A STUDY OF THE SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR'S CONSULTANT BEHAVIOR AS IT RELATES T0 CLASSROOM TEACHERS That: for Hm Degree of pin. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNNERSITY Howard. Henry Splete, Jr. 1968 ”"Mww-J mum l . firm-T " . . . ...A .. “1'- . ”I “ .1371 \ I, I" 52', A Ti Y ’ I Michigm State ‘ University 9 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR'S CONSULTANT BEHAVIOR AS IT RELATES TO CLASSROOM TEACHERS , I ~ A». presented by ‘ ‘t ' :‘J S M“ Howard Henry Spleté, Jr. has been accepted towards fulfillment “ of 'the requirements for M Ph. D». degree in Educa‘fion -- 0469 ~ -w.—..— - -A _——o- av-Q-c- m.-u. . ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR'S CONSULTANT BEHAVIOR AS IT RELATES TO CLASSROOM TEACHERS By Howard Henry Splete, Jr. Purpose The primary purpose of this investigation was to identify and describe those significant elementary school counselors' behaviors which are effective and those which are ineffective in providing elementary school teachers, through a consulting relationship, with a better under- standing Of their pupils and themselves in a school setting. Design and Procedure The study's population consisted of 24 elemen- tary school counselors and 103 elementary school teachers who participated in 17 N.D.E.A. pilot elementary school guidance programs in Michigan during the school year, 1966-1967. The research instrument used in this study, the Critical Incident Technique, provided both the main method by which the data were gathered and the general procedure which was followed in analyzing the data. Respondents reported incidents in which the f—‘_ MW‘ '* ‘2‘. Iw’m Howard Henry Splete, Jr. counselor's activities were especially effective or in- effective as he worked in a consulting relationship with teachers to help them better understand either their pupils or themselves. Through use Of mailed CIT report forms, 233 significant incidents (184--effective and 49-- ineffective) were gathered. From these incidents, specific behaviors Of the counselor were identified. §ignificant Findings A total Of 926 significant elements, elementary school counselor behaviors, (766--effective and 160-- ineffective) were found in the incidents. These elements were first combined into 72 refined elements and then grouped into nine significant areas Of behavior. These areas describing the work of the elementary school coun- selor were: Area I--Counselor Contacts with Individual Pupils. Area II--Counselor Contacts with Groups Of Pupils. Area III-—Counselor Observations of Pupils and Teachers. Area IV--Counselor Collection and Analysis Of Pupil Data. Area V--Counselor Administration, Scoring and In- terpretation of Standardized Tests. Area VI--Counselor Contacts with Teachers Regarding Themselves. Howard Henry Splete, Jr. Area VII--Counselor Contacts with Teachers Regarding Pupils. Area VIII--Counselor Contacts with Parents. Area Ix--Counselor Referrals and Conferences. Fourteen research hypotheses related to the responses and personal characteristics of the respondents were tested by use of the analysis of variance statistic. Of the fourteen hypotheses the following two were accepted at the .01 level of confidence: H1 Elementary school teachers will report more effective incidents in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils than in the area Of helping teachers understand themselves. H2 Elementary school counselors will report more effective incidents in the area of help— ing teachers understand their pupils than in the area of helping teachers understand themselves. Conclusions 1. Elementary school teachers accept, as a part of the elementary school counselor's role, the counselor's function Of consulting with teachers for the purpose of helping them better understand their pupils or themselves in a school setting. 2. Both elementary school counselors and elementary Ia Howard Henry Splete, Jr. school teachers perceive the counselor as more effective than ineffective in a consulting relationship with teachers. Elementary school teachers perceive the elementary school counselor, in a consulting relationship, as more involved with the teacher in understanding her pupils than in understanding herself. Elementaryschool counselors perceive the counselor, in a consulting relationship, as more involved with the teacher in understanding her pupils than in under- standing herself. Both elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers perceive the counselor as more effective than ineffective in a consulting relationship with teachers regarding their understanding of pupils. Elementary school teachers perceive the elementary school counselor as more effective than ineffective in a consulting relationship with teachers regarding their understanding of themselves. Elementary school counselors judge themselves more critically than do elementary school teachers re- garding their consultant behavior with teachers. Personal characteristics of elementary school teachers do not significantly influence the way in which they perceive the effectiveness of the elementary school counselor as a consultant to teachers. Howard Henry Splete, Jr. The consulting function of the elementary school counselor consists of many interrelated counselor behaviors. Four general categories of elementary school counselor behavior seem to be important in carrying out the consultant function. These categories are: A. Contacting pupils--individually and in groups. B. Collecting pupil data--by Observation, review Of records, and testing. C. Conferring with teachers--focusing on the teacher and focusing on the pupil. D. Contacting other adults--such as parents, other school staff members, and community agency representatives. A STUDY OF THE SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR'S CONSULTANT BEHAVIOR AS IT RELATES TO CLASSROOM TEACHERS By Howard Henry Splete, Jr. A THESIS Submi tted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1968 ~ «1154* 95. U 5“» f! wfi fl ,a-y j .r. ,-' " E M” ‘3 "" 1’5 F‘" ‘\\" ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I particularly wish to thank Dr. James Costar, my thesis advisor, for his continued encouragement, support and guidance throughout the writing of this dissertation. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Norman Stewart, my doctoral committee chairman, Dr. Fred Vescolani, and Dr. Everett Rogers for their many valuable suggestions and support throughout my graduate program. The writer is also indebted to the Michigan State Department of Education, in the persons of Mr. Earl Borlace and Mr. Maurice Prince who provided helpful information and suggestions regarding this research. The cooperation of the personnel in the participating school districts was greatly appreciated. This study would have been impossible without their assistance. Gratitude is extended to Mr. Harry Groulx and Mrs. Jane Scandary for their constructive comments, advice and support. The writer appreciated the suggestions and advice of Dr. Andrew Porter and Mrs. Natalie Sproull regarding the technical aspects and statistical analysis involved in this study. Last, but by no means least, I owe much to my wife, Marlene, and children, Andrew and Charles, for their understanding and patience during the time required to write this dissertation. ii ‘ —;.. .o ;. ~— 3' TABLE OF CONTENTS ABS TRACT O O I O O O O O C O O O I I I AcKNowLEDGEIENTS O I O O C O I O O C I TABLE OF CON TENTS O O O O C O O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . Introduction . . . A Statement of the Problem Assumptions Upon Which the Bag ed 0 e o o o e o a Analysis of the Data . . . Scope and Limitations of th Definition of Terms . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction . . . . Study e Study is Literature Related to the Critical Incident Technique . . . Background and General Use in Education . . Use Literature Related to the Elementary School Counselor's Behavior as a Consultant to Elementary School Teachers . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . Consultation with Teac Function of the ESC Significance of the Te Elementary School Guidance and Related Consultation iii hers, acher n P-aflo o Page ii H 28 28 29 34 III. DES The ESC-EST Consulting Relationship-- in Theory . . . . . . . . . in Practice . . . . . . . . sumary O C C O C O O O O O O O C O 0 IGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . The Critical Incident Technique Use of the CIT in this Study . . Development Of the CIT Report Form . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection Procedure Pattern of Data Analysis . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Critical Incident Technique Findings Findings Related to the Statistical Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES Summary . . . . . . . Significant Findings Conclusions . . . . . Discussion . . Implications of the Study iv Page 109 118 122 122 124 132 137 144 153 161 Figure Table LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Page Elementary School Counselor Respondent Characteristics . . . . . . . 63 Elementary School Teacher Respondent Characteristics . . . . . . . 64 Sample Data Record Card . . . . . . . . . 81 Page Significant Incidents Reported by Counselors and Teachers . . . . . . . . 9S Percents Of Significant Elements in the Counselor's Behavior as Reported by Counselors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Percents of Significant Elements in the Counselor's Behavior as Reported by TeaChers O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 106 Summary of Significant Elements in the Counselor's Behavior as Reported by Teachers and Counselors . . . . . . . . 107 Analysis of Variance Results for Differences in Effective Incident Responses of ESCs and ESTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Analysis of Variance Results for Differences in Effective Incident Responses of EST Grade Level Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Analysis of Variance Results for Differences in Effective Incident Responses Of EST Age Group, C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 116 Analysis of Variance Results for Differences in Effective Incident Responses of EST Experience Groups . . . 117 V B. C. LIST OF APPENDICES List of Michigan 1966-67 Approved Elementary School NDEA Guidance Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CIT Report Form Cover Letter . . . . . . CIT Report Form . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph of Teacher Grade Level Sub-Groups' Means as Related to Incident Category vi Page 161 162 163 171 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Introduction The field of guidance and counseling has experi- enced a rapid growth in American education since the conclusion of World War II. The role and functions Of the guidance specialist at the secondary school level now appear to be reasonably established, as they are presented in the American School Counselors Association's statement on the role of the secondary school counselor.1 ‘More attention has recently been focused on the identification of the role and functions of the elemen- tary school guidance specialist. Although guidance at the elementary school level2 has long been recognized as being an important part of American education, the 1 . The Role of the Secondar School Counselor, A.P.G.A. PublicatIons Sales, Washington, 0.5., I561. 2For purposes of this study, "elementary school level" will refer to the grades, kindergarten through six. position of an elementary school guidance counselor1 is relatively new. The 1960 White House Conference on Education? seems to have set the stage for the present focus on elementary school guidance and counseling. This con- ference recommended that the services Of counselors be available at the elementary school level. In 1964, Congress followed this recommendation by amending the National Defense Education Act of 1958 to include pro- vision of funds for the training Of elementary school counselors and support Of pilot programs in elementary guidance. These funds were made available under the supervision of state departments of education. State and local groups have also recognized the importance of specialized guidance services at the elementary school level. The Michigan Counselor Educa- tors' Association,3in a January 1966 statement, pointed out the need for further develOpment of guidance services See page 13 for the precise definition of elementary school counselor as used in this study. In general, the term, "elementary school counselor," will refer to a person, regardless of title, who is employed as a full time specialist in the field of guidance at the elementary school level. 2 Children in a Changing World, White House Con- ference on Children and Youth, U.S. Goverment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1960. ‘2 Chairman - Dr. Edward G. Adamek, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan. within the elementary schools. The Michigan State Department of Education, using N.D.E.A. funds has spon— sored pilot elementary guidance programs in twenty- eight school systems throughout the state since 1965. At its present stage of development, the field of elementary school guidance and counseling needs additional appraisal of current elementary school counseling services, including N.D.E.A. sponsored 1have written that for pilot programs. Good and Scates constructive thinking about practical affairs, know- ledge of the existing situation is essential. The need for descriptive studies, regarding what is being done by elementary school counselors, has been voiced by Cottingham.2 He suggests that des- criptive studies might include questions relating to the specific functions provided by guidance personnel to teachers, pupils, administrators and the community. In a more recent article, Cottingham reviews teacher- counselor concerns in the area of elementary guidance. He states "another deficiency is lack of significant research that attempts to examine guidance functions ¥Good, Carter V. and Scates, Douglas 8., Methods of Research, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York, 1 . gCottingham, Harold F., "National—Level Pro- jections for Elementary School Guidance," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 44, pp. 499-502, fianuary, 1966. which can be normally assumed by the classroom teacher, those guidance responsibilities with which she can use some assistance, and those problem areas where referred resources or counselors are needed."1 This study will provide some of the needed information about the current functioning of elementary school counselors, as they work with elementary school teachers. ' It is recognized that the elementary school counselor is performing many and varied functions at this time. Of these services, three appear most fre- quently in discussions of the elementary school coun- selor's role. These are: counseling (individual and group), consulting (with teachers, parents, administra- tors, and other pupil personnel specialists), and coordinating (liaison) school guidance services with other community and school resources. This study will investigate the counselor's consulting function-— specifically that of consulting with elementary school teachers for the purpose of helping them better under- stand their students and themselves within their school setting. The classroom teacher has long been recognized ICottingham, Harold F., "Research Voids in Elementary School Guidance," Elementar School Guidance and CounselingJ Vol. 1, p. 225, June, {967. as a key person in the elementary school guidance pro- gram. Within the classroom, the teacher attempts to facilitate learning and individual student develOpment. In order to achieve these ends it is necessary for the teacher to have a thorough understanding both of her pupils and herself. The elementary school counselor, as a specialist in the field of guidance, can aid the teacher in attaining these important understandings; however, more knowledge is presently needed regarding how this assistance can be effectively given to teachers by an elementary school counselor. Information obtained in this study should be of value in more succinctly describing current practices of the elementary school counselor as they relate to the consulting aspect of his relationship with teachers. Such knowledge will be of value to: l. Practicing school counselors as they work with teachers in performing their present function. 