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THE‘jlb w- --o - um“ l Micfifiu state % Univerfity i This is to certify that the thesis entitled EFFECTS OF SENSORI-STIMULATION WITHIN PARENT-CHILD DYADS ON THE MENTAL SELF-IMAGE AND PSYCHOSEXUAL IDENTITY OF FOUR‘YEAR'OLD CHILDREN presented by Elma Sally Van Luven has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Family Ecology ’7 (MM/£25 Major professor Date 2/15/84” E E 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from —_. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. in" ”’13 :3 “f": r..- _ - ~r % f i = f5'? ’ WW L. if; 4 9 iii-3’1“ 5W" para '2‘“: FEB “‘33:: \j ; 5‘? EFFECTS OF SENSORI-STIMULATION WITHIN PARENT-CHILD DYADS ON THE MENTAL SELF-IMAGE AND PSYCHOSEXUAL IDENTITY OF FOUR-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN By Elma Sally Van Luven A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family and Child Ecology 1984 © Copyright by ELMA SALLY VAN LUVEN 1984 ABSTRACT EFFECTS OF SENSDRI-STIMULATIDN WITHIN PARENT-CHILD DYADS ON THE MENTAL SELF-IMAGE AND PSYCHOSEXUAL IDENTITY 0F FDUR-YEAR-DLD CHILDREN By Elma Sally Van Luven In this research the effects of sensori stimulation between same-sex and Opposite-sex parent child dyads on the child's mental image of self and the develOpment of psychosexual identity were measured. Sensori-stimulation was measured for quantity of auditory, visual, and tactile contact between the parents and the subject in seconds of contact time. Parental contact was measured for quality according to a five point Likert Scale for each parent- child interaction. Mental self-image was measured through a modifi- cation of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, wherein the subject was asked to “Draw a picture of yourself." Psychosexual identity was measured through a Gender Consistency Scale. Thirty-six subjects, 18 boys and 18 girls, between four and five years of age, were randomly selected from the Greater Flint Area, in Michigan, during the Fall of 1983. The subjects were observed in their homes through structured observation and interview. At the time of the observation, both parents were at home and participated in the interview. Quantity of sensori-stimulation between the subject and the Elma S. Van Luven parents was found to be moderately correlated with the subject's development of mental self-imagery. Quantity of sensori- stimulation from both parents was unrelated to the development of the child's psychosexual identity. The predictive power of the regression equation was increased when the parent-child relation- ship was differentiated into comparison for same-sex and Opposite- sex interaction. The most important finding of this research is that sensori- stimulation, as measured for quantity, appears to correlate with the formation of mental self-imagery in children when the interaction between parent and child is of the same-sex. Lovingly dedicated to My Family ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In Fiddler On The Roof, Tevye sings, |'I'd discuss . . . books with the learned men everyday and that would be the greatest gift of all." In 1979, I came to Michigan State University with a seed of an idea. I had noticed that children with positive, high- interacting parents appeared to be able to be placed in unfamiliar situations with greater ability to adapt that did children with highly stressed, non-interacting parents. I had noticed differences in the self-portraits of children and found that some children appeared to produce drawings with detailed body parts, while other children drew scattered parts about the page. I had studied the work of Piaget and his premises about the effect of sensori-motor involvement as a prelude to the develOpment of mental imagery. I wondered if parental sensory interaction with children contributed to the development of their mental imagery. Thus, I had formed a seed idea. I needed a fertile environment in which the idea could develop. I found the environment in the College of Human and Child Ecology at Michigan State University with additional support from Dr. Elaine Donelson, from the College of Psychology, and Dr. James Stapleton, from the College of Statistics and Probability. Dr. Eileen Earhart has been my chairperson for the past five years. I am most appreciative of her continued encouragement, her vast knowledge about developmental issues, her warmth and concern, her directness, and her sense of apprOpriateness. Dr. Beatrice Paolicci understood my seed-idea and with her unique abilities helped me to form the concepts that are central to my research. She understood my abstract ideas and helped me build a model with a concrete basis that could be measured and understood by others. I am indebted to her for her ability to make noise into communication by sharing ideas. Although Dr. Margaret Bubolz did not serve on my committee, she, and Dr. Paolucci provided the ecological framework that supported the research, helping me to form the theoretical framework so necessary to scientific study. I would like to thank Dr. Delores Borland for providing the 'packaging', the format of order so that my seed-idea could be rooted in a research study according to standards recognized by scientific communities. Many hours were Spent, by Dr. Borland, aiding in the preparation of this study. I would wish to acknowledge Dr. Verna Hildebrand, who nurtured and supported me, nudging me to continue, providing direction and encouragement, and moving me toward the fulfillment of goals. Dr. Hildebrand edited my work, and then edited it again, mixing words for improvement with words of encouragement. Dr. James Stapleton provided the statistical expertise, pointing out details that were missing and augmenting my limited understanding of statistical procedures. He spent many hours displaying ii an interest in the research so that I did not feel I might be imposing. I found that Dr. Stapleton, truly, had an Open door. Again, Dr. Stapleton, I would like to express my appreciation. Dr. Elaine Donelson helped my early review of literature by seeking answers to questions that I had not thought to ask, but found essential to my understanding of the development of psychosexual identity in young children. Throughout my study, she encouraged eXpertise, having faith in my ability to become eXpert. Dr. Linda Nelson, first my professor teaching appreciation for natural observation, and later a member of my committee, provided editing skills, improvement in methodology, and the understanding of ecological concepts, Upholding the position on my committee left vacant through the death of Dr. Paolucci. To my committee members, Dr. Earhart, Dr. Borland, Dr. Hildebrand, Dr. Donelson, Dr. Nelson, and Dr. Stapleton, I thank you for your gifts of knowledge. That is the greatest gift of all. However, my acknowledgements are not complete without mention of the continuous support of Dorothy Komarmy, the teacher consultant of the Flint Area Parent-Child Co-operative Nurseries, and a dear friend. Dorothy'provided a model of competent parenting. She uses positive support as naturally as one would breath, displaying a trust in the basic goodness of all pe0ple. Thank you for your enthusiasm, for your sharing of parent-child relationships, for your SUpport in helping me obtain a sample, and most of all, for yourself. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures . . . . . . List of Tables . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. INTRODUCTION . . . Statement of the problem Conceptual Framework . Ecological Theory . Psychodynamic Theory Social Learning Theory Cognitive Theory . Need for the study Conceptual Definitions Assumptions . . Path Model . Research Hypotheses Research Questions Overview . . REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE . . Research on Mental Self- Image Research on Psychosexual Identity Research on Interaction Acts . Integration: Leading to an Ecological Summary of Critical Findings . METHODOLOGY . . . . . Sample selection . . . Description of the sample . Description of the sample Geographical area . . Age of children . ' . Ethnic background . . Educational level of the parent Occupational level of the parent iv PerSpective Page viii ix \DVOWUS-bwwl-P H Chapter IV. Consent for study , , , , , The Research Design . Selection and Description of the Instruments Demographic Sheet . . Observation Sheet and setting . Parent Report The Goodenough- Harris Drawing Test Gender Consistency Scale . Description of the Variables: Conceptual an Operational Definitions . Sensori-stimulation Quantity of time . Quality of Contact . Gender relationship. Auditory stimulation Visual stimulation . Tactile stimulation Mental image of self Psychosexual Development of Identi y Age of the subject. . . Level of Education . . OCCUpational Level . . . Data Analysis . . Statistical Methods and assumptions Simple frequency distribution Paired T-Tests. . Pearson Product Moment Correlation Multiple Regression . . . Guttman Scaling . . . . Path Analysis . . . . . ooooooofioooooooo 0.0000000000000000...Q90... FINDINGS . O O O 0 Descriptive statistics . Inferential Statistics . Question 1 . . Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis Research Hypothesis oovmuihwmn-n O I O O O O O O O O O 116 118 121 123 Chapter Page Question 2 . . . . . . . 139 Question 3 . . . . . . . 142 Question 4 . . . . . . . 153 Summary of the findings . . . . . . 155 V. CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS 159 Conclusions . . . . . . . . 160 Discussion . . . . . . . . 163 Limitations . . . . . . . . 171 Implications . . . . . . . . 173 Summary . . . . . . . . 176 APPENDICES A Letters and Forms for Parents Letter requesting participation . . . . 179 Parental Consent Form . . . . . . 180 Thank-you letter to parents . . . . . 181 WorkshOp Invitation . . . . . 182 Form for scheduled appointments . . . . 183 B Directions For Administration of Instruments Administration of Observation Sheet . . . 184 Form for coding of nonsense numbers . . . 186 To Score Parent Report . . . . . . 187 Form for code for SPSS program . . . . 188 C Instruments Used in Research Demographic Data . . . . . . . 190 Observation Sheet . . . . . . . 193 Parent Report Mother' 5 Form . . . . . . . 194 Father' 5 Form . . . . . 202 Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test . . . . 210 Gender Consistency Scale Female Form . . . . . . . 211 Male Form . . . . . . . 213 D Materials Used Hith Gender Consistency Scale . Male and Female Pictures . . . . . 215 Paper Dolls Illustrated . . . . . 216 vi APPENDICES E SPSS Printout of Raw Data F Additional Tables Table 34 . Table 35 . Table 36 . BIBLIOGRAPHY . Children's Books vii Page 217 222 223 224 225 233 Figure 10 LIST OF FIGURES Path Structural Relationship where Quantity and Quality of Sensori-Stimulation within Parent and Child Dyads is Postulated to affect a Causal Hierarchy; Sensori- Stimulation affects the Development of Mental Self-Image inducing change in Psychosexual Identity, as concept- ualized in the model . . . . . . . Illustration of Instrument Usage with Family Member Where X Prepresents Usage . . . . . . Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Total Sample . . . . . . Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Female Subsample . . . . . Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Male Subsample . . . . . Bar Chart for Total Sample, Distribution of Mental Self- Image Scores . . . . . . . . Bar Chart for Total Sample, Distribution of Consistency Scores For Psychosexual Identity . . . . Reorder of Gender Scale Items according to Guttman Scalability for Total Sample, Female Subsample and Male Subsample, rated from Least to Most Difficult. Illustration of change in mid-scores. . . . Pictures of Male and Female Figures for Gender Consistency . . . . . . . . Paper Dolls for Use with Gender Consistency Scale . viii Page 12 55 91 92 93 100 101 106 215 216 Table 10 LIST OF TABLES Comparison of Years of School Completed by Parent with More Formal Education, with 1981 National Census Data . Comparison of Occupational Level of Father of Subject with Employed Persons of 1981 National Census Data . . Summary of Means and Standard Deviations of Variables with Comparison between Total Sample and Subsample of Female and Male Subjects . . . . . . . Summary of Range of Observed Sensori-Stimulation as Quality of Contact and Quantity of Time in Seconds; Data for Total Sample and Subsample of Female and Male Subjects Illustration of Guttman Scaling of Variable, Psychosexual Identity for Total Subjects. . . . . . . Illustration of Guttman Scaling of Variable Psychosexual Identity for Female Subjects . . . . . . Illustration of Guttman Scaling of Variable, Psychosexual Identity for Male Subjects . . . . . . Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between the Observed Total Sensori-stimulation and the Parent Report of Perceived Contact for Quantity Between Same-sex and OppOS‘Ite-Sex dyadS o o o o o o o 0 Summary of Correlation Between Observation of Quantity of stimulation, of Same-sex Interaction, according to Sensori- Modalities of Tactile, Auditory, and Visual Contact with the Parent Report of Quantity Interaction in each Modality for Subsamples of Female and Male Subjects. . . . Summary of Correlations Between Observation of Quantity stimulation, of Opposite-sex Interaction, according to Sensori-Modalities of Tactile, Auditory, and Visual Contact with the Parent Report of Quantity Interaction in each modality for Subsamples of Female and Male Subjects . . ix Page 52 54 96 97 103 104 105 108 110 111 Table Page 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Summary of Correlation of Dependent Variable: Mental Image with Quality and Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation according to Total Parental Interaction, Interaction of Same-sex Dyads, and Interaction of Opposite-sex Dyads for Total Subjects and Subsamples of Female Subjects and Male Subjects. . . . . . . 114 Summary of Multiple Regression Hierarchical Inclusion of Independent Variables: Total Quantity Stimulation between Child and Parents, Quality of Contact, and Age of Child with Mental Self-Image for Total Sample . . 115 Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation and Quality of Parent Contact with Psychosexual Identity for Total Sample . 118 Summary of Multiple Regression Hierarchical Inclusion of Independent Variables; Total Sensori-stimulation between Child and Parents, Quality of Contact, Age of Subject, Educational Level of Parent, Mental Image Score with Psychosexual Identity for Total Sample . . . 120 Summary of Pearson Product Moment Zero Order Correlations: Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation and Quality of Parental Contact with Mental Image for Same-sex and Opposite-sex Parent-Child Dyads . . . . . . . . 125 Summary of Multiple Regression Hierarchical Inclusion of Independent Variables: Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation, Quality of Contact, Psychosexual Identity, Age of the Subject, and Educational Level of Parent with Mental Self-Image Score for Same-sex and Opposite-Sex Dyads of Total Sample . . . . . . . . . 126 Summary by Percentages of Square of Partial when Independent Variablezis entered and Percentage of Contribution to R in Order of Rank for Impact of Independent Variable on Mental Image . . 129 Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Mental Self-Image by Quantity of Stimulation, Quality of Contact, Age of Subject, and Educational Level of the Parents, for Total Subjects . . . 130 Table 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Page Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Psychosexual Identity with Quality of Contact, Quantity Stimulation, and Mental Self-Image, for Total Subjects . . . . . . . 133 Summary of Correlation of Dependent Variable: Psychosexual Identity with Quality and Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation according to Total Parental Inter- action, Interaction of Same-sex Dyads, and Interaction of Opposite-sex Dyads for Total Subjects and Subsamples of Female Subjects and Male Subjects . . . . 135 Summary of Multiple Regression Hierarchical Inclusion of Independent Variables: Quantity of Sensori- Stimulation, Quality of Contact, Mental Self-Image, and Age of Subject with Psychosexual Identity for Same-sex and Opposite-sex Dyads of Total Sample . . . 137 Summary by Percentage of Square of Partial when Independent Variablezis Entered and Percentage of Contribution to R in Order of Rank for Impact of Independent Variables on Mental Image . . . 138 Summary of T-Tests of Means of Sensori-Stimulation Within Parent-Child Dyads for Boys and Girls with Mother and Fathers; Sensori-Stimulation as Tactile, Visual, and Auditory for Quantity and Quality of Contact 140 Summary of T-Tests of Means of Sensori-Stimulation Within Same and Opposite-Sex Dyads of Parent and Child: Sensori-Stimulation as Tactile, Visual, and Auditory for Quantity and Quality of Contact . . . . . 141 Summary of Correlations Between Mental Self-Image Score and Independent Variables of Opposite-Sex Interaction as: Overall Quantity stimulation and Sensori-modalities of Auditory, Visual, and Tactile, Quality of Contact with Parent, and Age of Subject for Total Sample and Subsample of Male and Female Subjects. . . . . , 143 Summary of Correlations Between Mental Self-Image Score and Independent Variables of Same-sex Interaction as: Overall Quantity stimulation and Sensori-modalities of Auditory, Visual, and Tactile, Quality of Contact with Parent, and Age of Subject for Total Sample and Subsample of Male and Female Subjects . . . . . . . . 145 xi Table Page 27 Summary of Correlations Between Psychosexual Identity with Independent Variables of Same-Sex Interaction as: Overall Quantity Stimulation, Sensory Modalities of Auditory, Visual, and Tactile, Quality of Contact with Parent, Age of Subject, and Mental Self-Image Score for Total Sample and Subsample of Female and Male Subjects . . . . . . . . . . 146 28 Summary of Correlations Between Psychosexual Identity with Independent Variables of Opposite-Sex Interaction as: Overall Quantity Stimulation, Sensori-Modalities of Auditory, Visual, and Tactile, Quality of Contact with Parent, Age of Subject, and Mental Self-Image for Total Sample and Subsamples of Male and Female Subjects . . 147 29 Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Mental Self-Image by Quantity of Stimulation, Quality of Contact, for Female Subjects . . . . 149 30 Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Mental Self-Image by Quantity of Stimulation, Quality of Contact, for Male Subjects. . . . . 150 31 Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Psychosexual Identity by Quantity of Stimula- tion and Quality of Contact, for Female Subjects . . 152 32 Summary of Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for the Prediction of Psychosexual Identity by Quality of Contact, Quantity of Stimulation, and Age of the Subject for Male Subjects . . . . . . . . . . 154 33 Correlations between Sensory Modalities: Auditory, Visual, and Tactile for Total sample, Female subsample. and Male subsample of Same-sex and Opposite-sex dyads . . . 156 34 Summary of Correlations Between Observations of Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation Multiplicative Product (Auditory x Visual x Tactile) and the Multiplicative Product of the Parent Report of Sensori-Stimulation for Total Stimulation By Same-sex and Opposite-sex dyads, for subsamples of Female and Male Subjects . . . . . . . 222 xii Table Page 35 Mean Minutes of Parental Sensori-Stimulation according 36 to Gender Relationship to the Subject as Same or Opposite-Sex During One Hour Observation Time for Subsample of Female Subjects and Male Subjects . . 223 2 values and Probability of Obtaining a Unit Normal Deviate of Value (GE, for Abs of Z), for Examination of Residuals, Examing Runs for Total Sample and Subsample Female and Subsample Male . . . . 224 xiii EFFECTS OF SENSORI STIMULATION WITHIN PARENT-CHILD DYADS ON THE MENTAL SELF-IMAGE AND PSYCHOSEXUAL IDENTITY OF FOUR-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN INTRODUCTION In this research the effects of sensori-stimulation within same-sex and opposite-sex parent-child dyads on the child's mental image of self and the develOpment of psychosexual identity were measured. Sensori-stimulation was measured for quantity of auditory, visual, and tactile contact between the parents and the subject in seconds of contact time. Parental contact was measured for quality according to a five point Likert Scale for each parent- child interaction. Mental self-image was measured through a modifi- cation of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, wherein the subject was asked to, "Draw a picture of yourself". Psychosexual identity was measured through a Gender Consistency Scale. Thirty-six subjects, 18 boys and 18 girls, between four and five years, were randomly selected from the Greater Flint area. The subjects were observed in their home through structured observation and interview. At the time of the home visit, both parents were present and participated in the interview. Statement of the Problem A review of the literature in two books containing the abstracts of research conducted between 1977 through 1978 indicated that the formation of mental self imagery has received little empirical testing. In 1977 - 1978, fourteen research abstracts were presented in Child Development Abstracts and Bibliographies. In 1982 - 1983, thirty research studies were presented in Psychological Abstracts, either referenced as mental self-image, or self-concept and self-esteem. The theoretical frameworks used as a basis for the research were psychodynamic, social learning, and cognitive develOpmental. Of the forty-four articles, emphasis was on the remediation of poor self-image or low self-concept and the variables that predicted or explained low self-concept. How the mental self-image is formed has received little empirical testing. In the past, researchers have looked at the psychosexual identity of the child using three major frameworks. In all frameworks the psychosexual identity is measured through parental interaction. In psychodynamic theory, psychosexual identity is related to biologi- cal and emotional forces. In social learning theory, psychosexual identity is established through environmental conditioning by which the child reSponds as a result of reward or punishment. In cognitive- develOpmental theory, psychosexual identity is a sequential process and is based upon intellectual develOpment. In each of these three frameworks the child is measured in Specifics rather than as an integrated whole interacting actively with the environment. In this research a family ecological approach to understand- ing the development of a mental self-image and psychosexual identity was used, providing a more inclusiVe theory than any of the three theories used in prior research. From the ecological perspective, the child is an integrated being interacting with the environment. The parent is the environment and this grouping, child and environ- ment, becomes a system. The environment of parent, is believed to stimulate the senses involving the child and resulting in cycles of feedback (Nelson, 1980). The overall objective of this research was to measure the effects of sensori-stimulation between parent and child on the develooment of the child's mental self-image as a prelude to the formation of the child's psychosexual identity. Conceptual Framework In prior studies the development of a mental self-image has been approached from a social, emotional, or cognitive theoretical orientation. The same division of emphasis was true of research related to the formation of psychosexual identity. Yet, human outcomes are related to all aspects of develOpment. In this research, the primary contribution of each theory was integrated into an ecological model. In the ecological model, the child is viewed as a growing organism that develops socially and cognitively through interaction with the environment. The system of child and environment is based upon an interactive model with feedback as a form of energy transmission. The family ecosystem, in this research, consisted of child and parent, wherein the child was one unit of energy transmission and the parent the other. The child's environment was the human element of parents. Energy was transmitted from parent to child and the child to parent via engage- ment of the auditory, visual, and tactile sensory system. The child's mental self-image was defined as the mental representation, or memory, the child had of self. The stronger, or more detailed the mental representation, the stronger the mental self- image that is formulated. Psychosexual identity referred to the part of self develop- ment wherein one comes to know the self as female or male. Psycho- sexual identity was postulated to be formed sequentially as child- ren respond to social reinforcement of the environment via energy in the form of sensori-stimulation. In psychodynamic theory it is postulated that self-identity begins when the infant separates from the concept of self-mother to self. This is said to occur from the experience of wanting the mother's breast and not receiving it (Klein, 1961). Psychosexual identity is the self-identity as male or female and is postulated to result as the child progresses through the Oedipal or Electra (phallic stage) period of conflict. During this period the child is sexually attracted to the Opposite-sex parent and believes the same-sex parent to be a rival for the loving attention desired from the parent of the same-sex. When the child perceives the same- sex parent to be more powerful than self, the child fears retalia- tion for thoughts of desire and hostility. In defense, the child identifies with the same-sex parent and begins to imitiate the behavior the same-sex parent diSplays. Unresolved conflict would result in a confusion of psychosexual identity. In this theory an emphasis is placed upon the child's awareness of genital differences as manifested by a penis or lack of a penis. The boy, fearing the anger of his father, might eXperience a "castration anxiety" while the girl, perceiving that men have more power, might experience penis envy. In psychodynamic theory it is suggested that the develOpment of mental self-image and psychosexual identity is dependent upon the res- olution of needs or desires Specific to the stages of develOpment. The focus of social learning_theory is upon the child's imitiation of and identification with significant others. Self- image is discussed in terms of positive or negative interaction with the caregivers in the child's environment. The onset of mental self- image begins with imprinting. Imprinting is an attachment between an infant and the first moving object or person seen (Hess, 1962; Moltz, 1965). Imprinting is an instinctive tendency to remain near the person first observed at the time of the birth. Psychosexual identity develOps as the child responds to the environmental messages that reinforce the child's growing awareness of self as male or female. Once the gender of the child is established, usually at birth, the child is treated according to social classification and given a 'girl' name or a 'boy' name, dressed in feminine or masculine clothing, and placed in a room decorated according to sex-typed choices. Behavior is eXpected which is considered apprOpriate to the gender of the child. When the child displays such behavior the child is rewarded through SUpportive responses from the pe0ple with whom the attachment had been formed. When the child displays behavior inconsistent or in opposition to the biological gender, the child is given nonsupport, or is punished. Thus, the child accepts socially scripted behaviors, defining the psychosexual identity, through the positive or negative response to the parent. Parental response to a child's gender leading to sex- role orientation is measured by evidence of imitations of the model by the child (Bell, Johnson, McGillicudy, and Siegel, 1981; Biller, 1969; Brody and Stoneman, 1981; Clark-Stewart and Hevey, 1981; Estep, Burt and Milligan, 1977; Hartup, 1962; Hetherington and Frankie, 1967; Munsinger and Rabin, 1978; Santrock, 1970; and Stephens and Day, 1979). In Cognitive theory it was suggested by Piaget (1962) that mental self-image is the result of the child's sensorimotor involvement with pe0ple and objects in the environment. Using a series of sensori- motor eXplorations with success and error, children assimilate models through imitation that is the result of special accommodation through perceptive activity. The child's 'imitations' are an attempt to integrate or sycretize elementary forms of sensorimotor schemas into mental representations that lead to the formation of images. As the child's intellectual develOpment progresses from a mental image of self as a person, the child begins to differentiate self into a Specific category as a male person or a female person of boy or girl. Psycho- sexual identity occurs in a sequential development as the child re- orients to each period of classification according to the child's cognitive develOpment. Initially the child believes that psychosexual identity is subject to environmental impingement. In this stage, the child believes that any external change in self, or others, results in a change in gender, or psychosexual identity. Researchers using this theory focus Upon measures of gender identity, gender stability over time, and gender consistency. Level of psychosexual identity is determined through the child's classification as male or female and the extent that gender identity is integrated cognitively by the child (Abelson, 1979; Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh, and Sharabany, 1977; Gouze and Nadelman, 1980; Marcus and Overton, 1978; McConaghy, 1979; Slaby and Frey, 1975; and Storm, 1979). Need for the Stugy A poor self-concept has been found to be related to physical handicaps, familial relationships, substance abuse, poor school performance with low academic achievement, and the inability to set goals and determine values (Ahlgren, Noren, Houchhauser, and Garvin, 1982; Berryman, Davis and Simmons, 1981; Brown and Karnes, 1982; Coleman, 1983; Mischey, 1981; and Reardon and Griffing, 1983). Yet, despite knowledge about the relationship between a positive mental self-image and positive outcomes, empirical research testing of specific variables as related to the formation of mental self-image has not been done. In each of the prior theories, certain variables are postulated to relate to formation of mental self-image, but empirical testing has not incorporated the variables into a theoretical model. In psychodynamic theory interaction with the parent of the same-sex is important to the develOpment of psychosexual identity at, or about, four to five years of age. Further, in psychodynamic theory, children who are unable to resolve the conflict of identification with the same-sex parent will eXperience psychosexual confusion. In social learning theory, parental reinforcement can be negative or positive. Thus, quality of parental contact is the reinforcement for child interaction and acceptance of self as male or female. In Cognitive develOpment theory the child's mental self-image and psychosexual identity are develOped through sensorimotor involve- ment with the environment. Thus, quantity of sensori-stimulation enhances the child's develOpment. Each of the theoretical frameworks, psychodynamic, social learning, and cognitive develOpment, offered a partial explanation of the develOpment of mental self-image and the progression toward psychosexual identity in this research. In earlier studies, no comparisons were made of quality of parental contact and quantity of sensori-stimulation on the development of mental imagery at any age. No prior research was found in which the develonment of a mental self-image was related to psychosexual identity. This research was designed to use variables from three theoretical frameworks to provide an integrated model in which a social and a cognitive variable were measured, with attention to the stage of psychosexual interest in the child's parents as related in psychodynamic theory. The findings of this research could provide information leading to further understanding of the relationship between the quality of parental contact as related to the quantity of sensori-stimulation, as measured for parent-child contact within same-sex and opposite-sex dyads during the phallic stage of develop- ment during the child's fourth year. Conceptual Definitions The following concepts were defined throughout this study as: Mental self-image. -- A mental representation or interior imitation resulting from sensory-motor schemas of one's perception of self and is assimilated through the perceptive activity of the child (Piaget, 1962). Sensori-stimulation. -- The actual physical event or preperty activating a sensory receptor in the child as a result of parent-child interaction. Quantity of time. -- The amount of time of sensori-stimulation between the child and parents as measured in seconds. Quality of contact. -- The positive, negative, or neutral char- acteristics of the interaction between the parent and the child (Lamb, 1976). Gender relationship. -- The parent-child dyad of same-sex or opposite-sex during each sensori-stimulation interaction. Auditory stimulation. -- The stimulation of the cochlea of the inner ear through impact with sound wherein the child's parent(s) is talking, singing, or making auditory sounds within range of the child. Visual stimulation. -- The act of looking, gazing, observing, staring, or having eye contact wherein the retina of the child's eye is stimulated through contact with the parent. Tactile stimulation. -- The act during which the child is touched, held, stroked, hit or all acts in which one part of the child's body is in contact with the body of the parent. 