealth of material by a supervisor

who can provide support for the trainee in the early stages

 

This was noted eSpecially with hOSpitalized psychiatric
patients (Moore, pp, 11., 1965), and with a psychiatric out-
patient (Geertsma and Reivich, 1965).

52

of exposure. He went on to say that the supervisor who is
knowledgeable of the potential effects of the videotape
experience can function in a way that enables the trainees

to incorporate the material into their behavior repertoires
without becoming overwhelmed by the myriad of data. Goldberg
(1967) further asserted that while the results of studies
show the potential advantages of videotape usage in super-
vision, the undifferentiated use of videotape does not
necessarily lead to changes in counselors' behaviors. He
concluded that for videotape to be used most effectively,

it must of necessity be incorporated into an integrated
series of supervisory experiences,1 with the purposes and
goals of each experience being clearly defined for trainees
showing a functional relationship between these tasks. He
noted that if this was not accomplished trainees may be left
to establish their own goals, which might be quite divergent
from those they were expected to work toward. This conten-
tion was supported by the findings of Griffin (1966), who
found that when the goals of counseling were clearly delineated
by focusing counselors on learning Specific dimensions of

behavior using videotape procedures, pre-post changes in

 

1
This is in basic agreement with Truax, Carkhuff and

Douds (1964), who advocated the use of an integrated series
of training experiences combining didactic and experiential
components in training.

53

counselors' interview behavior on the Counselor Verbal Re-
sponse Scale was found; no change was found in a comparable
group where a similar focus was not provided. Griffin noted
that if the goals of training were to increase the incidence
and quality of counselors' behaviors, it was important to
recognize the need to focus on the development of these
desired behaviors.
C. Simulation

Simulation techniques have been used (e.g., pilot
and astronaut training, industry, and armed forces) to pro-
vide training Opportunities which recreate conditions
closely approximating actual situations, while minimizing
the chances for personal harm and/or mechanical damage
(Kersh, 1965). The appeal of simulation techniques has been
discussed by Greenlaw, Huron, and Raudon (1962); they described
the benefits occuring from the use of simulation materials
as including opportunities for trainees to learn to understand
process and decision making behaviors, to practice desired
behaviors, and to examine their various thoughts and responses
in the simulated situation free from the responsibility of
producing deleterious effects.

The use of simulation materials has been shown to be

applicable to counselor training. Delaney (1969) indicates
that research using a simulation approach to counselor education

is justified for the following reasons:

54

l. simulation is beneficial as an instructional
technique

2. the use of a television monitor for stimulus
presentations is appropriate

3. realism is not a primary requirement for trans-
fer of learning

4. simulation positively effects actual performance

5. simulation provides economy of time and reduces
long term expense

6. the application of simulation techniques to
counselor education has shown to be feasible and
effective (p. 18).

The importance of the use of different applications of
mechanical media such as simulation films and tapes in
guidance and counselor education has also been noted by
Kagan (1970). He indicated that one of the important con-
tributions technology can provide seems to be its ability
to extend the level of creativity, imagination, and potential

of educators and students:

"...it provides exciting new Opportunities
for implementing a guidance phiIOSOphy.
Enactment of the various stress situations
on film, video, or audiotape can serve

not only to recreate the situation, but

in the format of media reproduces the
potentially threatening situation within
the relative safety of an electron tube

or film projector. Situations can thus

be created which, in life, are too threa-
tening to be effectively dealt with, but
in simulation can be safely examined and
alternative responses considered and even
practiced."

55

Although the application of simulation techniques to
training counselors has obvious implications, it has little
empirical validation. A study by Beird and Standish (1964)
did attempt to provide research evidence by using a simulated
environment to train counseling practicum students to dis-
criminate between cognitive and affective client responses
and then using a counselor response lead to facilitate more
affective behavior in clients. This study used audio-re-
cordings as simulation stimuli in a programmed learning
format. The results indicated that the experimental groups
demonstrated a significant performance gain over the control
group, as well as differences in post-training interview
performance.

Schauble (1970) raised the point that if positive
results can be obtained using an audio-Simulation approach,
one wonders what the application of film or video techniques
could add. Along this line, research with the Interpersonal
Process Recall project has led to the development and use of
Affect Simulation Films (Kagan and Schauble, 1969; Schauble,
1968). These films were developed to simulate a number of
emotional situations which portrayed areas of conflictual
feelings found to exist in most interpersonal relationships.
The authors found that by confronting clients with a number
of these films, and viewing a video-replay of this tape

with simulated recall, client growth could be accelerated.

56

Because the creation and application of Affect Simulation
Films was deve10ped from research in IPR, more thorough review
of this technique for accelerating growth will be conducted
in the section under IPR later in this chapter.
Application of Specific Techniques
to Training and Supervision
Of the many studies incorporating technological de-
vices in the training of counselors, three approaches will
presently be considered and evaluated (Ivey, 25, al,, 1968,
Microcounseling; Eisenberg and Delaney, 1970, Video Simulation;
Kagan, pp. gl,, 1967, IPR project). These have been
chosen because of their attempts to increase the incidence
and quality of counselor behaviors, using technological
devices as a vehicle for training.

A. Microcounseling and Attending Behavior

t. al., (1968) conducted a series of three

Ivey,
studies in which it was postulated that brief training,
focused on specific skills of counseling, could be useful in
a counseling pre-practicum. This brief method of training,
called Microcounseling, was "a video method for training
counselors in basic skills of counseling within a short
period of time (p. 1)," and was based on the research of
Allen and his associates (1967), who have used similar
concepts of microteaching in teacher training. The idea

of training quickly and effectively stemmed from the works of

57

Carkhuff and Truax (1965), who indicated that trainees can
function at levels of effective therapy commensurate with
experienced therapists in less than 100 hours of training.
Microcounseling was described as a scaled-down sample
of counseling in which neophyte counselors talked with
volunteer "clients" for five minute sessions which were
videorecorded. These sessions focused on Specific counseling
skills or behaviors; the principle aim was to provide a
bridge between classroom theory and actual practice at the
pre-practicum level of training. Three separate studies
were conducted, each involving the use of microcounseling

training procedures in one of three areas:

Study 1 - "attending behavior"
Study 2 - reflection of feeling
Study 3 - summarization of feeling

These target skills, considered reinforcing counselor behaviors,
indicated that the counselor was paying attention to the client,
understanding the client by accurately sensing the feelings
which were being expressed, and meaningfully integrating the
responses of the person. In all, a total of 59 counselors
were used in the three studies (38 in Study 1; 11 in Study
2; 10 in Study 3); the same number of paid volunteers served
as ”clients”, proportioned with the number of counselors per
study.

Briefly, the Microcounseling model included tasks

involving:

58

l. videotaping an initial five minute interview
with a volunteer "client" for analysis

2. reading special manuals designed to illustrate
and discuss basic components of the target

behaviors

3. watched a videotape of effective and noneffective
examples of target behaviors

4. engaged in three minute role playing interviews
which were videotaped for analysis.

Sessions (1,3,4) using videotape were videoviewed to note
instances of attending behavior, accurate reflection, and
summarization of feeling, and instances where accuracy might
be improved. The entire procedure for each trainee was
completed within a two-hour time block. The criterion
measures for the three studies consisted of: (a) trainees'
videotaped interviews (rated by two external judges on a
rating scale adapted from Truax and Carkhuff (1967) for
presence or absense of the target behavior for that task),
(b) client ratings of his counselor on a semantic differ-
ential scale, the Counselor Effectiveness Scale, and also
on a relationship questionnaire adapted from Truax and
Carkhuff (1967).

An increase in the amount of eye contact, verbal
following behavior (.05 level), in ratings of accurate
reflection of feeling (.001 level), and in ratings of
accurate summarization of feeling (.001 level), was found in
judges' ratings from first to later interviews. Client

ratings of counselor effectiveness and counselor ability to

59

establish and maintain a relationship increased significantly
over trials for all target behaviors. The authors concluded
that these three skills could be successfully taught to
neophyte counselors using Microcounseling, and felt that
"direct viewing of the videotapes of the counselors provided
dramatic and convincing evidence of the validity and power
of the Microcounseling procedure"(p. 10), for teaching these
skills. They took the position that one of the most
difficult tasks in training neophyte counselors is to get
them to pay attention to the client. They noted that a
benefit of this approach was that Microcounseling helped
trainees learn to pay more attention to clients and their
communications, and helped supervisors more rapidly intro-
duce trainees to basic developmental skills of counseling.
The authors also pointed out some limitations of these
studies. Self-ratings and ratings of "clients” were used
throughout as an indicator of support for the Microcounseling
paradigm. While they reported that the trainees seemed
enthusiastic about their behaviors, and expressed more con-
fidence in their abilities as future counselors, they
cautioned that there was little or no evidence that this
would translate into actual counseling behaviors. Also,
improvement in "clients'” ratings was possibly accounted
for by a halo effect simply because the two individuals
become better acquainted and felt more comfortable with one

another.

60

Microcounseling may be effective in identifying basic
skills for neophyte counselors to develop. However, a
possible criticism of these studies may be the lack of a
competing control group. The control group in these studies
consisted of people who simply sat around drinking a coke or
some such activity. A more acceptable control group may
have been one in which trainees received a competitive
treatment, such as having trainees read about the behaviors
they should develop. The only difference between the con-
trol and experimental procedures would then be the effect
of the experiential involvement (for the experimental group)
in developing these skills directly with videotape replay
and supervision.

In conclusion, these studies seem to directly focus on
teaching trainees to develop desired skills for counselors
to possess by using videotape as a medium for increasing
trainee learning. No attempts were made to help trainees
understand the process of counseling in terms of the influence
the counselor could have in the encounter; no attempts were
made to enable trainees to understand the ramifications of
the mutual impact which occurs between the counselor and
client in their relationship. As posited earlier (in
Chapter II), self-understanding and self-awareness were seen

t.al.,

by many as one goal of training. The studies by Ivey,

appeared to deprive trainees of self-discovery and self-

61

exploring experiences. The Microcounseling technique focused
on modeling procedures and cognitive input, designed to help
trainees to attent to clients' behaviors; no attempts were
made to help trainees attend to an understand their own
reactions and behaviors.

B. Video Simulation of Counseling_for Training
Counselors

 

A unique approach for training counselors using
simulation techniques was proposed by Delaney (1969). It
was designed to help trainees develop an effective repertoire
of counseling response leads. He chose to use videotape and
based his theory of training on a simulation strategy. This
approach was chosen out of his belief that simulation can
bring maximum control of those situations and behaviors
considered necessary to be dealt with. By presenting a
videotape containing a series of clients describing various
problems to counselor trainees, Delaney felt that it would
be possible to ”hit” many potential areas of importance for
trainees to experience. Trainees could learn to develop be-
haviors of good counseling in Specific areas and under
varying conditions. According to this paradigm counselors
would be given the opportunity to respond to videotaped
clients in the hope that this would help to make the situation
authentic and appear that the counselor was actively involved
in a counseling session. Based on this strategy, Delaney

proposed a training package consisting of an integrated

62

series of videoLapes, each designed to train counselors to
use a well-defined counseling response lead.

As an offshoot from this study, Eisenberg and Delaney
(1970) attempted to construct a training "package" using
video simulation of counseling for training counselors.
Using principles of modeling and systematic manipulation of
important reinforcers, the authors attempted to train coun-
selors to respond in a way (referred to as counselor tacting
response leads CTRL) which would elicit a client verbal
response which would either describe a particular abstract
concept in more operational or behavioral terms, or would
give specific examples of whatever it was the client was
attempting to communicate (referred to as client tacting
response).

A videotape of 40 individual client statements followed
by a 15 second period for counselors to reSpond to each one
was constructed. For the first 20 statements, one group
Saw an "expert" counselor model CTRL; another group was
encouraged to respond to the client, but without the benefit
of the model expert; a third group simply responded to all
client statements without exposure to the model or reinforce-
ment. The last 20 clients statements were to be responded
to by all the trainees with no model or reinforcement. A
situation was also included in an attempt to assess the

transfer of learning from the laboratory to actual "client”

63

contact. (Undergraduate students volunteered to talk to
trainees for approximately 1/2 hour with the conversation
being audiorecorded for later analysis.) Two raters were
trained to score the audiotapes made during the videotape
situation and transfer situation. (Training consisted of
a verbal explanation of CTRL response class and rating
several practice tapes.) Audiotapes from each condition
were randomly assigned to each rater; in scoring these tapes,
the raters listened to and scored trainees' responses to
each of the last 20 videotape clients as to whether or not
it was a CTRL.

The authors found that systematic exposure to modeling
procedures of effective counselors significantly increased
the quality of trainees' responses to clients on videotape
(.01 level), but this did not carry over to "live" clients.
They concluded that one possible way trainees learned about
effective counseling was by emulating their teachers. In
explaining the failure to show transfer effects of this
learning from simulation experiences to live experiences,
they postulated that the types of statements they attempted
to elicit from trainees may have been out of step (i.e.,
may belong to the goal-setting stage rather than the initial
interview Stage). Another possible explanation they offered
was that because trainees were responding in a laboratory

situation removed from an actual counseling encounter, the

64

situation may have had a ring of nonauthenticity and may
not have simulated the real experience as closely as the
authors had hoped.

In attempting to explain the failure to demonstrate
transfer effects in the Eisenberg and Delaney (1970) study,
a number of considerations might be noted. While trainees
were taught (using modeling techniques) what counselor
behaviors may be desirable under various circumstances in
counseling, they were not able to transfer this knowledge
from the simulated experience into an experience with a ”live"
client (i.e., trainees may have learned cognitively what
counselor tacting response to make, but knowing what to say
in a training exercise and being able to say it in an applied
situation may have been a problem for trainees). Advocates
of the need for self-discovery and awareness experiences in
training might posit that exploratory experiences can help
trainees become more aware of some of the reasons why they
might not be able to make a helping response at selected
times, even though they might "know” intuitively what to say;
from this recognition, trainees may begin to work through a
number of blocks to effective communication. Along similar
lines, the level at which the counselor learns to respond to
the client, found by Truax and Carkhuff (1967) to be directly
related to client growth, may be positively or negatively

influenced by various training procedures. Those who advocate

65

the application of self-discovery experiences in training
may interpret this as further validation of the need for
experiences in which trainees can examine some of their
behaviors and come to recognize and understand the impact
and intensity of these experiences. This awareness can then
be used to help the counselor more accurately recognize the
impact of client experiences on clients' behaviors, so the
counselor can respond to the client on at least the same level
of intensity as the client is experiencing, which can
possibly take the client a step further in the growth process.
C. Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR)

An important application of electronic devices to
the field of counseling was the development of the IPR
technique begun by Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller (1963). This
technique, using videotaping procedures, was started out
of the perceived need for counselors to more accurately
ascertain what their clients were thinking and why they
behaved as they did, in an attempt to accelerate client
growth and increase counselor effectiveness. The problem
was formulated:

"If we could capture the relevant stimuli

in the situation in such a way that we

could recreate it at a later time, we

could better help the person to relive

the original situation." (Kagan, pg, 31.,
1967)

66

A procedure using videotaping of the counseling session and
replaying it immediately afterwards with the client was
adopted. The authors felt that this approach provided the
possibility of capturing the maximum number of cues (verbal
and non-verbal) for the individual which would be available
for immediate playback and recall. Initial results with this
process indicated that observing one's self on videotape in
interpersonal situations enabled clients to identify, label,
and discuss at length and in depth the subtle and blatant
meanings of their behaviors (Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller,
1963; Kagan, g5, p1,, 1967, 1969; Resnikoff, Kagan, and
Schauble, 1969; Schauble, 1970). Although originally
developed to accelerate client growth, this technique has
also been applied to the training and supervision of coun-
selors (Goldberg, 1967).

The entire IPR process includes a number of techniques,
including the use of videotape and stimulated recall of
the videotape playback which focuses on the underlying
dynamics of the interaction on tape, the use of simulation
materials designed to expose individuals to various kinds
and degrees of emotional situations, and the use of a
clinical interrogator who is specifically trained to use IPR
techniques. The following is a brief discussion of these

techniques:

67

1. Stimulated Videotape Recall

Stimulated videotape recall is the IPR technique
developed for viewing a videotaped replay of a previously
held personal interaction. The IPR session begins when
two participants enter the studio and begin the interview.
Typically, the interview is observed by the person who will
serve as the recall worker (Interrogator); the interview is
videotaped and when the interview is concluded, the tape
is rewound for immediate replay. At this point, one or the
other of the participants, but usually it is the counselor,
leaves the room and the recall worker takes his place. The
recall session involves a video-replay of the original
session over the television monitor in the room now begins.
A remote control switch permits either the subject or
recall worker to start and stop the video-machine from the
recall room. Either the recall worker or the other individual
may stop the tape. Discussions are related to feelings in
specific instances or situations (Kagan, pp, 31., 1969).
A number of individuals who have conducted research with IPR
have reported that the approach seems to change interpersonal
behaviors by focusing participants on underlying dynamics
of feeling and thought as they relate to interactions with
others (Kagan and Krathwohl, 1967; Kagan, Krathwohl, and

Miller, 1963; Woody, Kagan, Krathwohl, and Farquahr, 1965).

68

2. Affect Simulation Materials

Simulation materials have been developed (Kagan, pp, g1,,

1967, Kagan and Schauble, 1969; Schauble, 1968) which allow
for the re-creation of an interpersonal situation which is
based on reactions to filmed vignettes of individuals por-
traying aggression and seduction, and fear of the rejection
attached to these dimensions.1 The films were based on the
assumption that ”...if the client were exposed to various
kinds and degrees of emotional situations, if his reactions
to these situations were videotaped, and if after each such
exposure he were given the opportunity to view his behavior
a counselor via IPR, could client movement be accelerated?"
A series of planned behaviors portrayed by actors was
developed. These actors were instructed to portray basic
affective states often manifest in counseling dyads. These
dimensions fell along an approach-avoidance continum, deal-
ing with client feelings that (a) the counselor might hurt

or reject him, (b) the counselor might make an affectionate

with

9

dependent or seductive approach toward him, (c) the client's

own hostile impulses toward the counselor might emerge, and
(d) the client's own affectionate, dependent, or seductive
impulses toward the counselor might emerge (Kagan and

Schauble, 1969).

 

1A sample typescript of the Affect Simulation Films is
found in Appendix D.

69

Stimulated recall sessions were held using the video-
taped replay of the individual viewing the simulated films
and reacting to them. The rationale behind this technique
was that if the client was confronted with these videotaped
reactions to planned threatening behaviors, this experience
might serve as a microscope of the type of interpersonal
behaviors so stimulated. The interrogator focused on the
reactions the individual had to the films-~his feelings about
the filmed actor, his feelings about himself, his feelings
about the situation--the personal confrontation being re-
lated to increased self-exploration and growth (Danish and
Kagan, 1969; Kagan, pp, 31., 1967; Kagan and Schauble, 1969).
Preliminary results (Schauble, 1970) have demonstrated that
significant client growth was found in controlled studies
based on this application of IPR.

3. Clinical Interrggator

The role of clinical interrogator was deve10ped, through
IPR research, to facilitate client self-analysis by teaching
clients to develop self-explorative behaviors. This was
accomplished by using a videotaped playback of clients'
actual behaviors and focusing on the dynamics of the original
relationship on tape.

The counselor and client meet for a counseling session
which is videotaped. The counselor then leaves the room and

the interrogator enters in his place. The interrogator's

70

purpose is not to establish another counseling relationship
with the client. Instead, he and the client view the
videotaped replay of the session just completed and a recall
which is conducted focuses on the on-going dynamics of the
original relationship. The interrogator's function is "to
facilitate the subject's self-analysis of his underlying
thoughts, feelings, images, expectations, and general pattern
of interaction with his counselor" (Kagan, 1969). The focus
for the client is on his feelings and thoughts throughout
the interview, his self-perceptions, how he would like to
see himself, how he believes and wants the counselor to see
him, and the possible alternative behaviors which are Open
for him.

One study to come out of the IPR project, using a number
of these techniques, was that of Goldberg (1967). He used a
sequential series of supervisory experiences implemented
by IPR as a means of educating counselors during practicum.
He postulated that exposure to stimulated recall using
videotape would increase a counselor's sensitivity to inter-
personal communication, as he would be stimulated to recall
his feelings, expectations, and perceptions in the counsel-
ing interview. He also posited that counselors face a
series of developmental tasks in practicum: (a) to become
aware of the elements of good counseling; (b) to become

sensitive to and understand a greater amount of client

71

communication; (c) to become aware of and sensitive to one's
own feelings during the counseling session; and (d) to become
sensitive to the bilateral nature of the counseling inter-
action.

A total of 36 Masters level graduate students in Coun-
seling, Personnel and Educational Psychology at Michigan
State University were included in this study. Two groups
were formed, with half the students receiving the individual
IPR supervision (experimental group) and half receiving
traditional individual supervision (control group). The
IPR treatment consisted of four integrated stages designed
to meet the trainees' developmental needs. In Stage 1, the
dimensions of the C.V.R.S. served as'a reference point for
discussion a videotaped counseling session, focusing on the
elements of good counselor/client communication. In Stage
2, the trainee held a 30 minute counseling session with a
client. This was followed by a supervisor-client video-
recall (lasting 15-20 minutes) and a subsequent supervisor-
trainee video-recall (lasting approximately 45 minutes).

In Stage 3, each trainee served as interrogator, conducting
a video-recall session with a partner's client. In Stage

4, trainee and client conducted a counseling interview;

this was immediately followed by a video-replay and recall

of this session with trainee, client, and supervisor present,

the supervisor encouraging the trainee and client to share

72

with each other the feelings experienced during this inter-
view.

Using a 5 test for paired samples to determine whether
significant differences existed within groups over time and
between groups after treatment, Goldberg found that while
both groups of counselors were rated as more affective,
understanding, exploratory, and effective (.005) level),
significantly greater change was Observed within the IPR
group. He concluded that the sequential series of super-
visory experiences using IPR was an effective means of
educating counselors during practicum.

