[J l f” P 4 . (D :3 DJ H (D "‘—' ABSTRACT STYLES OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF VENEZUELAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: A REPLICATION AND EXTENSION BY Armando Villarroel This research tests the generality of a theory of social action based on a three-fold typology of social participation styles. The three genotype concepts on which the theory rests are postulated to correspond to three principal motivational meanings. These genotypes are called normative, affiliative and purposive. In this research, the genotypes are specified in content and linked to three phenotypic styles of political participation, identified as spectator, booster and gladiator. Questionnaire information was collected from a sample of 509 Venezuelan university students. The data dealt with attitudes, personal characteristics and patterns of political participation in their country's 1973 national electoral campaigns. A factor analysis of nine- teen participation activities showed the existence of three distinctive contents of participation behavior; these correSponded to the three phenotypes predicated by the were teste: variables 1 :is resea: based on a Th4 articipat. 1'23 predic 1mm; '“I'vbural 33mique ‘ £1 kl») this e~ ‘16 fiI‘St c \ 1'18 resea; Armando Villarroel theory. A comparison was made of these three distinctive contents of participation behavior with similar results obtained in an earlier study in which the same dimensions were tested. The degree of correspondence of the dependent variables prescribed the feasibility of the comparison of this research with the previous one. This comparison was based on a replication of the measures of the first study. The motivational structure of each one of the participation styles was determined in order to evaluate the predictive power of a set of thirty-six social- structural and personality variables. A multi-variate technique which allows for interaction was used in perform- ing this evaluation. The comparison of these results with the first study was the "virtual" replication phase of this research. After comparisons were performed between the hypo- thesized relationships associated with each style and the results of the two studies, a few of the variables which showed consistently low explanatory power were identified. These variables were substituted in a new multivariate model by others which were thought to have better explana- tory capacity. This was called the "systematic" replica- tion. An evaluation of the results of both the virtual and systematic replications shows parental political interest, assertiveness, intrinsic career involvement and n... ‘ '=.'.a..atlon (‘I tree style came of c sgectator s '.:.;-c:tance , ”1‘ . lS..c‘.thI‘., :Ltural t; '«Ch have Armando Villarroel evaluation of self in past as accurate predictors of all three styles of political participation as seen in the degree of correspondence held across time. For the spectator style the variables which have retained their importance over time include: political efficacy, social isolation, punitiveness, social reform orientation, and student role responsibility. These variables are all characteristic of the normative style of social participa- tion, since they stress conformity and support of socio- cultural traditions. With regard to gladiator the variables which have remained important include political efficacy, self-satisfaction and student role responsibility. These variables indicate the purposive nature of the gladiator style: the expression and attainment of rational mastery over objects and events internal and external to the actor. Finally for booster participation the variables which have consistent importance include: extroversion and leisure— time socializing. These variables defined the affiliative style; high valuation of and search for affective support. In the systematic replication modernization was shown to be an important predictor for booster and gladiator styles and satisfaction with life as a student is an important predictor for booster and gladiator. These two variables are theoretically linked to the styles where the relationships were found. Aftc tests of the. gettial the: assertion t? apirical 6'. 3.555993 the Epirical c 2e ma in pc Armando Villarroel After studying the results of several independent tests'of the empirical foundations on which the tricompo- nential theory is based, the evidence seems to justify the assertion that both the conceptual framework and the empirical evidence are sound. No serious discrepancies between the hypotheses derived from the tricomponential theory and the two sets of empirical findings were found. Empirical coincidence represented a major confirmation of the main postulates of the theory. STYLES OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF VENEZUELAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: A REPLICATION AND EXTENSION BY Armando Villarroel A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1975 E knight t Ammo vn ‘- J13 © Copyr ight by ARMANDO VILLARROEL 1975 a Teena y Armando Raul ii I would i :ezbers of my 603 Elgisanen and Bone meats and so; 3 I have had site the beginn instant source all a friend. A . . D ‘ 8 3.0. essor Berna: 719 original ids 1131‘: research u ‘53'3h0109y Semi: firing all Phas. :‘nh #:c lfiShlESs 1y .IL‘~~' . lon. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to the members of my doctoral committee. Professors Frederick B. Waisanen and Donald W. Olmsted provided me with insightful comments and suggestions. Professor J. Allan Beegle, with whom I have had the privilege of being associated with since the beginning of my graduate training, has been a constant source of encouragement, a good teacher and above‘ all a friend. A special note of gratitude is due to Professor Bernard M. Finifter, the chairman of my committee. The original idea of replicating Dr. Finifter's disserta- tion research took shape during his Comparative Social Psychology Seminar (Soc 982) taught in the Winter of 1972. During all phases of this research Dr. Finifter offered unselfishlessly of his time, expertise, and sociological imagination. The Department of Sociology at Michigan State University, by granting me Teaching Assistantships and a Research Assistantship in the Comparative Sociology Pro- gram, provided me financial aid that enabled me to complete this project. I also thank the Fondo Nacional de iii :nvestigaciones Ld'v'estigaciones mercies of the ' I: aided at differ: Thanks :I students who f1; re.- data for th. 219 offered by 3:. Luis Manuel managements 50 .5110 helped me a I Want 31" parents Dr. de VillarrOei' 3° Lamb . Investigaciones Agropecuarias and the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnologicas (CONICIT), both agencies of the Venezuelan government, for the help pro- vided at different stages of my graduate training. Thanks are also given to the anonymous 509 UCV students who filled out the questionnaires providing the raw data for this dissertation. I also appreciate the help offered by those who like Elizabeth de Cenborain and Dr. Luis Manuel Manzanilla helped me to make the necessary arrangements for collecting the data, also thanks to those who helped me administering and coding the questionnaires. I want to recognize the moral support provided by my parents Dr. Damaso Villarroel and Ascension Villalba de Villarroel, and my parents—in-law, Mr. and Mrs. Charles D. Lamb. I also recognize that kind of support from other persons such as Dr. Manuel Alers-Montalvo, Dr. Luis Manuel Pefialver and Dr. Elizabeth de Caldera and many others whom I fail to mention. Special recognition is given to Gary and Lauren Shepherd for their help in so many different ways. Thanks also to Irene Orr for her very efficient secretarial assistance. My deepest gratitude goes to my wife, Teena, and to my son, Armando Raul, to the two of them I dedicate iv dais work. Teer. die going was It able ways. Arne cpgortunity to ‘ this work. Teena has provided me with encouragement when the going was rough, and lots of help in many undescrib- able ways. Armando Rafil has given me inspiration and the opportunity to get away from this work. DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . LIST OF TABLES . . Chapter I. II. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM THE TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 0 O O O O O O O 0 iii . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction to the Research Problem . . . 1 Importance of Replication Studies . . . . 2 The Replication Strategies . . . . . . 4 RESEARCH METHOD . . . . . . . . . 11 Background of the Field Work . . . . . 12 Background of the University Population Studied . . . . . . . . 15 Sample Design and Data Collection Procedures Sample Design Data Collection Procedures . . . . . 25 Comparison of Some Characteristics of the UCV and UCAB Samples . . . . 29 Changes in the Political System Which Could Possibly Have an Influence on the Patterns of Political Participa- tion of the Members of the New Sample vi . . . . . . . . . 20 . . . . . . . . 22 . . . . . . . . . 31 vmo . [fl ._.-.tATION ACES-CREW 31E}; T . LIST OF TABLES Ziapter I. THE REE In: In; The TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction to the Research Problem . . . 1 Importance of Replication Studies . . . . 2 The Replication Strategies . . . . . . 4 II. THE RESEARCH METHOD . . . . . . . . . . 11 Background of the Field Work . . . . . 12 Background of the University Population Studied . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Sample Design and Data Collection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Sample Design . . . . . . . . 22 Data Collection Procedures . . . . . 25 Comparison of Some Characteristics of the UCV and UCAB Samples . . . . 29 Changes in the Political System Which Could Possibly Have an Influence on the Patterns of Political Participa— tion of the Members of the New Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 vi Chapter III. THE VIRT The I3»; Pro. Eva 0rd Rat 4 ~‘ 0 Ev EV S 9" ‘ ‘ Y L“ “A: Chapter III. THE VIRTUAL REPLICATION . . . . . . . The Construction of Measures of the Dependent Variables . . . . . Discussion of the Literature on the Measure of Political Participation Discussion of the Dependent Variables Measures . . . . . . Comparison of the Dependent Variable Scales of Political Participation . Procedures to Evaluate the Virtual Replication . . . . . . . Evaluation of the AID Comparison . . . Socioeconomic Status . . . . . . Demographic Characteristics . . . Socialization . . . . . . . . Personality Characteristics . . . Career Orientation . . . . . . Social Integration . . . . . . Life Evaluation, Happiness and Optimism . . . . . . . . Participation-Specific Attitudes . . Overall Comparison Between the AID Models of the Two Studies . Ordering the Variables with Regard to the Degree of Agreement of the Hypotheses and the Results of the Two Studies . . Rationale for Excluding Variables for the Systematic Replication . . . . IV. THE SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION . . . . . . Evaluation of the AID Model . . . . . Al. Modernization . . . . . . A2. Place of Residence . . . . . A3. Nature of Field of Study . . . A4. Satisfaction with Life as Student A5. Scholastic Ability . . . . Evaluation of the AID Results for the Systematic Replication . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . vii Page 35 36 36 39 49 56 58 65 68 79 86 113 119 125 131 138 138 140 143 143 147 155 157 158 160 163 165 'N"; 19 :‘ADJLJUA PEEXDICES HY . 8' Y? Lin 1”? Q... ’1? 51. SPECIMZT BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . SPECIMEN OF LETTERS AUTHORIZING THE STUDY ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE CODEBOOK APPENDICES I. II. QUESTIONNAIRE . . III. CODEBOOK . . . IV. V. CURVES FOR PATTERN OF CURVILINEARITY OF SELECTED VARIABLES viii Page 170 179 181 208 261 285 hare LAJ a CD 0 Number a Used t Correlai Arrah; Arranger Partic Spearma: Ranks Paren‘ Depend Those Varia} Polit Charact Measu Hypothe Predj Part: Cross potEnt. and 1 Part Table LIST OF TABLES Page Number and Percentages of Questionnaires Used by Faculty . . . . . . . . . . 29 Correlations Among Political Activities, Arranged in a Simplex Matrix . . . . . . 45 Arranged Rotated Factor Matrix of Political Participation Items: UCAB and UCV Studies . 45 Spearman Correlation Coefficients of PEP Ranks and Levels of Significance (in parentheses) Between the Two PrOposed Dependent Variable Scales, and Between Those Scales and the Original Dependent Variable Scales. Three Styles of Political Participation . . . . . . . . 53 Characteristics of the Dependent Variable Measures, UCAB and UCV Studies Compared . . 54 Hypothesized Relationships of Variables for Predicting Three Styles of Political Participation: Expected Directions and Cross-Style Orders of Explanatory Power . . 59 Potential Explanatory Power (PEP) Coefficients and Down Ranks for Three Styles of Political Participation: UCAB and UCV Studies . . . 62 Hypothesized Relationships of Variables for Predicting Three Styles of Political Participation: Expected Directions and Cross-Style Rank Orders of Explanatory Power. Cross-Style and Down-Style Rank Orders of Explanatory Power: UCAB and UCV Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 ix Charactc Scales Correla: I Arrange: Q-Sor: Arrange; Measu: Isolaf in Pe: Hypothe; Predi' Parti< Cross- Power' SYStema Power Thr8e Systema RElat Three EXPec Order Cross Exple Charac Charac Life Table 10. 11. 12. 13. ‘ 14. 15. 16. 17. Page Characteristics of the Independent Variables Scales Used in the Virtual Replication . . . 81 Correlations Among Actual Q-Sort SelfnRatings . 88 Arranged Rotated Factor Matrix for Actual Q-Sort Self Ratings; UCAB and UCV Studies . . 90 Arranged Rotated Factor Matrix of Items Measuring Personal Efficacy,.Social Isolation, Political Efficacy, and Faith in People; UCAB and UCV Studies . . . . . 102 Hypothesized Relationships of Variables for Predicting Three Styles of Political Participation: Expected Directions and Cross-Style Rank Orders of Explanatory Power. New Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 144 Systematic Replication: Potential Explanatory Power (PEP) Coefficients and Down Ranks for Three Styles of Political Participation . . 145 Systematic Replication: Hypothesized ° Relationships of Variables for Predicting Three Styles of Political Participation: Expected Directions and Cross-Style Rank Orders of Explanatory Power. Obtained Cross-Style and Down-Style Rank Orders of Explanatory Power . . . . . . . . . . 146 Characteristics of the Modernization Scale . . 154 Characteristics of the Satisfaction with Life as Student Scale . . . . . . . . 160 Intr< Identiii 2:; the underste inese regularit :cacerhs of soc and" patterns Venezuelan uni‘ CHAPTER I THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Introduction to the Research Problem Identification of patterns of social participation, and the understanding of the mechanisms responsible for these regularities of behavior is one of the most important concerns of sociology. In this dissertation I intend to study patterns of political participation of a sample of Venezuelan university students in their country's 1973 political campaigns. This research is an attempt to replicate and extend an earlier study by Finifter (1968), which is based on a general theoretical orientation called the "tricomponential theory of social action" (Finifter, 1972a). Finifter's study was an investigation of patterns of political parti- cipation of a sample of university students in the Venezuelan political campaigns of 1963. The results of that research demonstrated (Finifter 1968, 1972a, 1972b) the existence Of three distinctive styles of political participation which conform to derivations from the tricomponential theory. In: ' —‘— Replicati I ezeluating empiril 51:: tests have 5 ":2: are not as frl | anerimental p51": approaches the IF: inefficient re; tie reason for t? tsence of an advl 2f replication. I feel t .e techniques c .t ( -- \1) agreement .ey . ces 18 nom- San if , EN WQuld p Tet A Of thee; Importance of Replication Studies Replication of studies can provide evidence for evaluating empirical findings and theoretical assumptions. Such tests have served invaluably in the natural sciences, but are not as frequent in the social sciences. Even in experimental psychology, a field which more closely approaches the methods of the natural sciences, the absence of sufficient replications has been noted (Berne, 1973). One reason for the lack of replications in sociology is the absence of an adequate theory of the logic and techniques of replication. I feel that both the development of the theory and the techniques of replication have been hindered by the lack of (l) agreement among leading sociologists on the possi- bility of arriving at generalizable findings, and (2) agree— ment on the methodology for obtaining these generalizations. I have organized the ideas expressed by several important authors with regard to these two issues into three major positions. Position One is illustrated by Raymond Aron (1959) who states that the only reasonable approach of the social sciences is nomothetic. Since social relations should be seen as a unique series of events, adherents to this point of view would not find any real necessity for the develop- ment of a theory of replication. Position Two, advanced by scholars who mainly sustain a social anthropological ;:::oach: proposes we atolicable tC teitsdclogy is not Eel-sped. Posit; Tillie: (1971), arl 22:: the possibil. :f s;r*.-'ey methods: :::ial methodolg 325! positions 1 ii: the awarenes E3353M}? to de 5 e Ir: two others . The undeI :trrespond to th‘ 15st for genera :zre plausible D :eiures have bee :ezzhhiques is c? 11:1." which is '4" Commiter s . .