10 Psychosexual Identity.-- That part of self development wherein the child comes to know self as female or male (Abelson. 1979; Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh, and Sharabany, 1977; Gouze and Nadelman, 1980; McConaghy, 1979; Slaby and Frey, 1975). Environment. -- All factors outside an organism that impinge Upon it. If an individual is the organism the other family members are considered as the environment (Nelson, 1980). Interaction.-- The child's empathic involvement with the environment (Soderman, 1979). Ecological.-- The interdependent nature of human beings and their environment, including energy flows (Soderman, 1979). System. -- A group of units combined as to form a whole and Operating in unison (Nelson, 1980). Assumptions In the process of this study the following assumptions have been made. 1. In interaction with parents, the primary sense modalities used by children, four years of age, are auditory, visual, and tactile. 2. The sensori interaction within parent-child dyads can be quantified. 3. The quality of contact between parent and child was not Significantly different, when being observed, as when the parent and the child interacted without research interference. 4. Simultaneous interaction between mother and child 11 and father and child affect the child as two independ- ent stimulations. Path Model The ecological model used in this research is illustrated in Figure 1. The independent variables, quantity of sensori-stimula- tion and quality of parental contact, are postulated to form a path structural relationship to mental self-image as a prelude to the develOpment of psychosexual identity. Age, an intervening variable, is added to provide further eXplanation of the variance in the develOpment of child outcomes. Research Hypotheses The overall objective of this research was to measure the effects of sensori-stimulation between parent and child on the develOp- ment of the child's mental self-image as a prelude to the deveTOpment of psychosexual identity. Sensori-stimulation was measured through the auditory, visual, and tactile sense modalities, separately and collectively, for impact of multimodal sensori-stimulation interaction. In order to meet this objective three hypotheses were tested and are stated in null and alternative forms. _Hypothesis 1: H0: Null Hypothesis There is no relationship between the quantity of sensori- stimulation and the development of mental self-image in the child. 12 Quanta ity Key: 0 -——-{Ea>- Regression coefficient Image E ---- :;F ' {ual- ity Dependent Variable E Residual causes =y’l - R Independent Variables ? Variables added in Stepwise Multiple Reg- ression ‘_______ Correlational r relationship FIGURE 1. --Path Structural Relationship where Quantity and Quality of Sensori-Stimulation Within Parent and Child Dyads is Postulated to affect a Causal Hierarchy; Sensori- Stimulation affects the DevelOpment of Mental Self-Image inducing change in Psychosexual Identity, as concept- ualized in the Model. 13 HI: Alternative Hypothesis The greater the quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child, the higher the child's mental image of self will be. Hypothesis 2: H0: Null Hypothesis There is no relationship between the quality of parental contact and the develOpment of mental self-imagery in the child. HI: Alternative Hypgthesis The greater the quality of parental contact between parent and child, the higher the child's mental image of self will be. Hypothesis 3: H0: Null Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have no greater relationship to the development of the child's mental self-image than will quality of sensori-stimulation. HI: Alternative Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have a stronger positive relationship with the develOpment of the child's mental self-image than will quality of sensori-stimulation. This researcher postulated, furthermore, that the develOpment of psychosexual identity is affected by sensori-stimulation between parent and child. A second objective in this research was to measure the effect of sensori-stimulation between parent and child on the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity. In order to meet the second objective three hypotheses were tested. 14 Hypothesi§_4; H0: Null Hypothesis There is no relationship between the quantity of sensori- stimulation and the develOpment of psychosexual identity in the child. HI: Alternative Hypothesis The greater the quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child, the higher the develOpmental level of the child's psychosexual identity will be. Hypothesis 5: HO: Null Hypothesis There is no relationship between the quality of parental contact and the develOpment of psychosexual identity in the child. HI: Alternative Hypothesis The greater the quality of parental contact between parent and child the higher the child's deveTOpmental level of psychosexual identity will be. Hypothesis 6: HO:‘ Null Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have no greater relation- ship to the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity than will quality of sensori-stimulation. HI: Alternative Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have a stronger positive relationship with the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity than will quality of sensori-stimulation. The third objective of this research is to study the relation- ship between the develOpment of the child's mental image of self and the development of the child's psychosexual identity. To meet this 15 objective one hypothesis was tested. Hypothesis 7: H0: Null Hypothesis There is no relationship between the child's mental image of self and the develOpmental level of the child's psychosexual identity. HI: Alternative Hypothesis The greater the develOpmental level of the child's mental image of self, the higher the child's develOpmental level of psychosexual identity will be. The fourth objective was to compare the effect of same-sex parent-child dyads, as compared to Opposite-sex parent-child dyads, on child outcomes of mental image of self and the developmental level of psychosexual identity. To meet this objective one hypothesis was tested. Hypothesis 8: HO: Null Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation and quality of parental contact within the same-sex parent-child will have no stronger relationship with these two variables than will opposite-sex dyads. HI: Alternative Hypothesis Quantity of sensori-stimulation and quality of parental contact within same-sex parent-child dyads will have a stronger relationship to child outcomes than will these two variables for Opposite-sex dyads. Research Questions Four questions related to hypothesis testing were important to the develOpment of this research. The first question is based upon 16 the choice of instrument that would ultimately be selected to meaSure quantity of sensori-stimulation. The Observation Sheet was used to measure the observed quantity of sensori-stimulation during a home visit, while the Parent Report was used to measure the parents' perception of sensori-stimulation. Qpestion 1: Does parental perception of quantity of sensori-stimulation, as measured by the Parent Report significantly correlate with the observed quantity of sensori-stimulation measured using the Observation Sheet? The second set of questions is related to the difference in the Quantity of contact between boys and girls in the interaction with parents, as well as the quality of care the children received. The next set of questions is concerned with the differences in interaction between boys and girls with mothers and fathers. Question 2: 00 girls receive significantly higher quality of contact and greater quantity of sensori-stimulation from mothers than they do from fathers. destion 3: Do boys receive significantly higher quality of contact and greater quantity of sensori-stimulation from fathers than they do from mothers. The fourth question is related to the individual contribution of each sense, auditory, visual and tactile, as compared to the inter- modal contribution of the senses. Question 4: -Does a specific sense contribute to child outcomes of mental— self-image and psychosexual identity more than the intermodal 17 contribution of the senses? Overview Chapter II contains a review of literature related to the develOpment of mental self-image and the develooment of psychosexual identity. The theoretical orientation of this paper, the ecological model, is discussed as well. Methodology is described in Chapter III, including a discussion Of the sample selection, a descritption of the sample, the research design, selection and description of the instruments, conceptual and Operational definitions of the major variables, data collection and analysis, and the statistical methods used in the analysis of data. Chapter IV contains the descriptive and inferential statistics and a summary Of the findings. The final chapter, Chapter V, includes the conclusions, discussion of findings, limitations and implications for future research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE The research literature pertinent to this study is reviewed under three general headings: Research on Mental Self Image; Research on Psychosexual Identity DevelOpment; Research on Interaction Acts; and Integration: Leading to an Ecological Model. Research On Mental Self-Image The concept of one's self-image follows a develOpmental sequence. In infancy the self concept is based upon motor sensory experience through interaction with the environment (Piaget, 1962; Smart and Smart, 1977). Initially, infants must separate self from the mother- self (Klein, 1961) and the rest of reality (Smart and Smart). During the preschool years of life, the child's mental imagery is based upon a concrete reality, memories appear to be related tO Specific peOple and things rather than tO concepts and abstractions and are the result of imitative accommodations of prior events or interactions (Piaget). Young children imitate to form an object-notion and after the internal self-image is formed children further classify the self with the body parts of others, initially through comparison of the face (Kohlberg, 1966; Piaget, 1962). Initially the concept of self and the mental- self-image are based upon physical occurrences of interaction with objects and peOple in the environment. As the child grows in cognition the mental self-image becomes more abstract. At maturity: the 18 19 adult's self concept includes an ability to stand back and look at self, self-action, feelings, and relationships with others, and is more diverse than the child's mental self-image (Smart and Smart). Early literature about mental self-imagery is philOSOphical with limited empirical research about the formation of mental self-image directly related to sensory stimulation from the environment (Di Leo, 1973; Klein, 1961; Piaget, 1962; Schilder, 1950). Di Leo (1973) wrote, It may be said . . . that a concept of one's body-image is essential for a valid perception of the outside; that the concept evolves, arriving at greater complexity through a sequence of identi- fiable stages; that while the impetus to its de- velOpment arises from within, the form the body image will assume is dependent Upon interaction between intrinsic forces and . . . the child's personal environment; and that preeminent is the person who provides the affection and stimulation that is called mothering (n. 22). Di Leo (l973) postulated that the body-image is the self-perception and is the result of tactile, visual, and auditory interaction with the environment. Schilder (1950) called the self-image a body image or body schema. He wrote that the body schema is three dimensional and is not mere perception but is based upon mental imagery as mental pictures and representations that are the result Of sensory expereinces and present interactions. Imagery is modified, he wrote, through continual interchange between one's own body and the body image of others. Schilder stated that the body image is dependent upon a physiological exchange with the environment through use of the 20 sensori systems. In his work he described the change in the mental pictures of self among patients suffering from apOplexy, brain lesions, amputations, or other body traumas. Smart and Smart (1979) wrote that body experiences including movement and freedom to explore aid the child in developing a sense of self-imagery, wherein the self-image grows stronger as children experience body control and are able to expand their sensory experiences. This view is supported in the work of Lefford, Birch, and Green (1974) who found that children 3 to 6 years of age had difficulty localizing their fingers when they had either visual‘gp tactile cues. However, when children were able to use information from more than one sense modality, such as visual 332 tactile, the performance Of the children improved. Further, research by Nystul and Freedman (1982) described how active life styles of movement and exploration contributed to positive self-concepts in older children. Empirical research about develOpmental sequences of mental self- imagery is scarce, with but one study since 1977. In that study the develOpment of self-concept was used as a conceptual definition. Montemayor and Eisen (1977) found that as children grew from preschool years to adulthood there was a progression of self concept. The progression, or develOpmental sequence, was body imagery, sense-of the physical self, interest in self-resources, possessions, territoriality, and more abstract relationships as existential, individuating, ideolo- gical sense of self with a sense of determination and unity. An early classical work by Rouma (1919) suggested that the 21 mental self-image as revealed in drawings evolves in six stages: I. First tentative attempts, wherein names might be given to indefinite shapes. 2. The tad ole stage. 3. A transitional stage during which the tad ole, or human schema consists of legs coming from a large head. 4. A representation of the self-image, front, or full faced. 5. A partial profile and full face figure. 6. Figures drawn correctly in profile (p. 199). While Rouma did not use statistical method for analysis of data, he used numerous case studies to support his conclusions. Early discussion Of children's drawings, as a reflection of mental self-image, differ in the importance of the circle drawn by the child. Klein (1961) suggested that the circle represented the breast Of the mother, desired by the child, and reSponsible for the child's initial acknowledgement of self as a separate being. Bettleheim, (1971) a psychodynamic theorist, ascribed to the circle-breast theory in his in- terpretation of autistic children's drawings. Di Leo (1970, 1973) wrote that the initial circle represents the head of a person. KOppitz (1968) found that by five years of age children could be expected to draw the head and eyes of their human figure drawings. She summarized her work on analyzing children's drawings Of themselves by stating that such drawings depicted an attitude toward themselves and the interpersonal relationships that were eXperienced. The mental self- image, Koppitz suggested is indicative of the develOpmental stage of the child, and determined by age, level of maturation, attitudes and concerns, and illustrated that most important to the child. KOppitz based her research on 1856 children 5 to 12 years of age. TO score the drawings 22 a scoring derived from the Goodenough-Harris (1963) criteria was used. From the analysis of data, Koppitz found that by age five, 7 items could be eXpected on 85% of the drawings done by girls, and 6 items on 85% of the drawings done by boys. Koppitz developed a 30 develOpmental item scale, finding that the number Of develOpmental items found on the draw- ings increased with the age of the child. To measure for impact of schooling KOppitz scored the drawings Of the oldest students upon enter- ing school in the fall and compared the results with the scores of the youngest students at the end Of the school year. She found that when the youngest students' drawings were compared to the Older students, at the age of the youngest students comparable to the older students' age at the time of the drawing, age rather than schooling appeared to predict the number of body parts drawn by the child. KOppitz scored the drawings of her subjects for a second set of signs, labeled Emotional Indicators, that appeared to be related to behaviors and attitudes of the children. The work of Goodenough (1926) is an important contribution toward the understanding of the importance of the child's human figure drawing. Goodenough analyzed the work Of prior authors who had written about drawings and summarized their work: 1. In young children a close relationshop is apparent between concept develOpment illustrated in drawing and general intel- ligence. 2. Drawing, to the child is primarily a language, a form of expression, rather than a means of art. 3. In the beginning, children draw what they know, or remember, not what they see, as the child ages the child will attempt to draw what is seen. 4. Children exaggerate the size of items that seem to be important to them. 23 5. The order of develOpment in drawing is remark- ably consistent, even among children of different social environments. 6. The earliest drawings of children consist of items, or parts of the bodv without a spatial relationship between the parts. 7. In drawings, children pay little or no attention to the model. 80 O I O 12. Up to about the age of ten years, children draw the human figure in preference to any other subject (DOS 12-13). Besides the review of the early literature, Goodenough developed a scoring system based Upon analysis Of 4000 drawings from children 4.0 years to 10 years of age. Based upon comparisons a set of standards was develOped with Specific directions for scoring a body part as passed or as failed. A double criterion was used to develOp norms based upon the child's chronological age and the school grade. Standardized directions were given for administration of the test. Goodenough determined the validity of the test through comparison of the test scores on the drawings of 334 children who had been given the Standard-Binet. The scores were correlated and found to range between .699, for five year Old subjects, to .849, for 10 year old subjects. She used the human figure drawings as a measure of intelligence. She measured the reliability by a test-retest method wherein the test was readministered the next day to 194 first grade children. The correlation between the drawings was found to be .937. Machover (1949) wrote that human figure drawings reflect the internal mental picture a person has of self, rather than the actual depiction of the person. Her analysis compared the human figure drawings with individual Rorschach scores of subjects, and her work 24 reflects her perception that the human figure drawing is a projection of the mental self-image. The emphasis of her study was the use of the human figure drawing with adult subjects, although she did review the work Of children (Machover, 1953). The scoring system that was develOped as a result of her study is based upon the projective and analytical content Of her Own orientation, but is not Specific in terms of providing a numerical rating that can be used for comparison of drawings to form scales. Further, Machover used several clinical subjects, but did not do the empirical testing necessary for standardiza- tion. She observed that the drawings that were Obtained from the same subiect over a period of time, for adult subjects, were remarkably alike and that the drawings of the subjects appeared to be constant enough to be a personal signature. Harris (1963) revised the original work of Goodenough by requesting that children draw three figures, a man, a woman, and a picture of themselves. The child is instructed to, "Draw a picture of yourself. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make your whole self, not just your head and shoulders." (p. 316) Harris revised the scoring system so that the more detail that a child in- cluded the higher the score. The improvement provided a format that is Specific, yet easily followed by relatively untrained professionals such as counselors, teachers, and technicians. Finally, Di Leo (1970, 1973) contributed to the literature on children's drawings. Drawings obtained from individual sessions with children, preschool through high school, were analyzed for content. 25 He reviewed the work of earlier writers, including Klein (1961). He stated that the initial circle drawn by the child was universal and was drawn by children who had been living in institutions and had never seen the breast Of a woman. He agreed with Piaget (1962) stating that the drawing of young children reflects an inner concept of reality of the child's mental representation or mental image. Thus, he wrote that children draw what is remembered at the time. Di Leo wrote that the size of the head is exaggerated because of its importance to the child. The human figure that the preschooler draws, he believed, may not represent only the child's self, but might encompass a concept of the child's perception of peOple. The child's self is included in the general classification. He accepted the work of Schilder (1950) that the mental self-image is built upon sensory interaction with other peOple in the environment of the child. He summarized his orientation by agreeing with Machover (1949) that the drawing is a combination of the cognitive, affective, and perceptual states Of the child. In a recent study (Christante, 1981), children in grades one through five were asked to draw a house, tree, person, and self- portrait. Factor analysis was performed on 13? scoring variables. The results indicated that the drawings of children at developmental stages related to their self-perception Of important relationships in their environment according to patterns of develOpment. According to the ecological model used in this research, mental self-image initially includes a concrete sense of body parts 26 remembered by the child, which indicate importance to the Child in sensory interaction with the environment. Accordingly, the mental self-image would develop as the child, actively seeking information, receives feedback from the environment. The sensori-stimulation that resulted from the interaction between the child and the environ- ment would provide the energy for exchange (Paolucci, Hall and Axinn, 1977). The energy is transformed into information via neurological processes in the child and the mental-self image results from the exchange process. Research On Psychosexual Identipy Psychosexual identity, as postulated in psychodynamic theory, is determined through biologically based drives and manifested through psychic energy. Prior to the age of six, the child is motivated to respond according to a need to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Pleasure is centered in zones, and these zones direct the human's reSponse to the environment. The zones change according to a develOp- mental sequence and are "of sexual quality" (Freud, 1952). The sexual zones which direct the child are the oral zone at infancy, the anal zone at about the second year of life, and the phallic zone at about the fourth year of life. In order for psychosexual identity to proceed, children must master control over impulses that mandate pleasure seek- ing behavior. Thus, develOpment would progress as children master oral needs, learn to control bowels and urinate during the anal stage, and during the phallic stage determine and initiate parental contact for psychosexual identification according to some gender awareness. 27 Erikson (1968) used Freudian concents in his theory of psycho- social develOpment. The initial stage in Erikson's theory is basic trust versus mistrust and is centered around the mouth; trust develops as one is fed with consistent loving care when hungry. The second stage, autonomy versus shame, occurs during the second year as the child attempts to control bodily functions and gains motor control. The third stage is initiative versus guilt which, while corresponding to the phallic stage, is not centered around genitalia awareness, but around mastery of the environment through active exploration and positive affectional interaction with parents. Although Erikson's theory has eight stages, only the first three relating to preschool years are presented here. Two instruments which have been used to measure psychosexual develOpment from a psvchodynamic framework are the Children's Appercep- tion Test (C.A.T.) (Bellak, 1971) and the Blacky Pictures Test (Blum, 1949). Both instruments measure oral develOpment, anal response, masturbation guilt, fear of castration, and Oedipal or Electra intensity The Children's Appercention Test was develOped in 1949 by LeOpold and Sonya Bellak. The idea for the test was based upon the Thematic Apperception Test published by Morgan and Murray in 1935 and designed for the study Of the adult. The C.A.T. consists of ten pictures of animals engaged in interactional behavior in family settings. The child is told that after being shown a picture a story regarding the picture is to be told to the examiner. The two following examples illustrate oral and anal themes. Picture number 1 has young 28 chicks sitting around a table at which there is a large bowl of food. A large chicken is off to the side Of the table, and printed faintly. This card was designed to elicit a reSponse about being fed, fears of siblings receiving greater nurturance, reward or punishment Of eating and satisfaction or dissatisfaction with food. Picture number 10 depicts a baby dog lying across the lap Of an adult dog. The room in which the scene is illustrated is the bathroom, again lightly printed. The card is believed to lead to stories regarding toilet training, as well as masturbation. The C.A.T. was found by Moriarty (1969) to present verbal difficulty when administrated to preschool children. She found that one-third Of the boys tested became restless and found it difficult to finish. In card number 1, containing the chicken representing a mother hen, 44% of the children were uncertain of the chicken's gender and referred to the hen as a rooster. Moriarty suggested that children younger than five would point out concrete details, but were unable to integrate the details into a story. In her conclusions she suggested that children might performlbetter if familiar with the examiner, but when unfamiliar the situation might produce stress for the child. The Blacky Picture Test, was developed in 1949 by Blum as a means of obtaining information at deeper levels of personality and is directly related to psvchodynamic theory. The Blacky Pictures consist of 12 cartoons depicting a dog named Blacky, and other characters which are "Mama", "Papa", and a sibling puppy named "Tippy". Again, to administer the test the child is told to tell stories about the pictures. 29 The child is asked a number of questions as, "How does Blacky feel here?" "Is he happy, or unhappy, or not one way or the other?" There is a separate format for boys and girls. The Blacky pictures require training in projective technique for administration and scoring and researchers have suggested that the test is inapprOpriate for children (Charin, 1956; Davids and Lawton, 1961; Rabin, 1981). Charen challenged the reliability of the Blacky Test using test-retest criterion. He found the correlation to be .519 for castration anxiety. As that was the highest correlation among the dimensions measured by the test, he concluded the reliability was poor. Rabin (1981) wrote that the Blacky Test is aimed at psychodynamic theory and while it might prove of some interest in research, for clinical work the C. A. T. is not as sexually blatant. Neither the Blacky Test, nor the C. A. T. is useful for children with limited verbal skill. In the Blacky Test, food aversion would be related to a picture of "Tippy" nursing from "Mama". Rejection of the nursing would be interpreted as rejection Of “Mama", while expressing a desire to nurse would be interpreted as oral eroticism. Davids and Lawton used the Blacky Test to study self-concept and food aversion in children. They found that food aversion was not related to the relationship with the mother. Negative attitudes toward childhood fondling of genitalia during masturbation would result in feelings of guilt and shame (Wood and Ruddock, 1918; Greenbank, 1961), and might be inter- preted by the child as a negative attitude toward the child's gender (Money and Erhardt, 1972). Further, Money and Erhardt state that 30 children can differentiate their gender by age five, and this choice is achieved through a complementary relationship to members of the Opposite sex and an identification with members of the same sex, especially the parents. Findings of Lamb (1976, 1978), Holmberg, (1980), and Tauber (1979) indicated that at about three years of age the male child begins to show a greater independency of the mother than does the female child. Choice of proximity to parent may be augmented through positive or negative reinforcement toward the child or the child's behavior and has been measured according to the quality of the parental interaction with the child. Quality of paternal care as compared to maternal care was studied by Parke and Sawin (1977), and Lamb (1976). Parke and Sawin found that fathers were as sen- sitive to distress signals from infants as were mothers, although the Quantity of contact time was shorter. Lamb, using a seven point Likert scale to measure quality of parental contact, found no significant differences in quality of contact between parents. Quality of contact was defined as warmth of interaction by Helper (1955), Hetherington and Frankie (1967), Mussen and Distler (1959, 1960), and Sears (1953). Warmth of parental contact was found to facilitate same-sex identification as measured by imitation of the parents' behaviors. Conversely, quality of contact was found to be unrelated to psychosexual choice. A study of 322 gay men and women provided information that two-thirds of the respondents 31 remembered their relationships with their fathers to be satisfactory or extremely satisfactory and three-fourths perceived their relation- ships with their mothers to be satisfactory or extremely satisfactory. (Robinson, Skeen, Hobson, and Herrman, 1982). Mussen and Distler (l959, 1960) found that highly masculine boys perceived their fathers as more punitive as well as more nurtur- ant than did “more feminine boys". Bandura, Ross, and Ross (l963) found that children tended to imitiate models that they perceived to have more power rather than models that appeared to have little or no power. Sears, Rau, and Alpert (1965) found that parental punitive- ness feminized both boys and girls. Maccoby and Jacklin (l974) found that parents tended to diSplay more punitive behavior toward sons than toward daughters. Bandura (l968) has suggested that imitation and identification are synonymous in children since both concepts suggest that the child is matching the behavior, attitudes, and emotional reaction to the model. Maccoby and Jacklin (l974) in a literature review, concluded that preschool children did not have a consistent tendency to select same- sex models for imitation. Slaby and Frey (l975) found that same-sex selection appeared to be related to cognitive develOpment of children, occurring when children could differentiate properties that indicated one gender as compared to the other. Hartrup (T962) used doll play to illustrate that when the models represented a father or a mother pre- schoolers would imitiate the parent of the same-sex. Fehrenbech, Miller, and Thelen (l979) found that an important factor in imitation was the 32 consistency of the model in diSplaying Specific behaviors. The greater the consistency, the more the subjects imitiated the be- havior of the model. This recent review Of literature revealed that research is inconclusive regarding the importance Of the gender relationship, as same-sex or Opposite-sex, and the effect of quality pf parental interaction, as positive and nurturing, or negative and punitive, in the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity. Kohlberg (1966) wrote that psychosexual identity is a cognitive process, and that while three-fourths of three year old children can answer correctly the question, "Are you a little boy or a little girl?", correct self-labeling does not indicate that the child understands the physical concepts behind the label. Kohlberg postulated that children based their answers to questions regarding their gender, or sex-typing, on external properties that could be seen. Understanding of physical properties of gender identity is based upon the child's ability to conserve infromation. When the child is able to conserve the child can retain the idea that prOperties of one kind remain constant, even though other prOperties change. Thus, when a child is able to conserve the child would not be influenced bv external qualities, such as style of clothing or hair length, and would be aware that underlying properties or physical characteristics indicate certain permanent factors. Several researchers, Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh, and Sharabany (1977), Gouze and Nadelman (1980), Kuhn, Nash, and Brucken (1978), and Slaby and Frey (1975) studied psychosexual identity as related to gender 33 consistency. Slaby and Frey (1975) develOped a five unit scale that measured gender identity, gender stability over time, gender consist- ency, and ego-centric wishful thinking measuring the child's choice of change based upon desire of the child. Their findings indicated that the understanding of gender consistency was sequential. Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh and Sharabany (l977) used a scale similar to the Slaby- Frey instrument, but they asked questions about 'children' other than the subject. Gouze and Nadelman (1980) compared subject reSponses on gender consistency for self with consistency for other and found that an understanding the permanency Of one's own gender preceded an under- standing Of gender permanency for others. Finally, McConaghy (1979) used a set of questions designed to measure the subject's understanding Of the genital basis of gender. She used paper dolls with genitals and clothing that did not Obscure the genitals SO that the genitals could be seen through the clothing. She found that children could answer questions about the permanence of their gender and the gender of others, but would not relate the answers to genital evidence. In conclusion, prior literature appears to indicate a sequential develOp- ment in understanding gender as related to self. This ordering, based Upon published research, appears to be: 1. An ability to name the gender of self as boy or girl 2. An ability to recognize that onés gender was the same at the time Of birth, and will remain so at adulthood. 3. An ability to understand that while appearances might change. gender will remain constant, for self. 34 4. An ability to understand that one cannot change gender through wishful thinking. 5. An ability to understand that even though another's appearance might change, the other person's gender will remain constant. 6. An ability to understand that one's gender is dependent upon the physical factor of self, including genitals. The review of literature indicated that the development of psychosexual identity followed a sequential pattern. Therefore, a scale could be develOped based upon an integration of scales used by Slaby and Frey (1975), Gouze and Nadelman (1980), Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh and Sharabany (1979), and McConaghy (1979). Information about the subiect's understanding Of the psychosexual identity of self would be similiar to, "Are you a boy or a girl?" The subjects understanding of gender identity of others would be asked through the use of pictures or paperdolls. An understanding Of gender consistency would be scored through the use of paper dolls that would allow external changes in hair styles or clothing that could be used when asking subjects if the paper doll would change from male tO female, or female to male, when wearing Opposite gender styles. In summary, psychodynamic theorists relate psychosexual identity to biological and emotional forces. Social learning theorists relate psychosexual identity to environmental conditioning. Cognitive- developmental theorists relate psychosexual identity tO the develOpment of intellectual reasoning. 35 Research on Interaction Acts Several researchers have used timed observations to measure the quantity and quality of interaction within parent-child dyads. Quantity of stimulation of young children through interaction with the mother was studied by Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981) and stimulation of infants through interaction with caregivers was studied by Mayala (1978). Quality of interaction between parent(s) and child has been studied by Dunn and Kendrick (1981), Kendrick and Dunn (1980) and Lamb (1976, 1978). Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981) develOped a method of recording mother-child interaction on lined notepaper at 10 minute intervals. Mother-child interaction was recorded as: physical contact, proximity, verbal interaction, visual attention, affectionate play, and reSponsive- ness. Abbreviations for the child's behavior were recorded at the right hand Side Of the paper, while behaviors of the mother that impinged upon the child were recorded on the left. Simultaneous behaviors were recorded on the same line and sequential behaviors were recorded on alternative lines. The subjects were 12 months of age. Clark-Stewart and Hevey found that when parent and child were together visual contact was greater than verbal contact with less physical contact than the two other modalities. Mayala (1978) recorded caregiver interaction with infants in daycare centers according to stimulation acts and the stimulation acts were classified as language, social-personal, fine manipulative, gross motor, and problem-solving behavior. Mayala recorded interaction in 10 minute intervals beginning when contact was made between the infant 36 and the caregiver and timing the duration Of the act. The timing was done through activation of a stOpwatch to establish cumulative time. The stimulation act was a broad description of the sensory modality providing the stimulation, or the auditory, visual, or tactile result of the interaction. During a telephone conversation with Mayalal, extending the observation time to one hour Of continuous recording was suggested, by Mayala, as a method of improving data collection. Dunn and Kendrick (1981) and Kendrick and Dunn (1980) studied the quality of interaction between mother and first-born child following the birth of a sibling. To record interaction they would began Observation 10 minutes after being seated and would record at 10 minute intervals following the format of Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981). Categories of behavior were precoded as joint plav, joint attention, mother initiated, verbal interaction with prohibition and prohibiting incidents. Quality was defined as child positive, child negative, neutral, mother positive and mother negative. When behaviors occurred at the same time they were recorded on the same line. While behaviors often occurred at the same time, the researchers found that their method of recording provided a clear sequence of events. Further, differences in parent response was found for boys when compared to girls. Lamb (1976) used a 7 point Likert scale to record the Quality of contact between children. 12 months old, and their parents. Behavior was coded as attachment behaviors, play and physical contact, vocaliza- tion, or proximity behavior and was recorded during 15 minute intervals. IJ. Mayala, telephone conversation, January 26, 1983. 37 Integration: Leading To An Ecological Perspective According to a family ecological framework, mental self- image and subsequently psychosexual identity would develOp as the child, actively seeking information, receives feedback in the form of energy through stimulation of the senses in interaction with the environment (Andrews, Bubolz, and Paolucci, 1980; Compton and Hall, 1972; and Paolucci, Hall, and Axinn, 1977). This energy would be transformed into information via neurological processes in the child resulting in the formation of mental imagery (Pribram, 1971). As mental imagery of self is accommodated the child begins to compare the mental image of self with the mental image of others (Piaget, 1962). Further classi- fication is achieved when the child can compare properties which are the same for self when compared to same-sex associates and which are different when compared to properties for the Opposite-sex (Kohlberg, 1966). In a family ecological framework it is postulated that child- ren use their senses to gather information. The earliest level of information would be through the sensori-stimulation received from the external environment. For young children, environments can be defined as the human element of parentl. Through neurological processes child- ren would form impressions that would ultimately develop into memory and provide the energy to develop a mental self-image leading to development 1B. Paolucci, personal communication, Hednesdav, September 15, 1980. ‘— 38 of psychosexual identity. Cognition of self, leading to the formula- tion of mental imagery is processed at increasingly higher levels of neurological organization (Sommerhoff, 1974). Cognition would be developed through the guidance of auditory, visual, and tactile stimulation and perfected by multimodal sensori-integration (Birch and Lefford, 1963; Freides, 1974; Gottenfried, Rose, and Bridger, 1978). r Choice of stimuli would be reinforced by environmental reSponse ' fia- 4r; ' (Lavaas, Schrieman, Rehm, and Kroegel, I971). The capacity to sense, to receive internal and external information is prerequisite to the Operation Of the system (Paolucci. Hall, and Axinn, 1977). The sensori-stimulation the child receives is dependent upon the feedback received from interaction with the environ- ment. Sensori-stimulation refers to the actual physical event acti- vating the sensory receptor of ear, eye, taste, or Skin (Compton and Hall, 1972). The impact of the stimuli would be such that nerve fibers would be activated in the form of impulses traveling via the peripheral nervous system to the brain (Pribram, 1971). Through stimulation of the human senses, matter-energy of environments is "structured and patterned into recognizable concepts that make sense" . . . (Paolucci, Hall and Axinn). The patterning and structuring of recognizable concepts are the basis for understanding through memory and learning. The coding of information has been likened to.a holographic'model (Pribram, 1971; Vilbur, 1982). Pribram postulated the stimuli travel in wave patterns called waveforms. Waveforms are consistent for identical patterns, 39 but vary as peOple learn to differentiate various aspects as similar or different in Specific events. Thus, depending upon what is seen, or attended to, a wave form will vary. The incoming stimuli, as a waveform, travel between neuronal synapses (junctions) in different strengths, shapes, and frequencies. The strength, shape, and frequency can be mathematically calculated as a Fourier Transform and the data E‘ computed as a mathematical formula of information. This 'formula' becomes the coding that allows the retention of memory to be coded i 1 into an image and the image, back into storage. In order for coding, 1 however, the waveform must be measured within a pattern with other waveforms. Waveforms from sensori—stimulation through various senses merge and as they merge form an interference pattern of interaction, much as a handful Of pebbles, thrown onto a pond, would send ripples Of waves that merge and create a new pattern of interference. The coding of information, according to the holographic model is dependent upon the point Of interference of waveform with waveform, for it is at that point the Fourier Transform is formulated. The assimilation of sensori information is dependent upon the integration of stimuli from more than one sensori-modality, These could be the visual, auditory, OlfaCtory, taste, kinesthetic, and tactile modalities. Physically, the primary visual, auditory, and tactile areas in the brain are bordered by a series of secondary cortices involved in further processing of sensory inputs after the initial analysis, are believed to be responsible for the process- ing of increasingly more complex neuronal ensembles (Sommerhoff, 1974). 40 These secondary areas all border on the central area of the parietal cortex where information from many modalities is thought to be combined with other perceptions and memory and where higher levels of analysis occur; Tactile information is stored in the parietal lobe of the brain near the parietal cortex. Information about the body schema, f or mental image of self is stored in the parietal lobe (Schilder, 1950). Research by Bigelow (1981) indicated that young children, < between the ages of 18 to 26 months, were able to learn to discrim- [ inate their photographs of self from those of others after comparing . the photo image to a mirror image. The mirror image allowed a comparison of both visual and movement cues. The children tested the mirror image by performing repetitive motions while Observing their self-image moving in the mirror. After children connected the mirror image with self, they were able to choose the picture success- fully. Other researchers have used mirrors while applying color- ing to the face of children and observing the children's reactions to their reflections (Amsterdam, 1972; Brooks-Gunn and Lewis, 1975). The develOpment of the child's perception Of body image is enhanced through the interaction of sensori cues including tactile contact between self and others. Lefford, Birch, and Green (1974) found that between the ages of three and five children had difficulty following the action Of another when receiving only a visual or a tactile cue. When children could both see their finger and have it touched, allowing the children intermodal sensori stimulation, the 41 performance of the children improved and they were able to success- fully imitiate the model over 85% Of the time. The researchers concluded that children between the ages of three and five were still in the process Of integrating visual and tactile cues for the organization of perceptual differentiation leading to symbolic I representation. This process is essential for the organization of body experiences which would lead to the perception of mental self- image. t This ability to process multiple sensori input was found by .—~.._‘ It Lavvas, Schrieman, Rehm, and Koegel (1971) to be a basic impairment in autistic children. The researchers postulated that because the autistic children were able to process but one stimuli at a time, they would be unable to relate to social reinforcers through interaction with others. The researchers suggested that the manner in which children are trained is through the provision of a larger number of ‘ggggg cues. The autistic child, unable to attend to only one stimuli at a time, is not able to use intermodal information. If stimuli are necessary preludes to memory, at least in the preschool years, then the impact of sensori-stimulation between the child and the parent of the same-sex would provide the intermodal stimuli required for the integration of same-sex imagery necessary for the assimulation of information.' Conservation of properties of depth, warmth, and physical properties not perceived visually are 42 necessary for Optimal intermodal integration. Vision without other sensory input is insufficient. Researchers, Blanchard and Biller (1971) concluded that when fathers were psychologically absent, non- interacting, but physically present, their eight year old sons were generally deficient in sex-role development and academic performances. Gender identity requires the comparison of the properties of one's self with the prOperties of another. Early gender identi- it is based upon the child's classification of gender through ex- ternal qualities which can be observed. These qualities are ex- emplified by socially scripted behaviors that are sex-typed as masculine or feminine. Early gender identity is not stable as the child perceives that external changes in clothing, hair style, or activity may result in gender change. A permanent gender identity depends upon the child's ability to classify a physical Object, the body with the correct gender (Kohlberg, 1966). The understanding of gender permanence is based upon a second- ary analysis of information. In order to understand gender perma~ nence the child must perceive that while properties are not observ- able, they remain unchanged. The child must be able to categorize conflicting information, or information relating to differential classification of a specific quality, out of several prOperties. As the Child is able to understand that one property will remain constant while other properties change, the child will have Obtained a basis for the understanding of gender consistency, or gender permanence (Piaget, 1962). After age six, the child is able to use 43 prior sensori-stimulation which has resulted in the formulation of memories. These memories result in representional systems consti- tuting neuronal events that give contextual meaning to the prior stimuli, thus allowing categorization according to several properties (Sommerhoff, 1974). While neurOphySical processes are suggested as being of primary importance to the theoretical orientation of this paper, an important system of variables are ignored if emphasis is only upon the child's impact of the environment without acknowledgement of the reciprocal external environment reinforcement received by the child. Through multimodal processing the child modifies behavior toward desired ends and does not react to stimuli in a preprogramed manner. Therefore, conditioning through the Quality of environmental contact, by the parent, provides impact on the child outcomes related to mental self-image (Helper, 1955) and psychosexual identity as suggested in social learning theory (Hetherington and Frankie, 1967). Psychodynamic theorists suggest that a child's self identity is based upon a sequence Of develooment dependent upon interaction with the parent during certain stages of the child's early childhood. Psychosexual dynamic theorists suggest that at about four years of age children seek parental interaction and identify with the same-sex parent. In using the ecological model, concepts from psycho- dynamic theory, social-learning theory, and cognitive developmental theory are integrated into a family ecological model. Integration 44 of theoretical frameworks was through selection of variables post- ulated as providing possible explanation toward building a causal model Of child-outcomes of mental image of self and psychosexual identity develOpment. The contributions from the theoretical frame- works are: psychodynamic theory, providing impact through choice Of the age of the subject for study and emphasis on same-sex interaction; social learning theory, providing emphasis on reinforcement of parent- child contact as measured for quality; and cognitive develOpmental theory, providing emphasis on sensori-stimulation between parent and child as measured for quantity. Summary of Critical Findings Several researchers have studied the human figure drawings of children (Di Leo, 1970; 1973; Goodenough, 1926; Harris, 1963; Koppitz, 1968; Machover, 1949). The human figure drawing is considered by some researchers (Di Leo, 1970, 1973; KOppitz, 1968; Machover, 1949) to be a guide to the child's mental image of self. When children are Of preschool age their drawings appear to reflect what is remembered and most important to them. KOppitz (l968) and Goodenough (l926) used large samples of children as a data base. The scoring system develOped by Goodenough (l926) was augmented by the work of Harris (1963). KOppitz used a modified version of the Goodenough-Harris (1963) scoring system to determine the Developmental Items. -She did not develOp a set Of norms with four year old children, and the scoring is less precise than the Goodenough-Harris version. 45 While researchers (Di Leo, 1970, 1973: Piaget, 1962; Schilder, 1950) wrote that the develOpment of self imagery is dependent upon sensory involvement with the environment, there are no empirical studies where quantity of sensori stimulation to the child was correlated to the child's drawing Of a self-portrait. Psychosexual identity is postulated as resulting from -L—u‘.“ A' biological-emotional forces, social reinforcement, or cognitive development. In each of prior theories, certain variables are : postulated to relate to the formation of psychosexual identity, but empirical testing has not incorporated the variables into a theoretical model. There is controversy among research findings regarding the factors that contribute to the development of psycho- sexual identity. Psychodynamic theorists suggest that psychosexual identity is dependent upon resolution of the Oedipal and Electra phase where one might suffer from penis-envy, if a girl, or fear of castration, if a male. McConaghy (1979) found that children, four years of age, did not give a genital reason when they were asked why others were male or female. Social learning theorists are in disagreement as to the importance of the quality of parental interaction (Hetherington and Frankie, 1967; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974; Sears, Alpert, and Rau, 1965). Hetherington and Frankie found that positive-nurturing interaction contributed to the psychosexual identity of female and male subjects, and negative-punitive interaction contributed to masculinity in male subjects. Sears, et al. found that negative 46 punitive interaction between fathers and sons, or daughters, feminized both boys and girls. Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that school-aged children did not choose same-sex models more than Opposite-sex models, while Hartup (1962) found that preschool children appeared to follow the behavior of the parent of the same-sex more than the behavior Of the opposite-sex parent. Slaby and Frey (1975) found that imitation Of same-sex models or selective attention to same- sex models was a contingency of gender consistency and the child who understood gender consistency was more likely to choose a model of the same-sex to watch. Interaction and sensori-stimulation between parent and child have not been studied for correlation to the develOpment of a mental self-image or the develOpment of psychosexual identity. Researchers studying interaction have used techniques that measured actions that were based upon the stimulation of the senses, however. The format of studying interaction between parent and child is through observa- tion. Observation studies have used intervals of time and a period that extended beyond an hour (Shepperson, 1981). Observation has been structured (Shepperson) and unstructured (Lamb, 1976; Mayala, 1978). Generally observation is recorded according to precoded categories (Clark-Stewart and Hevey, 1981; Dunn and Kendrick, 1981; Kendrick and Dunn; 1980; Lamb, 1976; Mayala, 1978; and Shepperson, 1981). The ecological model provides an integrated model (Andrews, Bubolz, and Axinn, 1980) wherein variables from other disciplines are incorported into a family ecological model. In the ecological model 47 energy is converted to information via sensori-stimulation interaction with the environment (Paolucci, Hall, and Axinn, 1977). CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY In this research the effects of sensori-stimulation between same-sex and Opposite-sex parent-child dyads on the child's mental self- image and the develOpment of psychosexual identity were measured. Sensori-stimulation was measured for quantity of auditory, visual, and tactile contact between the parents and the subject in seconds Of con- tact time. Parental contact was measured for quality according to a five point Likert Scale for each parent-child interaction. Mental self- image was measured through the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, wherein the subject was asked, "Draw a picture of yourself." Psychosexual identity was measured through a Gender Consistency Scale. Sample Selection The subjects in this study were 36 children, 18 boys and 18 girls, aged four to five years, and both of their parents. Criteria for selection were parental availability and age of the child. The pOpula- tion from which the sample was randomly selected was the Flint Area Parent-Child Nurseries (FAPCN). The philOSOphy of the nursery program is learning through exploration, rather than directed teaching. The parents of the children in the FAPCN program are encouraged to allow their children the freedom of being active participants in the learning process and the children are encouraged to explore activities with a minimum of structure. In prior Observation of FAPCN parental involvement some parents appeared to interact through visual and auditory modalities 48 49 with little tactile interaction, while other parents used a high level of tactile interaction. Thus, prior Observation by the researcher indi- cated variability in the amount of parental sensori interaction within the FAPCN population. Further, there were 12 different parent-child co-Operative programs within the FAPCN program with children four to five. Within the FAPCN there was a variety of income and educational levels of households. The program had children of various ethnic back- grounds. During the Spring the researcher met with the teacher consultant of the FAPCN to present the proposal of study. A request was made to the FAPCN board to select the sample from parents and children enrolled in the Winter of 1982 and those planning to enroll in the Fall of 1983. After a review of the hypotheses and the methodology, the teacher consultant agreed to present the request for selection of the sample tO the board. The board reviewed the request in May, 1983, and granted permission of the selection of the sample. A list of the enrolled children from each center was given to the researcher. The list contained the child's name, parents' names, birth date of the child, home address, and telephone number. During the summer of 1983, another list containing information about children to be enrolled in the Fall was added. The lists were compared to avoid duplication of names, and the children were numbered 1 to 231. Using a table Of random numbers (Kerlinger, 1973), names were selected until 18 boys and 18 girls were selected. After the random selection of names a letter was sent to the child's parents giving the purpose of the study and requesting COOperation (see Appendix A). Approximately one week after the date the letter would 50 have been received, parents were contacted by telephone and upon parental acceptance of participation, an appointment was arranged for Observation and interview. A random selection of 77 names resulted in acceptance by 41 families. The nonacceptance of randomly selected families created a possible effect Of selection bias so that the families who participated were not perfectly representative (Babbie, 1973) Of the entire pOpulation of FAPCN parents. The effect of the selection bias might have been toward a sample of parents who were more comfortable with parenting skills, more comfortable about research intrusion, or other unknown factors. Of the 41 families, five families were found to be unsuitable. One child was unable to Speak and could not hold a pencil. One child gave nonsensical answers and became unCOOperative during the interview, consequently, the answers could not be coded. In the third case, the father left after 30 minutes of Observation. In two families the father was not present at the scheduled time Of the appointment. In one of these instances, the father could not reschedule as he worked at a business that required that he be available at any time. The the other family the researcher rescheduled the appointment, and upon both visits found one parent was not present and the other parent was vague about the reason for absence. Because it appeared that the family was ambivalent about participation, the researcher decided to select another family randomly. Data collection began September 1983. Description of the Sample The total sample consisted of 36 families from the Greater Flint Areas. There were 18 boys and 18 girls in the study. Both parents were 51 at home at the time of the study. Geographical Area and Setting The sample families lived in Flint, Michigan and the surround- ing communities known as the Greater Flint Area. The homes were in rural and urban areas. Five families lived in a rural area, two families lived in apartments in densely populated areas, three families lived in homes in urban areas, and twenty-six families lived in suburban areas. Age of Children The children in the participating families were between 49 and 63 months. The mean age for the entire sample was 54.36. The mean age of the male children was 54 months and the mean age of the female child- ren was 54.72. Ethnic Background The sample was predominately white. One child was Native American and one child was black, both were female subjects. 0f the thirty-six children, thirty-four children were white. Educational Level of the Parents Educational level of the family was determined by asking the parents to give the educational level attained by the parent with the greater number of years of formal education (see Table 1). The parents were not asked about preschool or kindergarten experience. The level of education was overarepresentative of individuals with higher levels of education when compared with the National Census Data for 1981. 52 TABLE 1 --Comparison of Years of School Completed by Parent with More Formal Education, with 1981 National Census Data. Level Sample Sample Census Total Number % % with years N s 36 12 years of School (H.S.) 3 8.3 37.8 1 year college 1 2.8 2 years college 10 28. 