The model used by Goldberg seems to meet a number of
criteria established by other researchers, and may be seen
to contain advantages over the other studies which have been
reviewed. By incorporating a number of developmental tasks
into an integrated series of experiences, he noted that
his model adhered to the criteria established by Carkhuff
(1966) and Truax, Carkhuff, and Douds (1964). According
to Higgins, Ivey, and Uhlemann (1970), a major weakness of
the developmental task concept usually arises when the focus
is placed on the task instead of the behavior the task is
designed to teach. The approach used by Goldberg appeared
to avoid this pitfall by emphasizing the behavioral aspects
of each particular task. Goldberg found he was able to

accelerate the development of counseling skills over and

73

above the amount achieved using more traditional methods as
a result of functionally relating each task to all others.
The studies by Ivey, $5. $1,, (1968) and Eisenberg and
Delaney (1970) were concerned with using modeling procedures
to teach trainees Specific counseling skills. Goldberg used
modeling procedures in a training session during which
trainees viewed a videotaped counseling interview and
discussed the dimensions of concrete counselor/client commun-
ication with a supervisor; this was also accomplished by the
supervisor (in the role of interrogator) who modeled behaviors
of how to relate to a client and help the client to clarify
his concerns. However, Goldberg's training paradigm appeared
to go beyond the sole use of modeling techniques. The
"client" and "mutual" recall phases provided trainees with
direct and immediate feedback concerning the client's
reactions to the trainee's counseling behaviors. AS a
result of this Goldberg found that trainees were helped
to realize a greater awareness of the underlying implications
of a client's verbal and non-verbal behaviors. He also
found that by drawing on the trainee's feelings, fears, and
expectations during the ”counselor" recall phase that
while similar material was evident in traditional supervision,
it was not dealt with until a later time (i.e. the early
expression of feelings in the IPR group seemed to help

trainees explore their discomforts earlier in supervision).

74

He further noted that the exploration of "self" enabled the
trainees to overcome their preoccupation with themselves
during the counseling interview, and this had the effect of
opening them to receive a greater amount of client communica-
tion. This also helped trainees realize that their perceptions
were often surprisingly accurate and could often be used to
monitor client feelings and perceptions.

A possible modification in Goldberg's study might be
the incorporation of the Affect Simulation Films as a vehicle
for enabling trainees to become more sensitive to and aware
of their own feelings and reactions to a variety of situa-
tions. Trainees can be videotaped while watching the films,
and a stimulated recall of this videotape can be performed
by a recall worker, in much the same way as a recall of a
counseling session or interview.

A methodological note with the Goldberg Study might be
raised. He began training with a didactic presentation of
the elements of good counseling. Instead of beginning this
manner, it is suggested that another way to begin might be
by having trainees look at some of their own feelings and
reactions. Danish and Kagan (1969) found that when the
Affect Simulation Films were used at the beginning of
counseling, they served to orient clients to the fact that
talking about feelings is "fair game". These researchers

go on to indicate that the use of films "legitimize, stimulate,

75

and define the counselor's willingness to deal with affect
in depth". The use of these films in training may set the
"tone" by establishing that his own feelings are important
for counselors to recognize. By first making trainees aware
of how feelings motivate and influence their own behaviors,
perhaps they can use this awareness to understand how
feelings might also motivate and influence a client's
behaviors. This may be accomplished by having trainees

use their own self-exploratory and discovery experiences

as a model of how they might go about helping clients

explore their concerns and feelings.

Conclusions and Implications

A body of evidence seems to be accumulating

which supports the use of an integrated, multi-dimensional
approach to training. One important aspect seems to be the
need for focusing trainees on developing desired behaviors
if one's goal is to increase the incidence and quality of
such behaviors (Griffin, 1966). These considerations can
take on added significance when the use of technological
devices is introduced into supervision and training.

The application of technology to training procedures
seems to have potential as a means of implementing and
accelerating the process of counselor preparation, provided

the undifferentiated use of these techniques is controlled.

76

Studies using IPR have indicated that growth can be accelerated
(in clients in counseling and trainees in supervision) over
and above the amount achieved using traditional approaches.
The use of stimulated videotape replay and simulation films
has a number of implications for future research and train-
ing. The use of these films suggests the possibility of
creating laboratory training situations portraying a number
of encounters which trainees were more than likely to be
confronted with in their counseling experiences. For example,
trainees are more than likely to experience impasses in
counseling revolving around their fears of: (a) appearing
inadequate, (b) being rejects, (c) being depended upon,

(d) being seduced, and (e) directing these impulses toward
others (Kagan and Schauble, 1969; Schauble, 1968). With

the use of videotape, it now becomes possible for trainees

to explore these reactions and situations without having to
experiment and learn at a clients' expense. The IPR approach
can be especially relevant when used with neophyte coun-
selor candidates. Training procedures, including role
playing, use of coached clients, use of simulated exper-
iences, and use of technological equipment can be applied to
laboratory settings to help beginning trainees develop a
"feel" for the multidimensionality of the counseling
situation without the danger of their performing for "better

or worse" with clients.

77

Few of the studies reviewed attempted to determine the
impact of training on actual counseling behavior. While some
focused on goals of self-awareness and recognition of non-
verbal behavior, others looked at changes in trainees'
attitudes or responses to paper and pencil instruments.
Most of the studies which attempted to evaluate counselor
behavior relied solely on modeling and behavior procedures
and made no attempts at helping trainees explore their own
reactions and perceptions in the counseling situation. Of
those studies which did attempt to evaluate counselor be-
havior as a function of type of training, only those by
Goldberg (1967), Carkhuff and Truax (1965), and Truax,
Carkhuff and Douds (1964) did not restrict training to the
singular application of modeling or self-awareness techniques.

In summary, because most studies reviewed in this
chapter appeared to demonstrate a lack of comprehensiveness
in their training paradigms, this can be taken as support
for the assumption that there is a need for studies which
incorporate training experiences into an integrated series
of developmental tasks, using a multi-dimensionsl approach
incorportating discovery-experiential and behavioral-
didactic experiences. These studies may be implemented
by the use of technological devices to accelerate the

learning process.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF STUDY

In order to test the hypotheses posited in Chapter I,
the design of the present study had to permit comparison of
the trainees on measures of discrimination and communication
skills in counseling, based on the exposure to the sequence
of treatments. Using a pre, middle, and post measurement de-
sign as the framework for answering the main research ques-
tions, the subjects were divided into 2 groups of 10; the
course, which lasted 10 weeks in length, was divided into
2, 4~week treatments. Measurements on the criterion measures
were obtained during the first, sixth, and eleventh weeks.
The division of the course into two equal halves enabled all
trainees to receive the experimental and control treatments,
and allows for reversal of treatments to ascertain the rela-
tive strengths of each type of sequential program.

The group receiving the Experimental treatment (Develop-
mental tasks using I.P.R.) the first half of the course
(weeks 2-5) and receiving the Control treatment (Traditional
classroom lectures) the second half of the course (weeks 7~10)
is designated Group 1. The group receiving the Control treat-
ment the first half of the course (weeks 2-5) and receiving

the Experimental treatment the second half of the course

78

79

(weeks 7-10) is designated Group 2. A schematic representa-
tion of this design is presented in Table 3.1 on page 80.

A pre, middle, and post measurement design allowed for
a baseline measure to be obtained, which also served as a
check on the power of the treatment sequence. To insure that
a change in trainees' interview and counseling behavior could
be determined, and relative growth through the term measured,
the groups were compared in terms of growth during the first
half of the course, second half of the course, and from pre-
post changes over the full term, thus comparing the two
groups on the strength of the treatments gpg_the treatment

sequences.
Description of Experimental Procedures

A detailed summary of the experimental procedures within
the framework of the over-all design is presented in Table
3.2, (page 81) followed by a discussion of the experimental

procedures.

Session 1
The initial class meeting was devoted to introducing the
course and presenting an overview of the goals of the course

to the trainees, placing them in either Group 1 or Group 2,

 

LA complete summary Of the purpose of each developmental task,
a description of each task, and its implementation appears
in Appendix E.

80

 

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mm GOHmmOm
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mm conmom
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85

mumom sufi>uuumamm o>uuoouu< Hay
mmHa mHou\uceHHo penance nuHa SOH>HOuGH Adv

 

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N nHDOMU

86

and obtaining pre-measures on the criteria used in this study.

All participants were assured that each would receive identical

treatment, but in different order. The subjects were in-

formed that there would not be a treatment versus no-treat-
ment (or placebo) condition, only differences in sequence.
During the instruction phase of this session, the
trainees were told that the purpose of this course was to
help develop skills in discrimination and communication,

which would help them to be more effective helpers and coun-

Se lors. The supervisor discussed the importance for trainees

tO be aware of and sensitive to their own feelings and com-
mLlnications, the feelings and communications of clients, and
how each individual in the counseling process had an impact

on the bilateral relationship formed between the counselor

and client. The trainees were also told that there were

ef fective versus non-effective ways to communicate with clients,

Wh ich would be discussed during the course.

After the introduction was given, the trainees were
assigned to either Group 1 or Group 2; each individual was
given a curriculum sheet containing the Schedule they would
fOllow for criterion measurement and for the remainder of the

Coursel (this included weekly schedules and specific individual

g

l

A sample copy of an individual trainee's schedule is presented
in Append ix F.

87

schedules for obtaining interviews of coached clients and
role-playing). The trainees now followed their individual
schedules for performing the tasks required to obtain
measures on the criterion; the trainees were given instruc-
tions on how to structure their interviews with coached

clients and role-playing partners, and also were administered

the Affective Sensitivity Scale.

 

Description of Experimental Treatment:
Developmental Tasks Using IPR
As outlined in Table 3.2, the developmental tasks using
:[19Ii involved a logical learning sequence, beginning by focus-
iilngg trainees on their feelings to (a) sensitize them to
tléiilking about and looking at feelings in themselves and others
(1)) help them to recognize that feelings can influence be-
hElviors and (c) give them a better appreciation of how feel-
ings can influence behaviors by using their experiences as
e—Xamples (Sessions 2, 2A, 7, 7A). The next task involved
training in recognition of client feelings to make trainees
mOre (a) sensitive to client feelings, to (b) help them to
IVEcognize that feelings influence client behaviors and (c) to
\Inderstand how clients' behaviors are influenced by their
ifeelings and how this is communicated (Sessions 3, 8). Once

these discriminations were made, the trainees were presumed

ready to learn how to translate these (by communicating with

88

clients in certain ways) into helpful behaviors. Elements

of effective counseling behaviors were presented to the group,

and they received practice at rating these dimensions using

an audio-tape (Sessions 4A, 9A). The next phase of this task

involved rating a videotape of an "expert" counselor, to
provide trainees with a tape previously rated high in the
ealements of communication trainees were learning. Trainees
£1180 had an opportunity to role-play and were videotaped to
(as) give them experience in a counseling situation, (b) to
"€Lase" them into being videotaped while counseling, and (c)
t2<> rate these videotaped role playing sessions (Sessions 48,
5913). Finally, the last task involved understanding the bi-
lateral nature of the counseling relationship, where trainees
Eltmsd "clients” (role-played) were videotaped counseling.
C3<>Ianselor and client then viewed a replay of these inter-

aC:tions during which they told each other their recalled

tlhoughts and feelings, thus focusing on the mutual impact

between counselor and client in the encounter: (Sessions 5,

1()).

De ve lopmental Task #1

The purpose of this task was to make trainees aware of

Eind sensitive to their own feglings during interpersonal

Communication. This was done in two separate phases:

Phase 1: .During this part, the group met together and

was shown vignettes from the Affect Simulation

Films. After each vignette, the supervisor

89

involved the group in a discussion of how they
felt toward the actor on the screen, focusing
on their feelings, thoughts, and reactions to
the situation. Each vignette lasted from
between 1-2 minutes, and the discussion after
each vignette ranged from short to involved
discussion, depending on the amount of data

the group supplied (Sessions 2A, 7A).

 

Phase 2: During this part each trainee individually sup-
plied a time block (approximately 1% hours)
and met with a supervisor at the I.P.R° Suite A
(See Training Facility, page 97), to view the
rest of the Affect Simulation Films that remain-
ed from the group meeting. The trainee viewed
the films for % hour and was videotaped while
watching the films. Immediately after the
films, the supervisor (interrogator) entered
Suite A and conducted a 1 hour video-recall
session (of the trainee's reactions to the films)
with the trainee. The supervisor attempted to
focus the trainee on the feelings he had watch-
ing the films, on the meaning of these feelings,
how he typically reacts to these situations,
drawing on the trainees reactions to the filmed
encounters (Sessions 2B, 7B).

Developmental Task #2
The purpose of this task was to make the trainee's more

aware of and sensitive to, and understanding of a greater

90

amount of client communication. The trainees met as a group
and were introduced to the task with a mini-lecture designed
to increase trainees' awareness of client behavior by
"teaching" them what cues (verbal and nonverbal communica-
tions) to look for during the interview. After this, two
trainees paired up and role played a counselor/client dyad,
vehich was discussed by the group, focusing on the identifi-
<:ation of client communications and their affective meanings;
tflne group was encouraged to share their impressions of the
twale-playing client. (All trainees get the Opportunity to
Itc>le-p1ay the client) and how they arrived at these impres-

8 ions (Sessions 3, 8).

I)€2velopmental Task #3

 

The purpose of this task was to make trainees increas-
Iitlgly aware of elements p£_effective ppmmunication behaviors
fizz; counseling: (a) to have trainees practice rating a tape
1ligh in elements of effective communication; (b) to give
tirainees experience at being videotaped interacting with
another person; (c) to become involved first-hand in a coun-

Seding experience; and (d) to give trainees more practice
iit rating trainees' counseling behaviors. This was accom-
Plished in two phases:
Phase 1: The supervisor passed out copies of the Coun-
selor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) and Empathic
Understanding Scale (EUS) and the group dis-

cussed each of the elements and dimensions of

I.

Phase 2:

91

the scales; these scales were characterized

by specific ways of responding which have

been defined as important behaviors for trainees
to learn in order to be able to communicate
effectively with clients. This provided each
trainee with a model which served as a frame-
work to evaluate counseling behaviors; these
behaviors stressed what seemed to be essential
to effective communication, regardless of

theoretical orientation or position.

After this conceptual framework was discussed,
trainees were presented with a training audio-
tape made by Carkhuff, which served as a
stimulus for rating counselor-client inter-
actions. The supervisor oversaw the group dis-
cussion, and helped facilitate rating the

tape (Sessions 4A, 9A).

The supervisor played a videotape of a coun-
seling session which was characterized by
effective counseling behaviors. Trainees rated
the tape after each 3-minute segment, based on
the previous discussion of the CVRS and EUS
scales, to further practice conceptualizing

elements of effective communication.

92

After practicing ratings, two trainees paired
up to role-play a counselor/client dyad, which
was videotaped and replayed for the group.

The supervisor helped focus the group on rating
the encounters and why certain ratings were
assigned. This was intended to enable trainees
to experience involvement in the counseling
procedure, to see themselves involved inter-
acting with another person on videotape, and

to practice rating counseling behaviors using

a more "real-life" experience than provided

by audio-tape (Sessions 4B, 9B).

I)evelopmental Task #4

The purpose of this task was to enable trainees to become
ssensitive to and aware of the bilateral nature pf_ppp_counseling
Irelationship and the mutual impact between counselor and client.
CDwo trainees paired up on the basis of compatible schedules,
for a 3-hour time period. The session was divided into two
equal parts: counselor recall only, and mutual recall with
counselor and client.

1. Counselor Recall: During the counselor recall phase,

each trainee took a turn at role playing counselor
and client. Approximately 10 minutes was allowed to
elapse, and was videotaped. The supervisor (inter-

rogator) then conducted a recall with the counselor

93

only, with the client leaving the room (recall lasts
approximately 40 minutes). After one role-played
counselor, the roles were reversed, to give each
trainee an opportunity to be counselor and be "re

called" alone.

The supervisor (interrogator) focused the trainee on
the underlying affect and meaning which was per-
ceived and communicated in the interview between
counselor and client, to help the counselor identify
the meaning of his reactions to the client, and to
encourage the counselor to explore his relationship

with the client.

2. Mutual Recall: During mutual recall, a videotape
was made of each trainee taking a turn at role-playing
counselOr and client. The recall sessions were con-
ducted with both the counselor apg_client present.
The supervisor (interrogator) focused the recall on
underlying feelings present in the session between
counselor and client, encouraging the trainees to
share their feelings and perceptions about each
other and the relationship they established. (Sessions
5, 10).

Description of Control Treatment:
Traditional Classroom Procedures
The course, Procedures ip Counseling has traditionally

been taught (at Michigan State University) as a didactic

lecture course, in which issues in counseling, different

94

theoretical approaches and schools of thought, and various
techniques are discussed. These may be implemented by the
use of films, audio tapes, and guest lecturers. The tradi-
tional classroom procedures have therefore been installed
£18 the control treatment for the present study, so as to
(zompare the innovative approach to the traditional approach
for this course.

The regular lecturer for the traditional classroom pro-
cedures was a Full Professor in the Department of Counseling,

Personnel, and Educational Psychology at Michigan State
IJrriversity, who has been at MSU for 9 years, with 2 years'
exPerience at another university and 9 years' experience in
Public schools as a teacher and counselor. Guest lecturers
Ilticluded an advanced Ph.D. candidate in Counseling at Michigan
State University, and a regular faculty member who held the
rank of Assistant Professor.

The themes of the classroom presentations included
"Counseling Theory - Purposes and Goals in Counseling" (taught
13y a guest lecturer who used audiotapes to demonstrate the
principles presented), "Self-concept, academic self-concept,
and school achievement-helping students in academic difficul-
ties" (regular instructor), "The Counselor as Consultant,
‘Environmental 'Engineer', and Teacher of Occupational Informa-

tion" (regular instructor, using audiotapes), "Vocational

95

Counseling” (regular instructor), and ”Behaviorism" (guest

lecturer, using videotape).

Coached Clients

Description

Because of the limitations of time, Space, and avail-
zataility all counselor-trainees were unable to interview the
szime client. In order to obtain a sample of interview be-
lieivior for each trainee, 5 coached clients were used, with
each one being assigned 4 trainees to interview them;
this enabled all 20 trainees to interview coached clients in
Elle: time and Spaces available. The counselor-trainees inter-
V:Lewed the same coached client on the pre, middle, and post
measurements; this served to measure consistency over the
Saume individual, and compare trainee growth in the same
stimulus situation.

The coached clients were selected because of their

cIlosely related educational backgrounds and related personal
eEXperiences. The coached clients each had the following

(tharacteristics:

I. married female, age 25, Masters degree-Student
Personnel husband-working on Ph.D. dissertation
in Counseling Psychology

2. married female, age 25, Masters degree-Rehabilita-
tion Counseling husband-working on Ph.D. disser-
tation in Counseling Psychology

3. married female, age 24, Masters degree-Rehabilita-
tion Counseling (degree expected confirmed March,
1970), husband-working on Ph.D. in Chemistry

96

married female, age 25, Masters degree-Student
Personnel, husband-working on Ph.D. in Biophysics

married female, age 25, Bachelors degree-Com-
munication husband-working on Ph.D. dissertation

in Counseling Psychology

Training

The coached clients received a total of between 3-4 hours

The first portion of training

 

()f tutoring and training.
iJncluded an introduction to the purpose of their task of

'rcale playing and discussion of what areas they were expected

t<3 include in their role playing. The second part of train-

itlg;involved practicing of role playing, followed by dis-
(ZLISSIOD of how the role was authentic and credible, and/or
flcnn the roles needed improvement or change; opportunity

V9618 available to further practice roles after discussion of

time quality of the role playing. The third part of training

?ilnvolved a recapitulation of the purpose of their task, dis-
<>ussion of their role-playing behaviors, and how these roles

Uuay be refined through practice. Again, the training was
Ein attempt to have each coached client functioning as similiar-
ly and closely as possible to each other coached client to

Ininimize the biases built in by using different individuals,

and this was stressed to the coached individuals.

 

l
The rationale and training for the coached clients can be
found in Appendix G.

97

Training Facility

The IPR training facility was designed with three rooms
zadjacent to each other. Figure l is a schematic diagram of
tJIe studio which the treatment was administered and recall
nuns conducted (Studio A), the studio in which other recall
seassions could be held simultaneously (Studio B), and an

(apaerating room containing the hardware (Studio C).

FIGURE 3.1

Schematic Diagram Of IPR Suite

 

   
 

 

- 'lll/l/I/l/I/IL/l.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Studio C

98

Studio A contained two chairs facing each other, in
which the trainees sat and viewed the simulation films, and

counseling interviews and stimulated videotape recall was

conducted. A Hartzfield microphone was visibly placed on the

coffee-table between the two chairs, and transmits the audio

signal. A television monitor was used, over which the

videotaped materials were replayed; the visual image appeared
on the screen and the audio portion emanted from the speaker

in the TV monitor. A remote control switch was placed on

the coffee table, and the trainee used this switch to stop
the videotape replay on the monitor an/or start the replay

at any time. A telephone on the coffee table permitted the

Staff to interrupt the recall proceedings at any time to
inform the recall worker of salient features of the trainee's

I‘e<:all, or to call into the tape room for directions regard-

ing taping and viewing procedures.

Studio B contained two chairs and a television monitor
and was used for viewing the videotaped replay, and for con-

clucting another recall of the videotape independent of the

recall in Studio A. NO remote control was available for this

room.
Studio C contained two cameras situated behind thermo-

pane glass separating Studio A from Studio C. One camera

was focused on one of the two chairs occupied by the trainee

99

and the other was focused on the chair in which the "client"

sits, or where the cardboard screen was placed to Show the

simulation films. Although no attempts were made to conceal

the cameras from view, placing them in another room in an
unobtrusive fashion served to prevent them from being a

concern to trainees. Further, the one-way mirror could be

used to isolate the room and prevent viewing out from Studio

A into Studio C. An Ampex 5100 Video Tape Recorder (VTR)

was used to video-record the interactions in Studio A. A

SPecial Effects Generator (SEC) was used which allowed for
the blending of the images from the two cameras so they

aPpeared side-by-side on a single picture. The video

Signal from the cameras in Studio C and the audio signal
from the microphone in Studio A was cabled into the Special

Effects Generator, and this was recorded on the videotape

llsing the video-tape recorder.
Supervisors

Supervision of all trainees receiving the experimental

treatment tasks was conducted by various members of the I.P.R.