2. All members of elementary school staffs, as they first introduce the use of coun- selors in their schools. 3. College professors, as they develOp pre- paration programs for elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers. 4. Staff members of state departments of education. as they supervise and evaluate elementary school counseling programs. 5. Researchers in the field of elementary school guidance and counseling, as they develop hypotheses for future research. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this investigation is to identify and describe the significant elements in elementary school counselors' consultant behavior, as perceived by elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers, which appear to be effective and those which appear to be ineffective in providing elementary school teachers with a better understanding of their pupils and themselves in a school setting. Assumptions onn Which the Study is Based Basic to this investigation is the assumption that the area of guidance and counseling is of import- ance at the elementary school level. It is recognized that elementary school personnel can and do work to- gether to facilitate the basic aims of elementary guidance--to aid student learning and individual de- velopment. In outlining this research study, several assumptions were made both about elementary school _-":..=.-.’-*;- .. a ~ .l.*.‘~f",.‘£'="9~'M‘psdifiéM--Eimm.dtf '. ' DI' teachers and elementary school counselors and the impor- tance of their interpersonal relationship. It was felt that both the teacher and the guidance specialist have distinct roles to play in an elementary guidance pro- gram and that they can best serve the pupils by working together. It is assumed that teachers, by increasing their understanding of their students and themselves in a school setting, will be better prepared to plan and organize classroom activities for the benefit of indi- vidual pupils. Granted that a better understanding by teachers of their pupils and themselves is of bene- fit to both teachers and students, counselor activities which are significant in the acquisition of such know- ledge should be described and analyzed in considerable detail. Presuming that elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers can relate which counselor activities are of significance in the consulting rela- tionship, the Critical Incident Technique appeared to be a suitable instrument to use in the descriptive part of this study. This technique, as devised by John C. Flanagan of the American Institute for Research and the University of Pittsburgh,elicits descriptions of behaviors considered as critical in carrying out the duties of the position or the relationship under study. This technique is discussed at length in Chapter III. Since consultation is a reciprocal relationship between two peeple, each of whom is an expert in his own field, it is assumed that teachers and counselors might perceive these significant counselor behaviors in different ways. Recognizing this possibility, this study is designed to review the Critical Incident Technique responses from the point of view of: l. The teachers, as one group of respondents. 2. The counselors, as one group of respondents. 3. The teachers and counselors, as a combined group of respondents. It is also assumed that the different character- istics of the respondents themselves might influence their reporting of significant counselor behavior. Selected teacher characteristics, including age, grade level taught, and amount of previous teaching experience, will be examined in relation to their responses in this study. Analysis of the Data The data obtained from the responding elemen- tary school counselors and elementary school teachers will be analyzed by two methods. The first method will be a descriptive reporting of the data following the principles of the Critical Incident Technique. The second method of analysis will involve the testing of research hypotheses using the analysis of variance statistical technique on specific portions of the collected data. The study's main hypotheses presented in this section appear in general form. In Chapter III, related research hypotheses will be stated and presented in testable form. The major hypotheses are: H1 Both elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers perceive the elementary school counselor as more effec- tive than ineffective in the consulting relationship when helping teachers under- stand their pupils. Both elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers perceive the elementary school counselor as more effec- tive than ineffective in the consulting relationship when helping teachers under- stand themselves. Personal characteristics of elementary school teachers are associated with the way in which they perceive the effective- ness of the elementary school counselor - 10 _ as a consultant. Scope and Limitations of the Study This study is limited in its sc0pe. Rather than investigating the elementary school counselor- elementary school teacher associations in a broad or general manner, the study is designed to focus on one specific aspect of these associations, the counselor's behavior as a consultant. Thus, the information to be gathered is requested to be as specific in this respect as possible. The report form is designed with that purpose in mind. It is recognized that students, administrators, parents, and other pupil personnel specialists also have their perceptions of what constitutes effective elementary school counselor behavior in working with elementary school teachers. Though knowledge of these persons' perceptions would be of value, this investi- gation is specifically designed to center on those people most directly involved in this relationship-- the teachers and counselors themselves. Another delimitation was to narrow the scope of this research to include only elementary school teachers and counselors from within the state of Michi- gan. More specifically, the respondents are from school . . ,_ am 11'- _.I «h .. "if-“ME“ '3‘» ~ -.-. ¢.!_ - 11 - systems which were participating in N.D.E.A. elemen- tary school guidance pilot programs under the sponsor- ship of the Michigan State Department of Education during the period extending from September, 1966 to June, 1967. Limitations of this study are found largely in the analysis procedures. The Critical Incident Tech- nique relies on the respondent's ability to satisfac- torily complete the report form. However, researchers who have previously used the Critical Incident Tech- nique found this limitation to be of little consequence. As the report forms will be mailed to the par- ticipating school systems, direct explanation of the instructions cannot be given to each respondent. This fact may also be somewhat limiting. However, the report form and the instructions for filling it out will be pre-tested in two school systems with two separate groups of ten elementary school teachers. Their sug- gestions will be incorporated in the final report forms. In addition to this pre-testing, the respondents will be asked to telephone the investigator for further explanation if necessary. Flanagan states: In situations where the observers are motivated to read the instructions carefully and answer con- scientiously, this technique seems to give results which are not essentially different from those - 12 - obtained by the interview method.1 The capability of the respondents to recall critical actions of the elementary school counselor creates another limitation. To aid the respondents in this regard, they will be asked to report only those significant counselor activities which had occurred within the previous ten months (September, 1966-- June, 1967). The amount of information requested and the time required to complete a report form may discourage some respondents from returning their forms. Thus, the time and energy needed to complete and return the re- port form may be regarded as a limitation. The sug- gestions received from teachers and counselors in the pre-testing of these forms and the suggestions of those having experience in the use of this technique will be used in constructing the report form so that it will be as easy as possible to complete and return. Definition of Terms The following definitions are of important terms related to the respondents in the study and the 1Flanagan, John C., "The Critical Incident Tech- nique," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, p. 343, July, 1954. _ 13 - Critical Incident Technique. Elementary School Counselor (ESC): A person who is employed as a full-time guidance specialist at the elementary school level (grades K-6) in a Michigan N.D.E.A. pilot guidance program during the 1966-67 school year. Elementary School Teacher (EST): A person who is employed as a full-time classroom teacher at the elementary school level (grades K—6). She has had con- tact with an elementary school counselor in a school which is participating in a Michigan N.D.E.A. pilot guidance program during the 1966-67 school year. Respondents: Elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers who completed and returned their report forms. It was assumed that each respondent had sufficient knowledge of their reported incidents to judge the counselor's activities, as they effected the teacher's understanding of her pupils or herself in a school setting. Incident: An event in an elementary school counselor-elementary school teacher association, in which the elementary school counselor attempts to pro- vide the elementary school teacher with a better under- standing of her pupils or herself in the school setting. This will involve the counselor and the teacher, as an -14.. individual or group member. It may take place in an hour, it may consume several weeks from its beginning to its end, or it may not have come to a definite end. Significant Incident: An incident in which, according to the judgment of an elementary school teacher or an elementary school counselor, the counselor's act- ivities had a marked effect, positive or negative, on the teacher's understanding of her pupils or herself, as she works in a school setting. The criteria for naming a significant incident are left to the respon— dent's judgment. If a respondent feels that an inci- dent had a marked effect, it is considered a signifi- cant incident. All incidents in this study are con- sidered significant incidents. Effective Incident: An incident in which, according to the judgment. of the respondent, the counselor's activities had a positive effect which re- sulted in the teacher better understanding her pupils or herself in a school setting. Ineffective Incident: An incident in which, according to the judgment. of the respondent, the coun- selor's activities had no effect or had a negative effect which resulted in the teacher's failure to gain a better understanding of her pupils or herself in a school setting. Element: A constituent part of an incident. An element is one specific activity of an elementary _ 15 - school counselor in an incident. An incident may, and usually will, contain several elements. Significant Elements: Those elements which occur most frequently in significant incidents. They are elementary school counselor activities which, if carried out in a particularly effective or ineffective manner, lead to judgments tw'respondents regarding the effectiveness of the counselor's behaviors. All ele- ments in this study are considered significant elements. Refined Element: An element formulated from a larger number of similar elements. Significant Area: A grouping of related re- fined elements. Overview A frame of reference for the entire study is developed in Chapter I. Included are the introduction, statement of the problem, basic assumptions underlying the study, general research hypotheses, scOpe and limita- tions of the study, and definitions of important terms. In Chapter II, a review of the related litera- ture is presented. This includes previous educational research which used the Critical Incident Technique, as well as literature which refers to the elementary school counselor as a consultant to elementary school teachers. _ 15 - The design of the study and the procedures fol- lowed in the use of the research technique are reported in Chapter III. Information in this chapter includes sources of data, the research instrument, development of the report form, and the treatment of the data. The examination and analysis of the data is reviewed in Chapter IV. This chapter is divided into two major parts: (1) an analysis of the data in accord- ance with the principles of the Critical Incident Tech- nique and (2) an analysis of the data as it is applied to the testable research hypotheses. In Chapter V, a summary of the study, conclu- sions, and implications for further research are pre- sented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of a survey of related literature is to indicate the investigations into and comments about a subject which has preceded this study and to point out- the gaps in the literature which indicate a need for further study. This chapter also includes a survey of materials dealing with the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) to better inform the reader of its previous appli- cations in the field of educational research. There- fore, the following review is presented in two principal sections. The first deals with the literature related to the Critical Incident Technique and the second, with literature related to the elementary school counselor's behavior as a consultant to elementary school teachers. Literature Related to the Critical Incident Technigge Background and General Use In the period just before and during World -17... -18- War II, there was a renewed interest among psychologists and sociologists regarding the requirementsof jobs in various occupational fields. One of the many researchers in this area was John C. Flanagan who, working with associates, developed what is now called the Critical Incident Technique. Flanagan, in devising this tech- nique, attempted to set up a systematic approach to analyzing and synthesizing observations of on-the—job behaviors. The Critical Incident Technique was formulated from studies made in the Aviation Psychology Program of the United States Army Air Forces in World War II. These studies included research on critical requirements for Air Force officers and combat leadership. A summary volume1 for the Aviation Psychology Program Research Reports contained a discussion of the theory behind this technique as well as a collection of reports on specific studies. After World War II, some of the psychologists of the USAAF Aviation Psychology Program established the American Institute for Research in Pittsburgh. Studies, 1Flanagan, John C., "The Aviation Psychology Program in the Army Air Forces," Army Air Forces Aviation Ps cholo Pro ram Research Re ort Number 1, U.S. Govern- ‘ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1947. - 19 - under the auspices of this institute, more formally de- veloped the Critical Incident Technique. In 1949, Flanagan1 outlined the methodology of the Critical Incident Technique and necessary require- ments for its successful use.2 After further improving the CIT, Flanagan3 presented a thorough explanation of its use in 1954. Studies, using the CIT, have covered an exten- sive range of occupations from dentists4 to store mana- gers.5 These studies are referred to in Flanagan's 6 1954 article and in a comprehensive bibliography printed by the American Institute for Research.7 1Flanagan, John C., "Job Requirements" in Cur- rent Trends In_Industrial Psychology (ed. Wayne Dennis), University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1949, p. 47. 2These requirements are described in detail in Chapter III. 3Flanagan, John C., gp. cit., "Critical Inci- dent Technique," p. 346. 4Wagner, R. F., "A study of the Critical Re- quirements for Dentists," Universit of Pittsburgh Bulletin, vol. 46, pp. 331-339, I956. sAndersson, Bengt-Erik and Nilsson, Stig-Goran, "Studies in the Reliability and Validity of the Critical Incident Technique," Journal of A lied Ps cholo , vol. 48, pp. 398-403, December, 1964. 