METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE CONTEXT OF WEB - BASED DISTANCE LANGUAGE LEARNING: A MULTI PLE - CASE STUDY OF ADULT EFL LEARNERS IN CHINA By Naiyi Xie Fincham A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in pa rtial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Educational Psychology and Educational Technology - Doctor of Philosophy 2015 ABSTRACT METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT AND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE CONTEXT OF WEB - BASED DISTANCE LANGUAGE LEARN ING: A MULTI PLE - CASE STUDY OF ADULT EFL LEARNERS IN CHINA By Naiyi Xie Fincham This multiple - case study investigated the construction and development of metacognitive knowledge (MCK) about language learning in the context of web - based distance learning am ong a group of adult English as a fore ign language (EFL) learners in China . Specifically , it explored (a) what existing MCK knowledge about language learning adult EFL learners brought to the context of web - based distance language learning, (b) how their M CK about language learning changed over time, and (c) what contextual factors interacted with the observed changes in their MCK about language learning in the web - based distance mode . Results showed that participants in this study started their web - based d ista nce EFL learning with varying levels of MCK about language learning in the online distance context in ter ms of its scope and complexity. The d ifferences in their MCK bases were also related to the ir readiness for self - managing their language lear ning i n the online environment, their perceptions toward this mode of language learning , and their interactions with different aspects of the learning context. It was observed that all the participants underwent reconstructions in varied rates, scope, and d epth over a period of 16 weeks. A number of contextual factors were identified as particularly significant in shaping and influencing knowledge and understanding s of online distance language learning , including the school - prescribed learning routine, forms of assessment, f eedback from the teacher s and peers , and forms of learner support . Notably, it was observed that the same contextual factor could have both positive and negative influences on different particip ants, thereby contributing differently to the change trajectories among the participants. Findings from this study have a number of important implications for the design and implementation of web - based distance language program, online language instructors , and online distance language learners , and provide directions for future research. Copyright by NAIYI XIE FINCHAM 2015 v To my family: My mother Rongxiu Zu My father Fuyu Xie For their unconditional love, suppo rt, and faith in me. My husband Justin Lee Fincham For his enduring love, support, encouragement, and understanding. Our soon - to - be born daughter Eva Chloe Fincham In loving memory of Wenyuan Zhou vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My graduate study at Michig an State has been a valuable growing experience. As I put the finishing touches on this dissertation, I cannot help but think how fortunate I am to have had the support and love from so many incredible people, who have made this journey so rewarding both a cademically and personally. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation director, Dr. Guofang Li, for her excellent guidance, caring support, and constant encouragement. Her passion for and commitment to improving educational research and practices have set outstanding examples for me and inspired me to continue pursue my professional goals. S pecial thanks to the other distinguished faculty members who served on my committee , Professors Matthew J. Koehler, David Wong, and Senta Goertl er . I would like to thank Professor Koehler for his constant support and guidance throughout my graduate study. I appreciate all the critical suggestions he has provided for my scholarly works and academic studies along the way. His passion for the researc h and practices in educational technology have made him an inspiring role model for me. I am also very grateful to Professor Wong, who has always been supportive and helpful throughout my graduate studies. Lastly, I would like to thank Professor Goertler, who se excellent guidance, detailed comments and feedback , and valuable critiques have been of great help for my dissertation research and writing. I am also grateful to Dr. Yong Zhao, my first graduate advisor and mentor , who offered me the opportunity t o start pursuing my professional goals at MSU. He guided me into the field of educational technology and second language learning, provided me with rich resources and vii ample opportunities for my academic development, and always encouraged and challenged me to deepen my reading, thinking, and practicing. I would like to thank all the students who participated in this research project. My deep gratitude would also go to Ms. Xue Feng , who has offered tremendous help and support throughout this project. Withou t her assistance, this project would not have been completed. I am also very fortunate to have a group of great friends and colleagues at MSU, whose friendship, support, and encouragement have help ed me complete this journey. My special thanks go to my d ear friend Yi - Ling Cheng, who has always been there for me throu gh good times and bad . I am grateful to my friends of our writing group WRAPS, Chiharu, Sarah, Penny, and Denice, for their valuable feedback and constant support. I would also like to thank G aoming, Ruhui, Maya, Wenying, Wei, Yongbo, Lisa, Ken, and Gina. It has been my pleasure knowing and work ing with all of you. I am forever indebted to my parents, Rongxiu Zu and Fuyu Xie. Their unconditional love and support, their passion for my educatio n and personal development, as well as their care and understanding have been the driving forces for my professional and personal pursuits. I own a great deal to my dearest husband Justin Fincham, who is my rock and my love. Without his love, support, and understanding, it would have be en impossible for me to complete this journey. Thank you for everything. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... xiii LIST OF FIGURES ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... xiv CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 1 Background of Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 1 Statement of Problem ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 5 Purpose of Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 9 Research Questions ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 9 Organization of the Dissertation ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 10 CHAPTER II: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW ..................... 12 Conceptual Framework for M etacognition ................................ ................................ ................... 12 Metacognitive Knowledge (MCK) ................................ ................................ ........................... 14 Person Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 14 Task Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 15 Strategy Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 17 Contextual Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 18 M etacognitive Regulation ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 19 MCK and Learning ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 21 Development of MCK ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 23 Individual Construction ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 23 Formal Learning ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 24 Peer Interaction ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 25 Cultural Learning ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 26 Measurements of MCK in L2 Context ................................ ................................ .......................... 27 MCK and Language Learning ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 31 MCK and Distance Language Learning ................................ ................................ ....................... 37 An Overview of Distance Education and Distance Language Learning ................................ .. 38 Web - Based Distance Language Learning (DLL): Demands on Learners ................................ 40 ix Inherent Challenges in DLL ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 40 Challenges in Web - Based DLL ................................ ................................ ............................. 42 MCK in Distance Language Learning (DLL) ................................ ................................ ........... 45 The Development of MCK in DLL Context ................................ ................................ ............. 50 Conclusion ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 52 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ................................ ................................ .............................. 54 Research Questions ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 55 The Multiple - Case Study Design ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 55 Role of the Researcher ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 57 Research Context ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 58 Selecting the Cases ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 60 Recruitment of Case Study Participants ................................ ................................ ................... 61 Introducing the Participants ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 63 Cai ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 63 Yang ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 65 May ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 66 Jing ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 67 Lan ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 68 Gao ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 69 Data Collection ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 71 Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 71 Instruments ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 72 Online Learning Readiness Scale ................................ ................................ .......................... 72 Registration Information ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 72 Language Learning Background and Technology Use Survey ................................ ............. 73 Fir st Individual Interview ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 73 Second Individual Interview ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 74 Third Individual Interview ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 75 ......................... 75 Other Qualitative Data From the Learning Context ................................ .............................. 76 Data Analysis ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 77 Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 81 x CHAPTER IV: THE RESEARCH CONTEXT ................................ ................................ ............ 82 Required Courses and Assessments ................................ ................................ .......................... 83 Orientation: Guide to Success ................................ ................................ ............................... 83 English Module 1: English in Daily Life ................................ ................................ ............... 88 English Module 2: English at Leisure ................................ ................................ ................... 92 Self - quiz and Final Exam ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 95 P re - scheduled Teacher - Directed Tutorials ................................ ................................ ............... 97 Learning Management System ................................ ................................ ................................ . 99 Learning Materials ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 100 Offline Materials ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 100 Online Materials ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 100 Interactions with Teacher and Peers ................................ ................................ ....................... 102 Learner Support ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 103 Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 104 IN WEB - BASED DISTANCE MODE ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 106 Person Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 108 Self - Assessment ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 109 Personal Qualities ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 113 Self - Motivational Factors ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 116 Task Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 120 Nature of Language Learning ................................ ................................ ................................ . 120 Demands of Web - Based DLL ................................ ................................ ................................ . 121 Perceived Difficulties in Web - Based DLL ................................ ................................ ............. 124 Strategy Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 125 Metacognitive Strategy ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 125 Task - Specific Strategy ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 129 Social and Affective Strategy ................................ ................................ ................................ . 130 Contextual Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 132 Opportunitie s and Constraints of Web - Based Distance Learning Environment .................... 133 Role of the Teacher ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 134 Assessments of Learning Sources and Tools ................................ ................................ .......... 135 The CF Online Program ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 138 Features of Personal Learning Environment ................................ ................................ ........... 140 xi Conclusion ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 141 ................................ ..... 143 Person Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 145 Task Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 152 Strategy Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 155 Contextual Knowledge ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 162 Conclusion ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 165 CHAPTER VII: CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND MCK CHANGE ................................ ...... 167 The School - Prescribed Learnin g Routine ................................ ................................ ................... 169 Forms of Assessment ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 172 Feedback from the Teachers and Peers ................................ ................................ ....................... 175 Learner Support ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 179 Conclusion ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 184 CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSIONS ................................ ................................ ............................ 185 Discussion ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 185 - Based Distance Mode .................... 185 Changes in Distance EFL Learner ................................ ............................ 191 Contextual Factors and MCK Change ................................ ................................ .................... 195 Implications ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 198 Implications for Web - Based Distance Language Course Designers ................................ ...... 198 Implications for Distance Language Instructors and Tutors ................................ ................... 200 Implications for Online Distance Language Learners ................................ ............................ 202 Limitations ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 204 Future Research ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 205 APPENDICES ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................ 206 Appendix A: Online Learning Readiness Scale ................................ ................................ ...... 207 Appendix B: Language Learning Backg round and Technology Use Survey (Beginning of semester) ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 209 Appendix C: Individual interviews (Beginning of semester) ................................ ................. 211 Appendix D: Individual interviews (Midterm) ................................ ................................ ....... 214 xii Appendix E: Individual interviews (End of semester) ................................ ............................ 216 ................................ ... 219 REFERENCES ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 220 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Basic information of the interview participants Table 2: Data collection timeline Table 3: Additional data sources Table 4: Summary of data sources and analysis Table 5: Means of communication available to stu dents Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Summary of contextual influences xiv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Content of Figure 2: Guide T o Succes s ssignment Figure 5: Figure 6: Figur e 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Home screen of the online learning platform of CF Online Figure 10: Activity page in Un Figure 11: MCK d imensions (Frequency) Figure 12: Content representation of person k nowledge (Frequency) Figure 13: Moti vations for continuing English l earning (Freque ncy) Figure 14: Content representation of task k nowledge (Frequency) Figure 15: Cont ent representation of strategy k nowledge (Frequency) Figure 16: Content representation of contextual k nowledge (Frequency) Figure 17: Assessment of recourses and t ools (Percentage) 1 CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION Background of Study With the rapid development and integration of new media and new digital technologies in second/foreign language education , technology now constitutes an important role in the ecology of learning ( Benson, 2007 ; C. Lai, 2013 ) . Technology is expected to enhance language instruction and learning experiences inside the cl assroom and to extend language learning beyond the traditional classroom ( Yong Zhao & Lai, 2008 ) . One of the biggest beneficiaries has bee n distance learning programs, which are now supported by web - based learning platforms and new media tools ( Anderson, 2004 ) . In the context o f distance language learning, not only has traditional second/foreign language (L2) learning context been supplemented with increasing online/distance learning components, but also there has been growing demand for and availability of web - based distance ed ucation ( Kostina, 2011 ) . The rapid growth of online distance language programs has resulted in reaching more students and providing more access to rich learning materials and opportunities ( White, 2014 ) . These technology - mediated learning environments are conducive various tools with specific curricular aspects and allowin g learners to choose the tools and activities that suit their learning style s and objectives ( Stickler & Ham pel, 2010 ) . With such flexibility , learners are gradually becoming designers of their own learning by exercising more autonomy, while the traditionally dominant role of teachers is shifting to learning facilitators and counselors ( Q. Pan, 2012 ) . Consequently, ind becoming an even more crucial variable ( Breen, 2001 ) . In particular, to be successful in technology - enhanced learning environment s , one prerequisite for learners is to know enough about themselves, the learning process, and the learning environment , the type of knowledge 2 cognitive and educational psychologists. It is the mission for researchers, t eachers, and cou rse developers to help learners develop adequate knowledge about themselves and the learning process, and use such knowledge to become more competent autonomous language learners . However, how to accomplish this mission effectively and efficiently is still a challenge ( Chapelle, 2010 ) , partly because not enough is known about distance language learners in - based le arning mode ( Hauck, Fuchs, & Müller - Hartmann, 2012 ) . Helping distance language learners to become more capable in managing their learning is a distance langu age education. Since as early as 1985, China has had the largest number of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners ( Cheng, 2008 ) . The numbers of EFL learners was estimated at more than 200 million in 2003 ( Bolton & Graddol, 2012 ) . From the mid - 19 90s, English has been a mandated school subject from Grade 3 in elementary school to senior high school ( Cheng, 2008 ) . The study of English is also compulsory for all tertiary students, and non - English major students beyond post - secondary level are required to s tudy English for at least two years ( L. Pan & Block, 2011 ) . The high prestige English has gained in China is closely related to the pr evailing view of English as the dominant international arena as China is striving for economic prosperity and modernity ( Yin, 2008 ) . Zhao and Campbell ( 1995 ) point out that in China, English is primarily perceived as a medium for social and economic mobility. For example, performances on national or international standardized English tests are seen as important indicators of eligibility for accessing higher levels of education or better career opportunities. Therefore, it is not surprising that a growing number of EFL learners choose to continue improving their English through various channels 3 years after graduating from school. In recen t decades , as increasing numbers of mature students are keen to pursue continuing education to upgrade their skills , China has been fast expanding its distance language programs ( Hurd & Xiao, 2006 ) . For example, according to the rec ord s of China Radio and TV University, the largest higher education institution in China that offers distance courses, in the year of 2004, there were1.3 million students enrolled in higher education programs in which English was a compulsory course ( China Central Radio and TV University [CCRTVU], 2010 ) . In spite of the rapid ly growing EFL learner population, the overall English learning environment in China is considered as - poor one , where target language input is difficult to come by for the majority of learners, thus lexical knowledge is seen as the buildin g block for any attempt of interacting with the target language ( Sorace, 1985 ; L. J. Zhang, 2010 ) . Although Chinese EFL learners would typically have y ears of forma l English learning experiences at school, the typical learning situation for most o f the traditionally school - based students is characterized by limited exposure to English, no adequate authentic reading materials in English, and lack of opportunities to u se English in real - life situations. In addition, the dominant pedagogical style has remained to be a teacher - centered, exam - orientated, and grammar - translation model ( L. Pan & Block, 2011 ; L. J. Zhang, 2010 ) . Moreover, the traditionally big - sized class and the timid and obedient nature of Chinese students rendered their individual d ifferences and needs often being ignored ( Y. Xiao, 2007 ) . Consequen tly, common observ ation s of Chinese EFL learners are the discrepancies between the ir high scores in standardized English proficiency test and low abilities in functional communicative competency an d their primary preferences for rote strategies and surface learning approaches to communication - based methods ( Gu, 2003 ) . 4 In recent years, the increasingly wider use of Internet communication and digital - based and learner - centered pedagog y are expected to mitigate these gaps by providing students with enriched authentic English materials and opportunities for engaging in meaningful interactions in English ( Sun & Son g, 2014 ) which have also been undergoing reforms toward a more student - centered approach, where learners are granted more control and autonomy during the learning process to pursue p ersonal goals regarding their English proficiency ( H. Zhao, Chen, & Panda, 2014 ) . However, research into Ch inese distance Eng sufficiently p repared for web - based learning and are experiencing learning difficulties due to maladaptation to the new learning mode, especially at the initial phase of online distance learnin g. For example, Chen ( 2003 ) observed that Chinese adult distance language learners had trouble adapting themselves to the new circumstances in web - based language learning, lack ing effective strategies and appropriate attitudes a nd were unable to manage their learning effectively . Another study by Jiang, Wei and En ( 2003 ) that explored potential barriers to successful online learning among Chi nese distance learners also identified a number of factors and ski lls of how to operate in online learning interface s , their low motivation and inability to se lf - regulate self - control ability, and online instructor s needs. In a cross - cultural study that looked into anxiety and affective control among distance language learners in China and UK also showed that among Chines e students, some anxiety - provoking factors were associated with an inability to apply even basic knowledge of grammar and acquired vocabulary to actual language use. Additionally, it was noted that students lacked 5 the knowledge and skills of reducing anxie ties effectively through social strategies ( Hurd & Xiao, 2010 ) . A more recent study that investigated the util ity of online learning resources by Chinese distance learners, again, indicated that s use of online learning resources is quite limited and superficial ( Lin, 2012 ) . Implicated in these findings is that Chinese distance language learners need proper guidance and assistance so as to effectively adapt to this mode of language learning through effective self - regulation of their cognition, affect, behaviors, and the learning environment. To this end, helping learners to enhance their knowledge about language learning in online distanc e mode and thus improve their control and flexibility in managing their distance language learning should be one of the determining aspects in our design and implementation of distance language programs. Statement of Problem It has long been re cognized that learners approach language learning tasks in different ways due to various individual characteristics, such as learning strategies, motivation, foreign language aptitude, etc. ( Dörnyei, 2005 ) . Over time, researchers focusing on learner strategies in second/foreign language (L2) learning have come to accept that it is not the quantity of learning strategies a learner knows or uses that determines the effe ctiveness of learning, but orchestration of clusters of strategies, that is, ch according to different learning situations, would lead to the success ( Macaro, 2006, p. 328 ) . Later a further recognition has been reached that the base for such effective orchestration of strategies is a solid and appropriate MCK base ( Rubin, 2005 ) . In other words, it is thei r MCK about language learning, i.e. , learning process and context, that serves as a defin ite pre condition to the success of learning, espec ially the self - regulation of learning ( Wenden, 1998 , 1999 ) ( 2001 ) call that MCK 6 of language learning has been a (L2) research, a growing body of studi es done over the p ast couple of decades have contr ibuted to our knowledge MCK in the learning process of different ski ll areas in traditional fact - to - face (FTF) settings . Overall , L2 researchers have found that across various L2 tasks, successful and less successful learners are distinguished by the scope, depth, and accuracy of their MCK, as defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpret, plan, monitor, and make decisions regarding specific language learning tasks and in self - directed learning settings ( C. Goh, 1997 ; Graham, 2006 ; He, 2011 ; Horwitz, 1988 ; Kasper, 1997 ; Rivers, 2001 ; Ruan, 2005 ; Sakui & Gaies, 1999 ; Vandergrift, Goh, & Mareschal, 2006 ; Victori, 1999 ; Wen & Johnson, 1997 ; Wenden, 1986 ; Wu, 2008 ; Yang, 1999 ; D. Zhang & Goh, 2006 ; L. J. Zhang, 2001 ) . is contingent upon particular learning settings and responsive to demands of learning tasks and features of the immediate learning environment. In the meantime, self - m onitoring and self - reflection of strategy use, experience in practicing learner autonomy or self - regulated learning, increased learning experience and proficiency level, as well as structures of the learning environments also have influence s on the const MCK about language learning ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; He, 2011 ; Kasper, 1997 ; Ruan, 2005 ; Smith & Craig, 2013 ; Victori & Lockhart, 1995 ; Wu, 2008 ) . The r ole of L2 contexts . In distance education, due to the separation of the teachers and students in space and/or time, much learning occurs when students are alone, working on the pre - pro duced course by themselves in isolation at times and places of their own choosing. Therefore, learner autonomy and self - regulated learning are the most prominent features in distance education ( Hurd, 2005 ; 7 White, 2003 ) addition, a long with the increasing popularity of web - based distance language programs, new challenges faced by on line language learners have also emerged. Specifically, learners need to be able to use a variety of media technologies and resources to achieve the integration of different learning components and establish effective interactions ( S. Hong & Jung, 2011 ) . However , it was found that most learners were not adequately prepared with the knowledge and ability to effectively employ the tools and resources at hand in te chnology - mediated environments to enhance their learning experience and outcome ( Chapelle, 2010 ) . In other c ases, although learners were aware of t he online delivery mode, they did not have adequate understanding of their role as a distance language learner, nor the complexities of the learning environment ( Hardy & Boaz, 1997 ) . Hence, b esides the necessities to improve the programs in terms of the design of materials, activities, means of interaction and delivery so as to better engage and assist learners, onlin e language learners themselves have to develop much gre ater awareness of themselves and the nature of the learning process in such learning context s ( Stracke, 2007 ) , and they need instruction and guidance t o facilitate their me tacognitive development on the way to becom ing more capable online learners ( Chamot, 2005 ; Ulitsky, 2000 ) . Cur still quite limited . self - regulation of learning have focused on their use of strategies, or way s to imp rove their strategic competence, yet few studies have specifically focused on the construction of MCK in the learning process ( 1995 , 1997 , 1999b ) earlier stud ies, in response to the demands of distance learning, distance language learners tended to make wider an d greater use of metacognitive strategies than did students learning in traditional 8 FTF ( 1979 ) MCK framework, she investigated and concluded that there was marked diversity in the content of the metacognitive knowledge of students, and that learners needed to develop their own metacognitive knowledge and awareness bas ed on their distance language learning experiences . Focusing on the role of - assisted language learning context, Hauck ( 2005 ) stressed that the need for distance language learners to understand and manage them selves and their learning should ap ply equally to language learners in online self - directed lea constraints of the technology - enriched learning environment. Yet follow - up studies are lacking to provide e relates to other dimensions of MCK. To date, relatively little is known about online distance language learners in China. S tudies about Chinese learners of English at distance p redominantly have focused on learner strategies ( Qian, 2006 ) and other learner variables such as affect and motivation ( Hurd & Xiao, 2010 ) . The limited evidence so far indicates that Chinese distance language learne - management and self - regulation and are not quite used to taking control of their learning ( X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ; H. Zhao, et al., 2014 ) . Clearly Furthermore, while t nitive knowledge tend s to grow with increased experience in the distance learning context (e.g., Hurd, 2006 ; White, 1999a ; X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ) , resea rch that investigates is still in paucity . In addition, while researchers argue that contextual factors such as learning ma terials and activities, task design, modes of interactions, and learner training can all contribute 9 - regulation of learning ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; Garrison, 2003 ; Hurd, Beaven, & Ortega, 2001 ) , more research is needed to understand how their understandin g of themselves as online language learners and the learning process change as they interact with the learning context. Purpose of Study The purpose of t his study is to investigate a group of Chinese adult EFL about language learning in an online distance language program, with the major goal of expanding and refining the current understanding of MCK about language learning in this particular context through investigating the construction of Chinese distance EFL MCK about web - based distance language learning and how such knowledge evolves over time as they progress through their learning. Specifically, this study is designed to examine how distance MCK bases influ ence their interaction with the learning context, a nd whether adjustments and revisions of MCK about language learning in web - based distance context over time . It will also investigate what contextual factors related to the distance learning program may play a role i n the development of Chinese EFL about online distance language learning . Research Questions The current study uses a model of metacognitive knowledge comprising knowledge of self, task, strategy, and the learning context to explo re the understandings about language learning adult EFL learners have developed through their experience in the web - based autonomous learning context. The study is guided by the following inquires: 10 1. What metacognitive knowledge about language learning do a dult EFL learners have in the context of web - based distance learning? 2. over time in the context of web - based distance learning? 3. What are the contextual factors that affect t he change s metacognitive knowledge about language learning in the context of web - based distance learning? Organization of the Dissertation This research study consists of six chapters. Chapter I : Introduction , expla ins the background and rationale of the study, including background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions . Chapter II: Conceptual Framework and Literature Review , consists of the conceptual framework of meta cognition and a review of relevant literature that guide and inform this study. The chapter is divided into the following headings: conceptual framework, MCK and language learning, and MCK and distance language learning. The chapter concludes with a summar y of the review of literature. Chapter III : Methodology , explains the methods used to address the research questions. It starts with a reiteration of the research questions, followed by rationale for using a multiple - case study design, a brief description of the research context , the reflective discussion of the procedures and results of case selection, introduction of the six participants, the description of the data collection and analysis processes, and the measures taken to establish trustworthiness. 11 Chapter IV : The Research Context , provides a detailed account of the research context in which the participants carried out their online English learning. It introduces the required c ourses and assessments, various forms of learner support, the learning management system, the learning materials, and mode of interactions available to the students. Chapter V through VII discuss findings that address the three research questions - based distance language learning is presented in four dimensions, namely person, task, strategy, and context. Chapter VIII : Conclusion , consists of the discussion of the results of the six individual cases with regards to each of the three research questions. It is followed by t he implication s for the design and implementation of online distance language program, online language instructor, and online distance language learners. Finally, the limitations of the study and directions for future research are discussed . 