 

100

staff. All staff members were currently enrolled in the pro-
gram leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Counseling, in the
Department of Counselor Education, Michigan State University,
had completed at least two terms of Practicum in Counseling
at the Counseling Center at Michigan State University, and
were selected to be Interns at the Counseling Center the

next academic year or were currently Interns. All super-
visors had had previous experience with I.P.R., and were
trained to use the various I.P.R. techniques,1 (including

the role of clinical interrogator for use with simulation
materials and stimulated videotape recall), and therefore had
a common frame of reference regarding the approach to take in
the tasks they were to perform. Equality of supervisor
skill, background and training with I.P.R., and level of
effectiveness was assured for each particular deveIOpmental
task. The supervisors had the same amount of duty and re-

sponsibility for both experimental groups.

M

Twenty students enrolled in the Masters level course in

Procedures ip.Counseling during the Winter term, 1970, at

 

A manual for training supervisors to function as clinical
interrogators for the I.P.R. technique can be found in
Appendix A.

101

Michigan State University, served as subjects (the course,
Education 816D was offered through the College of Educa-
tion, M.S.U.). The subjects were assigned to one of two
groups:

Group 1: this group received the experimental
treatment (IPR) for the first half of
the term, and received the control (the
traditional classroom) treatment the
second half of the term.

Group 2: this group received the control (the
traditional classroom) treatment for the
first half of the term, and received the
experimental treatment (IPR) for the
second half of the term.

Demographic variables were obtained on the sample com-
prising each group. Table 3.3, page 102, synthesizes the
data according to groups.

The trainees participating in the present study as
subjects were at varying stages of training, education,
age, and experience. Further it was evident that not all
trainees, even at the same stage of training could perform
with the same degree of counseling skills. No attempt was
made to equate the two groups on the variables of sex, age,
and experience, but none had as yet taken a counseling prac-
ticum. Because trainees were randomly assigned to one group
or another, it was postulated that any difference would

distribute themselves evenly over the two groups.

102

TABLE 3.3

Comparison Of Subjects On The Demographic Variables Of
Sex, Age, And Education Level In Groups 1 and 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

GROUP 1 GROUP 2

Sex:
# Males 3 5
# Females 7 5
Age Range In

Years:
Males 25-28, ave. age 27 22-34, ave. age 27
Females 22-32, ave. age 25 22-45, ave. age 28
Education:
Highest Degree

Attained
#Bachelors 8 8
#Masters 2 2

Instrumentation

 

Three instruments were used to measure trainee effective-
ness in counseling (discrimination and communication skills).
The Affect Sensitivity Scale (ASS), Counselor Verbal Response
Scale (CVRS), and Carkhuff's Empathic Understanding Scale
(EUS) served as criterion measures. The Affect Sensitivity
Scale served to measure the ability of the trainees to dif-
ferentiate and discriminate client states; the Counselor
Verbal Response Scale and Empathic Understanding Scale served
as measures of the extent to which the trainees were able to

communicate with clients along a facilitative-inhibitive con-

103

tinuum.

Affect SensitivitypScale (ASS)

Affect sensitivity refers to a persons ability to detect
and describe the immediate affective state of another indiv-
idual. The Affect Sensitivity Scale was developed by Camp-
bell (1967) and Kagan pp, El, (1967), to measure an individuals'
reactions to experiences designed to focus on sensitivity to
interpersonal situations and dynamics. The instrument con-
sists of 89 videotaped excerpts from actual counseling inter-
views. Persons taking the test are asked to try to identify
what feelings the client on the screen felt toward themselves
and toward the counselor they were working with at the end
of each excerpt; a test booklet with alternative choices is
provided and answer sheets are provided on which answers to
the choices were marked, and scored by I.B.M.

Results were obtained on reliability and validity studies
conducted with Form B of the Affect Sensitivity Scale. The
following conclusions were drawn:

1. For most somewhat heterogeneous groups (such as

practicing school counselors and most groups of
individuals entering counselor education programs),

the reliability of Form B was above .70.1

 

l
A Kuder-Richardson Formula Reliability Check (Formula 20)
was .69 for the pretest and .74 for the posttest, and the

pre-post test correlation was .76 (Kagan, g5, g1,, 1967,
p. 200).

104

Some indication of the content validity of the
scale was gleaned from results of various item
analysis and other internal analysis data, from

the procedures used in deve10ping the scale.

The scales' concurrent validity was demonstrated in
a low but positive relationship between scale scores
and the usually more subjective measures of coun-
selor effectiveness. The average correlation
obtained across all studies was +326, with a high
of +342 and a low of +.l6. A somewhat more sub-
stantial relationship was found to exist between
scale scores and subjective measures of affective
sensitivity. The average correlation obtained
across all studies was +.38, with a high +.64 and a
low of -.10.

From B measured change in individuals affective
sensitivity resulting from counselor training pro-
grams and was unaffected by the practice effect of
pretesting and subsequent posttesting on the same
instrument. A construct validity study was done

to determine if individuals' Form B scale scores
would increase during a counselor education pro-
gram. A small but significant amount of growth
occurred between pre and post measurements. Table
3.4 presents the data resulting from the administra-

tion of Form B to counselor education students.

105

TABLE 3.4

Data Resulting From The Administration Of Form B On A
Pretest And Posttest Basis To Sample Groups Of
Counselor Education Students (Kagan, et. al., 1967)

 

 

Sample N Pretest Posttest Mean .E
Group Mean Mean Difference Value
J 26 51.35 54.08 2.73 2.21*
K 30 54.26 57.03 2.77 2.80**

 

*Significant at .025 level, one-tail test (df=25, £_value
of 2.06 = .025 level)

**Significant at .005 level, one-tail test (df=29, p value
of 2.76 = .005 level)

5. Counselors rated as effective by peers tended to
score high on the scale; those rated as ineffective
tended to score either high or low. High scores
on the ASS may be a necessary but not a sufficient
condition for counselor effectiveness.

While some questions were raised concerning the reliability
and validity of the ASS, the authors of this scale concluded:1
"In summary, given our present state of

knowledge in deve10ping procedures to
measure interpersonal sensitivity and given

 

1Form C of the Affective Sensitivity Scale was used for the
present study. This form contained the 67 items which have
held up "best" (on item analyses) throughout the years. The
authors of this scale indicated that reducing the number of

items did not reduce the reliability and validity of the in-
strument .

106

that the face validity of the procedures

used in this research are accepted, then

it can be generally stated that scale Form

B is presently the 'best' means available

for measuring the psychological trait of

affective sensitivity" (Kagan, et. al., 1967,

p. 191).
Counselor Verbal Response Scale CXRS.

The CVRS consists of 5 forced choice, dichotomous dimen-

sions measuring the extent to which counselors' reSponses
in counseling are characterized by the following: affective-
cognitive responses (whether a counselors response refers to
any affective component of a client's communication or con-
cerns itself primarily with the cognitive components of that
communication); understanding-non-understanding responses
(whether a counselors reSponse communicates to the client
that the counselor understands or is seeking to understand
the client's basic communication); Specific-nonspecific
reSponses (whether the counselors response delineates the
client's problems and is central to the client's communica-
tions or whether the reSponse does not specify the client's
concerns; in essence, it describes whether the counselor
deals with the client's communication in a general, vague,
or peripheral manner, or "zeroes in” on the core of the
client's communication); exploratory-pppexploratory reSpon-
ses (whether a counselors response permits or encourages the
client to explore his cognitive or affective concerns, or

whether the response limits a client's exploration of these

concerns); and the effectiveness-poneffectiveness of each

107

response (ratings on this dimension may be made indepently
of ratings on the other four dimensions of the scale; this
rating is based solely upon the judges' professional opinion
and impression of the appropriateness of the counselors re-
sponse-how adequately does the counselors response deal with
the client's verbal and nonverbal communication).

The CVRS focuses on a series of individual client/coun-
selor units (client statement-counselor reSponse) during the
course of the interview, rather than on global ratings of
entire interviews or of longer interview segments. This
was based on a format developed by DeRoo and Rank (1965).
Typically, the judge is required to rate 20 consecutive
counselor responses.to client statements drawn from the
interview, on each of the five dimensions of the scale. After
20 counselor reSponses have been dichotomized on each dimen-
sion, totals are obtained. Thus, a maximum score of 20 and
a minimum of O is possible for each dimension.1

The development of the CVRS came as a result of research
generated through use of the IPR technique. Reliability and
validity studies were conducted on this instrument, to ascer-
tain the efficacy of its use for evaluating counselor effective-
ness. The following is a synOpsis of some relevant findings

concerning the CVRS:

 

1The entire CVRS, a manual for training judges, and
scoring sheet is found in Appendix A.

108

Religbility

Using Hoyts analysis of variance technique in deter-
mining interjudge reliability of two sets of judges who
had rated sessions of counselors interviewing coached
clients, coefficients were obtained by Griffin (1966),
of average tape interjudge reliabilities of .84 (affect-
cognitive), .80 (understanding-nonunderstanding), .79
(specific-nonspecific), .68 (exploratory-nonexploratory),
and .79 (level of effectiveness-noneffectiveness), on

the dimensions of the scale.

Validit

Data collected supported the validity of the dimen-
Sions of the scale for characterizing counselors at
different levels of ability. On each dimension of the
scale, significant differences were found at the .01
level between reSponses of Ph.D. candidates and M,A.
candidates with the Ph.D. candidates having more re-
sponses rated as affective, understanding, specific,
exploratory, and effective. Table 3.5 below summarizes
the comparisons made between Ph.D. and M.A. level coun-
selors on the dimensions of the CVRS (Kagan, 9;. al.,

1967, p. 89):

109

TABLE 3.5

Comparison Of Mean Scores Of The Ph.D. And M.A.
Counselor Candidates On The Five Dimensions Of The CVRS

 

 

Dimension N Mean N Mean 5. p
Ph.D. 'jLéLL

Affective 8 10.04 45 4.33 3.401 .005

Understanding 8 14.08 45 9.66 2.164 .025

Specific 8 10.04 45 5.50 2.51 .01

Exploratory 8 14.17 45 8.56 3.07 .005

Effective 8 12.42 45 6.99 2.646 .01

 

Empathic Understanding In Interpersonal Processes II
Scale (EUS)

According to Truax and Carkhuff:

"Accurate empathy involves more than just the
ability of the therapist to sense the client

or patient's 'private world' as if it were

his own. It also involves more than just his
ability to know what the patient means. Ac-
curate empathy involves both the therapist
sensitivity £p_current feelings and his ygr:
bal facility pp_commupigate this understand-
ipg.in a language attuned to the clients
current feelings".1 (Truax and Carkhuff, 1967)

 

1The underlined passages are authors' italicizing.

110

The Empathic Understanding Scale has been derived in part from
"A Scale for the measurement of accurate empathy" by Truax

(Truax and Carkhuff, 1967) and in part from an earlier

Version of this scale (Carkhuff and Berenson, 1967). These

Scales have been validated in extensive research on counseling

ade psychotherapy. The scale used in the present study1 is
cOmprised of five levels of communication. Level 1.indi-

<2ates that the verbal and behavioral expressions of the first
person either Qp_not attend pp.or detract significantly from
the verbal and behavioral expressions of the second person(s).
Leyel_2_indicates that while the first person responds to the
expressed feelings of the second person(s), he does so in

such a way that he subtracts noticeable affect from the com-

munications of the second person(s). Level §_indicates that

the expressions of the first person in reSponse to the ex-

pressed feelings of the second person(s) are essentially

 

interchangeable with those of the second person(s). Level 4_

indicates that the reSponses of the first person add noticeably

to the expressions of the second person(s). Level §_indicates

that the first persons responses add significantly to the

2
feeling and meaning of the expressions of the second person(s).

 

1A complete COpy of this scale is found in Appendix B.

2For comparative"purposes, Level 1 of the EUS is approxi-
mately equal to Stage 1 of the Truax scale. The remaining
levels are approximately correSpondent: Level 2 and Stages 2

and 3 of the earlier version; Level 3 and Stages 4 and 5; Level
4 and Stages 6 and 7; Level 5 and Stages 8 and 9.

111

Table 3.6 below is a summary of the findings of Truax
and Carkhuff (1967) on the therapeutic effectiveness of
accurate empathy, as gleaned from research on hospital, de-

linquent, and outpatient populations.

TABLE 3.6

Findings On The Therapeutic Effectiveness
Of Accurate Empathy

 

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c3 §“$% “WERE

z <3<5:n:= <§<gcn:d‘J
Individual 8 l 1
Individual 14 2 2
Individual 14 l 1
Individual l4 1 1
Individual 4O 2 2
Group 160 1 1
Group 80 l 1
Group 80 l l

410 10 10

These results were presented to demonstrate that the

number of measures favoring the therapeutic effectiveness of

 

1These results are summarized from a table in Truax and
Carkhuff (1967) and represent salient findings; for a complete
summary, one is referred to p. 125.

2There were no overall combined outcome measures signi-
ficant against hypotheses (p (.05).

112

accurate empathy generally far outweigh the number of measures
where findings were against the hypothesis. The authors also
concluded that "virtually all differences that reached statis-
tical significance showed the superiority of high therapeutic
conditions over low (control) conditions" (Truax and Carkhuff,

1967).

Scoring of Criterion Measures

Affective Sensitivity Scale

The Affective Sensitivity Scale can be machine scored,
by supplying each trainee with an IBM answer sheet and #2
pencil to mark their responses. A machine will score all
tests and print out a total score for each answer sheet.

The answer sheets can also be scored by hand using the answer
key.
Judging of Criterion Tapes

(Coached Client and Role-Play Tapes)

Four advanced doctoral candidates in Counseling Psycho-
logy at Michigan State University, with prior counseling and
rating experiences served as judges for the ratings of the
criterion audio-tapes (two a piece for coached client and
role-play tapes). Each judge was trained in the understanding
of the dimensions of the CVRS and EUS, and the use of these
two scales, by using a series of pre-selected counseling audio-
tapes. During training sessions, the tapes were played,

ratings made at certain points, and discussion of the ratings

113

continued until ample agreement among judges was attained or
a common interpretation of the dimensions was achieved.1

The audio-tapes were randomized and presented to the
judges for rating; the procedure follows the method of rating
tapes outlined by Griffin (1966).2 Judges listened to the
first portion of the interview in order to understand the
content of the session and the pace of the counselor-client
interaction (approximately 2-3 minutes for the present study),
then rated 20 consecutive counselor reSponses to client
statements which were drawn from the middle of the interview
(rating of each tape began after 3 minutes of the interview
was heard).

Intercorrelations between judges' ratings were obtained
for coached client tapes and role-play tapes over pre, middle,
and post measurement sessions on each dimension of the CVRS

(affective, understanding, specific and exploratory) and the

 

l

A manual for training judges on the CVRS can be found
in Appendix A. (The same method was used to train judges on
the EUS).

Two modifications in these scales were made. First,
instead of using the "effectiveness/non-effectiveness" dimen-
sion of the CVRS, the EUS was substituted in its place. Second,
the scoring procedure for the EUS was modified for the pre-
sent study. Typically, three minute segments of interview
behavior were selected and judges assigned a global rating
to the counselors interview behavior over the whole segment.

For present purposes, judges were instructed to assign a
rating after each response, so that a total of 20 consecutive
responses were rated on a 1-5 level.

114

EUS (level of effectiveness-accurate empathy), using a method

described by Ebel (1951).

Analysis of Data

The data obtained on the Affective Sensitivity Scale,
the Counselor Verbal Response Scale, and the Empathic Under-
standing Scale was analyzed within a repeated measures
framework by an analysis of variance of gain scores techni-
que for each criterion measure (given three measures over
time - pre, mid, post), as described by Winer (1962). In
using analysis of variance, the preliminary test (f-test)
will tell whether significant differences exist among the
mean scores of the various levels of the effect(s) being
tested. If the f-test shows there are significant differ-
ences present among mean scores, a Scheffe-Post-Hoc analysis
test will be run to determine more specifically the ways in

which the levels differ.

PM

For purposes of condensing the Statements of hypotheses,
the following special terms will be used:

1. Groups - refers to the two treatment groups used in
this study:

group 1 - first half of course (Pre to Mid), re-
ceived program of developmental tasks
using IPR; second half of course (Mid
to Post), received program of tradition-
al teaching.

The
research

H01

H02

115

group 2 - first half of course (Pre to Mid) re-
ceived program of traditional teaching;
second half of course (Mid to Post)
received program of developmental tasks
using IPR.

Intervals - refers to time periods covered by the

gain score:

interval 1 - gain score obtained by subtracting

Pre-test from Mid-test time periods.

interval 2 - gain score obtained by subtracting

Pre-test from Post-test time periods.

Subscales - refers to the scales of the CVRS and the

EUS:

Subscale l
Subscale 2
Subscale 3
Subscale 4
Subscale 5

Conditions
situations:

affective dimension (CVRS)
understanding dimension (CVRS)
specific dimension (CVRS)
exploratory dimension (CVRS)

level of effectiveness for accurate
empathy (EUS)

refers to the two types of interview

Condition 1 - coached client interview

Condition 2 - role-play interview

hypotheses generated by this study are presented in

form.

There will be a significant interaction between

groups (1 and 2) and intervals (Mid-Pre, Post-

Pre) when mean gain scores on the ASS are com-

pared.

There will be a significant interaction between

groups (1 and 2), under each of the two conditions

116

(coached client, role-play), over the two time
intervals (Mid-Pre, Post-Pre) for each of the
five subscales (affective, understanding,
specific, exploratory, level of effectiveness)
when overall mean gain scores are compared.

Hoa Under the coached client condition,
groups 1 and 2 will differ when mean
gain scores on each of the five sub-
scales are compared for both the Mid-
Pre and Post-Pre time intervals.

Hob Under the role play condition, groups
1 and 2 will differ when mean gain scores
on each of the five subscales are com-
pared for both the Mid-Pre and Post-Pre

time intervals.

Summary

A group of 20 students enrolled in the Masters level
course Procedures ip.Counseling (offered at Michigan State
University) were assigned to one of two sequences of treat-
ments: (1) sequence 1, in which the group first received
a four week program of developmental tasks using IPR and
second received a four week program consisting of traditional
classroom procedures, or (2) sequence 2, in which the group
first received a four week program consisting of traditional
classroom procedures and second received a program of develop-

mental tasks using IPR. A design incorporating pre, mid, and

117

post treatment measures was used to study the differences
between groups on the Affective Sensitivity Scale (ASS),
during two interview conditions (coached client and role-
play) on the four dimensions of the Counselor Verbal ReSponse
Scale (CVRS) i.e., the number of counselor responses rated
affective, understanding, specific, and exploratory, and on
the Empathic Understanding Scale (EUS) for level of accurate
empathy. Ratings on the CVRS and EUS were made by four pro-
fessional judges trained in the use of these rating scales.
An analysis of variance of gain scores for repeated measures
(pre, mid, post) for the ASS and for changes in interview
behavior during coached-client and role play conditions on
the CVRS and EUS was conducted to determine whether signifi-
cant differences existed among the mean scores of the various
levels of the effect(s) being tested. A Scheffe-Post Hoc
analysis was run to determine more specifically the ways in

which the levels differed.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

In Chapter IV, an analysis of the data is presented
based on the methodology and statistical treatment outlined
in Chapter III. The Affective Sensitivity Scale (A.S.S.),
Counselor Verbal ReSponse Scale (C.V.R.S.) and Empathic Under-
standing in Interpersonal Processes Scale (E.U.S.) were the
criterion measures used in this study. The ASS was scored
by machine. Judges rated the middle segment (20 responses)
of each trainees' pre, middle, and post-training interviews
under coached client and role playing situations on the CVRS
and EUS. The subjects were assigned to one of two groups:
Group 1 received the IPR treatment for the first half of
the course and the traditional treatment for the second half
of the course; Group 2 received the traditional treatment for
the first half of the course and the IPR treatment for the
second half of the course. (The treatment sequence for each
group was reversed at the midpoint of the course at which
time the middle criterion measures were obtained).

An analysis of variance for repeated measures was per-
formed on the gain scores obtained on the ASS and on the
four subscales of the CVRS and the level of effectiveness
for accurate empathy (EUS) subscale. This analysis was per-

formed to determine whether a significant difference existed

118

119

between Groups 1 and 2 on the ASS and for each of the five

subscales (of the CVRS and EUS), over time (Mid-Pre, Post-

Pre), under each of the two interview conditions (coached-

client, role play).

The null hypotheses tested in this study were:

Ho There will be no significant interaction between groups
1 and 2 and intervals (Mid’Pre, Post-Pre) when mean
gain scores on the ASS are compared.

Ho There will be no difference in ASS mean gain
scores for the Mid-Pre interval when groups 1
and 2 are compared.

Ho There will be no difference in ASS mean gain
scores for the Post-Pre interval when groups 1
and 2 are compared.

H02 The interaction of groups 1 and 2 on the five subscales
over the two time intervals (Mid-Pre, Post-Pre) will not
be significant when mean gain scores are compared under
coached client and role play interview conditions.

Ho Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and

a . . .
2 Will not differ when mean gain scores on the
affective subscale are compared for the Mid-Pre
interval.

Ho Under the coached client condition, groups 1

and 2 will not differ when mean gain scores on

the understanding subscale are compared for the

Mid-Pre interval.

Ho Under the coached client condition, groups 1

and 2 will not differ when mean gain scores on

the Specific subscale are compared for the Mid-

Pre interval.

Hod Under the coached client condition, groups 1

and 2 will not differ when mean gain scores on

the exploratory subscale are compared for the
Mid-Pre interval.

Ho

HOf

Ho

Ho

Ho

Ho

Ho
k

Ho

Ho

Ho

Ho
o

120

Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and
2 will not differ when mean gain scores on the
level of effectiveness subscale are compared for
the Mid-Pre interval.

Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and
2 will not differ when mean gain scores on the
affective subscale are compared for the Post-Pre
interval.

Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and
2 will not differ when mean gain scores on the
understanding subscale are compared for the Post-
Pre interval.

Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and
2 will not differ when mean gain scores on the
specific subscale are compared for the Post-Pre
interval.

Under the coached client condition, groups 1 and
2 will not differ when mean gain scores on the
exploratory subscale are compared for the Post-
Pre interval.

Under the coached client condition, groups 1

and 2 will not differ when mean gain scores on
the level of effectiveness subscale are compared
for the Post-Pre interval.

Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
will not differ when mean gain scores on the
affective subscale are compared for the Mid-Pre
interval.

Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2

will not differ when mean gain scores on the under-
standing subscale are compared for the Mid-Pre
interval.

Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
will not differ when mean gain scores on the
specific subscale are compared for the Mid-Pre
interval.

Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
will not differ when mean gain scores on the
exploratory subscale are compared for the Mid-
Pre interval.

Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
will not differ when mean gain scores on the
level of effectiveness subscale are compared
for the Mid-Pre interval.

121

Ho Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2 will
not differ when mean gain scores on the affective
subscale are compared for the Post-Pre interval.
Ho Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
q will not differ when mean gain scores on the
understanding subscale are compared for the Post-
Pre interval.
Hor Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
will not differ when mean gain scores on the
Specific subscale are compared for the Post-Pre
interval.
Ho Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2 will
not differ when mean gain scores on the exploratory
subscale are compared for the Post-Pre interval.
Ho Under the role-play condition, groups 1 and 2
C will not differ when mean gain scores on the level
of effectiveness subscale are compared for the
Post-Pre interval.

A breakdown of the statistical analyses is presented

below.

Affective Sensitivity Scale (ASS),

The results of the analysis of variance comparing the
mean gain scores on the ASS over time intervals 1 and 2
between groups 1 and 2 are presented in Table 4.1 on page 122.
For a one-tail test of significance with l, 18 degrees of
freedom an F ratio of 4.41 was necessary in order to reject
the null hypotheses of no differences between groups on the
effects being tested. The data presented in Table 4.1 reveals
that no significant differences were found between the two

groups in the amount of gain on the ASS over time intervals

1 and 2.

122

TABLE 4.1

Results Of The Analysis Of Variance Comparing The
Mean Gain Scores On The ASS Over Time Intervals
1 And 2 Between Groups 1 And 2

 

Sum of
Variance df Mean 33. F Ratio P

Main Effects

Groups .506 l .506 2.353 ns

Intervals .272 l .272 3.626 ns
Interactions(l)

Groups* .156 1 .156- 2.080 ns

Intervals
Subjects(Groups) 3.878 18 .215

Intervals*Sub- 1.347 18 .075
jects (Groups)

TOTAL 6.160 39

 

*at 1, l8 df., p-<.05 if Fj>4.41

Comparisons of pre to mid to post changes in group raw
score means and in gain score means on the ASS between groups
1 and 2 over time are found in Table 4.2 on page 123, During
the first half of the course (Mid-Pre), group 1 gained an
average 3.40 points (38.20 to 41.60 with IPR training),
while group 2 lost an average of -.10 points (43.70 to 43.60
with traditional training). Over the full sequence of train-
ing treatments (Post-Pre), group I gained an average of 3.80
points (38.20 to 42.00) and group 2 gained an average of

2.80 points.

123 ’
TABLE 4.2

Comparison Of Group Raw Score And Gain Score Means For
Pre To Mid To Post Treatment Measurements Over The
Sequence Of Treatments On The ASS Between
Groups 1 And 2

 

 

 

Pre Mid Mid- Post Post-
Treat- Train- Treat Pre Trains Treat- Pre
ent ing ment Mean ing ment Mean
easure Model Measure Gain Model Mbasure Gein
Group 1
N = 10 38.2 IPR 41.6 3.40 Trad 42.0 3.80
Group 2
N = 10 43.7 Trad 43.6 - .10 IPR 46.5 2.80

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4.1 is a graphic representation of the mean gain
scores on the ASS for groups 1 and 2 over pre, mid, and post
measures during training and is shown on page 124. The data
shows that although more gain took place on the ASS during
the IPR training phase than the Traditional training phase
within groups 1 and 2 (3.40 vs .40 for group 1; 2.90 vs -.10
for group 2), and between groups 1 and 2 over the two time
sequences (3.40, group 1 vs -.10 group 2, 2.90, group 2 vs
.40 group 1, post-mid) no significant differences were found
between the two groups from pre to mid to post. In order to
further explain the failure to achieve significance between
groups on the A88, a scattergram is presented in Figure 4.2,
page 125, to Show the dispersion of mean gain scores for each

individual in groups 1 and 2 over time intervals 1 and 2.

124

FIGURE 4.1

Mean Gain Scores For Groups 1 And 2 Over
Three Measures During Training

 

 

 

 

4
3
ASS
Mean 2
Gain
Scores
1
0
-l
T I 1
Pre Mid Post
Time
Legend G1 =
Mid-Pre-IPR
Post-Mid-Traditional
G2 """""""""

Mid-Pre-Traditional
Post-Mid-IPR

125

FIGURE 4.2

Scattergram Of The Individual Gain Score Means Obtained
On The ASS Over Time (Mid-Pre) Between Groups 1
(IPR) and 2 (Traditional) During Training

12

10

 

Legend X = IPR '

 

IV

1.65 2 4 6 8 10 12

= Traditional

Time Interval = Mid-Pre; Group Mean = 1.65

126

Individuals in Group 1 (+) were expected to Show the
most gain during the Mid-Pre time interval, in which time
they received IPR training. Consequently, most of the
gains achieved by individuals in group 1 were expected to
fall somewhere in quadrant II. Individuals in group 2 (0')
were not expected to show much change during the Mid-Pre
time interval, in which time they received Traditional
training. Consequently, most of the changes by individuals
in group 2 were expected to fall somewhere in quadrant III.
AS indicated in the scattergram in Figure 4.2, while most
changes were in the posited direction, a wide variability
existed in the amount of mean gain for each individual
within each of the groups (e. g. in group 1, one individual
gained 12 points, another lost 7 points; in group 2, one
individual gained 6 points, another lost 7 points), which
may have been a possible cause of the failure to achieve
significance between groups.

Counselor Verbal Resppnse Scale (CVRS) And Empathic Under-
standing Scale (EUS)

An analysis of variance of the mean gain scores between
groups 1 and 2 on the subscales of the CVRS and EUS over the
two time intervals (Mid-Pre, Post-Pre) was conducted under

each of the two interview conditions (coached client, role

play).

127

A. Coached Client Condition

The results of the analysis of variance for re-
peated measures on the mean gain scores on the CVRS and EUS
obtained by groups 1 and 2 over time under the coached client
condition are presented in Table 4.3 on page 128. For a one
tail test of significance with l, 18 degrees of freedom, an
F ratio of 4.41 was necessary in order to reject the null
hypotheses of no differences between the various effects
beting tested. Significant differences were found on the
main effect for subscales and on the groups* intervals* sub-
scales interaction.

A Scheffe post hoc analysis was conducted

and the results are presented in Tables 4.4 and 4.5.

TABLE 4.4

Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1 And 2
On Each Of The Subscales For The Mid-Pre Time
Interval Under The Coached Client Condition

 

A

 

Group 1 Group 2 Totgl \N’ p
Affective 2.950 2.150 2.550 .800 ns
Understanding 5.400 3.500 4.450 1.900 p (.05
Specific 5.450 3.500 4.475 1.950 p (.05
Exploratory 5.200 3.250 4.225 1.950 p4(.05
EUS Level 0.420 0.324 0.372 0.096 ns

 

(Q - 1.660) (“'9 <(Q+ 1.660)

128

TABLE 4.3

Results Of The Analysis Of Variance For Between Group
Differences In Mean Gain Scores On The CVRS And
EUS Over Time Under Coached Client Condition

 

Sources
of
Variance Sum Sq. df

Mean Sq, F-ratio A_p

Main Effects

Groups
Intervals
Subscales

Interactions
Groups*

Intervals

Groups*

13.745
1.056
527.503
173.632

3.667

l—"

13.744
1.056
131.875
173.631

0.916

0.153
0.018
16.375
2.708

0.114

HS
IlS

p (.05

ns

IlS

Subscales
Intervals*
Subscales
Groups*
Intervals*
Subscales

2.841 1 0.716 0.206 ns

70.043 1 15.226 4.608

p (.05

Error Terms

Subjects
(Groups)
Intervals*

1612.879 18 89.064

1155.085 18 64.171

Subjects
(Groups)
Subscales*
Subjects
(Groups)
Intervals*

Subscales*

Subjects
(Groups)

Total

581.976

245.320

4388.116

18

18

199

8.083

3.304

 

at 1, 18 df, p<.05 if F74.41

129

Tables 4.4 and 4.5 contain comparisons of groups 1 and
2 on each of the subscales for the two time intervals (Mid-
Pre, Post-Pre) under the coached client, interview condition,
using a Scheffe post hoc analysis. Under.the coached client
condition for Interval 1 (Mid-Pre), group 1 (IPR) gained
significantly more (.05 level) on the understanding, specific,
and exploratory subscales than group 2 (Traditional); no
significant differences were found (.05 level) between the
two groups in mean number of responses gained on the affective

subscale, and on the level of the effectiveness for accurate

empathy (EUS) subscale.

TABLE 4.5

Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1 And 2
On Each Of The Subscales For The Post-Pre Time
Interval Under The Coached Client Condition

 

Total Q P

 

Group 1 Group 2
Affective 1.300 2.750 2.025 -1.450 n5
Understanding 2.650 5.950 4.300 -3.330 p 41.05
Specific 2.650 5.950 4.300 -3.330 p (,.05
Exploratory 2.650 6.250 4.450 -3.600 p <~.05
EUS Level 0.126 0.415 0.270 -0.289 ns

 

(‘1’ -1.660) «‘1’ < (Q+1.660)

130

Under the coached client condition for Interval 2
(Post-Pre), group 2 (Traditional - IPR sequence) gained
Significantly more (.05 level) on the understanding, specific,
and exploratory subscales than group 1 (IPR - Traditional
sequence); no significant differences were found (.05 level)
between the two groups in mean number of responses gained on
the affective subscale and on the level of effectiveness for
accurate empathy subscale.

Table 4.6, on page 131, contains a comparison of the
group raw score means on the four subscales of the CVRS and
the subscale of level of effectiveness for accurate empathy
(EUS) under the coached client condition, from pre to mid
to post time intervals between groups 1 and 2. \

Figure 4.3, on page 132 and 133, is a graphic represen-
tation of the group raw score means (which were contained in
Table 4.6) on the four subscales of the CVRS and the subscale
of level of effectiveness for accurate empathy (EUS) under
the coached client condition, from pre to mid to post time
intervals between groups 1 and 2. As seen in Figure 4.3,
group 2 began training at a slightly higher level on each
of the subscales for the coached client interview than group
1. During the mid-pre interval, in which time group 1
received IPR training and group 2 received traditional train-
ing, both groups increased on all subscales, but group 1

gained significantly more on the understanding, specific, and

131

 

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134

exploratory subscales than group 2. At the midpoint, the
groups switched treatments, with group 2 now receiving the IPR
training and group 1 now receiving the Traditional training.
Group 2 continued to increase on all subscales, while group
I dropped on all the subscales. As a result, Group 2 gained
significantly more on the understanding, specific, and explora-
tory subscales from pre to post than group 1.
B. Role Play Condition

The results of the analysis of variance for
repeated measures on the mean gain scores on the CVRS and
EUS obtained by groups 1 and 2 over time under the role play
conditions are presented in Table 4.7 on page 135. For a
one tail test of significance with l, 18 degrees of freedom,
an F-ratio of 4.41 was necessary in order to reject the null
hypotheses of no differences between the various effects
being tested. Significant differences were found on the
groups* intervals and groups* intervals* subscales interactions.
A Scheffe post hoc analysis was conducted, and the results
are presented in Tables 4.8 and 4.9.

Tables 4.8 and 4.9 contain comparisons of groups 1 and

2 on each of the subscales for the two time intervals
(Mid-Pre, Post-Pre) under the role play interview condition,
using a Scheffe post hoc analysis.

Under the role play interview condition for Interval l

(Mid-Pre), group 1 (IPR) gained significantly more (.05 level)

 

135

TABLE 4.7

Results Of The Analysis Of Variance For Between Group
Differences In Mean Gain Scores On The CVRS And
EUS Over Time Under The Role Play Condition

 

Sources
of

Variance Sum Sq. df Mean qu7 F-ratio p

Main Effects

Groups
Intervals
Subscales

Interactions
Groups*
Intervals
Groups*
Subscales
Intervals*
Subscales
Groups*
Intervals*
Subscales

Error Terms
Subjects
(Groups)
Intervals*
Subjects
(Groups)
Subscales*
Subjects
(Groups)
Intervals*

Subscales*

Subjects
(Groups)

131.771
105.968
35.088

303.861

30.883

18.590

60.576

2133.802

533.846

661.197

186.059

H

l8

18

18

18

131.771
105.968
8.772

303.861
7.721
4.648

15.144

118.544

29.658

9.183

2.258

1.028
3.577
0.967

10.263

0.846

1.840

5.868

HS
HS
ns

p (.05

118

RS

p (c05

Total 4201.640 199

 

at 1, 18 df, p(.05 if F74.4l

136

TABLE 4.8

Scheffe Post Hoe Analysis Between Groups 1 And 2 On Each
Of The Subscales For The Mid-Pre Time Interval Under
The Role Play Condition

 

 

Group 1 Groupygi Total \i’ p
Affective 3.150 -2.500 .325 5.650 p (.05
Understanding 2.550 -2.100 .225 4.650 p (.05
Specific 2.900 -2.100 .400 5.000 p <.05
Exploratory 2.450 -2.250 .100 4.700 p‘<.05
EUS Level 0.195 -0.248 -.026 0.443 ns

 

(47- 1.660) ( KP ((Q+ 1.660)

on the affective, understanding, specific, and exploratory
subscales than group 2 (Trad.); no significant differences
were found (.05 level) between the two groups on the level of

effectiveness for accurate empathy (EUS) subscale. Under the

TABLE 4.9

Scheffe Post Hoc Analysis Between Groups 1 And 2 On Each
Of The Subscales For the Post-Pre Time Interval Under
The Role Play Condition

 

 

Group 1 Group 2 Total d;’ p
Affective 1.950 2.700 -.375 -0.750 ns
Understanding 1.550 2.800 -.125 -1.250 ns
Specific 1.400 2.100 -.350 -0.700 ns
Exploratory 1.050 2.450 -.700 -l.400 ns
EUS Level 0.248 0.357 -.055 -0.109 ns

 

(‘35- 1.66O)<\\’ «(9+ 1.660)

137

role play interview condition for Interval 2 (Post-Pre),
there were no significant differences (.05 level) between
the two groups in mean number of responses gained on any
of the subscales.

Table 4.10, page 138, contains a comparison of the group
raw score means on the four subscales of the CVRS and the
subscale of level of effectiveness for accurate empathy
(EUS) under the role play interview condition 1 from pre
to mid to post time intervals between groups 1 and 2.

Figure 4.4, pages 139 and 140, is a graphic representa-
tion of the group raw score means which were contained in
Table 4.10) on the four subscales of the CVRS and the sub-
scale of level of effectiveness for accurate empathy (EUS)
under the role play condition, from pre to mid to post time
intervals between groups 1 and 2.

As seen in Figure 4.4, group 2 began training at a
slightly higher level on each of the subscales for the role
play interview than group 1. During the Mid-Pre interval,
in which time group 1 received IPR training and group 2
received traditional training, group 1 increased on all the
subscales and group 2 dropped on all the subscales, with
group 1 gaining significantly more on the affective, under-
standing, specific, and exploratory subscales than group 2.
At the midpoint, the groups switched treatments, with group
2 now receiving the IPR training and group 1 now receiving

the traditional training. Group 2 reversed its downward

138

 

 

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141

Slope, and gained on all the subscales, and group 1 dropped
on all the subscales. As a result, there were no pre to
post differences between the two groups in the mean gain on

any of the subscales.

Intercorrelations Of Judges' Ratings

Intercorrelations between judges' ratings for coached-
client and role-play interview tapes over pre, middle and
post measurement sessions were obtained on the dimensions of
the CVRS (affective, understanding, specific, exploratory)
and the EUS (level of effectiveness for accurate empathy),

and are presented in Tables 4.11 and 4.12.

TABLE 4.11

Intercorrelations Of Rater l and Rater 2 For CVRS And
EUS MeaSures Made At Each Of Three Times For Role
Play Interviews

 

 

PRE MID POST
CVRS
A .972 .962 .992
U .977 .979 .997
S .977 .981 .971
E .985 .968 .992
EUS

level .901 .961 .993

 

142

TABLE 4.12

Intercorrelations Of Rater 1 And Rater 2 For CVRS And
EUS Measures Made At Each Of Three Times For
Coached Client Interviews

 

 

PRE MID POST

CVRS
A .940 .979 .950
U .939 .971 .943
S .939 .974 .943
E .935 .979 .930

EUS
level .901 .928 .911

 

Because the CVRS and EUS require judges to describe
counselor responses, inter-correlations of judges' ratings
across responses was computed. Comparisons between the
groups of counselors were made in terms of the gain in each
counselors' modal interview response pattern (i.e., - the
average number of responses rated affective, understanding,
Specific, exploratory, and the average level of effective-
ness for accurate empathy) between pre- middle- post measure-

ment sessions.

Summary

The hypotheses postulated in this study were tested
within an analysis of variance for repeated measures frame-
wOrkon the gain scores obtained on the ASS, and on the four
Subscales of the CVRS and the level of effectiveness for
accllrate empathy (EUS) subscale over coached-client and role-

pla); interview conditions.

143

The hypotheses related to differences between groups 1
and 2 on the ASS, and on each of the subscales under the
two interview conditions over time are summarized in Table
4.13, page 144. For intervals 1 and 2 (Mid-Pre, Post-Pre),
there were no differences between groups 1 and 2 on the
amount of mean gain on the ASS. For interval 1 (Mid-Pre),
the IPR trained group gained a Significantly greater number
of understanding, specific, and exploratory responses than
the traditionally trained group for the coached client condi-
tion, and significantly more affective, understanding,
specific, and exploratory responses than the traditionally
trained group for the role-play condition. For interval
2 (Post-Pre), the group receiving the Traditional-IPR
training sequence gained a significantly greater number of
understanding, specific, and exploratory responses than the
group receiving the IPR-Traditional training sequence for
the coached client condition; there was no difference between
the two training sequences in number of responses gained on

any of the subscales for the role-play condition.

Summary Of Hypotheses Related To Between Group Differences

144

TABLE 4.13

On The Criterion Measures Over Time

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hypotheses p
Ho a ASS, Mid- Pre, Group l-Group 2
b ASS, Post-Pre, Group l-Group 2
Ho a C.C. condition, Mid-Pre, Group l-Group 2 A scale ns
b U scale p ( .05
c S scale p (.05
d E scale p (.05
e L scale ns
f C. C. condition, Post-Pre, Group l-Group 2 A scale ns
g U scale p (.05
h 8 scale p (.05
i E scale p (:05
j L scale ns
k R.P. condition, Mid-Pre, Group l-Group 2 A scale p (305
1 U scale p (.05
m S scale p (.05
n E scale p<.05
o L scale ns
p R.P. condition, Post-Pre, Group l-Group 2 A scale ns
q U Scale ns
r S scale ns
S E scale ns
t L scale ns

 

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

Sew-311

The purpose of this Study was to determine the effects
of two different counselor training experiences on the sub-
sequent discrimination and communication counseling behaviors
of counselor candidates. The first training procedure was
an adaptation of the Interpersonal Process Recall technique
(IPR) developed by Kagan e3, g1,, (1967), within a develop-
mental task framework modified from a study by Goldberg (1967).
The second procedure was a traditional classroom counselor
training experience using lectures, demonstrations, and dis-
cussions.

In previous research using IPR to supervise counselors,
Kagan e3, 31, combined stimulated videotape recall procedures
with a clinical interrogator to heighten a client's ability
to recall his covert feelings during the counseling session.
Later, the counselor listened to an audiotape of the client
recall session, viewed a videotape replay of the session,
and was supervised by the interrogator. Judges' ratings of
the counseling effectiveness of counselors receiving video
IPR, audio IPR, or traditional supervision indicated no

significant differences in the effectiveness of counselors

145

146

supervised by any of the three procedures. Goldberg, in
reviewing this Study and related literature, posited that
there was a need for a more developmental approach to prac-
ticum supervision than the approach used in the Kagan study.
In Goldberg's study basic recall techniques were expanded
to include both client and counselor recall and were
integrated into a sequential series of training experiences
based on a counselor developmental theory of supervision.
Goldberg found that analysis of pre to post changes in coun-
selor interview behavior within each group and between each
group indicated significant differences in counselor per-
formance on each dimension of the CVRS at the .001 level.
It was anticipated that the questions "Could some of
the newer techniques developed in a laboratory setting
(by Goldberg, Kagan, pp, g1, using IPR) be incorporated
into the present training model?", and "Could the training
model be applied practically within the tflme and financial
limitations of an ongoing masters level program?" would be
answered in this study. The sequential program of training
experiences used by Goldberg was modified and incorporated
into the overall design of the present study. The use of
this approach to training stemmed from the assumption that
there were a series of developmental tasks which faced the
counselor trainees as they became counselors: (a) the need

to become sensitive to and aware of own feelings, (b) the

147

nned to become sensitive to, aware of, and understanding of
client communications, (c) the need to become sensitive to
and aware of elements of effective communication in coun-
seling, and (d) the need to become sensitive to and aware of
the bilateral nature of the counseling relationship. The IPR
treatment consisted of four integrated states which were de-
signed to meet these developmental needs. The recall tech-
niques which Goldberg used were also used and included
client, counselor, and mutual recalls (both counselor and
client present). Afect Simulation Films were added, and
a number of training exercises were done in a group rather
than on an individual basis.