‘ h r “33‘”. Sh EMEQQIES can me More tr- c 2F“ .;:>dar‘ if1 “ ‘f‘ 1’ male v.1 ‘lcl approach, proposes that participant observation methods are more applicable to obtain generalizations since survey methodology is not applicable or has not been sufficiently developed. Position Three represented by Rokkan (1969), Vallier (1971), and Przeworski and Teune (1970) formulates both the possibility of generalizable findings and the use of survey methodology. Even though the elucidation of the crucial methodological problems presented by these three major positions is beyond the scope of this work, I think that the awareness of different alternatives makes it necessary to defend why a particular one was chosen over the two others. The underlying ideas behind this dissertation will correspond to those of position Three mentioned above. The quest for generalization through the use of surveys is more plausible now, since more sophisticated survey pro- cedures have been developed.1 The development of these techniques is closely linked to the so-called "data revolu- tion," which is a consequence of the widespread availability of computers. The use of surveys will also allow both the establishment of data banks2 to facilitate replication 1Marsh (1967: 281) states that: ". . . use of survey procedures can provide data just as reliably and effectively as the more traditional participant observation methods can." 2Finifter (1975) points out the importance of secondary analysis of data for replication purposes. The 1nsufficient use of existing data resources has been a product of the undue importance assigned to "fresh" data 1n certain social scientific circles. Studies, and a 1m azalysis allows satanic and int! iependent var iab In this :ation strategie for all practi sing the same “ a new POPUIat studies, and a multi—level analysis approach. This type of analysis allows for the isolation and differentiation of systemic and inter-systemic differences with regard to the dependent variables under consideration. The Replication Strategies . In this dissertation I will use two types of repli- cation strategies: "virtual" and "systematic." The first (for all practical purposes) repeats the original study asking the same questions and using the same methodology on a new population. The "systematic" replication is an attempt to obtain new findings which are expected from logical implications of the theory. The goals of the virtual replication are both theore- tical and empirical. The theoretical goal is to test the generality of the tricomponential theory of social action. The tricomponential theory is an abstract and general theory which is designed not to be restricted to a specific instance of social participation. Social participation encompasses many aspects of social interaction. It includes participa- tion in any formal or informal groups: in the family, reli- gious organizations, sports, politics, etc. The tricompo- nential theory should be applicable to all of these specific settings. 3For a detailed discussion of these two replication strategies see Finifter (1972c). A third strategy which is also used in replications efforts is the "random subsample replication" (RSSR), which has consequences for the develop- ment of this theory, as will be indicated later. The tricr decry in the se: is deduced from 7 tested by enpiri :Tevelopnent of t aggroxination to “ process of cl variable is link 3W. The vi: test the validit zest fundamenta‘ 3.3 typolOgy CI is predicated OI _— —L.— — Which participai etypological C: associated with led light on t decry is also alert researchE hgs in differe if its abstract figures the us 31th particular The the u A ‘t: ecstulated The tricomponential theory is intended to be a theory in the sense (Merton, 1949) that every proposition is deduced from more fundamental propositions, and can be tested by empirical evidence. At this point, however, the development of the theory allows only for a suggestive approximation to this degree of comprehensive formulation. The process of derivation is imprecise, and not every variable is linked to formal statements derived from the theory. The virtual replication hopefully will serve to test the validity of the postulates of the theory. The most fundamental propositions in this theory are a three— fold typology of social participation styles. This typology is predicated on the distinctive motivational meanings which participation has for different actors. By proposing a typological classification of the motivational meanings associated with social participation the theory intends to shed light on this important sociological phenomenon. The theory is also orientational in that it is intended to alert researchers to the existence of these types of mean— ings in different forms of social participation. Because of its abstractness and generality its empirical grounding requires the use of auxiliary micro-theories which deal with particular aspects of social participation. The theory rests on three genotypic concepts which are postulated to correspond to three principal motivational :easings. The fi :aracterized by is often achieve; :ltural traditic action is called valuation of and genst'fpe 0f acti the pursuit. are: objects and In the E is normative, c- ;eciiied in CO? phenotypic styl: ‘4':er as Spectzl Style refers bol "iii. and to di SIC-h activity . This ty IESis on both heretical fou n'o o '? s O‘ ML rt of rappq meanings. The first genotype is called normative: it is characterized by adaptive structuring of experience which is often achieved through conformity and support for socio- cultural traditions. The second genotypic component of action is called affiliative: it is characterized by a high valuation of and search for affective support. The third genotype of action is called purposive: it is characterized by the pursuit, eXpression and attainment of rational mastery over objects and events internal and external to the actor. In the particular case of participation in politics, the normative, affiliative and purposive genotypes are specified in content and theoretically linked to three phenotypic styles of social participation identified reSpec- tively as Spectator, booster and gladiator. The concept of style refers both to a person's preferred pattern of acti— vity, and to different personality structures which motivate such activity. This typology of fundamental components of action rests on both theoretical and empirical foundations. The theoretical foundations for the theory are derived from an effort of rapprochement of important literatures in socio- logy and psychology, which deal with social participation. Evidence has been presented by Finifter (1972a) to show that in Spite of differences in terminology, several 3:233:54 have ind asseciated with t :‘zese several 11: syielding a set :ettal building t sczial participatl Another c if personality a: 3 patterns of s" aternative than leahles exclusl ° '° Patteri We assure the inmber of : Vls‘a‘vis on patterns arel actIOn and i and inCentiv 'r a . uxe trlcOmpOn 4 to. The iae ragga e3 ’ 196 ‘9... Air Illust] 5‘31] files: 1 we - 1f EZTICeCtlvely ES: f‘lrsid+ual f O s};;:;er Statgun ‘ ‘»I as; C hero 8 L; ‘hITie 4. mt we... “- Int .2 t}; tance“ E authors4 have independently proposed the underlying meanings associated with the three genotypes. Finifter interprets these several lines of conceptual and empirical convergence as yielding a set of non-arbitrary concepts which are funda- mental building blocks for constructing a general theory of social participation. Another consideration is the simultaneous operation of personality and social structural variables in the study of patterns of social participation. This is a better alternative than the consideration of either set of variables exclusively. As Barth (1966: 2) has put it: . . . patterns of social forms can be explained if we assure that they are the cumulative result of a number of separate choices made by people acting vis-a-vis one another. In other words, that the patterns are generated through processes of inter— action and in their form reflect the constraints and incentives under which people act. In the tricomponential theory social structural and person- ality factors are dealt with separately, but provisions are 4The ideas of four authors (Freud, 1950; Reisman, 1950; Bales, 1968; and Parsons, 1951, 1953) can be cited here for illustrative purposes. Freud refers to three libidal types: the obsessional, erotic and narcissistic, which are dominated reSpectively by the superego, the ego and the id. Reisman found three character types: inner— directed, other-directed, and autonomous. And Bales classified leaders into activity leader, socioemotional, and task-oriented leader. Finifter contends that each of the three different types above mentioned, correspond respectively to the genotypic concepts which constitute the conceptual foundations of the tricomponential theory. He further states that the four Parsonian functional problems which confront any system of action--Adaptation, Goal Attainment Integration, and Tension Management and Pattern Maintenance--are also conceptually and empirically related to the three genotypes. :ie for analYZi“ variables include :5 dispositions :discover how a slated to overt ssrality variable “My using date Taezuelan univez version. politice tion. Examples 1 lie first study, iii hinder or s iii-cation and la ality and SOCial tiginal Study. cf relationships ilStinct tYPES . q tricompOne“ made for analyzing their possible interaction. Personality variables included in the theory are intended to measure the dispositions associated with personality structure, and to discover how a person's "choices and decisions" are related to overt social participation. Examples of per— sonality variables used thus far to test the tricomponential theory using data from the original study's sample of Venezuelan university students are: assertiveness, extro- version, political efficacy, punitiveness and social isola- tion. Examples of social structural variables included in the first study, which illustrate "constraints and incentives," that hinder or stimulate social participation, are occupation, education and labor force statuses. A total of 36 person- ality and social structural variables were assessed in the original study. Predictions about the differential patterns of relationships between these variables and the three distinct types of political participation were derived from the tricomponential theory. The empirical goal of the virtual replication is to carry out an independent test of the generality of the findings reported in the original study. In that study, the empirical evaluation of the differential power of the set of personality and social structural variables to predict three distinct styles of behavior is performed by applying a multivariate technique, the "Automatic Inter- action Detector" (AID, see Sonquist, 1970). Reliance on ”sis connotationa‘. seed of usino -: -.. J regrired by the 6. rise original d' ;:era:.ion effec xii; of nultivari 2"“1Ar v~ «slate and e u--. .