6Flanagan, John C., 22. cit., "Critical Incident Technique," pp. 356-358. ' 7Mimeographed bibliography on uses of the Critical - 20 - Several research projects, utilizing this tech- nique, have been done in the field of education. Some of these projects will be reviewed in the following section. ‘Hse of the Critiggl Incidggt Technigue in the Field of Education The Critical Incident Technique has been used frequently, as a research instrument in the field of education. Several research studies are listed in this section to show the applicability of the CIT to the var- ious phases of education. Those investigations which seemed most relevant to this study are then reviewed in more detail. Researchers have used the CIT to study grading practices,1 school board membership,2 school board- 3 community relationships, school public relations IficidentTechnique, American Institute for Research, Pittsburgh, March, 1963. 1Wallace, Joseph 5., "Critical Incidents in the Assignment of Marks to High School Students," (unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1960). 2Barnhart, Richard E., "The Critical Require- ments for School Board Membership Based Upon an Analysis of Critical Incidents," (unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, Indiana University, 1952). 3Corbally, John E., Jr., "A Study of the Critical Elements of School Board-Community Relations," (unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, University of California, 1955). _ 21 _ process,1 and in-service training. Various job descriptions related to the field of education have been the subject of research which employed the Critical Incident Technique. Job require- 3 4-6 ments for elementary and secondary school principals have been investigated. The position of superintendent 1Ciernick, Sylvia, "The Development and Use cm: a Conceptual Schema for Analyzing the School Public Relations Process," (unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, Michigan State University, 1962). 2Fleming, Jack W., "The Critical Incident Technique as an Aid to In—Service Training," American Journal of Mental Deficiengy, vol. 67, pp. 41-5 , July, 1962. 3Benjamin, Dayton, "Critical Behaviors of Elementary Principals in the Improvement of Instruc- tion," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford university, 1955). 4Phillips, H. E., "Crucial Requirements of the Principalship in Georgia as Observed by Public School Teachers," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 1954). 5Harris, X. J., "Critical Requirements for the Principalship in Georgia as Observed by Superin- tendents of Schools," (unpublished doctoral disserta— tion, University of Georgia, 1955). 6Walters, Thomas W., "The Job of the High School Principal as Perceived by California City Superintendents," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1955). -22... of schools has been reviewed by SternlofflRobson,2 Kirk3 Ciernick,4 and Dunn.5 The CIT has also been used to investigate the following educational occupations: public school teach- 6-11 12 ’ ers college instructors, and college level student 1Sternloff, Robert E., "The Critical Require- ments for School Administrators Based Upon an Analysis of Critical Incidents," (unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, University of Wisconsin, 1953). 2Robson, Howard N., "Success and Failure of Small School Superintendents,” a publication of the Curriculum and Research Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, 1956. 3Kirk, George V., "The Critical Requirements for Public School Superintendents," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1959). 4Ciernick, Sylvia,.gp. cit., unpublished dissertation, 1962. 5Dunn, Bruce J., "An Analysis and Identification of Instructional Leadership Acts as Performed and Per- ceived by the Superintendent of Schools," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964). 6Blank, Lane B., ”Critical Incidents in the Behavior of Secondary School Physical Education Instruc- tors," The Research Quarterly, vol. 29, pp. 1-6, March, 1958. 7Domas, S. J., Report of an Exploratory Study of Teacher Competence, New Eng and School Deve 0pment Counc 1, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1950. 8Goldin, M., "Behaviors Related to Effective Teaching," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer- sity of Wisconsin, 1957). 9Jensen, A. C., "Determining Critical Requirements _ 23 - personnel deans.1 In the review of literature on the use of the Critical Incident Technique in the field of education, two studies were found which apply to the specific area of public school counseling. William E. Traux2 investigated effective and ineffective performance on the part of counselors in small schools. His study dealt with counselors at the secondary school level who were working as the only for Teachers," Journal of Experimental Education, vol. 20, ppe 79-86, 1 1e 10Merritt, Edith P., "Critical Competencies for Elementary Teachers in Selected Curriculum Areas," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford Univer- sity, 1955). 11Roth, Lois H., "Criteria for the Selection of Supervising Teachers Using the Critical Incident Technique," Journal of ngcher Education, vol. 12, pp. 476-481, 1961. lemit, Jo Ann, "A Study of the Critical Re- quirements for Instructors of General Psychology Courses," Universit of Pittsbur h Bulletin, vol. 48, pp. 279- 2§4, June, 1952. 1Rodgers, Allan W., "An Investigation of the Critical Aspects of the Function of the Student Personnel Dean as seen by his Professional Peers using the Critical Incident Technique," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963). 2Traux, William E., "A Comparison of Behavior Factors which Distinguish between Effective and Inef— fective Performance of Public School Counselors," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wis- consin, 1953). _ 24 - trained personnel worker in a small school system or as the only guidance specialist in a single school build- ing in a larger system. The critical incidents in this study were reported by teachers, school administrators, counselor trainers, state directors of guidance, guid- ance supervisors, and counselors. Traux found that the effective and ineffective acts of the counselors could be grouped into seven major categories: 1. Providing service to students as individuals. 2. Maintaining the relationships between school and community. 3. Providing services and maintaining rela- tionships with the school staff. 4. Providing services for students in groups. 5. Accepting personal responsibility. 6. Accepting professional responsibility. 7. Contributing to the general school program. The third area, providing services and main- taining relationships with the school staff, relates somewhat to the consulting functions of the counselor. In a journal article, Traux included the following items in this general category: 1. Cooperates with the staff in obtaining in- formation about students and in making it part of the school records. 100 -25... Sends new occupational and other guidance information to the school staff at fre- quent intervals. Assists home room and other teachers in planning and carrying out an effective group guidance program. Provides information about individual students to individual faculty members in an understandable fashion. Enlists the aid of and works with individual faculty members in planning activities to assist the individual student in solving problems, making wise choices, plans, and adjustments. Contacts all faculty members individually to explain the guidance program and the services it can render. Organizes and contributes to an in—service program of guidance. Arranges meeting times of in-service train— ing sessions in guidance to meet the con- venience of most of the faculty. Assists teachers in the wise use of tests and other information-gathering devices. Prepares carefully all speeches about the guidance services that he is called upon -26.... to make before a faculty group. 11. Is friendly and courteous with fellow staff members at all times.1 William B. King2 employed the Critical Incident Technique to determine the behaviors of secondary school counselors which result in their being regarded as ef- fective or ineffective by teachers. He found that these behaviors could be grouped under the following four categories: demonstrating professional competence in: 1. Staff relationships and services. 2. Pupil relationships and services. 3. Parent relationships and services. 4. Community relationships and services. The area of professional competence in staff relationships and services correlates with the coun- selor's function of consulting with teachers, as defined in the present study. Regarding teacher-counselor re- lationships, King3 suggested that: 1Traux, William E., "Critical Requirements of Small School Counselors," Personnel and Guid ce Journal vol. 35, p. 105, October, I956. 2King, William B., "Certain Critical Require- ments for the Secondary School Counselor Determined from an Analysis of Critical Incidents Reported by Teachers," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1956). 3King, William B., Ibid: unpublished dis- sertation, 1956. _" _ 27 - 1. Teachers recognize certain leadership re- sponsibilities of counselors and antici— pate the fulfillment of the responsibilities. 2. The effective counselor develops communi- cations with teachers and keeps them in- formed about guidance services. 3. Teachers desire and expect to participate in personnel services. 4. Teachers regard the effective counselor as one who is concerned with discipline. 5. Teachers distrust and disapprove of coun- selors who fail to protect confidences entrusted to them. 6. The effective counselor must view his job in perspective with regard to the total educational program. 7. The effective counselor is judged by teach- ers to be one who extends his function to include working with parents and avail- able community resources in providing for pupil needs. Although the investigations of Traux1 and 2 King dealt only with counselors at the secondary 1Traux, William E., gp. cit., unpublished dissertation, 1953. ZKing, William B., pp, cit., unpublished dissertation, 1956. - 28 _ school level, their studies indicated that the CIT is a suitable instrument to use in investigating counselor behaviors and could be employed at the elementary school level. From their comments, it appeared that the area of counselor-teacher consultation could be explored by using this technique and that both teachers and counselors could be reliable respondents. The following section of this chapter includes a review of the literature related to the elementary school counselor's behavior as a consultant to elemen- tary classroom teachers. Literature Related to the Elementary School Counselor's Behavior as a Consultgnt to Elementary School Teachers Overview Before reviewing aspects of the counselor's consultant behavior, as it relates to teachers, it may be helpful to the reader to place this type of behavior in proper perspective relative to the elementary school counselor's overall role. Although this study is focused on the role of the elementary school counselor (ESC) as a consultant to elementary school teachers (ESTs), it should be _29- recognized that there are other significant aspects of his role such as counseling and coordination. Nelson has pointed out that "there is little value in arguing the merits of either counseling or consulting without acknowledging the complementary value provided by the other approach."1 This study did not attempt to prove that con- sultation is the major or most important function of the ESC. However as this research is centered on the elementary school counselor's consulting behavior with elementary school teachers, the reviewed literature is pertinent to this one function. This review of literature is presented in the following categories: 1. Consultation with Teachers, a recognized function of the elementary school counselor. 2. Significance of the Teacher in Elementary Guidance and Related Consultation. 3. (The ESC-EST Relationship, in Theory. 4. The ESC-EST Relationship, in Practice. Consultation with Teachers a Reco nized Function of the Elementary §chooI Counselor 1Nelson, Richard C., "Counseling Versus Con- sulting," Elementar School Guidance and Counseling, vol. 1, p. I55, fiarcfi, I967. -30.. Textbooks on elementary school guidance in the 1950's tended to emphasize the teacher's role in imple- menting guidance practices in the classroom with little or no mention of the elementary school counselor. Literature gradually began to mention a guid- ance specialist at the elementary school level. A few examples of this increased recognition of the elementary school counselor's role and duties are noted. Patouillet,1 in a 1957 article, mentioned the elementary guidance worker as essentially a consultant. Crow and Crow2 stated that an elementary counselor's duties included consulting with teachers and parents. Hatch and Costar noted that a duty of the ele- mentary school counselor was to: consult with the school staff (provide information about pupils to teachers, remedial specialists, and the principal; prepare materials for teachers to use in their classes, conduct case gonferences, assist in educational placement, etc.) 1Patouillet, Raymond, "Organizing for Guidance in the Elementary School," Teachers Colle e Record, vol. 58, pp. 434-436, April, 1957. 2Crow, Lester and Crow, Alice, An Introduction to Guidance, American Book C0,, New York, I965. 3Hatch, Raymond and Costar, James, Guidance Services in the Elementary School, wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 1 1, p. m_‘..‘ “.mrnwz. i. L‘s' "~ 2‘? _ 31 - In the 1960's, more and more mention was made of the elementary school counselor and his consulting function. George Hill described the ESC as: . . . a building team member, a consultant to teachers and other staff, a counselor to children and parents, a resource person for aid and referral. Her primary role is that of consultant, but a sig- nificant secondary role is that of counselor to individuals.1 Wrenn2 reported that elementary school coun- selors spent much of their day consulting with teachers and parents. McKellar3 and Muro,4 in doctoral dis- sertations, reported that elementary school counselors should perform consultant services to teachers. Eckerson believed "consultation is the most important though not the only aspect of the role of the I Hill, George, "The Start of a Continuous Pro- gram of Guidance in Elementary Schools," Clearing House, vol. 38, October, 1963, p. 115. 2wrehn, C. Gilbert, The Counselor in a Chan in World, APGA, Washington, D.C., I962. 3 McKellar, Rebecca, "A Study of Concepts, Func- tions, and Organizational Characteristics of Guidance in the Elementary School as Reported by Selected Elemen- tary School Guidance Personnel," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State UniverSity, 1963). ‘Muro, James, "The Elementary Guidance Special- ist as Perceived by Elementary School Teachers and Elem- entary School Principals," (unpublished doctoral dis- sertation, University of Georgia, 1965). - 32 _ elementary school counselor."1 Another viewpoint was expressed by Peters, Shertzer and Van Hoose,2 who con- sidered counseling with individual pupils to be of major importance, while consulting with teachers and parents was a necessary by-product. Studies by Hill3 and Cottingham mentioned counseling, consultation and coordination as the three primary functions of the present elementary school coun- selor. Cottingham reported that a consensus of present writers agreed on: . . . a threefold function of the elementary coun- selor: counseling (individual and group), consult- ing (with parents, teachers, other pupil personnel specialists, and adminstrators) and coordination (liaison) with school staff and with community and school resources.4 Professional guidance organizations have also recognized consultation with teachers as a function of the ESC. The Michigan Counselor Educators! lEckerson, Louise, "Consultation in the Coun- selor's Role," ElementaryASchool Guidance and Counseling, vol. 1, Fall 1966, p. S. 2Peters, Herman J.; Shertzer, Bruce; and Van Hoose, William; Guidance in Elementary_Schools, Rand McNally Co., Chicago, 1965. 