12 CHAPTER II : CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review is structured to guide the understanding of the role of metacognitive knowledge - based distance language learning environment in particular. The first section presents the conceptual framework of metacognition based on the original framework o f metacognition proposed by Flavell ( 1979 ) that guides this study, including the four dimensions of metacognitive knowledge, how the knowledge i nfluences the learning and thinking progress, and focus on the influences of MCK in language learning in traditional classroom - based settings, and then on the role - based distance learning specifically . Conceptual Framework for Metacognition The present study is grounded in the constructivist psychological theory of learning and development, in whi ch the learners are seen as active in the construction of knowledge and the development of skills, thus learning is a generative process under the control of the learner in active response to the contextual features and demands of the learning environment ( Fosnot & Perry, 1996 ) . In essence, changes in behavior are seen as indirect rather than direct outcomes of learning. Observable behavior is me r perception of what a task requires of them and their perception of their likelihood of ( Winn, 1990, p. 60 ) . Applied in educational psychology, this perspective emphasizes that learning is an adaptive, re cursive, non - linear process of knowledge construction, during 13 which teachers are cognitive guides for academic tasks and learners are sense makers ( Mayer, 1996 ) . This theoret evolving knowledge about themselves, demands of language learning process es and available strategies in a specific learning context, because it underlies the central role of the learner who is guided and constrained by personal goals and contextual demands. Under this banner of ( 1979 ) original framework of metacognitive knowledge ( Pintrich, 2002 ; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000 ) is adopted to guide this study. cognitive activities in learning processes ( Brown, 1987 ; Flavell, 1979 ) . Research across disciplines has indicated that what distinguished the more successful learners from the less successful ones is their ability to consciously monitor themselves , reflecting upon and managing their own learning and thinking process, i.e. their metacognition ( Wenden, 2002 ) . Review of the existing literature on the subject of metacognition reveals the diversity in the description, experiments, and the measurement of the concept of metacognition. However, practically all the l iterature on this subject refers to the pioneering work of Flavell. He introduced metacognition as ( F lavell, 1979 ) . Flavell defined metacognition as consisting of both a component of knowledge, and that of experiences and regulation. Building on the contribution of Flavell, many terms regarding the concept of metacognition have been developed over the y ears, such as metacognitive awareness, metacognitive beliefs, executive skills, self - regulation, metacognitive skills and so on ( Brown, 1987 ; Graham, 2006 ; Pilling - Cormick & Garrison, 2007b ; Pintrich, et al., 2000 ; Veenman, Hout - Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006 ) . Although there are various conceptualizations and models of 14 metacognition, the most common distinction is one between (a) knowledge of cognition (metacognitive knowledge) and (b) metacognitive regulation, the processes involving monitoring, control and regulation of cognition. Metacognitive K nowledge (MCK) MCK interact in what ways to affect the course and outcome of c ( Flavell, 1979, p. 907 ) . This kind of knowledge is relatively stable, statable, fallible, and late - deve loping, because it requires learners to step back and to consider their own cognitive processes ( Brown, 1987 ; Pintrich, 2002 ; Wenden, 1998 ) - components of MCK, namely knowledge of person, task, and strategy. This model was later expanded and modifie d by Pintrich and colleagues to include knowledge of context and how it can influence cognition ( Pintrich, et al., 2000 ) . This addition is supported by L2 researchers who - rich language learning environment ( Hauck & Hurd, 2005 ; Jegede, Taplin, Fan, Chan, & Yum, 1999 ; Rubin, 2008 ) . Person Knowle dge ( Flavell, 1987, p. 22 ) . Also referred to as self - knowledge by some researchers ( Pintrich, 2002 ; White, 1999b ) , it emphasizes learning ( Wenden, 1998 ) . In the context assessments about their target language proficiency or their strength s and weaknesses i n a given 15 skill area, and the problems they have and quality of performance during a task (e.g., C. Goh, 1997 ; Vi ctori, 1999 ; Wenden, 1986 ) . One characteristic of expert learner is that they know when they do not know or are not good at something and have to rely on other compensating strategies. Such self - awarene aspect of self - knowledge ( Pintrich, 2002 ) . I n addition to knowledge withi n the cognitive dimension, person knowledge also entails wareness of a variety of personal factors and how they may interact with the language lea rning goal (i.e. self - efficacy) or to learn another language in general (i.e. language learning aptitude), their goals for completing a task, and the interest and value the task has for them ( Pintrich, et al., 2000 ) . The need for students to develop self - knowledge and self - awareness about their moti vation is supported by a substantial body of literature in self - regulated learning that shows important links ( Pilling - Cormick & Garrison, 2007b ; Zimmerman, 1995 , 2000 ) em otions evoked during a learning task, personality , age , and how they can influence the learning process is also part of the person knowledge ( Pintrich & Groot, 1990 ; Wenden, 1998 ) . Lastly, Pintrich ( 2002 ) specifically underscores that the accuracy of self - knowledge is the most cruci al for learning. If students do not know the deficiencies in their knowledge or inadequacies in their skills, it is unlikely they will make any effort to revise or improve their knowledge or skills. Task K nowledge 16 the implications it has for the best management of this cognitive activity and how successfully its ( Flavell, 1979, p. 907 ) certain cognitive skills. For example, one may be aware tha t writing different types of articles, e.g., persuasive or descriptive, requires different kinds of knowledge and composition skills. Or one may learn that a recall task is more difficult than a recognition task; as in the recall task, the individual must actively search memory and retrieve the relevant information, while in the recognition task, the emphasis is on discriminating among alternatives and selecting the appropriate answer ( Pintrich, 2002 ) . Moreover, t should use different strategies ( Wenden, 1998 ) . in during the language learning process, such as completing a listening comprehension exercise , and the overall process of learning in a certain subject m atter, such as learning an L2 ( White, 1999b ) . Benson and Lor ( 1999 ) observe that language is and what the process o f learning a foreign language consists of can affect their perceptions of the purpose and demands of specific language learning tasks , as well as deployment of strategies. Specifically , their study of a group of EFL learners from Hong Kong showed that stud ents who view ing language learning as tended to gear their efforts toward the accumulation of linguistic knowledge, i.e. vocabulary, grammar, syntax , while learners who held viewing the process as meaning - making in the unfamiliar target language culture preferred a holistic approach so as to immerse or 17 approximate themselves in the target language culture based on their intri nsic needs. Meanwhile, they also expressed contrasting views on what motivated them to learn: while the quantitatively self - motivated. Strategy K nowledge Str ( Flavell, 1979, p. 909 ) . This definition indicates that strategy knowledge entails knowledge of identifying goals and subgoals (i.e. goal - setting) , as well as the selection of cognitive processes in achievemen t of these goals. It contains knowledge about both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. C ognitive strategies usually refer to conscious actions taken to achieve a particular co gnitive goal, such as strategies used to memorize material , extract meaning f rom text, and to comprehend what students read in books and hear in class ( Livingston, 1997 ) . These strategies can be used across a large number of different tasks and domains and grouped into three general categories: rehearsal, elaboration, an d organizational ( Pintrich, 2002 ) . Whereas rehearsal strategies characterized by rote memorization of words are not considered effective for more complex cognitive process, elaboration (e.g., summarizing, paraphr asing, and gisting) and organizational strategies (e.g., outlining, concept mapping, and note - taking) usually result in better comprehension and learning (p. 220). Metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the cognitive goals are achieved through a cycle of actions through planning, monitoring, thinking ( Pintrich, 2002 ; Wenden, 1998 ) . Strategies for planning involve goal - setting, task analysis, selection of appr opriate strategies and the allocation of resources that affect 18 performance. Monitoring includes strategies for checking comprehension and task performance, such as self - questioning and self - checking. Evaluating refers to appraising the products and efficie - conclusions, and use of strategies ( Schraw, 1994 ; Wenden , 1998 ) . Contextual K nowledge Knowledge of context is another important aspect of MCK, which concerns the local situational and general social, conventional, and cultural norms that are perceived to affect cognition ( Pintrich, 2002 ; Pintrich, et al., 2000 ) . Drawing on Wenden and Victori, and based on her observation of expert language learners, Rubin ( 2001 ) underscored the importance of . This dimension of MCK is of particu lar - mediated language learning environments faced by foreign language learners. For example, studies of self - directed language learning via audio and audiographic conferencing have shown that a high level of person and contextual knowledge and the degree to which learners have control over it at various stages of the learning process are pivotal to effective learning in such environment ( Hauck, 2005, p. 72 ) . This four - dimension framework of MCK, i.e. person, tas k, strategy, and contextual knowledge, is adopted - based distance learning context. Although t hese dimensions of MCK are discussed separately, they are highly interactive in effect . In most cases, it is the combination among all of the components that come into play and serve to guide our ways in pursuing learning goals (e.g., Flavell, 1979 ; Wenden, 1999 ; White, 1999b ) . For instance, to complete a writing task, the language learner needs to choose a certain strategy (e.g., to decide betwee n skimming or read carefully with the help of a dictionary) 19 based on the demands of the task and personal needs (e.g., for comprehension of meaning or building vocabulary). Furthermore , MCK is also statable ( Wenden, 1986 , 1998 ) . Research shows that very young learners already can talk about their thinking and reasoning process ( e.g., C. Goh & Taib, 2006 ) , although their metacognitive knowledge is incomplete and immature compared with that ( Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . Learners, especially adult learners, can become conscious of and articulate what they know about themselves as learners and their cognition ( L. J. Zhang, 2001 ) . Although MCK need not be explicitly articulated to be useful, it is argued that conscious access to such information, or in other words, greater metacognitive awareness, ma y substantially facilitate thinking and self - regulation ( Schraw & Dennison, 1994 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . In fact, as Brown ( 1987 ) argues, the d egree to which one could report and discuss ve knowledge. Metacognitive R egulation Regulation of cognition refers to skills used to orchestrate and oversee learning and performance ( Efklides, 2009 ) . Some researchers further distinguish two processes under this component, monitoring and control ( Akyol & Garrison, 2011 ; Pintrich, et al., 2000 ) . They are ( 1979 ) original model, cognitive or affective experiences that accompany ( Flavell, 1979, p. 906 ) . It is especially likely to occur in situations that sti mulated a lot of careful, highly conscious thinking, such as in difficult or novel learning situations where learners may have a sense of confusion, failure, or uncertainty. Flavell ( 1979 ) notes that these experiences 20 types of activities that individuals engage in to adapt and change their cogniti on or behavior. These actions include not only cognitive processes, but also other aspects of self - regulated learning including motivation, effort, volition, and goals ( Pintrich, et al., 2000 ; Zimmerman, 1995 ) activities (metacognitive experiences). In contrast to the static nature of MCK, metacognitive regulation is more process - related and reflects metacognitive awareness and ongoing metacognitive activities individuals may engage in as they performance a task ( Flavell, 1979 ; Pi ntrich, et al., 2000 ) . While the deployment of metacognitive regulatory skills is discussed under different terms in different disciplines, e.g., - - cognitive psychology ( Pintrich, et al., 2000 ; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994 ) - ( Garrison, 1997 ; Gremmo & Riley, 1995 ) , distance language learning ( Little, 2007 ) , three essential skills are included in all accounts: planning, monitoring, and evaluation ( Paris & Winograd, 1990 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . Planning involves identification and selection of appropriate strategies and allocation of resources, and can include goal setting, activating background knowledge, and budgeting time. Monitoring involves a ttending to and being aware of comprehension and task performance and can include self - ( E. R. Lai, 2011 ; Schraw, 1994 , 1998 ) . Research over recent decade improve performance in a number of ways, including better use of attentional resources, better 21 use of existing strategies, and enhanced awareness of comprehension breakdowns ( Schraw, 1998 ) . While these strategies are considered to be domain - general in nature ( Schraw, 1998 ) , they must always function in contextualized ways. In other words, if learners fail to make contact with an adequate metacognitive knowledge base, these strategies would remain weak ( Wenden, 1995 ) . MCK and Learning themselves, stra tegies, and tasks is linked to how well they learn and their performance in classroom settings ( Pintrich, 2002 ) . Literature across different subject matters has noted that MCK distinguishes expert learners from ineffective ones ( Brown, 1987 ; Rubin, 2005 ) . I t enhances learning comprehension of written and audio texts ( Alexander, Schallert, & Hare, 1991 ; C. C. M. Goh & Hu, 2013 ; L. J. Zhang, 2001 ) , and improves the completion of new tasks ( Vann & Abraham, 1990 ) and the overa ll rate of progress in learning ( Victori & Lockhart, 1995 ) . Second, MCK is also found to be related to the transfer of learning, which is the ability to apply k nowledge gained in one setting or situation to another ( Pintrich, 2002 ; Wenden, 1998 ) . When students are confronted with new tasks or new learning situations where their domain - specific knowledge and skills are insuffi cient, their knowledge of general learning strategies can facilitate them in tackling the new or challenging tasks ( Schraw, 1998 ) . Moreover, MCK can be either an effective facilitator or a constraint. On the one hand, students who know their own strengths and weaknesses can adjust their own cognition and thinking to be more adaptive to diverse tasks, thus, better regulate their own learning ( Pintrich, 2002 ) . On the other hand , students who lack 22 thinking they understand the material when they do not will not seek a strategy remedy to improve their knowledge or skills or engage in addit ional learning ( Garner, 1990 ) . Of particular significance is t he influence of MCK in the metacognitive regulation of learning, as learners need to be aware of and understand the cognitive pro cesses before they can expect to successfully regulate their learning activities ( Garrison, 2003 ; Pintrich, et al., 2000 ; Wenden, 1998 , 2001 ) . In fact , MCK is considered one prerequisite to self - regulation of learning, rticipants in their own performance rather than passive ( Wenden, 1998, p. 520 ) , and providing the knowledge base for effective planning, monitori ng, and evaluating ( Perkins & Salomon, 1989 ) . First, the MCK learners have acquired about themselves (i.e. person knowledge) can influence their choice of learning objectives and goals, which will then act a s the criteria they use for evaluating and monitoring the learning outcomes and process ( Bandura, 1997 ; Zimmerman, 1995 , 2000 ) . In the meantime, learne rs need to use their preexisting MCK about particular tasks, strategies, or their own abilities to select cognitive actions to achieve their goals and increase learning ( Griffin, Wiley, & Salas, 2013 ) . Further, MCK is noted to be necessary to the monitoring pro cess ( Wenden, 1999 ) . Learners need to draw on both task knowledge and person knowledge in terms of previous performance to make judgments about the task difficulty or ease of learning ( Pintrich, et al., 2000 ) . Specifically, it constitute s the internal feedback, which reveals how well learning is proceeding or can be expected to proceed ( Butler & Winne, 1995 ) . Additionally, MCK may also suggest the r eason for the problems revealed through this state of awareness and serve as the should respond to the emerging internal feedback ( B utler & Winne, 1995 ; Wenden, 1998 ) . 23 Development of MCK While part of a - term memory, there is also the part that Brown and colleagues ( 1983 ) ( 1975 ) , which are insights that emerge during the ongoing learning processes. MCK can be acquired formally or informally, deliberately or ( Wenden, 1998 ) . While earlier ( Flavell, 1979 ; C. Goh & Taib, 2006 ; Schraw, 1998 ) , recent studies on metacognition has revealed growing attention to the social and contextual influences on metacognitive development ( Backer, Keer, & Valcke, 2012 ; Efklides, 2009 ; Pilling - Cormick & Garrison, 2007a ) . Overall, including individual construction, direct instruction, cultural learning, peer interaction, and learner structures. More importantly, researchers stress ed that these factors or conditions are interrelated itive development. I t is t he dynamic interplay of these elements that results in a synergy which contributes to reciprocally affect the remaining factors ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . Individual C onstruction lination to become an effective learner, and to better understand the learning process as well as their actions taken during the process leads to their spontaneous construction of MCK ( Flavell, 1996 ; Little, 2004 ) . S uch construction and reconstruction of one s MCK tend s to be domain - or task - specific initially, followed by a gradual generalization to other domains ( Flavell, 1987 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . That is, one can 24 expect metacognitive knowledge and regulation to improve as expertise within a particular domain improves ( Schraw, 1998 ) . For example, research has shown that MCK develops as they gain more ex perience in language learn ing and their proficiency level in the target language improves ( e.g., Kasper, 1997 ) . Flavell ( 1979, p. 908 ) concurrent monitoring of their learnin g process, i.e. their metacognitive experience play a major ( 2013, p. 21 ) associated with current attempts to learn that learners must monitor in order to judge their actual learning process and make online revision to their cognitive actions (i.e. regulation). Otherwise they will be guided only by incomplete and often erroneou self - reflection upon their own learning process and task completion are necessary to facilitate ( Garrison, 2003 ; Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . Formal L earning D irect instruction or intervention in which students are taught to use a specified set of cognitive skills and are shown how to coordina te the use of these skills can also promote development in their MCK ( Butler, 1997 ) . In the language learning context, studies have yielded positive results regarding the effectiveness of pedagogical interventions wit h the aim of enhancing metacognitive knowledge and regulatory skills regarding language learning in general ( e.g., Wu, 2008 ) or specific skill areas such as list ening ( Vandergrift, 2005 ; Vandergrift, et al., 2006 ) and pronunciation ( He, 2011 ) . Nonetheless, some researchers also cautioned that MCK developed through direct instr uctional approach may not be as useful to students as self - constructed theories ( e.g., Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) , which, again, und erscored the importance 25 ( Griffin, et al., 2013 ) . Peer I nteraction Social interaction in the form s of collective reasoning and collaborative learning with peers is viewed as another impo rtant source for the development of MCK. The nature of metacognition as both a private internal and shared social activity was already implicated in the early models of metacognition, according to Flavell ( 1987, p. 27 ) , this is congruent with the g to other organisms as well as to itself; these activities clearly require metacognition . . . [and] a penchant for engaging in . Schraw and Moshman ( 1995, p. 364 ) also state (or Recent studies ( Backer, et al., 2012 ; Volet, Vauras, & Salonen, 2009 ) focusing on that collaborative lear metacognitive development of knowledge and regulatory skills. In the context of language learning, studies also show that group interactions can serve reflective functions that facilitat e the perceptions a student has or reinforcing those perceptions ( Lehtonen, 2000 ) . In addition, relation with others in the learning community and how to interact or work with others in order rning goals ( Eneau & Develotte, 2012 ) . 26 Cultural Learning Cultural representations or cultural be liefs (such as values, prejudices, attitudes, and stereotypes) serve as a kind of reference to learners when developing their understandings about learning in general . C ollectively created beliefs which reflect views of the society the learner grew up in form a base on which the learner further constructs other knowledge about learning and cognition ( Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ) . These cultural representations are e mbedded in three interrelated layer of contexts, namely the overall social/cultural context, the general educational context, and the learning context(s) of a particular academic discipline, such as foreign language that the learner has experienced ( Gabillon, 2002 ) . For example, in their study that investigated China, Cortazzi and Jin ( 1996 ) discussed how students' and teachers' views of what constituted good English learning had their roots in the Confucian tradition of learning, which include the bel ief that teachers hold absolute authority in learning and are infallible, the emphasis on rote memorization, repetition, reproduction and recitation, and so forth. These findings were also corroborated in other studies that investigated Chinese EFL learner of their new role and responsibilities as autonomous learners when engaging in self - directed language learning, thus hindering their successful transition to a higher level of self - regulation (e.g., J. Xiao & Hurd, 2007 ; Young, 1987 ; X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ; H. Zhao, et al., 2014 ) . Nonetheless, other researchers were critical about the exte nt to which traditional Chinese heritage culture impacts Chinese s ( 2009 ) reported on an empirical study which compares self - directed language learning attitudes, strategies and motivation among university stud ents in mainland China and Hong Kong , which 27 aimed at further investigating how these differences/similarities cou ld be explained in terms of the cultural (i.e. Confucian) traditions or situational factors such as institutional contexts and social environme nts less social, more immediate institutional context. This view is corroborated i.e. the learning structure, on shaping their understandings of what is invo lved in the learning process and their roles and responsibilities ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; Peng, 2011 ) . In summary, this section discusses the conceptual model that informs and guides the present study, including the two components of metacognition, metacognitive knowledge (MCK) and metacognitive regulation, the four dimensions of MCK, the role of MCK in learn ing, especially its role as a prerequisite to self - regulation of learning, and finally, factor s or conditions that are conduc ive to the development of MCK. In the following literature review sections, I will first discuss studies that investigate the MCK a nd language learning in traditional classroom - - based distance language learning. Measurements of MCK in L2 Context In L2 literature, studies carried out to beliefs in language learning have employed quantitative, qualitative, and sometimes mixed methods to document and assess metacognitive knowledge. Among the quantitative instruments, large - scale survey questi onnaire s are Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) and other adapted versions of it ( Horwitz, 1999 ; Kern, 1995 ; Sakui & Gaies, 1999 ) , and metacognitive awareness questionnaires targeting specific language skills ( e.g., Vandergrift, et al., 2006 ) . These instruments could elicit commonly held beli efs about L2 learning from learners, and help L2 teachers to efficiently grasp the general 28 - ended questionnaires ensively and attending to individual differences. After conducting a meta - analysis of a number of studies that used BALLI among L2 learners of different cultural groups, Horwitz ( 1999, p. 575 ) po inted out that the way BALLI was developed tended to obscure variations or minori ty voices within groups, and might not address some of the specific beliefs held by particular cu lture groups. Additionally, Benson and Lor ( 1999 ) warned that inventories of possible statement of learner beliefs might lead learners to agree with beliefs that they did not actually hold. Cotterall ( 1999 ) , too, discussed the issues associated with administering learner beliefs questionnaires to a group of learners, which might result in misunderstanding of items and the ambiguities of interpretation i nherent in using Likert Scale data. Even with efforts to adjust the questionnaire items according to their specific cultural and learning group, Sakui and Gaies ( 1999, p. 482 ) still found that using questionnaires alone could be problematic, as they obser beliefs did change according to the instructional and environmental condition, 2) the beliefs m easured in the questionnaire might not be uniform, students did not always interpret the items as the researchers had intended. Therefore, they emphasize d the value of using interviews as data triangulation to get an in - depth understanding of the questionnaire data. Other researchers use qualitative methods including open - ended, retrospective interviews or self - narratives to capture how individual L2 learners construct their MCK. In her ground - o L2 studies, Wenden ( 1986 ) demonstrated how verbal reports (thereof semi - structured interviews) of L2 learners can be used to d etermine their knowledge about other dimensions of their language learning experience 29 questions, she found that learners were able to articulate their knowledge of several other aspects of language learning including nature of the learning task, conditions for successful learning, their own strength s and weaknesses regarding language learning, etc. The researcher then came to acknowledge the values of verbal reports as a source of insight into interviewees' metacognitive knowledge. Furthermore, this kind of interview that elicits learne statements is considered especially useful for studying adult learners, because they are ( L. J. Zhang, 2001, p. 273 ) . Still another t ype of verbal report instrument that proves to be effective in eliciting L2 to the students, who were asked to respond as if they were speaking with another cha racter in a hypothetical scenario, e.g., answering the questions by a new distance learner who is not familiar with the learning environment just as they are at the start of the program ( Hauck & Hurd, 2005 ; White, 1999b ) . This procedure proved to be highly productive as a means of data collection in conceptions and expectations of distance language learning ( White, 1994 , 1999a ) . In spite of MCK is inferred only from thei r statements, it tends to overlook the influences of the contexts on their MCK ( Barc elos, 2003 ) . In addition, since qualitative studies usually only involve a small number of participants, thus they may lack the power of generalizability. Besides surveys and interviews, language learning journals or diaries are also commonl y employed instruments to capture guidelines are usually provided for the journal, and are submitted at various intervals (e.g., C. 30 Goh, 1997 ; Ruan, 2005 ; Wu, 2008 ) . More recently, blogging has emerged as a new form of language learning journal and has receiv ed increa sing attention. While the essence of diary writing remains the same, blogging bears its unique advantages compar ed with traditional paper based journals, such as enhanced interactivity, multimodality of representation, archiving function, and flexible acce ssibility, and so forth ( Godwin - Jones, 2008 ; Sykes, Oskoz, & Thorne, 2008 ) . Yet researchers have also cautioned against the do wnside of learning journals. For instance, students may find themselves at a lost as to what to write about even with general guidelines, and it is difficult to get comprehensive data since most of the time learners do not turn in journal entries at a regu lar basis or in the same quantity ( Murray, 1999 ; Ruan, 2005 ) . Moreover, supplementary materials have also been used for the purpose of data triangulation. Thes e may include collecting learner artifacts such as students records ( Bown, 2009 ) , task performance such as writing samples ( Victori, 1999 ; Wu, 2008 ) , course documents such as syllabus and orientation materials ( Bown, 2009 ; J. Xiao & Hurd, 2007 ) . In terms of the change and d evelopment of MCK, or metacognitive growth, qualitative or mixed methods studies proved to offer valuable information. Above all, longitudinal stud ies with multiple intervention points for data collection are commonly used to monitor changes over time. Fre quency of data collection usually varies. In essence, data is collected at least twice: beginning and end of the project (e.g., Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; Kasper, 1997 ) , and sometimes at midterm as well to better capture the change ( e.g., White, 1999a ) . However, too many intervention points may not always be effective. In one of the longitudinal studies, Rivers ( 2001 ) initially required the participants to submit one open - ended, retrospective survey each day. Yet due to the low response rate, he had to reduce it to a weekly survey after 3 weeks. 31 MCK and Language Learning In the 1970s, with the influence of research in cognitive psychology, t he field of second/foreign language (L2) education started to witness a - approach toward the teaching and learning process of the target language ( Wenden, 2002 ) . The recog nition of the centrality of the language learner gave rise to research into various learner differences, among which the strategies language learners use to learn and use the target language have been high on the agenda. Only over the past two decades, gro wing attention has learning process. Wenden ( 1998 ) is one of the first L2 researchers to apply framework of metacognitive knowledge to language learning. When noticing that, by then, L2 research different strategies and what they knew about useful strategies for L2 learning, Wenden ( 1986 ) interviewed 25 adult English learners in the US to explore their knowledge about L2 l earning besides strategies to learn and use the target language. She found that learners were able to articulate their knowledge of several other aspects of language and language learning, including (1) nature of the target language, (2) assessments of the ir target language proficiency, (3) evaluation of the effectiveness of strategies, (4) personal factors and how they affect their language learning, and (5) beliefs about how best to learn the target language. Based on these findings, s he argue d that state ments in this study mad e explicit what these general categories of MCK in ( 1979 ) framework entail in the domain of language learning. Specifically , category (1) is what Flavell defines as task knowledge, category (2) and (4) exemplify what 32 Flavell includes under person knowledge and, category (3) and (5) point to the nature or strategy knowledge. In the same study, Wenden found that le ed certain strategies, persisting in the use o f certain ones and rejecting others as ineffective ( Wenden, 1986, p. 198 ) . For instance, learners who believed that it was important to learn grammar and vocabulary first tended to use strategies focusing on grammar and vocabulary learning; and those who attached more importance to communicative competence reported deploying more strategies of using the target lan guage in different settings. Later, Wenden ( 1987 ) reported another study that explored learner strategies based on data collected from the same group of students. She found that common strategies used by the students were related to their knowledge about using the language, and cognitive learning strategies were related to their knowledge a bout the target language. Based on these studies, Wenden alerted that MCK had been L2 researchers and practitioners ( Wenden, 2001 ) . applying on L2 learning has been a consistent source of inspiration for researchers and practitioners w the past two decades, there has been a growing body of literature that reveal the crucial role of MCK in language learni ng . ( 1994 ) suggest: metacognition . . . may be the major factor in determining the effectiveness of earn another language and . . . explicit metacognitive 33 knowledge about task characteristics and appropriate strategies for task solution is a major determiner of language learning effectiveness. (p. 372) ( 1999 ) investigated the MCK about Engli sh writing among undergraduate Spanish learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) and how it influenced their task completion. Four participants, two successful writers and two less successful ones, were selected. They completed a writing task while t alking about their thinking and decision - making process and were interviewed afterwards. Findings revealed that good and poor EFL writers could be distinguished by their MCK in each of the three MCK dimensions analyzed. More importantly, it was observed th ( Victori, 1999, p. 549 ) . Overall, the two better writers held a much broader and complex view of their own writing problems (person knowledge), the nature and requirem ents of the writing task (task knowledge) and their own approach to writing (strategy knowledge). The knowledge served as a sound basis which enabled them to make informed decisions throughout the task completion process on various stages. In contrast, the relatively limited and sometimes inappropriate knowledge of the writing task held by the less effective EFL writers had resulted in them using inefficient strategies at different stages of the writing process. In addition, s ignificant differences were obs erved in how they monitored the writing process. When the two successful EFL writers were revising and editing their essays, they were motivated by a broad range of objectives, from consistency of ideas to correct grammar and syntactic rule s , which were in agreement with their own understanding of limited view of good writing. Lastly, Victori also pointed out that the more EFL writers knew about their strengths and weaknesses in their writing, the more likely they could have a realistic picture of the problems they might have to cope with during learning and of the steps they could 34 sonates ( 1990 ) argument that without realizing problems or deficiencies in their knowledge or skills, it is unlikely that students will actively seek strategic remedy or make any effort to acquire knowledge. Likewise, differences in MCK and strategy selection and use are also observed in ( 2001 ) strategy knowl edge about EFL reading in China . Five high - score Chinese EFL learners and five low - score ones were selected from two universities to participate in a semi - structured interview. The data revealed that, high scorers not only showed clear awareness of a wider range of reading strategies, but they also knew when and how to use different strategies according to specific task requirements. The low scorer s, on the other hand, did not realize that EFL reading required them to adopt different reading strategies to solve different problems they might encounter. Moreover, the researcher found that, while all learners were aware of certain person - or task - relat ed issues that associated with their use of strategies, such as deficiencies or problems during reading, how well they understood these issues and how they made use of such information when making future learning decisions varied substantially among learne rs. For example, one of the common weaknesses frequently reported by both high - score learners and low - score learners was the lack of vocabulary knowledge . While high - score learners tended to treat it as normal issue associated with learning an L2 and tried to overcome it by guessing and inference, low - score learners looked at it as the biggest obstacle and deemed it very hard to tackle unless they had a dictionary at hand or ended up avoiding the unknown words. Almost a decade later, the same researcher ( L. J. Zhang, 2010 ) conducted another study e 35 and performance during English reading comprehension tasks. This time, participants were required to complete a reading task befor e being interviewed. The study yielded similar results, suggesting that there was a strong relationship between metacognitio n and successful EFL reading comprehension. Significant differences were identified in the MCK systems of successful and less successful EFL readers. For example, whereas the successful readers had quite clear knowledge about the conditions necessary for s uccessful meaning - construction in reading, the less successful readers overemphasized the importance of linguistic knowledge, especially vocabulary and grammar. As a result, less successful readers were blocked by a lack of metacogni tive knowledge from eff ectively activating appropriate reading strategies. In addition to qualitative studies, t here are also large - scale quantitative studies using survey questionnaires consisting of pre - determined sta and explore its relation shi p to their strategy use. In these studies, MCK is often investigated under learner beliefs Beliefs about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI), developed by Horwitz ( 1985 , 1 988 , 1999 ) guage learning. This survey contains five major areas related to language learning: (1) foreign language aptitude, (2) the difficulty of language learning, (3) the nature of language learning, (4) learning and communication strategies, and (5) motivations and expectations. One particular significant conclusion drawn by the researcher was that erroneous beliefs about language learning may lead to the deployment of less effective strategies. For instance, in one of her BALLI studies ( Horwitz, 1999 ) , in which the survey was administered among a group of university students in 3 target language groups, nearly half of them believed that it was possible to bec ome fluent in a L2 in two years or less, and learning a L2 was mostly a matter of translati ng from English. The researcher suggested that 36 choice of learning st rategies. This conclusion was supported by Wen and Johnson ( 1997 ) study that explored the relationship betwe en learner belief s and their use of strategy. 242 second year English major students from 5 Chinese tertiary institutions completed the Language Learner Factors s about language learning, and use of strategies. Data analysis indicated strong positive - tongue - strategies effectively, or at all, may depend less upon strategy training itself than upon the ( p. 40 ) , thus implying the importance of pre - existing knowledge about the language learning process. also explored in the skill area of listening and speaking. For example, D. Zhang and Goh ( 2006 ) use of 40 li stening and speaking strategies and the relationship between these two variables. These strategies were categorized into use - focused learning strategies, form - focused learning strategies, comprehension strategies, and communication strategies. The res ults revealed strong speaking and listening strategies. The researchers further pointed out that this result indicated a reciprocal relationship between the two va riables, with the knowledge - influences - use relation having more explaining power. Also revealed in the data was that although students were aware 37 of the usefulness of the majority of the listed strategies, only a small part of the strategies were actually frequently used by the students. Based on these findings, they conclude d that to become more conscious and active strategy users in English listening and speaking, students need ed to increase the ir repertoire of knowledge about the strategies in terms of w hy, when, and how to use them. Studies reviewed in this section so far all indicate that successful and less successful L2 learners can be distinguished by their MCK base regarding language learning. Specifically, what constitutes language lear language tasks and selecting the cognitive tools (strategies) with which to interpret, plan, and make decisions regarding specific language learning tasks in classroom - based settings . The next section of l - directed language learning context, in particular, web - based distance language learning. MCK and Distance Language Learning Given the high demands for self - regulation, t he crucial role o f MCK in effective language learning is even more salient in self - directed language learning contexts such as distance - based distance language learning environment. This section focuses on MCK and distance langu age learning, including an o verview of the evolution of web - based distance language learning, discus sion of the characteristics of this type of learning context, its demands on language learners in terms of the demands of self - directed learning, and the ro 38 An Overview of Distance Education and Distance Language Learning Today, w eb - based distance education can clearly be seen as dominating distance learning and is expecting tremendous gro wth in the future ( Kostina, 2011 ) . Such unprecedented popularity is largely related to the greatly expanded and enhanc ed learning opportunities and cost - effectiveness, which are the result of a number of key advancements in technology. According to the major technological innovations in distance education ( DE ) , Garrison ( 1985 ) offered a three - generation classification for the formats of DE: correspondence, telecommunication, and computers. He ( 1985, p. 236 ) increasing differentiation of technological capacity for integrating unique deliver . Therefore, the more advanced models of DE is usually an integration of new technological features and the older ones. For example, web - based distance learning programs still have features from previous generations, such as learner support over the phone or printed learning materials. Below I will briefly summarize the characteristics of each generation as well as their affordances and constraints for distance language learning. The correspondence courses started with delayed interaction between individuals through printed materials delivered by mail for self - study. Given the slow nature of the communication process and the lack of immediate feedback, Kraemer ( 2008 ) classifies them as the lowest degree of interactivity. Although they can easily reach to large number of students at a low cost, their basically one - way interaction mode and single modality of knowledge presentation are not supportive of communicative competence in language learning ( White, 2003b ) . In the 1960s, the second generation of distance education emerged with the development of broadcasting media, i.e. telephone, ra dio and TV, which supplemented the first generation 39 courses with multimedia content like audio - and videocassettes, as well as supported two - way interaction between students and instructors through telecommunication over the phone. Although the majority of the second generation multimedia systems remained asynchronous, these made distance learning a more engaging mode of learning ( Kraemer, 2008 ) . Especially, it made learning a second or foreign language at distance a more feasible undertaking, as all of the fou r language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) can be practiced and students could get immediate feedback from teachers ( White, 2003b ) . However, it did not allow for truly interactive delivery modes, given the time constraints placed on all people involved and that sometimes travel was required to host sites ( Kraemer, 2008 ) . It is the third g eneration of distance learning based on information and communication technologies that made real - time interactive learning and teaching possible. Using computer - mediated communication (CMC) over the Internet, distance learners now can interact with both t eachers and other learners through various forms of synchronous and asynchronous communication channels. At the same time, they can also enjoy a much heightened level of flexibility in terms of where, when, and how to learn. All of these are considered par ticularly beneficial for language learning ( White, 2003b ) . However, in order for DE to be truly effective, it is not enough to only consider - construction of knowledge in an online envi ronment, the establishment of a sense of community among participants, and aiding students in their construction of identity and development of learner autonomy in a virtual ( Winke & Goertler, 2008b, p. 1 ) . These are all calling for careful consideration of the human elements in distance education, i.e. learners, teachers and administrators, what they bring 40 to the learning task, their reactions and experiences against th e affordances and constraints in the learning environment, and so forth ( Chapelle, 2007 ; Murday, 2004a ) . In the next section, I will particularly focus on the characteristics of web - based distance l anguage learning and what demands they pla c e on distance language learners, and more importantly, argue how a solid MCK base is instrumental in answering these challenges. Web - Based Distance Language Learning (DLL) : Demands on Learners When language learners embark on web - based DLL, they are face d with challenges from the new learning environment, as well as unique challenges brought by context of second/foreign learning. Yet prior experiences of conventional classroom s do not automatically equip distance learners with the skills and knowledge req uired to tackle the new demands of the DLL context ( White, 2003b ) . In this section, first I want to discuss the inherent challenges faced by distance language learners, and then highlight the challenges learners face in the new web - based learning environments and what these challenges mean for distance language learners, as well as the role of distanc Inherent C hallenges in DLL Essentially , DLL is one type of independent language learning, or self - directed language learning ( White, 2003a ) ( Dickinson, 1987, p. 11 ) . Yet DLL is different from other types of independent learning such as self - access centers and after - class individualized instruction, in that distance learners usually have to study within a pre - set rigid pedagogical structure. Traditional DLL programs are essentially a type of mat erial - centered program, in which the amount, rate and content of the learning program is determined by the course team in charge of producing the 41 materials, not by the students ( Hurd, et al., 2001 ) . Students are then expected to complete the course r equirements at their own pace, accommodating both their own learning needs and the course requirements. As White ( 2003b , 2005b ) observes, w hen students first enter a DLL environment, they a re facing a number of conditions different from traditional classroom learning, a lot of which are related to the significantly reduced regular external regulation and social interaction, including : ( 1) feeling of isolation due to the lack of social contact with teachers and peers; ( 2) lack of access to regular classroom interactions that can structure and support the learning process; ( 3) problem with sustaining motivation and self - discipline; ( 4) reduced opportunities for incidental learning due to the lack of sharing thoughts with peers or teachers through informal communication; and (5) the need to juggle the r esponsibilities of work and life . In particular , given that the teacher is remote from the learning site and will not be mediating between the learner and the target language materials and activities in a timely fashion, such as checking errors, providing and gain control of the learning ( White, 2003b ) . All of these challenges can result in various types of anxiety and uncertainty in distance language learning, especially during the initial phase of distance learning, yet learners may not be well equipped with knowledge a bout self - regulatory and affective strategies that can help reducing the anxiety (e.g., Hurd, 