The trainees used in this study were 20 graduate

students enrolled in the masters level course Procedures

 

ip_Counseling offered at Michigan State University prior to
any practicum experience. The subjects were randomly assigned
to one of two group treatment sequences (10 students per group),
with group 1 first receiving the IPR training and group 2
first receiving the traditional classroom method of teaching.
At the midpoint of the course, the treatments were reversed,
with group 1 now receiving the traditional method and group 2
receiving the IPR.

The traditional method of classroom teaching consisted of
lectures, discussions, and demonstrations by a professor in the

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational

148

Psychology at Michigan State University and by two guest
lecturers in the following areas: "Counseling Theory -
PurpOSes and Goals in Counseling", "Helping Students in
Academic Difficulties”, "The Counselor as Consultant,
Environmental Engineer, and Teacher of Occupational Infor-
mation,” "Vocational Counseling", and ”Behaviorism."

During the first stage of IPR training-becoming sensi-
tive to and aware of own feelings - the group first met as
a whole. The Affect Simulation Films were shown with the
purpose of having trainees gain an awareness of their own
feelings to situations depicted on film. This was followed
by an individual meeting with each trainee for the purpose
of having each gain more awareness of his own feelings. The
Affect Simulation Films were shown, trainees were videotaped
watching these films, and a stimulated recall of this video-
tape was conducted to help trainees further identify
feelings to these films and situations. In the second stage-
becoming sensitive to,. aware of, and understanding of client
communications--the group met as a whole. A brief lecture
on verbal and non-verbal ways of communicating was presented;
each individual in the group then had the opportunity to
role play counselor and client, which was audiotaped. A
stimulated recall of the audiotapes of the role-playing
sessions was conducted in the group. In the third stage--
becoming aware of elements of effective communication in

counseling-~the group again met as a whole. A lecture was

149

presented on the elements of effective communication behaviors;
training audiotapes were played and trainees practiced rat-
ing these tapes on the dimensions discussed. During the
second phase of this stage, another group meeting was held
for the purpose of having trainees further learn the elements
of effective counseling. This was done by pairing trainees
up, having them role-play, conducting a stimulated videotape
recall of these role playing exercises in the group, and
rating the interactions on the dimensions of effective commun-
ication previously discussed. During the final stage, two
individuals were paired up for the purpose of helping them
begin to understand the bilateral nature of the counseling
relationship. The first phase of this session was designated
"counselor recall". One trainee role played counselor and
the other trainee role played the client (for approximately
15 minutes). A stimulated videotape recall was then con-
ducted for the trainee playing the counselor role, focusing
on the dynamic interaction between the counselor and client
in the role-playing session just conducted (lasting approx-
imately 30-40 minutes). After this, the two trainees switch-
ed roles, role-played (for approximately 15 minutes), and

a stimulated videotape recall was then conducted for the
trainee who played the counselor role this time. The second

phase of this session was designated ”mutual recall". Each

150

trainee again alternated role playing counselor and client.
A stimulated videotape recall was conducted this time for
the two trainees together, focusing on the dynamic inter-
action between the two of them as counselor and client in
the role playing session just conducted. The interrogator
encouraged the two trainees to share the thoughts and feel-
ings each had about their relationship with each other.

In order to test the research hypotheses, a pre-mid-
post design was used, using the pre, mid, and post training
sessions to sample the trainees' behavior on the ASS, and
under two interview conditions (coached client and role play).
The mid measure session was also the point in the course at
which time the training sequences were reversed for the two
groups.

The basis hypotheses of this study were:

Hypothesis I Trainees exposed to a program of
specific developmental tasks in
counselor education, implemented
by using IPR techniques will dev-
elop greater ability to discri-
minate (and differentiate)affective
stimuli and conditions than trainees

exposed to a more traditional
approach to counselor education.

Hypothesis II Trainees exposed to a program of
specific developmental tasks in
counselor education, implemented
by IPR techniques, will develop
greater ability to communicate in
a facilitative way than trainees
exposed to a more traditional
classroom approach to counselor
education.

151

An analysis of variance for repeated measures was per-
formed on the mean gain score changes from pre to mid to post
on the criterion measures (ASS and on the CVRS and EUS under
coached client and role play conditions), to ascertain
whether there were differences (p<.05) between groups 1
and 2 based on the treatments they received. There were
no significant differences (p (.05) between groups 1 and 2
on the ASS over the two time intervals (Mid-Pre and Post-
Pre), with both groups showing significant gains over the
Post-Pre time interval.1 On the coached client interview
condition for the first half of the course (Mid-Pre) the
IPR trained group gained significantly more understanding,
specific, and exploratory responses (p(.05) than the
traditionally trained group. On the role play interview
condition, for the first half of the course, the IPR
trained group gained significantly more affective, under-
standing, specific, and exploratory responses than the
traditionally trained group. Over the full training
sequence (Post-Pre) under the coached client interview condi-
tion, the group receiving the Traditional-IPR sequence
gained significantly more understanding, specific, and explor-

atory responses than the group receiving the IPR-Traditional

 

There do appears to have been differences within each
of the groups. See section on conclusions and interpreta-
tions in this chapter.

152

sequence. Under the role play interview condition, there
were no differences between the two training sequences (IPR
first, Traditional second, or vice versa), on any of the

subscales.

Conclusions and Interpretations

 

 

In sum, significant differences were found between
groups 1 and 2 on the understanding, specific, and explora-
tory subscales of the CVRS under the coached client interview
condition, and significant differences were found between
groups 1 and 2 on the affective, understanding, specific,
and exploratory subscales of the CVRS under the role play
interview condition when the IPR method was directly com-
pared to the traditional method. No significant differences
were found between the two groups on the amount of increase
on the ASS and in the level of effectiveness for accurate
empathy (EUS). However, despite the evidence of differences
between groups and the lack of differences between groups on
a number of measures, it might also be desirable to discuss
the observed behavioral changes.

The question of what constitutes a "meaningful" change
on the ASS can be answered by referring to previous research
which used the ASS as a criterion measure. In a study by

Kagan g5, El: (1967, p. 180), a comparison of gain on the

153
l
ASS was made on a pretest-posttest basis for each of two
sample groups consisting of individuals attending masters
degree full year NDEA Counseling and Guidance institutes
at large midwestern universities . Mean differences pre
to post for each of the groups (2.73 and 2.77) were found
to be significant over a full year time period. Comparisons
of the groups used in the present study with the groups used
in the Kagan study can be warranted because both samples
involved students who were at the masters level of training.
Over a full year time period the NDEA groups gained an
average of 2.73 and 2.77 points (Form B). Over the two
four-week periods of IPR training in the present study,
students gained an average of 3.40 and 2.90 points; over the
full 10 week term, the groups gained an average of 3.80
and 2.80 points respectively (Form C). More gain was
achieved for the groups in the present study, using a shorter
time period, on a shorter form of the scale than for the
groups in the Kagan study.
Although no significant differences were found between
groups 1 and 2 in this study in the amount of mean gain on

the ASS over time intervals 1 (Mid-Pre) and 2 (Post-Pre),

 

1Form B, containing 89 items was used, more gain is needed
to achieve significance using Form B than Form C (67 items).

2Refer to Table 3.4, page 105.

 

154

it might also be important to discuss the data in terms of

within group changes on this scale.

For the present study,

a g-test of differences between means was performed to

assess within group changes in mean number of points gained

on the ASS. The results of this analysis are summarized in

Table 5.1.

Comparison Of Mid-Pre And Post-Pre Treatment
Mean Gains On The ASS For Groups 1 And 2

TABLE 5.1

 

 

 

N Mean Gain t p
Group 1
Mid-Pre 10 +3.40 8.21 .001
Post-Pre lO +3.80 4.46 .001
Group 2
Mid-Pre 10 -0.10 .02 ns
Post-Pre 10 +2.80 2.00 .05

 

necessary: g .10

1.833 for 9 degrees of freedom

A £_va1ue of 1.833 for a one tail test of significance with

9 degrees of freedom was necessary before chance differences

within treatment groups could be rejected at the .10 level

of confidence. Inspection of Table 5.1 reveals g values

greater than 1.833 for each time interval except the Mid-Pre
interval for group 2.

training were effective in bringing about changes on the ASS

It seems clear that both sequences of

‘within each group, most of which might be accounted for by

155

gains made during the IPR training period. However, despite
this post hoc analysis, in which clear trends were noted, the
hypotheses as stated about the ASS in this study were refuted.

It might also be helpful to compare the interview
behaviors of the trainees in this study with interview be-
haviors of other counselor candidates at known levels of
training on the four dimensions of the CVRS. Two sources of
data were available for such a comparison: (1) the ratings
of audiotape segments of 45 M.A. counselors involved in a
study by Kagan gt. al., (1967, p. 89), and (2) the pre-
treatment interview ratings of counselors participating in
the Goldberg (1967) study. Since the interview situations
were not directly comparable (the interview segments from the
Kagan study represented interviews with coached clients while
interview segments in the Goldberg study represented inter-
views with high school students) no statistical comparisons
were made. Finally, the small fl_involved in some of the
possible comparisons dictated a descriptive comparison.

A comparison was made of the pre-treatment interview
txahavior of the 11 counselors in the Goldberg study (who had
already completed practicum), the 25 counselors in the Goldberg
study (who had not yet taken practicum), the interview be-
havior of the 45 M.A. counselors (who had also completed
practicum), with the two groups of 10 counselor trainees in
the present study (who had not yet taken practicum) under

eatfli of two interview conditions.

 

156

TABLE 5.2

Descriptive Comparison Of Counselors At Various Levels Of
Training On Each Of The Four Dimensions
Of The CVRS

 

DIMENSIONS

N Affective Understanding Specific Exploratory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Practicum: 45 4.33 9.66 5.50 8.56
Practicum b 11 5.76 11.82 5.67 8.88
Non-Practicum 25 2.09 3.67 2.25 4.33
Group 1: 10 0.55 3.15 3.15 3.30
Group 1 10 1.85 5.80 5.80 5.95
Group 2: 10 0.80 4.95 4.95 5.00
Group 2 10 3.50 10.90 10.90 11.25
Group 1: 10 2.55 4.55 4.10 4.55
Group 1 10 4.50 6.10 5.50 5.50
Group 2: 10 6.00 8.00 7.70 8.75
Group 2 10 8.70 11.30 9.80 10.20

 

acounselors in study by Kagan, gt, a}, (1967)
bcounselors in study by Goldberg (1967) pre-treatment

c . . . .
counselors in present study - coached client condition, pre
treatment

counselors in present study - coached client condition post-
treatment

e
counselors in present study - role-play condition pre-treatment

counselors in present study - role-play condition post-treatment

157

As indicated in Table 5.2 there were distinct similarities in
the pattern of interview behaviors exhibited by counselors who
had already completed a practicum experience. There were also
clear differences between the interview behaviors of these
trainees who had not had a practicum experience and the pre-
treatment interview behaviors for groups 1 and 2 as compared
to those counselors who did have a practicum (with the excep-
tion of group 2 under the role-play condition).

Comparisons of post treatment interviews of counselors
in the present study under the two interview conditions with
interview behavior of non-practicum trainees and of the M.A.
candidates who had completed practicum yield the following
observations:

(1) The post training interview behaviors for both
groups 1 and 2 in the present study under the coached client
condition were described as more understanding, specific and
exploratory than the non-practicum group in the Goldberg study.i
Group 2 was described as being as affective, understanding,
specific, and exploratory as the practicum groups in the Kagan
and Goldberg studies.

(2) The post training interview behaviors for both
groups 1 and 2 in the present study under the role play con-
ciition were described as more affective, understanding,
specific, and exploratory than the non-practicum group in the
(3oldberg study. Group 1 was described as being as affective

arud specific as the practicum groups in the Kagan and Goldberg

 

158

studies. Although group 2 was described as slightly more
affective, specific and exploratory than either practicum group
on the pre-measure, they increased their scores on these
dimensions after training and ended up more affective, under-
standing, Specific, and exploratory than any of the other
groups.

There are several questions relative to the research
design and methodology which must be considered in drawing
conclusions and interpretations. One critical question can
be raised regarding the extent to which possible supervision-
teacher bias may have favorably influenced the outcome of the
study. The possibility of this bias cannot be entirely ruled
out, and there still exists the chance that the supervisor/
teacher's enthusiasm or preference for the IPR training was
conveyed to the trainees, thereby affecting their motivation.
However, two of the five lecture presentations were conducted
by faculty members who did not know the hypotheses of the
present study, and all those teaching the traditional classroom
presentations were discussing areas of their own particular
interests, using audiotapes and videotapes to augment their
presentations and stimulate discussions. Further, the records
of participation gave no evidence of greater interest and/or
motivation between groups. Trainees in both groups regularly
kept appointments even under adverse weather conditons, and

all returned to the university after the course was over for

 

159

post-training assessment session. There was also written and
verbal evidence from trainees that their experience had been
positive and they had noticed changes both in their knowledge
of counseling theory and their ability to counsel. While these
reports are subject to a halo effect, they tend to suggest that
supervisors and teachers both communicated their enthusiasm
and interest to trainees regardless of the type of training
offered.

Another possible bias effect may be an increase in
trainee motivation due to the novelty of the IPR treatment.
An attempt was made in the design of the study to minimize
this effect by reversing the training sequences so both groups
received both of the treatments, but in different order. As
a result of this, there were no observable reactions of
feeling ”cheated”. Finally, since neither group knew what to
expect from either of the treatments and had no expectations
concerning the nature of the class, they could not gauge
whether or not they were being deprived of a particular training
experience.

Another question can be raised concerning the impact of
a "captured”, heterogeneous sample. All the trainees were
enrolled in the course Procedures in Counseling for credit,
came from varying fields within psychology and education, and
were at varying stages of education, experience, and ability.
Further, there may have been a number of individuals who were

in the class simply to fulfill a departmental requirement for

 

160

a particular degree, and were unmotivated and uncommitted to the
training tasks. The notion of the "captured" sample may
explain the variability of scores and could possibly account

for the variance in the amount of gain between the trainees

(as seen, for example on the ASS), where the training may have
had less impact on some of the less-motivated students. While
this could undoubtedly affect their performance on the criterion
measures, it was felt that the random assignment of individuals
to one group or another served to distribute these differences
evenly over the two groups.

A number of questions may be raised about the procedures
used to measure pre, mid, and post treatment interview be-
haviors. One question centers around the adequacy of judges'
ratings of a single portion of an interview for making judg-
ments about a counselor's behavior. While there is no de-
finite answer to this question, Hart (1961) found that a four-
minute interview segment is as reliable a sample unit for
rating a counselor's behavior as any other time unit. In
the present study, a twenty response segment of the interview
was used, which represented from 8-10 minutes of a 15 minute
interview. The results of the validity study of the CVRS
in which four minute interview segments were rated indicated
that differences in counselor's interview behavior were
observable within time segments shorter than those used to

obtain the current results.

 

161

Another question concerns the use of coached clients
and a role play interview condition for obtaining samples of
trainee interview behaviors. It is quite possible that a
counselor could ”look good” with an extremely verbal, moti-
vated sensitive client and might experience difficulty with
a more reluctant client. In the present study, each coached
client was interviewed by two trainees from each group with
clients being randomly assigned to trainees, to offset this
possibility. Further, the trainees interviewed the same
client on each of three occasions (pre, mid, post), so they
would be compared on the same stimulus. While these questions
also hold true for the role-play condition, trainees "took
turns” counseling each other during each of the three assess-
ment sessions, and it was expected that the problem of client
"difficulty” or "cooperation” was randomly Spread out over
the entire class.

Another question might be raised regarding the general-
izability of results obtained on coached client and role play
interviews to interviews with real clients. It should be
pointed out that none of the counselor candidates in the pre-
sent study had as yet taken the formal practicum experience
and it could not be assumed that some of them had a supervised
experience elsewhere comparable to that offered at Michigan
State University. Because of this, and because it might be

considered unethical to have clients interviewed by a counselor

 

162

who might very well have a deleterious effect on the client,
the use of real clients was ruled out. Since neophyte coun-
selors do not or ethically should not be interviewing real
clients at that level of training, there may be little justi-
fication in obtaining their behavior on a real client. How-
ever, since an in-interview sample was needed to assess
trainee growth and development, it was concluded that the two
interview situations used in the present study constituted a
viable alternative to the use of real clients.

In looking at the growth curves in Figures 4.3 and 4.4,
one may be led to postulate that the decrease on the four
subscales of the CVRS for group 1 (Mid to Pre) after IPR
training may be due to forgetting or a lack of permanence of
the behavior changes. It should be pointed out that group 2
also decreased on the four subscales of the CVRS during the
time they received the traditional classroom training (Pre to
Mid on the role play condition), leading to the speculation
that impersonal nature of the classroom situation (compared
with the experimental treatment) may have actually detracted
from the trainees' learning to respond facilitatively in inter-
personal situations. Indeed, it would be interesting to
speculate about the possible effect of going from IPR train-
ing directly into a supervised practicum.

Finally, a question may be raised about having trainees
"practice" counseling behaviors which the criterion instruments

are designed to measure. It is important to point out that the

163

criterion measures used in the present study are not static,
narrow and specific but are dynamic and complex in nature and
cannot be learned by rote. Growth on these scales involves

a dynamic integration of perceptual and behavioral components
so that changes on these scales reflect not only changes in
perceptiveness but also changes in basic interview style.

In summary, then, the differences observed in the
behaviors of counselors in the two treatment groups (signifi-
cant at .05 level) strongly suggest that the sequential
pattern of developmental tasks using IPR in this study is

a viable and effective means of training counselors.
Implications

A discussion of some of the clinical observations of
trainees during the treatment tasks may help not only to ex-
plain the data (these clinical observations may help explain
why the video procedures were more effective than the tradi-
tional classroom training approach in changing a counselor's
interview behavior) but may also serve to develop the implica-

tions of this study for counselor education and future research.

Clinical Observations

In most instances, counselor educators, when devising
a curriculum for training counselors have usually insisted
that counselor candidates build a strong theoretical framework

for understanding the counseling process before they are

164

allowed to have practicum, fieldwork, and internship experiences.
It is not until trainees reach the practicum that they must
make the transition from theory to practice. In a sense,
then, the IPR curriculum devised for the present study differs
from the traditional curriculum in that the developmental
tasks using IPR begin to provide this bridge between theory
and practice before the practicum. (The class in this study
consisted exclusively of students who had not yet had a formal
counseling practicum). In order to bridge this gap, it was
decided that trainees should be presented with an experience
designed to begin to teach them to recognize, understand, and
have a "working” knowledge of the various elements which com-
prise the counseling process, imbedded in an experiential
context to give them a first-hand encounter with the process.
For all trainees, the initial session (during which
time they were assessed on the ASS, interviewed a coached
client, and role-played) served to create an overall "attitude"
that this course would involve actual interview and counseling
situations as well as separate traditional theoretical presen-
tations and discussions. After the initial coached client and
role-play interviews a number of trainees were moved to indi-
cate that they felt inadequate in the interview situation and
did not know how to approach the clients. In a sense, then,
this initial session served to ”prime" the trainees for the IPR

experience.

165

In the first stage, trainees were exposed to situations
which were designed to focus them on their own thoughts,
feelings, and reactions to planned threatening situations
(Affect Simulation Films).l This task was first for a number
of reasons, and the assumptions underlying these reasons seemed
to be borne out as their training progressed. It was posited
that by focusing trainees on their own thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors, they would be encouraged to express and deal
with the feelings, fears, and expectations they experienced
while watching the filmed interpersonal encounters. Trainee
after trainee began to describe his own discomforts in
interpersonal situations. The initial thoughts, anxieties,
and fears trainees had about interview situations were also
brought into awareness. They were frequently concerned about
the impression they would make on a client, if they would
appear adequate, and could they really be of help to clients.
The expression of underlying thoughts and feelings seemed to
help the trainees identify and explore the locus of some of
their discomforts early in the training process. Further, by
helping trainees deal with their concerns at the outset, it

was possible to begin early to build on these experiences,

 

At the beginning of this phase, a number of supervisors
sat in while the group saw the Affect Simulation Films. A
number of group members indicated that this made them feel un-
comfortable; subsequently, no "extra" supervisors (outside of
the group leaders) were present during training procedures.

166
helping trainees learn to use their thoughts and feelings to
establish and maintain relationships with clients rather than
be constricted by them. Finally, by helping trainees draw on
their own experiences, they began to more accurately understand
how clients might be reacting, carrying over to the next stage
of training. In the second stage of training, counselors
began to recognize and understand client communications.
While they began to use some of their own experiences and
resources (thoughts, feelings and reactions to the role play
clients), and increased their ability to understand client
communications, they still seemed a bit reluctant (or unable)
to share their perceptions with clients.

In stage three, the trainees were taught about specific
dimensions of effective counselor/client communication and
were shown a videotaped interview of what was expected of
them in terms of these effective communication behaviors in
counseling. This presentation seemed to tie the previous two
experiences together by providing trainees with a focal point
around which they could organize the experiences they had during
the first two stages.

In the final stage, trainees were again placed in
interview situations which were videotaped. This time, stimu-
lated videotape recalls (counselor and mutual) were conducted,
with the trainees watching their interview behaviors and dis-
cussing these behaviors and their reactions to them. During

the counselor recall, the supervisor attempted to focus the

167

trainees on identifying the meanings of their own behaviors and
their effects on the client and on the underlying meanings and
implications of client behaviors. By drawing on the trainees'
own thoughts and feelings on viewing the videotape replay, the
supervisor encouraged the trainees to express and deal with
their feelings, fears, and expectations during the counseling
interviews. For example, counselors frequently noted their
preoccupation with themselves, rather than with their clients.
It seemed possible that this exploration in the interpersonal
context helped the trainees overcome this preoccupation,
"opening" them to receive a greater amount of client communi-
cation. This further enabled the trainees to pay attention and
thus learn more about clients - to achieve a greater awareness
and understanding of the underlying implications of the
clients verbal and non-verbal behaviors. Frequently, counselors
commented during recall that "I backed off from that subject
because it was touchy and I didn't want to turn him (client)
away,” and "I didn't want to hurt him (client) because he
might reject me." At times, trainees would recall that "I
didn't know what he (client) was reacting to", and "I didn't
know what to do in that situation", while almost in the same
breath displaying considerable insight into the nature of the
client's concerns. It often seemed that the trainees were

afraid to act on their own perceptions for fear of taking a

168

risk and being proven wrong or inaccurate. During the mutual
recall phase, both the client and counselor were present during
the stimulated videotape recall, and they were encouraged to
share their thoughts and feelings with each other (as they had
previously done in counselor recall with the supervisor),
permitting them to learn how to relate to each other about the
ongoing impact each had on the other. During this phase, the
trainees seemed able, often for the first time, to look at
their relationship, to become aware of the mutual impact

each had on the other, and came to recognize and to talk to
each other about some of the difficulties they had in their
"here and now” interpersonal communication.