3 years college 3 8.3* 15.1 15 Bachelor Degree 7 19.4 I 19.2 16 1 Year Post Bachelor 1 2.7 17.1 16+ Master's Degree 7 19.4 Post Master's Degree 3 8.3 Doctorate 1 2.8 Sample Mean Census Mean 15.63 12.5 S.D. 1.157 * In the research sample the years of college are broken down into the specific time in number of years (1 - 3), while years of college, less than 4, were grouped together for the National Census Data. 53 Occupational Level of the Parents The OCCUpational level of the family was determined by the occupational level of the father according to criteria as classified by the National Census Bureau. The sample was not representative of occupational levels as determined by the 1981 National Census Data, and the sample was over-representative at two levels of employment: professional and craftsmen (see Table 2). In this sample all fathers were employed. Four mothers were employed full time and nine mothers, part-time. Information of the income level of the family was not collected. Consent For Stugy Approval of the prOposal was granted by the doctoral committee in the summer of 1983. Prior to that date. consent had been Obtained from the Flint Area Parent-Child Nurseries. Consent forms were signed by each of the subjects' parents (see Appendix A). The Research Design This study was a field study based upon structured observations of the subject and parents. The research was conducted in the home of the subject when both parents were present. In this research the independ- ent variables were not manipulated by the researcher. The research was explanatory in design, as the primary objective was to measure the effects Of sensori-stimulation between parent and the child on the develOpment of the child's mental self-image as a prelude to the develOpment of psycho- sexual identity in the subject. The unit of analysis was the child. 54 TABLE 2 --Comparison Of Occupational Level of Father of Subject with Employed Persons of 1981 National Census Data. Occupation Level Sample Sample Census Number % % N 8 36 Farmer 2 5.5 8.3 Professional 10 13 36 16 Self Employed O9 2 5.5 Administrators 08 2 5.5 11.4 Salesworkers O7 1 2.77 6 Clerical 06 0 O 18 Craftsmen 05 11 30.5 12.6 Semi-Skilled 04 2 5.5 10.5 Delivery Men, Transport 02 1 2.77 3.4 Laborer 01 2 5.5 4.5 Sample Mean 6.86 5.0. 3.04 55 Selection and Description of the Instrument Five instruments were used in this research. The instruments were a Demographic Sheet, an Observation Sheet, a parent interview called the Parent Report, the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and the Gender Consistency Scale. Different instruments were used with each family member (see Figure 2). Administration required approximately 1% to 2 hours of family time. The instruments were enclosed in separate envelopes for each family. Envelopes containing forms for families Of male subjects were numbered in Odd numbers and envelOpes containing forms for female subjects were numbered in even numbers. The Observation Sheets were not included in the packet, but were padded in quantities Of 100 sheets. Family .p_, Instruments Member Demographic Observation Parent Goodenough- Gender Interview Sheet Report Harris Consistency Child X x X Mother Father X X X Figure 2 --Illustration of Instrument Usage with Family Member Where X Prepresents Usage. Demographic Sheet The demographic sheet was used to collect data about the age of the child, the occupational level of the father, and the number of years of formal education of the parent with the greater number of years of schooling (see Appendix C). It was administered 56 Shortly after entering the home of the subject. It required about five minutes of time and permitted the child to observe the parents talking and interacting with the Observer. Following the collection Of demographic data, the observation period began. Observation Sheet and Settipg Timing the observation period was done through the use of an electronic Westbend Timer (pictured in Appendix B). The timer was set for one hour. The number of seconds during the hour of observation was 3600, however, the highest number diSplayed on the timer was 5960, or 59 minutes and 60 seconds. Prior to the collection of data the researcher spent 36+ hours at an amusement park and a shOpping center timing parent-child interaction and recording the data on the Observation Sheet. Thetpractice was extremely important and if the study is replicated would be a necessary measure of preparation. The timing of interaction required practice to make the timing precise. Practice improved performance. The Observation Sheet was designed from the prior research Of Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981), Dunn and Kendrick (1981), Kendrick and Dunn (1980), Lamb (1976), Mayala (1978), and Shepperson (1981). Clark- Stewart and Hevey recorded behavior between parent and child that occurred simultaneously on the same line and sequential behaviors were recorded on alternate lines. Shepperson used a structured observa- tion period lasting over one hour and coded information that occurred during the observation without interval interruption. Lamb (1976) 57 recorded the quality of child reSponses to the parent and the quality of parent response to the child. Quality of response was recorded according to a 7 point Likert scale with values ranging from 1 - very negative to 7 very positive. Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981), Dunn and Kendrick (1981) and Lamb (1976) carried out unstructured observations at the home of the child. Clark-Stewart and Hevey (1981) and Dunn and Kendrick (1981) studied mother-child interaction. Lamb (1976) studied the interaction of both the mother and father with the subject and the home observation was done at a time when both parents could be at home. The setting for observation was determined through the format of Lamb (l976) wherein both parents were Observed during the same period of interaction time with the child, and during a period of time that both parents could be present. Parents in this research, were asked to be home at the time of the interview, and were told that they might continue their routines, although it was important that they be near enough to the subject to provide aid if the youngster wanted the parent interaction. The parents were informed that the Observer would not be able to assist the subject, but would be concerned with recording the child's sensory interaction. AS a large box of toys was placed at the center of the area Of Observation, and parents were informed that ‘the child could use the toys as the child wished, parents assumed that tdie recording of data was based upon interaction with the toys. Parents were informed that they were free to watch, play, work, or, to do as 58 they felt most comfortable. The room generally used was the family room or living room. The child's bedroom was not used for Observation. In the prior research, as above, the observation period appeared to range from 1 to 1% hours. Following the method used by Dunn and Kendrick (1981) a choice was made to limit the home visit to two hours with observation starting 10 minutes after the Observer was positioned for study. The parents were asked to schedule the visit for a time when there would not be activities as eating, napping, or bathing, and the parents were asked to limit visitors and telephone conversations. As in the Shepperson (1981) study, the Observation was structured. In this research structure was provided by using a box of toys which provided a boundary for the child's interaction, thus, keeping the child in the area of Observation. The toys used in the research were chosen to entice parental involvement and to provide a vehicle for sensori- interaction. The toys chosen were: Doublelogp Coaster A mechanical toy that is battery operated. Cars travel around loops in a manner similar to an amusement park ride. This item was selected to draw into interaction parents interested in mechanical items. An auditory toy. This battery- run organ has a two octave key- board. The toy provided Opportu— nity for exploration Of musical sounds with parents who share Similar interests. Mickey Mouse Musical Machine A tactile toy. This was used with the original parts that were of different shapes, and Frantic Fingers 59 A KaleidoscoOe Puppets The Mother Goose Game Plgyschool Village Where the Wild Things Are* The Hungry Thipgt Leo the Late Bloomerk Can I Keep Him‘r could be visually matched to cards for tactile-visual comparison. Other items were added as well: A smooth stone, a sandpaper block, cotton balls, cooper scrubbing pad, a shell, and feathers. A visual toy. The child could take Off the end and the home could be viewed as a kaleidoscope of color. A puppet family, that facili- tated auditory interaction. The puppet family consisted of a mother, father, boy, and girl puppet. A toy for verbal interaction and visual potential. The game was selected because the nursery rhymes are familiar to many children. A construction toy was chosen to provide the interaction through the building of a village. The toy provided a focal point for individual or interaction with parents. The village was easily assembled and consisted Of a block set with store fronts, roof tOps, planes, and an airport, trucks and a train. Auditory interaction through the reading of the story was provided through the books, as well as potential for tactile and visual interaction. The box Of toys provided enough variety that the subjects remained at the site of Observation for the period of one hour. See Bibliography, under children's section for author and publisher. 60 The Observation Sheet (see Appendix 8, page 184) was designed with three headings; gender relationship, quality, and quantity. The upper two-thirds Of the sheet was used for recording and the bottom one- third was used tO summarize the data. The sheets were padded with 100 sheets per pad. The padding provided a source of sheets available to the observer as well as support for recording. The column to the left of the Sheet was used to record gender relationship and was divided into subcolumns Of same-sex or Opposite-sex. The gender relationship was recorded according to each stimulation act within parent-child dyads. When there was continuous interaction between parent(s) and child and there was insufficient time to record the relationship in the column, an E for mother, and an _f_, for father was recorded next to the seconds of time of the Specific sensori-stimulation. After the observer left the subject's home and within 24 hours, the columns marked same—sex or Opposite-sex were scored according to the m or f recorded during the observation period. The middle column was used to record the quality of contact according to a modified version of the Likert scale used by Lamb (1976). The quality of contact was scored with a check, or dot, as; very negative, negative, neutral, positive, or very positive. Each interaction was scored. If there was continuous interaction between parent-child dyads, quality was scored when the quality changed. Thus, if quality during five sensori-stimulation acts was positive, the last four were not recorded at the time of observation and the column remained blank until the data were tabulated. At a change Of quality to a higher or lower point in the scale, the change was recorded at the time Of the sensori-stimulation act. 61 Quantity of sensori-stimulation was recorded on the right side of the Observation under the headings auditory, visual, or tactile. The time was recorded at the time the stimulation started and the time the stimulation stOpped. If two senses were stimulated at the same time, one sense was recorded and a mark was made in the column representing the other sense. When stimulation ended for each sense the ending time was recorded. When both parents interacted with the child at the same time an 1.". and i was recorded next to the sense stimulated. The time the interaction ended was recorded, therefore, if a parent continued beyond the time the other parent had ended contact, the ending time was recorded on a sequential line. If the stimulation was too brief to record in seconds a check was made and the checks were added as a second of time (see Appendix 8, page 185). The number of seconds during the hour of observation was 3600, however, the highest number diSplayed on the timer was 5960, or 59 minutes and 60 seconds. To eliminate the possibility that a parent might be positively reinforced to interact with a child, if it was noted that interaction resulted in Observer recording, nonsense numbers were recorded when parents were not interacting with the subject. All nonsense numbers began with an eight or a seven (see Appendix 8, page 186, for an example of the recording of nonsense numbers). This format became important, as parents Often Observed the Observer. On one occasion a parent sat beside the Observer and watched the recording and because there was no parent-child interaction, the numbers that were recorded were numbers that began with the code 8. 62 Parent Report The parent interview, or Parent Report, was administered to parents after the observation period. The report had a separate, but parallel form for the child's mother (see Appendix C, page 194) and the child's father (see Appendix C, page 202). Questions about parental interaction with the subject were repeated for three periods of time in the child's life: infancy, toddler (one to three years) and the present period of time. The division allowed parental differ- entiation in order that parental absence, parental change in work scheduling, or change in caregiving responsibilities could be determined. Parents were asked about their involvement with the child at the time of the child's birth. Stimulation acts were classified according to the type of interaction as suggested by Mayala (1978) and Lamb (1976). Further, each category of interaction was divided into the sensor- modality of auditory, visual, or tactile interaction. Categories suggested by Lamb (1976) provided purpose for action as suggested in question 17 (see Appendix:C, page 195). "When (Child's 'pgmg) was an infant and needed bathing, how Often were you the one to do the washing, cleaning, or bathing?" The categories used in the Parent Report as providing the purpose of interaction were caregiving, play, discipline, and affectional interaction. Content of questions were based on Mayala's observations (1978). Instances of caregiver inter- action were used to provide examples of behavior representative of caregiver, or parent, interaction with children. 63 Examples borrowed from Mayala, in questionnaire format are: Caregiver scolds, reprimands "When Child's name needs disci- infant (page 41). pline, hOw 0T18M_OO you scold, yell, or talk ...." Caregiver cleans, washes, “When Child's name needs to be bathes infant (page 42). bathed, waShed, or cleaned, how often do you do this?" Caregiver demonstrates "How often would you use imitation, finger play (page 41). finger plays, gesturing, dancing, or do things that would have your child watch you?" Caregiver gives infant “When Child's name was a toddler eating utensils, places food how often did you feed the baby in front of him (page 65). (with a spoon in a baby chair). The items in the Parent Report were grouped such that each category had a question related to a Specific sensory modality. Under the category “caregiving" the questions asked were: Tactile “When Child's name was an infant and needed bathing, how Often were you the one to do the washing, cleaning, or bathing?" Visual "When Child's name was an infant how Often was (his/her) crib or chair, placed where you could be seen?“ Auditory “When caring for your child how much time would you talk, Sing, hum, or coo to your child?" The parental responses on the Parent Report were scored as: 1 - never, 2 - rarely, 3 - sometimes, 4 - most of the time and 5 - all the time (see Appendix 8, page 187). Each sensory modality had a possible score of 1 - 80, as questions 13, 14, and 15, were related to the period following the infant's birth, a period hypothesized to be instrumental 64 in the imprinting of parent—child attachment behaviors (Greenberg and Morris, 1974; Klaus and Kennell, 1970), and the scoring was weighted for impact in comparison with the other three periods of time in the child's life, as measured in the Parent Report. The Goodenough-Harris Drawing‘Test The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (Harris, 1963) was used to measure the child's perception of self, or the mental self-image. Di Leo (1970, 1973) and other researchers (Goodenough, 1926; Goodenough and Harris, 1963; KOOpitz, 1968; Machover, 1949; and Schilder, 1950) believe that children's drawings can be an accurate representation of the child's self-perception. The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test was administered to the child after the interview with the parents. Generally, the child continued to play during the interview with the parents and after watching parental interaction with the researcher appeared to be relaxed when it was time tO be interviewed. The Goodenough-Harris was administered before the Gender Consistency Scale so that the child's perception of self was not influenced by the materials used with the Gender Consistency Scale. The administration of the test followed the guidelines in the Harris Manual (1963). Children were asked to “Draw a picture Of yourself. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make your whole self, not just your head." Children were given a pencil designed to be used by young children. The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test has been found to have a rescoring reliability of .90. The split-half reliability was .89 when administered again after an interval Of a week. Readministration 65 of the test on consecutive days revealed no significant difference in scores (Anastasi, 1982). In this research scoring was done according to the format in the Harris Manual. The manual provides a concise method of scoring with a Specific format for scoring male drawings and a Specific format for scoring female drawings. The drawing score provided the mental self-image score for the subject. Gender Consistency Scale The Gender Consistency Scale used in this research was a composite of the scale developed by Slaby and Frey (1975), with additions suggested by the research of Nadelman and Gouze (1980) and McConaghy (I979). The purpose of the instrument was to measure the level of cognitive understanding about the permanent qualities of gender develOpment. According to Kohlberg (1966) the particular effect of male or female models in interaction with young children is dependent upon the develOpmental level of the child's ability to conserve the properties that determine gender. Thus, the gender scale is designed to measure the child's awareness that even though external appearances might change, a physical effect that might remain hidden would still remain constant. Children were asked a series of questions that would measure their understanding of gender. The first questions were those designed to measure the child's ability to determine whether they were male or female, and whether pictures of people were male or female. The next series of questions were about changes that might occur over a period of time and the response of the subject indicated 66 understanding that a person would remain the same gender throughout the period Of life from infancy to adulthood. The next series measured the child's ability to understand that gender remained constant despite a change in clothing that represented the Opposite gender. Finally, the last set of questions was related to the ego-centric thinking pat- terns in young children and the question-set asked if the child could change gender if change was wanted. Based upon the work of Gouze and Nadelman (1980), the Slaby and Frey (1975) Scale was augmented through the addition of questions designed to measure an understanding about gender consistency Of others. Finally, a series Of questions was asked in order to elicit from the child enough information that the interview- er would be given a physical eXplanation as to the physical prOperties Of gender (McConaghy, 1979) (see Appendix C, pages 211-214). Paper dolls from The Neighbor Kids (see Appendix D) were used with the scale. The dolls had male and female 'children' in ethnic pairs Of black, white, oriental, and Spanish characteristics. The dolls had clothing and artifacts that were stereotypically masculine or feminine. Pictures of adult men and women were used (see Appendix D, Figure 9). Prior to the introduction Of child responses on the Gender Consistency Scale, as a measure of scoring psychosexual identity, the augmented model used in this research was rescaled through the Guttman scalogram analysis (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent, 1975). The rescaled model, used in this research, was found to have a coeffi- cent of reproducibility of .9753. The rescaled model could be considered a valid scale with the reproducibility above .9 (Nie, et al.). After administering the Gender Consistency Scale, the toys were replaced into the box and the interview was completed. 67 Description Of the Variables Conceptual and Operational Definitions This section will provide definitions of the major terms and variables used in this research. The variables are defined conceptually followed by the Operational definitions. Operational- ization Of the variables was measured through the Observation Sheet, Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, Gender Consistency Scale, and Parent Report. The independent variables are sensori-stimulation within parent and child dyads of the same-sex or opposite-sex. Specific modalities Of sensori-stimulation are visual, auditory, and tactile senses. Parent-child interaction was measured for quantity of sensori-stimulation and quality of parental contact with the child. Intervening variables are age of the subject, educational level of the parent with the greater number of years of school (kindergarten and preschool excluded), and the OCCUpational level of the subject's father. Dependent variables are Mental Image of Self and the developmental level of Psychosexual Identity. Independent Variables Sensori-stimulation refers to the actual physical event or property activating a sensori’receptor in the child as a result of parent-child interaction. In this study sensori-stimulation refers to the stimulation of auditory, visual, or tactile receptors. The data were collected according to the individual and intermodal contribution of the sense(s). TO measure sensory contribution on the dependent variables the Observation Sheet was the instrument 68 used to measure causal effect. The Parent Report was used to measure parental perception of interaction. Sensori-stimulation was measured in Quantity of time according to the number of sec- onds of contact between parent and child. Each contact was measur- ed from the time Of onset of interaction to the end Of the senson/ contact. Each interaction was recorded on a separate line, al- though Simultaneous behaviors between parent and child would be recorded on the same line as suggested in the research of Clark- Stewart and Hevey (l981). The sensori stimulation was totaled according to the individual sense by the coder. To Obtain the intermodal contribution of all senses, auditory, visual, and tac- tile, a multiplicative model was used. The multiplicative model allowed an index of irregular variation more precisely than would additive models. An additive model Of the three modalities would result in a high mean score and would fail to depict the quantity of sensoriestimulation with one sense high quantity and the quanti- ty Of another sense low. The individual effect of contribution and fluctuations of quantity between modalities would be lost to analysis. The range of values of each Observation was from 0 seconds of stimulation to 3600 seconds of stimulation. Because a lack of contact Of a stimulus would result in a O, a value that would eliminate the effect of other sensori-stimulation, in the multiplicative model a 1 was used to indicate that there was no sensori contact of a Specific modality. The multiplicative model was used for intermodal contribution on both the Observation 69 Sheet and the Parent Report. anlitypof Contact refers to the positive, negative, and neutral characteristics of the interaction between the parent and the subject. This variable was measured through the observation Sheet. Quality was measured by a five point scale similiar to that described by Lamb (1976). Each point is behaviorally defined: 1- Very negative, the interaction resulted in the subject wincing or crying and the parental response, demeaning, harsh or abusive. 2- Negative, the interaction between parent and child results in the child frowning, withdrawing, losing interest in the activity or showing sadness, and the parental reSponse was critical, restric- tive without cause, or ignoring a request for help or aid. 3- Neutral, neither parent nor subject display emotion or respond to stimuli that are received via parent-child interaction. 4- Positive, the child responds with interest, smiles, and the parent provides supportive interaction. 5- Very positive, the child laughs, pleasure in the interaction is displayed, and the parent provides supportive interaction while increasing the subject's understanding through feedback in reSponse to the child's level Of play. Quality was measured according to each stimulation act within parent and child dyad and for every sensory contact. The quality scores were averaged for total interaction within same-sex and Opposite- sex dyads according to the gender relationship. Audiig:y_511mulatjgp_is the stimulation of the cochlea of the inner ear through impact with sound. Auditory stimulation was 70 measured for quality and quantity when the child was affected through verbal interaction with either the same-sex or opposite-sex dyad. The quantity of observed interaction was recorded under the heading Quantity at the far right of the Observation Sheet in the column marked Auditory (see Appendixii). To record the quantity of auditory contact from the Parent Report the score was compilied from questions 14, 19, 24, 27, 30, 35, 38, 41, 44, 49, 50, 54, 57, and 60. Set A was the (Parent Report) form develOped for use with the mother of the subject and set 8 was the (Parent Report) form used with the father. All values of quantity Of interaction ranged from 1 - never, to 5 - all the time. The interview was designed so that scoring all auditory interaction was done through placement of a circle over the value for quantity in the first column appearing toward the left hand side of the Parent Report. Visual_stjmulatign_is the act of looking, gazing, observing, staring, or having eye contact. In this research visual stimulation was measured when there was evidence that the child was having eye contact with the parent and was recorded in seconds of time when the subject gazed at, Observed, or looked at the parent. Visual stimuli were not recorded when the parent looked at the child unless the child was looking at the parent; thus, unless the retina of the child was stimulated through contact with a parent, nO contact was recorded. The quantity, according to seconds Of time, was recorded on the Observation Sheet in the middle column, visual under the heading Quantity. To record the quantity of contact of visual 71 stimuli, as recorded during the parent interview, the score was compiled from questions 15, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 31, 39, 43, 45, 48, 51, 55, 58, and 61. The column used in scoring visual stimulation on the Parent.Report was the second column to the right of the page. Directions for tabulation are the same as presented above for scoring auditory stimulation (see Appendix C). Tactile stimulation is the act during which one is touched, held, stroked, hit, or all acts in which one part of the body is in contact with another. In this study tactile stimulation was measured when the subject was in contact with the parentcfl’ either the same-sex or Opposite-sex. Tactile stimulation was measured for quality and quantity. Quality was measured as described under Quality. Quantity of tactile stimulation was measured in seconds of time with the time recorded on the Observation Sheet at the far right of the sheet in the column titled Tactile, under the heading Quantity. In the Parent Report tactile stimulation was measured through questions: 13, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29, 32, 39, 40, 42, 46, 47, 52, 53, 56, and 59. The column used in scoring visual stimulation on the Parent Interview was the column to the far right of the Interview Sheet. Directions for the tabulation are the same as presented above for scoring auditory stimulation (see Appendix C). Dependent Variables The following section will provide definitions of the major dependent variables. The dependent variables are the Mental Image the child has of self and the level of Psychosexual DevelOpment. 72 The mental image of self is the mental representation, or memory, the child has of selfi Koppitz (l968) illustrated that the drawings of children appeared to represent the child's internal model of self, rather than to represent a logical realism. Di Leo (l973) wrote that the drawing of one's self is based upon the awareness Of one's own body. Schilder (l950) wrote that there appeared to be a continuous interchange between one's own body and the body image of others. To measure the child's self perception of self image, a drawing test was used. While there is debate regarding children's drawings, as related to self-imagery, Di Leo (l973) wrote, “The child's maturing_concept of body is reflected in the increasing complexity of his/her human figure drawing." (p, 20) To measure the child's concept of self the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test was given to the child. This instrument was selected because scoring has been standardized and directions are uncomplicated. In this study subjects were given the standardized form enclosed in a frame SO that they were not distracted by the scoring format. The subjects were told to "Draw a picture of yourself. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make your whole self, not just your head." If the child appeared uncertain the interviewer repeated the question, again asking the subject to start with the head. Further directions were not provided. After the subject finished, the interviewer asked the child to name the parts on the drawing while the parts were written on the drawing. During the period that the child was drawing, the child was separated from the parents. The scoring of the picture was done 73 according to directions in the manual (Harris, 1963). Psychosexual Development of Identity refers to that part Of self develOpment wherein one comes to know the self as female or male (Abelson, l979; Emmerich, Goldman, Kirsh and Sharabany, l977; Gouze and Nadelman, l980; Marcus and Overton, 1978; McConaghy, l979; Slaby and Frey, l975; and Storm, 1979). Cognitive develOpment theorists suggest that psychosexual develOpment of identity is based upon the child's intellectual develOpment and progresses from an understanding of gender identity of self to an understanding of the constant prOperties of gender permanence. According to cognitive theorists, the child believes that any external changes in self or others, such as clothing or hair style, representing a style Specific to the Opposite sex, if chosen would result in gender change. This measure of psychosexual develOpment focuses upon measures of gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency. The develOpment Of Psychosexual Identity is believed to follow a sequential pattern such that Gender Inconsistency is the first stage, Gender Identity for self is second, Understanding the Stability of Gender over time is third, Gender Consistency of Self follows, and Gender Consistency of Others DFECEGES the IIOAI stage during which time the child recognizes that Gender is based upon a physical dimension that can not be changed by external impingements. To measure Psychosexual DevelOpment of Identity a Gender Consistency scale was develOped based upon the prior work of Slaby and Frey (l975). Gouze and Nadelman, (1980) and McConaghy (1979). Subjects were shown pictures and paper dolls were used to illustrate external change 74 in appearance. The female form was form A (see Appendix C, page 211 ) and the male form was form 8 (see Appendix 0, page 213 ). In this research Gender Identipy was determined by the questions: 9 and 9b - “Are you a boy or a girl?", and by "Are you a (Opposite sex asked)?" To measure the child's understanding of external appearance as related to gender, children were shown pictures Of adult men and women, and paper dolls of a man and woman and boy and girl. When shown the dolls they were asked questions as, “Is this a girl or a boy?". To measure Gender Stability over time the subjects were asked, “When you were a little baby were you a little girl, or a little boy?", and “When you grow up, will you be a daddy or a mommy?