2001; Hurd 2007; Xiao & Hurd 2010 ). Furthermore, implicated in the nature of distance language learning as a form of self - directed learning is a fundamental shift in teaching philosophy and pedagogical model from teacher - centeredness to learner - centeredness ( Martínez, 2012 ; Reinders & Hubbard, 2012 ) . The role of the teacher then has shifted to a facilitator of learning, and the learners are supposed to 42 This entails a series of self - regulatory actions such as regulating and overseeing the rate and direction of their own learning, establishing their own set of learning behaviors, developing the ability to match their learning objectives with the learning sources available in the context, including materials, peers and teachers, and reaching out to seek help or assistance during the learning process, etc., or in other wor ds, they have to develop and maintain a highly autonomous approach to learning ( Bown, 2009 ; Hurd, 2006b ; White, 2003b , 2007 ) . C halle nges in Web - B ased DLL The advent of computer - mediated communication (CMC) has had a major impact on the traditional approach to the desig n of distance education instruction in terms of realizing the type of synchronous communication deemed essential for language learning ( White, 2003b ) . In current web - based DLL, the different forms of asynchronous (e.g., email, discussion boards, and blogs ) and synchronous (e.g., web - conferencing and real - time chat system ) interaction are seen as resol ving the above mentioned inherent challenges. First, they can secure fast transmission and multiple communication channels so that learners can receive instant feedback, and save and revisit their data ( Warschauer, Ware, & Kern, 2000 ) . Second, they have the pote ntial to more effectively facilitate language learning because of the text - based and delayed nature of the discussion that allows greater opportunity to attend to and reflect on the form and content of the communication ( Sauro, 2011 ; B. Smith, 2005 ; Strambi & Bouvet, 2003 ) . Moreover, recent addition of real audi o - and video - chat have provided language learners with much needed opportunities for speaking practice, which used to be another inherit weakness of DLL ( Hampel & Arcos, 2013 ) . Third, they provide a means for support and incidental learning among peers, both directly and indirectly, with more opportunities to s hare experiences, insights, concerns and 43 reactions to the course ( Polisca, 2006 ) . In a belonging to a community, thus reducing their sense of isolation ( White, 2003b ) . Yet along with these new advantageous features also come new challenges to language learners who wish to embark on this type of learning experience. First, while the web - based learning environment offer s more en riched learning opportunities, enhanced flexibility and communication capacities, it also means that learners are faced with a more complex learning environment, in which some learners may find it difficult to identify and focus on essential areas that fit their proficiency level, learning goals and needs ( e.g., Ulitsky, 2000 ) . Moreover, as the online environments may also present additional resources or optional learning materials, this can be an advantage for some learners, but a distraction for others. Therefore, learners need to figure out their own path through the materials, to select from multiple sources according to their own needs and to keep track of a range of learning materials and tools. All of these can be overwhelming and time - consuming for distance learners, especially novice learners ( White, 2003b ) . Meanwhile, they also need specialized knowledge and skills of how to use technologies or Internet applications in language learning tasks . Research on learner read iness for hybrid or fully online language courses has shown that students lack expertise in using specialized tools that are often necessary for computer - assisted language learning such as creating and editing of sound and video files , which can affect the ir preparedness in participating in a higher - tech language course ( Goertler, Bollen, & Gaff, 2012 ; P. J. Smith, 2005 ; Winke & Goertler, 2008a ) . In addition to getting themselves familiar with the techno logies, to truly take advantage of the new digital environments learners need to be comfortable wit h and able to utilize the multimodality in meaning - making and presentation of knowledge ( de Andrés Martínez, 2012 ) . Central to this concept of multimodality is that technology - mediated environments offer the 44 possibility to combine a variety of different modes in the making of texts, and the variety of web - based or digital tools allow us to combine these modes easily for meaning - making ( Hauck, et al., 2012 ) . Learners, then, need to be able to effectively use and coordinate different modes, such as online speech, online writi ng, audio, video, and image, to make sense of available information, to complete learning tasks, to plan their learning routine, and to develop their target language competence. The variety and simultaneity of modes available to make meaning and the additi onal technological challenges they raise can lead to confusion and uncertainty, which can cause learning difficulty and anxiety for language learners ( Hauck & Hurd, 2005 ) . Furthermore, to benefit more from the communication opportunities provided by the web - based environment, online distance language learners need to adjust to and make use of learning opportunities within an interconnected community of learners , not only on the technological level, namely using a number of new mediums and tools both synchrono us and asynchronous ( Benson, 2001 ) , but also on the p sychological level, namely developing an understanding of their roles and responsibilities in the online learning communities ( Eneau & Develotte, 2012 ) . In summary, the above discussion points to an overarching theme for distance language learners: they need to transform the way they control and manage their learning from traditional cla ssroom learning mode to an active, autonomous, and collaborative way in the technology - mediated online learning mode. distance language learners to have the ability to effectively regulate and manage their learning; or in other words, to develop and exercise effective learner autonomy. Although there has not characteristics of autonomy as an approach to lea rning is that students take some significant ( Boud, 1988, p. 45 23 ) . In the context of language learning, it usually involves higher - order strategies like setting goals, choosing materials and tasks, selecting methods and techniques to be used, monitoring the process, and evaluating the progress ( Cotterall, 1995b ; Little, 2004 ) . Wenden points out that autonomous learners are those who ha learning strategies, the knowledge about learning, and the attitudes that enable them to use these ( cf. Hurd, et al., 2001, p. 344 ) . Clearly, with the heightened demands for strong er self - regulation and learner autonomy comes the requirement for a solid MCK base of themselves as language learner s , the learning process and environment, as well as appropriate learning strategies in this context . MCK in Distance Language Learning (DLL ) The demands and opportunities of the distance learning context make it necessary for students to re - evaluate their roles and responsibilities as language learners and the need for self - regulation requires them to develop a comparatively higher degree of metacognitive knowledge. Yet so far a dearth of studies has been MCK; studies focusing on online language lear ning programs are still limited in quantity and diversity . Nonetheless, the crucial role of MCK in distance language learning is well recognized by distance language learning researchers. In a series of her earlier studies, White ( 1994 , 1995 , 1997 ) looked into how different learning modes, classroom or DLL, might influence language learners in terms of strategy use and found that distance learners ten d to respond to these challenges of distance learning with more active use of self - management strategies. Specifically, she compare d strategy use of a group of university foreign language students enrolled in distance programs and that of students 46 in face - to - face classes, using self - report questionnaires and yoked subject study in which students were asked to put themselves in the place of a new learner. Findings showed that distance learners made wider and greater use of metacognitive strategies than class room learners, most notably with regard to the strategy of self - management, including comprehension monitoring strategies such as checking up on their understanding of the target language and problem identification. In the meantime , she also concluded that mode of study was the predominant influence on metacognitive dimensions of strategy use. In other words, the wider and greater use of metacognitive strategies by distance language learners is a response to the demands placed by the distance learning conte xt. Building on these findings, White ( 1999b ) investigated MCK in a later study. She used a modified model of MCK (person, task, strategy, and goal knowledge) to explore the MCK of 31 adult novice distance language learners of Japa nese and Spanish by deploying the yoked subject procedure conducted over the phone. Participants in this study were enrolled in a distance language program without a web - based learning management system. The dimensions and categories of metacognitive knowledge which were foregrounded in s tudent reports were self - knowledge and strategy knowledge , with th e least reported knowledge being the goal knowledge; and the content of each category has its uniqueness related to distance ( 1979 ) observation that the different dimensions of metacognitive knowledge are found to be distinct but also highly interactive, thus indicating that the dynamic interactions among them should not be ignored. The resea rcher concluded that there was marked diversity in the content of the metacognitive knowledge of students, which implied that learners needed to develop their own metacognitive knowledge and awareness based on their DLL experiences. 47 Focusing on language le - assisted language learning context, Hauck ( 2005 ) stresses that the need for distance language learners to understand and manage themselves and their learning applies equally to language learners in online self - directed learning spaces. She adds that: th e degree to which language learners are aware of both themselves (. . .) and of the affordances of the learning environment, and the degree to which they demonstrate control and flexibility in the use of [metacognitive strategies] such as self - management a nd thus autonomy, are interdependent. ( Hauck, 2005, pp. 68 - 69 ) Based on her observations of two groups of adult online distance language learners who particip ated in two types of awareness - rising activities that were designed to familiarize students with t he characteristics of independent online language learning, learners with a high leve l of metacognitive knowledge were also efficient in deploying self - mana gement skills, that is, they were aware of how they learn ed best, and able to set up the learning co nditions most favorable to them. The researcher also stressed that attention to online self - dire could contribute to our understanding of the realities of the early stages of independent language learning, which should serve as the basis for the design and implementation of interventions that aim to facilitate their metacognitive growth. To date, topics of studies about Chinese learners of English at distance predominantly focus ed on learner strategies; little systematic researc h has been done to look into Chinese - based distance program. A search through the liter ature only came up with a few studies that offered some insights into Chinese English of themsel ves as distance learners, the learning process and strategy use. The first study reported by Hurd and Xiao ( 2006 ) was a cross - cultural study aimed at investigating the differences between adult distance learners in China and the UK i n terms of 48 their motivation, perceptions of successful distance language learning, perceived difficulties and strategy use, and the extent to which cultural background may contribute to learning approach . questionnaire administered in both cohorts. The researcher s found some major differences in approach appeared to be closely related to cultural background. For example, there were a lot more Chinese students being vocationally oriented toward learning (i. e. learning for work or diploma) than UK students, who were mostly learning for personal enrichment and pleasure. Chinese learners were also found to have higher levels of self - awareness, and lower levels of key aspects of autonomy such as the ability to p ace, prioritize and self - monitor, which, argued by the researchers, was linked to a culture of dependence on the teacher as the sole authority. In addition, Chinese learners appeared to favor spontaneous actions over advanced planning and organization, and were experiencing greater lang uage - specific difficulties and more problems related to language learning in distance mode; for example, self - discipline, maintaining motivation and negative comparisons with other students. Further, strategies used by studen ts to improve their language learning tended to reflect their views of factors in successful distance language learning. For instance, Chinese students preferred strategies linked to reflective practice and creative language use, but used fewer strategies aimed at developing time management and prioritization skills than their UK counterparts. Also, the researchers pointed out that the emphasis on mastering grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation in China would account for higher figures in the Chinese cohort - taking and rote memorization. Recently, Zhang and Cui ( 2010 ) conducted a study that investigated learning beliefs held by distanc e English language learners in China using survey instruments, which focused on their 49 beliefs about the nature of language learning, the role of the teacher, the role of feedback, language learning strategies, and self - efficacy. To examine differences in l anguage learning beliefs between beginner distance learners and those with more experience, the survey was administered in both of the first - and third - year cohorts of a n undergraduate English program delivered through a combination of media including TV, video, and the Internet. Results showed that students held similar beliefs and perceptions as learners in conventional classrooms regarding aspects like the nature of language learning and strategy use; yet differences in beliefs about autonomous learning were identified between first - and third - year distance learners. While third - year students tended to believe in the importance of their own feedback and reflection on their study, seeing themselves as learners who decided for themselves about how and what to learn, the first - year students expected more help from teachers and other people, and still believed that the teacher should tell them how to learn, offer help when they need it, and provide feedback about their progress. The researchers discussed the l ow level of autonomy among the beginner students and the challenges they were faced in relation to the traditional teacher - centered one - way transmission of knowledge. In their views, although distance language learners in China believed strongly in the imp ortance of autonomous learning, they were not autonomous enough in their approach to dis tance learning from the outset. Nonetheless, the different belief patterns identified in novice and experience d distance lea r ners in terms of autonomous learning did pr ovide evidence of metacognitive growth as students became more experienced with distance learning, thus warrant ing further probing into the growth or change mechanisms in context. Similar findings are yielded in a more recent large scale study of Chinese distance learners by Zhao, Chen and Panda ( 2014, p. 951 ) , who found that overall Chinese distance 50 ld not apply their self - regulated abilities skillfully and especially lacked strategies - old classroom - based and teacher - self - regulated learning. And although post - flexible delivery mode and expanded studen t body have led to the shift towards a more independent study strategy, they are not radical enough to change the traditional culture of learning in China so as to nurture effective self - regulated learning. It is predicted by the ursuance of open access, open learning and self - learning will be - ( p. 955 ) . One significant implication from these studies is the influences of a particular learning response to the demands of this learning context. The next section will discuss the development The Development of MCK in DLL Context T development is still in paucity. There are only a few studies that provide some insight into the overall patterns and developmental trends of d ( Hurd, 2000 , 2006a ; White, 1999a ; X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ) . One common theme shared by these studies is the increas ed metacognitive awareness as learners become more experienced with this learning mode. Specifically, students overall were beginning to develop a greater awareness of what was needed for effective language learning in terms of overall skills and attribute s as they progressed through the course, especially with reg ard to metacognitive strategies. 51 More importantly, White ( 1999a ) points out that each individual learner holds their own unique understanding of t he task, i.e. language learning at distance, based on their experience overtime, and underscores how the development of these new understandings are influenced by features of the particular distance learning context. Building on the se findings, White ( 1999a , 1999b , 2003a , 2009 ) goes on to propose the concept of - , a process - and metacognitive growth can be interpreted and predicted from the learne learners develop and assume control of a personally meaningful and effective interface between themselves and the learning context ( White, 2003a, p. 5 ) learners draw on their MCK base when they first enter the distance learning context to make sense of the new content and context of learning. As learners are influenced in new ways by the distance learning context by interacting with elements in the learning context, they extend and develop their learning skills and knowledge about themselves as learners, including knowledge of their preferred ways of learning and how to proceed within a distance language learning context, as well as ability to match learning needs with resources within the learning context and skills of self - management in establishing a personalized language learning environment within the parameters of their own work and home environments. Consequ ently, all of these can be ( White, 1999a ) . The construction of a personalized learner - context interface is the result of the interplay of personal and conte xtual influence s . The personal influence entails a number of individual attribut es of which have a bearing on how learners interpret, relate and respond to the learnin g context and 52 the kind of interface they are able to construct with the learning context ( White, 2009 ) . The contextual influence refers to features of the distance language course that includes resources, course work, assessments, and opportunities for interaction, sup port, learner control, as well as access to other target language sources ( White, 2003b ) . In addi tion to these externally observable features, it also includes the affordances and constraints which individual learners perceive available and relevant within the learning environment ( White, 2005b ) , i.e . their contextual knowledge. White ( 2003b ) goes on to argue that in order to develop target language skills within the distance context , learner s must develop the interface; otherwise, the learning context would remain relatively inert and lack personal meaning or significance. Equally importantly in this process is the influence of the particular distance learning context, which could potentially promote or h contextual affordances. This is supported by empirical evidence that when given sufficient facilitating contextual affordances, it is possible for students to adjust and enhance their MCK regarding language l earning in this particular context ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ; Hurd, et al., 2001 ; X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ) . In the context of distance language learning, learners can be influenced by a variety of contextual factors, including le arning sources, learner support , opportunities for interaction, the teachers and tutors, the learning community, and features of the ( White, 2003b , 2014 ) . Conclusion The literature review indicates that on particular process can substantially influence their choices of actions and assessment of their learning progr ess. A solid MCK base is a pre requisite to effective strategy use and fundamental to one 53 readiness for self - regulation of learning. In the meantime , monitoring and reflecti ng on strategy use, experience in practicing learner autono my or self - regulated learning, increased learning experience and proficiency level, as well as structures of the learning environments also influence the construction and development of metacognitive knowledge about language learning. Review of t he existing literature also reveals gaps in our knowledge about L2 classroom - based learning settings, more research is much needed to look into L2 learners about language learning in other types of learning settings, especially the increasing ly popular virtual learning environments supported by new media and technologies that deman d a high - level of self - regulation. This gap is particularly salient in the MCK of EF L learners in China, where, in spite of the large and continuing growing population of online EFL learners, few nontraditional learning environments. Second, there is still much to learn about how MCK evolves o ver time as learners gain more experience with the learning context that mainly consists of self - directed learning and coordination of various learning resources. Third, given that the construction and development of MC K is closely related to features of a particular learning context, research into interactions between contextual factors of a learning environment and the development can be facilitated through design features or interventions. The present study seeks to address the se needs by investigating Chinese EFL about online English learning as they start their learning in a s tructured web - based distance English pro gram, how their MCK changes over one semester and what contextual factors in this particular learning context interact with these changes. 54 CHAPTER III : METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the methodology used to investigate the research que stions. The overall research design is a multiple - case study, consisting of primarily qualitative methods, with some quantitative measurements used at the outset of the study. It was conducted virtually with a ate - to - online institute run by a national university specialized in foreign language education. Six participants were selected for this study by adopting a purposeful sampling strategy which aimed at obtaining the maxim um variations (Patton, 2002). In addition to the registration information of all students who agreed to participate in this study, a n Online Learning Readiness Scale questionnaire was employed at the beginning of the study as a preliminary assessment of le self - perceived readiness and efficacy for le arning in an online environment and to identify students for further in - depth interviews. Qualitative methods used included three individual interviews, supplemented by collection of student artifacts (as signments, online posts, online session participation records) that were conducted throughout the course of the semester, - based distance learning context was constructed a nd developed over time as they were adapting to learning in such an environment. native language, Mandarin Chinese. In addition, analysis of the assessments and feedback they had gained for their c oursework, as well as interviews with the course instructor were conducted for the purpose of data triangulation. While there are other aspects that undoubtedly have an effect on how students understand and conceptualize their learning process and learning experiences, these aspects will not be considered for the purpose of this study. Following is a reitera tion of the research questions and an elaboration of the case study design adopted in the 55 research, including a brief introduction of the research conte xt , the role of the researcher and the selection and description of research participants. Then , methods used to elicit and collected data will be explained, followed by discussion of the procedures of data management and analysis. Research Questions The current study uses a model of metacognitive knowledge comprising knowledge of self, task, strategy, and the learning context to explore the understandings about language learning adult EFL learners have developed through their experience in the web - based autonomous learning context. The study is guided by the following inquires: 1. What metacognitive knowledge about language learning do adult EFL learners have in the context of web - based distance learning? 2. gnitive knowledge about language learning change over time in the context of web - based distance learning? 3. What are the contextual factors that affect the change s metacognitive knowledge about language learning in the context of web - b ased distance learning? The Multiple - Case Study Design A multiple - case study was designed to answer the research questions. Case study is the most commonly adopted strategy used with an interpretivist paradigmatic stance in social research ( Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013 ) . It is an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context ( Robson, 1993, p. 179 ) . In other words, case study allows the researcher to concentrate on a particular issue in great depth without losing contextual 56 information. Theref ore, case study strategy fits the purpose of this project in that the aim of the language learning which, according to the literature review, is substantially influenced by the learning experiences which are shaped by the unique online learning context. Moreover, the criteria proposed by Yin ( 2008, p. 4 ) that case study method will be relevan also supports this choice of methodology for the present investigation. Multiple - case study is the type of case study in which several participant/programs are selected from several research sites or multiple participant/programs are selected within a single site to show different perspectives on the issue under investigation ( Creswell, 1998 ) . Yin ( 2008 ) suggests that the multiple - case design uses the l ogic of replication where the procedures are of a theory which helps in understanding focal issue in other cases or situations ( Robson, 1993 ) , and provide possibilities to compare the differences and similarities across cases. Such capacity, again, meets the needs of this stu dy. As the review of literature implies the uniqueness and learning process which is context bound, a multiple - case study approach warrants holistic investigation and analysis of such knowledge and its development within the particular social - based distance langua ge learning, with each indiv idual participant enrolled in the same online language program and of the same year group being the unit of analysis, thus all the participants in the same context together constitute 57 the multiple - case study. It is expected that focusing on several individual learners in the same learning mode could help achieve a comprehensive understanding of the development of MCK, and the possible antecedents, contextual factors, perceptions and experiences that are related to the constructio Role of the Researcher As stated by Cohen and colleagues ( Cohen, et al., 2013 ) professional background, and personal experiences play an essential role in both data collection and interpretation. In the study, the relationship between the researcher and the researched was mainly as a teacher - student or expert - a teacher was established when the researcher was introduced by the course instruct or as a researcher who was working with CF Online. The teacher role of the researcher was strengthened by the fact that the researcher provided weekly tutoring sessions for the participants as a constructive incentive. Seeing the researcher as a teacher wh o was easy to approach, participants would send her their working samples for feedback and correction and ask questions regarding the course content through emails or during interviews and tutorials. While this helped establish and maintain rapport with th e participants, it might have brought in some respondent bias ( Robson, 1993 ) during the data collection process, at lea st with one of the participants, Yang. For instance, during the interviews, it appeared that he was trying to have a good impress ion in front of the researcher (e.g., at the end of the first interview he ask be partly the reason why he was also very reluctant to talk about his weaknesses and deficiencies. Alongside the role of being a teacher, participants also treated the researcher as an expert EFL learner whose English was good enough to pursue a PhD degr ee in the US. Given their 58 desires to become competent English speakers, they saw the researcher as an inspiration and motivation. One participant, Lan, told me than she decided to participate in this study because she was very impressed by and admired my E nglish self - introduction during the first online sessions. Their views of the researcher as an expert EFL learner helped lessen the distance between the researcher and the participants, motivating them to be open about their thoughts, questions, and concer ns during the semester, as well as suggestions or criticisms about the program. preconceptions regarding effectiveness and ineffectiveness of L2 learning in a web - based DL L context, which may have an effect on the study. The acknowledgement of such possible researcher bias ( Robson, 1993 ) d iminishes potential negative effects as the researcher utilized various strategies to reduce the influences. When asking the research questions or probing, the researcher also kept in mind not to ask intruding or leading questions. During the interviews, i f the researcher was unsure about her own understanding of that the participants said, she would to clarify any confusion or uncertainty through summaries of t he interviews. However, given the opportunities of extra tutoring sessions and the assistance on task completion provided by the MCK could not be completely rul ed out. Research Context The study was conducted in an online EFL program for adult learners offered by CF Online, run by a leading national university specialized in foreign language education, headquartered in Beijing, China. l goals and their previous 59 educational level, t his institution offers adult EFL distance learners a wide range of programs on different levels and tracks (de gree/non - degree). This online institution has been operating for over 10 years, and has established its own instructional system and learner support. Participants - Sheng - - to - they complete this program with a successful BA thesis defense, the students, wh o usually enroll in the program with an associate degree or equivalent, will get a degree of BA in English with their chosen concentration. As a typically material - centered program with pre - packaged curriculum, t his program consists of two phases of study: a general learning phase with the emphasis on English language proficiency for the first two years of the present study focuses on the first semester of student are expected to complete two mandatory courses English in Daily Life and English at Leisure over 16 weeks. - t o - national or regionally ac credited institution, which must be verified through the online Qualification Recognition and Verification Service operated by the Ministry of Educat ion. In literacy level, all students are required to take placement tests administered by the school in both English and Chinese . A student will not be admitted to this program if he or she fails the placement tests (passing score 60 out of 100). However, the placement tests can be waived if the students are able to provide at least one type of official proof of their English proficiency from the list of acceptabl e crede ntials . These credentials include: 1) Associate degree in English from 60 a nationally ac credited institute; 2) BA degree from a nationally ac credited institute; 3) certificate of the College English Test - Level IV , or score 425 or abov e in the College English Test Level IV test; 4) certificate of Public English Test - Level III ; 5) Cambridge English: Business Certificates (Preliminary level or above) ( Beiwai Online, 2013 ) . A detailed discussion of the learning contex t for participants in this study, i.e. the - to - will be provided in Chapter IV . Selecting the Cases In this section, I will discuss the background of potential participants chosen for this project, and how the individ ual cases were selected, including the procedures of initial contact and consent process and identifying the interview p articipants. While being an online institute, CF has established local learning centers in all the major cities of the 22 provinces, 4 m unicipalities, and 5 autonomous regions in China. Based on their geographic locations, enrolled students are managed and supported through local learning centers. Students in this study all registered at the Beijing headquarter learning center and belonged - to - cohort, and total number of students was 120 by the time the semester started. They were enrolled in the 2.5 - year - to - earn a bachelor degree or an undergraduate certificate (without thesis defens e) in English with a specialty area of their choice, such as Translation, Business English, Tourism English, or Legal English. The first school year consisted of a Fall semester (September 2013 - January 2014) and a Spring semester (March 20 14 July 2014). Each semester was about 16 weeks long. This study was carried out during the Fall 2013 semester. 61 Recruitment of Case Study Participants The researcher fi rst made contact with the course instructor Ms. Snow 1 at CF Online, who was the instructor of the two required courses in first semester of the - to - program, and described this project. through Ms. Snow to carry out this project, she then drafted an email to all the po tential participants, in which she briefly introduced this study, its purposes, things the participants need ed to do, types of data to be collected, potential benefits from participating, emphasis of voluntary participation and withdrawal, protection of confidentiality and priv acy and the link to the first survey. This email, together with the consent form and a link to an attachment of the Online Learning Readiness Scale (Appendix A) in Word document were sent to all of the first year students i n the Associate - to - BA program fro registered personal email accounts. In this email, s tudents are informed that this project was designed to help them become better English learners in the virtual context . Further, weekly online tutoring sessions fo r speaking via video/audio chat on the internet were offer ed to the participants , with the purpose to establish and maintain rapport with the participants and to use it as a constructive incentive to encourage participation. While originally the plan was to send this email during the first week of class (September 15, 2013), due to unforeseen circumstances 2 , it was not sent until October 7 th , and the second reminder was sent 5 days later. Students were given until the end of the third week of October to co nsider and respond to the recruitment . As this study was identified as Exempt by IRB , thus ubmission of the first survey was seen as their willingness to participate in the study 1 The teacher i s presented under p seudonym . 2 The IRB Approval was not finalized until October 1, 2013, right at the beginning of a week - long National Day holiday. 62 and their acknowledgement of the consent process. Twenty - nine stud ents agreed to participate and returned the completed the Online Learning Readiness Scale (OLRS) survey either via SurveyMonkey® or email attachment. Adopting the purposeful sampling strategy with the aim of obtaining the maximum variations of cases, once the survey data were obtained, I contacted Ms. Snow to retrieve the registration information for all the students who completed the survey. In registration information, their entering English proficiency level, gender, and age were taken as references toge ther with the survey results for the selection of interview participants. To ensure a diverse case profile, interview participants were selected based on the following criteria: 1) There should be students of both high and low perceived self - efficacy for onli ne learning (based on the OLRS survey results); 2) There should be students of different proficiency levels in English (based on registration information); 3) There should be both female and male students and in different age groups (based on registration inform ation). As it turned out the majority of students were waived of their entrance exams by providing official credentials of their English proficiency that met the admission requirements; however, not all survey participants had English proficiency test scor es on file. Therefore, the evaluation of their English proficiency had to be based on their highest educational degree shown on file, in which case, a student with a BA degree was considered having a higher English proficiency than those who had an Associa te degree. As a result, eight students were selected , and a second invitation was sent to them to set up the initial interview, together with a link to the General and Technology Background Survey on SurveyMonkey®. Two participants chose not to participate in the interview study, and the others agreed to continue. Therefore, eventually there 63 were six single cases, which fit the originally proposed sample size (Table 1) . T his sample size was considered appropriate because it is both big enough to ensure dive rsity and small enough for me to manage the data and focus on in - depth analysis , given the available time and resources I have had . Table 1 : Basic info rmation of the interview participants Name 3 Gender Age English Proficiency / Education Level OLRS Score (Total: 108) Yang M 21 66 82 Cai M 25 70 95 May F 38 Associate Degree in English 71 Jing F 27 Associate Degree in Business English 80 Lan F 59 BA in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language 89 Gao M 38 BA in Applied Pharmacy 75 Introducing the Part icipants Students in this study all have work and /or family commitments. They are all adult learners, with an age range from early 20s to late - 50s, and come from a variety of occupations. Below are the profiles of the six individual cases based on data fr om the initial surveys and first interview. Cai Cai is a 25 year old male from Beijing, working as a customer service specialist in an insurance company. He enrolled in the program with an Associate degree in Business Management. He was required to take th e placement test and his score was 66 out of 100. Prior to this program, he had studied English for about 15 years. All of his previous English learning 3 Participants are presented under p seudonym s. 64 was in traditional classroom settings characterized by teache r - fronted learning or a typical face - to - fa ce (FTF) the clas sroom talking, and I sit acquisition of basic linguistic knowledge by rote learning, incl reading the textbook, and Cai had the highest score (95/108) in the Online Learning Readiness Scale (OLRS) among all the participants . Specifically, his self - ratings were high in are as including computer/Internet literacy (18/18), online communication (17/18), and motivation for learning online (22/24), and slightly lower in self - directed learning (23/30) and learner control in an online context (15/18). Cai had no previous distance l earning experience, and the reason for him to choose to continue his English learning through this online distance program was that the flexibility and convenience of this learning mode could help him fulfill both work and life responsibilities, and that t . He had been using computer and the Internet for about 3 years, about 10 hours every day, and he had experience using most of the online resources and tools including online ch atting and social media. While he had used all of the listed Internet communication technologies and activities, he did not check any of them in terms of their language learning potentials. guage and its culture. He hoped to and ultimately - . His other motivation was career oriented , though only in a quite vague sense . As he explaine d any use of English, but I believe that with strong English ability, I will be able to have a better 65 job with higher pay in the future expectations related to this English program at CF Online were that , after the 3 - effectively, at least about common topics Yang Yang is a 21 year old male from Beijing, working as a central security control system operator in a security service company. He enrolled in the program with an associate degree in Sa fety and Security. He was required to take the placement test and his score was 70 out of 100 in the entrance English exam . Prior to this program, he had studied English for about 15 years , all in traditional c lassroom setting characterized by rote learning. He scored 8 2 out of 108 in OLRS. H e h ad slightly lower self - efficacy beliefs in two aspects under the category including Yang had no previous experience in distance learning, and he checked all of the four listed sing Internet Later in the first interview, it seemed that the novelty of learning English in an online environment was indeed a major attraction to him. Although he had only been using computer and Internet for 3 years, he appeared to be quite comfortable using them and receptive to the potential of different web applicatio ns and Internet communication tools for language learning. Yang expressed strong in terest w as also the major motivation for him to continue his English study 66 at CF Onl May May is a 38 year old female from Hebei Province, currently working as the Chief Accountant at a multinational engineering company in Beijing. May enrolled in this program with an associate degree in English, so her entrance exam was waived. Prior to this program, she had learned English for about 9 years in a traditional classroom setting focusing mostly o n doing grammar exercises with very little attention given to listening and speaking. I n college she did more listening exercises to prepare for the College English Test IV . There had been a long interval since her last English learning experienc e in junior college. She had the lowest score (71/108) in OLRS, with more negative ratings than the ot her participants, especially regarding self - directed learning ( strongly disagree), self - I manage t I can d irect my own learning I am not distracted by other online a ctivities when learning I feel disagree) . She had no previous experience in distance learning, and the reasons for her to choose an online program this time were tha t she wanted to try a new way of taking a course and this program works well with her other commitments in life. She had bee n using computer s for over 16 years, and over 10 hours every day. She had experience with all the listed Internet resources and communication tools, and noted the potentials for language learning in most of them. 67 Her decision to continue studying English was mainly driven by her need for professional development, both in her current job and future opportunities. Her current needs were more pressing, since she got a new job in a multinational company where English was the working language. Besides, she had found that most of her current co - workers had very high English proficiency, which became another source of pressure that drove her to improve her own English. Another motivation for her to improve her English ability was that she hoped to travel abroad on her own, for which she believed adequate communication skills in English were the way she put it seemed to imply that it was not all in her control, or she d id not want to make it a big deal, which - it - The talk to foreigner s fluently and to c onvey her thoughts correctly through writing and speaking. Jing Jing is a 27 year old female originally from a southeastern province of China, currently working as secretary to the chairperson of a science and technology company based in Beijing. She enrol led in the program with an associate degree in Business English, and her entrance English exam was waived. Prior to this program, she had learned English for about 9 years, of which the first 6 years were in traditional classroom settings characterized by rote learning and teacher - centered lectures. During the following 3years of junior college, she focused her English learning mainly on improving her listening and speaking skill s . In particular, she had frequently r activities and actively engaged in interactions with her instructor who was a native English speaker during speaking classes. Although little attention was given to reading and writing at school, a fter she started working, she got more opportunities 68 to d evelop her reading and writing abilities through reading English documents and drafting English emails. In addition, she had 4 years experiences working overseas in a Middle - eastern country, during which she used English most of the time. Since she came ba ck from aboard, English has remained the main language she use s at work. t my own and had been using computer for over 15 years, about 10 hours every day. She had experience using all the listed online resources and communication tools, and thought sites like Wikipedia could facilitate language learning. She had no previous experience in distance learning, and the reason she decided to ch Lan Lan is a 59 year old female from Beijing, currently a Mandarin Chinese instructor working i n Seoul, Korea. She enrolled in this program with a BA degree in Teaching Chinese as Foreign Language, and her entrance exam to the program was waived. She ha s a long English learning history that date s back to the early 1980s, yet matic and - term language programs. In other words, Lan ha s not had much experience with traditional classroom - based English instruction . In addition, she also had a 2 - month overseas wo rking experience in the US as an interpreter for a Chinese engineering company in the late 1980s. H er current job require s the use of English as the working language. 