- ::eractions are :efcrehand. Thee 2: anticipate la: 1n previ . u. ‘ “Va .._‘ ‘ .priate meas :e AID branchi: Lifter (19 71) .S. The new 1"“ cm . “b.“ tial eXC] 3L ALE Of the ,r ETD Q ‘1‘ ‘ . \‘~~ N'gl this computational model for estimation of predictor effects instead of using ordinary multiple regression models was required by the discovery of important non-additive effects in the original data set. AID is capable of detecting interaction effects, when such effects are present in a body of multivariate data. The AID technique is especially appropriate and efficient for use in analyzing data where interactions are expected but are not precisely specifiable beforehand. Theory and previous research lead me generally to anticipate large interaction effects. In previous research, results obtained through AID have been difficult to evaluate because of the lack of appropriate measures of predictor importance, and because the AID branching process has been suspected to be unstable. Finifter (1971) has devised a measure to solve these prob- lems. The new statistic is called the coefficient of "potential explanatory power" (PEP), which provides an estimate of the relative importance of predictors analyzed by AID. The PEP coefficients constitute the basic empirical indicators for determining the predictive importance of the social structural and personality variables, whose differential relations to the three types of political participation are derived from the tricomponential theory of social action. The goals of the "systematic" replications are: (a) to introduce and test hypotheses on the relationships :en’een political rariibles (e.g. , stiziastic abilii :e tricorzponent: gradietcrs st: ll """ " l ‘ L. _:::a I‘EithG -. V v ::':~‘V~L --W‘..d N“Ed . .‘ . EV: ‘I 4"“3198 to be 3:138 s . 0‘ Pollti ‘ “lation of U . . atxfm ~'-.‘ (‘1‘- S a 311115.; of this W ‘D ‘r. l? U 10 between political participation and additional personality variables (e.g., satisfaction with life as student, and scholastic ability), which are suggested by elaboration of the tricomponential theory and (b) to extend the list of predictors still further by formulating and testing hypo- theses related to the process of modernization: these hypotheses are also suggested by elaboration of the theory. Chapter II describes the background of the study, the university population selected, and the research design. The sampling and data collection procedures are elaborated. An overview of changes in the university students and Venezuelan political cultures is also presented. Chapter III presents the measures of dependent and indepen- dent variables, together with a discussion of the rationale behind the different hypotheses, and a comparison of the AID results from the two studies. In Chapter IV the new variables to be tested in their relationships to the three styles of political participation are introduced and an evaluation of their AID results is made. Finally Chapter V presents a summary and the general conclusions and implica- tions of this work. This Chi fireside the rea: its study, to : fezisions were : it: the stude. rash, and to d :omtry's politl Ereting the pur The cha 51311 the fielc‘I tion about the at? Site. 5:5‘1'. "-~'3I0’lnd Ch a fl CHAPTER II THE RESEARCH METHOD This chapter has two purposes. First, I want to provide the reader with some background information about this study, to aid in understanding how various research decisions were made. Second, I want to convey information about the student population from which the sample was drawn, and to discuss changes in both the student and the country's political cultures which are important for inter- preting the purposes and results of this study. The chapter describes the general conditions under which the field work was conducted; this includes informa- tion about the underlying reasons for choosing the univer- sity site. I will then proceed by stating some of the background characteristics of the university population that was chosen (a different one from the original study) and how this university is similar or different from the first university. I then describe how the sample was drawn, and the procedures used for data collection. A comparison of characteristics of this sample and the first one is then 11 resented. Fina- =""tical system raid have inf lu- s‘:::'er.t populati- Gatherin I25 a vital EDaI't “I"? . Q 4. easing the p v I‘- ..:;tity it won], (I !s ,1 "if-:Isity Situa are characte r is ills Stud, . :‘I‘F‘i‘r’ersity frc :Esnzed f rom t‘. f Where the -.'€- 4-,. v LU de‘felop” Noneth ‘ ‘ ‘pllcc‘ition 12 presented. Finally, I discuss changes in the Venezuelan political system during the 1963-1973 period which I think could have influenced the.motivational structure of the student population under study. Background of the Field Work Gathering data as a member of a university system was a vital part of my research strategy, since besides increasing the probability of cooperation and providing an identity it would help me to gain further insight into the university situation, it would also help me to determine some characteristics of the student population relevant to this study. This and other factors influenced the choosing of a university from which a student sample could be drawn. I realized from the beginning that the choice of the univer- sity where the data would be collected was Open to change due to developments occurring in the last ten years. I was also aware that to carry out this study I needed permission of university officials and cooperation of university students, and for these reasons I tried to gain entrance into as many Venezuelan universities as possible. Nonetheless, because of the probable advisability of replication in the same educational institution, I began by seeking cooperation from the Universidad Catdlica .irz'rés Bello (UCE‘ stzdv was perform directeristics stions of polit .u ‘. eye to dete rr- 1: those prevalg ‘I .: still the la: :4 iz'ersity in vs] 73.1" """" the apparer faulty and Stuq '23 Challenged 1 3331:: Le hr" x. {:0 «3“ r '4‘” 01 “Er ‘I‘ 1 Q9134» \‘ e Q “E 13 Andrés Bello (UCAB),l the university where the original study was performed. I also started reviewing the current characteristics of that institution and on-going manifes- tations of political participation of its students, with an eye to determining to what extent these were similar to those prevalent in 1963. UCAB is based in Caracas, and is still the largest private and only Catholic—sponsored university in Venezuela.2 Its most important change has been the apparent increase of political militancy of its faculty and students which has produced the disturbances and challenged the vertical authority previously exercised in that institution. Ironically, it was this new-found militancy in UCAB which was the cause of my failure to be incorporated.3 On the other hand, I was led to conclude from this experience that the image of UCAB as a small Catholic school with a low level of political participation 1Whenever mentioned UCAB refers to Universidad Catélica Andrés Bello, and the UCAB study refers to the original study. 2UCAB has grown from just under 2,800 students in 1963 (Finifter, 1968: 19) to over 7,000 in 1973 (unoffi- cial information). 3During the second half of 1972 the University was closed by the authorities after no agreement could be reached between militant faculty and student demands for policy changes and the administration position. UCAB was reopened in February 1973, but the aftermath of the crisis was still felt at the time I was choosing a university site. Since several Sociology faculty members were expelled or forced to resign, students continued to ask for their reinstatement and to oppose their replacement by other sociologists. Thus, chances for c00peration from this University were greatly weakened, and all opportunity for my incorporation into the University's staff system was denied. as congared to la I agglicable. Sine :«sgreat, and c: forthcoming , 17:2 to perform : I then c Ireceived promi. :1235 but none n. :.:‘:.er offers, I s;iad Central d; Laasst (about 4 3§ortant Waive: . 1 . ,p“ H . . “g hiStOI‘y C H» 5 teaching pos ...:rse in social I taugm 14 as compared to larger Venezuelan universities was no longer applicable. Since the differences did not appear to be too great, and considering that cooperation from UCAB was not forthcoming, I moved on to obtain permission and coopera- tion to perform my study in another university. I then contacted Venezuela's two newest universities;4 I received promises of c00peration from these two institu- tions but none materialized. Then, before receiving any other offers, I obtained a teaching position at the Univer- sidad Central de Venezuela (UCV).5 UCV is the oldest, the largest (about 45,206 students enrolled in 1974)6 and most important university in Venezuela. This university has had a long history of active student political participation. The teaching post was very attractive for the purpose of this research, since it entitled me to be in charge of a course in social research methodology in Sociology. I taught methodology from July 1973 to August 1974. In training the students in techniques of sociological research, some of them became interested in cooperating with me in this dissertation research, and in the process 4Universidad Metropolitana (UM), a private univer- sity of 2,000 students, and Universidad Simon Bolivar (USB), a public technological university of about 3,000 students. SWhenever mentioned UCV refers to the Universidad Central de Venezuela, the UCV study is this study. 