“ Gender Consistency of self was measured by questions as, ”If you wore boy's clothes (form A, for girls), would you be a girl or a boy?" and, ”If you played girl's games (form 8, for boys), would you be a boy or a girl?" To measure Ego-centric thought, as a basis for response, the subjects were asked "Could you be a (opposite sex) if you really wanted to be (Opposite sex)?" The questions from 1 through 14 were from the scale used by Slaby and Frey (1975). Additional questions were added to the scale and the subjects were asked, "Would you want to be a boy,“ adding a measure of Gender Acceptence. To measure Gender Consistency for Others the subjects were shown a paper doll and were allowed to observe external change to the doll as a clothing change was made. The subjects were asked, "This is a little girl. If I put this boy outfit on, will she be a boy or a girl?" If subjects answered all questions correctly, they were asked, "Why can't (he/she) 75 become a (boy/girl)?" A correct response would be scored a 1 if the child alluded to the Physical reason as did the subject who responded by saying, "Because he was borned that way." If subjects were able to give a physical reason indicating a Genital basis for gender identity the child would have scored a 2. A reduced reproduction of the paper dolls and pictures used with the Gender Scale are found in Appendix C. In order to score a 1 for each set the subject would have to pass all questions in that set Wm 1 correctly. If they were unable to answer a portion of the set, a O was scored. There were nine sets of questions in the Gender Consistency Scale used in this research. Intervening.VariableS The research by Koppitz (l966) indicated that the child's selfaportrait improved and contained greater detail as the children developed in one years time. The children in this sample were from 49 months to 63 months, a range Of 14 months. In this research, the score of the child's mental image of self was measured for effect of age. Slaby and Frey (1975) and others (Abelson, 1979; Emmerich, et al. 1977; Gouze and Nadelman, 1980; Kohlberg, 1966; and McConaghy, 1979) found that there was a sequential develOp- ment in Gender Consistency Scores as children aged. In this research, the score of the child's mental image was measured for effect of age with the partial coefficient of determination, 76 as was the Gender Consistency Scale. TO measure age, the age of the subject was recorded accord- ing to the date of birth by asking the parent(s), “Now, can you give me the date of birth of Subject's Name?" The age was recorded to the nearest month (see Appendix A, Demographic Interview, questions 1 and 2). TO determine the highest Level of Education among the parents, parents were asked tO give the highest number of years completed by the parent having the greatest amount Of education (see Appendix A, questions 8 - 10). To determine the Occupational Level of the family, the father's occupation was asked. The majority of the subjects' mothers were not employed and only one-ninth were working full time. In order to curtail the number of variables in this research the occupational level of the father was considered as determining the occupational status for the household. To determine occupational status several questions were asked, “What is your place of employ- ment, (Appendix A, question 5). The answer to question 6, “What is your occupation, and what is it that you do?", was coded according to the levels in the 1981 National U.S. Census Data classification. The intervening variables. Age, Educational Level of the parent, and the Occupational Level of the father, were used as pre- dictor variables to determine causal relationships of effect of dependent variables. 77 Data Analysis Research data were analyzed on the Control Data Corporation Model 6500 Computer at the Computer Laboratory of Michigan State University. The analysis Of data was done through the use of programs drawn from the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent, 1975), with consulting assistance from the Consulting Services at the Computer Center. Programs drawn from the SPSS package included: Pearson Product-Moment Correlation, Guttman Scaling, and Multiple Regression. Statistical Methods and Assumptions The statistical methods which were used in the analysis included: Simple frequency distribution, Paired T-Tests of Means, Guttman Scaling, Pearson Product-Moment Correlation, Multiplicative Computation of Interaction, the Hierarchical and Stepwise method of Multiple Regression and Path Analysis. Simple frequency distributions The subprogram (SPSS)computed simple and cumulative frequency distributions for the following variables: total sensori-stimulation; auditory stimulation; visual stimulation, tactile stimulation; total quality of contact, quality of contact with the parent Of the same- sex, quality Of contact with the parent of the Opposite sex; parental report of sensori interaction according to: total count, auditory count, visual count, tactile count; parental level of education, head of the household occupation, mental self-image score, psychosexual develooment of identity score. The frequency format provided a 78 Simple frequency count, the relative percent of frequency, and a cumulative percentage of the interval data. The independent vari- ables quantity of sensori-stimulation for Specific sense modality and for multimodal interaction as observed and reported were measured as a continuous interval variable. That is, the variable had a numerical score that could lie along any point on a continuum between the lowest and highest value as measured from the sample. The independent variables educational level of the parent, head Of the household's occupation, mental image score, and psychosexual identity were discrete interval variables. That is, the value of the variable represented an equal interval or unit for each increase in score. The independent variable, quality of parental contact was an ordinal variable. However, for each subject the quality score was added for each stimulation act. The sum of the scores for many incidents, as occurred during the observation period of the quality of contact for each stimulation act resulted in a total score resembling a continu- ous interval variable (Labovitz, 1970). Further, the {_statistic is robust as used in Multiple Regression meaning that it resists viola- tion of assumptions (Kerlinger and Pedhazer, 1973). Analysis Of the mean, standard deviation, standard error, and kurtosis was done. Paired T-Tests T-tests were used for analysis of differences between the subsamples female and male for quality of parental contact and for Observed quantity of sensori-stimulation for each sense modality. Significance between paired groups was determined through 79 comparison of the obtained t statistic with the value for the Degree of Freedom equal to n - I, for testing the difference between the means of two correlated samples. The probability of getting the Observed value as a comparison between groups was not postulated to be greater for either group, therefore, a two-tailed test Of Significance was used. Values for the t statistic were computed as: 5X1 'hxe t: Sd ‘/ n 2 _ 2 2 and Sd (5.0.1) + (S.D.2) - 2(S.D.l) x (5.0.2) x (r1.2) Where: t is the obtained statistic 71 is the mean of the subgroup: samevsex dyad X2 is the mean of the subgroup: Opposite-sex dyad 5.0.1 is the standard deviation Of the same—sex dyad 5.0.2 is the standard deviation of Opposite-sex dyad r1.2 is the correlation between the subgroups: same and opposite-sex dyad The purpose of the t-test was to determine difference in the quality and quantity Of parent-child interaction between same sex and Opposite sex dyads (Stapletonl). 1J. Stapleton, personal communication, December 1983. 80 Pearson Product Moment Correlation The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to measure the relationship among the independent variables: quantity of sensori- stimulation, for total interaction of modalities (auditory, visual, and tactile) and individual contribution of each sense modality; quality Of contact; educational level of the parent; occupational level of head of the household; age of the subject, with the dependent variables: mental self image score and psychosexual develOpment Of identity score. correla- tions were develOped for the total sample group and for subsamples composed of all male subiects and all female subjects. Further differ- entiation was between same and opposite sex dyads among each set of correlated variables. The numerical range of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation is from -1.00 to + 1.00. A correlation close to +1.00 represents a strong positive relationship while a -1.00 represents a strong negative, or an inverse relationship between the variables. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is a prelude to regression analysis where admission of variables is based upon the amount of predictability to add strength to the fit of the regression line and':_ (the correlation coefficient) is equal to the strentgh and direction Of the linear relationship. Significance tests based on.£ assume random sampling and a bivariate normal distribution (Nie, et al., 1975). The significance Of‘:_is rel- ative to the distance of the correlation from zero. Thus, the greater the distance from O, in either direction, the higher the significance 81 between the variables. The initial correlations were zero-order correlations because there were no controls for the influence of other variables. Where X and Y represent two variables, and‘g is defined as the ratio of covariance to the square root of the product of the variance of x and Y, the formula for the computation of the program (SPSS) Pearson Correlation is (Nie, et al., 1975): (X. - XHY - i) 3‘ - % EBU-MWHw-v 1? Where X is the th Observation of variable X Y is the th observation of variable Y N is the number of observations X is I: Xi/N and equal to the mean of variable X C is I: Yi/N and equal to the mean of variable Y Further, significance tests were reported with each‘p coefficient with the formula derived from the Student's with N - 2 degrees of freedom. Where (Nie, et al.): t (ti-2)" = r """"'1?' - 1 - r and p is the probability under the null hypothesis that t would, in absolute value, be as large or larger than the value observed. Analysis of the correlation of mental self-image with quality and quantity of 82 sensori-stimulation according to the total parental interaction preceded multiple regression. Multiple Regression Multiple regression was used to identify causal effects among independent variables that would lead to the explanation of variance in the dependent variables: mental self-image and psychosexual identity. Intervening variables: age of the subject, occupational level of the father, and educational level of the parent were included in the regression equation to determine the influence on the dependent variables through the use of the partial correlation coefficients. A path structural relationship was hypothesized where quantity and quality of sensori-stimulation would lead to development of a mental self-image in the subject. Further, it was postulated that there was a positive relationship between the mental image the child had of self and the develOpment of the subject's psychosexual identity. Multiple regression was the methodology of choice because the independent variables were continuous and manipulative analysis of high, medium, or low categories would be misleading with a sample size of 36. Multiple regression allowed a method of analyzing interaction effects, a necessary test of Hypotheses 3, 6, 7, and 8. Two methods of multiple regression were used: the hierarchical inclusion and the stepwise inclusion. Hierarchical inclusion was used initially as a means of testing causal relationships based upon the hypotheses. Stepwise inclu- sion was used to determine what variables would be selected to provide the greatest explanation of variability in the dependent variable(s). 83 The hierarchical method used a different set of tests for 8 (Beta), because instead of determining the incremental contribution according to the partial correlation (stepwise) the researcher specified the order of inclusion based upon the relationships specified in the hypotheses. Thus the first variable was tested by (Nie, l975): 2 ry /1 -n M (1 ' R:.12...k) / (N ' k ’ 1) Where: Mean square due to regression F = Mean square from regression R2 = Sum Of Squares regression Total sum of Squares ry = correlation coefficient N is equal to 36 for total pOpulation, or 18 for subsamples Of female and male subjects k is the number of variables; if n was 18, k was equal to 3; if N is 36, k was equal to 7 or less The second regression coefficient tested by the F ratio was: 2 ry(2.1 ) ’1 ' (1 ' R:.12..k) / (N ' k ' 1) 2 * This would change: "y(3.12) _ would be the test statistic for inclusion of the third variable. The number of variables in the regression equation should not exceed nl5 or the model will be over- fitted (Draper and Smith, 1966), chance of type II error increases and fit would be inversely affected. 84 Following the hierarachical method of inclusion, computa- tion was done through the stepwise inclusion method. A compar- ison Of results was made for fit of model. In the forward step- wise solution, analysis Of correlation is done at each step to determine the contribution of each variable if entered at that step in explaining the remaining variation in the dependent vari- ables: mental self-image score 2: develOpment of psychosexual identity. In the SPSS program the amount of coefficient of partial determination is found by reviewing the variables not in the multiple equation and looking under the column heading PARTIAL for the highest number. The partial determination measures the contribution of each independent variable, given that of the other variables in the equation. The coefficient of determination (R2) measures the prOportion of variance explained by all the independent, or intervening, variables already in the model, while the coefficient of partial determination measures the marginal contribution of each variable giyep the independent variables in the model. The square of the partial value explains the currently unexplained variance in the dependent variable that can be eliminated if a Specific variable is entered in at the next step (Huntsberger, Croft, and Billingsley, 1980). The equation on the following page explains the formula for the computation Of the new coefficient of determina- tion (R2) if the next variable X1 is included in the regression 85 equation at the next step: The unexplained variation 2 in Y at a given step = 1 - R New R2 = R2 + [(13) x 0-122)] Where: X = The independent variable to i be included at the next step. Y = The dependent variable 2 = The coefficient of determina- R tion at the current step. ’02 The square of the partial = correlation coefficient of X. with Y with previous ihdependent variables removed. The additive effect of each variable is found by examining the R2 as the percentage is the amount explained by the variables in the regression equation. The Beta coefficients are the regression equations' co- efficients eXpressed in terms of the standard deviation of the varia- bles that are involved. Beta (fii) would indicate the number of standard deviations that Y changes for every standard deviation change in X,. For example, in Table 16, quality of same-sex contact changed 1.4 standard deviations when added to the regression equation with the dependent variable, Mental Self-Image Score. The TOLERANCE Column on the SPSS program gives an indication of the relative independence of the variables not in the equation to the variables already in the equation. When the tolerance value is 86 high (.85+) the variable is approaching linear independence of the other variables. The tolerance is equal to 1 - R2, where R2 is the multiple coefficient of determination of that independ- ent variable with the collection of independent variables in the equation. To check the regression equation for possibility of multi- collinearity the tolerance column was checked for a low value prior to entry Of the variable into the equation, further checks were made by watching for (Groebner and Shannon, 1981): 1. Incorrect signs on the coefficients. 2. Changes in the value of previous coefficients (8) when a new variable is added. 3. The change to insignificant Of a previously significant variable when a new variable is added. 4. An increase in the standard error Of the estimates To eliminate the possible effects Of multicollinearity, the individual effects of the individual sense modalities, tactile, auditory, and visual were computed as a product. The product of the sense modalities was the interaction Of auditory x visual x tactile. The computation was done via the SPSS command COMPUTE. The multiplicative model provided a ratio to the moving average (Groebner and Shannon, 1981), and allowed computation to retain evidence of fluctuation between trends. A basic difference between a multiplicative model and the additive model is that the multi- plicative model gave indication Of irregular variation among the variables that might have been lost in the additive model (Dunn and Clark, 1974: Huntsberger, Croft, and Billingsley, 1980). 87 The assumptions of the multiple regression procedure are: 1. The sample was randomly selected. 2. The independent variables are nonrandom. 3. The dependent variable values are normally distrubuted. 4. The variance around the regression plane is constant. Thel§_test statistic associated with multiple regression is believed to be ggpg§£_with regard to violation of the above assumptions (Kerlinger and Pedhazer, 1973), meaning that the test gives fairly accurate results even if an assumption is not satisfied (Welkowitz, Eweb, and Cohen, 1976). Guttman Scalipg A Guttman scale is a cumulative scale wherein the scale ascends in order of difficulty of reSponse. The Guttman Scale is uni- dimensional and questions or statements are ordered according to rank. Guttman Scaling provides a method of analyzing items in a questionnaire in order that difficulty might be ascertained. Such scaling was nec- essary in order that the Gender Consistency Scale be used in this re- search. The Gender Scale was a composite of items from prior research and had not been ordered according to difficulty for preschool children. While the Slaby and Frey (1975) scale had been scaled through Guttman analysis, as had the Gouze and Nadelman Scale (1979), neither of these scales combined all the items of the composite edition used for this research. Further, additional items were chosen for the 88 subjects to answer. The addition of the more complex questions was done to create possibility of a normal distribution Of correct reSponse. The SPSS program, Guttman Scale, uses cutting points to determine that no category has more error than non-error. The cutting lines are horizintal lines across the columns representing categories of items and are used so that errors in each category are counted and recorded below the table. The total number of errors for the total subjects in this study was 8 (see Table 5). For the subsample female, the error was equal to 2. For the subsample male, the error was equal to 4. Thus, the Guttman Scaling of the total sample increased the number of errors from four to six points. To compute the coefficient of reproducibility, errors are totaled and eXpressed as a portion of the total number of responses. In this research there were none categories and 36 subjects for a total of (9 X 36) 324 responses. The total errors are divided by the total responses and the value is computed by substracting from 1 (Edwards, 1957) as: coefficient of reproducibility = 1 - total error total reSponse 1 8 ' 324 0r 1 ' .0266 3 .9753 This value indicates the percent accuracy in which responses 89 to the items on the Gender Consistency Scale can be reproduced from total scores. The minimum coefficient of reproducibility is Obtained by the frequencies in each category of response. To compute the minimum marginal reproducibility the prOportion of responses in each category are summed and divided by the number of statements. To calculate the sum the maximum marginals for each number are used. The minimum marginal reproducibility gives the minimum coefficient that could have occurred, given the cutting points determined through analysis and the prOportion of subjects passing or failing each item. In order for a Guttman Scale to be considered valid the coefficient of reproducibility must be higher than .9. Another measure obtained with the SPSS program for Guttman Scaling is the coefficient of scalability which can vary from 0 to 1, but must be over .6 to be unidimensional and cumulative (Nie, et al. 1975). Path Analysis Path analysis was used to provide the conceptual framework for illustration of the postulated causal ordering of the variables underlying the theoretical orientation of this research. The de- sign of this research is eXplanatory and the path model allows a pictorial arrangement Of relationships suggested in the hypotheses. The use of the path model was made possible through multiple’ regres- sion hierarchical inclusion that was then compared with the 90 resulting equation of the stepwise method of computation. The formation of the hypotheses was based upon several years of observation of parent-child dyads and certain outcomes appeared to indicate a causal ordering that underlies the proposed structure of the path model. TO obtain path coefficients a standardized regression co- efficient must be Obtained. This was done through step 1 of the hierarchical inclusion method. Further analysis was done through the inclusion of the variables in order of perceived importance. The beta values were used to represent the strength of the rela- tionship between variables, with 8 representing the Beta valOe. In the model in Figures 3, 4, and 5 the Beta values are used, however, the strength of the relationship could have been illustrated with the ordinary correlationship coefficient (r). The probability of the relationship is represented by a p directly under a Beta illustration. Residual causes, not in the equation were measured from the regression summary by (Nie, et al, 1975):' E =V1-R2 Where: E = residual associated with the dependent variable after the addition of the Independent variable R2: the multiple coefficient of determination Correlations between variables were determined through the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Zero Order analysis and were 91 Age 'duca- &\ r: 0360 tion I \b . 'e p= .02 '. ‘5 39 o $l’. 0 IOOQ .- . 36 uant ity P'<000 Quali t .351 2? .\ ?’ Key. (:::) Dependent Variable E- Residual associated with > Dependent Variable, after addition of Independent Variables, where E = l _ R2 E] Independent Variable -———> Beta value and Significance /”—_1£Es Correlation and Significance * -——-—.. FIGURE 3 ---Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Total Sample- 92 Key: Independent Variable vxn, Relationship not in Regression Summary O Dependent Variable E. . . .Residual associated with Dependent Variable after addition of Same-Sex Dyad Independent Variables where _ Opposite-Sex Dyad FIGURE 4 -- Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Female Subsample. 93 = 1 6 r;-_.s_7.1-__,_ ’1’ \‘\ E= .79.) \ Quan B: .5168 000000. B 8 ‘ ity p = .02 2;; .329 __ <-""-.-B.E.. ual- p: it)’ p§§ 316 '4 8 p‘ ' 2 79 I ’3’) Psycho 9 ’ E'- 092 0 can...) gemal ev r13“, .301 3e P ' Key: I Independent Variable Sfluvi Relationship not in Regression Summary (:::) Dependent Variable E'°°° Residual associated with Dependent Variable after addition of Same-sex Dyad Independent Variables where: - - - - Opposite-Sex Dyad E = 1 _ R FIGURE 5 --Path Diagram to Illustrate Causal Model with Related Correlation as Suggested in Multiple Regression Stepwise Analysis for Male Subsample. 94 represented with a curved line between variables. The significance according to the Student's t is Shown with a‘p ( = or-< ) below the value of L: It should be noted that while path analysis is a method for illustrating implications of a set Of causal assumptions, imposed by the theoretical orientation Of the research, path analysis cannot be considered more than a weak causal ordering. The linkage between variables is derived from regression analysis. In regression analysis predictability is possible only with a data set similiar to the set used in the regression analysis originally. Because samples vary among the many variables, one must be careful of extrapolation beyond the limitations of this research. Thus, the path analysis, as used in this research, is used for the purposes Of illustration to summarize information. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The statistical procedures and test statistics are detailed in Chapter III. In this chapter, prior to the discussion of the hypotheses and questions, indices Of descriptive statistics will be examined as well as decisions for data analysis that were reached prior to the use of Multiple Regression for analysis of causal relationships. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive data for all variables are presented on Table 3. The data are presented for the total sample and for the sub- samples of male subjects and female subjects. A review of Table 3 indicates that tactile stimulation has a standard deviation in excess of the mean, indicating the the sample was not normally distributed about the mean as is suggested apprOpriate for multiple regression analysis. A review of Table 4 indicates that the range for the total sample is between no contact among parent and child, to approximately 656 seconds, or 10 minutes of tactile contact. Other ranges include a *variation of no auditory contact for the entire sample to 1150 seconds, or- 19.2 minutes Of parent to child auditory contact. The greatest range in contact of subsets of boys and girls was between mothers and sons with a range from 0 seconds to 1075 seconds of auditory contact. The wide fluctuation in range would cause statistical concern except 95 96 TABLE 3 ---Summary Of Means and Standard Deviations of Variables with Comparison between Total Sample and Subsample of Female and Male Subjects Variable TOta‘ Female Male Mean 51) . Mean S .D . m Dependent Variable: Psychosexual Identity 5.44 1.16 5.69 .97 5.22 1.31 Mental Self-Image 9.47 3.37 11.13 2.48 7.11 2.32 Independent Variable: Quantity stimulation Auditory, same-sex 366.22 314.20 605.22 264.00 127.21 112.21 Quantity stimulation Visual, same-sex 80.00 68.65 116.00 73.50 44.00 39.46 Quantity stimulation Tactile, same-sex 95.03 143.17 136.89 167.88 53.17 101.51 Quantity stimulation Auditory, Opp-sex 243.78 252.19 144.89 121.01 342.68 122.21 Quantity stimulation Visual, Opp-sex 48.56 36.10 39.44 33.44 57.67 37.28 Quantity stimulation Tactile, Opp-sex 89.16 162.17 83.22 152.03 55.11 175.95 Quality Of Contact same-sex dyad 3.53 .71 3.78 .28 3.27 .90 Quality of Contact Opposite-sex dyad 3.63 .37 3.86 .31 3.60 .44 Education of Parent 15.64 2.11 15.50 2.20 15.78 2.07 Occupation of Father 6.66 3.04 6.94 3.54 6.78 2.56 Age of Subject, in months 54.38 4.06 54.72 3.36 54.00 4.73 N = 36 18 18 97 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 0000000 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 00000> 00.0000 00.0 00.000 00.00 00.0000 00.0 00000000 ”xuvucozo 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0000000 xwm wuvmomao 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.0 0000000 00.000 00.0 00.000 00.00 00.000 00.0 000000 00.000 00.0 00.0000 00.000 00.0000 00.0 00000000 ”auvucmso 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0000000 xmm mem 00001. 300 000: 300, 000:, 300 i 0002 mpmsmm pouch 00000L0> .muumnazm 000: 0:0 000500 mo «pascmnzm 000 000500 00000 com 0000 «mucoumm :0 ms0p mo 0000:030 0:0 eunucou mo 0000000 00 covuupae0umuvcomcom uw>ammno mo omega mo unmeasm 1-- a mmmu_u=mu0 paaxomoguxma .o—aa.ga> so a=.—~um :0500:@ ac co—uuauma—p0 111- m u0mcaae0 acuuaoa 0000. . 000000000000000 00 00000000000 -----000- 0 0 o H H H H o O o o o o O o o maomxu em 0 cm o mm NH NN ms NH mm HH am e OOH a NH H NH H mH n c vH n mH N 0H 0 NH 23m 11111111111111111111111 11111111111.11111111111.11111111111.11111111111 11111111111 o o O o : o o O o o o 0 O o o o ‘ o o o o c o o o O c o o c o o H o o c o o o c o o o c o c o N mmu1111 O H H o o H c H o H o H O H m amu1111 m o N H H N o n O m o n O m o «NM1111 OH o CH C OH O o OH o OH o OH O OH m m¢m1111 H c H o H c H o o H c H o H o amm1111 H o H o H o H o H o o H o H s ¢¢u1111 N o N o N o N c N o N o o N m 11¢¢u1111 o c o o o o o o o o o o o o a 11111111 P111110”. 011111111 .11111111 ir11111@ .111®1 1111® may «mm «mm «a mum : mam - mum H o H o H o H c H c H o H c .umua muumnnzm 000: no» .00000000 000000000000 .mpaa.cu> mo 0:00000 00200:» 00 0°000000=000111 h u00<0 106 Total Female Male Item Scale Scale Scale Scale no. Name Order Order Order 601 Gender Knowledge/inconsistent 1 1 1 GC2 Gender Identity of Self 2 2 2 GC3 Gender Stability 4 5 4 GC4 Gender Constancy for Self 5” . 6 0 ‘ 5 GCS Wishful Thought 5 4 ‘EKS GC6 Accept Gender 3 3 3 GC7 Gender Constancy for Others 7 7 7 GC8 Physical reason 8 8 8 669 Genital Knowledge 9 9 9 Number Subjects N = 36 n 8 18 n = 18 FIGURE 8 --Reorder of Gender Scale Items according to Guttman Scalability for Total Sample, Female Subsample and Male Subsample, rated from Least to Most Difficult. Illustration of change in mid-scores. 107 Inferential Statistics In this section the hypotheses and questions are taken in order. The descriptive statistics are presented in the prior section. The inferences made in this section can be related,‘gply, to other samples having the same characteristics as the families used in this research. Further, the sample size Of male and female subsamples is small. An attempt was made to control variability through homogeneous selection of subjects from a Specific segment (FAPCN nurseries) of the pOpulation, however, such assumptions may not be valid. Each of the hypotheses, 1 through 8, to be stated here will be tested using the following procedure. The hypotheses, as stated here, correspond to the alternative, or research, hypotheses. The correSpond- ing null hypotheses imply an absence of the effect in the alternative hypotheses. The p_value given is then the probability that the test statistic used would be as large as Observed under the null hypothesis. If p_is less than (<:) .05 the null hypothesis is rejected, and the alternative hypothesis. or research hypothesis, is supported. A p value greater (=-) that .05 indicates that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (at the .05 level) and alternative is not established or supported. Thus, when evidence is lacking to establish the research hypothesis the null hypothesis can not be assumed to be proved true. Objective 1 The first Objective was to measure the effects of sensori- stimulation between parent and child on the develOpment of the child's mental image of self, as compared for quantity of sensori-stimulation 108 and quality of parental contact. Prior to the testing of the research hypotheses, Question 1 was answered. Question 1 Does parental perception of quantity of sensori-stimulation as measured by the Parent Report significantly correlate with the Observed quantity Of sensori-stimulation measured using the Observation Sheet? In this study, sensori-stimulation is defined as the stimula- tion of auditory, visual, or tactile receptors. Sensori-stimulation was measured through the use of Observation Sheet and the Parent Report. The parent Report was based upon the parents' perceived contact with the child. Analysis of the relationship between the instruments was measured by the Pearson Product Moment Correlation shown in Table 8. TABLE 8 -- Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between the Observed Total Sensori-stimulation and the Parent Report Of Perceived Contact for Quantity Between Same-sex and Opposite-sex dyads. Variable Pearson r Significance Same-Sex dyad Observed stimulation with Reported stimulation .1048 .271 Opposite-sex dyad Observed stimulation with Reported stimulation .2859 .045 The result of the statistical analysis indicated that for parent child dyads of the same-sex, the perceived quantity of interaction 109 did not correlate with the quantity Observed. There was a significant correlation (p_= .045) within Opposite-sex parent-child dyads. The correlation between Observed quantity of sensori-stimulation for same- sex parent-child dyads compared with a reported quantity was 5" .1048 with a significance Of .271, therefore, while Opposite-sex dyads approached a significant level between observed and reported quantity of contact, same-sex dyads did not significantly correlate. The relationship was analyzed, further, by comparing correlations between the sense modalities Of auditory, tactile, and visual, as measured by the Observation sheet and the Parent Report. The results of correlation for same-sex dyads are found in Table 9. The results of correlation for Opposite-sex dyads are found in Table 10. The results are nested for subsamples of female and male subjects. In the Specific modality of tactile, visual, or auditory, the only correlation to reach a significant level was between female subjects and the Opposite-sex parent on visual quantity. Pearson Product Moment Correlation (5) is equal to .5141 with‘p. equal to .015. While appearing significant, the results could be misleading, (Welkowitz, et al, 1976) and represent a Type I error, wherein the alternative hypothesis is accepted as true when it is really false. When there are six correlations there is a .30 possibility that one set would reach a significant level through chance. The lack of correlation between the two instruments might be the result of several factors. The parents were observed at a specific hour during the year the child was four years old. The Parent Report covered the parent's perception of interaction from birth to the time of the interview. 