69 She scored 89 out of 108 in OLRS. While she gave positive ratings for all of the items, she felt less confident regarding abilities of time management, dealing with distractions, and control over the learning process. She had no previous experience in distance learning, and the reason for her to choose this online English program was because she could fulfill both work and life commitments. H er learning in this program had to be fully online without access to a physical learning center and the FTF class, since her workplace was outside China. She owned basic equipment required for online learning, and had been using computer s for over 20 years, about 5 to 6 hours every day. She ha s experience using all the listed online recourses and communication tools in daily life, and s ees in several of them potential values for language learni ng, including Wikipedia, social media tools, listserves, audio/videocast, mobile phone, and computer games. her all - time desire to be able to communicate in English fluently and admiration for peopl e who could do so. She believed that Another motivation for Lan to continue improving her English ability was relat ed to her professional needs. As she was a Mandarin Chinese teacher h Gao Gao is a 38 year old male from Tianjin (about 85 miles southeast of Beijing) , currently working as the chief pharmacist at a regional hospital in Tianjin. He enrolled in this program wit h a BA degree in Applied Pharmacy, and his entrance exam was waived. H e started learning 70 English since in the early1980s continuously from the last two years of elementary school to the end of technical school (about 8 years total), after which his English studies were in terrupted, on and off until now, and were all in non - traditional classroom settings, typically in the form of open enrollment tutoring programs offered by private schools or local universities. Before signing up for this program , he had a 3 - year learning experience in an online medical school and obtained his BA degree in Applied Pharmacy. He was the only participant who had online distance learning experience prior to enrolling in CF Online. Yet, interestingly, h e scored 75 out of 108 in the OLRS, the lowest among all of the six participants. He provided several negative ratings regarding time management, control of learning progress, dealing with distractions, and confidence in expressing himself in an online context. This might be because he was more aware of the challenges and difficulties faced by online learners than those who had no previous experiences. He chose this online program to continue his English study because it best fit his busy schedule. He owned basic equipment required for online learning. He ha s experience with all the listed internet resources and communication tools, and saw in most of them potential values in facilitating language. motivations for continuing learning English were grounded in some of his for le arning through this program was to substantially improve his knowledge and skills in English, especially knowledge related to his professional and personal interests. In his view, anything that was potentially - in the exam or to get a BA degre e in order to get promoted at work were not much of his concern . 71 Data Collection Procedure Data were collected at various time points throughout the semester (Table 2 ) . Data the OLRS survey (Appendix A), Language Learning Background and Technology Use Survey ( Appendix B ), their registration information, and the first individual interview. The survey data were used to establish the basic profile for each case. The first indivi dual interviews with all six participants were scheduled during week 7 (October 23 - 26, 2013). The second individual interviews were conducted during week 13 (December 2 - 6, 2013), which fell on the second week of their study of after their final exams (January 15 - 19, 2014). Given that students had not yet acquired a level of English that allowed them to engage in talking reflectively about their learning experienc es or understandings, in order t o ensure that participants can express their thoughts freely and accurately, all the survey questions and interviews were administered in Mandarin Chinese . Translation of the extracts included in the study report was done by the researcher. Meanwhile, online on the CF Online platform. The Discussion Forum was searched and monitored osts. The complete d ata collection timeline at the three phases are shown in the table below: 72 Table 2 : Data collection timeline Time Data Collection OLRS Survey Background Survey Interviews Other student data Week 4 (10/07/13) 1 st requ est --------- National Day Holiday Week ---------------------------- (10/12/13) 2 nd request Week 5 Collection Collection Week 6 (10/23 - 26/13) 1st Week 11 1 st and 2 nd assignments Week 12 (12/02 - 06/13) 2nd Week 13 1 st Instructor evaluation Week 15 3 rd and 4 th assignments Week 16 (01/11/14) ---------------------------- Final exam ------------------------------------------------ Week 17 (01/15 - 21/14) 3rd Discussion forum posts 02/19/14 2 nd instructor eva luation and interview 03/03/ 14 Final exam scores Instruments Online Learning Readiness Scale - efficacy belief in their readiness for self - directed online learning was measured by using the Online Lea rning Readiness Scale (OLRS), which was translated into Chinese in this study. The OLRS is an 18 - item Likert scale survey, which is developed as a multidim ensional instrument for college learning (Appendix A). It includes fiv e dimensions: self - directed learning, motivation for learning, computer/Internet self - efficacy, learner control, and online communication self - efficacy . Its internal consistency and construct validity have been tested, and th e factor structure of the scale confirmed in a large scale study involving 1,051 university students in Taiwan who enrolled in at least 1 of 5 different online courses ( Hung, Chou, Chen, & Own, 2010 ) . Registration I nformation 73 Basic demographic information for all the participants who agreed to be part of the study and retuned the O via email by the course instructor, Ms. Snow. While the registration information consisted of a variety of personal information, only their English entrance exam score or education background (in the case of a waived entrance exam), gender, and age were taken as primary references for the selection of interview participants. Nonetheless, the registration information indicated that the six interview participants came from diverse occ upations and family backgrounds. Language Learning Background and Technology Use Survey this survey (Appendix B) , which was administered in Chinese, was used to c ollect information and motivations for continuing English learning and enrolling in an online distance language program, and their ownership and accessibility of a variety of electronic and digital equipment which were deemed necessary for online learning ( Ushida, 2005a ; Winke & Goertler, 2008a ) . The sur vey also asked them about their knowledge and experience of using various multimedia tools in daily life and language class ( Winke & Goertle r, 2008a ) . First Individual Interview Guided by the interview protocol (Appendix C), a semi - structured open - ended interview was conducted with each participant during Week 6 . The interviews were carried out on the interne t via QQ chat and were audio - rec orded. The aim of this initial interview was two - fold. One was to address the first research question regarding the about language learning in the web - based distance learning environment. The other was to 74 esta blish the basel ine against which the second research questions would be answered. Questions in the initial interview ranged from e.g., ability, strength and weaknesse s, motivations), reflection upon their previous L 2 learning experience, approach to and strategies for L2 learning , their perceptions and understanding of learning English through an online program, and how they plan to manage their online language learning in terms of goal - setting and personal study pla ns ( Bown, 2009 ; Graham, 2004 ) . In addition to these open - ended questions, a yoked subject procedure was carried out with each participant . This procedure has proven to be from a different angle ( White, 1999a , 1999b ) . Participants were asked t o imagine themselves responding to a number of questions asked by a hypothetical character, i.e. a prospective on line EFL learner who was considering signing up for the same program yet was unfamiliar with web - based distance learning . The questions were ph rased in such a way as to represent the kinds of t hings a prospective student might ask . Second Individual Interview During Week 12, the second interview was conducted with each participant (Appendix D). The purpose of this interview was to document learne nowledge in the four dimensions at the time when they had already had some experie nce in learning English through this online program. The interviews were carried out on the interne t via QQ chat and were audio - recorded. Questions in this interview foc learning since the first interview, including their recounts of both positive and negative experience in general and regarding specific learning tasks or components against their original goals , plans, or expectations. Participants were also asked to provide their self - assessments of learning progress in general and regarding specific skill areas, as well as their use of strategies, 75 tools, and resources. In addition, participants were asked how they wanted to plan and manage their study for the rest of the semester, including their learning goals and expectations. Based on or her own situation. In addi tion to these interview questions , participants were asked to complete a number of statements concerning their experience of learning English through the online prog ram. beliefs abo ut language learning, White ( 1999a ) adopted this procedure and found it effective in gaining more information about the change s stance language learning. Participants in this study were invited to do the same activity in order to obtain a fuller account of their understandings and beliefs relating to web - based distance language learning. Third Individua l Interview The final interview (Appendix E) was ca rried out with each part icipant during the week after their fina l exam. The interviews were carried out on the interne t via QQ chat and were audio - recorded. Interview questions centered language learnin g in a web - based distance mode, including questions in the same format as those in the midterm interview that prompted the students to reflect and evaluate their experience and progresses in this program. In additional to self - reflection and self - evaluation of their learning experience d uring the second half of the semester, participants were also asked to comment on their learning process during the entire first semester, their goals, expectations, and plans for the rest of the following semesters. At the end of the interview, another yo ked subject procedure was carried out with each participant with the aim to obtain more information about the change s in s about di stance language learning. Other 76 In addi - reports of their learning experience during the semester, their course participation was also recorded based on other data sources. These included submitted assignments, grades and feedback, unit self - quiz submission and scores, Discussion Forum posts, and scores of their final exams. Observation of their participation patterns during teacher - led online learning sessions (VOB) was carried out by saving the chat logs shown on the public screen during the sessions and taking notes o f both audio and text - based interactions specifically involved the participants. Moreover, additional course participation records were obtained in cooperation with the course instructor. Ms. Snow was asked to evaluate these sion, VOB and FTF tutorial participation, Discussion Forum participation, communication with the instructor, and overall progress made ( Ushida, 2005a ) . The forms (Appendix F) were sent to Ms. Snow twic e, at the midterm and end of the semester. An interview was also conducted with Ms. Snow after the second evaluation form was completed, and the forms were used as prompts during the interview to obtain more detailed information. Other Qualitative D a ta Fr om the Learning Context A variety of program - related documentation was also collected, which included program introduction, orientation materials and student manual (i.e. Guide To Success ), assignments instructions and grading criteria, final exam instruct ion and sample tests, and announcements and PowerPoint used by the instructor during VOB and FTF sessions were collected. These documents provided important con textual information that helped to interpret and understand 77 online language learning. A list of additional data related to the progr am is presented below in Table 3 . Table 3 : Additional data sources Data source From the learning context Program introduction Orientation materials Students manuals Assignments (general information, instructions, grading criteria) Exams (general information, instructions, test sample) From each participant Completed assignments Final exam grades Posts on course discussion forums, and responses to the posts From course instructor Reflection and evaluation on each interview participa progress at the midterm and end of the semester, in addition to an end - of - semester interview. Data Analysis The data analysis process involved mainly qualitative data analysis following the inductive approach ( R. K. Yin, 2008 ) . For the selection of individual participants, the OLRS surveys collected fr om all the potential participants were analyzed by generating frequency a nd descriptive statistics. The total score in each dimension and for the whole survey were calculated for each participant, and then means for the total score regarding each dimension and the whole survey were generated. Participants with lowest and highest scores in each dimension and the whole survey were also identified. Next, these scores were then cross - referenced with their English proficiency levels, gender and age based on the registration information, based on which eight interview participants were selected. Second, data from the Language Learning 78 Background and Technology Use Survey were analyzed, and a descriptive summary statement was written for each participant as part of the basic case profile. To analyze the qualitative data from the interviews (see Table 4 for a summary of data analysis), which was an ongoing process, combining individual cases and cross - case analysis , a general inductive approach ( Thomas, 2003 ) was applied with the assistance of qualitative dat a analysis software (NVivo® 10). The overall process followed three concurrent flows of activity: data documentation and reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verificati on ( Robson, 1993 ) . The analysis of interview data started as soon as the first interview with the first participant (i. e. one individual case) was completed. For each interview under each individual case, the g eneral steps included: First, the recorded interview was transcribed and keyed in to the sof tware immediately after they were finished. While transcribing the data, the researcher also read it without any attempt for categorization ; second, the researcher then read the transcript again and began to code the text guided by the four dimensions of MCK about language learning - categories included [PK - - - Initial codes were first recorded as free nodes (i.e. discrete smallest units). When more free nodes emerged (at the end of coding the first round of i nterviews for all cases), tree nodes were established to display thematic relationships of the free nodes, which allowed for the formation of themes and categories . This was a cyclical and inductive process, and the themes and sub - categories were constantl y under adjustments while the interview data from the second and third round of interviews were being coded. In the meantime, for the purpose of within - and cross - cases analysis, in NVivo®, all the data sources belonging to the same participant were organ ized under pseudonym . This phase of data analysis was to 79 address the first research question and participants were further grouped into low and high MCK groups. Results from this phase of analysis also served as the baseline against which the second After all the data from the second and third round of interviews were coded, two steps were taken to address the second research questio n. First, within each case, the researcher c ompare d and analyze d text segments under the same categories and subcatego ries, search for changes, including new, modified, re fined, contrasting expressions. Then the observed changes were summarized for each ca se. Second, cross - case analysis was conducted by comparing and contrasting the identified changes in individual cases. To address the third research question, the researcher re - examined systematically and chronologically the text segments where changes we re identified to look fo r relevant contextual factors. T he researcher also examined other parts of the data source s to identify connections. For these materials, id entifying implicit and explicit statements of goals and objectives of learning, demands and requirements for the students, suggestions about how to succeed in self - directed online English learning, and suggestions about how to study the target language. Th e feedback provided by the grading teachers was also analyzed as part of the contextual influences. eir deficiencies in writing and pronunciations (person knowledge) was checked and verified by reviewing their writing samples and recordings. 80 Table 4 : Su mmary of data sources and analysis Research Question (RQ) Data Sources Analysis CK about language learning in web - based distance mode 1. First individual interview 2. 3. grades, and feedback 1. Inductive content analysis (1) First level of coding guided by the 4 - dimension of MCK; (2) Establish sub - categories (3) Compare and contrast within and across cases self - reports RQ2: Changes in EFL 1. Three individual interviews 2. ents of the two English modules, grades, and feedback 3. evaluation and interview 1. Inductive content analysis self - reports RQ3: Contextual influences on changes in 1. Second and th ird individual interviews 2. Assignments of the two English modules, grades, and feedback 3. evaluation and interview 4. Observations of VOB and Discussion Forum 5. Course documents Inductive content analysis; identify contextual influences in part self - reports 2, 3 & 4. Triangulate and verify - reports 5. Content analysis to identify contextual factors The issue of trustworthiness was addressed through providing thick descriptions ( Creswell, 2008 ) and credibility checks provided by participants ( Robson, 1993 ; R. K. Yin, 2008 ) . This study has obtained and prov observed learning behaviors and surrounding environment. These thick descriptions could create transparency and assist the reader in judging the transferability of the findings ( Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, 2013 ) . For the c redibility check, each time after the completion of interviews and summarizing the data, the summaries were sent back to the participants to immediately correct errors of fact or challenge interpretations. When necessary, follow up 81 questions regarding conf usions or ambiguities that arose during the process of transcribing and summarizing were sent to the participants for further elaboration and clarification. Summary This chapter described the research method used to address the three research questions , including the r and a brief overview of the research context. How individual cases were selected and the six individual participant s in this multiple - case study were also introduced. This was followed by discussion of the pr ocess of data collec tion and analysis, including elaborations on the research instruments and the multiple data sources. The following chapters focus on findings of the study. Given that identifying influences of the learning context is one of the objectiv es of this study, Chapter IV will provide a detailed description of the research context. Chapter V , VI , and VII discuss findings regarding the three research questions respectively. 82 CHAPTER IV : THE RESEARCH CONTEXT Because contextual influence is one of the main focuses of this study, this chapter provides a detailed account of the academic context in which the student participants carr ied out and manage d their En glish learning at CF Online. Descriptions of the learning context were on, student manuals, information and instructions on assignments and final exams. As mentioned earlier, this study - to - program, an online EFL program for adult learners offered by the Sch ool of Online Education (also known as CF Online) of a key university under the Ministry of Education specialized in foreign language learning, headquartered in Beijing, China. Being one of the 68 higher education institutions nation - wide authorized by the Ministry of Education to provide accredited online programs, CF Onli ne was founded in the year 2000 and has developed its own learning management system and built - in multimedia instructional components with online and offline learner s upport. If students , who usually enroll in the program with an associate degree or equivalent , complete this program with a successful BA thesis defense, they will get a degree of BA in English with their chosen concentration. If students do not complete the thesis defense b ut have passed all the required courses, they will get a BA certificate. As a typically material - centered distance language program with pre - packaged curriculum, t his program consists of two phases of study: a general learning phase with emphasis on Englis h language proficiency for the first two needs. The present study focuses on the first semester of the 83 which they are exp e cted to complete two mandatory English modules English in Daily Life and English at Leisure over 16 weeks. Students are provided with printed course books and audio materials (CDs) as offline learning materials . Meanwhile, all the cur riculum, syllabus, supplementary learning materials and activities, communication and interaction channels, as well as learner support are managed , CF Online . For the most part, students are expected to engage in self - directed learning via the web - ba sed learning platform. 6 online tutoring sessions are offered throughout the semester during weekdays, supporte d by the VOB (Voice of CF) synchronous web - conferencing system, which is embedded in the online learning platform . Students can join on a voluntary basis. Meanwhile, students living in Beijing or other big cities where the institution has set up physical learning centers may also choose to attend a face - to - face (FTF) class offered on each weekend (with the ex ception of national holidays), during which important content in each unit is highlighted and explained by the course instructors. Apart from 6 mandatory deadlines for assignments and self - quiz, s tudents are on their own as to when and how to study each un it, complete tasks, finish unit quiz zes , attend online synchronous instruction sessions, and participate in communications and interactions with peers or tutors. Required Course s and Assessments Orientation: Guide to Success In the first semester, there ar e three credited courses - to - Students can study the course materials through the online courseware and the printed textbook, both containing the same content. Prior to the two English modules is a one - credit orientation course, Guide to Success , which aims to help students adapt 84 to the new mode of learning and develop a more autonomous approach. The course consists of two main parts ( Figure 1): first ten in Chinese and contains key information student s must know to manage their study, including (1) functions and instructions of different online learning components such as the synchronous learning session VOB, the Discussion Forum, and guidelines on how to arrange offline study group activities; (2) general information on the curriculum for this program; and (3) instructions and regulations regarding The second part, all written in English, consists of 10 units , covering knowledge and skills desirable for online distance language learning, including self - management in the online learning environment, effective language learning strategies, and how to monitor and assess one learning progress , etc . Each unit contains hands - on activities that encourage students to make their own study plan and engage in self - assessme fferent types of planners that fits their own schedule (Figure 2). 85 Figure 1: Content of the Guide To Success 86 Figure 2 : Activity Stud ents are required to complete an a ssignment designed to assess their knowledge gained during the orientation. The assi gnment consists of 42 m ultiple choices questions and 17 open - ended questions. Of the 4 2 multiple choices questions, 36 of them are based on the mainly focus on how to use and navigate the learning management system and important regulations, with the rest of them being about learning strategies. However, 87 a close review of the learning strategies indicated a lack of emphasis on learning strategies , in that these questions were more of a fact - effective learning strategies (Figure 2), and the first two questions were not even related to strategies. The 17 open - ended questions consist of activitie self - reflective questions including changes in perceptions, personal goals an d anticipated diffi culties in online English learning, and records of study group reflections 88 Figure 3 : Questions regarding lea o Success ssignment English Module 1: English in Daily Life I n the first semester , the first required English course which consists of one orientation, eight units , and a review unit (Figure 4) . The course aims at 5. Learn to develop learning strategies 35) The primary ob jective of A Guide to Success is to _____________. A. introduce how to learn English well B. help you to understand yourself C. grasp computer application skills for online learning 36) As a distance learner, you will ha ve multiple roles to play at the same time. According to Guide To Success , this is called__________________. A. the role of a distance learner B. understand new role C. many roles in one 37) Since language l earning is first of all skill learning, a highly recommended learning method in Guide To Success is: A. Learn everything by heart. B. Learn from a teacher. C. Learn by doing. D. Learning by translating 38) What is the best explanation for integration of five skills A. Practice the five skills together instead of separately. B. Practice the five skills inseparably with different degrees of emphasis on a particular skill. C. Practice the five skills in separably with the same degrees of emphasis on a particular skill. 39) To learn a language well, you should act and rehearse instead of ______________. A. making mistakes again and again B. repeating mindlessly C. thinking without learning D. learning without thinking 40) Which of the following are those six potential reasons for listening difficulty? A. Speech tempo, vocabulary, sentence structure, content, unnecessary pause, and lack of concentration. B. Speech tempo, vocabulary, sentence structure, content, transcript mistakes, and mental fatigue. C. Speech tempo, vocabulary, distraction, unfamiliar background, unnecessary pause, and lack of concentration. 89 developing knowledge and skills in functi onal language use, with little attention to explicit instruction on grammar or syntactic rules. As stated in the orientation: The purpose of this course is to develop comprehensive language ability by integrating listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, with the main 4 . Figure 4 According to the course orientation , students are suggested to complete each course in eight weeks, and in the same order, namely to finish studying the first course before moving on to the second. The courses are thematically structured, with each unit covering a specific topic. The English in Daily Life , encompasses 8 theme s, including family, home/house, daily routines, getting around, local community, life and relationships, health and social issues. In each unit, task - based activities are designed in a progressive manner, namely new activities are built on what learners a re required to listen, read, or do in the previous tasks, 4 Original text: Learni ng by doing 90 and most of the tasks require students to complete tasks upon listening to dialogues (see Figure 5 for the list of all activities in Unit 6) . st 6), introduces the students to how to ask and respond to questions regarding personal information, and asks students to match the questions with their prope r responses. Next, in Task personal information, and practice on their own. Later on in this unit, asking for personal information in different social situation s is embedded in all the other tasks. Figure 5: English in Daily Life > Unit 6 > Activities 91 Figure 6 : Unit 6 > Activity 1> One writing assignme nt (deadline: November 5, 2013) and one read - aloud assignment (deadlin e: November 19, 2013) are required by this course. Fo r the writing assignment , students are asked to write about one of their routine trips to work or back home by referring to a sample passage of the same topic in the textbook and using the suggested expr essions (Figure 7) . The - down of scores regarding different levels of performance in these aspects. For the read - aloud assignment (Figure 5 ), students are to listen, read, and record one sample passage. The marking criteria for read - aloud assignments are based on accuracy and flue ncy in pronunciation, intonation, and other oral skills such as pace, stress, liaison, and reduction. For both assignments, students can submit unlimited times before the 92 deadline, and only the last submission will be graded. For the grading of each assign ment, all submitted assignments are distributed by the system among all the online instructors of the - to - students to check in 2 to 3 weeks, and a national average score for the assignment is also provided to the students. English Module 2: English at Leisure The second course, English at Leisure, covers cultural topics in English speaking countries, such as shopping, holiday traditions, dining, home improvement, entertainment, travel, sports and performance art. The overall design of the course materials is the same as the first course, consisting of task - based activiti es in a progressive manner. One writing assignment (deadline: December 10, 2013) and one read - aloud 93 assignment (deadline: December 15, 2013) are attached to this course. For the writing assignment, students are to write a letter based on an imag in ed scenar io, and there is also a sample text as reference in the textbook and a list of word s and expressions to use was provided with the instruction (Figure 8) . The read - aloud assignment has the same format and requirement s as the first one. 94 Figure 8 A closer look at the course objective s and the nature of the assignments revealed some inconsistencies between these two components . First, while the courses emphasize the use of English to serve various pu rposes in various social situations, these assignments seemed to attach much greater importance on linguistic competence rather than functional and communicative 95 language ability. The writing assignments in both courses are basically mock - writing exercises which was based on an imagined scenario . Although the Marking Criteria covers more than just linguistic accuracy, the most salient component in the assignment instruction is the recommended works and expressions for students to use. As one of the participants (May) 5 . Moreover, for the two read - aloud assignments, although th to repeat the sample text. Although a were not difficult to finish , rather the main purposes were to serve as a kind of regulator so as to help students regulate their efforts and form some type of learning habit could influence what the l earners view are the valued knowledge or skills in English learning. As G arrison ( 2003 ) points out , it is through the assessment practices and the amount of content covered that students are shown what competence in a subject really means, the fact that the focuses of these assignments still att ach substantial importance to linguistic accuracy over communicative fluency could potentially affect what learners perceive to be involved in language learning, and their way to approach the course materials. Self - quiz and Final E xam In each course, the online self - quiz for each unit is another required course work, and students must complete and submit all the unit self - quiz zes before the final exam for the score to be valid as part of the total score for the course. While the self - quiz can only be done once and 5 FÓ 96 will be graded and submitted automatically by the system, an unlimited practice section is available for each self - quiz, consisting of a pool of questions from which the self - quiz questions are drawn randomly. Therefore, students can get a full score in the self - quiz simply by remembering or copying the answers of the exercise questions. In addition to the assignment s and self - quiz zes , each course has a final exam that consists of a paper - based test on listening, reading, and writing and a speaking test to be taken with another language partner. Both of the final exams are scheduled on the same day at the end o f the semester, and all students are required to come to the campus to take the tests in the designated classrooms. According t stening least 50% of the questions/activities are taken directly from the textbooks, with the rest of the questions matching the topics and difficulty level of the c ourses. Before the final exams, students are provided with topic pools (4 topics for writing, 6 topics for speaking) for both the writing part and the speaking part, so they can prepare beforehand. While each course has its own paper test , there is only on e speaking test , which consists of two topics, one for each course. During the speaking test , students have conversations with another language partner they choose before the exam on two topic s randomly selected by the testers from the topic pool. The full score for both the paper test and the speaking test is 100, with the paper test taking up 70% of the course final exam score, and the speaking part takes up 30%. Sample tests are provided for the students to get famili ar with the format of the paper - based test . Grading of the final exams is carried out by instructors working at local learning centers, and it takes about 2 months for the scores of the final exams and the total final scores for both courses to be available in the system. 97 For the two mandato ry English modules, the final score f or each course consists of - quiz, and final exam. Among them, the final exam takes the majority of the final score of the course. Specifically, the total sco re for each course is calculated as such: Final total = average score of assignments×20%+ averag e score of self - quiz×10%+ total score of final exam×70%. To pass the course and gain the 6 credit s , the final score of the course needs to be 60 or higher . Pre - scheduled Teacher - Directed Tutorials - study of the two courses, FTF tutorials are scheduled on every weekend (except during national holidays) on the campus of Beijing Foreign Studies University, 11 times total. Each FTF sessi on lasts 4 hours that covers one or two units in the course. Based on the FTF lesson plans provided by the course instructor and the interview with her, the main focus of FTF session is on language function and performance self - study of the course materials by engaging them in group or paired activities based on the tasks in each unit. The instructor would explain the tasks by integrating related key language points listed in the course materials , and provide feedback on stu final exam, a n FTF session is dedicated to the preparation for the final exam and answering For example, in the first FTF session that covered Unit 1 - king turns doing self - introduction, a panel interview for the home. Participation in the FTF class is recommended but not mandatory, and the students are remi nded in the course orientation that they should not rely solely on the FTF class to study the course materials but plan their own learning pace. 98 Online teacher - directed t utorials are also scheduled, which are delivered through the - conferenci 6 teacher - led VOB sessions were delivered. Two of them were specifically designed as assignment tutorials and delivered before the writing assignment submission deadlines of the two courses respectively. These sessions aimed to help students better understand the purposes and demands of specific language tasks and provided opportunities for learners to improve their work before submission through self - checking, revising, and asking questions . The whole ses sion was in the form of PowerPoint presentation, with the instructor bei ng the sole presenter, who start ed from explaining the purposes, requirements, the grading criteria of the assignment, and related language points or rules, and then encourage d the stu dents to share their works and ask questions. Sometimes, exercises or mini quizzes were arranged after each language point or certain rule was explained by the instructor, and students posted their answers on the public chat screen. The correct answers wer e posted by the instructor shortly after. The first VOB assignment tutorial was on October 30, 2013, and focused on the requirements and procedures of funda mentals of English writing including capitalization, punctuation, format, using conjunctions to ensure logical cohesion, and the format of English passages. The second VOB assignment tutorial was on December 4, 2013, in the same PowerPoint presentation fo rmat. What was worth noticing about this session was, while this session was originally dedicated to the second read - aloud assignment only, the instructor changed the agenda strongly demanded. Therefore, the first part of the tutorial focused on the format and process of writing a 99 letter in English, and the second part was about English pronunciation, intonation, and other essential speaking skills. Of the other four VOB sess ions, the first was an orientation to online distance language learning at the beginning of the semester, and the second and third were both delivered in two consecutive weeks following the orientation week and were designed encour aged students to communicate in English during the online session on topics relate d to the units that students were currently supp observation - based in teraction was much more active than speaking interactions, during which the teacher talked for the most part with only a handful of students speaking up. Learning Management S ystem The learning management system (LMS) is developed and maintained by the sc hool itself, and the main functionalities re semble mainstream LMSs such as Blackboard and Moodle. Upon successful registration to their pro gram prior to the fall semester, s tudents can access the courses by going to the CF Online homepage and login with th eir username and password, and then they are directed to t heir personal homepage (Figure 9 ) , where they would find all the required courses in the first semester . On the personal homepage, students can navigate to different parts of the course website to m anage their learning process, including enrolling in courses, accessing courseware, checking current course progr ess, submitting assignments, checking grades , scheduling final exams, and connecting to VOB and the Discussion Forum , etc. Public announcements such as updated class schedule s and open lectures are also displayed on the homepage, together with contact information for learner support. Also on the homepage students can see their current learning progress regarding all the courses in this semester, with 100 progress in that course. Figure 9 : Home screen of the online learning platform of CF Online Learning Materials Offline M aterials For each course, students a re provided with printed textbooks and audio materials (CDs). Both of the courses are thematically structured, each consisting of one orientation unit, eight themed units, and one review unit. Each theme - based unit is organized in the order of Objectives, Warm - up, Activities and Resources, and all the dialogues in each unit are available on the CDs. All the four language skills are integrated in the activities, with an overall emphasis on listening an d speaking skills, in other words , communicative capaciti es. Online M aterials 101 Meanwhile, the same content in each course is also available in the form of a multimedia interactive module that is embedded in the learning management system. When using the online courseware, students are provided with a multimedia g lossary on each page, with which students can access the meaning, pronunciation and examples of new words in t he unit as needed (Figure 10 ). In addition to the courseware, a number of other stand - alone unit - based learning recourses are also available and c an be accessed on ), including course MP3 files, one unit instructional vid eo delivered in Chinese, and another unit instructional video delivered in English. The instructional video in Chinese is in the form of a lecture del ivered by the instructor in front of the camera, and the other video is the recording of a whole classroom instructional session, with the teacher interacting with the students through various types of activities. Noticeably, while the whole - class instruct ional video provides a more authentic scenario of learning and using Engli sh, the quality of the video is rather poor, with low resolution and a very small window that cannot be enlarged. 