6According to data obtained from the Oficina Central de Inscripciones y Control de Estudios (Registrar‘s Office), of UCV. :1':{ ll_ilj€; £5Clr1< o-O“'l. I ‘I ‘5 ‘ sauce a tr 3“ 1.1. .'. ' ;‘ ntsi.uarll§' 0" "e“'as admii :.-v-: ‘HA data. I U) 0 IJ (D Q) U) “U (D C) (‘9' I n “‘79 Dtitan the s raft of the p01 v- ~‘ ' ensent . \v We soci ties - . ‘~ . V :1.t of the int 15 fulfilling some of their own academic requirements which include a traineeship. I promised my students access to the data once they were processed. Five of these students voluntarily offered to work with me and I trained them inten- sively as administrators of the instrument used to collect the data. Background of the University Population Studied UCV is a principal, capital-based university. Every Latin American capital in fact has a university which can 7 . . . These un1vers1t1es are in some aspects be equated to UCV. consistently the oldest (most were chartered by the Spanish Kings during the Colonial times),8 the largest (and in the smaller Latin American countries the only university). They have been the scene of political activism by students as part of the political turmoils that took place in their respective societies. The principal university by being in the decision making center, and by training an important part of the intelligentsia9 has traditionally played a 7Examples of these are: The Universidad Nacional Auténoma de Mexico in Mexico City, the Universidad de Buenos Aires in Buenos Aires, the Universidad de San Marcos in Lima, and the Universidad de la Repfiblica in Montevideo. 8The major university in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, was chartered in the early 1500's, making it the oldest university in the Americas. 9A relatively important sector of the Latin American elite is trained abroad mostly in Europe and in the United States. Bonilla (1970) in his study of Venezuelan elites found that almost all the members of the educational, relevant role in ;::litical and ot I. :33 contemporar zeal parties we 1;:al debuts as . ll :12'er51ty. UCV is c ..i*.*ersity . It finial Universi gercent of the ‘ SEE-67 (Alborn student politic The pol 1151519 for st} LiiIrs' EXEC. id; BOTlill 5:5. tbach ( by? that lesldb'ed of (3981-3: C ‘;\é‘e2 reCV Iii: or’xif-‘lde (I: it. t U'th . ‘36 UP . lC 16 relevant role in national politics and in the formation of political and other elites. Important Latin American poli- 10 and tical parties were formed by university students, many contemporary Latin American leaders made their poli- tical debuts as student leaders of their country's principal university.ll UCV is a characteristically Latin American principal university. It is both the oldest (chartered as a Ponti- ficial University in the XVI century), the largest--48 percent of the Venezuelan university student population in 1966-67 (Albornoz, 1972: 205), and with a long history of student political activities. The political participation of UCV students became visible for students' opposition to the dictatorships of political and business elites included in his study were either trained abroad or at UCV. Most of the members of his sample however were either locally trained exclusively at UCV or did graduate work elsewhere after obtaining their degree at that university. 10The role played by university students in Latin American national politics has been studied by several authors. Examples are Emmerson (1968), Albornoz (1967 and 1972), Bonilla (1970), Bonilla and Glazer (1970), Lipset and Altbach (1969), Siegel (1970), Liebman et a1. (1972), Prates (1966), Rivarola (1969), Silvert (19645, Suarez (1966), Segovia (1970), Liebman (1970) and Washington (1966). 11The other political training ground has been the military. A contention often heard in Latin American cir- cles is that the political leadership of their countries is composed of doctors and generals, referring of course to the leaders' recruitment source. Juan Peron, Marcos Pérez Jimenez, Fidel Castro and Ernesto "Ché" Guevara started their political careers either in the military academy or in the university. lirez (1899-1936; :;;:sition to Gd" rezone del estud; ass festival-ty; iez'eloped into o: 3:19 of student. 'Cezezaelan polit lilth of ‘28 has Terezuelan poli t :arties were fou ::;secutive Vene student leaders Opposit: active universi :stances UCV w 115 the SQEHQ C “ ‘ of nOVem c ‘\ Pile»: l7 Gomez (1899-1936), and Pérez Jiménez (1948-1958). The opposition to Gomez was highlighted by the 1928 so-called semana del estudiante (student's week), which started out as a festival-type student celebration, that later developed into outright condemnation of the regime. The group of students who started that movement is known in Venezuelan politics as the "generation of '28." The gener- ation of '28 has played a relevant role in the shaping of Venezuelan political system, all the contemporary political parties were founded by members of that generation, three consecutive Venezuelan presidents from 1959 to 1974 were student leaders at UCV in 1928.12 Opposition to Pérez Jiménez also took place with active university students participation. During many such instances UCV was closed by the regime, and the University was the scene of violent student protests against it, especially during the final weeks of that administration. After the overthrow of Pérez Jiménez, students actively participated first in defense of the democratic government that replaced the dictatorship, and later as part of movements influenced by the Cuban revolutionary experience to radically change the Venezuelan political system. This form of participation, however, has decreased as the influence of the Cuban Revolution has diminished and students have found other participational outlets. 12R6mulo Betancourt (1959-1964), Raul Leoni (1964- 1969) and Rafael Caldera (1969-1974). It is 96 Elbornoz. 1972' szuient partici; years. The gene ighpcint of un; filled the role ;~:'.itical trans. as in the proc- 331 importance .I sired, and is iirazrs. Also . ‘vm. £11111 C31 Stimd th‘ :21: -. It: F0 'K‘Ists“ ‘ VET- Of 18 It is generally agreed by different scholars (Albornoz, 1972); Bonilla, 1970), that the patterns of student participation have drastically changed over the years. The generation of 1928 probably represents the highpoint of university student involvement, since they filled the role of providing leadership for a period of political transition when the intelligentsia of the country was in the process of being formed. Since then the politi- cal importance of students in national politics has been reduced, and is confined more and more to university affairs. Also even at the height of their political influ- ence the students acted more like catalysts of political change, preparing the conditions for the intervention of groups such as the military which had a real power basis.13 To say that UCV, as Venezuela's principal univer- sity, has been at the center of the university student poli- tical action is not to imply that the other universities, especially the private universities, had been immune to the political stimuli that had permeated the system. And since in this study a comparison will be made of patterns of political participation of 1973 UCV students and of 1963 UCAB students, this section would be incomplete if mention were not made of some background characteristics of UCAB students to help make the comparison in proper context. 13For a discussion of university students as "catalysts" of political change in Latin America see Silvert (1964). UCAB was :f Pérez Jiméne' Ibsersity of t? Zatholic-Jesuit 5231' 2:5 are de:‘ be than their If. conservati‘ xrrectly “POI :terest or of . Of the I liversities ve llversities , S '3 . Stude Slties tenc‘ 01.090596. to SQHalism 01 slties' aht academic d dediCatiOn §ttraCt th 1n lunch gr catholic U {Jesuit Ur lStic stud: attention group of 4 the modem :0 be pup uEhelOpme; if 19 UCAB was founded in 1954 (during the dictatorship of Pérez Jiménez), and has been the most important private university of the country. It is furthermore the only Catholic-Jesuit sponsored university in Venezuela. UCAB students are deemed by most to be somewhat more conserva- tive than their UCV counterparts, and also as supporters of more conservative parties. In spite of this, as Finifter correctly reports, they are far from void of political interest or of overt political participation. Of the differences between students in large state universities versus students in Catholic and other private universities, Silvert (1966: 125) states: . . . Students in Catholic and other private univer— sities tend toward conservatism; i.e., they are opposed to nationalism, secularism, and the imper- sonalism of modern society . . . The state univer- sities, ahead in the modernization of the traditionally academic disciplines as well as in their growing dedication to the physical sciences and empiricism, attract the innovators--and thus the nationalists-- in much greater measures than such schools as the Catholic University of Chile or the Javeriana (Jesuit University) in Colombia . . . The national- istic student of the state university draws more attention to himself than to any other non-party group of ideologists, since he is also the innovator, the modernizer, the politically