110 00 u e 00 u e 00 u 0 00000000 00000 000. 0000. 000. 0000. 000000 "00000000 000.0000 000: 00:00> 000000000 0m>gmmao 000. 0000. 000. 0000. 0.000000 "00000000 000.0000 £003 0000000< "0000:0ao 0m>nmmno 000. mmoc. 000. 0000. 0000000 "00000000 00000000 000: 0000000 000000000 0m>nmmao a n 0 a 0000000> 000: 000500 .m0umwazm 000: 0:0 000500 mo 000050000m 000 00000002 0000 :0 00000000000 00000000 00 000000 000000 000 :00: 0000000 00000> 0:0 .000000:< .0000000 00 00000000021000000m 00 000000000 .00000000000 xmmums0m we .00000005000 00000000 00 00000>ammoo :mmz0mm cow00pmgaou we 000EE=m 11 m w0m<0 111 00 u c 00 u c 00 u 2 00000000 00000 mmH. mnum. 000. 0000. 000. ufimo. 000. 000m. 00:m0> 000000000 00000000 :00: 00000> 000000000 00>00000 000. 0000. 00000000 000000000 00000000 000: 0000000< 000000000 00>00000 mam. mmm0. 0000000 000000000 00000000 000: 0000000 000000000 00>00000 0002 000200 0000000> .0000000m 000: 000 000200 00 000050000m 000 00000002 0000 :0 00000000000 00000000 00 000000 000000 000 :00: 0000000 00=m0> 0:0 .000000=< .0000000 00 0000000002 0000:0m 00 000000000 .00000000000 x0m -00000000 00 .00000005000 00000000 00 00000>00000 0003000 00000000000 00 x0mesam --.qn u0m<0 112 The behavior of the parents during the time of observation and the parental report of behavior might have been affected by the intrusion of research methods. The Parent Report contained several pages of questions suggesting several patterns of interaction between parent and child (see Appendix C). Analysis of the data might have provided a clearer relationship between the two instruments if an indepth study had been done wherein all questions were used as variables.The analysis WOUId require a larger sample size as the addition of variables in a regression equation cannot exceed n/k equal to S. The additional analysis was beyond the resources of this study. For testing hypotheses 1 through 8 data from the Observation Sheet were used and further analysis continued. Research Hypothesis 1 The greater the quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child, the higher the child's mental image of self will be. To test quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child on the develOpment of the child's mental self-image, sensori-stimulation was measured as an interactive model using multiplicative computation as detailed in Chapter III. The relationship between stimuli and mental self imagery was computed through the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and was found to have a value equal to .1826 and a signifi- cance level of .143. Thus, the sensori-stimulation as measured for quan- tity of interaction between parent and child did not have a significant effect on the child's mental image score. Hence, if the drawing test is predictive of the mental image the child has of self, as postulated by Di Leo (1973), KOppitz (1968) and Schilder (1950), the mental image the child has of self is not significantly affected by sensori-stimulation 113 from interaction with parents (see Table 11). The research hypothesis 1 is not supported at the .05 level of significance. Research Hypothesis 2 The greater the quality of parental contact between parent and child, the higher the child's mental image of self will be. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was used to test the relationship between sensori-stimulation and the mental image the child has of self. Correlation between quality of contact between parents and child had an'g value = .4783 and a significant level of .002 (See Table 11). Research hypothesis 2 is SUpported. Research flypothesis 3 Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have a stronger positive relationship with the develOpment of the child's mental self-image than will quality of sensori-stimulation. Multiple Regression with hierarchical inclusion was used to test research hypothesis 3 (see Table 12). Quantity of sensori-stimulation was added at the first step and the correlation with mental self-image is equal to .1826, as mentioned in the discussion of hypothesis 1. The significance of quantity of sensori-stimulation with mental self-imagery is p = .287. The multiple coefficient of determination (R2) is the measure that indicates the variance in mental self-image eXplained by 2 quantity. The R was equal to .03. When quality of sensori-stimulation was added at the 2nd step the addition of this variable increased the R2 to .23. With the addition of quality the significance value changed from p = .287 to p = .013. Because mental self-image is a cognitive process and would seem to increase as the child grows, age of the subject was added last 114 Hmm. moHH.- mam. oeHH. 44m. NmHH.- zuwecaao com. mwm~.- moo. mmfie. wmfl. mew”. auwpaao ”Lew :ewuuagmucu vexo xem-euwmeeeo moo. emmm. ego. mmoe. Hoe. oeem. wwwucaao mme. omen. mHe. fiwme. Hoe. mmom. zuwpmeo “Lew cewuuegmucm ammo xem-esem are. Nmmo.- moo. emmm. mad. emmfi. upweceao omfl. mHmN. mam. oNNH. moo. mane. aewpmso ”Lew :ewueecmueH Pepeegae peuew 2.1 u d 0H nd u a e L e L a g mpmz 3.050... Pun—OH mpnwwLm> mueeneam ewe: use muumneam eweseu we me—eEemeam ecu muuemeam Peuew Lew woman xem.eawmeeeo we cewueegeucH ecu .meezo xmm-esmm we :ewuemgeucH .cewueegwu:~ —eucmgee _euew eu mcwegeuue cewuepaewumuwgemcem we zuwuceao ecu zuwpeao new: emesm peace: "epeewge> aceeceeeo we :ewuepeggeo we zgmssamuuufiH mem aawm mPaEwm _awow cow mausw-w.am Payee: new; uwwge wo one new .ueeuceu we >uwwmao .mucewee ecu ewwcu ceezume :ewuepzswum zawuceac Pepe» "mewnewwe> aceeceeeeeH we cewmawecH peewgewewewz cewmmewmea epewuwez we xweesem--- NH uemqw 116 so that the impact of age could be controlled as a predictor. The partial correlation coefficient listed under the partial column of the SPSS program was .22. The partial value is the influence of age, after quality is removed. The multiple coefficient of determination explains the change in variance or mental image when age increased the predict- ability of the independent variables, quantity, quality, and age of subject, on the variance of mental image to .27. Therefore, in this multiple regression analysis the variables, quantity, quality, and age could account for .27 of the variance of mental self-image. Individual contribution of each variable was; quantity 3%, quality 20%, and age 4%. For all variables in the equation the tolerance ranged between .91 and .98 indicating that quantity, quality, and age are highly independent of each other and there is no evidence of multicollinearity, therefore, each of the independent variables contribute independently to predictions of variance in mental imagery. The contribution of quantity is less (3%) than quality (20%) to the eXplanation of variance in mental image. Thus, research hypothesis 3 is not supported. Objective 2 The second objective in this research was to measure the effect of sensori-stimulation between parent and child on the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity. The results were tested by research hypotheses 4, 5, and 6. Research Hypothesis 4 The greater the quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child, the higher the develOpmental level of the child's 117 psychosexual identity will be. Psychosexual identity refers to that part of self-develOp- ment wherein one comes to know the self as female or male (Abelson, 1978; Emerich, Goldman, Kirsh, and Sharabany, 1977; Gouze and Nadelman, 1980: Marcus and Overton, 1978; McConaghy, 1979; Slaby and Frey, 1975; and Storm, 1979). The Gender Consistency Scale used in this research was a composite of scales develOped by Slaby and Frey (1975), Gouze and Nadelman (1980) and McConaghy (1979). Prior to testing research hypotheses 4, 5, and 6, the scale was scaled (see Chapter III) and found to have a coefficient of reproducibility equal to .9753. Because a coefficient of reproducibility higher than .91 is considered indicative that a scale is valid (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner and Bent, 1975) the rescaled model could be considered a valid Guttman Scale. Analysis was done through the use of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to determine the relationship between quantity of sensori-stimulation, as measured by the Observation Sheet and psychosexual identity, as measured by the Gender Consistency Scale. The results of the test statistic indicate that for parent and child interaction through sensori-stimulation of the child, the quantity of sensori-stimulation as related to psychosexual identity is equal to a correlation (5) of -.2200 with a level of significance of 2. = .099. Thus, it would appear that there is a weak, inverse relationship between sensori-stimulation and psychosexual identity, although the 118 probability of such correlation is insignificant to meet the criteria that‘p. a? .05. Thus, there is insufficient evidence to support research Hypothesis 4. Research Hypothesis 5 The greater the quality of parental contact between parent and child the higher the child's develOpmental level of psychosexual identity will be. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was used to test the relationship between sensori-stimulation and the psychosexual identity of the child. Correlation between quality of contact between parents and child had an.§ value of .2606 and a significant level of B = .062 (see Table 13). For retention of this research hypothesis the significant level should be less than.g = .05. There is insufficient evidence to support research Hypothesis 5. TABLE 13 --- Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Between Quantity of Sensori-Stimulation and Quality of Parent Contact with Psychosexual Identity for Total Sample. Variable Pearson r Significance Quantity of stimulation -.2200 .099 Quality of contact .2606 .062 Research Hypothesis 6 Quantity of sensori-stimulation will have a stronger positive relationship with the develOpment of the child's psychosexual identity than will quality of sensori-stimulation. 119 Table 13 illustrates a comparison of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for quantity and quality of sensori- stimulation between the child and parent with psychosexual identity. Although weak, quality does have a stronger positive relationship with psychosexual identity, than does quantity. Further analysis was done through the use of multiple regression hierarchical inclusion for relative contribution. Prior to an analysis of the regression equation, an examination of the residuals was done to determine violation of normality. Examination of the set of residuals indicated that there were 15 positive and 21 negative runs. However, when there were n values, greater than 10 in each set, exact values are not needed as there is a continuity correction where the 2 statistic is equal to the observed mean minus the expected plus 8, where the k is the usual continuity correction statistic (Draper and Smith, 1966). In this regression formula 5 was equal to .69631 with a probability equal to .243. Further, 91.67% of the residual data points were between -2 and +2 standard deviations from the mean, with the greatest cluster about the mean. Hence, examination of the residuals indicate a random variability that closely approximates a normal distribution. A review of the data on Table 13 indicated that the correlation between quality of contact and psychosexual identity was greater than the correlation between quantity of sensori-stimulation and psychosexual identity, while Table 14 illustrates that R2 for quality contributes .117 to the regression equation when the .048 contribution of quantity 120 eeeweeee m new; .m u x em u z mew. Nee. mew. mee. ewe. NHmeH. eeeew weeeez .e :ewm:_ucw Lew we>ep eecewewew we w usewewwwamcw pcewee we Pe>e4 Pecewueeeem .e :ewmapucw wow Fm>mw mucewmwe» we w ucmwuwwwamcfi pumwoam we mm< .m wee. wee. mew. ewe. wHH. wwemm.e eweeeee we sewweee weeew .N New. eee. wee. eH-m mew. ew-m eem.- mmemw.H eeweeweewee xwweeeee weeew .w eeeeewwweewm eeeeue me e we e ceeeu ee w eeweeee eweewee> eeem N Lewew ewm eweEem _eeew Lew weweeeew Peexmmezexme saw: eweem macaw —eucmz .ucewee we pe>e4 pecewueeaum .ueeneem we mm< .ueeueeu we xuwpeeo .mwcewee use epwcu geezeee cewuepaewumuwwemcem weuew "meweewwe> weeeceeeecw we :ewm=_ecH Peewgewewmw: cewmmewomm ewewupat we xwe553m---- «H mem .meexo epwgu-u:eLee xemimuwmeeec new xem-e5em Lew wmeew Peace: new: uemueeu peuchee we auwpeeo ecu cewuepaewum iwLemcem we xuwuceao "mcewuemeLeo LeuLo eLeN acesez veneeLe cemLeea we aLeesamuut- mw m4muwpceao m eee. wee. men. ewe. emw. eee.mH neexe xee-e5ee :eezuee cewuewaewum xuwuceeo H , e m we Leeew eeeeewwweewm eeeMee a eeeem ewm m ee e eeeeeem eweewee> eeem ex .eweEem weuew we enema xem -muwmeeeo use xemteEem Lew eLeem emeewiwwem Peace: saw: aceLee we we>e4 wecewueeaeu use .ueenezm esw we em< .Akucmew wezxemezexme .ueeuceu we zuwweao .cewweweewumiwLemcmm we zuwuceeo "mewnewLe> uceeceeeecw we :ewmzwecH weewgeLeLew: cewmmeLmem ewewuwez we XLesszm--._mfi uem «ceeceeee we» saw; ewgmeewueweL emLe>cw so we: ewnewLe> mcwe meee. emcee. ememm. mew. mew. eme.~ eeoeee we Loeow Leeeweeoeem m meee. mewme. eNeNm. new. eefi. mwe.~ eooweem we oee e meee. Neeme. eweee. we-“ L. eeH.- ewm.m eeewe xom-oewmeeee eweewz eeweeweewee Leweeeeee m meee. eNeHH. emewe. eee. ee.H eem.e meewe xoe -eEem cwguwz uueucep auwweso N meee. women. eemfim. we-e e. ee-m me. eee.mH eeewe xoe-eEee eweww; eeweeweewem weweeeee H .cmwm emcecu m we m Leucm Ne Loewe ewm ee e eoeoeem oweewee> eeem .mueenezm weuew Lew .muceLee on» we we>e4 wecewaeeaem ecu .ueenaam we em< .aeeuceu we zuwweac .cewaewaewum we auwucezo an emesw twwem Peace: we :ewueweeLe we» Lew mwmxwec< emwzeepm cewmmeLmem e—ewuwaz we zLeesamtu mH memqw 131 of mental self-image. Again indicating the strength of the contri- bution, quality of contact within same-sex dyads is entered next and the contribution to the uneXplained variance is .11026 an increase of R2 from .31808 to .42838. Quantity of sensori-stimulation between Opposite-sex parent and child is included next and was included in a reversal of the order in the hierarchical process. At the third step of both the hierarchical and stepwise inclusion the R2 is equal to .48926. Therefore, while the order of inclusion of the variables changed, the explanation of variability remained the same. During the stepwise process two variables were not included, quality of contact with the Opposite-sex parent and the develOpment of psychosexual iden- 2 tity. The R explained by the stepwise inclusion was .557 with five variables. The R2 eXplained by the hierarchical inclusion was .563 with seven variables. The difference contributed by the eliminated variables was .006. Thus, sensori-stimulation within parent-child dyads of the same-sex did show a higher positive relationship to mental self- image than does sensori-stimulation within opposite-sex parent-child dyads. Further, quantity of sensori-stimulation between same-sex parent and child contributed a greater percentage to‘the child's mental self-image, than did quality of parental contact. The second portion of the hypothesis is related to the effect of gender relationship between parent and child of the same-sex relationship or opposite-sex relationships. A comparison was made of effect of the relationship of quantity of sensori-stimulation and the quality of parental contact on the child's psychosexual identity. 132 Multiple Regression Stepwise Inclusion was done for compar- ison to hierarchical inclusion of the order of the variable inclusion in the regression equation so that the researcher could compare fit- ness of hypothesis to manner of insertion. The order Specified in the hierarchical inclusion was that mandated by the format of the theoretical framework of the paper. The inclusion, according to stepwise inclusion of variables, would be mandated bv the order that the independent variables' respective contribution of each variable's explained variance. The result of stepwise inclusion is found in Table 19. In the stepwise inclusion, quality of contact between parent and child enters the equation first. Sensori-stimulation within same-sex dyads is entered at step two. Sensori-stimulation within opposite-sex dyads is entered at the third step. Quality of contact between child and parent of the Opposite-sex is entered at step five. In the stepwise inclusion, age of the subject is not enter- ed into the regression equation. For all independent variables the significance of §_indicates that the probability for predictability is weak (3 f .069). Based upon the results of the multiple regression equation, quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child of the same sex does not influence the development of psychosexual iden- tity. The same would be true of Opposite-sex dyads, as measured for quantity of sensori-stimulation. Quality of contact between Opposite- sex dyads of parent and child is not related to psychosexual identity. However, quality of contact between same-sex dyads does relate to the development of psychosexual identity. 133 .eweewLe> uceecmeee me» new: ewsmcewueweL emLe>cw an we; epeewLe> egwe meN. eeeee. eeeee. ewe. ewe. eNN. oeeee-weoe Leeeoz e ewe. eeeee. eeewe. eee. wee. MNe. eeewe xoe-oeweeeee eweew: eoeeeeo weweeeee e Nee. weNNe. eNeee. we-e e. eem.- eee. eeewe xee-oewmeeee ewewwz eeweeeeewee weweeeeee e ewe. meeme. eweee. we-w N. Nee.- ee.e eeewe xoe-o5ee eweew: eeweeeeewee weweeeeee N eee. eNeee. MNeee. eee. wwm. ee.e eeewe xoe -eEem cwguwz aeeuceu euw—eeo H meeeewwwcowm eecm:u mm m we m Leucm N Loewe ewe ee w eeeoeee eeeeweee eoem .eeooeeem weeew Lew .oeeee-weem eeeeez eee .eeweeeeewee weweeeee .eoeeeee we weweeee eew; weweeoee peexemeeexme we eequweeLe ecu Lew mwmzpecq eewzeeum cewmmeLeem ewewuwaz we zLe553mtt me meme» 134 Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was used to test the relationship between quality of parental contact and quantity of sensori-stimulation with psychosexual identity for same-sex and opposite-sex parent-child dyads. Table 20 illustrates a comparison between Zero Order Correlation Coefficients for same and Opposite sex parent-child dyads. A review of the correlations reveal little corre- lation between quantity of sensori-stimulation and interaction with either same-sex or opposite-sex, for the total sample, with psycho- sexual identity. Quality of opposite-sex contact with psychosexual identity indicates very low correlation. However, there is moderate correlation between quality of contact with the same-sex parent on the development of psychosexual identity. This finding is consistent with the research of Hetherington and Frankie (1968) who found that maternal warmth was important for girls, but not for boys. Further analysis was done to test for effect of gender differentiation on psychosexual iden- tity and to compare the results with the findings from hypotheses 6 e 7. Multiple regression using hierarchical inclusion was done with quantity of stimulation within same-sex dyads, quantity of stimulation within apposite-sex dyads, quality of contact with same-sex dyads, quality of contact with Opposite-sex dyads, the age of the subject, and mental self-image score. At step 1, quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child of the same sex was included in the equation. The multiple coefficient of determination (R2) was .01, indicating that sensori-stimulation with the same sex explains only 1% of the variance in psychosexual identity (Table 21). At step 2, quantity of sensori- 135 emm. eeee. eee. emee.- eew. eeee.- weweeeee eeN. Nwee. eem. Neee.- een. ewee. weweeee "Lew :ewueeLeu:~ we»: xewieuwmeeeo eeN. Neee. eNe. Neee.- mew. eeee.- weweeeee mee. eewe. eew. wwee.- eme. ewee. weweeee “Lew coweeeLeuee eexo xmmieEem eee. Neme.- wee. eeme.- eee. eeNN.- weweeeee ewe. eeem. New. eeee.- Nee. eeeN. weweeee "Lew :ewuueLmuew peaceLee page» u s 0H W G mm W z n. TTLP e L e L ewes eweeew page» neweewLe> mueeneem ewe: use mueeeeem ewesew we mewesemeem use muueneam Page» Lew meexo xem-eawmeeeo we cewueeLeuee ece .meexo xem.esem we :ewueeLeuee .cewuueLeuce weuceLee _euew e» mcweLeeee cewuewaswumquemcem we xuwuceeo use zuwweso saw: >uwuceee weexemeguame ee—eewLe> «ceeceeeo we :ewueweLLeu we eLeEEemtitom memuwpeac m emw. woo. one. 0mm. mem.i emwmm. teen xeeieuwmeeee eeweeweewee weweeeee N eNe. Nee. Nee. eeN. eee.- eeeee. eewe xee-oEee eeweeeeewee weweeeee e eeceewwwcuwm emceco mm m we Leucm Na LeLLm ohm m e» w eeLmucm eweewLe> eeum .ewesem wepew we memes xeeteuwmeeeo new xemuesem Lew euwuceee weexemesexme new: peeeeam we ee< new .eeeswtwwem Peace: .uueuceo we zuwweeo .cewpeweswumtwLemcem we euwuceeo "meweewLe> acmeceemece we eewmewece weeweeLeLew: cewmmeLmem ewewuwez we aLeEE:mtu HN mem .muueneam mpuemw ecu eeuz we echumeem ecu eweEum wuuew Lew peeneam we em< ecu .eceLue cpwz peuuceu we euwwuco .ewwuuuw ecu .eucmw> .eLeuwe=< we mewuweueeETwLemcem ecu ceweuecswum euwucuzo wwuLe>o emu cewueuLeuce xemieuwmeeeo we meeequu> uceeceeeece ecu eLeem emueetwwem euucez ceezuem mcewuueeLLeu we xLuee:m timN wemqw 144 contact between girls and fathers and the girls' mental image of self,£ = .003. Pearson Product Moment Zero Order Correlation of Mental self- image and same-sex quantity of sensori-stimulation indicates a correlation between fathers and sons for the sense modality of auditory, [ = .5499; visual, I = .7076; and tactile, E = .5027. Thus, sensori-stimulation between fathers and sons would appear to correlate positively with the son's mental image of himself. For mothers and daughters, visual interaction correlates with the daughters mental image of herself. The correlation between mother and daughter for quality of contact with mental self-image of the daughter is.: = .4971. The correlation for father and son, for quality of contact with mental self-image is .3950 (Table 26). Examination of Pearson Product Moment Zero Order Correl- ation indicates that correlation between psychosexual identity and sense modalities of quantity of sensori interaction between fathers and sons Show no areas of significance (see Table 27). Correlation between mothers and daughters, according to specific sense modality does not correlate with psychosexual identity. The summary of correlations between fathers and daughters and mothers and sons indicate that the probability of a positive relationship between quality of parental contact with psychosexual identity is insignifi- cant. There is an inverse relationship between fathers and daughters for tactile sensori-stimulation with the daughter's develOpment of psychosexual identity, r = -.4509 (see Table 28). 145 me u c me u c om n z muumnnam pupa» eee. eeee. wee. Neee. eee. eeeN. eooeeee we eee Nee. eeee. eee. ewee. eee. emee. eoeeeee eeweowee we weweeee wee. wNee. Nee. eNem. Nee. eewe. eeweueeewem oeweouw we weweeeee eee. ewew. eee. Neee. eee. Neew. eeweueeewem eueew> we weweeeee eee. eeee. eNe. meme.- eee. Neee. eeweeeeewee wweeweee we Leweeeee eee. eeme. eee. emee. eee. eeee. eeweeeeewee eeweeeee eeewese e L e L e L eeuz mwusew euuew meequu> .eeeeeeem meueew ecu eeuz we eeeEumeem ecu eechm euuew Lew eeeweam we ee< ecu .uceLue new: eeueceu we zewwueo .mewueuw ecu .euamw> .xLeuwe=< we meweweueeetwLemcem ecu coweueeswem xewecuec eeuLe>o emu ceweeuLeuce xemseEum we mewequu> uceeceeeece ecu eLeem eeueeiweem euecez ceezaem mcewuueeLLeu we xLusE=m .. 0N mem .mueeeeem eeuz ecu ewusew we measumeem ecu eeeEum eueew Lew eLeem mouse-weem _uucmz ecu .eueeeem we em< .uceLue new: ueuuceu we euwwuco .ewwueuw ecu .euzmw> .eLeuwee< we mewuweueez eLemcem .ceweueeewem euwucueo weuLe>o emu cewueuLeuce xemiesum we meeequu> uceecmceece cuwz euwuceee euexemegeeme ceezuem mcewuupeLLeu we eLuee:m it wN mem .meeemeem eeueew ecu eeuz we meeeEumeem ecu eeeEum euuew Lew eLeem pausetweem euucez ecu .eeewcem we ea< .uceLue new: eeueceu we seweueo .eewueuw ecu euamw> .eLeuwe=< we mmweweueez-wLemcmm .cewuueeewum zuwucuao ePuLe>o emu cewueuLeuce xem-euwmeeeo we mewequu> uceececmece 5.; 3.553 wuexemeceeme ceezuem mcewuumeLeu we weLucwcem 1 mm 59:. 148 Analysis of multiple regression stepwise inclusion (Table 29) indicates that for girls, quality of contact with fathers contribute .376, or 38%, of the explanation of variance in the mental image of self. Quantity of sensori-stimulation between father and daughter has an inverse effect upon the variability of mental self-imagery in the daughter and explains .03 of the variance, while sensori-stimulation between the child and the mother has a positive effect and contributes .02 for a total R2 equal to .42500. Analysis of multiple regression stepwise inclusion (see Table 30) indicates that for boys, quantity of sensori-stimulation between father and child contributes .31 to the explanation of variance in the child's develOpment of the mental image of self. Quality of contact between father and son contributes .10 to the exolanation of variance in mental self-image. Contact between mothers and sons, as measured for parental quality, has an inverse relationship on the son's mental 2 equal to .097. Thus, the image of self, with an increase in R quantity of sensori-stimulation between father and son appears to be related to the son's develOpment Of a mental self-image, with the quality of contact between father and son positively related, and the quality of contact between mother and son, inversely related for a R2 equal to .49760. Therefore, 50% of the variance in mental self- image in boys would be eXplained by the independent variable: sensori- stimulation between father and son, quality of contact between father and son, and quality of contact between mother and son. 149 .e—equu> «ceeceeee ecu cewz ewgmcewuuweL emLe>cw cu muc ewequu> eewu eee. NeeNe. eeeNe. we-“ e. eee. eee. eeewe xee-oEee eweewz eeweeeecwee weweeuee e eNe. eeeNe. eeeee. ee-e e. eee.- uNe. eeewe xoe-eeweeeee eweewe eeweeeeewee weweeeeee N wee. Neewe. Neewe. ee.e ee.e eee.e eeewe wee neuwmeceo .weupceu euwwueo e eecuewwwcmwm emcmcm mm mm m we m Leecm ewequu> eeem Loewe ewe ee w .mueeneem meueew Lew .eeuaceu we euwwueo .cewuueeewum we xuwucueo an emusetweem Pupcmz we cewueweeLe ecu Lew memewuc< mmwzeeum cewmmeLmem ewewuwaz we zLuEE=m it em mem eceeceeee use new: ewcmcewuuweL emLm>cw cu muc ewequu> ecwu eee. ewNee. eewee. ee.e eee.e- eee.N eeewe xee-eeweeeee eweewz eeeweee wwweeeee e eNe. eewee. eeeee. eee. eee. wee.N eeewe xee-oEee eweewz eoeweee eeweeee N wee. eeeee. eeeee. we-e e. eNN. eNe.w eeewe xoe-eEee eweewe eeweeeeewee weweeeee e e e eoeeewwwe we e eeem Ne e we e Leeew N LeLLm ohm eu w eeLeucu wwequu> emum .mueeeeem meuz Lew .ueueceu we euweueo .cewuueaewum we euwucuao an emueeiw—em Fuucez we cewueweeLe we» Lew mwmewuc< emwzemum cewmmeLmex eeewuezz we eLuEE:miti om mem uceeceeee we» saw; ewceceweuweL emLe>cw cu mu; eeequu> egwu eee. eeeee. weeee. ue. ee.e eN.e eeeee xoe-eEee eweew; eeeeeee wwweeee e eee. eeeee. weewN. we-“ e. eee.- we.e eeewe xoe-eeweeeee eweewe eeweeeeewee weweeeeee N eee. weeeN. weeeN. we-e N. wee.- eN.e eeeee xee-ocee eweewe eeweeeeewee weweeeeee e eecuewwwcmwm emcucu e e we e Loeee Ne N Loewe ewe ee w eowoeee eeeewwee eeee .meemeeem meueew Lew .ueuuceu we euweuec ecu ceweueeewem we euwucueo en zawuceee wuexemecueme we cewuuweeLe we» Lew ewmewuc< mmwzeeum cewmmeLmem eeewawez we eLuEe:m in em uem uceeceeee ecu saw; ewcmcewuume emLe>cw cu muc e—equu> ecwu ewe. wNeee. wNwee. we-“ e. we-u N. eee. eeewe xee-oEee eweewe eeeeeeeewee weweeeee e eee. eeeee. eeeee. we-e w. ee-e e.- eee. wooeeee we eeee N wNe. weeee. weeee. eee. eee. eee.N eewe eee-oEee eweewz eoeeeee weweeee e eoeeowwweewe eeeeee e e we e Loeee eeweeem eeeewwee eowe Ne N eewwe ewe ee w .mueeneem eeez Lew eoeeeee we oee eee .eeweeeeewee we weweeeee .eeeeeee we eeweeee we eeweeeee wuexemeceeme we cewueweeLe ecu Lew mwmeeuc< emwzeeum cewmmeLemm eeewueez we eLuEE:m it mm memqw 155 to have the highest correlation for girls. Correlations are weak for sensori-stimulation with psychosexual identity, for boys for each modality. Correlations within opposite-sex dyads for quantity of sensori- stimulation with either mental self-image or psychosexual identity are weak. The correlation matrix (Table 33) was examined for analysis of relationships between sense modalities. Correlations ranged from a low of.§.= .1856, for visual with tactile stimulation within Opposite-sex dyads of male subsamples, to.[_= .8716, for visual with auditory stimulation within same-sex dyads of male subsamples. The higher correlations would contribute to multicollinearity suggesting the use of the multiplicative model. After computing the multiplicative model, wherein the specific sense modalities were combined into a multimodal product, analysis was attempted to determine the individual contribution of each variable through the use of multiple regression hierarchical inclusion. The hierarchical method of inclusion was used for analysis prior to the stepwise method because the design of this research was explanatory and a causal structure was postulated between the independent variables and the dependent variable of mental self-image. Further, mental self- image was hypothesized to lead to the develOpment of psychosexual identity. To determine the strength of the independent variables in predicting or explaining variability in the dependent variables, stepwise inclusion was used. Summary_of the Findings A summary of the findings indicates that the causal model (Figures 3, 4, and 5) gains strength when the gender relationship becomes a component of the path model. The Null Hypotheses 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and TABLE 33 -- Correlations between Sensory Modalities: 156 Auditory, Visual, and Tactile for Total sample, Female sub- sample, and Male subsample of Same-sex and Opposite- sex dyads. Modality Auditory Visual Tactile Same-sex Oyad Total: Auditory 1.0000 .5837 .4400 Visual .5837 1.0000 .3179 Tactile .4400 .3179 1.0000 Female: Auditory 1.0000 .1979 .2941 Visual .1979 1.0000 .0375 Tactile .2941 .0375 1.0000 Male: Auditory 1.0000 .8716 .5733 Visual .8716 1.0000 .6939 Tactile .5733 .6939 1.0000 Opposite-sex Oyad Total: Auditory 1.0000 .5702 .3261 Visual .5702 1.0000 .4711 Tactile .3261 .4711 1.0000 Female: Auditory 1.0000 .4858 .2529 Visual .4858 1.0000 .8553 Tactile .2529 .8553 1.0000 Male: Auditory 1.0000 .5912 .3964 Visual .5912 1.0000 .1856 Tactile .3964 .1856 1.0000 For Total sample N = 36 For Female subsample n = 18 For Male subsample n I 18 157 7 were not rejected, as quantity of sensori-stimulation appeared to be unrelated to the develOpment of either mental self-image, or psycho- sexual identity. Yet, when gender relationships were added to the analysis, the explanation of variability in the dependent variable improved. Further, while quantity of sensori-stimulation appeared to have a positive relationship with mental self-image when gender relation- ship was added to the equation, the relationship was not found to be significant in the develOpment of psychosexual identity. For psycho- sexual identity, quality of parental contact had a higher positive relationship, than did quantity of sensori-stimulation. The alternative hypotheses were not supported if the Significance of the correlation coefficient (5) was greater than p_ ;‘505. The p311 hypotheses were rejected or not rejected as follows: Null Hypothesis 1 was not rejected. There was insufficient evidence that quantity of sensori-stimulation eXplained mental self- image in the child. Null Hypothesis 2 was rejected, while the Resgarch Hypothesis 2_was established. Quality of sensori-stimulation'was positively related to the mental self-image in the child. ,uu11_flypptng§1§_§_was not rejected. There was insufficient evidence that quantity of sensori-stimulation had a greater relation- ship to mental self-image, in the child, than did quality of contact. Nu11_uypn1nesj§_fl_was not rejected. There was insufficient evidence that quantity of sensori-stimulation eXplained the develOpment of psychosexual identity in the child. 