3Hill, George E., "Agreements in the Practice of Guidance in the Elementary School," Elementar School Guidance and Counseling, vol.-1, pp. 188-195, June, 1967. 4Cottingham, Harold., gp. cit., "Research Voids. .," p. 225. - 33 _ 1 has noted that counselor assistance and Association support to the school staff is an important objective in elementary school guidance programs. Although there is no official position state- ment to date, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision - American School Counselor Association Joint Committee on the role of the elementary school counselor has suggested that there are three primary functions of the ESC - counseling, consultation and coordination. Consultation was defined as: . . . the process of sharing with another person or group of persons information and ideas, of com- bining knowledge into new patterns, and of making mutuall agreed upon decisions about the next steps needed. It appears from this review of literature that the elementary school counselor's function of consulting with teachers has progressed to the point of being con- sidered an integral part of the elementary school coun- selors role. 1"Preliminary Statement on Elementary Guidance" of the Michigan Counselor Educators' Association, Chair- man - Dr. Edward G. Adamek, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, January, 1966. 2Association for Counselor Education and Super- vision - American School Counselor Association report of the joint committee on the elementary school counselor, Read at the APGA Association Conference, Washington, D.C., April, 1966, p. 4. _ 34 _ Si nificance of the Teacher in EIementary Guidance and Related Consultation Hill and Nitzscke have written: Clarification of the guidance function and the pre- paration of guidance workers for elementary schools will proceed best only if the most careful attention is given to the significant role of the teacher in the self-contained Classroom and to her relations with special service workers.1 Several authors, including Smith and Eckerson,2 3 5 and Grams6 Kowitz and Kowitz, Koeppe,4 Cottingham, have expressed the view that the elementary school teacher has a key role in the elementary guidance 1Hill, George and Nitzscke, Dale, "Preparation Programs in Elementary School Guidance," Personnel and Guidance Journal, vol. 40, October, 1961, p. 15 . 2Smith, Hyrum and Eckerson, Louise, Guidance for Children in Elementar Schools, U.S. Govt. Printing 5ffIce, Washington, D.C., 1965. 3Kowitz, Gerald and Kowitz, Norma, Guidance in the Elementar Classroom, MC Grew-Hill Co., New York, 1959. 4 KOEPPG: Richard P., "The Elementary School Counselor--What Is He?", School Counselor, vol. 12, October, 1964, pp. 11-13. SCottingham, Harold F., Guidance inglementary Schools, McKnight and McKnight, Bloomington, Illinois, 1956. 6Grams, Armin, Facilitating Learning and Indi- vidual Develo ment, Minnesota State Department of Educa- tIon, St. Paul, MInnesota, 1966. - 35 - program. The importance of the EST was stressed by Cottingham, in this manner: In contrast to guidance services at the other educational levels, guidance functions rest largely in the hands of the person most closely associated with the pupil, his elementary teacher. The teacher not only provides immediate adjustment services where feasible, but coordinates other efforts di- rected toward the needs of the pupil. The obliga- tion cannot be effectively shifted nor can other personnel function in a capacity equal to the pupil's teacher. Rendering satisfactory guidance services is a total school responsibility, but the personal application of such functions rests to a large ex- tent with the classroom teacher.1 Dinkmeyer2 and Koeppe3 seemed to be in agree- ment with Cottingham's further statement that: There is a definite place for the counselor or other specialist in the elementary school, for an effective program of services must include assistance from both types of individuals, the resource person and the teacher. Regarding consultation, Stripling has written: The current trend is toward increasing use of the counselor as a consultant who confers with teachers in an effort to help them understand various kinds of developmental tasks with increasing skill and comfort in their own classroom. The movement is 1Cottingham, H. F.,._p. cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools, p. 10. 2Dinkmeyer, Don, "Elementary School Guidance and the Classroom Teacher," Elementary School Guidance 2nd Counseling, vol. 1, pp. 15-26, January, 1 6 3Koeppe, R., gp. cit., "E1. School Counselor," ppe 11-130 4Cottingham, H., op. cit., Guid. in Elementary Schools, p. 10. -36- in the direction of the creative use of the elemen- tary school counselor as a resource person to help the feacher in develOping new experiences for child- ren. Consultation with a view to helping the teacher in understanding herself in a school setting has not been widely discussed. However, Bills and others2 held that the self-concept of a teacher had a direct effect on the child, specifically with respect to the child's self-concept and also his reactions to others. Bills suggested that teachers with negative feelings about themselves would produce negative feelings in many of their pupils about themselves. Other views on the importance of self— understanding by teachers have been given by Grams and Anglin. Grams presented the view that, ”self-understand— ing for teachers should emphasize understanding of self as a learner, if teachers are truly to be masters of the teaching-learning situation."3 Anglin stated that the teacher sets the emo— tional Climate for learning in the classroom. She 1Stripling, Robert 0., "Trends in Elementary School Guidance," National Elementary Principal, vol. 43, April, 1964, p. 14. 2Bills, Robert; Vance, Edgar; and McLean, Orison, "An Index of Adjustment and Values," Journal of Consulting Psychology, vol. 15, pp. 257-261, June, 1951. 3Grams, A., 0p. cit., Facilitating Learning, p. 109. a... :2; my rep-11:33:“: we. has '17" -37- wrote that the teacher needs to offer the pupils a re— lationship of mutual trust and respect and to do this "the teacher must be aware of her own likes, dislikes, needs and frustrations, as well as the motivations and defenses of children."1 The elementary school counselor, in a consult- ing relationship with elementary school teachers, can aid the teachers to understand the importance of their attitudes and behavior in the classroom. Values in this consulting relationship have been presented by Nelson: 1. There is involvement of the persons who can most directly influence the external environ- ment of the child. 2. The participants in the consulting situation receive a mutual benefit that results both from being heard and from the kind of brain- storming that may expand the horizons of each in providing aid to the child. 3. A larger number of children can be served through the indirect process of consulting. 4. Counselors and teachers can take a dynamic part in their role as change agents through con- sulting. As a result of the conferences there develOps an approach to the child that may be more united or complementary in attempting to serve the needs exhibited by the child.2 That the teacher plays a significant role in lAnglin, Eleanor M., "Guidance in the Elemen- tary School," National Elementarnyrincipal, vol. 41, January, 1962, p. 56. 2Nelson, R., gp. cit., "Counseling Vs. Con- sulting," pp. 149-150. - 38 - the elementary school guidance program and can profit from consultation with a counselor seems evident. Suggestions relative to this consulting relationship are examined in the next two sections. The Elementary School Counselor- E ementary School Teacher Consulting Re ationshlp, n Theory Much has been written concerning the possible consulting relationships of the elementary school coun- selor and the elementary school teacher. The following two statements should provide the reader with a basic awareness of the thinking associated with the emphasis on the elementary school counselor's behavior, as a consultant to elementary school teachers. Dinkmeyer noted that the objectives of elemen- tary school guidance should include, "helping the teacher to be more aware of and sensitive to the child's per- sonal needs, goals and purposes and to meet these needs in intellectual, personal and social areas."1 The view of Anglin on the behaviors of the ESC in this relationship was expressed in this manner: He acts as consultant to the classroom teacher, recognizing that the major guidance function is affected within the confines of the classroom in 1Dinkmeyer, D.,‘gp. cit., "El. School Guidance and the Classroom Teacher," p. 18. - 39 _ the teacher-pupil relationship. He can help the teacher see the child and his potential more real- istically; help her comprehend the impact of class- room living on the child; and support the teacher in her efforts to understand her own feelings about the child and his peers.1 From the review of literature on this consult- ing relationship, two major categories appeared in the ESC's activities with the classroom teachers. These categories were: A. The ESC acting as a consultant to groups of teachers, as in case conferences and in-service meetings. B. The ESC acting as a consultant to individual teachers, regarding their pupils and them- selves. The related literature is discussed, as it per- tained to these two major categories. A. The ESC, as a Consultant to Groups of Teachers.. In—Service Meetings The elementary school counselor has been described as a person who assists teachers in under- standing child development and behavior through in- service staff meetings. Johnson, Stefflre and lAnglin, E., 2p. cit., "Guidance in the E1. School," p. 56. - 4o - Edelfelt,1 Peters, Shertzer and Van Hoose,2 Smith and Eckerson,3 and Faust4 have all mentioned the interpretation of child behavior as an in-service function of the elementary school counselor. Fine5 and Maes6 reported that.the ESC's partici- pation in in-service meetings on Child behavior aids ESTs in their understanding of children and in their ability to use several alternatives in working with pupils in the classroom. Teachers are also aided, through in-service explanations by the ESC, in carrying out procedures for collecting and interpreting data JJohnson, Walter F.; Stefflre, Buford; and Edelfelt, Roy, PupilgPersonnel and Guidance Services, McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1961. 2Peters, H.; Shertzer, B.; and Van Hoose, W.; ‘gp. cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 3Smith, H.; and Eckerson, L.; pp, cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 4Faust, Verne, "The Counselor as a Consultant to Teachers," Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, V01. 1, ppe 11 -11 , MarCh, 1 e SFine, Marvin, "What Can You Expect From a Guidance Counselor," Grade Teacher, vol. 84, pp. 152- 155, September, 1966. 6Maes, Wayne R., The Elementary School Coun- selor: A Venture in Humanness, Arizona State Univer- E sity Bulletin #19, Tempe, 1966. “rag—“w CT“?- . '._--’ D - 41 - helpful to understanding their pupils according to Garry1 and Brison.2 Interpretation of testing programs, procedures and results has been specifically listed as an ESC function in in-service meetings by Brison3 and John- son.4 Cottingham5 has stressed the interpretation of test results by the ESC to groups of teachers, Teacher management of the classroom has been suggested as an in-service tOpic for the elementary school counselor to discuss with the staff by M. Toby 6 7 Mindel and Francis Wilson. lGarry, Ralph, Guidance Techniques for Elementary Teachers, Charles Merrill Inc., Columbus, Ohio, 1963. 2Brison, David W., "The Role of the Elementary Guidance Counselor," National Elementary Principal, vol. 43, pp. 41-44, April, 1964. 3Brison, 0., ibid., p. 42. 4Johnson, W.; Stefflre, B.; and Edelfelt, R., ‘22. c t., Pupil Personnel and Guidance Services. 5Cottingham, Harold F., "The Status of Guidance in the Elementary Schools" in J. F. Adams (ed.) Coun- selin and Guidance: A Summary View, MaCMillan Co., New York, 1965. 6Mindel, M. Toby, "The Role of the Guidance Specialist in the In-Service Education of Teachers," Personnel and Guidance Journal, vol. 45, pp. 692-696, March, 1967. 7Wilson, Francis, "Guidance in the Elementary Schools," Occupations, vol. 29, pp. 168-173, December, 1950. -42- Curriculum, as a concern of the ESC in in- service meetings, is mentioned by Brison1 and Fine.2 Faust emphasized that, "curriculum development com— prises the counselor's major consultant focus, inasmuch as it is the total curriculum world of the child that the counselor works to influence."3 Although a group meeting is not involved, Dinkmeyer4 suggested that in—service education of teachers could be aided by the ESC through the use of staff bulletins. Case Conferences Mathewson,S Detjen and Detjen,6 and Hatch and 1Brison, D., pp, cit., "The Role of the El. Guid. Counselor." 2Fine, M., pp. cit., "What Can You Expect." 3Faust, V., pp. cit., "The Counselor as a Consultant," p. 115. 4Dinkmeyer, Don C., "The Consultant in Elementary School Guidance," in Peters, Ricco, and Quaranta (Eds.), Guidance in the ElementgrySchool, Macmillian Co., New York, 1963. 5Mathewson, Robert H., Guidance Policy and Practice, Harper and Bros., New York, 1955. 6Detjen, Ervin, and Detjen, Mary, Elementary School Guidance, (2nd ed.), McGraw Hill, New York, 1963. We.“ m"mm‘w71 _v-._~',("'ra “ .. L...‘ e - 43 _ Costar1 have mentioned that the ESC uses case confer- ences with ESTs as a method of helping them in working with their pupils. Faust2 stated that teachers and counselors, in case conferences, share data regarding the child and develop a course of action to be taken in the future. B. The ESC, as a Consultant to Individual Teachers TOpics of discussion in the ESC's contact with individual teachers have been identified as: test in- terpretation, individual pupil testing, cumulative folder interpretation, pupil data collection and inter- pretation, individual pupil counseling, classroom obser- vation, suggestions for teaching methods and future procedures, follow-up on previous contacts, parent contacts, and referrals to other agencies and personnel. The literature is first reviewed as the coun- selor's consultation with the teacher is focused on the pupils. Then the discussion covers the counselor's consultation with the teacher focused on the teacher herself. Interpretation of standardized test results, 1Hatch, R., and Costar, J., pp. cit., Guidance Services in the Elementary Schog1. 2 sultant." Faust, V., pp, cit., "The Counselor as a Con- -44- by the ESC, is found to be one method of helping the EST to better understand her pupils. Authors support- ing this view include: Dinkmeyer,1 Smith and Eckerson,2 Cottingham,3 Shertzer and Lundy,4 and Peters, Shertzer and Van Hoose.5 Interpretation of the results of pupil's indi- vidual tests, which were administered by the ESC, is also considered of importance by Brison,6 Shertzer and Lundy,7 Smith and Eckerson8 and Archer.9 TDinkmeyer, D., pp. cit., "E1. School Guidance and the Classroom Teacher." 2Smith, H., and Eckerson, L., pp. cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 3Cottingham, H.,'pp. cit., in J. F. Adams (ed.) Counseling and Guidance. 4Shertzer, Bruce and Lundy, Charles, "Administra- tors' Image of an Elementary School Counselor," The School Counselor, vol. 11, pp. 211—213, May, 1964. 5Peters,H.; Shertzer, B.; and Van Hoose, W.; ‘pp. cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 6Brison, D., pp, cit., "Role of E1. Guidance Counselor." 7Shertzer, B., and Lundy, C., pp, cit., "Admin- 00 istrators' Image of an Elementary Sch Counselor." 8Smith, H., and Eckerson, L., pp, cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 9Archer, Raymond L., "Perceptions of the Elemen- tary Counselor Role in Idaho Pilot Elementary Programs," _ 45 - Many authors,l"7 stressed the importance of interpreting data from students' cumulative folders by the ESC to the EST. Dinkmeyer8 in particular, stated that the counselor should work with the teacher in reviewing this data without being strictly a pre- senter of this material. Another area in the ESC-EST consulting (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Idaho, 1967). 