concerned, and likely to be pursuing studies closely involved with the developmental process. Even though I think that the Silvert statement can be used today to describe the differences between UCAB and UCV today, it was truer in 1963. It was then reasonable to suspect, as Finifter did, that students who attended UCAB in 1963, or were sent there by their relatively more affluent and conservative parents, were more conservative and less ;;11:ica11y actit :2 students enr zest prevalent jesuspension C Interest :political act 35333, was as; ' 2:in enough, (1‘ atzdents and ins 1 an no- Still the Unive '5 a less secul 313.10“ is char liking the lat. 1 A, ,‘E: SES and "i l YW‘ ‘1 eh i “ ‘ UCV . .Ey‘t _ ‘9 wh. 20 politically active than their UCV counterparts. Some of the students enrolled in UCAB were there to escape the unrest prevalent at UCV, which in many instances produced the suspension of activities at that University. Interestingly enough in the early 1970's an increase in political activity (as reported in the previous section) at UCAB, was accompanied by a decrease of it at UCV. And oddly enough, during 1971-72 there was an exodus of UCAB students and instructors to the then more peaceful UCV. I am not trying to ignore the fact that UCAB is still the University of the Company of Jesus, and therefore is a less secular institution than State-sponsored UCV. Tuition is charged at UCAB while no tuition is paid at UCV, making the latter university more attractive to students of lower SES and UCAB students still favor more conservative parties. What I want to stress, however, is that whatever differences might still exist they are not as great as they were in 1963. Sample Design and Data Collection Procedures As an introduction to the sampling procedure I want to familiarize the reader with the internal organization of UCV, which is that of a traditional Latin American univer- sity. UCV is divided into 11 "Faculties" (which are equiv- alent to what Colleges are in the organization of large American universities). These Faculties are then subdivided :33 37 schools :egartnents) - 1:5 Vice-Rector: iairzen of 37 E Cztittees at ee 5:53:65. by the l Farilties exerc i;:.t in adminis Nine of :=:.;us in Carac Eeiicine have t Eil'sical plant A” The $3]??? 0f Agr, =~;;::e' Schoc 3333”“ fBas iffu'tEr SCier lenc* B; e 21 into 37 schools (which are the American equivalent to Departments).14 The central authorities of UCV (the Rector and Vice-Rectors), the Deans of the 11 Faculties, the Chairmen of 37 schools, and the members of the Advisory Committees at each level of university government are elected by the University community. Each one of the Faculties exercises a good deal of autonomy and is indepen- dent in administrative matters. Nine of the Faculties operate on a centrally located campus in Caracas. Two others, Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine have their site in the nearby city of Maracay. The physical plant for each of the Faculties is circumscribed to a building or a clustered area of the campus. And stu- dents from one Faculty do not take classes in any other 14The Faculties and schools that comprise UCV are: Faculty of Agronomy; School of Agronomy, Faculty of Archi- tecture; School of Architecture, Faculty of Science; Schools of Basic Courses, Biology, Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, and Chemistry, Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences; Schools of Economics, International Studies, Statistics, Sociology, and Anthropology, Administration, and Social Work, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Law; Schools of Law and Political Studies, Faculty of Pharmacy; School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Humanities and Education; Schools of PhilOSOphy, Letters, History, Geography, Social Communication, Pedagogy, Library Science, Modern Languages, Faculty of Engineering; Schools of Basic Courses, Civil Electrical, Mechanic, Geo- logy and Mines, Chemistry and Petroleum, Metalurgy; Faculty of Medicine; Schools of Basic Courses, Bioanalysis, Nutri- tion, and Public Health, Faculty of Odontology; School of Odontology. . 15 L faculties. Tm Eetween the stu: :iz'ersity folk mic-ml events 1. . :-.,::.1n- Des icr. This st 17:12am the maxi Etion availab] implication q ii'fisable to ad siens that wer §Kthlllar Cir ECE‘aPPliCable rate drastic d 35:.“ 1’1 An other ave a ‘ M th \cti 22 Faculties.15 There is also a great deal of social cohesion between the students on the same Faculty, as expressed by university folk tales, and in occasional inter—Faculty informal events. Sampling Design This study, like the original UCAB study, tried to obtain the maximum representation feasible, given the popu— lation available. Furthermore, since I intended to perform a replication of the original study, I felt that it was advisable to adopt as much as possible the research deci— sions that were made in that study. There were, of course, particular circumstances which made some of those decisions non-applicable. In any case, however, care was taken not to make drastic departures that would detract from compara- bility. The first major sampling decision was the exclusion from consideration of the two Faculties not based in Caracas. The fact that Veterinary Medicine and Agronomy are located in a medium-sized city away from Caracas would have compli- cated data collection and analysis. I then started select- ing the sample from the remaining nine Faculties which Operate in Caracas. 15An effort to standardize the administration which would have allowed students to take classes in Faculties other than their own was taking place at the time of data collection. Since I ate place by t Sgril 1974 (thr 232.5 to select weeks.” Of th 133'. Education am: not Open 5::i‘iities such 1.:11ection high Therefo Bile FaCLthies f-«iCine , Sin ifttion Of the Ersceed with t? The ne: us to make Se: ”3.3101“ Slhc «,3‘ I Whl “:31: is aff | Tifa‘z'ed an“ T 11ty 0? it E: b7 ‘ Opr 23 Since I had decided that the data collection was to take place by the last week of March and the first week of April 1974 (three months after the national elections)16 I had to select Faculties which were Operating during those weeks.17 Of the nine Faculties, four (Engineering, Odonto- logy, Education and Economics and Social Sciences) were either not open or were holding for most of the two weeks activities such as final examinations, which made data collection highly unfeasible. Therefore, I was left with five potentially avail- able Faculties (Architecture, Science, Law, Pharmacy and Medicine). Since these Faculties made up about one-third of the population of the University, and were a cross- section of the disciplines taught at UCV, I decided to proceed with these as my sampling frame. The next task after these decisions had been made was to make separate arrangements for collecting the data with each one of the Faculties selected. I talked to each 16Since the dimensional structure of political behavior, which provides the dependent variables for the study, is affected by both the amount of electoral stimuli displayed during the electoral campaigns and the avail- ability of opportunities to engage in political activities, the problem of the timing of data collection was critical for the purposes of this research. More important, the timing of data collection was relevant for the objectives of replication, since the data for the original study was collected in March 1964, three months after the December 1963 national elections. l7UCV does not have an all-university schedule. Each particular Faculty is autonomous as far as drawing their own calendar of events. Disparities in the program— ming of classes and exams was a difficulty I had to deal with. ::e of the five l 115:. In this w finally introd'; tetra tors in c :3 be collected. zippendix I. 213:. was made we I then I czllection . AC1 have taken plac hide sample in taing contacted iii-ants carrie gran-attire attii encased to the insurer, due t 32::dinating t int Sch .nedules , ““5 rlature ole, to mini. ”Ce I was a Mitinatio rtl’iod as 24 one of the five Deans, and they all offered their c00pera- tion. In this way I obtained two letters in which I was formally introduced by the appropriate administrator to the instructors in charge of the classes from which data were to be collected. A copy of these two letters is presented in Appendix I. In the other three Faculties the authoriza— tion was made verbally. ' I then proceeded to select the exact date for data collection. According to my plans data collection should have taken place preferably simultaneously throughout the whole sample in order to avoid communication between students being contacted at different times. Communication between students carried the danger of contaminating the data by premature attitude sets developed between persons not yet exposed to the questions and those already interviewed. However, due to the lack of manpower and the problem of coordinating that date across various Faculties with differ- ent schedules, I opted for limiting the completely simulta- neous nature of data collection to the same Faculty, in order to minimize the problem of contamination. Moreover, since I was also aware of the possibility of inter-Faculty contamination I decided to collect the data within as short a period as possible.18 18Later analysis of the data showed no evidence of either intra or inter-Faculty response clustering. After cc :lass scheduling 5:: a two-hour p Slasses with cha 220?. which cor niuded in the 32:: Collection 5“.