102 Figure 10 : Activity page in Unit 2 of English in Daily Life Interactions with Teacher and Peers Students can choose to interact with their teachers and peers through various types of computer - mediated communication (CMC) in terms of different synchronicity and degree of privacy, a s summarized in Table 5 . From t he beginning of their program, students were encouraged and reminded constantly of ini tiating and participating in discussions on the Discussion Forum . They were also assigned to a study group that consisted of 10 members. Study group members were required to get together and complete the first assignment following the orientation and study of Guide to Success , and were encouraged to get together online or offline to study and practice collectively . A general guideline on how to arrange group activity is al so available in the Introduction section of Guide to Success , which includes tools students can 103 use to keep connected with group members and carry out learning activities, as well as benefits of engaging in group learning activities. However, except for th e first group activity required by the Guide to Success assignment, students were on their own to decide to arrange more group activities, and there was no requirement on students keeping record of additional group activities. Table 5 : Means of communicat ion available to students Synchronous CMC Asynchronous CMC Public VOB online class G roup chat via QQ or WeChat Discussion Forum Private Private chat during VOB online class Study group discussion on VOB Private communication via QQ or WeChat Emails S hort messages sent within CF Online system Learner S upport There are different types of learner support available for the students during the learning process . First, v arious types of learning aids are embedded in the interactive multimedia courseware. For example, the course content is both in text on the screen and audio - recorded by native speaker s of English. Students can choose to read the text or listen to the content, or both at the same time. On each screen in the courseware, the left column all consists of a media playe r, a recorder and the glossary. Moreover MP3 file for each unit and watch the video lectures given by the course instructor at CF Online. Second, b esides the course instructor s who can help with course related questions, ea ch student also has an academic adviser and a tutor to turn to. The academic adviser answers general questions about the process and procedure of the online distance learning program, such as registration, co urse enrollment, financial issues and so forth. And the tutor , who works as a volunteer, is responsible for the stu dy group and provides assistance by answering language 104 learning related questions and proofreading work samples sent by the students . Further more, a toll - free hotline is available 24/7 to help students solve technical difficulties and is displayed in red characters at the top right on every screen. Last of all, the sc hool has a public social networki ng account on WeChat for all its online dista nce learners, which delivers on a regular basis information regarding strategies for English learning and use, tips for online learning, announcements for public lectures, and information on contemporary cultures in English speaking countries. Summary Ov erall, the structure of the program can be seen as materials - centered ( Bown, 2009 ; Kostina, 2011 ) . In terms of th e teaching philosophy and pedagogical model, while the course materials are developed to emphasize language use , the rest of the pedag ogical components seem more of a traditional model characterized by explicit and implicit emphasis on linguistic accuracy over communicative competence and one - way transmission of information during the teacher - directed learning sessions. The forms of assessment are also q uite traditionally oriented, attach ing more importance to linguistic accuracy , with little room for perso nal meaning creation and negotiation. It has rigid sets of goals, pre - determined lengths, and pre - set or recommended linear progression throughout the semester. In spite of the strictly planned curriculum, students still have some degree of control over th eir learning. Students learn at their own pace, which can be faster or slower than the recommended rate of progress, i.e. one unit per week. While working on a certain unit, they can decide how to go about the study: they can follow the order of the conten t and activities shown in the courseware or jumping between different activities or sections; they can choose to learn with the multimodal representations of knowledge (e .g., textual, audio or video). T hey can control whether or not, or how to use the lear ning aids on the 105 left side bar; and they can decide what type of knowledge or language skill in the target language they want to focus on and then choose the preferred learning resources they could use, e.g., the student may do the extra reading or listeni ng tasks in the Supplementary Resources section based on which aspects of the target language he or she wants to improve. Moreover, it is up to the students to decide if they want to seek for help or engage in social interaction with teachers or peers and in what way(s). 106 CHAPTER V : LANGUAGE LEARNING IN WEB - BASED DISTANCE MODE This chapter presents and discusses findings that answer the first research question , What metacognitive knowledge about language learning do adult EFL learners have in the context of web - based distance learning? At the beginning of the semester, the 6 participants reported 472 instances of MCK, encompassing all 4 dimensions, namely person (PK) , task (TK), strategy (SK) and context (CK) (see Figure 11 for a summary of the frequency count for each dimension ) . Significantly , the interview data revealed contrasting differences in the scope, depth, and specificity the web - based DLL context amon g the six participants ( see Table 6 for a summary ) . Such variations in their MCK base were reflect ed in how they approach ed their online English learning in this program, rendering them starting this semester with different level s of readiness. Findings will be discussed u nder each MCK dimension in terms of main themes and significant patterns that emerged from the data . Figure 11: MCK d imensions (Frequency) 128 107 97 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 PK TK SK CK 107 Table 6 Name Basic Profile Key Characteristics of MCK Cai Male, 25 Low English p roficiency High OLRS score No DLL experience Overall a weaker MCK base : PK: Low self - assessment, especially weak in vocabulary and grammar ; unrealistic study goals TK: English lea rning involved building vocabulary and grammar ; online learning needed more efforts SK: Limited in self - regulated of learning: planning on following the teacher and FTF class ; Self - study was to preview the key words and language points CK: Online learning was less effective than FTF; Teacher was dominant ; keeping in touch with peers served as external motivation Yang Male, 21 Low English Proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience Overall a very weak MCK base: PK: Inaccurate, inflated self - assessment; no clear study goals TK: English learning involved buildi ng vocabulary; online learning was novel and interesting SK: Limited in self - regulated of learning: planning on follow ing the teacher and FTF class; FTF class was real learning, self - study was previe w; inflexible strategy used in all tasks: direct translation; asking the teacher questions was the most effective strategy CK: Online learning was less effective that FTF; teacher was dominant May Female, 38 Medium English proficiency Low OLRS score No DL L experience Overall a weaker MCK base: PK: The biggest barrier was the negative effects of personality weakness es : high anxiety when speaking English, lack of - it - Voca bulary was the key to everything SK: Limited in self - regulated learning: planning on follow ing the teacher, keep ing up with the FTF class; rote learning - based strategy CK: Uncertain about the effectiveness of online learning; teacher should perform most of the learning functions Jing Female, 27 High English proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience English use d in daily work Overall a solid MCK base : PK : clear S elf - assessment; strengths in communicative abilities; realistic study goals TK: Language was a tool for communication ; online learning was SK: Clear planning, awareness of self - monitoring; emphasizing communicative language strategies and social competence on to personal needs; teacher should be a coach when needed 108 Lan Female, 58 High English proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience Self - directed English learning experience English used in daily work as Chinese language instructor Overal l a solid MCK base : PK: Clear self - assessment; realistic study goals TK: Language learning as meaning making appropriate to another culture; social interaction was key to success SK: Detailed planning on time management and learning activities; multiple wa ys for self - monitoring; broader task - specific strategy knowledge; strong social competence CK: Understanding of the nature and requirements of the program; teacher was to provide guidance and direction Gao Male, 38 Medium English proficiency Low OLRS sco re Previous DLL experience Previous s elf - directed English learning experience Overall a highly sophisticated MCK base : PK: Clear and well - informed self - assessment ; clear study goals; emphasis on the psychological readiness for online learning TK: Language learning was learning how to express oneself properly in another culture; personal theories of key conditions required for successful online learning SK: Detailed study plan based on previous self - directed experience; differentiated strategies use for diff erent language tasks; emphasis on social interaction CK: Understanding of the online learning environment and the particular program; differentiated evaluations of available learning sources and tools Person Knowledge All participants started out this pr ogram with some knowledge about themselves as language learners, and how it might influence their English learning in the online context . Their personal knowledge was grouped into three sub - categories: self - assessment, personal qualities, and self - motivati onal factors ( see Figure 12 for a summary of the frequency count for each sub - category ) . 109 Figure 12: Content representation of person k nowledge (Frequency) Self - Assessment The self - ngths and weaknesses as English learners in specific skill areas or their general English ability. This category was in the foreground of - knowledge . - assessments were mostly negative (72.4%) , emphasizing problems a nd weaknesses in their English knowledge and skills. Among the cited weaknesses , low linguistic proficie ncy, especially insufficient vocabulary knowledge, - knowledge. Accordingly, enhancing linguistic profici ency through vocabulary building wa s one major learning need perceived by all six participants. For example, Cai evaluated his current , among which writing was the worst, because he had had abulary, lots of grammar mistakes, and very little writing practice 6 . 6 Aý"wGÿB˛ 73 40 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Self-assessment Personal qualities Self-motivational factors 110 Apart from this common concern , self - knowledge about their strengths and weaknesses varied substantially in terms of accuracy and specificity. On the one hand, some learn ers - knowledge was generally vague, limited or even inaccurate . For example, in Yang not have accurate self - knowledge about h is c urrent English proficiency, he even showed a tendency to over - estimate his English ability. When f irst asked about his self - perceived weaknesses in English, he was rather reluctant to provide any direct When asked to elaborate on this question, he responded that his ab ilities regarding the four language his problems in writing were rather ambiguous , again indicating his limited knowledge about the writing process in Engli sh : . 150 200 150 y - 200, I could not write that many. In fact , a review of his first writing assignment indicated serious problems in his grammar, syntax, and extreme lack of attention to the mech anics of writing , including punctuation, capitalization, and basic formatting. Meanwhile, although he did not mention any weakness in his speaking English, based on the few times he attempted to say something in English during the interview, it was clear t hat he had trouble pronouncing the words properly and forming complete and grammatically correct sentences. Later a review of his read - aloud - confidence might be partly 111 attributed to his inte ntion to have a good impress ion in front of the researcher ( e.g., at the end of the first interview he ask 7 ), i t could also be an indication of his lack of sufficient self - knowledge to detect what his problems were. This was a gain shown in his Guide to Success difficulties or anxieties about online English learning difficulty is that my understanding is poor, so I have to do more memorization to make up for it 8 This statement showed that w hile he clearly was not totally comfortable with his ability to learn, he did not yet understand the nature of the problem nor knew how to fix it. On the other hand, other learners h eld a much clear er and specific self - assessment of their proficiency in diff erent skill areas, which was always grounded in information gained from self - monitoring of their ongoing task performance, as well as self - observation of cha nges in their proficien cy level over time . For example, Jing , who was quite confident that her speaking English was better than a lot of EFL learners in China because of her school and work experience, stressed that there was still a long way to go before she reached the highest level , and that her limited vocabulary knowledge was one major barrier to her having in - depth communication . As she explained, 5 2.1 ( engage in basic if , say there are 5 phases of English study, I think right now I am at phase 2.1). 7 ˘A 8 ˘A,´L˚NÈE³ 112 (I think this [vocabulary] is what I need to improve the most. Now that I have already had some foundation in English and had establish ed the structure of English, further expansion of my vocabulary will then lead t o increase in reading and in the depth of the conversations that I can have with others.) Gao , who had a long English learning history in both traditional and non - traditional s ettings, provided a detailed account of the fluctuations in his English ability and how they were related to the various instructi onal styles and teaching qualities he had experienced at different stages over his more than 20 years of English learning hist ory: , (During middle school years good, and the high school entrance exam at that time also had quite high standards for English, so I was able to build a pretty good foundation in technical ing downhill q uickly; because I was too young back then, knowing nothing about how to learn English on my own. So I had no choice but following the teacher . ) 2006 2006 Years later after I started working, I still hoped that I could really improve my English, so I enrolled in a tutorial class offered by Tianjin University, where I studied College English ( I ) through ( III ). After that I decided to go 113 back to college, so I studied English really hard to prepare for the College Entrance Exam. During that time, my English was substantially Although I ended up not going to college , I did not stop learning English until I graduat ed from the online BA program at the Peking Medicine University in my proficiency level went dow n a lot. Yet t he lack of emphasis on and practicing in other skills areas had then incapability to listen, speak, and write, as reflected in the following self - evaluation: ( So I can read. When you give me an article, I can read it. But if you ask me Personal Qualities During the first interviews, participants talked about a range of personal qualities that they thought important for language learning in genera l and online language learning in particular, including personality traits, personal preferences, attitudes, age and social skills. While all participants key qualities for success , the influences of personal traits a ppeared to be much greater to some learners than to others. For instance, May was particularly concerned with could impede her progress in learning English and her performance in using it. At the outset of the semester, May was preoccupied with deep self - doubt in her effectiveness as an English learner and her ability to keep up with this online English program. To May, one of her major 114 she felt very nerv ous when talking in English, even more so with native speakers: am fine when listening to Chinese people speaking Eng lish, as soon as I am with foreigners, I get nervous right away.) S he even felt anxious when being around people whose proficiency levels were higher than hers. As she recalled, while in class, she was usually very self - conscious and dared not to speak up fo r fear of being laughed at. Her recollection of these experiences indicated that she had been subjected to a strong affective filter , which gave rise to high level s of anxiety and inhibited her from effectively engaging in social interactions in English. She believed that development in her English ability would go smoothly as long as she could be bolder and more - May thought another weakness that had made her a less successful learner was her lack of perseverance in learning and unwillingness to endure hardship, as reflected in the following: (The one thing always true about me is: no matter what I do, I take it easy. Usually I set off with lots of confidence, and then after a few days my motivation would start waning. S o this is my biggest problem: unwilling to bear any hardship, yet learning is a really hard process.) more uncertainty to the prospect of her learning in this on his (online language learning) probably needs more self - discipline. Without it, it would be very 115 difficult to keep on. In any case, it wo uld be a big challenge for me 9 Actually, she was quite torn between online and classro om learning, since none of them could accommodate both of her weaknesses at the same time. On the one hand, she thought traditional teacher directed learning in the classroom should be more effective because less self - discipline would be required; but she FTF not sure about at that moment. The importance of being persistent and brave was also cited by Jing, who stressed that 10 , and learning, because one had to be brave en ough to imitate how other people spoke and to 11 . Meanwhile, Jing and an other two participants, Lan and Gao , were also aware of characteristics of adult learners that could affect their learning progress and outcomes. Fo r instance, Jing thought that correcting their accent and pronunciation about authentic expressions in English. More significantly, Gao, based on his previous experience with online distance learning, for online learning . In his 9 ˝_M0?±˛$'f,´˘A˛ŁB$˝_,´ˇA 10 ,´ 11 (©?±Cã 116 view, to get prepared psycho logical ly for online learning, one needed to assume the central role in the learning process and remain motivated and confident throughout. In his own words, ( Based on my observations during my previous study at Beiyi, the biggest challenge for online learners is not about the curriculum but their own learni ng psychology. In short, the key to success is in themselves. A lot of online learners en ded up quitting because of the loss of confidence over time. For example, when one student may feel the program quite difficult at the outset, he would doubt himself, help solving the problems, eventually he would just quit. ) Self - Motivational Factors Self - motivational factors refer to participan motivations, and goals in English learning. All participants in this study expressed their long - lasting interests in learning English and learning about its culture, as well as admiration for people who could speak Engli sh fluently. All learners were driven to continue their English learning through this program by a mixture of motivations ( see Figure 13 for the frequency count for different self - motivational factors ) , including to facilitate professional development or t o secure a brighter career path (career - oriented motivation), to be able to communicate effectively with Laowai (native speakers) (communication - oriented motivations), and to enhance and - long learner (self - enhancement o rientation) . Interestingly, for some, career - oriented motivation was more urgent. For instance, May lately started a new job in a multinational company where English was the working language. Besides, she had found 117 that most of her current co - workers had v ery high English proficiency, which became another source of pressure that drove her to improve her own English. Lan, who was a Mandarin Chinese teacher in a school based in Korea where English was their working language, felt that strong English ability c ould be very helpful in en hancing the teaching of Chinese and could also help her better communicate with the students as well as colleagues . For others, however, this motivation seemed to be more of an influence of the commonly shared belief among Chinese people that English was an essential means for social mobility, rather than a clear personal motivation. For example, n either Cai or Yang had an immediate use for English in their current jobs, and they only held a vague assumption that better English ski lls could bring better career opportunities in the future. Figure 13: Motivations for c ontinuing English l earning (Frequency) their English study was primarily grounded in their intrinsic motivations to improve their knowledge and ability in Englis h; o ther instrumental motivations, such as a BA degree or better career prospects were viewed as only supplementary Gao, Jing, Lan Cai, Yang, Jing, Lan Cai, Jing, Lan 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Self-enhancement Career Communication Number of references Type of Motivations 118 or secondary . Jing, for example, wanted to take advantage of living in Beijing by making the most out of the rich learning resources and opportunities available to her. In case, his motivation to further develop his English proficiency was drive n by his all - time goal to keep pur suing true knowledge and skills . As expla y way of 12 13 . His expectations for learning through this program were to substantially improve his knowledge and skills in English, especially knowledge related to his professional and personal interests. In h is view, anything that was - high score in the exam or to get a BA degree in order to get promoted at work were not much of his concern: ( would not mind spending more time and energy to dig deeper, or even arguing with someone. For example, one of Life is about medicine. It points to a direction fo r me, toward which I can keep care much about the exam or how much I can score; all I want are opportunities to think in - depth. I believe this is one way to have a meaningful life. ) Furthermore, learners also varied in the specificity of their study goals, namely what they expected to gain from this program, which also seemed to be tied to their knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses. Some learners demonstrated a clear and comprehensive consideration 12 ,´+O#k 13 ˘A7-"Ñ˛9.ž,´-˚˚7 119 of their study goals in relation to current proficiency level, career goals, or l ife goals . And their expectations out of learning through this online problem were also quite realistic, reflecting their Gao particularly stressed that each ind ividual should have their own agenda, rather than Jing also held a cl ear and realistic vision as to what she expected to learn from this program: rd year, because right now my work involves lots of translation. Although I could get hope to learn more about English - Chinese translation from the professional teachers at CF . I think this will ben efit my career in the future.) Nonetheless, other learners showed varying degrees of uncertainty and ambiguity in their personal goals, some of which even seemed unrealistic given their current proficiency level. For f I could learn English well, I also want to go study abroad 14 ). Cai was aiming for being able to communicate with native speaker s fluently after the 2.5 years study in this program time of the first int erview, he was not very sure about what exactly he expected to learn in this program. 14 ˛Ì˘A7-˘º9!B˛ 120 Perhaps somehow inspired by the conversation with the researcher might be to fix his weakness 15 , which was writing. Task Knowledge At the beginning of the semester, task knowledge reported by participants could be grouped into three sub - categories: nature of language learning, demands of web - based DLL, and perceived difficulties in web - based DLL ( see Figure 14 for the frequency count of each sub - cate gory ). Figure 14: Content representation of task k nowledge (Frequency) Nature of Language Learning The data showed that learners held two different views toward what was involved in the process of language learning . These views were also reflected in the ir knowledge and selection of learning strategies and how they evaluated their learning process and outcomes. Some learners 15 ˘A,´-˚˚7 ) >Ł 42 58 12 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Nature of Language Learning Demands of Web-based DLL Perceived difficulties in Web-based DLL 121 interpreted the process of language learning as primarily quantitative in nature ( Be nson & Lor, 1999 ) . To them, learning another language was mainly about learning the linguistic knowledge, namely vocabulary and grammar. May even went as far as claiming that learning English did not require comprehension . As she explained , ning does not require understanding. Unlike in math, one has to understand the equation in order to use it to solve p 16 . Therefore, she noted that learning English main ly involved learning the vocabulary and useful expressions, and acquiring a large vocabulary was the key to the development of all language skills. Other learners held a more qualitati ve conceptualization of language learning , such as Jing, Lan, and Gao . While also acknowledging the crucial role of vocabulary building, they all stressed that learning a language should be more than just studying the linguistic knowledge, but also developing the knowledge and skills to use the language appropriately in vario us real - life contexts. opinion, learning a foreign language usually involv ed comparing with the foreign culture, and language served as the bridge that connected countries and people . As a result, these learners all emphasiz ed the importance of developing Demands of Web - Based DLL In terms of knowledge, skills, conditions necessary for web - based DLL, all participants talked about the important role of self - discipline and self - control in online language learning due to the lack of regular external supervision from the teacher. For example, Jing emphasized that 16 ˘A9!B˛˝_*6 122 learning English through an online program meant one had to totally rely on oneself to plan the t ime and learning pace so as to accommodate 4 5 control over how to allocate your time. The teacher would not force you, on your own capabilities.) In addition, all participants acknowledged the need to maintain social connectedness with the teacher and their peers in online learning, since online learning could make one feel lonely and isolated. As Cai explained, QQ ( Working with others through our QQ group, we could do assignments motivate each other, such as thr striving to catch up. If you were just learning on your own, you might feel lonely from time to time, having someone to talk to could definitely make you feel better. ) ing with the teacher and other students was not only necessary for online language learning , but also the key to any endeavor if one wanted to succeed. At various points during the first interview , she brought up the essential role of social interaction: 123 by just working on your own. You must have interactions with the teacher and ot her students. Only with their help can you achieve your goal.) Moreover, learners with a broader and deeper understanding of the demands of web - based DLL were aware of other important conditions for successful online language learning. The first condition cited a learning ownership of the 17 . s own ability. for online language learning, which, in Gao learning and getting a thorough understanding of the online learning context, i.e. everything about the CF Online program. As reflected in the following excerpt from Jing: (First of all, you should choose the right program based on your own level. The school offers programs that target different starting levels. Just because ean you have to sign initial stage, you must carefully study t c lassroom learning. To effectively manage your study, you must have knowledge of what to do next and of the following courses, understanding how they are related to each other.) 17 124 Perceived Difficulties in Web - Based DLL Related to their understandings of the demands of web - based DLL, learners were also conscious of difficulties they might encounter in this online English program . For example, to May, the biggest challenge was to keep up with the learning pace without much external supervision, since she was w orried that her lack of persistence might result in her quitting. And she was still hesita nt about speaking up in front of others, even in an online learning environment . In addition, other learners prepared themselves for online language learning based on their previous experiences with online learning or self - directed language learning, such as Gao and Lan. For example, when talking about the importance of establishing a learning routine, Gao warned that, ( I am afraid that the first semester will be the messiest period of the whole online program. As long as you can get through the first semester, establish a good routine, in the following semesters you just need to keep up with th e routine. ) Lan was concerned made it hard to practice with peers at a similar level . She believed that in order to benefit more es toward finding language partners and figure out ways that could help both parties improve. However, these concerns were absent in inexperienced learners, such as Cai and Yang, who only projected technical difficulties (e .g., trouble in accessing internet or VOB) in their online learning. 125 Strategy Knowledge At the beginning of the semester, participants reported a range of strategies regarding how to manage their Englis h study in this program, go about specific ta sks, an d get help or stay connected within the learning community. Their strategy knowledge was grouped into three sub - categories: metacognitive strategy , task - spe cific strategy , and social and affective strategy ( see Figure 15 for the frequency count of each sub - category ) , with metacognitive strategies foregrounded in participants self - reports . varied substantially in terms of its scope, appropriateness, and specificity. Whereas some learners edge was rather limited, superficial , and sometime s even misconceived , others demonstrated a much broader and comprehensive strategy repertoire. Figure 15: Content representation of strategy k nowledge (Frequency) Metacognitive Strategy Metacognitive s trategy knowledge comprises an understanding of how learners manage their web - based DLL through planning, monitoring, and evaluation. The results showed 54 29 14 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Metacognitive Task-Specific Social and Affective 126 distinctive differenc self - regulation of online language learning. F or Cai, Yang, and May, their proposed learning approach basically mirrored that of how they had s tudied in traditional classroom - based learning, namely, to closely follow teacher and the FTF class agenda. This implied that online English learning to them was still an extension of classroom learning, rather than something qualitatively different. In particular, they tended to view the weekend FTF session as the primary channel for learning, and the self - study In spite of their general assumption that online English learning demanded much more self - discipline and self - directed efforts than did traditional classroom - based learning, their study plan at the beginning of the semester did not re flect much purposeful self - management. In other words, t heir self - study did on learning rates that were co nnected to their personal needs . Their engagement with the learning materials was quite limited and superficial, mainly focusing on the key words and language points listed at the beginning of each unit, with much less attention paid to the progressive learning activities in the units . Moreover, these three l their learning process was mainly to rely on feedback from the teacher and comprehension check s instruction and the tasks. When it came to evaluating the effectiveness of their English learning methods, none of them had much to say regarding their strategy use, and when they did comment on their learning methods in the past, they attributed their unsatisfactory learning outcomes to insuff icient time spent on learning or lack of persistence , rather than the use of strategies itself . Taking , although she recognized the importance of having a good study plan, at this point she was not sure about what a good study plan might entail. She 127 did not have specific plans for time management or sequencing the lea rning materials, except and from work, which to her, was an indicator that she was learning something . Sh e did not have specific study goals, either. All she was aiming for was to keep up with the FTF class agenda and memorize all the key words and language points. On the other hand, some participants began the first semester with a strong personal agenda and clear study plan. Lan set up a specific time table that consisted of fixed and flexible learning periods on a daily basis. She also wanted to get herself very familiar with the course content in each unit before watching t he instructional video and get ting down to the exercises and self - quiz zes . As she explained, VOB (Right now my plan is to spend 2 to 2.5 hours studying every evening during group. How the 2 hours during weekdays only day that I can have a b ig block of time to myself.) Not only did he have his own principle of effective time management in web - based DLL, which 18 , but he had also set his own detailed study plan that broke away from the school recommende d linear model of learning (i.e. one unit per week). This plan, - dopted from the previously learning mode he had used to prepare for 18 AÑG- 128 the College Entrance Exam. Starting from establishing a general structure of the course content and moving up to focus on the most challenging language knowledge and skills, each round was characterized by different learning focuses and sub - goals. As he elaborated, 8 Gý?± , ( Round One, which I already finished, was to go through all the 8 u nits in ed the listening part, since li stening is very important , and the purpose of Round 1 was to gain a basic framework [of the course], not to a cquire the knowledge in - depth.) ( Round Two, which I am current ly at, is dedica ted to all the listening tasks. Since listening is the most important, I strive for understanding ea ch and every word and sentence.) ,´ ( Round Three focuses on vocabulary, especially advanced vocabulary related to specific themes in the course related to listenin g. have heard in the listening tasks.) ( Round four is for speaking, which I believe bears the highest demand. It is the comprehensive and flex ible application of all the previous acquired knowledge and skills. ) In the meantime, learners like Lan and Gao were also aware of a variety of re sources at their disposal to monitor their learning process , including obtaining feedback from di fferent sourc es other than the teacher . Compared to learners with less knowledge about self - regulated learning, t hey showed greater self - consciousness in terms of monitoring their comprehension and 129 task performances in both self - study and teacher - led learning situation s. For example, Lan talked about a number of ways that were useful for monitoring her progress, including collective learning with her study group peers, comprehension check s during VOB sessions, and self - questioning during independent study periods. W hen trying to recall an article she had already studied, she would ask herself questions about it to see if she had really understood it. Particularly, w hen talking about opportunities to monitor her learning through interactions with other students during sch , Lan explained : VOB conversation ,´FÓ/ý VOB (This is another reason why I think VOB is really great, namely the intera ction. If you are studying only by yourself , like trying to memorize some text s or doing self - talk, the feeling is never like a real conversation. But during VOB, when I can really talk with another student, I will have the opportunities to discover my wea knesses.) Task - Speci fic Strategy - specific strategy knowledge was limited and sometimes even - depth un derstanding of the effectiveness of different language learning strategies for different tasks. For example, approach different learning processes was largely overgeneralized from one unvarying, inflexible routine consisting o look ing up into Chinese , and ask ing the teacher or classmates regardless of what kind of task he was doing. And May, unaware of the importance of using appropriate strategies for 130 On the other hand, other learners reported various strategies that had worked effecti vely for them in different situations. For instance, Jing found watching and imitating original English videos without Chinese subtitles particularly beneficial for both speaking and listening. Lan, in particula r, talked about how she was experimenting wit h different methods t hat c ould help her practic e different language skills simultaneously in one activity . As shown in the following extract, I usually take a short passage and list en to its reco rding, checking if I could write it down immediately I have been experimenting with this exercise for a while. Taking the dialogue about, I could write it down immediately; it mean t that I already knew how to write it, say it, and understood it all at once. If there were some words that I wn, I would know my problems at once, so then I could single them out and do more practice.) Social and Affective Strategy All l earners in this study recognized the crucial role of social interaction in online learning and different ways to establish, mainta in, and benefit from interactions with the teacher and other students for different purposes and through different channels. F or some participants, the main purpose of maintaining contact with peers was to reduce their feeling of isolation in the 131 online environment and to push themselves to study . For others, social interaction was a crucial part in constructing a conducive learn ing environment and a successful learning experience in this online program. As Gao elaborated, QQ ( At the beginning of the semester, you should try to know as many classmates as possible, and keep in tou ch with them in various ways through phone calls, texting, QQ, WeChat, etc. In this way you could have more motivation to learn, because you know you have accompanies, who cou ld offer comfort, encouragement and help. If you are just on your own unless you have great perseverance, but who can have such perseverance?! try to know as many teachers as you can at the beginning, and keep in touch with them, so that in the future when you need help, you have someone to turn to, be it through the internet or in person . Once you established such mentality of learning, or the basic framework, fine. ) Emphasizing the crucial role of others in a successful learning experience, Lan was the only participant who had arranged regular study group activities from the beginning of the semester. To her, one of the major benefits of group activities was that they could serve as an effective monitoring tool. As reflected in this extract, 132 (In my view, the study group could be ju interaction with other group members is a good monitoring tool for you to tell such as the dictation exercise we did with the teacher in class. So if you have no problem doing these exercises, it means that you have accomplished the learning task [for this unit]; otherwise, you would know what still needs mor e wo rk or effort to be fi xed.) Contextual Knowledge encompassed 5 sub - categories: opportunities and constraints of the web - based distance learning environment, role and expectations for the teacher, characteristics of the particular English program, their assessments of learning sources and tools, and features of their personal learning environment (see Figure 16 for the frequency count of each sub - category ). P assessments of the available learning sources and tools were foregrounded in their knowledge about the le arning context, and some of the participants were particularly sensitive to how certain features of the CF online program could serve their own learning needs. Figure 16: Content representation of contextual k nowledge (Frequency) 29 37 49 9 17 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Opportunities and Constraints Program Sources and Tools Personal Learning Environment Teacher's Role 133 Opportunities and Constraints of Web - Based Distance Learning Environment All participants