158 Null Hypothesis 5 was not rejected. There is insufficient evidence that quality of parental contact explained the develOpment of psychosexual identity in the child. Null Hypothesis 6 was not rejected. There was insufficient evidence that quantity of sensori-stimulation had a greater relation- ship to the develOpment of psychosexual identity, than did quality of parental contact. Hull Hypothesis 7 was not rejected. There was insufficient evidence that mental self-image in the child was significantly correlated with the develOpment of psychosexual identity. Nu]] Hyppthesis 8 was rejected for mental self-image, but was not rejected for psychosexual identity. Quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child of the same-sex showed a positive relationship to child outcomes of mental image of self. There was insufficient evidence that quantity of sensori-stimulation between parent and child of the same-sex parent and child positively affected psychosexual identity in the child. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS In this research the effects of sensori-stimulation between same-sex and opposite-sex parent-child dyads on the child's mental self- image and the develOpment of psychosexual identity were measured. Sensori-stimulation was measured for quantity of auditory, visual, and tactile contact between the parents and the subject in seconds of con- tact time. Parental contact was measured for quality according to a five point Likert Scale for each parent-child interaction. Mental self- image was measured through the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, wherein the subject was asked, "Draw a picture of yourself." Psychosexual identity was measured through a Gender Consistency Scale. The subjects in this study were 36 children, 18 boys and 18 girls, aged four to five years, and both of their parents. Criteria for selection were parental availability and age of the child. The pOpula- tion from which the sample was randomly selected was the Flint Area Parent-Child Nurseries (FAPCN). The families were studied in their home. Administration of the research instruments required approximately 1% to 2 hours of family time. A large box of toys was used during the observation period to entice parental involvement and to provide a focal point for the child's attention, keeping the child in the area of observation. 159 160 Moderate significance was related to the effect of quantity of sensori-stimulation from both parents and the develOpment of mental imagery of self in the subject. Quantity of sensori-stimulation from both parents was not related to the develOpment of the child's psycho- sexual identity. There was an increase in the regression equation's predictive power when the parent-child relationship was differentiated into comparison for same-sex and opposite-sex interaction. The most important finding of this research is that quantity of sensori- stimulation appears to correlate with the formation of mental self- imagery in children when the interaction between parent and child is of the same-sex. Conclusions The following conclusions were supported through analysis based on parent-child dyads undifferentiated according to gender and suggest that: 1. Psychosexual identity in children is not significantly affected by either quality or quantity of sensori- stimulation between parents and children. 2. Mental imagery in children is affected positively and to a greater degree when the quality of parental contact is high between parents and children. 3. Mental imagery is positively correlated with quantity and quality of parent-child contact, with quality being greater. 4. Mental imagery and psychosexual identity are not signifi- cantly correlated and the causal relationship, as 161 predicted, was not established. The following conclusions were supported by the analysis of data based on Opposite-sex dyad interaction: 5. Mental self-imagery in a child is not correlated with quantity of sensori-stimulation in either mother-son or father-daughter dyads. Mental self-image of girls in father-daughter dyads is positively correlated with quality of sensori-stimulation, while the correlation is not significant for boys in mother-son dyads. Psychosexual identity of boys is not significantly correlated with quality of contact between mothers and sons. However, the quality of contact and psychosexual identity are positively correlated for girls in father- daughter dyads. The following conclusions were supported by the analysis of data based on same-sex dyad interaction: 8. 9. Psychosexual identity of sons is moderately correlated with quality Of contact between fathers and sons. In mother-daughter dyads the quality of contact does not significantly affect psychosexual identity. Other conclusions were supported by the analysis of data based on Specific sensory modalities of auditory, visual, and tactile stimulation with mothers and fathers and children: 162 10. Mothers provide significantly more quality contacts to both boys and girls, more auditory contacts to sons, and more visual and auditory contacts to daughters than do fathers. 11. When considering all parents and children in either same or Opposite-sex dyads the correlation is insignificant between psychosexual develOpment and quantity of sensori- stimulation. The conclusions presented above are based upon analysis that SUpported the alternative, or research hypotheses. The hypotheses were supported if the probability that the test statistic used (5) was (p_ ;‘.05) equal or less than .05. The following section will contain a discussion of the analysis of data using a family ecological model as the theoretical framework upon which this research is based. The conclusions and the discussion are based upon the Specific sample used in this research and can not be generalized to other samples with differing characteristics. 163 Discussion The family ecological framework borrows heavily from early theories including psychodynamic theory, cognitive theory, and social learning theory. In this research, concepts from earlier theory were combined, the child and parent were defined as a system, and sensori-stimulation was perceived as an energy flow between the unit of child and parent(s). While the quantity of energy, in the form of sensori- stimulation, is considered as being of primary importance to the theoretical orientation of this paper, an important variable would be ignored if the Qualitv of contact was not measured in the context of parent-child interaction. In an ecological system, the feedback between units is based upon a reciprocal interaction. While it was the parent's interaction with the . child that was measured for quantity, or the effect of the parent on the child, the child's choice of parent-interaction, with mother or father, might have been influenced through the quality of parental contact. For the total sample, quality of parental contact with the same-sex parent was positively correlated with self-imagery(r = .4971) and for boys the correla- tion between mental-self image and quality of parental contact was r = .3950. Observation of parent and child interaction in- dicated that if the parent of the Same sex interacted positively with the child, the child was positively motivated to interact. Visual interaction was measured when the child looked at the 164 parent, and stimulated the retina of the child. If the parent ignored the child, the child would decrease visual contact. For boys, the correlation between quality of contact and visual stimulation is r = .4279. For girls, the relationship between quality of contact and visual interaction is r = .6610 for the same-sex parent and r = .5136 for opposite-sex parent. Thus, where the contact between parent-child dyads was positive children appeared to look at that parent to a greater extent than when parental contact was neutral or negative. In the use of the ecological framework, the child is an integrated being interacting with the environment through an ex- change of energy. In this approach, the environment consists of the parents and the child is an active seeker of information via engagement of the senses through which energy travels in the form of sensori-stimulation. The stimulation of the senses leads to stimulation of nerve impulses that form wave fronts. The wave- form from a sensori-stimulation integrates with other waveforms from other senses. Thinking is a step by step series of operations on in- formation. The child uses the sense modality to gather bits of information. The initial level of information is gathered through interaction with the environment via the senses. The environment is the mirror of the external representation of the event that leads to memory. As the child forms a mental self-image, it is postulated that the parent becomes the 165 environmental mirror and through interaction with the child stimulates the senses sending impulses via the child's central nervous system to the brain wherein information is coded. The coded information is retained as memory. Memory is strengthened by input from several senses. The coding of information has been likened to a hologram (Pribram, 1971; Wilbrum, 1980). Stimuli generate a wave pattern or waveform between neuronal synapses (junctions) of different strengths, shapes, and frequencies that can be mathematically calculated as a Fourier Transform, or formula of information. This 'formula' becomes the coding that allows the retention of memory to be coded into an image and the image coded back into storage. The coding of information into memory, according to the holographic model, is dependent upon the point of interference of waveform with waveform, for it is at that point that the Fourier Transform is formulated. Thus, it appears that as children receive sensori- stimuli from the environmental mirror, the mirror that represents the self would produce the stimuli from which coding is effected. If coding occurs through waveforms and different sensori-systems merge, then memory will be enhanced.through impact from parental interaction wherein auditory, visual, and tactile stimulation is re- ceived by the child. The greater the stimuli between parent and child, the greater the child's mental image of self. For children 166 in this sample, the statistical measures did not reach a signifi- cant level when children were measured in terms of overall parent- al interaction with mental self-image formation. The significance of interaction between parent-child dyads on mental self—imagery occurred only when the dyads were differentiated as same sex or Opposite sex. When division occurred for both male and female subsamples it was found that there was a moderately strong correlation (r = .5640) between same-sex sensori-stimulation and mental imagery in the child. Thus. it would appear that some degree of differentiation by the child was occurring wherein selective attention was given to the same-sex parent. The children in this research were unable to understand the prOperties of gender as physical and were assessing gender based upon external characteristics that they could see, touch, or hear, that indicated that they, or another person, were male or female. They were selectively attuned to the external properties of the parent of the same sex as having observable qualities that they identified as similiar to themselves. In an environment relevant stimuli are embedded in a complex array of irrelevant stimuli. Becoming selectively attuned to specific environmental information is an initial process in differentiation according to a given prOperty. In this research, relevant stimuli for mental self-imagery appear to be linked, by the child, to the parent of the same sex. 167 According to the results of statistical measures in this research children were selectively attending to the sensori-stimulation received from the parent of the same-sex or orienting to the stimuli from the parent of the same-sex. For female subjects, sensori-stimulation between mother and daughter correlated (r = .4086) with mental self-image. For male subjects sensori-stimula- tion correlated (r = .5550) with mental imagery when measured between father and son. When the child is faced with a continuous bombardment of stimuli, some Of the stimuli are ignored and no longer elicit an orienting response (OR) of the intensity elicited when the information was pertinent, relevant, or novel. This is called habituation to a stimuli. When habituation occurs children seek other novel experiences, or look at different aspects of the familiar stimuli that they had not noticed earlier (Weizmann, Cohen, and Pratt, 1971). Mothers in this sample were more often at home with the children and the fathers were all employed, thus children may have received more stimulation from the mother. If the children did differentiate according to gender relationship, and if an amount (unknown) of exposure leads to habituation, it might be that the inverse correlation between mental self-image of girls with mother-daughter interaction, as compared to father- son, is the result of habituation. Further, it might be postulated that lowered correlation between'father-daughter sensori-stimula- tion and the girl's mental self-image is the result of nonattending_ 168 and a reSponse toward further differentiation. During the observation period, girls received an average of 10 minutes of verbal stimulation from their mothers which might have resulted in some habituation to auditory stimulation. Boys received 6 minutes of verbal stimulation from their mothers. Girls received slightly less than two minutes of verbal stimulation from their fathers and boys received two minutes of verbal stimulation from their fathers. For girls, auditory stimulation from the mother has a slightly inverse relationship with mental self-image (r = -.0503). While this indicates almost no correlation, it might indicate that although verbal interaction was high, the contribution to mental self-image was low and the impact of the other sense modalities contributed to the outcomes of mental self-imagery (r = .3424, for tactile; r = .4852 for visual). For boys, where the father was not present most of the day, and where there was no elevated sensori modality between father and son, the correlations are moderate to high (c = .5499 for aud- itory; r 8 .7076 for visual; and‘r x .5027 for tactile) with the son's mental self-image. For boys, the mean mental image score was 7.11 and for girls the mean score was equal to 11.13. The girls had a mental image score indicative of a greater ability to form a mental image of themselves. When stimuli are relevant, or meaningful, it takes many more times to habituate tn the stimuli than when stimuli are irrelevant. Yet, at some 169 point in the interaction between one's self and tne environment, the importance of the stimuli decreased. Further research is necessary in order that conclusions regarding the effect of habituation can be determined. Although there is evidence that the children in this research were differentiating according to gender relationships, there is no evidence to support the hypotheses that an increase in sensori-stimulation led to increased ability to identify unseen prOperties as male or female. This is an interesting phenomena and could indicate that the child must form a strong mental image of self prior to further mental representation of self as male or female, according to remembered prOperties as suggested in the gender conservation scale. For the total sample the mean score on the Gender Consist- ency Scale was 5+, All children could answer correctly whether they were a boy or a girl, and all could correctly identify a picture of a female and male as a man or woman. One boy and one girl were unable to respond correctly to the question, “When you were a little baby were you a little girl, or a little boy?“ The children who missed that question had younger Siblings at home that were of the opposite gender. The children apparently were confused because gender was one property and baby was another, leading to an inability to answer correctly as they were unable to conserve the dual information of both properties. Two boys thought that they could be the Opposite sex, if they wanted to be. and one boy said that he would want to be a girl. 170 The children who expressed that they could change their gender were influenced more by the change of external appearance of the dolls (Appendix c, Illustrations 1 -4) than their memory of the dolls as initially presented (Appendix C, illustration 2). Even when the children were told, ”This is a.p_y. If I put this dress on, will he be a girl or a boy?“, the majority of subjects (85%) ignored the wording and attended to the visual stimuli of the doll in the dress (Appendix B, Male form). Only 3 of the male subjects and 2 of the female subjects said that gender would remain consistent for children, other than themselves, deSpite external change (see G7, Tables 9 and 10). Therefore, only 14% of the subjects could differentiate according to nonobservable properties. This lack of understand- ing of the physical and permanent aspect of gender would indicate that children would have to remain visually, auditorily and tactilly close to their parents until such concepts are intern- alized. It would indicate that while they have formed a mental image of themselves, gender differentiation is unfinished. When a child can balance an understanding of more than one prOperty at a time, the child is entering the stage of concrete operations (Piaget, l962). Concrete Operations occur at approximately seven years of age and begin the understanding of the permanence of prOperties. When children have achieved the ability to conserve they are no longer apt to base conclusions only on the basis of appearance. 171 Limitations A major limitation of this research was the size of the sample (n = 36). A small sample reduces the probability of significant findings as the test statistic is affected by the degrees of freedom determined by the Size of the sample. A small sample's test statistic is more strigent than it is when the»degrees of freedom are greater due to a larger sample size. A larger sample would have permitted the inclusion of a greater number Of variables that would have contributed to the predictability of the regression equation in explaining variability among dependent variables. Another limitation of this research was the minimal amount of time available to observe families. The brief interval in the life of the subject and the family may or may not be an adequate representation of family interaction throughout the subject's life up to the time of the research. Further, the intrusion, by a stranger, would present a novel, or new, eXperience and the family's response to the intrusion might have changed if, through repeated visits, the family had an Opportunity to adapt. The research would be strengthened if observation had occurred at intervals from the birth of the child, yearly, to the present time. This research was limited by the funding available to the research- er for the analysis of data. The Parent Report provided information on parental involvement with the child during the period of birth to the present time. Yet, analysis of the many variables would have required increased computer time and overloaded the regression equation (Draper 172 and Smith, 1966). An attempt was made to limit this research to families that were intact, yet such restraint disallowed information pertinent to single-parent families. Finally, the Gender Consistency Scale might have provided a measurement that lacked precision for measuring the develOpmental steps that determine an understanding of properties as children progress from prepperational thinking to concrete Operations. Concrete opera- tions occur at approximately seven years of age, two or three years beyond the age of the children in this research sample. Perception, according to the develOpmental concepts of gender, might be conceptual- ly defined and Operationalized according to more precise steps in determining the progression of gender as understood by young children. Several variables were not statistically controlled and might have provided an increase in the understanding of variability. The amount of time parents Spent with the child was not measured. Differences in children's responses were not measured in relationship to the time parents were working, involved in volunteer activities, or pursuing activities outside of the home. Finally, as mentioned in Chapter III, the final selection of subjects was the result of acceptance by 41 of the 77 families that were randomly selected. The acceptance of some, but not all, of the families randomly selected created a bias in the sample selection.The result of such bias might have been that the families that were studied had greater confidence in their parenting skills, than did the families 173 that declined and were not studied. Thus, the quality of parent-child might have been affected by the selection of the sample. As parents were told, in the letter they received, that the researcher was interested in studying parent and child interaction; those parents that were uncomfortable interacting with their children might be assumed to be uncomfortable with observation. One of the limitations of this study might be the degree of competence and even though there was variability about the regression line, such variability could be assumed to be uncharacteristic of the pOpulation representing only moderate to high quality of interaction. Implications There are several implications for further research. The first series of implications would require a larger sample than the 36 subjects selected for this study. Further research might involve an inclusion of the amount of time parents were home with their child, the impact of older siblings, baby sitters, or other caregivers in terms of quantity of sensori-stimulation received by the child. Greater variability in sample selection might be suggested, in which subjects are chosen from a variety of caregiving or preschool programs serving children with a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. Another important variable that was not measured was the frequency of parental contact. Habituation occurs if stimulation is provided over a period of time and the receiver adjusts to the continuous impact. The auditory stimulation that occurred when the parent read a book, or the tactile stimuli that occurred as the parent 174 remained in constant body contact might have resulted in habituation with the effect of diminished impact upon the child (Sokolov, 1960). The effect of changes in quantity of sensori-stimulation by Specific parent-child interaction that occurs when children Spend a portion of time with one parent and then another period of time with the other parent, as is often the case when parents are divorced, could add an important dimension to the set of variables used in the current research. In the research by Lamb (1976) two researchers were used, one male and one female, to observe the families. An additional observer could enhance future study through ,providing a measurement of paternal interaction when there is another male present. If two observers were present each could measure different variables of interaction between parents and child and parent to parent. One researcher could measure the effect of the parent upon the child and the other researcher might measure the relationships of interaction between the parents. Such questions might be researched as: Does child-interaction with one parent hinder the interaction of the other?, .Does one parent support or complement the interaction of the other in relationships of parent- parent dyad, or parent-child dyad7, and What effect does the child have upon interaction with the parent? The effect of the selection of toys upon parental interaction could be studied to determine whether parental involvement is influenced by the selection of toys, thus biasing the study. In the current research the same toys were used through-out the study. Toys preferred 175 by the children and toys preferred by the parents were not studied and could provide improved accuracy in future studies. Certainly, a longitudinal study would provide an understanding in changes in the develOpment of mental self-image and psychosexual identity. If the researcher remained constant throughout the study, families might have the opportunity to adjust to the intrusion of the researcher's presence. Changes in interactional patterns, over time, could be measured. Lamb (1976) found, during a period of six months, that physical contact between mothers and children and fathers and children changed in frequency of contact. Mothers held infants more when they were younger and fathers were more involved with the Older toddler. A longitudinal study could aid in determining changes in the impact of stimuli in affecting change. At this time it is unknown whether same-sex impact is as important to maintain mental self-imagery as the child matures or prior to the age of four. Finally, further study would be suggested to gain greater precision in measuring the changes in the develOpment of psychosexual identity as measured using the Gender Consistency Scale. A large portion of the children understood gender permanence as measured over time, but were unable to conserve according to the prOperty of physical understanding. The sequential stages, preceding, physical conservation as related to imitation (Piaget, 1962) of movement, deferred imitation, and classification according to use, might be studied and possibly, Operationalized as providing measurement for the study of the trans- tional stages between gender permanence over time and gender constancy. 176 Summary While the conclusions of this study can pp§_be generalized beyond the constraints imposed through the use of a Specific and homogeneous sample, as used in this research, the results do suggest that parental involvement is important to the develOpment of the mental self-image. The mental self-image, or mental representation of self is that mental image that is used to aid in foreseeing oneself in various conditions. When faced with buying a new outfit, one might first imagine the outfit on the mental image of self. When faced with a new situation, one might imagine one's mental image of self in that situation and rehearse the demands the experience might impose. In Chapter II, mental image is discussed as developing sequentially, where the mental self-image is a more concrete foundation of self- concept. Most of the early research that has been reported about parent- child interaction has focused on the interaction between mother and child. During the early 1970's, researchers began to study father- child interaction with young children. Early assumptions were made regarding the maternal effect of the emotional well-being of children. If children failed to develOp into emotionally and socially capable youngsters, the failure was attributed to emotional neglect by the mother. In early research, researchers studying sensory deprivation observed the effects on the infant as a factor of maternal absence (Spitz, Emde, and Metcalf, 1973). 177 An implication of the present research is that the relation- ship of father and son, mother and daughter, and the interaction therein, is the vehicle through which mental self-image is based. This is not to imply that it is not important for a child to interact with the parent of the Opposite sex. If the parent of the same sex represents a mirror image to the child, the parent of the Opposite sex represents the complementary component. Money and Erhardt (1972) wrote, The ideal is for a child to have parents who consistently reciprocate one another in their dealing with the child. Then a five year Old daughter is able to go through the flirt— atious coquetry with her father, while the mother apprOpriately gives reciprocal direct- ives as to where the limits lie; conversely, for boys (p. 186). Although the child is identifying self with the parent of the same sex, it is the relationship with the parent of the Opposite sex that will allow the practice or relationship for the purpose of family life. Finally, during a recent workshOp, parents who had participated in this research study discussed the research outcomes and the implica- tions on childrearing. A young mother asked if it would be an advantage to her child to teach him how to draw a picture of himself. Her question was indicative of the common parental need for the child to achieve and to grow in a healthy way. She may believe that if the child's drawing improved, so would his self-image. How’often it is that research results are misinterpreted by others who would ”put the cart before the horse." The answer to the young mother was, “No, instead, tickle his feet (gently), wrestle with your child, have your husband 178 join you in the playing, bathing, holding, talking and care of your child, because through the sensory interaction your child's mental self-image will grow.” So often, in this work-away world the pressures of survival limit parent-child interaction. As more women join the work force, men are assuming child-care duties. Based Upon the results of this research, the sharing of child-care could prove an advantage to the children as the child receives the sensori-stimulation received through interaction with both parents. The child of divorced parents might have the total care from one parent, for a period of time, and then the total care received from the other parent. As mentioned in the section on implications, further research is needed to determine the effect Of sensori-stimula- tion received periodically, rather than consistently. Yet, the concept Of joint-custody has become an alternative to the single custody family (Goldstein, Freud, and Solnit, 1979; Wallerstein and Kelly, 1976). Prior to the present research, quantity of sensori-stimulation had not been studied for effect on mental self-image and psychosexual identity. The present research is a beginning of such study. Further research is necessary to provide increased understanding. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTERS AND FORMS FOR PARENTS 179 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF HUMAN ECOLOGY EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN ° 48824-1050 DEPARTMENT Of FAMILY AND CHILD ECOLOGY Dear Mr. and Mrs. This letter is to request your COOperation in providing information about parent-child interaction and the manner that children use their senses to interact with their environment. This study is to be conducted among the families within the Flint Parent-COOperative Nurseries. I have the support and permission Of the FAPCN board. Your name was randomly selected. That is, out of all the names of four to five year old children in the FAPCN, 36 names were determined by chance. Your child's name was one of those. Because the study is to follow scientific guidelines such a method of chosing families 18 necessary. TO gather the information I will need to visit your family for about two and one-half hours on a day that is convenient to you. I will need a time when you do not have guests and are unlikely to receive telephone calls that are lengthy. First I will have a brief interview. Then I will Observe you child. I will bring some carefully selected toys with me. It is important that you remain near your child, or at least close enough that my presence will not cause insecurity. After I Observe your child for a period of one hour, I will need to spend about 20 minutes (apiece) interview- ing both parents and your child. The information that I gather will be coded and your name will appear only on the envelOpe I bring to your home. The packet inside will contain numbers so that the packet information will remain together, Informption specific to family is not an important issue, rather the overall results of family differences. The general information will be shared during a workshop and interested parents will be invited to attend. Your OOOperation is very important. If you have questions regarding this study please call me or Dorothy Komarmy. I will telephone you you within the next week and can answer any questions you may have and set a date for my visit. Thank you. 2 ' I; )7 C. {Jilly [6:17 act/[4%) E. Sally Van Luven MSL' is an Affirmative Action/Equal ()pportum’ty hstitution 180 PARENTAL CONSENT FORM I understand that the information Obtained through this research is to be held confidential, and that an Identification number “ill be used to protect my identification. I understand that the information provided through observation, interview, and the testing of the child .ill be used in the analysis of data, so that Specific detail regarding Specific families 'ill not be assimiliated, but that this information 'ill be used 'ith that of other information to provide an increase in information regarding the impact of sensori stimulation on the development of children '8 mental impression of self, as compared "ith that of others'. ”ith this understanding I agree to participate in the research, and that the information obtained through observation, intervie , and testing can be utilized for research. en‘s—r .1gnature of ?arent Tignature of Parent I agree to the reproduction of my child's drawing, as an overhead, to be used at a parent-teacher workshop. My child's name will not appear on the picture. Signature of Parent(s) 181 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF HUMAN ECOLOGY EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1030 DEPARTMENT Of EAMIIX AND CHIID ECOLOGY Dear (Parent '5 names) I would like to thank you for allowing me to observe (Child's name) I appreciate your OOOperation and hOpe that my intrusion will "pay off" by increasing knowledge about the manner in which children learn through sensory interaction with their environments. I am pleased to be able to do this research and hOpe to share the overall results with families in FAPCN this Fall. (Sentence added to personalize thank you) I recognize that families have many demands upon the time they have, and that your involvement in this research was a gift of time and effort. Sincerely, P.S. If you would like more information about this research you can call me at my home, nor-m. I would enjoy hearing from you. MSL' is an Alfmiw Action/Equal Opportunity Insulation NOTT CHILDREN'S HEALTH CENTEh 806 W. Sixth Ave. Flint. MD “5503 6:30-7:00 p.m. Lezistration/ Exhibit Displays To ”MUN Yen. ‘P‘a’acnf This year “JV-\|3)IOPI ta . T"P“'° Eda‘ Choose 2351 7.00-8.00 p.m. £3531 Eggggpppg :hCOBC one. — \Owil FOCUS 9E PATH§R;N&, Dan Hodgins, Hbtt Community Collage. and Teacher. FAPCN. A scussicn for mothers and fathers on.what we need to know about our roles and how children perceive those roles. ROCK 135 §§LF~ESTFg bsrnice Blamer. University of Michigan-Plint. How ch ldrsn develop self—esteem and the important roles parents play in this develOpment. LECTURE noon A HCFE AS THE LEARNIIS;CYQL§. Mark Diana. How the home contributes to formal and niormal learning and its interactions with the community : preschool programs. LECTURE R005 b MTACT CF SENSORY . Sally VanIuven, ioctoral Student, '0. The results O research on the child's mental imazs of self. ‘UDITORIUI. APPENDIX B DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTRATION OF INSTRUMENTS DATE ID no. Time Name: Father Mother ChiId Telephone number: Directions to home: 183 SCHEDULED APPOINTMENTS 4. 6. 184 DIRECTIONS FOR RECORDING OBSERVATION SHEET Check if I.D. Number is recorded and if not, record Record whether child is female of male + To record §;3£3;1_131n11331gn,between child and parent, record each time child interacts with the adult and the action affects the child: THE CHILD HEARS (auditory) FEELS (Touch, tactile) or 1°°k5 at (VISUAL) the parent. Check if interactions is too can. stimulation in secome brief to record. of duration using the timer. Code for specific modality. or combination: i.e.. tactile. ’.C‘11."I.u‘1. e s e ea In each square record time ‘ act began. and time ended. Subtract for total time. Timer: The left lever is to measure tactile interaction. the middle is {or verbal. the right {or visual. For combination. use either lever in combination to be measured.\ ‘ ‘ Record gender relationship to child: Example: itiated interaction {LII-3'1»? same-sea as child. —-> code: Record Quality of interaction, check square for each parent child interaction in the row interaction occured. There are five possible responsess 1) Very negative: The child reacts in pain and discomfort. such as crying. vincing... 2) necative: The child withdraws. trouns. appears depressed or saddened )) neutral: The child displays little impact to interaction. , er res ones can not be deternined. b) as tive: The child smiles. ind catee interest or enthusiam 5) very positive: The child appears very pleased. laughs. huge. claps. or other shoe or enthusiam Accord for each interaction DO NOT HRITE IN THE BOTTOM PORTION OP OBSERVATION SHEET. ! Overall WRO- MH: “m1" -. ‘ "hilt ' lame ass meme: ““L'L Visual i w‘u ”. "~.. ———n‘.;m—h_ .- .Ole "L”: m ".3 MI 'ilmml II! D a.“ cu..."°:namo- h -. any” n I'm-v- 0' ti. II.“ "I NY 9' 185 REPRODUCTION OF DATA SHEET WITH THE DATA SCORED AND CDDED * OBSERVATION SHEET “NOE RELATI NSHIP QQALITY QUANTITY Same Opp- Very Neu- VII Sex Sex Neg Neg tral Poe Poe I Auditory Visual Tactile y// , ii ~é21-:.;--- .......... L-- —_— A V J 73 r v' I' ...... w’ ........... buboi E. 4 --- - V _ .57 5' ,f T """ y/ -.§V;CZ--;:TC{EECZ:LN-LS ’I V if / / A 5* 7 «L 2' 2'???" , ............ J 91.7.: L v/’ D7ES‘M ---------- / - .E-‘ZI-Cob ........ i ...... _J/ " 3 3" .5‘ 1 n I -- , -4133." . I .... . ....... L V” 3Jigd" h -J ........ b k/ . ----------- 1p uuuuuuuu Ji§.:/.7-- f 1/ L’- -“!.5:.’Li: .......... J- —L— I" 3 Y 30A ....... V ./ ........... ..-z,.-?g.; ........ -av.:'f..7.--.1t .‘ I *4 .65?) 7 4 V ran .2. """" "17.5373" ccccccccccc 1b----DDOOJOOOOODODd / , -jfitll----;fi;:-- 7 9" L ‘ " are c ... I ""424 3’"??" ./ -- -' -- 9---. ......... V in] t * + ------- L'/ L/ ----------- 1+DJOJ3-DOD ------- «n b/ P/ -.%_%:f -1.“ ......... b--.:----l /. 7 ~/ ... ~ . L/ 1* ------- . / -.:i24ié--a3;;------;.i 373‘ b r 4 q a; '57:“ Overall average: I.D. NUMBER: * /0’Z Same sex average: __f’___1. Queuing) CHECK' D Opposite asex average: j . Male w Same sex: * Female E 4 7’ 3 NOT£1-ADD ALL NUMBERS ACCOR I] ING TO ABOVE CLASSIFICATION til .3 AND DIVIDE BY NUMBER or T1 ° ' O —— RECORDED (IN THAT CATEGORY). appogitm 3.x. ‘ Auditor: / 0 * Visual _ 3 “GTE! v (“1} 186 flEflflMITflMl‘flIIT Pb. P03 ctlle ” ---.... Overall average: TOTAL QUANTITY eDa NUMBERS mom.- Same sex average: Audi CHECK: Male Opposite sex average: Same sex: Female [:1 UOTE:-ADD ALL NUMBERS AC INC To ABOVE CLASSIFICATION AND DIVIDE BY NUMBER OF RECORDED (IN THAT CATEGORY) Opposite sex: Visual c e 187 TO SCORE THE PARENT REPORT Example: Add numbers in each column 3 + 3 - 6 Column 1 has a 3 and another 3 .as below: Enter the number in the line opposite the column number 3". 1M» not of questions is about the period of time from the sin n: of you: child to about one year of life..... Did you live eith you child at that time’ TB if outmao Diem-art aeay nemmh-e? TB if TB. leesavqhecsaeoesdidyssecht (if "1!!!) Can you give me a mentfly average, In: More is a card eith the anesers an it. nil. asfiially men are five possible aneeers. The aneesrs sill :3: cede the information. so verds are needed that are I!” all. The eords aean dense or amount at! are: All the t . lost of the time. sometime. rarely am never. Deni ass a question i could lies you to give me one of these answers. 70 IICOD: cncu fr All the tile for most of the time m J for sometimes 1 2 for rcsly l for never ' alumnus man an ' use an infant are needed hthing oeo eeereyouthesnetsdsths sash“. cleanim er Imthir'? men N" '5 use an infant has often sat, in slate cr . onair. pisses ensrs you esuldube so hen dae‘egivil' for you child lee mush of the time eeuid you tell. aim. h:- I see to you n , child9 hat other oarsgivin activities did you do? In“; men '8 see in need of discipline hes Often use you scold. yell. C 'tals to the child' ”D! lee often eeuld you use a 'loee' or facial depression to saprsss that you did not line behavior? do- often eeuld you spent. hit. or ‘pat at' a paddle” )0! L p that eetnos of discipline did you use most often? mm: :LL: 2 '. ~I‘ CHICO)! Sméb " CON-7 I. to III , ’ we .9... . ! "“0: W 188 USE FOR COD ING (Code in red ink) Column ReSpondent's ID Number VARID _p_ 1:2 Same Sex Auditory Observation VARSXi ___ _ 3:“:5:6 Same Sex Visual Observation VARSXZ _ ___ 7:3:9:10: Same Sex Tactile Observation VARSX3 ___ _ 11.12.13.1h Opposite Sex Auditory Observation VAROXl _ _W_ 15:16:17ol8 Opposite Sex Visual Observation VAROXZ ___ _ 19:20:21:22 Opposite Sex Tactile Observation VAROX3 _ ____ 23:24:25:26 Same Sex Quality VARSQ _,_ _ 27:28:29: Opposite Sex Quality VAROQ _._ _ 30.31.32. Same Sex Auditory Report VARSRi _ _ 33.3% Same Sex Visual Report VARSRZ _,_ 35:35: Same Sex Tactile Report VARSR3 _fl_ 37:38: Opposite Sex Auditory Report VARORl ___ 39:40: Opposite Sex Visual Report VARORZ ___. #1.h2. Opposite Sex Tactile Report VAROR3 _,_ 43:44: Age in Months of Respondent VARA _,__ “5.46. Mental Image (Drawing Score) VARM ___ #7,h8. Gender Consistency Scale Question Sat 1 GC1 _ O9 Question Set 2 002 _ 50 Question Set 3 GCB _, 51 Question Set A GCh _, 52 Question Set 5 G05 _ 53 Question Set 6 GC6 _ 5U Question Set 7 CC? _ 55 Question Set 8 GC8 _ 56 Question Set 9 GC9 _, 57 Head of Household Occupation VARO _,_ 58.59 Psychosexual Identity Score VARP _. 60 Education of Family Member with highest income VARE _,_ 61.62 APPENDIX C INSTRUMENTS USED IN RESEARCH 189 . PARENT REPORT SEIBORYOS TIMULATION STUDY 19st 3 z. 190 QXEER ENTERING THE HOME AND BEING SEATED WITH THE CHILD'S i Now.I am ready to begin.m famil study, Prior.to my observation I will need your help Wit some 11v information. I ave an 1nterv1ew for you. and one for NAME OF OTHER PARENT . Are you ready to begin? IF NO IF YES (GO TO QUEST. 1) MAKE NECESSARY CHANGE HELP PARENT BECOME COMFORTABLE The first question will be about your family members Now. What would be the date of birth of SUBJECT That would make CHILD'S NAME how many months old? (“What relationship are you to the child? (CIRCLE ANSWER) D.O.B. FATHER MOTHER ADOPTIVE FATHER ADOPTIVE MOTHER STEP-FATHER STEP-MOTHER OTHER OTHER FOR SUBJECT'S FATHER' 5Are you presently euployed? IF YES (GO TO QUESTION 5) IF NO (GO TO QUESTION 8) What is the name of your place of employment? NANE OF BUSINESS What is your occupation. and what is it that you do? (PROBE IF UNCLEAR) How long have you worked where you are now employed? WRITE TIME IN APPROXIMATELY HOW MANY MONTHS OF EMPLOYMENT SAY: 10 191 I would like information from the parent who has attended school for the longest period of time. Now. I would like to ask you about the education you have. What school did you last attend? WRITE NAME Was that a (CIRCLE) 1. Middle School 2. High School 3. College A. University 5. Trade School 6. Other: SPECIFY How many years did you complete there? (CIRCLE) MIDDLE 1 2 3 a 5 6 7 8 9 (1) (2) (3) (h) (5) (6) (7) (a) (9) HIGH SCHOOL 10 11 12 (10) (11) (12) COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY 1 2 3 a 5 6 7 (13) (1h) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) TRADE SCHOOL 1 2 3 h 5 6 7 (13) (1h) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) Thank you for providing this information. Now I will need a place where I might sit to observe the play of your child. 192 AFTER DEMOGRAPHIC INTERVIEW SAY: Thank you. Now I will need a place where I can observe CHILD'S NAME. I will be watching your child's sensory interaction and will be timing the hearing. seeing, and touching used by CHILD'S NAME. Because the Observation Sheet is one that requires my concentration, I will not have any way to talk to (HIM. HER). I won't be able to eXplain or demonstrate or play. I will just observe and time. I don't think that many directions are needed, and there is no specific way that the toys must be used. I am not worried about breakage as I have duplicate toys at home. Because I am strange to your child (HE, SHE) will probably feel better with you nearby. SIT DOWN: I will get ready to start. At the end of the hour the timer will beep and I will know I am done. Then I have a short interview for you and (QTEEB_2AE§NI). and the interview for (CHILD'S NAME). Are there any questions? IF NO IF m START TIMER, SET FOR 1 HOUR and ANSWER QUESTIONS NOT 10 MINUTES AND START WHEN TIME DIRECTLY RELATED TO PARENT- INDICATES 1 HOUR LEFT CHILD SENSORY INTERACTION. REMIND THE PARENT THAT EVEN WHEN NOT MOVINQ CHILDREN MIGHT BE USING DIFFERENT SENSES AS HEARING. SIGHT.... 193 OBSERVATION SHEET tral p03 p03 Visual Tactile Overall average: TOTIL QUANTITY I.D. NUMBER: Our-111:. Same sex average: Audi CHECK : Male Female [:] Opposite sex average: NOTE:-ADD ALL NUMBERS ACCOR INC TO ABOVE CLASSIFICATION AND DIVIDE BY NUMBER OF RECORDED (IN THAT CATEGORY) mum “x. Visual C 194 Parent is same sex oppos1te PORTION FOR MOTHER: SAY This part is about the time your child was born. That was about four years ago and so the questions might seem a little difficult to answer, but the information is important to the study. CIRCLE ANSWER THAT IS YES OR NO. YOU MIGHT RECEIVE MORE THAN A YES, NO ANSWER. IF THAT IS THE CASE, “RITE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION AT BOTTOM OF QUESTION ON THE LINE: THE FIRST FEw HOURS OF LIFE REFERS TO THE FIRST EIGHT HOURS. IF A PARENT INDICATES THAT SHE DID NOT HAVE HER BABY AFTER THE BIRTH FOR A PERIOD AFTER EIGHT HOURS BE CERTAIN TO CLARIFY THAT INFORMATION. 12a. were you awake at the time of CHIID'S NAME birth? YES NO IF NO: when did you see your baby? 13a Within the first few hours of CHILD'S NAME life YES did you hold. fondle. stroke. or toucfi your child? N0 IF YES. HOW? lha. Do you remember talking to your baby soon after birth? I mean did you sooth by cooing, humming. YES talking? COMMENTS NO 15a Once in a while a baby is in a quiet alert state immediately after birth. The baby can see and look around. That is rare, but did your baby YES look at you soon after birth? IF YES, What do you remember about that time? No 16a What other things do you remember about this time that was of particular interest to you? Mothers' Form -63- 195 SAY: This set of questions is about the period of time from the birth of your child to about one year of life... Did you live with your child at that time? YES NO IF QUALIFIED Did you work away from the home? YES IF YES. How many hours a week did you work?‘__ (IF VARIED) Can you give me a monthly average? NO SAY: Here is a card with the answers on it. Well. actually there are five possible answers. The answers will help code the information, so words are needed that are used by all. The words mean degree or amount and are: All the time. Most -of the time, Sometime, Rarely. and Never. When I ask a question I would like you to give me one of the answers. TO RECORD: CIRCLE for all the time for most of the time for sometimes for rarely for never COLUMNS [fie-'10: I'IEQ 17a When CHILD'S NAME was an.infant and needed to be cleaned or soothed, how often were you the one to Change. wash.(to clean) or walk. rock. (To sooth)? Mduh3¢Wn 12345 18a When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often did you 12345 place the baby where you could be seen? ' 19a When caring for your infant fow much of the time would you coo.talk. sing or hum to your child? 12355 208 When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often would you scold, or eXpress dissatisfaction about the child's behavior to your child? 12355 21a How often might you spank, ”pat at" or paddle to discipline? 123h5 .J. [ mother 22a 23a 24a 25a 26a 27a 28a 29a 30a 31a mother 196 When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often would you use a facial express to express displeasure? When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often did you rough house play. tickle play. or nuzzle play? How often would you use reading or singing to entertain the baby? ' How often would you make silly faces. of do things that would make the baby focus on you? When you felt affectionate toward your infant did you hug. kiss. or pat....' How often would you say you did this? When you felt affectionate toward your infant did you say. "I love you". or use ”sweet words; endearments?" When you felt affection toward others. would you allow your child to observe (Non sexual) How often might your child observe such expression of affection? When you want to support your child's attempts to do something how often do you use physical encouragement, such as a pat? When you Wanted to encourage your child how often did you say something like ”That's great. Keep it up, good" or other expressions? How often would you you display behavior in yourself that you wanted your infant to c0py? 12345 12345 12345 COLUMN N 12345 12345 12345 I12345 8a J \A) 12345 12345 12345 1 32a 33a 34a 35a 36a 37a 38a 39a hOa mother 197 Now I need to ask questions about the toddler age:. These questions are similiar, but not all the same as before. When your child was from one year of age to three, or a toddler, were you working away from home? YES IF YES, Now how many hours did you work? (IF VARIED) Can you give me a monthly average? Did you live with your child at that time? IF QUALIFIED YES O.K. Now use the card again, as before, answer with All the time, most of the time, sometimes, rarely, or never N0 N0 COLUMNS When CHILD'S NAME was one to three years, on the average, how often were you the one to wash, clean (CHILD) or carry.or rock (to sooth}? When CHILD'S NAME was a toddler, how often did you Spoon feed the baby? How often did you read to your toddler, sing, hum or talk to (CHILD'S NAME) to sooth or quiet? 12345 When CHILD'S NAME was in need of discipline how often would you scold, yell, or ”Talk to the child? 12345 How often would you use a "look" or facial express- ion to express that you did not likecfidjdfls behavior? 1 How often would you spank, hit, paddle, or "pat" for "bad behabior"? How often might you use music, singing, or talking. of reading, to amuse your child? 12345 How often might you "act silly" use finger plays, or do playful things your toddler might imitiate? How often would you tickle, rough house, or nuzzle play with your toddler? M . -------—-—--- 9a 2 12345 2345 12345 \e--__-_-----_---_---____-__------_-__-_-..-- 12345 12345 12345 bia 42a h3a Aha #5a 46a 198 When you felt affectionate toward your toddler did you say "I love you, or use other eXpressions? When you felt affectionate toward your child did you hold, hug, kiss, ruffle your child's hair? When you feel affection toward another (nonsexual) do you display affection, such that your toddler might have seen? When you wanted to encourage your toddler how often are you likely to say, "That's great", or other expressions of encouragement? How often might you show your child what you want, by doing what you wanted imitated? How often did_you(encourage your child by patting, hugging or using a physical touch to show approval or support? 1 10a mother N I COLUMNS 1 2 3 I I I I I I I I 12345 : : : :12345 I I I I I I I I I I I I .12345: I I I I I I I I 'I I 12345 I I I I I I I I I I I I .12345' I l I I I l I I I I 12345 | I ‘# ' . h7a h8a 49a 50a 51a 52a 53a 54a 55a mother 199 Now, this last part is about the time since your child was three. At this time there is a growing ability for the preschooler to take care of some of the needs. During the last year, or so, since your child was three, have you worked outside of the home? IF YES, How many hours a week did you work? (IF VARIED) Can you give a monthly average? When CHILD'S NAME needs to be bathed, washed, or have clothing changed, how often do you help with this? When CHILD”S NAME needs to have something demon- strated how often are you the one who teaches? How often are you the one to remind your child of things that must be done. OR, do you eXplain how to do something? When CHILD'S NAME needs discipline how often might you scold, talk, or yell, at the child? How often might you ”just use a frown" or facial eXpression to show disapproval? How often do you paddle, spank, pat, or use physical means of discipline? When you play with CHILD'S NAME how often do you rough house, tickle, play contact games. wrestle, with your child? How often might you read to your child, or play games involving the teaching of directions? When you play? (golf, bowling, fishing) do you take your child along to watch? How often would you say you do this? 1 11a YES NO COLUMNS 1 2 3 I I I I I I I I I I I I12345 I I I I I I I I I12345 I I I I I I I I I I I 12345 I I I I I I I I I I I I 12345 I I I I I I I I ,12345 I I I I I I I I I 12345 I I I I I I I I I I I I 12345 I I I I I I I I 12345 I I l I I I I I I I 112345 I I I I I I I ' 2‘ I 3 200 COLUMNS 1 2 3 56a When you feel affectionate toward your child do you hug, hold, kiss, cuddle, rock or pat your preschooler? How often would you say you do this? 12345 57a When you feel affectionate do you say, "I love you", use endearments, or words of 12345 affection? How often would you say you do this? 53a How often would you say you display affection towards other people, such that your child can see? 12345 59a When you want to support your child's efforts .do you use physical encouragement such as a pat or squeeze? 12345 603 When you want to encourage your child how often do you say something as "Keep that up, that's good", or something similiar? 12345 61 a How often might you encourage your child's efforts by making certain that you are near enough for the child to observe that you are interested in what your child is doing? 12345 N U mother 12a 201 Do you ever ignore your child, or the activities of your child? Can you exPlain when this is done? (81) T57 T5) (Id) ((3) NOW TAKE EACH ANSWER AND ASK HOW OFTEN THE PARENT MIGHT USE IGNORING (OR REJECTION) : EXAMPLE: IF THE PARENT SAYS THAT THEY IGNORE SWEARING, SAY How often, when your child swears would you ignore this? (a) TDT (C It; OTHER COMMENTS: UIUIUIUIU! ##kI—‘k UUUWU N N N N N H I-I H PM Thank you very much for your time. I will need to ask OTHER PARENT these questions now. TO SCORE: TOTAL FIGURES IN EACH COLUMN ON EACH PAGE. PLACE BELOW: Auditory(1) Visual (2) Tactile(3) Page 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 mother 13a Total from 6 - 12 * Auditory 1 ___ * Visual ___ * Tactile ___ * Enter on coding sheet 20 v if same- sex use SR ., if opposite sex use OR . .‘fl' . f~ -I- ' 202 Parent is same sex Opposite sex PORTION FOR FATHER: SAY This part is about the time your child was born. That was around four years and so the questions might seem a little difficult to answer, but the information is very important to the study. CIRCLE ANSWER THAT IS YES OR NO. IF YOU RECEIVE MORE INFORMATION WRITE WHAT IS SAID ON THE LINE FOLLOWING THE QUESTION AS INDICATED BELOW. THE FIRST FEW HOURS OF LIFE REFERS TO THE FIRST EIGHT HOURS. IF A PARENT INDICATES THAT HE DID NOT SEE THE INFANT THE FIRST FE‘" HOURS AFTER BIRTH BE CERTAIN TO CLARIFY THAT BELOW. 12b. I"hen your child was born were present in the 'delivery room'? IF YES: What led to your being there? IF NO: Could you tell me where you were? (IF AT HOME, 0R wORK, OR IN AREA NEARBY, PROBE FOR INFORMATION AS TO WHY NOT WITH MOTHER 13b. When was the first time you remember holding your child, can you describe it? YES NO IF NOT CLEAR, was that within the first few hours of birth? 14b. Did you talk to your baby when you first saw (HIM/HER )? YES IIO 15b. Once in awhile a newborn can focus on the parent, that is, can look at the parent. Do you remember your child looking at you very early? YES IF YES, When was that time N0 16a. What other things do you remember about this time that you would like as additional information? Father's Form -6b- 17b 18b 19b 20b 21b father 203 SAY: This set of questions is about the period of time from the birth of your child to about one year of life... Did you live with your child at that time? IF QUALIFIED Did you work away from the home? IF YES, How many hours a week did you work? __ (IF VARIED) Can you give me a monthly average? SAY: Here is a card with the answers on it. Well, actually there are five possible answers. The answers will help code the information, so words are needed that are used by all. The words mean degree or amount and are: All the time, Most of the time, Sometime, Rarely, and Never. When I ask a question I would like you to give me one of the answers. TO RECORD: CIRCLE 5 for all the time for most of the time for rarely a 3 for sometimes 2 1 for never m! When CHILD'S NAME was an infant and needed to be I cleaned or soothed, how often were you the one to Change, wash,(to Clean) or walk, rook, (To sooth)? When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often did you place the baby where you could be seen? When caring for your infant fow much of the time would you coo,talk, sing or hum to your child? When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often would you scold, or eXpress dissatisfaction about the child's behavior to your child? How often might you spank, ”pat at" or paddle to discipline? 7b N YES NO YES NO COLUMNS 1 2 #3 | I i I I I I I12345 I I I I | I I I I12345_I I I | I | I | I 12305 I I I I I I .I I I I | I I I I123as I I I | I I I I I . I I 3 22b 23b 24b 25b 26b 27b 28b 29b 30b 31b father 204 When CHILD'S NAME was an infant how often would you use a facial express to express displeasure? When CHIID'S NAME was an infant how often did you rough house play, tickle play, or nuzzle play? How often would you use reading or singing to entertain the baby? How often would you make silly faces, of do things that would make the baby focus on you? When you felt affectionate toward your infant did you hug, kiss, or pat....? How often would you say you did this? When you felt affectionate toward your infant did you say. "I love you", or use "sweet words.. endearments?" When you felt affection toward others, would you allow your child to observe (Non sexual) How often might your child observe such expressio of affection? When you want to support your child's attempts to do something how often do you use physical encouragement, such as a pat? When you wanted to encourage your child how often did you say something like "That's great, Keep it up, good" or other exPressions? How often would you you display behavior in yourself that you wanted your infant to COpy? 8b I 12345 12345 12345 COLUMN N 12345 12345 12345 12345 J 12345 12345 12345 32b 33b Bub 35b 36b 37b 38b 38b #Ob father 9b 205 Now I need to ask questions about the toddler age: These questions are similiar, but not all the same as before. When your child was from one year of age to three, or a toddler, were you working away from home? YES NO IF YES, Now how many hours did you work? (IF VARIED) Can you give me a monthly average? Did you live with your child at that time? IF QUALIFIED YES NO O.K. Now use the card again, as before, answer with All the time, most of the time, sometimes, rarely, or never COLUMNS When CHILD'S NAME was one to three years, on the I average, how often were you the one to wash, clean I (CHILD) or carry or rock, to sooth ? I I I When CHILD'S NAME was a toddler, how often did you spoon feed the baby? How often did you read to your toddler, sing, hum or talk to (CHILD'S NAME) to sooth or quiet? 12345 When CHILD'S NAME was in need of discipline how often would you scold, yell, or "Talk to the childf 12345 How often would you use a "look" or facial express- ion to express that you did not like child's behavior How often would you spank, hit, paddle, or "pat" for ”bad behabior"? How often might you use music, singing, or talking, of reading, to amuse your child? 12345 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I How often might you "act silly" use finger plays, I or do playful things your toddler might imitiate? I12345 I I I I I I 2 How often would you tickle, rough house, or nuzzle play with your toddler? 12345 12345 12345 bib h2b h3b #5b b6b 206 When you felt affectionate toward your toddler did you say ”I love you, or use other expressions? When you felt affectionate toward your child did you hold, hug, kiss, ruffle your child's hair? When you feel affection toward another (nonsexual) do you diSplay affection, such that your toddler might have seen? When you wanted to encourage your toddler how often are you likely to say, ”That's great“, or other eXpressions of encouragement? How often might you show your child what you want, by doing what you wanted imitated? How often did you encourage your child by patting, hugging or using a physical touch to show approval or support? 1 father 10b COLUMNS 1 2 3 : I I I I I 12345 I I I I12345 I I I I I I I I I I 'I : I12345I I I I I I I 'I I 12345 I I I I I I l I I I I I .12345I I I I I I I I I I I 12345 I I 2| I I 207 Now, this last part is about the time since your child was three. At this time there is a growing ability for the preschooler to take care of some of the needs. During the last year, or so, since your child was three, have you worked outside of the home? YES NO IF YES, How many hours a week did you work? (IF VARIED) Can you give a monthly average? COLUMNS “7b When CHILD'S NAME needs to be bathed, washed, or have clothing changed, how often do you help with 12 this? 345 48b When CHILD”S NAME needs to have something demon- strated how often are you the one who teaches? 12345 “9b How often are you the one to remind your child of things that must be done. 0R,do you explain how 12345 to do something? 50b When CHILD'S NAME needs discipline how often migh1 you scold, talk, or yell, at the child? 12345 51b How often might you ”just use a frown" or facial eXpression to show disapproval? 12345 52b How often do you paddle, spank, pat, or use Physical means of discipline? 12345 53b When you play with CHILD'S NAME how often do you rough house, tickle, play contact games. wrestle, with your child? 12345 54b How often might you read to your child, or play games involving the teaching of directions? 12345 55b When you play? (gal; bowling, fishing) do you take your child along to watch? How often would you say you do this? J 12345 1 Nb w - .----------------------‘------_-- father 11b 208 COLUMNS 55b When you feel affectionate toward your child do you hug, hold, kiss, cuddle, rock or pat your preschooler? How often would you say you do this? 12345 57b When you feel affectionate do you say, "I love you", use endearments, or words of 12345 affection? How often would you say you do this? 58b How often would you say you display affection towards other people, such that your child can see? 12345 59b When you want to support your child's efforts do you use physical encouragement such as a pat or squeeze? 12345 60b When you want to encourage your child how often do you say something as "Keep that up. that's good", or something similiar? 12345 61b How often might you encourage your child's efforts by making certain that you are near enough for the child to observe that you are interested in what your child is doing? 12345 N U father 12b 209 Do you ever ignore your child, or the activities of your child? 5 4 3 2 1 Can you eXplain when this is done? (a) W I?) IdI Ie) NOW TAKE EACH ANSWER AND ASK HOW OFTEN THE PARENT MIGHT USE IGNORING (OR REJECTION) I EXAMPLE: IF THE PARENT SAYS THAT THEY IGNORE SWEARING, SAY How often, when your child swears would you ignore this? (a) 5 u 3 2 1 W 5 II 3 2 1 .c g It: 3 :22 1 1 It; 5 4 3 2 1 OTHER COMMENTS: Thank you very much for your time. I will need to ask OTHER PARENT these questions now. TOTAL FIGURES IN EACH COLUMN ON EACH PAGE. PLACE BELOW: Auditory(1) Visual (2) Tactile(3) Total from 6 _ 12 P e 6 85 7 ___.— —— * Auditory 1 __ __ 9 ___. ___— ..__..__. II Tact11e __ __ 1° __ ___..— II Enter on codi —-——— mg 11 __ ___—___ ___—___... sheet 20, if same- 12 sex use SR ., if Opposite sex use on father 13b 210 PLEASE NOTE: A copy of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test is not included. 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