“ Questio regresents a p a. is original st "m tic“sires. did 31“.: PIESQDted C4 2:5 310:3 freot meme“ data 3531;}, file to IEach ' 25 After consultation with the persons in charge of class scheduling in the five Faculties, classes meeting for a two-hour period,19 at the same time were chosen. Classes with characteristics such as an uneven sex distri— bution which could disproportionately affect variables included in the study were not included.20 Data Collection Procedures Questionnaires were used for data collection. This represents a partial departure from a strict replication of the original study. Finifter used both questionnaires and personal interviews as data collection techniques, and sub- sequently compared them. He found that even though ques- tionnaires did not have the same richness of information, and presented deficiencies such as those related to missing data more frequently, their reliability compared to the interview data was similar. In addition the questionnaires greatly augmented the range of the population that I was able to reach, and provided a low cost instrument. Questionnaires were administered to all the selected classes. The students whom I trained in the methodology class helped me in the administration of the instrument. 191 expected the data collection to last more than the sixty minutes alotted for a regular class period. 20Half the sample of the original study was composed of night students. These students are deemed to be somewhat older, and more likely to be married and hold jobs than their day counterparts. None of the five Faculties which I included in this study have night classes. I will refer to the influence that this had on my sample vis-a-vis the first sample later. The admi the instructc 2i previous knc glace during the 253:3. the stud. attendance. Th- :eir cooperati rerained in the :‘I the study wa that different sent their vod i'iS Unl'trers i tY :1 a SOC i0 logyl 35h- \ V 1...)“ red that e *Sliary of t ~ ‘. W Le to thOSe ...r.naire com raje ‘10,» - The 1 “, a" w: ~«S C . Omp "‘t‘riab le . 26 The administrators were introduced to the students by the instructor in charge of the class, the instructor had previous knowledge that data collection was to take place during the lecture session but was asked not to inform the students beforehand to avoid possible non— attendance. The instructor also asked his students for their cooperation in the study and (as thad asked him to) remained in the classroom during the whole period of questionnaire administration. The administrator then explained that the purpose of the study was to gather information on various attitudes about different activities students might engage in, and about their vocational plans. He explained that the study was University-sponsored, and that it was being carried out by a Sociology instructor from UCV. The students were assured that even though each questionnaire was anonymous, a summary of the results of the study would be.made avail- able to those requesting it. The title page of the ques— tionnaire contained the information just stated and this page was read aloud by the administrator. The administrators were thoroughly acquainted with the contents of the ques- tionnaire and answered questions on specific items. The 123 questions, 26 page, questionnaire (Appendix II) was completed in an average of 1 hour and 15 minutes. The acceptance of the questionnaire by the respondents was remarkable, and only two students outrightly refused to complete the questionnaire and walked away from the classroom. Mor: gzestionnaires Ekad by the (3“ The que sriginal study :sei in the sys ltried to imp] Tiate some of ; : attempted to aSused in the i‘ZlCh I made h 3:7: I t s respons 1CEll'O‘Jide the r~ “L45 "" sort of Site “"3 half of t lids . Specific ‘ “ISSQ - ~r 31.1!) th' ta 5‘,‘ ‘H C re 3:“ have U ~ F 27 classroom. Moreover, in all cases the administration of the questionnaires took place in a very friendly atmosphere marked by the desire of the students to cooperate with the study. The questionnaire included the items on which the original study was based, plus the extra items which are used in the systematic replication part of this research. I tried to improve the original questionnaire and to alle- viate some of its shortcomings.21 However, whenever possible I attempted to maintain the same format and question ordering as used in the original research. One of the additions which I made had, I think, a positive effect on the respon— dent's response rate. The addition consisted of the offer to provide the respondents with a short report on the find— ings of this study upon request. The students who wanted this sort of feedback.were asked to provide their names and addresses on a separate piece of paper. The fact that about one half of the students chose this option, and many of them made specific inquiries at the time of administration about the time when they should be expecting the information, makes me believe that that could have affected positively their degree of c00peration.22 1The experience of Professor Finifter, taken from his dissertation and personal conversations, was very help- ful in this endeavor. I will detail the modifications and their effects in the following chapter. 22Guarding against the possibility that this addition could have produced response biases, a comparison between the responses of the students who requested feedback and those who did not was performed. No evidence of response clustering due to this modification of the questionnaire was found. Five 11.. ggbythe stud x'heanalysis ises These gieoes of info: Ext variables, zhzm suspec~ responses. Ta‘: Faculties of t'. ties had a stu ‘gvng :-- wnt 0f the :spinal): II I f , ”en Stlh :4 “ URUSua 24 28 Five hundred twenty one questionnaires were filled out by the students,23 of those 12 (2.3%) were not included in the analysis because of different sorts of response biases. These questionnaires were either lacking important pieces of information, eSpecially with regard to the depen- dent variables,24 or were written in a "joking" manner which made me suspect the quality and seriousness of their responses. Table 1 presents the distribution among the five Faculties of the 509 questionnaires used. These five Facul— ties had a student enrollment of 9,500 upper-classmen, or 30 percent of the total population of upperclassmen25 (see Appendix III for a detailed description of population and sample). 23A total of 12 classes were selected. Six hundred seventeen students appeared on the instructors' class rolls, 521 represents 85 percent attendance. None of the classes had an unusually large absentee rate. 24The failure to give information about three or more of the nineteen items used to measure the dependent variables qualified a questionnaire for exclusion. If a questionnaire had about one fifth non-response on the other items it was also rejected. Non-responses were estimated using the same procedures utilized in the UCAB study. 25As it was done in the original study freshmen were excluded. Their exclusion is defended on the basis that it is hard to obtain valid measures of career orien- tations from them. It is also assumed that first-year students have not been sufficiently exposed to the university milieu in such a way that their experience could yet have had any significant influence on their political behavior. This experience factor is crucial in testing hypotheses on the relationship between intrinsic career involvement and types of political participation. firber and Fe Faculty Archite Law Mediciw Pharma; Science Totals \g 29 Table 1 Number and Percentages of Questionnaires Used, by Faculty Faculty Number Percentage Architecture 197 38.7 Law 37 7.3 Medicine 62 , 12.2 Pharmacy 74 14.5 Science 139 27.3 Totals 509 100.0 Comparison of Some Characteristics of the UCV and UCAB Samples In the original study day and night students were included. This was because night students were a sizable part of the UCAB population in 1963. On the other hand, in UCV there were few night students, in fact none of the Faculties included in the sample had any. This meant that differences in variables such as marital status, age and labor force status were expected. A detail comparison of variables follows. With regard to age, the mean age of the UCAB sample was 24.6 years, while the mean for the sample of this study was 21.5 years. A major difference could be noted with regard to sex since while 86 percent of the original sample vmne male the corresponding figure for this study was 50 Emucent. Seventy five percent of the original sample were mm, the cor ‘1 ‘- .‘::rent. Abou ., situation. With It :riginal sanpla. is figure for 1: church atter :e;::.ed that 1 r '- f) ’i 30 single, the corresponding figure for this sample was 90 percent. About 66 percent of the first sample were employed, 20 percent of the second sample were in that situation. With regard to other characteristics, most of the original sample attended private religious schools, while the figure for the new sample was 33 percent. With reSpect to church attendance, in the first sample about one-third reported that they attend church less than once a week; 15 percent attended no more than a couple of times a year. It was found that with regard to church attendance patterns both samples were very similar. One important difference that shall be noted is that while 29 percent of the UCAB sample were foreign born, only 9 percent of the UCV sample were born outside Venezuela. Forty nine percent of the UCAB sample were born in the Caracas metropolitan area while 67 percent of the UCV sample were born in that city. With regard to the occupational prestige of the student's fathers, 46 percent of the UCAB fathers were owners and merchants of small businesses or were minor government administrators. Thirty one percent of the UCV students'fathers were in that category. With respect to father's education, 22 percent of the UCV sample had not completed secondary education, while 27 percent had finished college. The corresponding figures for the UCAB sample were 28 percent and 21 percent. A Lie compar. 