An answer to the question ”What caused trainees to
change?" can now be speculated. As training progressed, and
as counselors became involved in the interviews and recall
sessions, it seemed that they began to realize that their
perceptions could be in fact surprisingly accurate. When
trainees saw that clients wondered how much they might dis-
close without meeting rejection or misunderstanding from the
counselor, the trainees may have themselves begun to under-
stand their own fears of rejection, and they could interact
with their clients without meeting. They also seemed to learn
that clients were not as fragile as the trainees had expected

them to be.

169

Viewing the recall sessions seemed to increase the
trainees' awareness of the entire communication process during
the interview. At the beginning, trainees focused almost
entirely on the most overt, surface verbal and nonverbal dimen-
sions of behavior. At the end of training, counselors were
starting to recognize the deeper meanings and implications of
both the clients and their own verbal and nonverbal behaviors.
They noted instances of the looks of boredom as a client
rambled on, their physically pulling back or moving forward
when certain areas were discussed, and instances of discom-
fort (fidgeting) during the interviews. These observations
suggest that the focus on trainee dynamics, client dynamics,
and the bilateral nature of the counseling relationship (coun-
selor and mutual recall sessions) increased the trainees'
awareness of a greater amount of client communication, began
to sensitize trainees to their own dynamics during the coun-
seling sessions, and began to make them more aware of the
mutual impact and two way communication between counselor and
client which occurred in counseling.

Finally, while some of the trainees may have been aware
of counseling theory previous to this course most had little
previous coursework and they often had little or no knowledge
of actual counseling practice. The elements of counseling
discussed in stage three seemed to be basic dimensions of the

counseling process, and helped give trainees a model of effective

170

interpersonal communication, making them more aware of the
behavioral correlates of effective practice.

An analysis of clinical observations may also help in
understanding why some criteria measures failed to show dif-
ferences between the groups or seemed inconclusive. There was
a lack of significant change between the groups in the level
of effectiveness for accurate empathy (EUS) over every train-
ing segment and over the full sequence of treatments. There
were inconclusive results on the affective subscale of the CVRS
(in the coached client condition, there was no difference
between the two groups on this subscale; in the role play con-
dition, there was a significant difference), and on the ASS
(although significant gains were made within the group re-
ceiving the IPR training, there were no differences between
the groups).

During the IPR training, counselors seemed to realize
that their perceptions could be accurate and often could be
used to help them identify what clients were concerned about
and experiencing. Further, trainees appeared to more accur-
ately identify both verbal and nonverbal behaviors of both
themselves and clients. Trainees were able to make more
affective, understanding, specific, and exploratory "kinds"

of responses after training, and there appeared to be a tendency

for IPR training to increase the trainees' ability to recognize

verbal and nonverbal communications; however, there was little

171

or no change noted in the level of effectiveness for

accurate empathy (EUS) which was still far below the so-
called "minimally facilitative" level (level 3). This leads
to the speculation, based on observation, that while trainees
may have been able to gain in ability to recognize and dis-
criminate affective states in clients, they were not yet

able to use these discriminations to communicate with clients
at at least the same level that clients were experiencing

the feelings. Trainees seemed to have learned to help

clients understand, specify, and explore the cognitive but

not necessarily the affective components of their concerns
(i.e. - trainees may have sharpened their ability to commun-
icate cognitively but not necessarily affectively with clients).
This was borne out by the many trainee comments which re-
flected that they were often able to "feel" what the client
was feeling and experiencing, but were as yet unable to
communicate and share this understanding with clients. There-
fore, while there may be little question that the training
procedures increased the incidence of affective, understanding,
specific and exploratory responses in trainees' interview
behavior, four weeks (approximately 20 hours) is not enough

to significantly increase the level of a counselor candidates
ability to communicate in an accurately empathic, facilitative
way with clients. These neophyte counselors seemed to have

many fears and questions concerning their adequacy as a counselor

172

and felt quite uncomfortable approaching anxiety situations.
Because these beginning counselors often were preoccupied
with their own feelings and thoughts, they may have been
quite closed to receiving client communications, and it may
take considerably more than four weeks to enable them to
fully understand and resolve some of their fears and anxieties.
Until they can become more aware of the meanings and impli-
cations of their own behaviors, they may not be "freed-up"
enough to respond in an accurately empathic, facilitative
way with clients. This lends further credence to the belief
(Chapters I and II) that self-awareness and understanding
are important ingredients for the developing counselor to
achieve.

In essence, clinical observations tend to support the
assumption that the developmental tasks using IPR have a
positive impact on subsequent (ne0phyte) counselor behavior.
The impact of the use of simulation materials, videotaped
playback and recall, and discussion of elements of effective
communication behaviors in counseling seemed to create an
atmosphere in which trainees were able to change. The
series of structured developmental tasks seemed to provide
experiential learning situations in which trainees were
able to develop a number of basic counseling skills. The
treatment was clearly more effective than the traditional

classroom methods for training counselors; however, certainly

173

more is needed than a four week experience to reach effec-

tive levels of functioning.

o o s or a' i

In view of the changes in counselor behavior as a result
of IPR training and the significant differences between
these changes and the changes observed as a result of tradi-
tional classroom learning, it is assumed that the IPR pro-
cedures are a potentially important tool for use in programs
of counselor training. The data presented in Chapter IV, in
addition to being statistically significant, are meaningful
when the interview behaviors are compared with that of
counselors at various levels of training and experience.

Finally, these changes should be considered in light of the
brevity of the training sequences (two four-week training pro-
grams).

The results of this study seem to thus have implications
for counselor education. Many programs of counselor education
rest on the assumption that a body of counseling theory exists which
the counselor candidates must learn prior to and counseling prac-

ticum work. The possibility of placing IPR procedures early in

graduate training programs is suggested by the findings of

174

this study. The data presented suggest that the learning
of effective interpersonal communication skills may not
depend on first learning counseling theory per se. During
IPR training, both groups gained in mean number of responses
on each of the subscales of the CVRS under both interview
conditions; during traditional training, the groups did not.
It can be argued that if the goal of counselor education is
to train counselors to be able to respond facilitatively in
interpersonal situations, it should follow that training
procedures should be used which are most directly relevant
and similar to the task itself -- namely practice in inter-
personal situations. In the present study, the IPR proce-
dures increased interpersonal skills in trainees while the
traditional classroom techniques for educating counselors
seemed to contribute little to this goal. The possibility
exists that if trainees are exposed to an IPR program
offered in conjunction with courses in theory, a bridge
between theory and practice can be made at an early stage
in training. It may also be argued that the longer trainees
receive practical exposure and adequate supervision, the more
likely they are to develop into competent counselors. The
IPR procedures used in the study are practical (it was run
by graduate students) and safe (real clients were not used).
It seemed that much anxiety was generated because

trainees lacked a model of effective counseling behaviors.

175

One possible way of dealing with this might be to incorporate
videoviewing and rating experiences into the training pro-
cedures which serve to prepare counselors for actual client
contact. Trainees might be presented with tapes of coun-
selors rated high, middle, and low on the dimensions of
counselor/client communication. They might also tape their
own interviews and rate them on these dimensions to pro-

vide them with a means of assessing the changes in their

own behaviors.

Another implication for counselor training is suggested
by the data from the CVRS. It is quite possible that the
counselor candidates' patterns of behavior modify and change
as they go through a counselor education program (especially
during the practicum experience). While trainees may first
begin by communicating some degree of understanding, and might
be able to encourage client exploration, it appears that it
is more difficult to respond to the affective components of a
client's communication. If this is so, it seems that
experiences which help trainees become more aware of and
understanding of the affective themes which permeate be-
havior, and which enable trainees to more adequately and
successfully deal with affect in counseling should be in-
cluded early in counselor preparation. If trainees have
difficulty responding to affect, they may also be helped
by involvement in a group or individual counseling exper-

ience and/or individual supervision, in conjunction with

176

the other counselor education experiences. As implemented
in this study, the IPR training experiences did not include
any of the group and individual procedures common in prac-
ticum training, nor did it allow for extensive feedback
from colleagues. If self-understanding is one goal of these
experiences, it seems possible that the design used in this
study could be expanded, using more videotaped confronta-
tions and physiological feedback as a stimulus for personal
exploration.

In retrospect, the questions posed at the beginning
of this chapter regarding the possibility of incorporating
newer techniques into a training model within the financial
and time limitations of an on-going masters level program
can now be answered affirmatively. The IPR training pro-
cedures were run exclusively by advanced graduate students,
and pg faculty time was required. It should also be noted
that in many ways, the results of the present study are more
meaningful than those obtained by Goldberg (1967) and Kagan
gt, al., (1967) since this study was a replication of their
studies and the results of this study were obtained in an
on-going course offered through the university, and not in
a laboratory setting.

It is apparent that although a number of behavioral
changes occurred in the present study over a fairly short
period of time, the brevity of the training program had a

number of inherent disadvantages. For example, the present

177

design might be expanded to include "interrogation" training
and having counselors practice the role of interrogator with
other trainees. This can help trainees learn to communicate
in a more concrete and specific fashion (which is assumed to
help clients differentiate their concerns). Also, in order
to cover all the areas outlined in the present design in the
short period of time allotted, it was necessary to "water-
down" the treatment procedures by limiting the number of
exposures to each task in the sequence. This may have had
the effect of weakening the full impact of each develop-
mental task. In longer periods of time, it would be possible
to build on each of the tasks, progressing to deeper and
more intense levels of discrimination and communication.
This might also make it possible for trainees to develop
at their own particular rates in each particular area.
For example, if a trainee was able to communicate affective-
ly, but had difficulty differentiating client concerns, he
might spend time in exercises which would help him increase
this level of skill. On the other hand, if a trainee
was able to differentiate client concerns, but was unable to
communicate this understanding to a client, a number of
exercises might be undertaken to help the trainee develop
communication skills.

Finally, it is possible that the purposes of each
particular developmental task -- being aware of own feelings

and communications, being aware and understanding of the

178

client's feelings and communication, being aware of and

understanding of the bilateral nature of the counseling pro-

cess, being aware of the elements of effective communication

behaviors in counseling; and being able to communicate

facilitatively -- could be expanded and considered as general

goals to be achieved during counselor preparation.

Implications For Futgre Research

While the results of this study indicate the effective-

ness of IPR as a counselor training technique, a number of

implications for further investigation emerge.

1.

The limitations of time, scheduling and availability
of supervisors resulted in difficulties with train-
ing all the students at the same time, and in the
same sequence. It was necessary to split the class
in half, so that all students would have the Oppor-
tunity to receive the IPR treatment. This had the
effect of dividing the potency of the IPR treat-
ment in half, resulting in the exclusion of a
number of training exercises (e.g. interrogator
training, more counselor and mutual video recall
exposures, more time spent on the elements of
communication in counseling, and the introduction
of physiological feedback techniques) which might

strengthen the design further. Any replication

179

of this study should consider including these

modifications.

With an expanded training model (to include
interrogation training), it may be possible to
select those trainees who made significant gains

in their own training to become supervisors for
subsequent training programs -- in a sense, select-
ing the more advanced and competent students who
had received IPR training to serve as "faculty"

members and run the course.

While trainee progress was accelerated during IPR
training, there was little evidence of whether such
progress resulted in significantly different
behavior in subsequent interviews. A follow-up
study should be undertaken to determine the per-
manence of behavior changes over time. The ques-
tions "Did the curves in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 re-
flect a reaction to classroom experience or would
such curves result over time alone?" and "Would such
trainees now do better if placed directly into a

'regular' practicum.‘ need to be answered.

Because interviews with real clients are more mean-
ingful than interviews under either coached-client

or role play conditions, future research should

180

consider the possibilities of using actual client
contacts. This may help answer the question "Will
clients improve from contact with counselors trained

in this manner?"

The same basic approach should be used with a
different set of supervisors, who should be trained
to use IPR procedures. This would help determine
whether the results were due to the experimental
treatments or to the skill of the supervisors

using the IPR techniques.

The question ”Would faculty members running IPR
get the same results as graduate students running

IPR did?" may need to be answered.

If observations about the efficacy of the sequence
of developmental tasks in training is correct, it
is necessary to determine the relative importance
of each stage of the training procedure on trainee

behavior.

Thus far, the choice of sequence for the develop-
mental tasks has been made on the basis of clinical
intuition. Future research might compare various
sequences to ascertain whether there is a difference
in the order of the tasks and whether it is impor-

tant to delete, expand or add new tasks.

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APPENDICES

.

APPENDIX A

IPR COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE AND MANUAL
FOR TRAINING JUDGES IN USE OF COUNSELOR VERBAL RESPONSE SCALE

The scale was developed as a part of a project
supported by a grant from the U.S. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Ed-
ucation, "Exploration of the Potential Value

of Interpersonal Process Recall Technique (IPR)
for the Study of Selected Educational Problems"
(Project Nos. 7-32-0410-216 and 7-32-0410-270).

IPR Counselor Verbal gesponse Scale

 

The Counselor Verbal Response Scale is an attempt to
describe a counselor's response to client communication in
terms of four dichotomized dimensions: (a) affect-cognitive;
(b) understanding--nonunderstanding; (c) specific--non-
specific; (d) exploratory--nonexploratory. These dimensions
have been selected because they seem to represent aspects
of counselor behavior which seem to make theoretical sense
and contribute to client progress. A fifth dimension--
effect-noneffective-~provides a global rating of the
adequacy of each response which is made independently of
the four descriptive ratings.

The unit for analysis is the verbal interaction between
counselor and client represented by a client statement and
counselor response. A counselor response is rated on each
of the five dimensions of the rating scale, with every client-
counselor interaction being judged independently of preceding
units. In judging an individual response the primary focus
is on describing how the counselor responded to the verbal

and nonverbal elements of the client's communication.

Description of Rating Dimensions
I. Affect--Cognitive Dimension

The affective-cognitive dimension indicates whether a
counselor's reSponse refers to any affective component of a

client's communication or concerns itself primarily with the

197

198

cognitive component of that communication.

A. Affective Responses--Affective responses generally
make reference to emotions, feelings, fears, etc. The judge's
rating is solely by the content and/or intent of the coun-
selor's response, regardless of whether it be reflection,
clarification, interpretation. These responses attempt to
maintain the focus on the affective component of a client's
communication. Thus they may:

(1) Refer directly to an explicit or implicit reference to
affect (either verbal or nonverbal) on the part of the
client.

Example: "It sounds like you were really angry at him."

(2) Encourage an expression of affect on the part of the
client.

Example: "How does it make you feel when your parents
argue?"

(3) Approve of an expression of affect on the part of the
client.

Example: "It doesn't hurt to let your feelings out once
in a while, does it?"

(4) Presents a model for the use of affect by the client.

Example: "If somebody treated me like that I'd really
be mad."

Special care must be taken in rating responses which use the
word "feel." For example, in the statement "Do you fepl_that
your student teaching experience is helping you get the idea
of teaching?", the phrase "Do you feel that" really means "do
you think that." Similarly the expression "How are you feel-
ing?" is often used in a matter-of-fact, conversation manner.

Thus, although the verb "to feel" is used in both these examples,

 

2.." A] _‘

199

these statements do pp£_represent responses which would be
judged "affective."

B. Cognitive Responses-~Cognitive responses deal
primarily with the cognitive element of a client's commun-
ication. Frequently such responses seek information of a
factual nature. They generally maintain the interaction on
the cognitive level. Such responses may:

(1) Refer directly to the cognitive component of the client's
statement.

Example: "So then you're thinking about switching your
major to chemistry?"

(2) Seeks further information of a factual nature from the
client.

Example: "What were your grades last term?"

(3) Encourage the client to continue to respond at the
cognitive level.

Example: "How did you get interested in art?"
II. Understanding--Nonunderstanding Dimension
The understanding-nonunderstanding dimension indicates
whether a counselor's response communicates to the client that
the counselor understands or is seeking pp understand the
client's basic communication, thereby encouraging the client
to continue to gain insight into the nature of his concerns.
A. Understanding Responses--Understanding responses
communicate to the client that the counselor understands the
client's communication--the counselor makes appropriate
reference to what the client is expressing or trying to ex-

press both verbally and nonverbally--or the counselor is

200

clearly seeking enough information of either a cognitive or
affective nature to gain such understanding. Such responses:

(1) Directly communicate an understanding of the client's
communication.

Example: "In other words, you really want to be
treated like a man.”

(2) Seek further infonmation from the client in such a way
as to facilitate both the counselor's and the client's
understanding of the basic problems.

 

Example: ”What does being a man mean to you?"

(3) Reinforce or give approval of client communications
which exhibit understanding.

Example: CL: "I guess then when peOple criticize
me, I'm afraid they'll leave me."

CO: "I see you're beginning to make some
connection between your behavior and
your feelings."

B. Nonunderstanding Responses--Nonunderstanding responses
are those in which the counselor fails to understand the
client's basic communication or makes no attempt to obtain
appropriate information from the client. In essence, non-

understanding implies misunderstanding. Such responses:

(1) Communicate misunderstanding of the client's basic
concern.

Example: CL: "When he said that, I just turned red
and clenched my fists.”

CO: "Some people don't say nice things."

(2) Seek information which may be irrelevant to the client's
communication.

Example: CL: "1 seem to have a hard time getting
along with my brothers.”

C0: "Do all your brothers live at home with
you?"

201

(3) Squelch client understanding or move the focus to
another irrelevant area.

Example: CL: "I guess I'ms really afraid that other
people will laugh at me."

CO: "We're the butt of other people's jokes
sometimes."

Example: CL: "Sometimes I really hate my aunt."

CO: "Will things be better when you go to
college?"

 

III. Specific-Nonspecific Dimension

The specific-nonspecific dimension indicates whether
the counselor's reSponse delineates the client's problems
and is central to the client's communication or whether the
response does not specify the client's concern. In essence,
it describes whether the counselor deals with the client's
communication in a general, vague, or peripheral manner, or
"zeros in" on the core of the client's communication. NB: A
response judged to be nonunderstanding must also be non-
specific since it would, by definition, misunderstand the
client's communication and not help the client to delineate
his concerns. ReSponses judged understanding might be
either specific (core) or nonspecific (peripheral) i.e. they
would be peripheral if the counselor conveys only a vague
idea that a problem exists or "flirts" with the idea rather
than helping the client delineate some of the dimensions of
his concerns.

A. Specificygesponses--Specific responses focus on the

core concerns being presented either explicitly or implicitly,

202

verbally or nonverbally, by the client. Such responses:
(1) Delineate more closely the client's basic concerns.

Example: "This vague feeling you have when you get
in tense situations--is it anger or fear?"

(2) Encourage the client to discriminate among stimuli
affecting him.

Example: "Do you feel in all your classes
or only in some classrooms?"

(3) Reward the client for being specific.

Example: CL: "I guess I feel this way most often
with someone who reminds me of my
father."

CO: "So as you put what others say in per-
spective, the whole world doesn't
seem so bad, it's only when someone

you value, like Father, doesn't pay
any attention that you feel hurt."

B. Nonspecific Responses--Nonspecific responses indi-
cate that the counselor is not focusing on the basic concerns
of the client or is not yet able to help the client differ-
entiate among various stimuli. Such responses either miss
the problem area completely (such responses are also non-
understanding) or occur when the counselor is seeking to
understand the client's communication and has been presented
with only vague bits of information about the client's con-
cerns. Thus such reSponses:

(l) Fail to delineate the client's concern and cannot bring
them into sharper focus.

Exapple: "It seems your problem isn't very clear--can
you tell me more about it?”

(2) Completely miss the basic concerns being presented by
the client even though the counselor may ask for specific
details.

 

203

Example: CL: "I've gotten all A's this year and I
still feel lousy."

CO: "What were your grades before then?"

(3) Discourage the client from bringing his concerns into
sharper focus.

Example: "You and your sister argue all the time.
What do other people think of your sister?"

IV. Exploratory--Nonexploratory Dimension

The exploratory--nonexploratory dimension indicates

 

whether a counselor's response permits or encourages the
client to explore his cognitive or affective concerns, or
whether the response limits a client's exploration of these
concerns.

A. Exploratory Responses--Exploratory responses encourage
and permit the client latitude and involvement in his
response. They may focus on relevant aspects of the client's
affective or cognitive concerns but clearly attempt to
encourage further exploration by the client. Such responses
are often Open-ended and/or are delivered in a manner per-
mitting the client freedom and flexibility in response.

These responses:
(1) Encourage the client to explore his own concerns.

Example: Cognitive--"You're not sure what you want
to major in, is that it?"

Affective--"Maybe some of these times you're
getting mad at yourself, what do you think?"

(2) Assist the client to explore by providing him with
possible alternatives designed to increase his range
of responses. ‘

204

Example: Cognitive--"What are some of the other alter-
natives that you have to history as a major?"

Affective--"In these situations do you feel
angry, mad, helpless, or what?"

(3) Reward the client for exploratory behavior.
Example: Cognitive-~"It seems that you've considered
a number of alternatives for a major, that's

good."

Affective--"So you're beginning to wonder if
you always want to be treated like a man."

B. Nonexploratory Responses--Nonexploratory responses
either indicate no understanding of the client's basic
communication, or so structure and limit the client's re-
sponses that they inhibit the exploratory process. These
responses give the client little opportunity to explore, ex-

pand, or express himself freely. Such responses:

(1) Discourage further exploration on the part of the client.

Example: Cognitive--"You want to change your major to
history."