cited flexibility and convenience as the biggest advantage of online learning , and they enjoyed the freedom of d eciding when, where, and how to carry on their English study. However, seemingly paradoxically, some learners viewed the lack of teacher supervision and strict learning structure as a major disadvantage of online language learning, ( Learning in the classroom is more effective, since the teacher is there watching you; but learning online totally depends on your own self - control, since no one else is there with you. ) Yang also viewed that the limited ti me for FTF instruction and insufficient opportunities for interacting with other students as the major disadvantage s of online English learning: ( tage is the time for the FTF session is too short, only - time learning in her and students is not enough. ) Moreover, participants were aware of the opportunities to get personalized feedback and assistance from the teacher and other students. For example, Cai recalled an incidental learning episode during one VOB session: VOB lunch lanch (I can get timely correction and feedback from the teacher. Like during the VOB yesterday, the teacher corrected the pronunciation of one word that I had been pronouncing i 134 yesterday.) Lan also talked about the benefits of using structured and pre - selected learning materials designed to fit lea rn ers of their proficiency level, which was much effective than searching for English learning materials blindingly on the Internet. Role of the Teacher During the first interview, participants were asked about their expectations of the the process of web - based DLL, as this was considered a reflection of their readiness for autonomous learning ( Cotterall, 1995b , 1999 ) , which was the key to distance learning ( White, 2003b ) . Significantly, participants held two distinctive views toward what role the course instructor should play in web - based DLL. Some of them (Cai, Yang, and May) expected the teacher to be the leader and authority figure in online distance language learning, and themselves being just the followers. For example, May expressed a strong preferenc e for teacher - directed learning and expected t he teacher to be dominant in the learning process by taking over all the main learning functions. In her own words, ( First of all, [the teacher] should teach us the content in the textbook; next, she should supervise us, push us, and encourage us to study. Since mos t of us are working full - time should check on us, making sure we are learning.) On the contrary, other participants, like Jing, Lan, and Gao, expected the teachers to be more of a facilitati ng role, providing guidance on strategy use and pointing learners in the right direction to focus on when necessary. As Jing explained, 135 "you want me as a tutor, or as a teacher...as a coach". coach reminder a tutor, the informa tion disseminated by the school and to be a good reminder. The rest is really up to ourselves. After all this is not like learning in school previously.) attention to essential knowledge, skills, and errors commonly made by English learners . Lan added th there were so much to learn. metacognitive strategy knowledge. Tho se participants who ex pected the teacher to be dominant in web - based DLL were usually the ones who were not prepared with clear study goals, plans, or means to monitor their study in this program, such as Cai, Yang, and May. On the other hand, learners who thought they should t ake control of their learning started this semester with specific personal goals and plans for time management and learning routine, such as Gao and Lan. Assessments of Learning Sources and Tools At the beginning of the semester, all participants had som e knowledge about various learning sources and tools available to them and how they could facilitate their learning in this program ( see Figure 17 for the percentage of different sources and tools reported ). For all the participants, learning resources or tools that could potentially allow time and opportunities for interaction with the teacher and other students were seen as extremely useful, which included 136 VOB and FTF sessions offered by the school, students self - arranged VOB practice sessions, after clas s FTF group activities, audio chat through social media, etc . Figure 17: Assessment of recourses and t ools ( Percentage ) for visual materials, thought the instructiona l videos and the VOB sessions were most helpful, Jing also stressed that di fferent learning components afforded different learning opportunities. For example, she viewed the VOB sessions the most usef ul to her, as they provided opportunities for personalized incidental learning: VOB VOB 10% 22% 22% 10% 17% 12% 7% Instructional Video VOB Discussion Forum FTF Instant Messaging and Social Networking Site Mobile Courseware 137 (During VOB sessions, you can even use the internet to check out the stuff the teacher is talking about at that time; if you have trouble understanding, you can look into it right away, and you could learn something immediately. Unlike in traditiona e the problem as soon as you have one, otherwise you may not be you are doing something else during instruction, which may help correct your errors in pronunciation. Or, from the conversations between the teacher and other student s , you may discover things you have overlooked before.) Furthermore, Gao evaluated the variety of resources and interaction channels in terms of how they could serve different purposes based on his learning needs. Of the array of learning resources provided on the learning platform, Gao rated them according to their perceived importance to his learning needs and their overall quality: S C understand, different types of recourses serve different purposes. For example, mock - up tests, unit - based key points and the kind are most important to me, Te very good quality, which makes it very hard to watch. Also hi s videos are all in English. All - English teaching is not very useful for me. If I need English - only resource, I can ju it all over again in English, which is no different than reading the whole book .) Moreover, all participants found the cell phone a very useful and convenient tool for language learning. In ad dition to the most frequently used e - dictionary applications, participants also made use of other applications (e.g., grammar exercise, news broadcasting) and functions 138 They were found a lot of the messages, such as language learning tips and cultural facts of English speaking countries, both informative and motivating. The value of the Discussion F oru ms in information sharing and distributi on was also recognized by all the participants. However, at this moment, they all tended to be information collectors rather than contributors, which might be due to the fact that they were all new to the program, so there was not much experience or expertise worth sharing . Despite its contribution in maintain the learning community, some of the participants were also critical about its reliability and efficiency as they found it was not updated timely enough. As Gao noticed, ( Discussion Forum is good, too. But the problem is, not every question was answered by the teacher. I went back to check the old posts, some of which asked teacher directly. ) Still another interesting observation was that, although the online multimedia coursew are was considered as a core learning component, not all participants found it useful at this stage. At the time of the first interview, Yang and Cai were not even aware of the multimedia courseware at all, and the printed textbook was the primary learning material they were using. The CF Online Program Noticeably, those participants who emphasized the importance of getting oneself familiar with the learning context also demonstrated a deeper understanding of the features and 139 opportunities related to this particular program at CF Online, as well as how these program features could serve their own learning needs. For example, Jing discussed how she would tap into the potential learning opportunities she thought might be helpful for the development of her Eng lish ability in the long term. Particularly, she expertise in foreign language education, believing that her English, especially writing, could improve substantially with the guidance of the teachers here. (The instruction in my previous junior college was too general, like in high school, where the teacher would just follow the book, only teaching the grammar points, rather than teaching you how to lear n better, or how to better use these grammar points, or how they could be applied to situations beyon d the textbook. But at CF, I have attended classes taught by different teachers, who, I discovered, could go much deeper . These teachers are different [from those in junior college] in terms of their knowledge base, education background, which resulted in their teaching on a much more advanced level.) features and demands of this program and those of the previous courses he had attended. - aloud assignment and speaking test, the uni queness of this program laid hi s primary emphasis on speaking and listening skills, rather than reading and grammar as did all the previous E nglish courses. These two skill areas were exactly what he needed to develop the most. Thus he believed that it provided valuable 140 ort this view, Gao also provided a quantified argument based on his own calculation: 4 6 60% 3 70% 28% 28 ( Before, no matter it was the tutorials for Public English Test IV or VI , or for College English, the emphasis was on reading, which took up 60% [of the ith a small portion for listening an d all of the rest for grammar. But here at CF and speaking take up as reflected in what to be covered in the final exam. Based on my calc ulation, their portion will be over 70%. Yet reading and grammar questions, like those in College English, only take about 28%. This means, no matter how good you are at reading, you can only get 28 at the most. ) Features of Personal Learning Environment As part of their contextual knowledge, participants were also aware of influences of features of their immediate learning environment on how their online language learning should be planned and managed. Among these features, availability of time for stud y and participants plan their study. regular, they were able to set specific time periods for thei r online English learning, whereas for Jing, whose schedule was always unpredictable, she chose to study whenever there was free time 141 is choices over learning materials and activities were also influenced by the actual physical e nvironm ents where the study took place. In his own words, MP3 (During the weekdays while I am staying in the rental apartment without Internet access, I would study the textbook and listen to the course MP3 files on my cell phone; when I am back at hom e w here I have easy access to the Internet , I would watch the instructional videos online. A nd I will attend the FTF class on the weekend. ) Limited and fragmented time for study was a concern for participants with heavy life and work responsibilities, which also served as a stimulus for better time management. For example, her time and energy to study were very limited since the responsibilities of work and life would tak e up most of her day. She thus stressed it highly impo rtant to utilize effectively and efficiently the limited time she had for study. Conclusion This chapter presented findings that addres s the first research question, What metacognitive knowledge about language learning do adult EFL learners have in the c ontext of web - based distance learning? demonstrated MCK of web - based DLL in all of the four dimensions, namely pe rson, task, strategy, context, there were contrasting differences in the scope, depth, complexity a nd specificity of their MCK. Some MCK was relatively limited and sometimes problematic , whereas others held a much broader and complex view of themselves as language learners, the learning pr ocess and their own approaches. These differences endow ed them with a either weaker or stronger MCK basis that turned to decisions on how they were to interact with the learning context, which contributed to the adjustments and revisions (or lack thereof) of their MCK about 142 language le arning in the web - based distance context. This is the focus of the second research question, the results of which will be discussed in the next chapter. 143 CHAPTER VI : This chapter present s findings that addre ss the second research question How does adult of web - based distance learning? Overall, refinements and revisions were observed in all the four dimensions of partici - based DLL. However, given the different MCK profiles with which participant s started this semester, the rate, scope, and depth of changes were also varied among the six participants. In gene ral, for those par ticipants who started with a relatively weaker MCK base , it took them much longer to adapt and adjust their understandings and expectations of English learning in the web - based distance mode, or in some cases, not many significant changes occurred at all. On the other hand, p articipants who were endowe d with a more solid MCK base manage d to have a quicker and more efficient adaptation to this mode of learning (see Table 7 for a summary of change trajectories). Also noticeably were that, for so the dysfunctional aspects, remained unchanged or unnoticed throughout the semester. Findings related to this research questions will be discussed in term of the four dimensions of MCK. 144 Table 7 : Summary o f changes in p Name Basic Profile Key Change (or lack thereof) in MCK over time Cai Male, 25 Low English proficiency High OLRS score No DLL experience Overall trend: Maintaining a FTF learning approach in the online context P K: Increased concrete understanding s of weaknesses and deficiencies in grammar, writing, and speaking ; TK: Re - interpretation of the nature of online language - ; SK: Awareness of setting specific study goals and plans; emphasis on strategies for test preparation ; CK: Less reliance on teacher, more on supplementary so urces and peers; preferences over materials and tool s useful for test preparation Yang Male, 21 Low English Proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience Overall tre nd: From overconfidence to confusion in the online learning mode PK: Limited development in knowledge about problems and deficiencies; inaccurate assessment of progress; TK: Little change beyond realization of the need for more time on self - study ; SK: Lit tle change in learning approach; confusion about strategy use; heavy reliance on peers ; confusion about failure in asking the teacher questions CK: P reference over exploring new, interesting resources on the Internet May Female, 38 Medium English proficie ncy Low OLRS score No DLL experience Overall trend: from a passive observer on the way to an active participant PK: Some new understanding s of weaknesses in different skill areas; reinforced concern over the negative effects of personality weaknesses ; TK: Started to see the need to take more initiative and responsibilit y; revised previous assumption that online learning was easy; SK: Little change in overall learning approach; remained focus on rote memorization of vocabulary CK: Less reliance on the teache r; increased knowledge of how to use other sourc es to facilitate self - study Jing Female, 27 High English proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience English used in daily work Overall trend: Little change due to little challenge PK: Some new underst andings of weaknesses in writing and speaking; awareness of motivation change; TK: Realization that only minimal effort was necessary since the courses were too easy ; SK: Adjustments to effort and time regulation to just meet the basic requirements ; CK: Fo cused on exploring more challenging and informative resource s on the Internet 145 Lan Female, 58 High English proficiency Medium OLRS score No DLL experience Self - directed English learning experience English used in daily work as Chinese lan guage instructor Overall trend: From slow start to effective adaptation PK : Increased self - knowledge of progresses and weaknesses; Refined study goals; TK: Refined understandings of language tasks in the program; SK: Adjustments to previous study plan; inc reased strategy knowledge regarding different tasks; reinforced belief in peer interaction; CK: Increased understandings of learning opportunities provided by the program Gao Male, 38 Medium English proficiency Low OLRS score Previous DLL experience Self - directed English learning experience Overall trend: From an ideal vision to practical adjustments PK: Increased self - knowledge of progresses and weaknesses; realization of the need for instrumental motivation; TK: Refined understandings of how to benefit from the process of task completion; SK: Realization of the need for a more practical and effective study plan; CK: Increased knowledge about additional learning opportunities provided by this program and the limitations of the program Person Knowledge Over the semester, all participants varied degrees of reconstructions in terms of how they viewed themselves as English learners, particularly in an ledge were observed in their self - assessment of the improvements (or lack thereof) in their knowledge and skills of English, p ersonal qualities that affected learning gains or progress, and motivations for learning. First, participants developed more conc rete knowledge of their deficiencies in different skill or knowledge areas. These new understandings pointed to new directions in their following studies and motivated them to adjust learning strategies and materials accordingly. For participants who only had vague ideas of their English ability at the beginning , they started to 146 attend to problems in writing, speaking, and reading , even though acquiring vocabulary and grammar knowledge still remained a major concern . For example, Cai came to realize that hi s additional resourc es that could help him improve his grammar. Yang also learned about some deficiencies in his knowledge about the fundamentals of English wr iting, such as some basic punctuation and grammar rules , problems that he had long been unaware of. This indicated a slight improvement compared to his previous state of not knowing what his problems were in English. However, it appeared that uate MCK base , together with his irresponsiveness to contextual cues, had impeded or sometimes even misguided his decision making process of approaching and interacting with the learning materials and tasks , and obscured the path to a more accurate evaluat ion of himself and the learning process . Take ing the read - aloud assignment as an example: The two read - aloud assignments were due on November 5 th and December 15 th respectively, and one VOB session designed to elaborate on the pronunciation rules and help students prepare for the read - aloud assignment was arranged in the first week of December. However, as he explained, since he was Yang finished and submitted both of them at the same time on September 25 th . He did the recording only once without much practicing or listening to the sample, and he did not re - do the 2 nd one after the VOB session about pronunciation after the VOB tutoria l session, even though he knew that unlimited re - submission was allowed before the deadline. His scores for both assignments were a lot below average (1 st : 80/88; 2 nd : 80/89.8) , and the feedback for both indicated similar problems in his pronunciation, inc luding vow el s, pausing, 147 and stress 19 . Despite these calls for attention, in the midterm interview he still thought his some trouble with Later in the third interview, when specifically asked about his reaction to the feedback on his read - aloud assignment, his response indicated that he was not aware of the feedback at all. The s ame situation was observed in his writing assignments. B y midterm , he thought his yet in fact the feedback on his 1 st assignment alerted him about grammar errors and the score was a lot below average (82/90). This implied that not only he did not understand what was involved in monitoring and evaluating the writin g process , but he was also not able to draw proper conclusion s from the available feedback , be it internal or external, regarding his ta sk performance and make adjustments accordingly . Learners with higher levels of MCK provided more detailed observations of the improvement or problems they had noticed during task completion and self - studies. For Jing, her self - assessment became less positive as the semester proceeded. For one thing, she did not think she had learned much from the two courses as they were t oo easy for her. For another, from watching various English TV programs and talk shows she found on the Internet , she came to see that there were actually plenty of room for improvement in her speaking and listening, two areas she used to think she was ver y good at. Throughout the semester, Gao observed that, though still a challenging task to him, writi ng was the one area in which he had seen the most improveme nt, in that he grew from 19 ˛GN#˛9˝& w, th M0AÔ-O Q tions of single sounds are mostly correct, but lack fluency. 148 o write something While he thought that overall the two writing assignments were not difficult, he stressed that it was the process of writing including the processes of using a dictionary to check appropriate word use and getting detailed feedback from his tutor that truly helped him develop the basic writing skills and familiarity and accuracy in language use. As reflected in these extracts from the second and third interview respectively: 100 4 5 ( My writing now is still very poor in that I still rely on the dictionary a lot to make sure if I have used the words correctively. The whole writing process is ystematic training and practice in English writing prior to this. to finish a 100 word essay; BUT at least now I can ac tually write something out, which is a really great i all. Also, when I first started, I had lots of trouble with the grammar; now, after continuous practice and the use of dictionary, my grammar problem has basically been solved. My focus now is to make sure I can convey my ideas accurately and properly. ) Furthermore , learners developed some new knowledge about how certain weaknesses in their personality had rendered their self - study less effective . what she feared at the beginning of the semes ter that she might have trouble keeping up turned out to be quite true as she progressed through the semester. At midterm, May was a little stressed out when she found herself lagging behind the FTF class agenda, because she missed it twice due to changes in 149 her work schedule; and at the same time, she was very anxious about the coming final exam. At the missed units or move forward to focus on the final exam. Al so she noted that she had little idea about how to prepare for the final exam. In the last in terview, she recalled that in the 2 nd half of the semester she decided to mainly focus on preparing for the speaking test based on the provided guidelines , because this was what she worried about the most, and also because she thought reading and listening required long - term efforts to develop, not something she could get ready for in a short time. Looking back, May believed that her procrastination in the semester was the - it - . In her own words, ( I think I am really weak in self - disciplining . Like when I feel tried, or there is so mething else needed to be done, I would definitely do those things first; studying was never my priority. I have always been pushing it till later, till external pressure yet. While I have always had this beau tiful dream [about being good at English] ) At the end of the semester, May realized that she had to fix he r passive learning attitude by adopting a more proactive approach and taking more responsibi lities in her English learning. As she explained, 150 ( I have to make some change. I think I should take more initiatives; I ne ed to give myself more pressure and be more motivated to do better. Compared to earlier, when I thought I could get the diploma without much difficulty, I now think that if I want to graduate , I have to work really hard. Counting on luck or something else will not do it; I must put in real efforts.) For Cai, the o ne aspect abo ut online distance learning he found himself really struggling to adapt to was the lack of external supervision and re gulation. At midterm, Cai realized that his lack of self - discipline and the absence of strict, intensive deadlines in this online program had resulted in serio us procrastination in his work, and he acknowledged that he failed in keeping up with the FTF c lass agenda. According to the official schedule, by then the FTF class instructor However, in his self - study, Cai had just finished the self - quizzes of Unit 1 and hardly manage to finish look ing up all the new words and locate the key points in the texts just to get ready for the FTF In contrast t o his original plan at the beginning of the s emester, he only finished watching the instructional video in the first unit , and he had not listened much to the course MP3 files, either . He attributed this to his own ineffective learning approach, namely, not being able to utilize the study time produc tively: 3 3 ( My studying is not efficient, and I have to fix this. For the same 3 hours, ) As the semester proceeded, some learners were also aware of the fluctuations in the ir motivations for learning, as well as feelings a nd emotions they had observed arising dur ing the learning process or with particular learning episodes. They further reported how these changes 151 affected their learning and sought out ways to keep themselves motivated and positively engaged. For instance, Jing noticed her declining motivation due to the lack of challenges in the coursework and acknowledged that she was reluctant to make any effort more than necessary to meet the minimal requirements as she d id not feel challenged. Consequently , she was not quite satisfied with her performance in th is semester. She expected herself to be more engaged and more difficult and challenging in the future. Gao was concerned with himself not being effectively concentrated and engaged as the semester proceeded. Based on w hat he learned from talking with other students, he realized that relying on intrinsic motivation only was not enough to keep the learning going effectively and that he needed to connect his English learning with real - life purposes. As he recalled, ( nglish learning is d riven by a clear goal, which was related to their job. But for this one his, namely, I have no use of Engl ish at work take writing for example, I had learned nothing about [how to write] previously, and I have no practical use of it in my actual work. So it really is very tough now that I am asked to write this [assignment]. ) As a r esult , Gao concluded 152 Task Know ledge For participants like Cai, Yang, and May who started this semester with a relatively weaker MCK base, the first semester was a transitional period during which they were trying to make sense what online English learning actually meant for them. Noti ceably, changes in their views of the nature of language learning, and online language learning in particular, were been familiar with and the emerging demands placed on them by this online distance learning program. One recurrent theme regarding - regulation against all the freedom they got in online learning. For these learners, learning in absence of the te the most challenging feature to adapt to, which forced them to realize the urgency of strengthening their self - discipline and take more initiatives during the learning process . Yet, as this realiz ation did not come until much later in the semester, they did not go much further to act upon this knowledge and work out ways to enhance self - regulation. For instance, Cai provided a perceptive observation that online English learning demanded constant an d regular e fforts and time, and that counting on last minute effort or hoping for immediate learning gain was not realistic. Accordingly, he also emphasized the importance of having step - by - step goals that could for the FTF class. In case, her learning experience in the 2 nd half of the semester, especially in preparing for the final exam , led her to develop new understandings about this online program and what she should do as an online English learner. First, she began to question and re - examine 153 her previous assumptions that online distance learning was easy , and that not much hard work was needed to graduate . This view got overthrown after the fir st semester: ne distance learning it appeared to be quite easy. But for me, this o n line program at CF i de real efforts to study. In other words, you must work hard for it. Hoping to get the diploma without much effort is not possible. ) In line with her determination to take on a more positive learning attitude, May also came to realize that in online language learning, it was up to herself to detect and solve her own problems, rather than waiting for the teacher or others to pointed it out: (While learning English through an online distance program, no matter you are watchi ng the instructional video or attending that the questions you have are not explained in the video, or the teacher At times like this, you should step forward and seek help from others on your own, be it the teacher, you r classmates , or your friend.) Another significant observation was the un - changed or un - noticed aspects of these - based DLL process or specific tasks. It seemed that sometimes certain aspect s of their previous knowledge base might be too rigid to give rise to any change happening internally. For example, in the last interview , Cai came to re - interpret the - just like the traditional model that he was mos t familiar and comfortable with. Accordingly, his solution to effective online 154 English learning was actually to maintain . Following this reinterpretation , he reset his learning goals and s tudy plan, as well as h ow he should select and approach learning tasks and materials, all to make sure he could pass the prospective tests. For May, although she realized the need to stop being a passive learner, some of her beliefs about language learning were so deeply - rooted that they continued to limit her perceptions of actively expanding her strategy repertoire . Her firm belief that vocabulary knowledge was responsible for most of the difficulties she had experienced in the development of other language skill s led to her de cision that she could not do anything else unless her vocabulary expanded to a certa in level. As a result, she made a lot of effort in the first semester trying to increase her vocabular y through memorizing the word - li st, only finding herself getting more frustrated by the lack of positive outcomes. In order to fix this, she went to look for different resources and applications on the Internet with the hope that they could enhance her vocabulary learning. However, s he ended up feeling quite confused and dis couraged, as she felt She attributed her unsatisfactory progress in vocabula ry learning to her poor memory and had little clue as to what to do . Adjustments in perceptions and expectat ions toward English learning in this web - based distance language program were also observed in those participants with a higher level of MCK base. For Gao and Lan, although they wanted to make sure all the content and tasks in the two courses were learned and mastered, they soon realized that there was too much to study in too little time. Therefore, they had to make changes to thei r study plan and re - prioritize their learning activities, which were reflected in the new developments in their strategy knowle however, was the opposite. Soon after the sem ester started, based on her self - assessments of the 155 realized that the course content was too easy for her, so she decided that she could skip the easy tasks and content and only work on the more difficult ones in order to learn more efficiently. As she explained, -; (I think this way is more efficient, because doing those [activities] that I already knew or are too easy will not help me improve; therefore, I would Like for this week, I just studied Unit 3; for Unit 4, I only browsed through the new words and the key sentence structures, and I will see what the teacher has to say tomorrow.) Strategy Knowledge results showed that more references were made as to how to adjust the overall planning and management of the learning process than to deal with specific learning tasks and processes. In other words, changes in knowledge about metacognitive strategy were m ore than that of task - specific strategy. For those participants who did not have a detailed study plan at the beginning, they gradually came to realize the importance of making specific study goals and plans. However, by the end of the first semester, the se realizations had not led to much significant change in their actual learning approach, and their strategy knowledge largely remained the same. For example, Cai primarily plan ned to just follow the pace of the FTF class, yet he soon found the instructio n and himself performing poorly in the teacher - directed learning activities such as the dictation exercise. He thought that his lagging behind was because he importance of following a detailed study plan that specified what was needed to be done daily 156 and weekly . Specifically, he came to the realization that to be able to keep up with the teacher he everything all at once right before the deadline or the exam. More significantly , aligned with his re - - most of his For example, reflecting upon his experience in the first semester, Cai further concluded that the best way for him to learn was doing exercises like practice tests : ( I think for someone like me, what really works would be doing exercises just like the exam. There are exercises like this on CF Online website, such as the one wit h listening exercise first, and then followed by reading; this is the most effective method for me. After d oing enough exercises like this and building up my vocabulary to a certain amount, I think I will get better at this type of learning.) Along with hi s changed views toward the nature of this program, goal - setting in this program was revised as well . As he elaborated , when starting the program, I only had a dream without knowing which speci same time, considering his current learning progress , he also came to realize his origina l goals in his English learning as being In the last interview, Gao proposed his new learning goals in this keep ing up exams , pass ing College English Test III (CET - 3) in the next semester, give BBC English Intermediate test a try in the 2 nd year, and deciding on the specialty course in the 3 rd year . Meanwhile, it seemed that his knowledge of task - specific strategy still remained to be rote learning in nature. For instance, from taking the final exam, during ince he failed to 157 memorize the draft s he had prepared conclude d from the textbook : ( I think, since my foundation is so weak, I should try to find and memorize more sample texts about popular topics such as politics, transportation and environment, as well as sample writings from the College English Test IV and VI . So at least I could have something stored in my head to use when I am taking the exam.) Another participant, Yang, however, went little beyon d recognizing that he neede d to spend more time and effort in studying, and his overall learning approach remained unchanged throughout the semester, namely to use the dictionary to look up every word, translate everything into Chinese, and try to ask the teacher as many questions as he could. For the last strategy student should do, he was increasingly baffled by his not being able to come up with questions to ask. Moreover, it app eared that the decisions he made about his learning was seldom backed by purposeful planning. F or instance, he usually only worked on the first learning task in order of each u nit while studying the textbook, hoping the teacher woul d cover the rest. Moreover, even at times of confusio n or uncertainty own metacognitive awareness was not sufficient enough to lead to learn ing or problem - solving, unless it was pointed out or explained by someone else. For instance, it was always his belief that questions in reading comprehension tasks were presented in the same order as the paragraphs , and each paragraph would always have one corresponding question. Therefore his strategy for reading tasks was to However, h is experience of doing the reading 158 comprehension questions during the fin al exam challenged this view, where he found the brought forward his confusion about this durin g the final interview, which w as cleared up by the researcher. Another instance of misconception was choosing the proper meaning for a new word in the dictionary, he said his usual solution was to choose the very first one on the list ; yet sometimes h e f ound the first entry seemingly unfit . A nd the solution at times Yet even forming the questions to ask did not come easily for Yang. In bo th the m idterm and end - term intervi was to ask the teacher questions whenever one arose, he found t could find questions to ask the teacher at the FTF cognitive psychology indicates , a prerequisite for being able to ask questions about new topic matter is a proper knowledge struct ure to formulate the question and to interpret the response ( Miyake & Norman, 1979 ) ; therefore, this situa tion, being an enigma to him throughout the who le semester, may imply that the difficulty level of the course was considerably beyond learning ability, thus he did not und erstand enough to even begin asking questions. It was also likely that he had been carry ing on with his study under an illusion of comprehension, though obvio usly he himself was not aware . For those participants who already had a specific study plan, not only did they see the need to improve their plan soon after the semester started, they also quic kly enacted this new realization and worked out a new plan that they perceived to be a better fit between their own Gao and Lan, the first semester 159 witnessed their efforts in constructing a learner - context interface that was more personalized, effective, and practical. As the semester proceeded, both came to see the need to revise their study plan when they realized the conflicts between the demanding workload, the limited time, and that thei r own previous learning management was not quite effective. As a result, they managed to establish a more feasible learning routine. For instance, at midterm, Gao acknowledged that his original plan - to there was Consequently , he realized the need to re - prioritize his study based on the program requirements and his most urgent learning needs, namely, to browse through all the course content first and then mainly focus on listening tasks: ( Ah ur - round learning cycle]; I had to hold it off. Right now all I can do is to make sure that I go over all the texts and finish all t like writing, as long as I have mastered all the listening, I have a t least accomplished something.) Lan also made changes to her study plan to achieve a more personalized learning pace and seq uenc e, including picking and choosing what should be the prior ity and most imp ortant content to study by using the self - quiz and the instructional video as guidance. As she recalled, after reading through the student manual for the second time, she discove red that the timeline on the weekly submission of unit self - . In the meantime, as she increasingly felt that - quiz 16 0 important otherwise they would not be in the self - dialogues, tasks and the followed exercises in the self - quizzes should be her top priority when e was sure that she had understood them and got all the exercises right. Likewise, she came to view the teach instructional video as a pointer to direct her attention to the most important content in each unit. In this way, even though she could not st udy all the details, at least she would know that she had the most important part of the course covered by following these two resources. As she explained in the extract below: UNIT , ˘Ã (Before, my approach was like a step - by - step style, one unit after another, study every little detail in each unit, nor could I finish watching all the instructional videos. But what I MUST know beforehand are the main points and themes in each unit. For instance, for Unit 7 I already knew what the main content was et myself familiar with the key language points in each unit. My study used to be too meticulous, wanting to cover everything without any differentiation or specific focus; well it might work in other situations, for now it just took too much time, which I was, in short, to start with the most important and avoid unfocused efforts.) 161 On the other hand, over the se mester, Jing reduced her effort of studying the cours e co ntent to the level that they were just sufficient enough to meet the basic requirements, and she was more interested in watching English TV shows and programs on the Internet that she found entertaining, informative, and motivating. Although she was aware of what effective online learning methods were, she admitted that the current learning task was not challenging enough to prompt her to make any change. Nonetheless, she was ready to adopt a more effective learning approach when the course got more demandi ng. Furthermore , for Gao and Lan, growth in their strategy knowledge was also reflected in their enhanced awareness of new ways to monitor their learning progress and problems in how specific language task s were approached . For example, Gao found out that another effective way to check if he had mastered the knowledge he had learned in class was to see if he could apply it to real - world situations, such as when he was watching movies or browsing English websites. He also emphasized that focusing on the proc ess of completing a learning task was much more beneficial tha n wh at score he got at the end. Taking his final exam preparation for example: he ially the preparation for the speaking test with his language partner, as reflected in the following excerpt: ( T he process of preparing for [the exam] was very interesting to together. Therefore, both of us had to write something, and then share and compare our ideas. During this process, we ha d to discuss and figure out if the 162 stuff we wrote was reasonable or not, and if the expressions were appropriate or not. It was such interactive process that helped us improve. ) For Lan, a t the end of the semester, particularly from her experience with the final exam, Lan concluded that her weakest point now wa s reading. Not only because had spent the least amount of time in reading during the semester than listening and speaking strategies also [to read] sente nce by sentence. But during the test , the passages for rea ding were all quite long. This meant I needed to capture the gist, knowing how to skip, browse and look for the main themes. Yet I was too slow; after I was done [reading], there was not enough time for other things anymore.) In addition, she went on to su rvey the two courses in the follow ing semester and learned that reading would be increasingly emphasized in the future studies. This led to her decision that org 20 . Contextual Knowledge Along with the changes and adjustments in the other dimensions of the participants MCK about web - based DLL as discussed earlier, participants a lso developed new understandings of this particular learning context and how to utilize different learning materials to facilitate their learning. Most significantly, those participants who viewed the teacher as the dominant figure and themselves as mere f ollowers in the learning proc ess re - examined this 20 M0˛$˛9˙x,´ E÷˘Ã first, second, third 163 assumption and started to see the limitations in solely rely ing on the teacher and the FTF classes. In particular, they came to realize how to use other learning sources available in the program so that the y could work together to facilitate their self - study. For example, at the end of the semester, Cai recognized that he did not have to rely on the FTF class solely to learn, and that he should try to make more use of other learning sources provided by the s chool. In his own words, ( Lot of my classmates they still did better in the final exam s than I did. Of course it could be that their English was better than mine in the first place. Also, it wou to the have to miss the FTF class, I can also watch the instructional videos first, grasp the key points, a nd then study the textbook and do the exercises. In this way, I can also improve my listening. At the same time, if I have any questions, I can ask them on the discussion forum or contact the teacher. Also, as I came to know many of my classmates in the fi rst semester, I can also ask them and learn about what happens in the FTF class.) As this excerpt also reflects , his peers were playing an important role in his learning. Especially, Cai noted that he learned a lot from his language partner in this course, as well as other students in his study group who shared their study notes and tips during the semester. Moreover, during FTF classes Cai also came to know some classmates who he had taken as inspiring role models for himself because of their strong persis tence and motivation to learn, including Gao, ano ther participant in this study. 