1Cottingham, H.,.pp. cit., in J. F. Adams (ed.) Counselipg and Guidance. 2Harrison, Edna, "The Elementary School Coun- selor's Unique Position," The School Counselor, vol. 11, pp. 107-109, December, 1963. 3Mathewson, R., pp. cit., Guidance Policy and Practice. 4Miller, Dorothy, "Developmental Guidance in the Elementary School,veThe School Counselor, vol. 9, pp. 101-103, March, 1962. 5Peters, H.; Shertzer, B.; and Van Hoose, W., pp, ci ., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 6Smith, H., and Eckerson, L., pp, cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 7Shertzer, B., and Lundy, C., pp. cit., "Administrators' Image." 8Dinkmeyer, D., pp. cit., "Elem. School Guidance and the Classroom Teacher. .- . m '2?" _ 45 - relationship has been identified by Brison1 and Garry2 as advice giving by the counselor on techniques of collecting and interpreting pupil data. Wilson3 mentioned the ESC as one to demonstrate procedures of recording pupil behaviors and the use of sociograms in the classroom. Counseling with individual students is seen as a necessary activity of the ESC, by authorities4-7 in order that the counselor may present current data about the student to the EST. Observation of students in the classroom is an important function of the ESC, according to Dinkmeyer,8 1Brison, D.,‘pp. cit., "Role of El. Guidance Counselor." 2Garry, R., pp. cit., Guidance Techniques for Elementary Teachers. 3Wilson, F., pp. Ci ., "Guidance in the El. Schools." 4Brison, D., pp. cit., "Role of El. Guidance Counselor." 5Dinkmeyer, D., pp. cit., in Peters, Riccio and Quaranta (eds.) Guidance n the Elementary School. 6Peters, H., Shertzer, B., and Van Hoose, W., op. cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 7Smith, H., and Eckerson, L., op. cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 8Dinkmeyer, Don C., "The Counselor as Consultant 587th§a§eafggs,: The School Counselor, vol. 14, pp. 294- i g e - 47 _ Peters, Shertzer and Van Hoose,1 and Shertzer and Lundy2 However, Wilson3 cautioned that the ESC should observe the classroom, only on the teacher's invitation. Faust has stated: The counselor, as a consultant to the teacher, may find himself, at the mutual agreement of teacher and consultant, in the classroom, where the teacher's instructional methods may be observed.4 Dinkmeyer5 held that the pupil was the primary concern in the counselor's classroom observation, where the ESC looked for behavior problems, learning dif- ficulties, and difficulties in group relationships. He suggested that the child be seen in relationship to the teacher, the group, the learning atmosphere and the specific learning task. Writers have reported that, as a consultant, the ESC often suggests teaching methods and other pro- cedures to the classroom teachers. Wilson6 and Hatch 1Peters, H., Shertzer, B., and Van Hoose, W., pp, cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 2Shertzer, B., and Lundy, C.,‘pp. cit., "Admin- istrators' Image." 3 4Faust, V., 0p. cit., "The Counselor as Consultant," p. 117. 5Dinkmeyer, D., op. cit., in Peters, Riccio and Quaranta (eds.) Guidance in the Elementary School. Wilson, P., pp. cit., "Guidance in E1. Schools." Wilson, F., pp. cit., "Guidance in the El. Schools." .11 MW: '.-"1‘—- " . - 48 _ and Costarl described the counselor as suggesting class- room activities and preparing materials for Classroom 2 Fine,3 and Johnson, Stefflre and Edel- use. Mindel, felt,4 have written that the ESC works with the individ- ual EST in adjusting her teaching procedures to the par- ticular needs of her class. Approaches to be used by the teacher regarding a problem of the pupil, other than one of instruction, are also discussed in the ESC-EST consulting relation- ship. Dinkmeyer,5 Faust,6 Fine,7 and Kaczkowski8 have suggested that the counselor and teacher can review 1Hatch, R., and Costar, J.,.pp. cit., Guidance Services in the Elementary School. zMindel, M. T., pp. cit., "Role of the Guidance Specialist." 3Fine, M., pp. cit., "What Can You Expect. . ." 4Johnson, W., Stefflre, B., and Edelfelt, R., pp, cit., Pupil Personnel and Guidance Services. 5Dinkmeyer, D., pp. cit., "The Counselor as Consultant." 6Faust, V., pp. cit., "The Counselor as Consultant." 7Fine, M.,,pp, cit., "What Can You Expect. . ." 8Kaczkowski, Henry, "The Elementary School Counselor as Consultant,~ Elementar School Guidance gpd Counseling, vol. 1, pp. 103-11I, March, 1967. -49- the problem together, explore possible methods to be used, and hypothesize probable outcomes of the teacher's future actions. In addition, these authors have noted that a followbup should be done on the procedure used and its outcome, by the ESC and the EST. Eckersonl and Peters, Shertzer and Van Hoose2 have written that information gained outside of the school setting is often discussed in the ESC-EST conferences. These out-of—school contacts include conferences with parents and referrals to and follow up with community agencies and other pupil personnel specialists. In comparison to the references made about the ESC as a consultant to teachers about their pupils, little has been written on the role of the ESC as a consultant to teachers about themselves. Garry3 mentioned, in general terms, that the counselor should be aware of and provide for mental health needs of the teaching staff. Eckerson4 and 1Eckerson, L., pp. c t., "Consultation in the Counselor's Role." 2Peters, H., Shertzer, B., and Van Hoose, W., ‘pp. cit., Guidance in Elementary Schools. 3Garry, R., pp, cit., Guidance Techniques for Elementary Teachers. 4Eckerson, L., pp, cit., "Consultation in the Counselor's Role." _w¢ snfis ".18“ . _ 50 _ Kaczkowskil expressed the view that an ESC should help the EST to understand the effect of her classroom be- havior on her pupils. In reviewing Opinions of elementary school counselor educators, Archer2 found that those responding to his survey heavily favored this item regarding a function of the ESC - "to help the teacher understand herself ix: relation to her class." The preceding section has reviewed the con- sulting function of the ESC in his relationship with the EST, as seen in theory. The ESC's function of consulting with teachers in actual practice, as reported in literature, is reviewed in the concluding section of this chapter. The Elemenpgry School Counselor- Elementary Schoo1_Teacher Consulting Relationship, in PractICe Although the amount of detailed literature on the actual practice of the elementary school counselor as a consultant to elementary school teachers is limited, data was reviewed which appeared to substantiate the fact that consulting with teachers is a practiced function 1Kaczkowski, H., pp. cit., "The E1. School Counselor as Consultant." 2Archer, R., pp, cit., unpublished dissertation, 1967. -51- of the ESC. In this section, literature is reviewed which related to the ESC as a consultant to ESTs in existing school guidance programs. Literature is presented as the ESC's consulting role has been mentioned in: A. Group surveys. B. Specific school guidance programs. A. Group Surveys In reviewing the results of his nationwide sur- vey of Counselors, Wrenn stated, "almost twice the pro- portion of elementary school counselors as ASCA (second- ary school) counselors spend two periods or more a day consulting with teachers and parents."1 The summary of a Michigan State Department of Education report,2 on the extent of elementary guidance activities being implemented in Michigan N.D.E.A. pilot programs, included the fact that 28 of the 29 respond- ing school districts reported the ESC as serving as a consultant to teachers, parents and administrators. The other district planned to implement this function in the Iiwrenn, C. G.,,pp. cit., The Counselor i Changing World, p. 115. '_‘ 2. Descriptive Report of Michiggn's NDEA Pilot Elementary Gui ance Programs, Michigan State Department of Education, Lansing, Michigan, 1967. ‘ "‘-m-!?: : _--" -52- future. Smith and Eckersonl noted that two common feat- ures of 24 elementary guidance programs in 10 states were: (1) the ESC's function of consulting with individual teachers to help them understand children and (2) the ESC's function of providing in-service education for groups of teachers, relating to normal development and behavior in children. In a study of elementary school counselors in California, McCreary and Miller2 reported that the res- ponding 175 elementary school counselors listed "teacher consultation" as being second, of eight listed functions, to counseling in the rank order of their functions ac- cording to the actual time spend on the job. The teachers responding to this survey revealed that the ESCs gave them the most help by: testing individual pupils, counseling with pupils, and helping them (ESTs) with classroom problems and participating in parent conferences. One hundred and eighty-three elementary school counselors, representing 20 states, completed a 1Smith, H., and Eckerson, L., pp. cit., Guidance for Children in Elementary Schools. 2McCreary, William H., and Miller, Gerald, "Elementary School Counselors in California," Per- sonnel and Guidance Journal, vol. 44, pp. 494-502, anuary, l . - 53 - questionnaire by McKellarlon their functions. In reply- ing "often," sometimes" or "never" to 51 counseling functions, the item - "helping teachers" received the third largest percentage of "often" responses. In Archer'szsurvey on N.D.E.A. elementary pilot programs in Idaho, the three participating ESCs listed consulting with teachers as part of their role. B. Specific School Guidance Programs Many elementary schools across the nation have presented summaries of their guidance and counseling programs. The majority of the summaries,3 which were reviewed, stated consultation with teachers was one duty of the ESC. However, these reports did not go into detail on the actual counselor practices in this relationship. Greising4 reported that the ESC was a consultant lMcKellar, Rebecca Lou, pp. cit., unpublished dissertation, 1963. 2Archer, R., pp, cit., unpublished disserta- tion, 1967. 3These reviewed reports included those from el- ementary schools in: Bakersfield, Calif., Brookfield, 111., Detroit, Mich., Inglewood, Calif., Lansing, Mich., Okemos, Mich., Rockford, 111., San Bernadino, Calif., and Southfield, Mich. 4Greising, Robert A., "A Pilot Program in Elem- entary School Guidance: A Study of Teacher Reaction," Elementary School Guidance and Counselipg, vol. 1, pp. -1 , Marc , 1 e iiwfifi—ww-“w “.9. .,z' ‘0 .v-Ts-v—____~ .‘ - 54 _ to teachers for about 30% of his working time in the Racine, Wisconsin, elementary school guidance pilot program. He found that this program had a positive influence on the attitudes and behaviors of the ESTs. In a summary report of the Oregon State Depart- ment of Education,1two school districts reported more specifically on the counselor's work with teachers. The Corvallis School District described their counselor as having worked with ESTs on an in-service basis to help the teachers discover effective techniques of as- sisting pupils with problems. The David Douglas School District noted that their ESC worked closely with the Classroom teachers through individual conferences, class- room observations and in-service meetings. Elementary school counselor duties in consulting with ESTs in the Bellevue, Washington, School District was listed by Mattick and Nickolas.2 These functions were: assisting teachers in the identification of pro— blem children, administering tests, interpreting tests and cumulative records, and recommending teaching pro- cedures and materials to be used in the Classroom. IOregon Elementar School Pro rams, State Depart- ment of Education, Salem, Oregon, May, 1964. 2Mattick, William, and Nickolas, N. A., "A Team Approach in Guidance," Personnel and Guidance Journal, vol. 42, pp. 922-924, May, 1963. -55- Although this review of literature did substanti- ate the fact that the ESC consults with ESTs in actual school settings, there appeared to be no specific effort directed at investigating this consulting relationship or the factors which made it effective or ineffective. Summary Literature related to the Critical Incident Technique was reviewed, as to its background, general use, and its use in the field of educational research. It was found that the CIT had been used profitably in many areas, including education, to study specific jobs and behaviors in them which appeared to be effective or ineffective. Two studies were found to have used the CIT in investigating the position of school counselor. Although these research efforts were directed at secondary school counselors, their findings indicated that the CIT was a suitable instrument for use in examining counselors' behaviors and could be employed at the elementary school level. From the researchers' comments, it appeared that the area of counselor-teacher consultation could be explored using this technique and that both teachers and counselors would be reliable respondents. According to the reviewed literature, -56- consultation with teachers is a recognized function of the elementary school counselor. Teacher consultation has been increasingly described as an integral part of the elementary school counselor's role. Writers have stated that the elementary school teacher plays a significant role in the elementary school guidance program and can profit from consultation with an elementary school counselor. This ESC-EST consulting relationship was investigated, as it had been described both in theory and in practice. It was found that the ESC acts as a consultant to groups of teachers, in case conferences and in- service meetings, and to individual teachers regarding their pupils and themselves. Topics which were found relevant to the ESC-EST consulting relationship were: test interpretation, individual pupil testing, cumula- tive folder interpretation, pupil data collection and interpretation, individual pupil counseling, classroom observation, suggestions for teaching methods and future procedures, follow-up on previous contacts, parent contacts, referrals to other agencies and personnel, and teacher self-understanding. In comparison to the references about the ESC as a consultant to ESTs regarding their pupils, little had been written about the role of the ESC as a consultant -57- to ESTs regarding themselves. Thus, it appeared that any detailed study of this ESC-EST consulting relation- ship should investigate the consultations related to both pupils and teachers. Although elementary school counselor consulta- tion with teachers was mentioned as a needed function in theory, and was described as a performed function in practice, it seems that no specific attempt has been made to investigate and report those ESC behaviors which have been observed, to be effective or in- effective, in this consulting relationship. With the apparent lack of detailed investi- gations of current elementary guidance and counseling programs, it seemed that this study could contribute valuable information on one particular aspect of these programs - the ESC's consultant behavior as it relates to associations with classroom teachers. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY Introduction This study was designed to identify and describe significant elements of the elementary school coun- selor's consultant behavior as it relates to elementary school classroom teachers. In this study, behaviors were identified and described as they appear to be effective or ineffective in providing elementary school teachers with a better understanding of either their pupils or themselves in a school setting. The respondents in this study were elementary school counselors (ESCs) and elementary school teachers (ETSs), who participated in N.D.E.A. pilot elementary guidance programs in Michigan during the school year, 1966-67. The responses were analyzed in total and according to each group of participants. The primary research instrument used was the Critical Incident Technique (CIT). The CIT provided both a method for gathering the data and a procedure for identifying and analyzing the data. The data were also used in testing specific hypotheses regarding the - 53 - _ 59 _ effect of certain Characteristics of respondents upon their responses. Information which was gathered by using this procedure is reported and analyzed in Chapter IV. Sample The sample of ESCs and ESTS for this study was drawn from personnel in 17 Michigan school systems that participated in N.D.E.A. pilot elementary school guid— ance and counseling programs during the school year, 1966-67. Recognizing that the job description of elemen- tary school counselor might vary from school to school because the position is a relatively new one in Michi- gan, it seemed desirable to analyze the background of the respondents in this study. However, the school systems involved in the Michigan N.D.E.A. programs did have to meet seven basic requirements for participation. Thus, the elementary school guidance programs which were examined were found to have a considerable degree of commonality. The requirements for participation were: 1. Grade Eligibility Only grades K-6 in public elementary schools are eligible for consideration for participation in pilot demonstration programs. (Seventh and/or eighth grade levels are eligible to participate in the secondary school program.) -60- Consultant Qualifications Participating guidance consultants shall be quali- fied in accordance with the specifications of the teacher certification code of the State of Michi- gan and shall have at least 12 semester hours of preparation in courses specifically related to elementary counseling and guidance. In addition to the academic preparation, guidance consultants in the elementary program shall have had at least one (1) year experience in elementary teaching and/or elementary school administration or super- vision. Ratio Minimum consultant ratio will be 1000 pupils to each consultant if other approvable pupil- personnel services are available to the schools served. A maximum ratio of 750 pupils per con- sultant is acceptable if no other pupil-personnel services are available. Physical Facilities Schools shall provide working conditions, equip- ment, and materials which make possible the organization and operation of a guidance and counseling program, including facilities for private consultations. Extent of Services Guidance services shall be provided for all pupils enrolled in the pilot-demonstration school. Supervision of Program The local school district will provide adequate administration and supervision of the pilot— demonstration program. The manner and extent of such supervision should be described in the pilot prOposal. Evaluation Pilot schools must carry on a continuing evalua- tion of the program and submit progress reports way-”pi?”— , .-I - 61 - at mid-year and at the Close of the school year.1 A list of the twenty-six 1966-67 Michigan elemen- tary guidance programs sponsored under N.D.E.A. Title V-A2 and the contact person for each program was pro- vided, with approval for use in this study, by Mr. Earl Borlace of the Michigan State Department of Education. A form letter (see Appendix B) was sent to the contact person in each school system. It was requested that the contact person give the report forms to each elementary school counselor in their system for dis- tribution to eight elementary school teachers with whom the counselor had worked that year. It was sug- gested that this be done by placing the names, of all of the teachers with whom the counselor worked that year, in a container and then drawing out eight names. These eight teachers were then requested to complete and return the report forms. Each counselor was also asked to fill out and return one report form himself. Seventeen of the 26 school systems indicated that they would be willing to participate in this 1"Instructions for the Preparation of Elemen- tary School Title V-A Programs," The State Board of Education, Department of Education, Lansing, Michigan, April, 1966, p. 2. 2These school systems are listed in Appendix A. _ 62 _ research project. In these 17 systems, there were 33 full time elementary school counselors. Thus, this study's pOpulation could have included 33 ESCs and 264 ESTs (a ratio of 8 ESTs to 1 ESC). Twenty-four elementary school counselors (73% of the possible ESC respondents) and 103 elementary school teachers (39% of the possible EST respondents) completed and returned report forms. Of the 297 possible respondent5,127 (43%) returned report forms. The total percentage of returns was not ex- ceptionally high. However, the report forms were only intended to gather perceived significant elements of the ESC's consultant behavior. The nature of the Criti- cal Incident Technique, as explained by Flanagan,1 is such that the percentage of returns is not an im- portant factor. It is the number of returns and their content that can make the difference. Characteristics of all the respondents, both elementary school counselors and teachers, are presented in outline form on the following two pages. 1Flanagan, John., pp. cit., "The Critical Incident Technique . " ‘W‘. '7? I 9‘ ._._ we. was?! ,, .~'. emu, . - 53 _ FIGURE 1 Elementary School Counselor Respondent Characteristics Sex Male 7 Female 17 Grades Served K-6 21 K-5 2 K-8 1 Years of Elementarprounseli g Experience 1 year 7 2 years 17 Years of Elementary Teaching Experience Years ESCs Years ESCs Years ESCs 0 6 5 l 13 2 1 1 6 2 15 2 2 l 7 1 l7 1 3 3 12 1 25 l 4 2 Years of Secondary Counselinngxperience Years ESCs Years ESCs 0 20 5 1 2 2 10 1 Educational Background Masters Degree in Guidance 22 Masters Degree in Another Field 2 Time Allocation Full time in one building 13 Full time in more than one building 11 Number of Assigned Students Reports ranged from 1 ESC for 125 pupils to 1 ESC for 2,059 pupils. The average ESC-pupil ratio was 1 ESC to 932 pupils. Age Years ESCs Years ESCs 20—24 2 40-44 1 25-29 10 45-49 5 35-39 3 50-54 3 The average ESC's age was 36 years. T a... ’3'" - 54- FIGURE 2 Elementary School Teacher Respondent Characteristics 1. Sex Male 10 Female 93 2. Grade Level Taught Grade EST Grade EST Grade EST K 7 3 18 5 19 g 12 4 l4 6 14 3. Years of Elementary Teaching Experience Years ESTs Years ESTs Years ESTs 9 l 1 20 4 2 12 12 3 21 l 3 13 13 l 22 2 4 8 14 2 23 2 5 5 15 4 24 l 6 6 16 1 25 2 7 5 17 2 30 3 8 5 18 0 39 1 9 l 19 3 42 1 10 4 4. Educational Background Special Certificate (undergraduate) 1 Bachelors Degree 78 Masters Degree 24 5. Age Years ESTs Years ESTs Years ESTs 20-24 19 35-39 13 50-54 10 25-29 27 40-44 6 55-59 7 30-34 9 45-49 7 60—65 5 The average EST's age was 36 years. Instrumentation The Critical Incident Technique The CIT focuses attention on behavior. It's procedure involves the reporting of incidents which reveal that a task has been carried out effectively or ineffectively. Thus in this study of the elementary school counselor's consultant behavior, the CIT was se- lected as a suitable means of gathering data which des- cribed the counselor's performance on the job. In describing the value of the CIT, Flanagan stated it should be emphasized that: observations of the behavior of the individual and of the effectiveness of this behavior in accomplish- ing the desired results in a satisfactory manner constitute not just one source of data, but the only source of primary data regarding the critical requirements of the job in terms of behavior.1 Flanagan described the procedure involved as follows: The critical incident technique is essentially a procedure for gathering certain important facts concerning behavior in defined situations. It should be emphasized that the critical incident technique does not consist of a single rigid set of rules governing such data collection. Rather it should be thought of as a flexible set of prin- ciples which must be modified and adapted to meet 1Flanagan, John C., "Critical Requirements: A New Approach to Employee Evaluation," Personnel Psy- chology, vol. 2, Winter, 1949, p. 421. - 66 _ the specific situation at hand.1 The Critical Incident Technique procedure has five basic steps: 1. Determination of the general aim of the activity: this should be a statement clarifying the purpose or aim and which is acceptable to the potential respondents. 2. Development of plans and specifications for collecting incidents regarding the activity: persons participating in the study should understand the general aim and receive an explanation of the methods they will use in reporting their observations. 3. Collection of the data: the method of ob- taining the data, by interview or question- naire, must be decided. 4. Analysis of the data: a category system must be develOped by the researcher from the obtained data. 5. Interpretation and reporting of the data: the results of the study should be reported and the reSearCher should give a judgement concerning the degree of credibility which should be attached to his findings. 1Flanagan, John C.,‘pp. cit., "The Critical Incident Technique," p. 335. _ 57 - ,Hse of the Critical Incident Technique in this Study This study was designed to identify and describe significant elements of the elementary school counselor's consultant behavior with elementary school teachers. The CIT provided the basic framework for collecting and analyzing the data used in the study. The five basic steps of the CIT procedure de- scribed earlier are discussed here, as they were adapted to this specific investigation. 1. Determination of the general aim of this activity: To establish a general aim of the ESC's activity as a consultant to ESTs for this study, several counselor-educators were asked for their agreement on this general aim. The following statement was agreed upon by the counselor-educators: A general aim of the elementary school counselor, as he works with elementary school teachers, is to help the teachers in better understanding their students and themselves. This aim was readily accepted, with one reser- vation, by teachers and counselors in the first pre- testing of the report forms. The phrase, "in a school setting," was added to the statement of the aim at the request of this pre-testing group. They felt the state- ment would then be more acceptable by elementary school H.- _ 68 - teachers. A second pre-testing group and the counselor- educators both agreed upon the revised statement of the general aim. 2. Development of plans and specifications for collecting incidents regarding this activity: Elementary school counselors and elementary school teachers were Chosen as the respondents for this study, on the basis of their positions which enabled them to have firsthand knowledge of the ESC's con- sultant behavior with ESTs. It was determined that the respondents would be asked to report significantl incidents which in- volved the ESC, as he attempted to help ESTs in better understanding their students and themselves in a school setting. A significant incident, for the purposes of this study, was defined as an incident which, in the respondent's judgement, the ESC's activities had a marked effect, positive or negative, on the EST's understanding of her pupils or herself as she worked in a school setting. 1In this study, "significant" is used in place of the term, "critical," when referring to incidents and behaviors. This was done as "critical" might have created an emotional barrier which could have caused the respondent to report only crisis-like events. - 59 _ Again, it should be noted that the CIT assumes the respondent, in his own judgement, can recognize and report what are significant incidents in the ESC's consultant behavior with ESTs. The respondents were asked to report only in- cidents which they had observed, in which they had participated, or with which they were very familiar and knew the facts. In a further attempt to obtain specific responses, each respondent was asked, with each significant incident reported, to give the grade level involved, the approximate date (month and year) and the basis for the report (participation, observa- tion or knowledge). The incidents reported were to have occurred between September 1, 1966 and June 30, 1967 (a 10-month period). The instructions for the respondents to follow were given in detail so they would know exactly what to do. To insure Clarity in the instructions, examples of significant incidents were provided on the report forms. These incidents illustrated one example of the ESC's effective behavior and one example of the ESC's ineffective behavior as a consultant to ESTs. 3. Collection of the data: It was decided to collect the data for this study by means of a questionnaire report form. Flanagan1 stated that the questionnaire report form technique seemed to give results not essentially different from those obtained by the interview method when the respondents followed the instructions in com- pleting the forms. In his dissertation, Corbally2 reported that no problem categories or incidents were given in sub- sequent personal interviews with the respondents'that were outside the framework already established by questionnaire responses. As interviews appeared to be too time consuming, he further noted, "the question- naire method is, thus, the only practical method for a single researcher to use in utilizing the CIT."3 In addition to Corbally, other educational re- searchers, including Rodgers,4 Sternloff,S and Traux,6 successfully used a questionnaire method in collecting data with the Critical Incident Technique. 1Flanagan, John C., pp, cit., "The Critical Incident Technique." . 2Corbally, John E., Jr., pp. cit., unpublished dissertation, 1955. 3Corbally, John E., Jr., ibid., p. 247. 4Rodgers, Allan W., pp. cit., unpublished dis- sertation, 1963. 5Sternloff, Robert E., pp. cit., unpublished dis- sertation, 1953. GT! Willi E. , 't. - h d' _ sertation, igfig, am ’.22 C1 : unpublls ed 18 -71- This previous use of the questionnaire report form method is not conclusive evidence that it is a technique as satisfactory as the personal interview, but it does strongly support the use of the report form survey. 4. Analysis of the data: The data was analyzed according to the procedure suggested by Flanaganl for the CIT and also by testing fourteen additional statistical hypotheses. As suggested in the CIT, the data was analyzed in a descriptive manner, according to the investigator's groupings of incidents and elements of behavior, as they were reported. A check on the investigator's Classification of incidents and elements was made by two other educational researchers from the Michigan State University College of Education. They agreed with the categorization of responses, as it had been develOped. A more detailed explanation of the procedures used for data analysis is presented later in this chapter. The data itself is presented in Chapter IV. 5. Interpretation and reporting of the data: The tabulated results and a descriptive report of the data obtained from the report forms are included 1Flanagan, John C., pp. cit., "The Critical Incident Technique." -72- in Chapter IV of this study. The investigator dis- cusses the results and gives a judgement as to the creditability of his findings in that chapter. Develo ment of the Critical Incident Technlgue Report Form Introduction - Report forms and reply envelopes were provided for each of the 297 potential respondents. These mat- erials, with a cover letter, were mailed to the 26 contact persons for the school systems participating in the Michigan N.D.E.A. pilot elementary guidance programs. The report form was developed to enable the respondent to report up to four incidents in which he had ob- served, participated, or had knowledge, regarding the elementary school counselor's consultant behavior with elementary school teachers. These incidents, in the respondents' judgements, were to have had a marked effect, positive or negative, on the EST's understanding of her pupils or herself as she worked in a school setting. The report form was printed on eight 8%" x 11" pages. Samples of both the report form and the cover letter are found in the appendices to this report. Appendix B is a sample of the cover letter. Appendix C is a sample of the report form. Criteria Used in Development of the Report Form - -73- Brevity - It was considered to be of major im- portance that the report form be kept as brief as pos- sible and yet have the directions clear and understand- able. Suggestions for completing the report forms were provided for the respondents. In addition, two examples which illustrated the requirements in reporting the in- cidents were