Affective--”You really resent your parents
treating you like a child."

V. Effective--Noneffective Dimension

Ratings on the effective--noneffective dimension may be
made independently of ratings on the other four dimensions
of the scale. This rating is based solely upon the judge's
professional impression of the appropriateness of the coun-
selor's reSponses, that is how adequately does the coun-
selor's response deal with the client's verbal and nonverbal

communication. This rating is not dependent on whether the

!F"

205

response has been judged affective--cognitive, etc.

A rating of 4 indicates that the judge considers this
response among the most appropriate possible in the given
situation while a 3 indicates that the response is appro-
priate but not among the best. A rating of 2 indicates a
neutral response which neither measurably affects client
progress nor inhibits it, while a rating of 1 indicates a
response which not only lacks basic understanding of the
client's concerns but which in effect may be detrimental to

the specified goals of client growth.

206

Manual For Training Judges Ip.Use Q£_Counselor
Verbal Response Scale

 

This manual is intended to standarize procedures for
use of the IPR Counselor Verbal Response Scale in the judging
of either video or audio tapes and to provide some guide-

lines in the training of judges in the use of the scale.

I. What is a scorable response?

Scorable responses include words, phrases, or sentences
used by the counselor which interrupt the flow and momentum
of client communication or which are in direct response to a
client's statement. Although such responses normally occur
at the conclusion of a client's communication, there are
times when a counselor will deliberately interrupt a client's
statement. In either case, such counselor statements are
treated as scorable responses.

Responses which are part of a counselor's unconscious
mannerisms, and do not interrupt the flow and momentum of
client communication, e.g., "Umm," "Okay," "Hmm," ”Yes," and
"I see" are not scored. Responses such as ”continue" and
"go on" are scorable reSponses. In essence, they urge and
encourage the client to continue with his flow of communica-
tion and reinforce the client's pattern of communication.

There are times when counselors make two distinct re-
sponses to a single client communication, these responses

normally being separated by a pause:

207

Example: CL: ”It's good to get rounded especially if
I decided to teach which you really
can't decide until you get into college,
I guess."
CO: "Kind of hard to figure things out,
isn't it?" "Do you think student
teaching is helping you get the feel
of teaching?"
In this case, there are clearly two reSponses differing in
nature which must be scored separately to accurately evaluate
the counselor. There are other instances in which there is
a clear shift in the content of the counselor's response
without a distinct pause. In such cases, as in the pro-
ceeding example, counselor statements are treated as two
separate responses and are scored individually. N.B.: Each

scorable counselor response must be rated on each of the five

dimensions of the scale.

11. How pany reSppnses are scored?

For purposes of accurate evaluation, twenty consecu-
tive counselor responses are scored from each counseling
session rated. These responses should be drawn from the
middle portions of a counseling session, avoiding both the
beginning and the terminating segments of the interview.
Judges should, however, be given an opportunity ot listen to
a few responses prior to the start of judging so that they
may become acclimated to the voices and pace of both client
and counselor, and may gain some familiarity with the

general tone of the interview.

208

III. When is ratinggdone?
Each response is rated at the conclusion of the coun-
selor's statement (word or phrase). The tape (audio or
video) should be stOpped after each scorable counselor re-
sponse and scoring should be completed by all judges prior
to the playing of the next unit. As judges become more
comfortable with the use of the scale, they should require
no more than thirty seconds for the scoring of each response.
As in all judging procedures, it is desirable that communi-
cation among judges be minimized during the rating session.
Thus, judges should be so placed that, while they have adequate
view of the video monitor or can clearly hear the audio tape,

there is a minimum of contact among judges.

IV. How are judges trained?

It is important that adequate time be given to the
training of judges. The success of any evaluation of this
sort depends upon the agreement reached by the judges in
defining the dimensions of the scale. Training must involve
actual rating of practice tapes. The number of tapes used
will, of course, depend on the needs of the judges. However,
the tapes used should represent a variety of counseling
interviews, i.e., experienced, inexperienced or beginning, etc.

During training, discussion should follow the rating of
each counselor response (obviously in the later stages of
training, this is not as crucial and a group of responses may

be rated before discussion occurs) until agreement about

209

interpretation of the dimensions of the scale is reached.
Prior to the actual rating, judges should again go over the
definitions of the five dimensions to insure complete under-

standing.

V. How much timeidoes rpginggrequire?

It has been found that at least one hour is required for
the rating of two audio tapes. It is clear that more time
would be involved in the rating of video tapes due to the time
required for changing tape. These time allowances should
be noted prior to establishing a rating session.*

It has also been our experience that approximately
three hours is necessary for adequate training of judges

and discussion of the definitions of the five dimensions.

General Questions:

The most frequent question which occurs centers about
whether responses can be judged independently of prior
content in the interview. The intent of this scale is to
focus primarily on a single client communication and coun-
selor reSponse. It is obvious, however, that many counselor
responses take into account material which has been elicited

in prior portions of the interview. Most interviews also

 

*Care should be taken in scheduling rating sessions so
that judges are not required to rate too many tapes at any
one session. If this is allowed to occur, judges may
acquire a "set" which will affect later ratings.

210

present a general theme within which individual interactions

occur. The judge must clearly be aware of this larger frame-

work in making his rating. However, the emphasis still

remains on the individual response to a client communication.
In this context, it is important to note that ratings

of responses take into account the appropriateness of the

response at a given moment in time. For instance, while a

response may be specific in the early portions of the inter-

view, the same reSponse coming later in the interview may

not only be nonspecific, but also inappropriate in moving

the client to a further understanding of his own concerns.

To this extent, the unfolding theme and the appropriate

timing of responses must be considered by the judge in making

his rating.

 

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211

APPENDIX B

EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING IN
INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES SCALE

Empathic Understanding in,1nte;persona1 Processes
A_Scale For Measurement

 

Robert R. Carkhuff
State University of New York at Buffalo
Level 1
The verbal and behavioral expressions of the first person either
pp_not attend £p_or detract significantly from the verbal and
behavioral expressions of the second person(s) in that they
communicate significantly less of the second person's feel-

ings than the second person has communicated himself.

Examples: The first person communicates no awareness of even
the most obvious, expressed surface feelings of
the second person. The first person may be bored
or disinterested or simply operating from a pre-
conceived frame of reference which totally ex-

cludes that of the other person(s).

In summary, the first person does everything but express
that he is listening, understanding or being sensitive to
even feelings of the other person in such a way as to detract

significantly from the communications of the second person.

Level 2

While the first person responds to the expressed feelings of
the second person(s), he does so in such a way that he pup;
tracts noticeable affect from the communications of the

second person.

213

214

Examples: The first person may communicate some awareness
of obvious surface feelings of the second person
but his communications drain off a level of the
affect and distort the level of meaning. The
first person may communicate his own ideas of
what may be going on but these are not congruent

with the expressions of the second person.

In summary, the first person tends to respond to other than

what the second person is expressing or indicating.

Level 3

The expressions of the first person in response to the ex-
pressed feelings of the second person(s) are essentially
interchangeable with those of the second person in that

they express essentially the same affect and meaning.

Example: The first person reSponds with accurate under-
standing of the surface feelings of the second
person but may not respond to or may misinterpret

the deeper feelings.

The summary, the first person is responding so as to neither
subtract from nor add to the expressions of the second
person; but he does not respond accurately to how that

person really feels beneath the surface feelings. Level

3 constitutes the minimal level of facilitative interpersonal

functioning.

215

Level 4

The responses of the first person add noticeably to the
expressions of the second person(s) in such a way as to
express feelings a level deeper than the second person was

able to express himself.

Example: The facilitator communicates his understanding of
the second person at a level deeper than they were
expressed, and thus enables the second person to
experience and/or express feelings which he was

unable to express previously.

In summary, the facilitator's responses add deeper feeling

and meaning to the expressions of the second person.

Level 5

The first person's responses ugg_significantly to the feeling
and meaning of the expressions of the second person(s) in
such a way as to (l) accurately express feelings levels be-
low what the person himself was able to express or (2) in

the event of ongoing deep self-exploration on the second

person's part to be fully with him in his deepest moments.

Examples: The facilitator responds with accuracy to all of
the person's deeper as well as surface feelings.
He is "together" with the second person or "tuned
in" on his wavelength. The facilitator and the
other person might proceed together to explore

previously unexplored areas of human existence.

216

In summary, the facilitator is responding with a full aware-
ness of who the other person is and a comprehensive and

accurate empathic understanding of his most deep feelings.

APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTION OF ROLE, FUNCTION AND TRAINING
OF INTERROGATION

Interrogation

We believe that basic to obtaining significant data and
learning from video recall is the introduction of a third
person into the counselor - client relationship who conducts
the videotape recall sessions for either or both of the

participants.

Role and Functgg;

The third person's function is to facilitate a self-
analysis by the client of his underlying thoughts, feelings,
images, expectations and his general pattern of interaction
with the counselor--it is not to establish another relation-
ship like the one being reviewed. The interrogator avoids
establishing another counselor-client focused on the feelings
or the content of the original relationship. He helps the
client relive the original experience and talks only about
what transpired then. He reminds the subject of the task to
keep him from straying and especially to keep him from
focusing his attention on the interrogator. The subject needs
to be encouraged to pay attention to the T.V. monitor as
much as possible and to the third person as little as possible.
The questions the interrogator asks are very brief to keep
the client focused on the T.V. monitor. Although clinical
skill is needed by the interrogator to help the client re-

cognize his underlying feelings, the third person needs to

218

219

structure carefully his relationship and act more like a
clinical interrogator than like a counselor or a therapist--
in fact, because this third person in the counseling dyad
must delimit his clinical function to actively probing the
immediate past, we chose to name "interrogator" to describe
his role.

The interrogator is not as concerned as the counselor
with the ppppl_dynamics of the client but rather with teach-
ing the client how to interrogate himself and how to gain
insight through the "self-confronting" experience afforded
by the videotape. No attempt is made to relate the recalled
thoughts and feelings to the client's life in general. Only
the relationship on videotape is studied, although major
elements of the dynamics within that relationship p£e_sought
(thus the interrogator usually encourages the client to deal
with basic recurring or persistent fears, aspirations etc.,
rather than spend much of the interrogation session focusing
in on one or two responses or gestures about which the client
might choose to be extremely verbal).

Whereas the counselor may allow the client more freedom
to ”set the pace" in the investigation of areas of client
concern, the interrogator tends actively to "push" the client
for greater clarity in describing and understanding specific
behaviors. Since the interrogator has the videotaped

behavior, he may choose to examine any client response by

220

asking the client to stop the playback and to elaborate on
the meaning of a piece of behavior the interrogator con-
siders important.
Interrogation can be a learning situation where the
client comes to be intensely aware of his own behavior
and personal idiosyncracies. The more he examines himself
in interaction with the counselor, the more he may consciously
choose to alter or redirect his behavior with the counselor
and with others. It is the interrogator's function to
create within the client this "intense awareness of his own
behavior" in one relationship, and it is the counseling
relationship within the IPR process that uses that ”awareness"
to help the client enter a new relationship with the counselor
and to promote client growth in his total life situation.
Client involvement in the interrogation process develops

around:

1. The client's feelings: their origin and develop-
ment within the interview.

2. The client's thoughts: their origin and deve10p-
ment within the interview.

3. The way the client sees himself. The things he
likes, dislikes and fears about himself.

4. The way the client would like the counselor to
see him.

5. The way the client believes the counselor actually
does see him.

Thus the interaction between interrogator and client
is structured to enable the client to become aware of his

behavior in relating to the counselor.

221

Training Interrogators

Generally, prospective interrogators are recruited from
among competent clinicians. They are given the following
experiences: First, after the rationale, function and tech-
niques of interrogation are explained, various videotaped
interviews are played. The interrogator is asked to identify
places in the interview where he might encourage a subject
to stop (assuming that the subject did not stop at those
points by himself). He is asked to explain why he chose to
stop at that point and what he might ask the subject at that
point. Efforts are made to develop the trainee's sensitivity
to Specific cues which assist the interrogator in recognizing
verbal and nonverbal communication which might be effectively
used in the interrogation session. They are taught that:
abrupt shifts in theme during the interview; shifts in body
posture; changes in voice level, tone or pace; use of
vocabulary which describes intense affect; changes in visual
focus (espeically glances at the counselor after the client
has made a statement); instances in which either person
clearly misinterpreted the other or appeared to not hear the
other; possible use of metaphoric communication (e.g., "my
counselor at school gets me angry"); inappropriate affect,
such as a laugh following a serious comment; and similar
cues may be indicative of heightened underlying emotionality

and so are often productive times to stop the playback.

222

Next, each interrogator-trainee is shown films and video-
tapes demonstrating various interrogation sessions. He is
encouraged to critique the tapes. He is then videotaped in
a counseling session with a client of his own and is inter-
rogated by one of the IPR staff. After another counseling
session, he is given the Opportunity to watch a member of
the project staff conduct an interrogation with his client.
Finally, the interrogator-trainee is paired with a second
trainee and acts as an interrogator for this trainee's
counseling sessions. They then discuss the interrogation
sessions with one of the project staff. Throughout the
training process, attention is called to the underlying

assumptions of interrogation discussed above.

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE TYPESCRIPT IPR SIMULATION FILMS

IPR Simulation Films

Film Series Title: Rejection A
(Cat. No. 1)

Scene 1

Non-verbal behavior: Actor presents somewhat aloof, contempla-
tive attitude. Sits back in chair, appear-
ing somewhat condescending.

Actor: I don't know that ... well, yeah, I don't suppose we'd
be too unhappy about having you around here, if you
decide you would like to stay with us. Ah, we could
probably fit you in ... I imagine. I don't know that
... No, I don't suppose that would be very much of
an objection. I mean I think we have decided found
out pretty much what you are; and we would not be
altogether unhappy with that. You seem to be the
sort of person we could get along with, so I think
you would be pretty welcome with us.

Scene 2

Non-verbal behavior: Actor still aloof, more condescending,
pompous. He appears to be lecturing,
or "talking down" to the viewer.

Actor: I really don't think that's true. I mean ... I
think that probably you are very wrong in that. I
suppose that you can go right on believing that,
but...

Certainly no one is going to tell you not to think
what you honestly believe, but I think you should
examine some of the things that you believe, because
most of us couldn't bring ourselves to feel that way.
How about it, humm? Well, you think about it ...
You think about it.

Scene 3

Non-verbal behavior: Actor sits back in chair, is extermely
condescending, patronizing.

Actor: You know, I don't very often say this to someone

right across the table, you know. But I am afraid
I don't like you very much! I don't know why it is

224

Scene 4

225

but I just don't like to be around you ... So I,

I wish that in the future you would go see some-

one else. I don't think I can help you at all.

I have such a strange negative reaction to you.

I am sorry! I don't like to feel like this about
anyone. It's just that it upsets me to be around
you, and I don't see any call to be upset. I

am sorry, but there it is.

Non-verbal behavior: Actor is very confrontive, hostile.

Actor:

Scene 5

Bites off words very deliberately.

Well, I've listened; and I don't like your ideas one
damn bit. As a matter of fact, they just about
make me sick. I think it's you -- and people like
you -- that cause most of the stink and the misery
that we have got around us, and I'm just not fond
of it! I hate to see it! And if it weren't for
some of the proprieties of life, I think I'd like
to climb right over this table and punch you

right in the mouth. Now I h0pe that's quite

clear ... (pause) ... As far as I'm concerned you
can just pick up your ideas and your notions and
get right the hell out of here!

Non-verbal behavior: Actor expresses much anger in facial

Actor:

expressions; threatens, shakes fist
at viewer, pushes chair away from
table as if preparing to climb over

it at viewer, pounds table with fists.

Well, you son of a bitch! Somebody ought to just
kick your face right in! Honest to God, I'd just
like to ... Will you get away from me before I
come over there and just clobber the shit out of
you! Now get away! Go on!

APPENDIX E

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP "CURRICULUM"

Description Of Tasks: Experimental Group "Curriculum"
11221;;

Session 1
(1) Introduction (30 minutes)

The initial meeting of the class was a group meeting, in
which a general overview of the course was given and pre-measures

are obtained on all trainees. The whole group was given the

following introduction:

”The purpose of the present course is to attempt
to provide experiences which combines counseling
theory and practical applications of this theory.
Experiences will be offered in both theory of
counseling and actual laboratory participation
with counseling and interviewing, in which each
of you will become familiar with the cognitive
and experiential aSpects of counseling and the
counseling relationship, and learn how to trans-
late these experiences into effective counseling
behaviors. The experiences you will be provided
with have been used at the doctoral level, and
include tasks which are used to train PhD candi-
dates in counseling.

The process of counseling includes counselor
behavior, client behavior, and the dynamic inter-
action that takes place between the two of them.
In order for you as a counselor to be able to
help another person, you must first be able to
indentify what concerns the client; after these
discriminations are made clear to you the
counselor, you must then translate these per-
ceptions and discriminations into behaviors
which will help clients to work through these
concerns.

The structure of the course entails first pre-
senting situations in which you as the trainee
can identify and become sensitive to some of
your own feelings and communications which
occur in your everyday interacting with people.
The purpose of this exercise is to help you

227

228

to be able to begin to recognize that feelings
do influence the behaviors of clients we will
see. We will also be looking at client communi-
cations and feelings closely so as to sharpen
your skills in being able to more clearly and
accurately understand the clients and their
concerns. Because of the two-way communication
that exists between counselor and client, the
counselor must be albe to sort out and recognize
his own feelings, conflicts, and needs from those
of the client; this entails becoming sensitive
to your own feelings, sensitive to client feel-
ings, and aware of the bilateral nature of the

relationship established between you and your
clients.

After you become more sensitive to and aware
of the problem presented by the client, you
must be able to translate these perceptions
and discriminations into effective counseling
and helping behaviors. Experiences focusing
on dimensions of effective/noneffective com-
munication behaviors will be presented and
Opportunities to practice counseling behaviors
will be afforded, using videotaped feedback
for instant analysis of your in-counseling
behaviors. A supervisor will be available to
guide you through an exploration and evalu-
ation of your performances.

Presently, we will now ask you all to become
involved in some tasks designed to help us
identify the points in time during the course
which seem to indicate where the most learning
has taken place. Schedules for the remainder
of the term will now be handed out, with your
individual assignments for this evening and
for the remainder of the term."1

(2) Pre-Measures

(A) Audio tape with Coached Client (15 minutes)

The trainees were instructed that they would
be asked to interview someone three times
during the course of the term (pre, middle,
and post) for the purpose of obtaining a
measure of their interviewing and counseling
behaviors, and to check on the changes that
may occur throughout the term. The whole
group was given the following instructions:

"You will be asked to Spend 15 minutes
interviewing a client we have supplied for

(B)

229

you. Because this is a course in counseling
and interviewing procedures, we are asking
you to do this task so we can monitor any
changes in your interviewing behaviors at
various points in the term.

Your assignment for this task is to
get to know this client. While it is
important to know how they think about them-
selves and different things, we feel it is
more important to know how they feel about
what they are thinking. Therefore, you
should try as best as you can to understand
how the person is feeling. This will help
you to get to know this person better."

An audio tape was made of these interviews for
later analysis.

Audio tape Role Playing_- with fellow trainee (30
minutes)

Two trainees were paired up and assigned to
pre-determined rooms. The rooms contained
two chairs and an audio-tape recorder. The
30 minutes was divided into two 15 minute
parts, with one trainee instructed to be
counselor and the other client for 15 minutes;
after this amount of time elapses, they
reversed roles for the second 15 minutes,
with the trainee who was counselor becoming
client and the trainee who was client now
became counselor. They were given the follow-
ing instructions:

(1) Trainees who are counselors are
given the same instructions for
interviewing the coached client.

(2) Trainees who are clients are told
that:

"You will be asked to talk with
the counselor and you will try to
let him get to know you; you can
talk about something that may be
important to you now, previously,
or that is important to someone
else. Try to let the counselor
know how you feel as well as think
about certain things that are
important to you."

An audio tape was made for later analysis.

230

(C) Affective Sensitivity Scale (60-90 minutes)
The A. S. S. was given to the class as a
whole group, and required between 60-90
minutes to administer. The group was
given the test booklet on which the inn
structions for the scale were printed,
I.B.M. answer sheets were to be marked,
and a #2 pencil.

The class was divided into two groups of 10. Those trainees
in Group 1 were to receive the Experimental treatment (the
develOpmental tasks in discrimination and communication skills
using the I.P.R. technique) for the first half of the term;

Group 2 trainees were to receive the Control treatment (tradi-
tional classroom lectures and presentations) for the first half
of the term. After the mid-point of the course is reached

(Week 6, where middle criterion measures are obtained), the two
groups switched treatments. Group 1 now received the traditional
classroom procedures, and Group 2 now received the developmental

tasks in discrimination and communication skills using the I.P.R.

technique.

Week 2

Session 2A

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to make trainees
aware of and sensitive to their own feelings during
their interpersonal communication.

Description of Task (2A): (1% Hours)

The trainees met as a group and were shown a film designed

to simulate varying degrees of stressful interpersonal situations

231

(Affect Simulation Films). After each vignette (lasting for
approximately 1-2 minutes), the film was stOpped and the train-
ees discussed the feelings and reactions they had to the
vignette. The supervisor gave the group the following intro-

duction to the task:

(1) "We know that the mind works faster than the
voice.

(2) As we talk with peOple and interact with
others, we think of things which are quite
different from the things which we are
talking about; everyone does this, and there
is no need to feel embarrassed or to hesi-
tate to 'own up to it' when it does occur.

(3) We know as we interact with peOple, there
are times when we are annoyed with what
they say, and there are times we like what
they say; there are times when we think
they really understand and there are times
when we feel they have missed the point of
what we were saying or really don't under-
stand what we were feeling or how strongly
we were feeling something.

(4) There are also times when we are concerned
about what the other person is thinking
about us. Sometimes we want the other
person to think about us in ways he may
not be then thinking about us."