164 Furthermore, other participants came to see additional learning opportunities relevant to their learning needs both within the program and on the Internet. For example, Gao ca me to realize certain features related to the particular instructional design of this program that had provided valuable learning opportunities , which could help fix his weaknesses and enhance his Engl ish proficiency in the long run. In particular, in his view, the courses emphasis on li stening and speaking skills, , and opportunities for deeper processing were very helpful in guiding him through the learning materials . As reflected in the following extracts: dialogue dialogue task task dialogue ( I but you have also got to listen to it repeatedly by fo llowing different tasks: the first task asks something abo ut the dialogue, and the second asks something else the dialogue now very high demands for deeper understandings.) text text ture, false text ( I saw before those true - or - false questions previously , it now has questions that help you gain a step - by - step comprehension of the text, from grasping general ideas to specific details.) ( Still another new feature was the requirement for writing. Before, there were only multiple choices questions, but now, it also asks you to write things done. When it comes to writing , you then need to consider how to use the language properly.) In the meantime, over the semester, participants who already had a thorough understanding of the program also observed some limitations that they perceived as constraining 165 their English learni ng. For example, Jing did not think the self - quiz and the final speaking test , as they did not require any spontaneous output by the students themselves . Gao cited the low av ailability of personalized and timely tutoring and feedback, as well as the need for more clarity, elaborated - study. As he elaborated, ( I think one way to improve the learning materials is to differentiate the vocabulary into different levels by marking them with st ars, with more stars meaning more importance. For example, for those five - star words, the students must study them thoroughly and know how to use them, including other relevant information such as their sy nonyms and antonyms. For one - star words, just recog nizing them would be enough. In this way, our vocabulary learning will be more focused and efficient. ) Conclusion This chapter presents findings How does adult learning change over time in the context of web - based distance learning? While changes were observed in MCK about web - based DLL, these changes varied greatly among these participants. These variations were also reflected in the rates and effectiveness of their adaptation to this new mode of learning. On the one hand, some of them were quick to adjust their perceptions and expectations toward English learning in this web - based distance program and work ed out a more effective study plan that was a better fit between their own needs and requirements. O n the other hand, others were only starting to realize and re - examine their 166 previous assumptions about this new mode of learning and were not able to enact any signif icant change to their self - management of learning in this program. T hese various change trajectories were the interplay of both learner and the contextual factors, and the next chapter will discuss findings regarding the contextual influences that interact ed with the observed changes (or lack - based DLL. 167 CHAPTER VII : CONTEXTUAL FACTORS AND MCK CHANGE This chapter discusses findings that address the third research question, he contextual factors that affect the change s language learning in the context of web - Results from the analysis of participants self - reports generated during the interviews and the nature, requirements, and demands of the learning context revealed a number of contextual influences unique to this learning context that interacted with - based DLL. Significantly, it was observed that the same contextual factor s could have both positive and negative influences on different participants, t hereby contributing differently to t he change trajectories among different participants. These contextual factors included: the sch ool - prescribed learning routine, forms of assessment, feedback from the teacher s and peers , and learner support (see Table 8 for a summary). 168 Table 8 : S ummary of contextual influences Contextual Factor Components Influences on Changes in MCK School - prescribed learning routine Pre - determined curriculum package pre - scheduled teacher - led tutorials Timelines for coursework submission and final exams Positive: Structure and guidance for self - regulation for students with no autonomous learning experience Negative: Little room for personal exploration Demotivating Forms of assessment Final exams Unit - based s elf - quizzes Positive: Directed specific knowled ge skill area Negative: Mi sled to i nconsistency between assignment focus and pedagogical focus Feedback from the teacher s and peers Spontaneous feedback during teacher - led tutorials Feedback on assignments from grading teachers F eedback during peer interaction s Positive: Directed attention to problems and deficiencies Facilitated monitoring of learning progress Help ed develop task and strategy knowledge, and awareness of useful learning sources Negative: Lack of quality feedback on task performance from the grading teachers Learne r support Orientation : Guide to Success Teacher - led tutorials: VOB and FTF Study group tutor Positive: Facilitate d the development of knowledge about self - management of online learning Provide d opportunities for self - reflection and self - improvement of task performance Negative: Unreliable support and feedback from tutors Insufficient efforts in learning community maintenance 169 The School - Prescribed Learning R outine The school - prescribed learnin g routine consists of the pre - determined c urriculum package, pre - scheduled teacher - led tutorials, and timelines for coursework submission and final exams. As a material - centered program, it was expected that all students followed the planned curriculum, wh ich was reinforced by a linear arrangements of FTF learning sessions directed by the teacher that were aligned with the pre - determined course content and mandatory dates for assignment submission and final exams. All of these components virtually formed a school - prescribed learning sequence, suggesting a desired learning pace for the two courses throughout the semester. On the positive side, for those who had no autonomous learning experience but traditional classroom - based teacher - directed learning, such prescribed learning path appeared to be exactly what they needed to guide and regulate their learning, at least in the initial, transitioning phase of the program. For example, p articipants like Cai, Yang, and May perceived t the beginning of the semester, Cai, Yang and May set their individual study plan during the week based on the FTF cl ass schedule as to which units they should be working on during the week. Moreover , the very existe nce of a weekly teacher - directed FTF learning session appeared to make such an impression on these teacher - centered learning was the most familiar mod e of learning to them . With the FTF class being the self - study was viewed by these learners during which all they needed was to get familiar with key words and language points and wait till the FTF class to learn the language points and tasks in each units . Meanwhile, whether or not they were able to keep up with the FTF class was taken by them as the major, if not only, 170 indicator of their learning progress. S uch self - assessment sometimes did lead to their re - evaluation and adjustments of thei r learning approach. Tak ing awareness that he had failed in keeping up with FTF class agenda had led him to consider what had caused this undesirable outcome and what he should have done to avoid it. From there, he came to the conclusion that he needed to distribute his time and effort evenly and set specific, periodic goals based on the school - set agenda. As he explained in the following extract, ( There is a timeline for every unit, indi cating when to do the exercise and self - at that time, as this is just the first timeline strictly. Rushing to finish everything at have periodic goals, specifying what needs to be done wi thin a given time learning materials, making sure I spend time to study every day. If I wait to do too tried, and nothing will get done.) On t he downside, there were also constraints of a rigidly structured program in providing online language learners the opportunities to exercise their autonomy in planning and monitoring their learning. This is espec ially true for those who have strong already - established beliefs in the authority of the teacher and the school, and they tend to perceive this prescribed sequence of learning to b e the only right way to learn. As a result , they would not tap into the oppo rtunities to pace their learning and develop skills of selecting materials and activities according to their own background and needs. Yang for example would only choose to preview the first learning task in order in each unit, thinking to rely on the teac her to finish learning the rest of the content. 171 Moreover, not only could solely overlooking their own learning needs and preferences, but it may also lead to confusion and anxiety if learners viewed it as the only way to measure their learning gains. For example, Cai emphasized that he only needed to work test - related materials . At midterm, May got very anxious over missing a couple of FTF classes and felt handicapped about what to do next. Also materials would not help much before she could master the vocabulary in the course content. Yet viewing the school - prescribed learning routine as the only right path was n ot obse rved in learners who had higher levels of knowledge about self - regulated learning, like Gao and Lan. They did not view the recommended path as the one and only path to follow. Instead, they had their own agenda as to how they wanted to proceed with their learning and attempted to come up with a learning routine that better fit their own needs and goals. For example, at the - through the content of the first c ourse soon after the semester started, getting way ahead of the FTF class schedule. For Lan, she felt quite troubled by her initial assumption that the timeline for the weekly study progress was mandatory, as it was incompatible with her own schedule and s tudy goals. After reviewing the student manual again and making sure that she did not have to follow this timeline as long as she submit all the self - quiz zes before the final exam, she worked o ut a new study plan that worked better for her own time. Althou gh Jing did use the FTF schedule as a reminder to regu late timing of her self - study, t his was based on her self - evaluation that the course content was so easy that minimal effort was sufficient to pass the two courses, and she was certain that going throug h the key words and grammar points before the FTF class Moreover , these learners did not 172 view the recommended path as the primary way to asses s their learning process . Instead they focused on the observed changes in their proficiency level in different skill areas during ongoing l earning episodes, and they viewed the FTF class as a means to check their learning outcomes or to identify overlooked problems. Furthermore, t he negative impact o f a r igid course structure seemed to be more salient for learners with a stronger sense of or expectation for learner autonomy. In particular, t he cases of Jing and Gao showed that sometime s such pre - packaged learning content could even be demotivating for more autonomous learners. In minimum as she felt uncha llenged by the learning content, and went on to search for more interesting and informative materials on the Internet. Gao also found a lot of the learning content un inspired as he could not relate them to his own life or profession. As he recalled, WD ? (Like what WD sai d to me , he thought that this course [English in Daily Life] is very helpful said that a lot of the topics were exactly what he needed at work, such as greetings in differe nt situations, which he used every day . While it is useful for him, it' s not for me, as I have no chanc e to meet any foreigner in my life. Therefore, such topic s are not very practical for me.) Forms of Assessment For the first semester, the assessments included the five assignments, self - quiz for each unit, and the final exam for each course. In addition to the highly specified learning routine by the school, t he assessment served as another major factor that shaped how learners adjust their understandings of what was involved in online English learning in this program and how to 173 proceed with it. For one thing, completing and meeting the requirements of differen t forms of assessment, particularly the fin al exam, were considered a priority for all participants. Moreover, the knowledge and skills b eing assessed became the focus - study or teacher - led sessions. For example, not only did learners like Gao and Lan mak e sure they had met the basic requirements of each type of coursew ork, but they also capitalized on the learning opportunities affo rded by different tasks in order to understand their own strengths and weaknesses in diff ere nt skill areas and evaluate the effectiveness o f their task - related strategies. on the read - aloud assignment being , ( Since the read - aloud assignment not possible to cheat. The only way to get it done right is to listen to the sample and practice, repeatedly. In this process, your listening will improve, so will your speaking. ) In addition, t he final exam , which made up 70% of the total final score for each course, regulating their tim e and efforts. As learners reported in the second and the last interviews, in the second half of the semester, their major concern and efforts were all centered on preparing for the final exam, especially the speaking part. Further, the very experience of taking the final exams, both negative and positive, led to addition s or revision s to their knowledge about their own strengths and weak nesses, as well as problems in their approaches to different language tasks. For example, Yang experienced a lot of uncer tain t y and confusion when completing the reading comprehension task, which led him to question the way he approached reading tasks. the final exam experience played a determining role in his reconceptualization of the nature of this online p rogram, which res ulted in the re - direction of his - For Jing and Lan, the 174 experience of taking the final exam added to their MCK regarding the weaknesses needing to get fixed and problems calling for more attention. Howe ver, Jing was a little disappointed that the off y reflect s the As the only form of formal self - assessment, the self - quiz component that consisted of pre - quiz practice, the quiz, and automatically generated scores also to some extent facilitated l - monitoring of th e learning process. For instance, Cai viewed the unit - based self - quizzes as indicator s of his learning outcomes for the unit content and tried to analy ze the questions he got wrong to help him improve. Later when he started to view the whole learning proce ss as - , he considered the self - quiz as the most important learning source because the tasks and questions were in the same format as those in the final exam. Lan viewed it as the key reference for important content she should master first, e specially when she realized that it was not possible for her to learn everything presented in each unit. She thus did the self - quiz practice repeatedly till she was confident that she had understood them all. However, other participants, such as May and Ji ng, did not view the self - quiz as an effective means for self - monitoring, because the questions were direct copies from the textbook, and one could just . As Jing pointed out, exercise tricky ˛9 pay attention a really easy to cheat if you want to. For me, I would rather pay more attention to the content in each unit; t herefore, I would turn in the self - quiz just for the purpose of submitting [ to meet the requirements ] ). 175 Feedback from the Teachers and Peers For students in this program, feedback on their task performance was also made available in different forms, includ ing the grading and comments on the five assignments, programmed feedback on self - quiz zes and tasks in the interactive courseware, and final exam grades, as well as unstructured or spontaneous feedback from instructors during the VOB and FTF clas ses, tutors assigned to each study group, and peers. A ll participants recognized the value of teacher feedback in facilitating their learning, especially those who deemed teacher feedback as the main source of information to indicate their learning progres s ; therefore, most of them paid close attention to the feedback they got from the teacher on all occasions. For example, Cai recalled one incidental learning episode during a previous VOB session, in which the teacher corrected a pronunciation error that h e and many other students were not been aware of for the whole time until then . However, overall , the feedback from the VOB and FTF inst ructors and the grading did not seem to play r. First, none of them were active participants during VOB or FTF session s g questions to ask, like Yang. In particular , feedback from the teache rs on their assignments was not informative or consistent for the most part. There was either general feedback without specifying the actual errors or problems, or no feedback at all. assignments received some general fee dback written in English , which only cautioned him of grammar and spelling errors without further indication of the actual errors ( 1 st nd ). two read - 176 only the second one receiving feedback on his performance written in Chinese , including specific words that needed attention skills such as intonation, pace, stress, and reduction, etc. 21 ) . And May did not get any feedback on her writing or speaking besides the scores. Such feedback seeme d ineffective, especially for learners like Yang, who was incapable of identifying errors on his own and had to rely on external feedback . His scores for all of the four assignments in the two courses were below the national average, and the feedback on hi s The comment i n the second writing assignment ew mentioned that his new realization regarding the use of punctuations in English writing. Nonetheless, t he lack of clues might help explain his failure to notic e his own de ficiencies. This was also the case with his read - aloud assignment. As discussed in the previous chapter, even though Yang attended the V OB tutorial before the deadline of the second read - aloud assignment and got some feedback from the teacher, he did not s eem to relate it to his work sample or redo the reco rding to improve it. And in the last interview, when asked about his speaking skills, he still maintained that his pronunciation was all fine, and the only problem was that he read it too fast. Furthermor e , when feedback and comments were speaking, all of them tended to focus only on form, rather than meaning. Such feedback could be 21 1yAý ˙€B˛N#˘° 177 ineffective or even misleading, other important knowledge and skills related to writing or speaking. And it was inconsistent with what the nguage use, content expression, and and organization. process mainly focusing on linguistic accuracy rather than functional language use. The impact of such inadequacy might be even more adverse in an online distance context without regular teacher mediation. In this semester, peer interaction within study group or the wh ole Fall 2013 cohort via the Internet also contributed to the participants MCK development. For learners like Yang, who had great difficulty in understanding the learning tasks and identifying problems on dispensable. It was clear that only through direct instruction and explicit feedback could Yang understand the task requirement s , notice his problem, or recognize the need to change his learning methods. For instance, since he had difficulty understanding the instructions, he had to ask other students about what and how he was supposed to write. Even though there was a sample text to follow, he still did it right . From the 2 nd writi ng assignment, for which he got more detailed feedback from the teacher and his study group peers, he learned that there were rules to follow when writing in English just as writing in Chinese , and he should not write in whatever way he wanted. As reflec ted in the following extract: 178 ( punctuation like comma and period, not as much as I paid attention to punctuation when writing in Chi right; yet my other classmates told me thing s follow certain word, I did not know stuff like this before. ) Through discussing their learning with other classmates, learners ha d also gain ed ideas about how others approached their online English learning, which in turn stimulated self - reflection and attempts to improve their own way of learning. For example, by talking to his classmates and other senior students, Gao worked out t he types of motivational factors that could make his online English learning more effective. Jing recognized the incidental learning opportunities that emerged from collective conversa tions during VOB sessions, group chats on QQ, and from posts on the Disc ussion F orum. Among all the participants, perhaps Lan was the one who benefited the most from peer interaction through her study group activities. Having participated in regular study group activities throughout the semester, Lan regarded this collective learning experience highly beneficial and crucial to achieve and maintain productivity in online distance learning. As she recalled how her study group peers also contributed to her improvements in speaking by study activities: UNIT OK (Sometimes in our gr oup VOB, we would practice speaking. Lately, we have ha ve already formed some habits while speaking English in terms of pronunciation and intonation, sometime s tell what our 179 problems, so we could help each other to improve. Like now I would know I knew I made some progress.) Learner Support Over the semester, a number of learner support component s seemed to have influenced Guide to Success - scheduled teacher - led learning sessions, and study group tutor. First, through studying Guide To Success and completing its assignment, learners had the opportunity to learn how to navigate within the learning ma nagement system, the basic requirements an d procedures, as well as policies and regulations. A s reflected in their assignment s , participants mentioned that they had learned about the procedures, requirements, and regulations about this program, a s well as how to navigate among different learning components and resources. In the interviews later Lan and Jing also talked about strategies of managing online distance language learning introduced in the orientation . Also indicated in the ir responses in the assignment was that this assignment offered opportunities for them to face their fears, concerns, and expectations toward learning Engli sh through this online program. As refl Guide To Success t, 4. some of your anxieties? If so, what were they? ) ( 1— ) / 2.5 180 ( Answer ) : Before the semester started, I used to feel confused and uncertain about this type of learning mode, not sure if the learning could be effective, or if I could learn anything at al de T o learned about the key focus of each course, the best approach to online learning, and ways to organize my study on a weekly basis. Knowing all of these mak e s me feel more confident that I will be able to control my learning pace in the ne xt 2.5 years, and eventually get the BA degree. However, it appeared that not all participants paid close attention to the sections beyond the Introduction in the Guide To Success , especially those concerning strategies for online language learning, such as Cai and Yang. This may partly be explained by the potential language barrier, as t he Introduction section was the only part written in Chinese, and it provided essential information regarding the basic logistics involved in lea rning through this progra m. Yet the following chapters that consisted of detailed strategies on effective English learning in an online environment wer e all written in English, which could be quite a challenge for learners of low English proficiency. In fact, not only did Cai and Yang answer some of the questions regarding language learning strategies wrong, n either of them mentioned anything about the recommended strategies regarding planning their self - study or those about improving d i fferent language skills, not Guide To Success their self - reports on study plan and learning strategies during the interviews. Second, the teacher - directed learning session delivered through VOB and FTF class was another salient contextual feature that contributed to lear understandings of the tasks they were engaged in, task - specific available strategies, and additional learning resources. Notably, the design o f the VOB tutorial s for assignment that were delivered before the submission deadline s provided learners with opportunities to refine and revise their knowledge about specific learning tasks and processes. In such tutorials, the instructor always started f rom 181 explaining the purposes, requirements, and the grading criteria of the assignment, and then encouraged t he students to share their work an d ask questions. It was through these structured le arning activities that learners had opportunities for task - spec ific self - check and self - reflection. For example, as recalled by Gao, in the first assignment tutorial, Gao paid particular attention to comparing the grading criteria against the drafts shared by other students, based on which he gained a better idea of h ow to assess his own work. In the second assignment tutorial, Lan cleared her confusion about the second writing assignment after the teacher explained its purposes. For Jing, in addition to the opportunities for real - time interaction in English, these VOB attention as needed. Cai and May also learned about problems in their pronunciation and speaking skills from attending the VOB tutorial for the read - aloud assignment , and then tried to improve their performance in the second assignment. Nonetheless, the FTF class in general turned out to be quite challenging to some p articipants, especially Cai, Yang , and May . Since the FTF class was designed based on the premise that s students in tasks and activities that required students to use the age points in group or pairs, with the assumption that students had already familiarized themselves with the unit content. Therefore, these participants teaching and felt themselves under - prepared for the FT 22 . This was when she decided that she could not expect the teacher to 22 M™E³8²G-D#E÷ 182 detect problem s for her, bu t rather, she needed to fi gure them out her own and seek help accordingly. Similarly, both attending the FTF class for a few times. This led to their re - evaluation of their learning approach and effectiveness during self - study and drove them to look for ways that could make the self - study more effective. Furthermore, how the teacher approached the language became a model for some participants as to how they could approach target language sourc es they encountered in daily life. For example, i nspired by the English talk show videos played by the teacher during FTF class, Jing went on to search for more video s of this kind on her own time and found them both educational and motivating. Gao also ta l ked about how he gained insight his English ability on his own from various types of in - class activities he had engaged in. He found the by the teacher in terms of how to approach English learning materials and English sources in real - life particularly helpful. As he recalled, 20 ( As I noticed that th e teacher often played English movie s in class; therefore, I learn ed to develop such a habit on my own watching English movies and listening to t he original English conversations . One time I wa s watching one of my all - time favorite s, and I heard the narrator describing - class activity in Unit 1 of where the teacher asked us to find 20 diff erent adjectives in one article. Since I am already experienced in this regard, I would now make conscious effort to attend to such vocabulary while watching the movie . ) 183 Last of all, assistance and feedback from the study group tutors also helped the par ticipants learn about their problems in English and task - specific strategies. Some participants recalled how they benefited from the feedback and assistance from the ir tutors on various occasions. For example, Cai, May and Gao all had quite positive experi ence with their tutors, who, while proofreading their writing drafts, not only pointed out errors, but also explained in detail how they could be fixed. However, the tutor assistance seemed to be so unpredictable that i t could hardly be considered a stab le and reliable component of the support system. For instance, throughout the semester , Yang was not able to get hold of his tutor at all, thus did not get any tutor assistance. At the end of the semester, Gao commented on the unreliable tutor support he h ad noticed when he talked about the lack of sufficient opportunities and channels for him t o get all the answers he wanted . As he explained, VOB ( While rea ding the textbook, for sure I would encounter lots of questions. How or a night school , I could have turned to the teachers directly. But for online learning, ere are not many chances outside the FTF classes, during which I could only ask questions that were more important. Although I could also ask the tutor, he is usually very busy as well, especially hannel to ask many people talking [typing] at the same time, the screen is updated very few atten ) 184 Conclusion This chapter discussed findings that address the third research question, e about language learning in the context of web - A number of contextual factors unique to this learning context were identified to have influenced the changes in the , including the school - p rescribed learning routine including the pre - determined curriculum package, tutorials, and coursework submission timelines, various forms of assessment, feedback on task performance from the teachers and peers, as well as a number of learner support compon ents such as the orientation course, the teacher - led tutorial, and the study group tutor . Notably, t he same contextual factor s could interact differently w ith different participants, thereby casting either positive or negative effects on the change traject - based DLL. the results from all six cases will be discussed with regard to the three research questions. It will be followed by implication s of this study on the design and implementatio ns for designers of web - based distance language programs, online foreign language instructors, and language learners enrolled in web - based distance language programs . Limitations of this study and suggestions on future research will also be discussed. 185 C HAPTER VIII : CONCLU SION S In this chapter, the results of the six individual cases are discussed with regards to each o f the three research questions. Next, t he implication s of the study are addressed for the design and implementation of o nline distance language program, for online distance language instructors and tutors , and for online distance language learners . Finally, the limitations of the study and directions for future research are explored. Discussion uage L earning in Web - Based D istance Mode The first research question sought to understand w h at metacognitive knowledge about language learning adult EFL learners had in the context of web - based distance learning . R esults from the study indicated that learn ers started their first semester in this online English program with marked diversity regarding the scope and specificity of their MCK about web - b ased distance language learning in all of the four dimensions , namely person, task, strategy and context . Such diversity and variations are consistent with previous studies of distance language ( Hurd, 2000 , 2002 ; White, 1999a , 1999b ) . In particular , this study adds to our knowledge about how distance language learners understand the affordances and constraints of the specific online distance learning context in relation to their goals and expectations of web - based DLL. Findings of this study extend knowledge of the web - based distance learning contexts and how such knowl edge is reflected in their planning and managing of online English learning. MCK were identified among the six participants. First , a mong the weaknesses reported by 186 participa nts, low linguistic proficiency in terms of insufficient vocabulary knowledge was the - knowledge. Accordingly, enhancing linguistic proficiency through vocabulary building was one major learning need shared by all si x participants. Such strong awareness of a lack of vocabulary was also found in previous studies of Chinese EFL learners ( L. J . Zhang, 2001 , 2010 ) . This may be explained by the fact that Chinese EFL learners - ( Sorace, 1985 ) , where targ et language input is difficult to come by for the majority of learners, thus lexical knowledge is seen as the building block for any attempt of interacting with the target language. A cross all cases, personal interests in learning the Engli sh language and about English culture, as well as the desire to communicate with native speakers were frequently mentioned. Such interest s functioned as strong motivational force s that not only drove them to sign up for this program in the first place, but also helped maintain their motivation to learn t hroughout the semester. In addition, learners also firmly b elieved that a strong command of English meant a brighter career p ath , even for those who did not have an immediate need to use English in their cur rent profession. This is congruent with previous studies of Chinese EFL learners, who share the view of English as a high prestige global language and a key to social mobility ( K. Hong, 2006 ; L. Pan & Block, 2011 ; Young, 1987 ) . F rom the outset, two distinct features of language learning in a web - based distance conte xt were reported by all participants, namely the freedom to decide when and where to study and the lack of teacher supervision. Consequently, they all recognized the import ant role of effective self - discipline and self - man agement in online learning. This s upports previous findings that distance language learners are generally aware of the importance of self - management and autonomous learning as a response to the demands of DLL ( White, 1995 , 1997 ) . In addition , 187 findings from this study also show ed that learning resources or activities that potentially allow ed time and opportunities for interaction with the teacher and other students were seen by all participants as extremely useful, including the pr e - scheduled teacher - directed VOB and FTF sessions, self - arranged VOB practice sessions within study groups and after class FTF group activities, audio chat throu gh social media, and so forth. reaction to the perceived l ack of interaction with their teacher and classmates in an online environment . More significantly, however, were the contrasting difference s observed i MCK base, which were reflected in the ways they planned, managed, and adjusted their exp ectations toward online English learning, th ereby responsible for the various rate s of adaption and progress among them during th e first semester. These findings are congruent with previous studies that reveal how effective and less effective learners can be distinguished by their MCK base ( Wenden, 1998 ) . - knowledge about their strengths and weaknesses varied substantially in terms of its accuracy and specificity. While some lear ners had a clear and complex self - assessment of their proficiency in differ ent knowledge and skill areas which was backed by keen self - observation of task performances, others only had a vague, limited or even skewed understanding of their English ability. Moreover, participants with broader self - knowledge were more aware of how certain personal qualities could contribute to or hinder their learning in an online distance context, including personality, learning styles, social skills, self - con fidence and per sonal interests. Second, participants differed in their conceptualizations of the nature of the language learning. While some of them viewed the nature of English learning as mainly the accumulation of vocabulary and grammar knowledge (Cai, Yang, May), oth er s believed it to be enculturation 188 into the English culture by learning how to express and communicate effectively in various social situations (Jing, Lan, Gao). Such differences were consistent with the quantitative - qualitative conceptualization of langu age learning proposed by Benson and L or ( 1999 ) , which is related to their strategy knowledge regarding the overall language learning approaches and different language tasks. Findings from this study showed th at w hile all participants acknowledged vocabulary building as one major component of the language learning process, Jing, Lan, and Gao also attached great importance to the development of communicative ability in English through writing and speaking. Moreo ver, n ot only were they aware that different tasks required different strategies, but they also stressed the interconnectedness of the four language skills and the possibility of attending to the improvement of multiple skills simultaneously during one tas k. understanding of the main approach to language learning was mostly limited to the accumulation of linguistic knowledge (May even went as far as claiming English learning did not require any und erstanding, just memorization). Among these participants , the primarily adopted methods were always memorizing the list of key words, phrases, or texts by rote learning, beyond which their strategy repertoire was rather lacking. Nonetheless, t hese findings are only partially consistent with previous studies which show that memorization and surface - learning strategies are the predominant choices among Chinese EFL learners ( Gu, 2003 ; J. Xiao & Hurd, 2007 ) . Rather, it also indicates that functional communicative strategies are also part of some Third, learners also differ significantly in their knowledge about self - regulated learning, namely planning, monitoring and evaluating their language learning. This type of knowledge is particularly crucial for learners in a self - directed learning environment because it ( Cotterall & 189 Murray, 2009, p. 34 ) , and distance learners are e specially at risk if they fail to develop knowledge and strategies that will help them to plan and monitor their work in the absence of regular classroom contact and teacher mediation ( Hurd, 2000 ) . In this study, s ome learners started the first semester with no sp ecific personal study goals or detailed plans regarding time and effort regulation except to follow the teache r and the FTF class. Clearly at this point these learners were not r eady for self - directed learning. Such unpreparedness was also observed in previous studies ( Fish er, Hafner, & Young, 2007 ; X. Zhang & Cui, 2010 ; H. Zhao, et al., 2014 ) . O n the other hand, others brought with them clear personal agenda s and specif ic study goals based on their self - perceived learning needs. They were also aware of a broader range of learning re sources which could facilitate the self - monitor ing of their learning progress. O n the whole, these learners demonstrated much stronger readin ess for taking full responsibility of their learning in this online program more so than the other participants with no personal study plans or goals . This contrasting difference was also manifested in their perceptions and expectation s s role in on line language learning, which was viewed as another defining ( Cotterall, 1995b , 1999 ) . While some learners viewed the teacher as the dominant figure who s hould perform most of the learning functions as in those in traditional FTF classrooms from teaching the knowledge and skills to providing feedback and supervision, others only expected the teachers to provide guidance and help when necessary. Naturally, such different corresponded to the perceptions of their own responsibilities as an online distance learner. For example, learners who believed that the students themselv es should take on full responsibiliti es for their learning also stressed the importance of get ting familiar with the learn ing environment beforehand. Accordingly, they demonstrated a much more thorough understanding of the 190 demands, opportunities, and constraints related to online distance language l earning and this particular program at CF Online . This knowledge helped them make critical evaluations when choosing from different learning sources to serve their own learning needs. T ning of the and personal background on shaping their knowledge about themselves as English learners, the language learning process, and their assumptions and expectations toward web - b ased DLL. As Wenden ( 1998 ) pointed out e and what roles of learners and te achers are or should be is an reflection of the kind of learning and teaching traditions in a certain language learning context ( Gabillon, 2002 ) . In this sense, the - the dominant pedagogical style which has remained to be a teacher - centered, exam - orientated, and grammar - translation model ( L. Pan & Block, 2011 ; L. J. Zhang, 2010 ) could help explain the entering state of some MCK when the semester sta rted. For learners like Cai, Yang, and May , all of their previous English studies had only been in traditional classroom - based settings which were characterized by teacher - directed test - oriented learning focusing predominantly on developing li nguistic prof iciency. This then , at least to some extent, set the stage for the traditional learning approach and expectations they had adopted f or their online English learning . Jing, Lan, and Gao , on the other hand, not only had their previous English studies occurre d mostly in non - traditional learning settings, but all of them also had some type of self - directed language learning exp eriences. Such experiences appeared to have help ed them better foresee and adap t to the demands and requi rements posted by this new lear ning mode. 191 as an fo reign language teacher might also account for her relatively sophisticated MCK about language learning and self - directed learning . Change s in Distance EFL L MCK over Time R esearch question 2 sought to understand how knowledge about language learning change d over time in the context of web - based distance learning . Results CK about English learning in onl ine distance context developed in all of the four dimensions yet in varied degrees. Based on the cross - case analysis, some common trends of change were identified. First, over the semester, all learners further developed their self - knowledge regarding both the progress es they had made, and some deficiencies i n different knowledge and skill areas that had been overlooked, especially in those areas which they had not had much experience previously, such as writing and reading. In the meantime, their awareness enhanced regarding how certain pe rsonal factors ed degrees, they all refined and revised their knowledge about the online language learning process and what was required to learn effectively in this online program. Third, over the semester, all participants developed new personal understandings about ho w to better manage their online English learning and how to approach specific learning tasks. In genera l, more references were made to improving the overall planning and management of the learning process than deal ing with specific learning tasks and proce sses. Along with these changes also came some new understandings of how to utilize different learning materials to facilitate the self - study. This observed trend toward wider and increased metacognitive awareness regarding planning and self - management is c onsistent with previously studies of 192 distance language learners and self - instructed language learners (e.g., Bown, 2009 ; Hauck, 2005 ; White, 1994 , 1995 , 1997 ) . They self - in itiated response s to the demands placed on them by the particular distance learning context, in which learners are expected to manage the learning process by themselves since such learning context does not provide the kind of regular direction and guidance that they are used to in previous classroom - based environment. Nonetheless, given that the participants started their online language learning with varied degrees of readiness , the changes in their MCK over the semester were also in varied rates, depths and scope. On the whole, changes came much later for learners who started with a weaker MCK base (e.g., Cai, Yang, and May ) than for learners with higher levels of MCK (e.g., Jing, Lan, and Gao) . For Cai, Yang, and May, changes in their MCK during the fir st semester can be ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ) , during which they gradually realized what the unique demands and requirements of online distance language learning truly mean t to them selves , and came to see the need to change how learning should be managed; yet, the extent of such changes were not strong enough to result in any substantial change in their actual learning behaviors in this semester. For example, at midterm, all three learners reported some type of uncertainty or anxiety resulted from struggling to FTF class schedule ) and preparing for the upcoming fi nal exam. By the end of the semester, they all came to see that merely relying on the FTF class to study was not enough, and that in the following semester they needed to take more initiative s during self - study by devoting more study time (Yang), by settin g specific study goals and regular effort and using supplemental learning materials (Cai), or simply by ensuring certain study time on a daily basis (May). Such increased awareness of time - and effort - regulation represents an 193 important aspect of self - manag ( White, 1995, p. 217 ) . For the other participant s who were better prepared with a more solid MCK base at the beginning of the semester , their rate s of adaptation were much faste r in that changes observed in their MCK and resultant actions happened mostly in the first few weeks of the semester. By midterm, all lear ners reported that they had mostly adapted to this mode of learning by actively making changes to how they manage d their learning through simplifying and r e - prioritizing their study routines . In particular, at the time of the first interview, Jing had alre ady adjusted her approach and study goals after discovering that the courses were too easy for her. Both Gao and Lan decided to discard their original study plan that aimed at studying everything meticulously in the textbook as they found the wor kload too overwhelmingly large. C onsequently, they adopted a much more simplified lea rning routine that only focused on what they deemed the most important. In addition to new understandings of how to better proceed with language learning in this online program, the re was also increase d metacognitive awareness noted regarding how to better manage their feelings and emotions as they arose along with the learning process. They were particularly aware of the challenge to maintain their motivation for learning at times w hen they felt uninspired or difficult to concentrate. One of the strategies they resorted to was to establish personal connections with the learning materials by applying what they had learned in the program to real - life situations. This was also an indica transferring acquired knowledge and skills to other tasks or situations. As Wenden ( 1998, p. 527 ) dge of the strategy including its purposes and possible outcomes, as well as the kind of mindfulness that will enable the learner to determine whether there are similarities between the pr evious 194 learning tasks in which certain strategy is used and the present one. Moreover, developments in their self - knowledge as to how they could learn best within this particular learning context were also manifested in their awareness of certain limitatio ns of this online program that were constraining their English learning. These findings, again, indicate the crucial role of MCK in self - regulated learning in terms of how it serves as the base for decision - making ( Bown, 2009 ; Rivers, 2001 ; White, 2009 ) . Also significant was the finding that some aspects of particip remained unchanged or unnoticed, as they might be too rigid to give rise to any change happening internally. For example, by the e nd of the semester, Cai came to the reinforced view that this online English program was - , on e he had felt most familiar and comfortable with. unavoidable confusion and uncertainty entailed in distance language learning in terms of what constitute s their own learning experience . For novice online di stance language learners who do not have any previous experience in self - directed language learning characterized with very limited guidan ce from the teacher, it is eas y to feel overwhelmed or lost when facing all the learning materia ls at their disposal, which would have been selected or filtered by the teacher for the students in classroom - based learning (White, 1999) . At times like this, it appeared that Cai automatically fell back on the sit uations he had more experience with, name ly the traditional teacher - mpt to make sense of the current learning progress and make it better focused, despite that he had acknowledged initially that the ab undance of learning resources was an as set of online English learning. , and he was quite insensitive to most contextual cues , it turned out that most of his decision - ma king was based on intuition. Therefore, 195 it was almost impossible for him to identi fy problems in his learning methods on his own without the help and reminder from the teacher or other classmates. For May, although she realized the need to stop being a passive learner, some of her beliefs about language learning were so deeply - rooted th at they continued to limit her awareness of actively expanding her strategy repertoire, such as her assumption that being brave enough to speak up would solve all the problems, and that she could not do anything else with English unless her vocabulary got expanded to a certa in level. As a result, in the first semester she made a lot of efforts in trying to increase her vocabulary through memorizing the word - lost, yet only finding herself getting frustrated by the lack of positive outcomes. Contextual F actor s and MCK C hange s in - based distance lea , based on t he refinement s and revision s of their MCK about language learning in online dist ance learning mode, each of the participants had started to shape their own learning experience in this program, hence their personal learner - context interface. Congruent with what White ( 1999a ) points out, this was a result of the interplay between learner factors and con textual factor s as they exerting influences on each other. A number of contextual factors in this highly struc tured distance EFL program have perceptions. Among them, the pre - packaged learning content, the external deadlines, the pre - determin ed timeline for teacher - directed lea rning sessions, and the forms of assessment created an external structure that largely shaped how learners viewed their language learning should be planned and regulated. This was especially influential for learners who had no experience in self - 196 managing t heir learning without regular teacher supervision and direction. The necessity of - management of study is also highlighted in earlier studies ( Murday, 2004b ; White, 2003 b ) . Moreover, the mandatory coursework deadlines and the scheduled online and FTF classes served as external motivators that pushed learners to regul ate their study time and effort accordingly . As White ( 2003b, p. 115 ) points out, it is particularly challenging for online language learners to maintain motivation wi thout the structuring effect of FTF classes. Therefor e, this school - prescribed learning routine n purposes to have these assignments was to help students the highly structured course may be another indication of their low readiness for self - regulated learning due to a lack of experience in autonomous learning. As White ( 2 003b, p. 204 ) observes: Students who have experienced only teacher - fronted language classes, or students who are less confident about their independent learning skills are two groups who may benefit from a course structure in which processes and paths ar e highly specified, particularly in the initial stages of the course. Further more , the design and delivery of the teacher - directed tutorials facilitated learner s to acquire knowledge about specific learning tasks and task - specific strategies. In the meanti me, the fast pace of these tutorials also cha llenged some could solely distance language lear ning. In addition , as a crucial component of the support system in online distance language learning, peer interaction through various communication channels had also contributed to learn especially for those who had engaged in regular peer interactions and activities. 197 In the meantime, some aspects of t his particular learning context seemed to have inhibited rigid learning structure, characterized by the static and linear mo del of learni ng content, could not provide many opportunities for learners to set and pursue their personal goals, choose the materials they were interested in, and using them in ways that accommodate their learning needs and styles. Such personal exploration is seen a s particularly important for learners to develop knowledge about themselves and how they learn best ( Cotterall & Murray, 2009 ) . Second, learners in this program were not provided with sufficient and well - guided opportunities to reflect upon their own learning process, another essential process for metacognitive development ( Schraw & Moshman, 1995 ; Smith & Craig, 2013 ) . This should be especially necessary for learners wh o have little experience with self - reflection in traditional classroom - performance provided by the grading teachers was inadequate or sometimes even misleading, tion mainly to form s of the target language instead of meaning. Such impact could be particularly detrimental for learners who had to rely mostly on external feedback, such as Yang. In addition, the discrepancy between the objectives of the curriculum and focus of the assessment s could not competence in English. While the course materials are designed with the aim of developing functional use of the target language, the assessmen ts mainly focused on linguistic accuracy, and little guidance was provided to help learners understand the purposes of the learning activities or how to approach them during self - study. As a result, although being able to communicate in English fluently wa s the goal for most of the learners, they were not able to 198 develop much knowledge and skills about how to improve th eir communicative skills in this semester . Last of all, the lack of effort from the school in maintain ing the learning community such as the delayed or no response from the faculty on the Discussion Forum and the inconsistency in tutor assistance and feedback seemed to have affected learner management of their learning through social interaction. As Hurd ( 2005, p. 5 ) argues, in a tutor feedback, paper - based or online, that can best create the conditions for learners to become good critical reflectors and develop self - tutor an d teacher feedback observed in this program is definitely alarming. Implications Findings from this study have important implication s for the design ers of web - based distance language courses, distance language instructors and tutors , and online distance language learners . Implications for Web - Based Distance Language Course Designers In distan ce learning, course materials are considered the main vehicl e for the process of developing the knowledge and skills for autonomous or self - regulated le arning ( Murphy, 2008 ) , which brings particular challenges for course designers. Results from th is study indicate that it is crucial for designer s of online language cours es for distance learners to take into account the s in English learning and use , and they may not assume students enrolled in di stance language program are automatically adequate self - regulated learners because they are now granted with the freedom to manage their own learning. Especially in a typical test - oriented teacher - 199 MCK abo ut language learning in a self - directed context may be much under - developed. Therefore, given the inherent constraints of distance language context, namely the lack of regular teacher mediation and direction ( White, 2009 ) , it may be more effective if course designers c ould strike a balance between maintaining the structure of the course materials and integrating pedagogical capacities for critical reflection and conscious decision - making to promote self - regulated learning ( Murphy, 2005 , 2008 ) . At the same time, it would be helpful if explicit advice is provided and built into the course materials throughout as to when and how to do self - reflection. In language learning context specifi cally , research has shown tha t recording and reflection upon learning progress and strategy use supported by learning portfolios and journal s as a means for awareness - raising have great values in facilitating MCK development ( Little, 2007 ; Lo, 2010 ; Smith & Craig, 2013 ; Yang, 2003 ) . Furthermore, i n addition to the multimodal ity of knowledge p resentation, multiple sources and type s of learning materials can also be provided to the students , which may include the task - based textbook, video s of real - life intera ction s with native speakers, classroom - based learning, and access to target language sources on the web. As in reality people generally learn languages through a mixed means of materials, the use of multiple sources could reflect what actually happens as l earners attempt to approach the target language beyond the distance learning context ( White, 2003b ) . Moreover system, such as the available time and location s for study, as well as the opportunities to use the target language, learning materials of various types and forms that are re lated to real - life situations and accessed by different devices should to be provided to learners in order to accommodate their diverse needs. In particular , as revealed from this study, mobile - as sistant language learning seems to have great potential in enhanc ing personal learning experience in a 200 ( Burston, 2014 ; Chinnery, 2006 ; Godwin - Jones, 2009 ) . In addition to delivering supplementary learning materials and keeping the students updated with program notification s , other components such as language learning games or quick assessmen ts related to the course content can also be delivered to learners. Moreover, t these sources, guidance or modelling on how to evaluate these materials and concrete examples of how to use them should be made available to learners at least in the initial state of learning. Last of all , to encourage effective independent engagement with the materials, it may be helpful to embed clear and suff icient in - text support along with the learning content and activities in the course ware and textbooks so as to guidance the self - study process , and to help learners better understand the task purposes . Implications for Distance Language Instructors and Tutors Results from this study indicate that distance language instructors and tutors play a It is highly important for instructors and tutors to is developmental and dynamic rather than static, and input and feedback f rom the teachers an d tutors can be strong influences in shaping learners' MCK about language learning in a particular learning context. This area of knowledge and sensitivity may be strengthened through professional development or teacher/tutor preparation sessions. Moreover , t this study and the consequently varied rate s of adaptation and adjustments pose unique challenges for online language instructor and tutors. First of all, as some students may not have a clear sense of what learning strategies may benefit them the most, thus, a t least in a transitional phase like the first semester of the DLL program , teachers and tutor s may not expect that students would be able to manipulate the flexibility in such program without adequate guidance. 201 The sharing and modeling of strategy use among instructors and students can help create a collaborative atmosphere as well as provide learners with opportunities to acquire alternative learning approaches or methods that fit better this mode of l anguage learning ( Murday, 2004a ) . Second, some students may need ext ra assistance and guidance to adapt to the online environment, to understand the purposes and requirements of learning tasks, and to become aware of ta sk - specific strategy. Among the desired assistance , the need to design activities or guidance that can he lp learners develop communicative ability in the target language seems especially urgent ( Hampel & Arcos, 2013 ) . It has been noted that many web - based language programs focus on reading, writing, and listening, rather than speaking ( Hopkins, 2010 ) , as does the program in this study. T he re sults of this study show that distance language learners prefer and seek more opportunities for deve loping communicative skills, yet s ome of them know little about how to do it. Therefore, distance language instructors should not revert to teaching grammar and passive language skills online but should promote oral interaction and create opportunities for speaking in the target language. Limiting grammatical presentations and feedbacks that focus on forms, and posting more practice exercises online while freeing more time in the synchronous classroom for speaking would be one way to address this need. Additionally, distance language instru ctors should keep in mind that in the online learning environments peer discussions are as important as in the FTF context. Creating collaborative activities or assessments where students speak to each other in the target language will encourage students t o develop their communicative skills and explore their identity as a learner and user o f the target language ( Eneau & Develotte, 2012 ; Kostina, 2011 ) . Such organized and monitored the ir sense of being part of a learning community. 202 Further more , as shown in this study, students expect the instructors and tutors to provide detailed, timely, and individualized feedback and to be easy to reach. Specifically, it would be more facilitative i f their feedback focus es not only on the product of learning, i.e. the strengths and weaknesses of the assignment, but also the process of learning, i.e. the strategies and actions that can be taken to improve the knowledge and skills in the target languag e ( White, 2003b ) . In the meantime, the need for intervention for stude nts who may be struggling s hould be addressed as well. While some of the opportunities or needs for intervention can be gathered from the data collected on student behavior, online language instructors and tutors should carefully monitor progress (or lack thereof) and prov ide regular contact and feedback t o avoid escalating problems among students who are failing to adapt well. Finally, as an important component of learner support, the tutors may take a greater role in the distance language learning context. First and fore most, their rol e and responsibilities need to be clearly defined and clarified both to tutor s themselves and the students. Also, tutors need to be properly trained in order to provide effective and consistent feedback and support. It would be also very ass uring to the students that both the instructor and the tutor must be available for assistance via email or virtual office hour s on a regular basis to help them ease the anxiety or uncertainty as they are adapting to a new learning mode. Implications for O nline Distance Language Learners In terms of practical suggestions for distance language learners, findings of t his study offer a number of ideas. The first is concerned with the importance of developing social competence that is required for online lang uage learning. As the data show that students enroll in online distance language program start their online distance language learning wit h varying degrees of readiness, thus require different levels of student - teacher interaction. While some 203 teachers or t utors are aware of this situation and may adjust their communication styles to cater s might treat their students in a one - size - fits - all manner. As in online distance learning context it is impossible to completely rely in order to truly get individualized support students need to take the initiative to reach out and let the teachers and tutors know about their needs through open and continuing dialo feeling of connectedness can also be strengthened , and their motivation sustained. The second suggestion for online distance language lea competence in tru ly taking ownership of their language learning. This entails taking charge both internally and externally ( White, 2005a ) affect, including the fluctuations of motivation and emotions one is likely to experience during the online distance learning experience. Distance language learners need to make wider and more frequent use of affective strategies to address the anxieties a nd uncertainties about their progress and the fading learning motivation during the learning process . In addition to self - motivation al strategies, social strategies that aim for actively keep ing connected with other peers and the learning community is part icularly effective for distance language learners and highly plausible as well wi th the support of a variety of I nternet communication technologies ( Morgan, 2012 ) . the learning environment and circumstances to make them optimal for their own language learning. This involves c onstant reflection and evaluation of their own learning strategies and learning progress, which again, can be supported and enhanced by sharing and discussing with their peers and teachers ( Reinders & Hubbard, 2012 ) . 204 Limitations There are some limitations to the current study. First and foremost, due to the unexpected delay at the beginning of the semester, the first individual interviews were not conducted until week 6. This delay might have influenced the data collected to address the first research questions, namely the entering s extent the first few weeks affected their perceptions toward web - based DLL. Second, potential effects caused by the presence of the researcher and her involvement in t learning process during the semester cannot be rule d out. It is possible that the individual interviews and weekly tutoring provided as incentive for participation have their learning experiences they may have become more aware of themselves as language learners, the learning process , strategies or the learning context. Yet the degree to which the interviews promoted the development in their MCK, or influenced the MCK th ey were able to articulate, cannot be measured. Third, t verbal account. Their self - report cannot be regarded as a complete account of their MCK or its development over time. Ra ther, it reflects the knowledge they were able to articulate or were conscious of at the time. In addition, participants of the six individual cases were selected from only those students who voluntarily chose to fill o ut and return the OLRS survey. I t is possible that the students who did not return their survey had very different MCK base s . In addition, ance and participation, they could only provide an incomplete account of their learning experience over the semester, as not all information regarding their actual use of the different components of the learning management system were collected. This information can improve the data triangulation 205 in terms of verifying the chan ges in their MCK and the resultant learning behavior s . Finally, the since for some participants the entrance English exam was waived , and no performance data on their final exams were collected as they were not available. Future Research Building on results from t his study, several areas can be explored in future research. First, considering the very different MCK base s and the changes over the semester among all six participants, it is possible that with additional participants, or if the study extends to more than K and the trends of change can be identified. This can also be done by devel oping a survey questionnaire to be administered among a large number of online language learners, and in various types of learning environments, such as self - access centers and blended /hybrid language programs. Also, a large scale quantitative research sup plemented by qualitative measures can for sure increase generalizability. In addition, among the contextual influences identified in this study , social interaction with the teacher and peers is especially worthy of careful investigation, as socia l interaction is considered of particular importance in knowledge construction ( Barc elos, 2003 ) . Finally, interventions may be developed and tested to establish methods that help those students who struggle to adapt to online distance language learning. Interventions may be introduced in learner training or preparation at the beginning, or in form s of targeted strategy instruction during the learning process, protocols for assistance seeking and provision, or alternative activities for students w ho have severe difficulties with the course requirements or who have progressed beyond the ba sic requirements. The effectiveness of these interventions sho uld be established to allow best - practice recommendations for future adoption. 206 APPENDICES 207 Appendix A: Online Learning Readiness Scale 23 Name: ___________________ B eiwai Online ID: __________________ Email: _ __________________ Instruction: Below are some statements about aspects of online learning. Read each statement, reflect upon your experience as an online learner, and then decide if you: (1) strong ly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) partially disagree, (4) partially agree, (5) agree, and (6) strongly agree to these statement. Remember there are no right or wrong answers, just answer as accurately as possible. Please circle the number of your choice: Str ongly Disagree Disagree Partially Disagree Partially Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 23 1. I feel confident in performing the basic functions of Microsoft Office programs (MS Word, MS Excel, and MS PowerPoint) 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. I feel confident in my knowledge and skills of how to manage software for online learning. 1 2 3 4 5 6 3. I feel confident in using the Internet (Google, Yahoo, Baidu, Sina, Sohu, etc.) to find or gather information for online learni ng 1 2 3 4 5 6 4. I carry out my own study plan. 1 2 3 4 5 6 5. I seek assistance when facing learning problems. 1 2 3 4 5 6 6. I manage time well. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. I set up my learning goals 1 2 3 4 5 6 8. I have higher expectations for my learning performance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 9. I can direct my own learning progress. 1 2 3 4 5 6 10. I am not distracted by other online activities when learning online (instant messages, miniblog, Internet surfing). 1 2 3 4 5 6 11. I repeated the online instructional materials on the basis of my needs. 1 2 3 4 5 6 12. I am open to new ideas. 1 2 3 4 5 6 13. I have motivation to learn. 1 2 3 4 5 6 208 Based on ( Hung, et al., 2010 ) (Hung, Chou, Chen, & Own, 2010) 14. I improve from my mistakes. 1 2 3 4 5 6 15. I like to share my ideas with others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 16. I feel confident in using onl ine tools (email, discussion board, QQ, chatrooms, miniblog) to effectively communicate with others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 17. I feel confident in expressing myself (emotions and humor) through text. 1 2 3 4 5 6 18. I feel conf ident in posting questions in online discussions 1 2 3 4 5 6 209 Appendix B: Language Learning Background and Technology Use Survey (Beginning of semester) 1. Do you have any experience learning another foreign language other than English? ____ YES ____ NO 2. If yes, please specify: ______________________ 3. Have you taken any distance language classes before? a. ____ YES ____ NO b. If yes, in what format? ____ Correspondence course __ __ radio and TV ____ web - based 4. Why do you come back to continue English learning (choose all that apply) ? ___ Interested in language and culture ___ To go/travel abroad ___ To have more professional development ___ For fut ure job marketing ___ To communicate with native speakers Other __________________________ 5. Why do you choose to learn English Online (choose all that apply) ? ___ Because I enjoy using computers ___ Because I wanted to try a new way to take a course ___ Because this program works well with my other commitments in life ___ Because I think I can practice English more on the computer and via internet Other (plea se specify): ___________________ 6. it (by borrowing it or by using it in a lab) easily, with difficulty, or not at all. Own/have it Can find it easily Can find with diff iculty PC desktop computer PC laptop Mac desktop computer Mac laptop Tablet (e.g., iPad, Samsung Note, Kindle, etc.) Computer speakers Headphones Microphone 210 Printer Internet access Webcam Digital camera Video camera 7. How long have you been using a computer? __________ 8. How hours do you use computer in a typical day? __________ 9. Mark if you use the following items in your personal life, in your language class, and if you believe the y are or could be useful for language learning. I use this for my personal life We have used this in language classes I think this is/ would be useful for language learning 1 Public websites 2 Course websites 3 Blogs 4 Wikis 5 Email 6 Instant messaging 7 Weibo 8 WeChat 9 Video chat 10 listservs 11 V ideo/audio materials 12 O nline digital video/audio 13 Podcasts/videocasts 14 C omputer games 15 CD - ROMs/DVDs 16 online exercises/quizzes 17 SNS 19 Text /Multimedia messaging 10. Do you regularly get together with a group of people online? ___ YES ___NO If YES, based on what common factor? ___ students ___ family members ___ hobbies/fan clubs ___ frien ds ___ games other _______________ Based on ( Ushida, 2005b ; Winke & Goertler, 2008a ) 211 Appendix C: Individual interviews (B eginning of semester) 1. Previous English learning experience: a. How many years have you been learning English? b. W hat other English learning experiences have you had (residence in an English speaking country, study abroad, vacations, etc.)? c. What are the typica l ways of instruction you have experienced? D o you think it fits you? d. Could you describe your methods for English learning? What methods work best for you? i. 2. Compare learning English with learning other subject, what do you think are the differences and similarities? 3. English learning? 4. What do you consider the characteristics of a good language learner? 5. Do you consider yourself a good language learner? Why or why not? 6. (a) Think about areas in English in which you have done well (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, etc.). Name the one area where you have had the most success. (b) Why have you been successful in this area? (c) Will online learning e nvironment enhance or hinder your strengths in English? 7. (a) Think about areas in English in which you have not done so well (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, etc.). Name the one area where you have had the least success. (b) Why have you been less successful in this area? (c) Will online learning environment in English? 8. you tell me more about your motivation to study Eng lish? 9. think this online program can fit you in this (these) way(s)? a. What do you expect to learn at Beiwai Online? 10. Questions regarding technology use in the survey: a. In the survey, you mentioned a number of technologies that had been used in your language class. Could you tell me: 212 i. What language were they used for? ii. How they were used? iii. Were they helpful? a. In the survey, you mentioned a number of technologies that you thought useful for language learning. In what way(s) do you think they are useful? 11. Do you think there is/might be any difference between learning English online and learning in face - to - face classroom? a. In which environment classroom or online do you feel that you can learn better? Why? b. How do you think the online/distance learning will affect/influence your English study? Discuss both positive and negative impac t on your strength and weaknesses. 12. How do you manage to study English with this program during this seme ster? Could you step me through the process of learning one unit or a typical week. a. How do you organize your time to study English during this semester? You could try to describe how you may start the first unit. b. What are the resources, materials and acti vities on Beiwai Online or the internet you use to study? c. What are the tools or technologies on Beiwai Online or the internet that you use to study? d. e. What the study group or other classmates co uld do to help you? 13. [Yoked subject procedure 24 ] Imaging that you are talking to someone who is very interested in learning English through Beiwai Online. Before making the decision, he/she is asking you a number of questions about learning English in the we b - based environment: a. What is it like being an online distance English learner? b. What does online English learning involve? i. What kinds of things do you have to do? c. How do you set goals for studying? 24 A number of questions are put to the students, and they are asked to respond as if they were speaking with another perspective online EFL student who is thinking about learning English through web - based distance course or is about to start learning in the same program. This hypothetical student is to be described as unfamiliar with distance learning through an online program, that is someone who is in the same situation as learner themselves at the start of the semester. The questions are phrased in suc h a way as to represent the kinds of things a prospective student may ask. 213 d. What do you need to do to be successful in online Engl ish learning? How are these different from those you use in face to face classes e. What challenges/problems/difficulties do you anticipate in your English study online during this semester? i. How you do plan to tackle these problems? ii. Where can you get help? 214 Appendix D : Individual interviews ( Midterm ) 1. How is your learning progress so far ? a. Where are you according to the syllabus? b. Completion of course work? 2. Could you describe how you managed your study? a. You can give an example of one unit or o ne week (Reminder of previously mentioned study plans). b. How have you been able to manage your study and organize your time as you have planned at the beginning (refer to the 1 st interview)? c. Do you think that the way you have planned or managed or study is effective? Why or why not? d. Do you want to keep it this way or make some changes? 3. How is your study going so far? a. What does _____ (well, badly, pretty well. . .) mean for you? b. What progress do you think you have made during these past few weeks? (Person) i. Language ability ii. Learning skills c. On what basis do you gauge your progress in this program? (Person/Task) d. What has helped / worked (content, activity, tools, and strategies) for you to make such progress? e. Have you done anything to ensure that you are makin g progress in your English learning? i. By yourself? ii. Seeking for help/assistance? f. Have you encountered any trouble, difficulty, uneasiness during your learning? i. What do you think the reasons are for these issues? ii. Have you had any solution to solve them? By yourself? Seeking for help/assistance? 4. How have you utilized the available tools and resources to study? And how do you feel about their usefulness to you? 215 a. Have you used the learning resources and materials (refer to the 1 st interview)? What else have you used? Are they helpful? b. Have you used the learning tools and technologies (refer to the 1 st interview)? What else have you used? Are they helpful? c. Have you been keeping in touch with your teacher and classmates? If so, in what way? d. Have you been engaged i n online learning activities? How did it go? 5. So far, how do you think the web - based distance learning has affected/influenced your English study this semester? Discuss both positive and negative impact. 6. How are you going to go about your study next? a. What areas you want to focus? b. What new methods do you want to try? 7. Please answer the following questions about your experience as an online distance language learner so far : a. What does learning English online mean to you? b. As a distance language learner, what do you have to do? c. When I started learning English, what did you expect? What did you not expect? d. Regarding learning English online, what are you beginning to realize now? 216 Appendix E: Individual interviews (End of semester) 1. How is your learning prog ress so far ? a. Have you finished all the units? b. Have you completed all the assignments? 2. Have you been managing your study differently since last time we talked? a. If so, why? b. How have you been able to manage your study and organize your time as you planned (r efer to 1 st and 2 nd interview)? c. Do you think that the way you have planned or managed or study is effective? Why or why not? 3. Since our last talk, how has your study been going? a. What does _____ (well, badly, pretty well. . .) mean for you? b. Have you met yo nd interview)? c. On what basis do you gauge that you have or have not met your goal? d. What progress do you think you have made during these past few weeks? i. Language ability ii. Learning skills e. What has helped / worked (content, activity, tools, and strategies) for you to make such progress? f. Have you done anything to ensure that you are making progress in your English learning? i. By yourself? ii. Seeking for help/assistance? g. Have you encountered any trouble, difficulty, uneasiness during your l earning? i. What do you think the reasons are for these issues? ii. Have you had any solution to solve them? By yourself? Seeking for help/assistance? 4. How have you utilized the available tools and resources to study differently? And how do you feel about their usefulness to you now? 217 e. Have you used the learning resources and materials (refer to the 1 st & 2 nd interview)? What else have you used? Are they helpful? f. Have you used the learning tools and technologies (refer to the 1 st and 2 nd interview)? What else h ave you used? Are they helpful? g. Have you been keeping in touch with your teacher and classmates? If so, in what way? a. Have you been engaged in online learning activities? How did it go? 5. Looking back into the whole semester, what progress do you think you h ave made? a. Language competence b. Learning ability 6. After this semester of learning, how would you describe yourself as an online distance EFL learner? a. What are your strengths and weaknesses? b. In what ways do you work best? c. What is your preferred way of learn ing? 7. After this semester of learning English online, are you happy with your learning progress ? Now do you consider yourself as a successful English learner in distance language class? 8. After this semester of learning English online, how do you think the w eb - based distance learning has affected/influenced your English study this semester? Discuss both positive and negative impact. 9. Do you think this mode of learning fits you? Why? 10. Based on your experience in this semester, what is your goal/plan to go abou t your study next? a. Language competence b. Learning methods, what do you want to the same, what do you want to do differently? 11. [Yoked subject procedure] Imaging that you are talking to someone who is about to start his/her English study at Beiwai Online. Befo re the new semester starts, he/she is asking you a number of questions about your learning experience so far: c. What is it like being an online EFL student? d. What does online English learning involve? i. What kinds of things do you have to do? What is involve d in the learning process? 218 ii. How do you go about learning English as online distance student? What do you do to learn? e. Do you set goals for studying? What kinds of goals? How to make sure your goals have been reached? f. How to be successful in online Englis h learning? g. 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