given and explained. The suggestions and examples of incidents were given on two pages. Five pages were provided for the respondents to record incidents. To give the respondents further direction, four of these pages were titled as to effective or ineffective incidents and as to the EST's understanding her pupils or herself in a school setting. The untitled fifth page was provided to give the respondents additional space, if needed for their responses. Accuracy - In this investigation, an attempt was made to insure accuracy through limiting the period of time from which incidents were to be selected. Re._ spondentswere asked to report only incidents which had occurred in the lO-month span from September 1, 1966 to June 30, 1967. Flanaganl recognized the value of placing a 1Flanagan, John C., gpitical Requirements for Research Personnel, American Institute for Research, ttsburgh, l9 . time limit on the period from which the incidents were chosen and stated that this procedure tended to reduce unusual actions to their proper perspective as well as to reduce errors from memory lapses and exaggeration. Basis for Judgement - The judgement asked for in these reports concerned the ESC's consultant be- havior with ESTs. Specifically, the respondent was asked to report incidents in which the ESC's behavior, ‘ip'ppp respondent's ppp judgement, had a significant effect on the EST's understanding of her pupils or her- self as she worked in a school setting. It was noted by Flanagan: It is important that these behaviors be identified by those who describe them as especially effective according to their own standards, not those of any outside person or group;also they should not be derived from stereotyped concepts traditionally listed whenevef definitions of successful researchers are requested. Although he was writing about researchers, Flana- gan recognized the phrase, "in your own judgement," as a valid definition of the basis to be used for making decisions regarding the significance of an incident or particular behavior. Collection of Additional Data - The report form was also used to gather data about the respondents. When using the CIT, it was lFlanagan, John C., 22. cit., Critical Require- ments for Research Personnel, p. 6. - 75 _ thought to be of value to determine whether the respondent was a teacher or counselor in the elementary school. In addition to the CIT analysis, certain char- acteristics of the respondents were also compared with their responses. Thus, respondents were asked to com- plete items about themselves. Teachers were asked to complete six items, including their agreement with a general aim of the elementary school counselor, as it related to this study. The additional five items were related to the teacher's: sex, grade level of teaching, years of elementary school teaching experience, educational training, and age. Counselors were asked to complete ten items, including their agreement with a general aim of the elementary school counselor, as it related to this study. The additional nine items were related to the counselor's: sex, grade levels served, years of elemen- tary school counseling experience, years of elementary school teaching experience, years of secondary school counseling experience, educational training, time allocation, student ratio, and age. The respondents were not asked to identify themselves by name or school system so the responses - 75 _ would be anonymous. Pre-Testing Procedures - After meeting with members of the doctoral guidance committee and personnel in the Michigan State University College of Education Research Bureau, the wording and structure of the tentative report form was revised and modified. It was then presented to two groups of ten ESTs and two ESCs. Both pre—testing groups were from school systems in Michigan. The first pre-testing group suggested an addi- tion to a general aim of the ESC as it applied to this study. This addition, "in a school setting," was ap- proved by the guidance committee and readily accepted by the second pre-testing group. The first group also suggested that the number of possible incidents be reduced from six to four. This was because they felt the respondents would become discouraged if the number of incidents requested was unreasonable. After these revisions had been made in the report form, the investigator discussed the form with the second pre-testing group. This group felt that the report form was adequate for the purpose of the study and that the directions for the completion of the form were clear and understandable. Completed Report Form - ”v TILL “59W -fl’fi; '37. it ".‘VI ”*1??- Appendix C is a sample of the final revision of the report form. The form consisted of eight pages. The first page was for the collection of data about the respondents. Suggestions for completing the report forms and ex- amples of effective and ineffective incidents were given on the second and third pages. The fourth page provided space for the respondent to record an effective incident in which the ESC helped the EST better understand her pupils. The fifth page provided space for the respondent to report an effective incident in which the ESC helped the EST better under- stand herself. The respondent was given space to record an ineffective incident in which the ESC failed to help the EST better understand her pupils on the sixth page. The seventh page provided space for the respondent to report an ineffective incident in which the ESC failed to help the EST better understand herself. The final page allowed the respondent additional space in which to report an incident requiring more space than was provided on the preceding sheets. Data Collection Procedure Mailing the Report Forms - Cover letters and critical incident report -78- forms were mailed to the 26 contact persons for the school systems participating in the Michigan N.D.E.A. pilot elementary guidance programs. The cover letter provided instructions for the distribution of the re- port forms and the procedures to be followed in com- pleting and returning the forms. The cover letter specifically stated that all respondents were to remain anonymous. No attempt was made to determine either the names of respondents or their school systems. The returns were identifiable only by the respondent's position (ESC or EST) and characteristics provided on the data sheet. It was noted in the cover letter that self- addressed postage-paid envelopes were provided for each respondent. The investigator listed his telephone number and requested that any person having a question ' about the study call him collect. This was done to encourage and facilitate the participation of the potential respondents. Follow-up - Four weeks after the mailing of the report forms, the investigator spoke to each of the 26 contact per- sons, either on the telephone or in person, regarding the participation of the respondents in their school system. From this personal contact, it was determined - 79 - that 17 of the 26 systems had participated or would be willing to participate in this study. After a lapse of two more weeks the systems which indicated they would be willing to participate but had not done so before the first follow-up contact were again contacted by telephone. The investigator asked for their cooperation in completing and returning the report forms. No further attempt was made to obtain more returns since the second follow-up contact occurred a week before many of the schools were to close for the summer and the report forms were being returned at a good rate. Recording the Data - The report forms were returned over a period of four months from the date of their mailing. Each re- turned report form contained from one to four incidents of the elementary school counselor's consultant behavior as he worked with elementary school teachers. When a report form was returned, the data was transferred to 3" x 5" data record cards. A data record card was used for each incident reported by the respondents. Each incident was given a number in the order in which it was received. The elements were ex- tracted from each incident and recorded on that data record card. The number of elements found in each “I - so - incident varied. In order, across the top line of each data re- cord card was recorded: 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 10. The number of the incident. The respondent type, ESC or EST. The response to the aim of the ESC - either Y (yes) or N (no). The sex of the respondent, M (male) or F (female). Grade level of the incident (K - 6). Years of elementary teaching experience for ESTs or years of elementary counseling ex- perience for ESCs, depending on who re- ported the incident. Educationaltrainingcfi the respondent - B (Bachelors degree) or M (Masters degree). Age of the respondent. Category of the incident, either E (Effective) or I (Ineffective). Sub-category of the incident, either P (understanding pupils) or S (understanding self). The elements in each incident were then deter- mined from analyzing the incident as given on the re- port form and then listed in numerical order in a verti- cal manner on the data record card. A sample data - 81 - record card is shown below in Figure 3. FIGURE 3 Sample Data Record Card #4 EST Y F 3 7 B 32 E/P 1. ESC observed pupil in classroom. 2. ESC held conference with pupil's parents. 3. 4. 5. 6. Pattern of Data Analysis Use of the Critical Incident Technique Procedure - The data was analyzed in a descriptive manner following the accepted guidelines of the Critical Incident Technique developed by Flanagan.1 A frame- work for the analysis was provided by the general classification of incidents which was done by: l. The respondent, in reporting the incident, and 2. the investigator, in evaluating and record- ing the responses. lFlanagan, John C., pp. cit., "The Critical Incident Technique." -82- As Flanagan suggested, a check was made on the first one hundred reported incidents and again after the next fifty reported incidents. This was done in order to determine that no new types of incidents or no new patterns of ESC consultant behavior were appear- ing in the collection and analysis of the data. The basic outline for the data analysis by the CIT procedure included four major categories: 1. Effective Incidents, (£43), in which the ESC helped the EST to better understand her pupils. 2. Effective Incidents, (gig), in which the ESC helped the EST to better understand herself. 3. Ineffective Incidents, (£12), in which the ESC failed to help the EST to better under- stand her pupils. 4. Ineffective Incidents, (1_§), in which the ESC failed to help the EST to better understand herself. As the data were analyzed, it became evident that these four categories adequately covered all of the responses. Thus, no additional categories were needed. Elements of the incidents were listed under the four categories, by respondent type, and for the -,- .- .rw J3“. . e; 4e ~-‘-,‘. “‘4'- 1 W’I 1519-1332" ~ * iv- _ - _ 83 - respondents as a total group. The listings of elements revealed duplication of many of the same behaviors. The duplicated elements were then consolidated to re- fine the number of listed behaviors or elements without any loss of meaning. After the element lists were thus refined, the remaining significant elements were grouped into common areas. Comments were made, as the data were tabulated and presented. This descriptive reporting of the study's data followed the bash: CIT procedure for data analysis. Use of the Analysis of Variance Procedure - After analyzing the total data by the CIT method, an entirely different approach in analyzing a portion of the obtained data was used. In the second approach, the analysis of variance statistical tech- nique was used to test fourteen specific hypotheses which were related to the responses and selected per- sonal characteristics of the respondents. This second procedure dealt with the effective responses from the study's four incident categories. It was felt that a closer investigation of the positive aspects of the counselor's behavior would be in keeping with the pur- poses of the study. These fourteen hypotheses were established in -84- an attempt to focus on respondent type perceptions of ESC behavior and the influence of certain respondent characteristics on their perceptions and responses. As mentioned above, analysis of variance was the statistical technique employed to test the hypotheses. This technique was followed as outlined by Hays.1 For this study, a more refined application of the Millman and Glass analysis of variance procedure2 was devised by Dr. Andrew Porter.3 This revision by Dr. Porter allowed for the use of proportional sub-group fre- quencies. The complete procedure was reviewed and approved by staff members of the Michigan State Univer- sity College of Education Research Bureau. The first two hypotheses were formulated with the assumption that both ESTs and ESCs will report the ESC as working more effectively with ESTs in the area of teachers understanding their pupils than in the area of teachers understanding themselves. These hypotheses were: H1 ESTS will report more effective incidents 1Hays, William L., Statistics for Psychologists, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1963. 2Millman, Jason and Glass, Gene, "Rules of Thumb for Writing the Anova Table," mimeographed paper of a presentation at the 1967 A.E.R.A. convention. 3Chairman, Michigan State University College of Education Research Bureau. _ 85 _ in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils than in the area of helping teachers understand themselves. ESCs will report more effective incidents in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils than in the area of helping teachers understand themselves. The assumption underlying the next three hypoth- eses, (H3 H4 H5), was that ESCs see themselves as more effective than do ESTs and will report more effec- tive incidents than ESTs. These hypotheses Were: H 3 ESCs will report more effective incidents than will ESTs in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils. ESCs will report more effective incidents than will ESTs in the area of helping teachers understand themselves. ESCs will report more effective incidents than will ESTs in the total number of responses. Hypotheses 6, 7 and 8 were based on the assump- tion that upper grade level (grades 4, 5, 6) elementary school teachers will report more effective incidents than will lower grade level (grades K, 1, 2, 3) ele- mentary school teachers. These hypotheses were: _ 86 - 6 Upper grade level ESTs (grades 4-6) will report more effective incidents than will lower grade level ESTs (grades K-3) in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils. H7 Upper grade level ESTs (grades 4-6) will report more effective incidents than will lower grade level ESTs (grades K-3) in the area of helping teachers understand them- selves. 