The group was now shown a series of vignettes in which an
actor portrayed a particular emotional state (hostility, re-
jection, seduction). The trainees were asked to face the
projection screen and were further by the supervisor:
(5) "The following vignettes include individual
stimulus expressions-expressions by another

individual of feeling and content in dif-
ferent areas. You may conceive of this

232

as simply a person who is sitting across from
you and has something to say to you and you
alone. We would like you to imagine how you
would react, and how you might feel if this
person was talking to you across the table or
room."

After each individual vignette was shown, the supervisor
(acting here as interrogator) stOpped the film and structured

the discussion to involve the trainees to focus on:

(1) What are you thinking about this person?
What does this person think about you?
How and what would you like this person to think of you?
Have you ever thought like this before?

(2) What are you feeling about this situation and person?
What does this person feel about you?
How and what would you like this person to feel about you?
Have you ever felt like this before?

(3) What would you like to do in this situation?
What should you do in this situation?
What will you do in this situation?
What have you typically done is this situation?

Session ZB

 

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to make trainees
more aware of and sensitive to their own feelings
during interpersonal communication.

Description of Task (2B): (1% Hours)

Each trainee spent a 1% hour time block viewing the

Affect Simulation Films individually, and was videotaped as

he viewed the films and reacted to them. Viewing of the

vignettes task approximately 3 hour, with recall of the video-

tape taking approximately 1 hour.

233
The supervisor (in the role of interrogator) structured
the session and recall as he did in the previous group meeting

for Session 2A, and added the following:

(6) "If we ask you pug, how you were thinking
or feeling toward the filmed actor, it
might be very difficult for you to remem-
ber. With the T. V. playback of your
interaction, you will find it possible to
recall these thoughts and feelings in
detail. StOp and start the playback by
means of the switch as often as you
remember your thoughts and feelings. The
recorder is on remote control, so you are
not troubling anyone no matter how often
you stop and start the playback. As you
remember thoughts and feelings, stop the
tape and tell me what they were."

The trainee was again instructed to focus on feelings, thoughts,

and possible actions, with interrogation taking place as the

trainee and interrogator viewed the videotaped replay.
Week 3

Session 3

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to make the trainees
more aware of, sensitive to, and understanding of a
greater amount of client communication. This was
done in groups.

Description of Task: (180 minutes)
The supervisor began by addressing the group about dif-
ferent ways clients can communicate withthe counselor:

"There are different ways that one person
can communicate with another person. We
can talk to each other and hear verbally
what the other is saying. However, some-
times what they are saying may not be what
they are feeling, so we can become confused

234

by what they really mean. Therefore, we can
judge the other persons communications more
accurately if we can more fully understand
the different way their thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are interacting. For example,
what they say may indicate a very strong
feeling, but the tone of their voice may
indicate not reflect any underlying emotion-
ality. They may appear to be very relaxed
postually, and may not appear to be as agi-
tated as they say they feel. Conversely, a
person can talk about strong feelings and
this can be reflected in their tone of voice,
gestures, posture, use of vocabulary, and
the way they generally are responding.

There are, therefore, different dimensions of
communications along verbal and nonverbal
dimensions (posture, gesture, tonal quality of
voice, and how congruous and appropriate the
communications appear to be). These are ways
in which you as a counselor can monitor what
the client is trying to communicate to you.

As we become sensitive to identifying and under-
standing client communications, and role-play
throughout the remainder of the course, try to
keep in mind these dimensions as you learn to
recognize the communications of others."

Two trainees were now asked to role-play (one to play the
counselor and the other to play the client). The client was
given the instructions to talk about themselves, their feelings
or a concern they might have (could be positive or negative).
Because the focus of this task was to become aware of and under-
standing of client communications, the counselor was told to
try to understand the clients concern and feelings.

Role playing was carried on for approximately 5 minutes and

was audio-recorded. After each dyad of role playing was stopped,

the audiotape was rewound and replayed. The group was involved in

235

the recall of the interaction. The tape was stopped as usual
at key points for discussion. A group discussion was then held
under the lead of the supervisor who guided the discussion of
relevant material as the interrogator would by focusing on
feelings, thoughts, and possible actions. The group members
were encouraged to talk about what they thought and felt the
client was communicating or attempting to communicate to the
counselor. The counselor was asked what he thought the client
was feeling and how he arrived at these impressions; the group
was encouraged to share their impressions. Finally, the client
was asked to verify or refute the impressions of the rest of the
group, by telling them what he was thinking and feeling.

The focus of this session was solely on the clietn, his
feelings, thoughts, and reactions. The session ended when all

trainees had a chance to role-play the client.

Week 4

Session 4A

 

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to make the trainees
increasingly aware of the elements of effective
communication behaviors in counseling.

Description of Task (4A): (180 minutes)

Each member of the group was given a copy of the Counselor
Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) developed by Kagan, pg. 31., (1967),
covering the affective/cognitive, understanding/nonunderstanding,
Specific/nonopecific, and exploratory/nonexploratory dimensions

of counselor communications (effective/noneffective dimension

not included), and a cOpy of the Empathic Understanding Scale
(EUS) in Interpersonal Processes developed by Carkhuff (1967).

236

The supervisor and studnnts read each dimension of the
CVRS, one dimension at a time, and discussed how each dimen-
sion could facilitate or inhibit effective communication be-
tween client and counselor. After discussing the dimensions
of the CVRS, the supervisor introduced the 5 levels of Empathic
Understanding Scale (EUS). The CVRS dimensions, it was pointed
out, were ways of determining whether a counselor reSponse was
of a particular type, but did not attempt to measure the
quality of these reSponses. The EUS was introduced to demonstrate
how each counselor response was of a particular type, but did not
attempt to measure the quality of these responses. The EUS was
introduced to demonstrate how each counselor response can add to
or subtract qualitatively from the clients affect, thus Opening
up or closing down channels of communication between counselor
and client.

After the group was given a 15 minute break, the trainees
listened to a pre-recorded training tape made by Cakhuff, in
which client statements were followed by 4 or 5 possible counselor
reSponses. The trainees first rated each counselor response
according to whether it added to (+), subtracted from (-), or
did not add to nore subtract from the clients statement of affect
(0). After practicing this procedure of rating for 3 or 4
counselor responses, the trainees rated the subsequent counselor
responses according to the 5 levels of the EUS, with group

discussions as to why each individual rated as he did.

237

Session 43

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to help trainees
further understand the elements of facilitative
communication behaviors in counseling. The purpose
was four-fold--first, to have trainees practice
rating a model of effective behaviors in counseling,
second, to give trainees experiences at being video-
taped; third, to be able to have firsthand experience
at becoming involved in a counseling relationship;
and fourth, to have the group rate each trainees'
performance to further crystallize and conceptualize
the counseling process in terms of levels of facili-

tation.
Desripgion of Task (4B): (180 minutes)

The first portion of this session, (lasting 1% hours) was
devoted to rating segments of a videotaped counseling session
which had been previously conducted by a PhD Counseling Psycholo-
gist rated high on level of facilitation. (This characterized
effective counseling and served as a model for trainees; the
trainees learned to rate the levels of facilitation and what
constituted a helpful reSponse). This counseling session lasted
approximately 20 minutes in length; the supervisor stopped the
tape after each 3 minute segment. The trainees in the group were
asked individually to rate that particular segment of the inter-
view on the EUS°levels 1-5, and to indicate how such a rating
was arrived at. This task continued until the videotaped
counseling session was completed and rated.

After a 15 minute break by the group, the next portion of
this session began (lasting approximately 1% hours). This was
devoted to having trainees practice establishing relationships

in role playing sitautions using videotape and group discussions.

238

Trainees were paired up and were asked to role-play counselor-
client as previously done during the course of the term. They
were allowed approximately 5 minutes to role play, and this
interaction was videotaped. After this, the tape was rewound

and replayed for the whole group to rate and feedback impressions
of the session to the trainees who role played that particular
session; the tape was stopped after 1/3, 2/3 and all of the

session had passed. This role-playing, group rating and experience
with videotape concluded when all trainees had played the role

of counselor.

Week 5

Session 5

Purpose: The purpose of this session was to enable trainees
to become more sensitive to and aware of the bi-
lateral nature of the counseling relationship and
the mutual impact between counselor and client.

Description of Task 5: (180 minutes)

Two trainees were assigned per session and were paired up
for a 3-hour time block. Two trainees were asked to role-play
the counselor twice and the client twice during the course of
the session. The three-hour block was divided into two parts,
as follows:

Part 1 (90 minutes) Counselor Recall

Trainee #1 wearasked-to-role-play the client and trainee
#2 was asked to role-play the counselor. They were instructed

to enter I.PzR. Suite A and role-play a concern that was real.

The client was told to talk about something he would like help

with:

239

”You have come to this counselor because
you would like to talk about an area of

concern to you. You are asking for assis-
tance."

The counselor was instructed:

"The client has come to you to talk of an
area of concern to him; we want you to
respond to this individual who has come to
you seeking assistance, in helping him to
understand his feelings and work out his
concerns."

The role playing session ran approximately 10 minutes
and was videotaped. After this, the videotape was rewound
and made ready for counselor recall. The interrogator entered
Suite A, the client left the room, and the interrogator struc-
tured the recall (by giving the same instructions as were given
in Session 2). Because the purpose of this portion of the
session was counselor recall, the counselor was focused on be-
coming aware of his influence in the interaction and communica-
tion which has taken place. The client was instructed to simply
observe the videotape replay on the T. V. monitor in the other
room.

The counselor recall lasted for approximately % hour, after
which the two trainees reversed roles (i.e. the trainee who role
played the counselor was nowiinstructed to role play the client
for the next 10 minutes, and vice versa for the other trainee)

to enable both trainees to be recalled as a counselor. The

time allotted for Part 1 of the session is broken down as follows:

240

Part 1 (1% Hours)
1 - first 40 minutes
(a) 10 minute role play
(b) 30 minute counselor recall
trainee #1 . counselor
trainee #2 = client
2 - second 40 minutes
(a) 10 minute role play
(b) 30 minute counselor recall
trainee #1 - client
trainee #2 - counselor
Part 2 (90 minutes) Mutual Recall
The second part of the session focused on a mutual recall
of both counselor and client of a videotaped interview just
conducted between the same two trainees. The two trainees were
assigned to role-play counselor/client as previously done in
Part 1 of the same session, and this was videotaped. The struc-
ture of this portion of the task was the same as Part 1, the
only difference being the substitution of mutual recall for
counselor recall.
The role playing sessions ran approximately 10 minutes
and were videotaped. After the role playing was completed,
the videotape was rewound and made ready for recall. The inter-
rogator entered I.P.R. Suite A with the client remaining in the
room the interrogator structured the recall session as previously
done, focusing on the reciprocal interaction of client and
counselor behaviors as it unfolded in the counseling session
tape.

The interrogator involved the counselor and client to-

gether, encouraging the two trainees to interact with each

 

241

other to share the feelings they had as they role played.
This was done by focusing on areas such as:

l-What was the client feeling?

2-What was the counselor feeling?

3-What would the counselor like to be for the
client?

4-What does the client want the counselor to
be for him?

S-How does the counselor see the client?

6-How does the client want the counselor to
see him?

7-Does the client feel comfortable with the
counselor? Why?

The time allotted for Part 2 of the session is broken down

as follows:
Part g_ (1% Hours)

1 - first 40 minutes
(a) 10 minute role play
(b) 30 minute mutual recall
trainee #1 = counselor
trainee #2 = client

2 - second 40 minutes
(a) 10 minute role play
(b) 30 minute mutual recall

trainee #1 = client
trainee #2 = counselor

Week 6

Session 6
Purpose: The purpose of this session was to obtain middle

measures on each individual on the same criteria,
and using the same procedure, as Session 1.

Weeks 7-10

Experimental Group
Sessions 7-10:

Purposes: Those individuals who were receiving the Con-
trol treatment for Weeks 2-5 (Sessions 2-5)

242

of the traditional classroom lectures now received

the developmental tasks which comprised the Experi-
mental treatment for the first half of the course.
Description of Tasks: (Sessions 2-5, Experimental Treatment)
The description of tasks for this portion of the course

follows the format established for the Experimental Group during

Sessions 2-5.

Week 11

Session 11

Purpose: The pUrpose of this session was to obtain post-
measures on each individual on the same criteria,
and using the same procedures as Session 1.

APPENDIX F

TRAINEE SCHEDULES AND SYLLIBUS FOR
PROCEDURES IN COUNSELING COURSE

TRAINEE: (1-10) Group (1)

WEEK 1 Introduction.Schedules, Measurements
Tuesday evening 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

WEEK 2 Becoming Sensitive To Own Feelings
(1) Tuesday Evening 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250
(2) Two hour-block individually
Erickson Hall, Room 217

 

WEEK 3 Becoming Sensitive To Client Feelings
Tuesday evening 7-10 P.M,
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

WEEK 4 (1) Learning Elements Of Effective Counseling
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250
(2) Practice Elements Of Effective Counseling
Group Two hour block
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

 

WEEK 5 Counselor and Mutual Recall (Bilateral) Counseling
Relationship
Pair for Three hour block
Erickson Hall, Room 217

 

WEEK 6 Measurements
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

WEEKS 7-10 Classroom Discussion Themes
Tuesday evening, 7-10 PJH.
Seminar Room, Bessey Hall, Room 108

WEEK 11 Measurements

Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

244

TRAINEE:

WEEK 1

WEEKS 2-5

WEEK 6

WEEK 7

WEEK 8

WEEK 9

WEEK 10

WEEK 11

245

(ll-20) Group (2)

Introduction Schedules, Measurements
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P;M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

Classroom Discussion Themes
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Seminar Room, Bessey Hall, Room 108

Measurements
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

Becoming Sensitive To Own Feelings
(1) Tuesday Evening 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250
(2) Two hour-block individually
Erickson Hall, Room 217

 

Becoming Sensitive To Client Feelings
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

(1) Learning Elements Of Effective Counseling
Tuesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

(2) Practice Elements Of Effective Counseling
Group Two hour block
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

 

Counselor and Mutual Recall (Bilateral) Counseling
Relationship

Pair for Three hour block

Erickson Hall, Room 217

 

Measurements
TUesday evening, 7-10 P.M.
Group Room, Erickson Hall, Room 250

246

Classrouu_giscussiup.Thempp

Goals of Counseling - Conversation with a Purpose

Theories of Counseling

Vocational Counseling

Test Interpretation

Listening to and Critiquing Tapes

Guest Lecturers

Group Behavioral Counseling

(Socioeconomic) Class Differences in Counseling

8:30-8:45

8:45-10:00

Weeks 1, 6, 11

WEEK. SCHEDQEE

Introduction
Counsel with client
Room 1

Break

Role playing, Rm. 6
8:00-8:15 counselor
8:15-8:30 client
Break

Group scales

Sample Schedule For Critericn Measures

WEEK SCHEDULE

Introduction
Counsel with client
Room 2

Break

Role playing, Rm. 6
8:00-8:15 client
8:15-8:30 counselor
Break

Group scales

APPENDIX C

RATIONALE AND TRAINING FOR COACHED CLIENTS

Coached Clients

A. Rationale
When comparing measures of counselor in-interview be-
haviors over a number of counselors, client differences can
be an important source of variance which must be accounted
for. Ideally, counselors should be compared on the way they
counsel the same individual so that only differences in
counselor skill becomes manifest. In practice, this is un-
feasable and unrealistic. In order to reduce the variance
caused by different clients, measures should be taken on a
standardized stimulus (or as close to this standard stimulus
as possible), so as to minimize the differences caused by
different clients. This approaches the ideal of having each
counselor measured on the same stimulus. The use of coached
clients in counselor education and measurement of counselor
in-interview behavior is a viable and important resource for
simulating counseling experiences and coming close to standard-
izing the client variability. The coached clients can be
taught to behave in a variety of ways which simulated those
experiences the practicing counselor will face.
According to Whiteley and Jakubowski (1969):

"If the coached clients' role is carefully

constructed, it can facilitate the necessary

shift in counselor education and evalua-

tion from what the counselor ip,supposed

£p_pe_in terms of some static trait model

toyfigpfiipepand Mpeisggbehave in

the counseling interview. The counselor

who participates in a coached-client inter-
view is required to demonstrate behavior-

248

249

ally what he would gp_and how he would act

in a counseling situation." (p. 19).
In a very real sense, then, it may be possible that the
simulated experience with the coached client can still main-
tain the aura of an authentic counseling session, where the
counselor is required to behave as facilitatively as possible
to the situation and client concerns.

In addition to providing a simulated counseling situa-
tion, the use of coached clients can help to standardize the
counseling situations. When using coached clients for
research purposes, it is important to have client consis-
tency in terms of behaviors demonstrated in the interviews.
Coached clients should be consistent in the way they each
present themselves over a number of interviews with the same
and different trainees, and for each coached client to be
as similar as possible to each and every other coached
client, to insure that trainee in-interview behaviors are as
comparative as possible.

Because the purpose of the present study was designed
to examine a program of counselor education based on a series
of developmental tasks in discrimination and communication
skills in counseling, one criteria for counselor growth was
the degree to which the counselors were able to display
effective communication behaviors in the interview session.
In view of the purposes of the present study, the role of

the coached client was developed so that clients would

250

receive practice in talking about a variety of personally
relevant areas so that if-the counselor moved into an area
the client would be willing and able to talk about that
area of her life. It was decided that specific, pre-deter-
mined client statements may not appear spontaneous and/or
genuine, may appear awkward for certain individuals, or may
be poorly times in delivery. The coached clients were given
the set to continue to explore themselves in certain pre-
determined areas if_they were encouraged to do so by a
counselor who facilitated exploration (the coached clients
were encouraged, to include as many of the areas that were

rehearsed as possible).

B. Training

Part i, - Introduction to purpose and discussion of desired
behaviors in coached clients:

The coached clients met as a group, and were given the

following introduction to the purpose of their task:

”The purpose of the present study is to
attempt to teach counselors in training
to be more effective counselors. Coun-
selors can become more effective if they
can work towards understanding clients'
thoughts and feelings and how these feel-
ings they have can influence behaviors,
and if they can learn how to communicate
with clients in such a way that explora-
tion of these thoughts and feelings is
made easier and clearer. The purpose of
your role is to serve as a coached client
for these trainees.

251

These trainees will interview you three times
(for the pre, middle, and post measure), and
will be given the instructions to get to
know you, by not only understanding how you
think, but especially how you feel about
yourself and different things. They will

be told to help you explore some of these
feelings you have. Your task is to explore
thoughts and feelings you have, in certain
pre-determined ways, if the counselor en-
courages you to do so."

If the coached clients had any particular concerns, re-
garding the study and how their role fits into the overall
scheme, a recapitulation of the model and the purposes of
the study were in order.

After the coached clients were introduced to the pur-
pose of their task, a discussion was held as to the desired
ways they were to respond. Because the coached clients
were either students or the wives of students (and had re-
cently graduated themselves), a number of areas of concern
were evident which they could all personally relate to and
talk about. Three such areas were chosen: Clients' attitudes
toward and their relationships with their husbands as graduate
students; clients' attitudes toward school and/or work;
clients' attitudes toward campus unrest. The coached clients
were given the following instructions:

"There are different ways that you can com-
municate with others. You can talk about
your thoughts and you can talk about your
feelings regarding these and other thoughts.
While we are attempting to train counselor
candidates to be able to help you talk

about what you are thinking, the main pur-
pose is to get them to help you explore

 

252

your feelings. Therefore we want you to be
able to talk to the counselors about 'feel-
ings' you might have about personally rele-
vant materials. Certain pre-determined

areas of conversation have been selected for
you to talk about. Rather than have you
memorize a pre-determined sentence or dialog,
you will be asked to talk in three areas:

1. your attitudes toward and your relation-
ships with your husbands as graduate
students;

2. your attitudes toward school and/or work;
3. your attitudes toward campus unrest.

You will also be asked to be able to talk
about these areas incorporating various types
of response cues into your conversation.

These will reflect various degrees of emotion,
and include:

1. tentativeness-statements which reflect con-
fusion which attempt to communicate to the
counselor that you are unclear about your
thoughts and feelings, ranging from mildly
unsure (e.g. "I'm not sure how I feel...",
"Perhaps" "I think") to confusion with
possible anxiety correlates (e.g. "I'm
scared, and don't know what's happening",
"I'm not sure and this has me worried").

2. negative affect-statements designed to re-
flect negative feelings that you might
have, ranging from a mildly negative de-
gree (e.g. "I don't really like that",
"Not really") to strong negative affect
(e.g. "I dislike intensely", "I
don't give a damn", "I'm very unhappy with
that").

3. positive affect-statements designed to
reflect positive feelings you might have
ranging from a mildly positive amount
of joy and elation (e.g. "That's O.K.",
"I like ", "It pleases me ___j§
to strong positive affect (e.g. ”I'm
very happy, satisfied ___V, "I really
like "Very nice ").

253

Pap; 2_- Practicing the role of coached client.

This part of training involved practicing the role of
coached client. Two coached clients paired up and one role
played the client, the other the counselor, for approximately
five minutes. The coached client worked on being able to
talk about the pre-determined concerns. Discussion followed
each role playing session, focusing on how authentic and

spontaneous it appeared, and how the coached client might

involve more certain types and degrees of affective state-
ments into their response repertoire. After this, the two
were told to try a few more minutes more, incorporating
some of the comments into their role. They were also
encouraged to practice on their own, rehearsing (vocally
and subvocally) dialogs and making the desired kinds of
responses. This portion continued until all had role played
the client and had gotten feedback on their portrayal.
Pa££_3_- Recapitualtion and Summary of coached client

roles.

This part of training focused on "tying up loose ends”
in the form of answering questions concerning how the role
related to the task of interviewing, and how the coached
clients might continue to practice the roles and types of

Statements which were rehearsed.

APPENDIX H

Intercorrelations Of Gain Scores On The Affective
Sensitivity Scale For Groups 1 And 2 Over
'Intervals 1 And 2

 

Pearson Product Moment Intercorrelations of measures
involved in formation of gain scores (rpre,mid rpre,post)
for each of the treatment groups on the ASS from mid-pre

and post-pre time intervals.

 

 

 

r1 r2
rpre, mid rpre,post
Gro
1up -851 .952
G o
Overall
.828 .879

 

 

 

 

255

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