8 Upper grade level ESTs (grades 4-6) will report more effective incidents than will lower grade level ESTs (grades K-3) in the total number of responses. In hypotheses 9, 10 and 11, it was assumed that younger elementary school teachers (ages 20-29) will report more effective incidents than will older elemen- tary school teachers (ages 40-49). These three hypo- theses were: H9 Younger ESTs (ages 20-29) will report more effective incidents than will older ESTs (ages 40-49) in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils. H10 Younger ESTs (ages 20-29) will report more effective incidents than will older ESTs (ages 40-49) in the area of helping teachers 11 - 87 - understand themselves. Younger ESTs (ages 20-29) will report more effective incidents than will older ESTs (ages 40-49) in the total number of responses. Hypotheses 12, 13 and 14 were devised with the assumption that less experienced elementary school teachers (less than three years of teaching experience) will report more effective incidents than will more ex- perienced elementary school teachers (three or more years of teaching experience). These hypotheses were: H12 13 14 ESTs with less than 3 years of teaching experience will report more effective in- cidents than will ESTs with 3 or more years teaching experience in the area of helping teachers understand their pupils. ESTs with less than 3 years of teaching experience will report more effective in- cidents than will ESTs with 3 or more years teaching experience in the area of helping teachers understand themselves. ESTs with less than 3 years of teaching experience will report more effective in- cidents than will ESTs with 3 or more years teaching experience in the total number of responses. -88- The analysis of variance procedure was utilized four times in testing these hypotheses. This method was used to test hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in one group; hypotheses 6, 7, and 8 in a second group; hypo- theses 9, 10, and 11 in a third group; and hypotheses 12, 13, and 14 in a fourth group. It was determined that the .05 level of confi- dence would be accepted as significant for the study's statistical testing of the 14 hypotheses by the analy- sis of variance technique. This level of significance seemed apprOpriate because of the descriptive nature of this study. Summary This chapter included a detailed description of the methodology of this study in order that the reader might have a basis for judging the findings which are found in Chapter IV. A brief introduction reviewed the purpose of this study, the respondent types, and the research in- strument which was used. The sample population consisted of 24 elementary school counselors and 103 elementary school teachers from 17 Michigan school systems which were participa- ting in N.D.E.A. Title V-A pilot elementary guidance programs during the 1966-67 school year. Selected -89- personal Characteristics of the respondents were listed in outline form. The research procedure used in this study was the Critical Incident Technique. It provided: (1) a suggested method for gathering the data and (2) the general procedure to follow in identifying and analyz- ing the data. The Critical Incident Technique and its five basic steps were discussed. These steps were: (1) de- termination of the general aim of the activity, (2) de- velopment of plans and specifications for collecting incidents, (3) collection of data, (4) analysis of data, and (5) interpretation and reporting of the data. The application of these five steps to this study was reviewed. A detailed explanation of the develOpment of the Critical Incident report form, including the cri- teria used and the pre-testing procedures, was given. The procedure followed in the collection of data was explained as it related to mailing the report forms, follow-up contacts, and recording the obtained data. A sample work card for recording the data was included. The pattern of data analysis was reviewed as to the two procedures which were used. These were: (1) The Critical Incident Technique procedure and _ 9o _ (2) the analysis of variance procedure for testing the study's fourteen defined hypotheses. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The purposes of this chapter are to report the findings of this study and to make some brief com- ments about these findings. The data are presented in two sections. The first section contains a report of the research find- ings arrived at in accordance with the principles of the Critical Incident Technique. The second section describes an analysis of the same data by statistically testing fourteen research hypotheses concerning re- sponses and selected personal characteristics of the respondents. Before the results are reported, a brief re- view of the terminology related to the data is given to help the reader interpret the findings. Elementary school counselors (ESCs) and elementary school teachers (ESTs) were the two types of respondents in this study from which the data were gathered. All incidents reported were considered signifi- cant or critical incidents since the respondents were - 91 - _ 92 _ asked to report pp1y those incidents in which the ESC's activities had a marked effect, positive or negative, on the EST's understanding of her pupils or herself as she worked in a school setting. Since all reported incidents referred to ESC activities related to consultation with teachers, all were used in the study regardless of the respondent's reply to the study's stated aim of the ESC. Of the 127 reSpondents, 119 agreed and eight disagreed in some manner with this general aim. Significant incidents were classified as either effective or ineffective. An effective incident was one in which, according to the judgment of the re— spondentg the ESC's activities had a positive effect which resulted in the EST better understanding her pupils or herself in a school setting. An ineffective incident was one in which, according to the judgment of the respondent, the ESC's activities had no effect or had a negative effect which resulted in the EST's failure to gain a better understanding of her pupils or herself in the school environment. The incidents are reported here in four major categories: 1. Effective Incidents in which the ESC helped the EST to better understand her pupils (E/P). - 93 - Effective Incidents in which the ESC helped the EST to better understand herself (E/S). Ineffective Incidents in which the ESC failed to help the EST to better understand her pupils (I/P). Ineffective Incidents in which the ESC failed to help the EST to better understand herself (I/S). Each incident reported contained one or more elements, or specific activities of the ESC, which had an effect on the EST's understanding of her pupils or herself in sidered to were given considered a school setting. The elements were all con- be significant ESC behaviors because they in significant incidents. The elements were effective elements if they were reported in effective incidents and ineffective elements if they were reported in ineffective incidents. Many of the reported elements were identical or very similar in content. In order to make the data easier to analyze, groups of very similar or identical elements were treated as individual elements. An element formulated in this manner from a larger number of very similar or identical elements was termed a refined element. The number of elements included in each refined element is noted in the reporting. -94- To clarify this refining procedure, the follow- ing example is given. Thirty-three (33) of the reported ESC behaviors, or elements, dealt with the ESC admin- istering individual tests (no specifics were mentioned). Rather than report this same type of behavior 33 times in the analysis procedures, the repetitious elements were combined and reported as one refined element—-admin- istering individual tests. Significant categories or areas of refined elements were also used in presenting this data. These areas consist of refined elements grouped by common content. Critical Incident Technique Findings CIT Data on Reported Incidents A total of 233 incidents were reported. Of these, 184 were effective incidents and 49 were in- effective incidents. A detailed account of these re- ported incidents across the four major categories (listed and defined above) and by respondent type (ESC-- elementary school counselor and EST--elementary school teacher) is presented in Table l on the following page. Comments Overall, effective incidents accounted for 79 percent of the total number of incidents reported. “I - 95 - The respondents returned more effective than ineffective incidents in all categories, with one exception. Ac- cording to the counselors' responses, more ineffective than effective incidents were reported in the category of helping teachers understand themselves. The elemen- ‘tary school teachers did not report any ineffective incidents related to the ESC's efforts to help the EST better understand herself. TABLE 1 SIGNIFICANT INCIDENTS REPORTED BY COUNSELORS AND TEACHERS Counselors Teachers Total No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent Effective - Pupil 33 48 132 80 4 165 71 Effective - Self 8 12 11 7 19 8 Total Effective 41 60 143 87 184 79 IneffeCtive+17 25 22 13 1 39 17 Pupil N u Ineffective» , Self 10 15 , 0 0 1 10 4 Total 3 V Ineffective 27 40 u 22 13 I 49 21 Total Effective & 68 100 1 165 100 N 233 100 Ineffective v-v- w.—_ - 95 - Both ESCs and ESTs reported more effective in- cidents related to helping teachers understand their pupils. Overall, 88 per cent of the reported incidents dealt with helping the teacher understand her pupils. Twelve per cent of the responses dealt with helping the teacher understand herself. ' SIT Significant Elements and Classification Areas A total of 926 elements, elementary school counselor behaviors, were found in the 233 incidents. Of these, 766 were effective elements and 160 were in- effective elements. As many of these 926 elements were identical or very similar in content, 72 refined elements were formulated to prevent duplication and to provide for clarity in the reporting. A refined element consisted of a group of elements very similar in content and was treated as one element. In this reporting only the 72 refined elements are listed. However, the number of elements included in each refined element is noted across the four cate- gories by respondent type. To give a more concise presentation of the CIT data, the refined elements were grouped due to their similarity into the following nine significant areas: - 97 - Area I. Counselor contacts with Individual Pupils. Area II. Counselor Contacts with Groups of Pupils. Area III. Counselor Observations of Pupils and Teachers. Area IV. Counselor Collection and Analysis of Pupil Data. Area V. Counselor Administration, Scoring and Interpretation of Standardized Tests. Area VI. Counselor Contacts with Teachers Re- garding Themselves. Area VII. Counselor Contacts with Teachers Re- garding Pupils. Area VIII. Counselor Contacts with Parents. Area IX. Counselor Referrals and Conferences. In the following section, the refined elements are reported as they were grouped into the nine prin- c1p31,areas. The frequency of the elements in each area is shown in the parenthesis following the area heading. In each area the refined elements are listed as they occurred by respondent type and by the four major categories. 98 - Area I. Counselor Contacts With Individual Pupils (152) 1. Individual Counseling (no specifics given) 2. Individual Counseling re pupil's behavior and feelings 3. Individual Counseling re pupil's educational performance ESC EST E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P E/S I/P I/S i l 15 2 10 5 ' V.“ WV W 3 1 0"”? 7 Area II. Counselor Contacts With Groups 1. Group Counseling (no specifics) 2. Classroom meeting re school program or performance 3. Classroom meeting re behavior or feelings 4. Participation in group games 5. Taught class so teacher could observe pupils 6. Met pupils at time inconvenient for teacher of Pupils (60) ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S 1 l? 4 l 3 é 1 1’ 'O‘ 0" $1- 79 2 12 9 3 6 l EST E/P E/S I/P 15 8 5 1 4 2 2 1 2 I/S -99- Area III. of Pupils and Teachers ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S 1. Classroom observa- tion (no Specifics) 10 2. Observation of teacher's use of teaching materials 3. Playground observation 4. Observation of Phy- sical Education class Area IV. ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S 1. Review of students' cumulative folders 2. Writing pupil reports for cumulative folders 3. Obtained information on pupil's past performance and background Area V. Counselor Administration, Counselor Observations (69) Counselor Collection and Analysis of Pupil Data (16) EST E/P E/S I/P I/S 40 5 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 EST E/P E/S I/P I/S 1 Scoring and Interpretation of Standardized Tests (86) ESC EST E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P E/S I/P I/S 1. Administered Individ- ual tests 7 2 2. Administered group tests 3 1 l ‘24 - 100 - Area V. continued ESC EST E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P E/S I/P I/S 3. Scored tests 1 1 l 4 4. Interpreted tests and test results 6 l 5 19 Area VI. Counselor Contacts With Teachers Regarding Themselves (165) ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P 1. Conference with teacher (no specifics) 5 2 1 2 10 2. Conference re teacher's techniques and classroom behavior 11 3 5 12 38 3. Discussed teaching materials 5 1 ll 4. Conference re class- room management 3 4 1 S. Discussed teacher's educational goals and concepts 1 1 “‘vw w—vv—_— 7‘7— 6. Conference re teacher's 1 personal problems 3 I 7. Provided support for 1 teachers actions 3 2 4.. 8. Aided planning of teacher's classroom activities 9. Failed to hold con- ferences and follow-up contacts with teachers 4 on; 'x" flea-001““.- EST E/S I/P I/s 3 3 1 1 1 3 4 l 1 3 - 101 - Area VII. Counselor Contacts With Teachers Regarding Pupils (209) ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S 1. Conference with teacher (no specifics) 4 2 Conference with group of teachers re pupils' behavior 1 3. Conference with group of teachers and a county specialist 4. Conference re pupil's attitudes and anxieties 2 5. Discussed pupil behavior 3 6. Discussed pupil's home background 5 7. Discussed pupil's educational background, program and placement 3 8. Discussed pupil's background, home and school 9. Conference re teacher's expectations and knowledge of pupils 9 10. Conference with teacher and pupil 1 11. Conference re pupil's academic performance 12. Discussed ESC's coun- seling sessions with pupil 13. Lack of conferences and follow-up contacts with teachers re pupils .- ea .“‘w--0-_-——-—- -—- -————- ma-‘ wr-pmh. M- ~-- EST E/P E/S I/P I/S 15 2 4 2 3 2 15 1 1 24 2 26 1 5 12 6 1 l4 1 9 1 S - 102 - Area VIII. Counselor Contacts With Parents (114) ESC E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P 1. Parent conference (no specifics) 8 2. Conference with guardian or foster parents 3, Follow-up conference with mother 4 4. Conference with pupil and his mother 5. Conference with parents and teacher 2 1 6. Conference with parents, teacher and other staff 1 7. Home visits 1 8. Phone calls to parents 2 9. Letters to parents 1 10. Conference re referral to community agency 1 11. Conference re teacher's educational goals and class- room behavior 3 12. Conference re parents' behavior to pupil 13. Interpreted test scores to parents 1 l4. Gave perceptual mat- erials to parents 1 15. Discussed ESC's coun- seling sessions with pupil 16. Failed to establish good relationship with parents — ~r-».- 33 20 HWWN E/S I/P I/S - 103 - Area IX. Counselor Referrals and Conferences (55) E/P E/S I/P I/S E/P E/S I/P I/S l. Referred pupil to a reading clinic 2. Referral or confer- ence with School Social Worker 1 3. Referral or contact with School Psychologist or Diagnostician l 4. Referral to Teacher - Counselor for the Phy- sically Handicapped 5. Referral or contact with a community agency 2 6. Referral or contact with a physician 7. Referral to a dentist 1 8. Referral for a vision testing 1 9. Referral or contact with pupil's tutor 10. Conference with a supervising teacher 11. Conference with junior high counselors 1 12. Conference with teach- ers and county specialists 1 13. Conference with principal 14. Conference with teacher and principal ESC an a“ "~—v_ ' ~.....o -v'~-‘--. -. ‘- EST - 104 - The CIT Data can be further analyzed by classi- fying the elements according to the per cent in each of the nine significant areas of the elementary school counselors' behaviors. Tablesz, 3, and 4 present the number and percentages of the elements as they occur in the nine areas across the four categories and as they occur in the grand total of elements. Table 2 presents the ESC (elementary school counselor) reported elements. Table 3 gives the EST (elementary school teacher) reported elements. Table 4 presents the total reported elements by the combined total group of respondents. Comments Of the study's 127 respondents, 119 (94%) agreed with the following statement: A general aim of the elementary school counselor, as he works with elementary school teachers, is to help the teachers in better understanding--their students and themselves in a school setting. Of the study's 127 respondents, eight (6%) dis- agreed in some manner with this general aim. Regardless of the respondents' replies to this aim, all of them re- ported incidents related to the above statement which referred to the ESC as a consultant to teachers. 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