3113165 18 .9 ’; III-71>Q . lnvo‘ 31 The purpose of this section was to provide a broad comparison of the two samples. A more detailed discussion of the implications of these differences will be presented when the hypotheses which explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variables are evaluated, and the comparison between the results of the UCAB and UCV studies is made. - Changes in the Political System Which Could Possibly Have an Influence on the Patterns of Political Participation of the Members of the New Sample The data collection of the original study dealt with the student's political participation in the electoral campaigns of 1963. Finifter reports that the students of UCAB in 1963 showed a great overt interest in the campaigns, and that a good number of them went to class bearing signs identifying themselves with particular political associa- tions. The interest of the students in the electoral cam- paigns was very understandable, because they were part of the first generation of young Venezuelans who witnessed and were involved in an electoral process leading to a constitu- tional transfer of power.26 Rafil Leoni, the president elected in 1963, succeeded Rémulo Betancourt who is a member of the same Accién Democratica (AD) party. 26The elections of 1963 were marked by terrorists acts before the actual elections, and by threats of disrup— tions of the actual process itself. Martz (1964) presents a detailed account of events related to the Venezuelan elections of December 1, 1963. On November 19th, to give P4 ’( v Q zacc "haul M . 1 presic v ‘R Tap flowery'e 14.: n V: a trcl asuccess: CZEEI, wh: a degree c :3: press: A; acreased Pulitical ti.) i. i 1' -viug‘g O 2- '- ‘3 lac. ~51 0 .. 32 In 1968 the major opposition party to AD, Comite Organizado Politico Electoral Independiente (COPEI) won the presidency by a narrow margin (1% of the popular vote). AD, however, retained majority status in Congress. The administration of President Rafael Caldera was marked by a succession of parliamentary agreements between AD and COPEI, which jointly controlled Congress, this introduced a degree of stability into the political system which was not present in 1963. An important develOpment which was related to this increased stability was the movement toward a two-party political system. In Spite of the fact that in Venezuela in any given election since 1958, 15 or more political parties have presented candidates to the electorate, it has become more and more evident that AD and COPEI are the cen- ter of the political system. The elections of 1973 were an illustration of this tendency since the two parties obtained 84 percent of the presidential votes (Cuahonte, 1974: 112).27 The reason I mention these developments is that the meaning of political participation in a situation such as an idea of the magnitude of the anti—electoral and anti- government opposition, an unsuccessful general strike was called; 21 persons were killed in street fighting. Martz identifies the importance of university students in these events. 27The candidate of COPEI, Lorenzo Fernandez, was defeated by the AD candidate, Carlos Andrés Pérez. :55 experience experienced ti iezccracy was several tries Durin . en‘. .36 questic stability of 33.- the polil indent popu fare was an Fifticipatio 2115 was th :: Participa its very eXl u,” ...d be pm .A‘\‘ "o. c“ V‘eCtOV As PC 4‘. cl“ \- :c‘. th- C 1‘ NEE ‘vv L‘fio VC“ h‘! 33 was experienced in Venezuela in 1963 is different than that experienced ten years later. In 1963 the new experience in democracy was put to a test, in 1973 it had survived several tries. During the time I was in the process of considering these questions I thought that the influence of the increased stability of the system could have had the effect of inhibit- ing the political participation of certain members of the student population. At the beginning of the 1973 campaigns there was an apparently strong movement for abstention from participation on the campaigns. The rationale behind these calls was the old contention that in a "bourgeoisie" system to participate in the electoral process was to legitimize its very existence. I was also concerned that apathy could be present in some quarters in which it was felt that one of the two parties of the "status quo" was expected to come to power, and that there was no point in participating politically. I was concerned that since electoral participation is only one form of political participation, that many students might disregard this avenue and instead opt for non-electoral ways or not participate at all. As it turned out, there was actually a high degree of electoral participation. Student supports and activists of the two major parties were seen on the university grounds overtly showing signs of their allegiance. There was also noticeable ( sccialismo altemate’ stszIitS' The that there ‘ Zhfi 13011.,th If a percei my differe 34 noticeable campaigning in favor of the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS), which presented itself as a socialist alternate,28 and had considerable support among the UCV students. These observations led me to believe, therefore, that there were no underlying strong influences to inhibit the political participation of the members of the new sample. If a perceived change in the stability of the system made any difference in the overt participation of the student members of the new sample, it was not evident. 28During the campaigns there were expectations that MAS was going to make a considerable electoral showing. For many supporters of the movement an acceptable showing in 1973 would have represented a prelude to a greater political influence in the 1979-1984 presidential period. As it turned out,’MAS obtained only 3.7 percent of the presidential votes (Rodriguez Iturbe, 1974: 88). r1 ::r+- ‘ - .... (,le1 CHAPTER III THE VIRTUAL REPLICATION This chapter discusses some relevant literature dealing with the measurement of political participation, and presents the actual procedures that were used in this dis- sertation to measure participation in politics. In discus— sing the virtual replication I present the hypotheses to be tested, the methodology used for their testing, the results obtained and their interpretation. From the beginning of this work I was aware of a complex set of obstacles which I had to face in performing this replication. If one measures success of the replica- tion in terms of obtaining in the second study results that are sufficiently similar to those in the first study, then there were many factors militating against such outcomes. For the purposes of this discussion I will classify these factors as exogenous and endogenous. The exogenous factors are variables which affect the study, but are not intrinsi- cally part of it. Examples are: the changes in the Venezuelan political system and in Venezuelan university 35 3:;ient5' POL is fact that giversities. V3.25 which i ais-a-vis the :f q‘aestionn. :restionnair fissinilarit :aasure some Tie combined factors one: If in spite estimations Slve demons l i . I.‘\ .135 a S's-re F \o-_ Mill of the MM participatiC cf indicator holding publ iffice, atte 3: active me 1. 'a Politic 36 students' political culture, as previously discussed, and the fact that the two samples were drawn from different universities. The endogenous factors consist of modifica- tions which for various reasons were made in this study vis—a-vis the original one. For example, the exclusive use of questionnaires in this study versus the combined use of questionnaires and personal interviews in the first one and dissimilarities in some of the items in the scales to measure some of the dependent and independent variables. The combined effects of these exogenous and endogenous factors operate against precise similarity of all results. If in spite of these factors, plus the vagaries of AID estimations, similar findings emerge, we will have an impres- sive demonstration of corroboration. The Construction of Measures of the Dependent Variables Discussion of the Literature on the Measure of Political Participation Milbrath (1965: 18) presents a comprehensive list of the indicators used in research carried out on political participation and involvement in political life. The list of indicators compiled by Milbrath is the following: holding public or party office, being a candidate for office, attending a caucus or a strategy meeting,becoming an active member in a political party, contributing time in a political campaign, attending a political meeting or on. making sate, contacts in car, atterr say, initiatir exposing onese Ell has accure racial signi he inplicati electoral tyg include 0the1 such as str i'. Tilitant cha Altl‘. different re int0 account tion, I do 1 COHVEntiO na the develOp tion. Stlld dissertatio \ l . Pi $513513 ha we firSt t fatty: 37 rally, making a monetary contribution to a party or candi- date, contacting a public official or putting a sticker on the car, attempting to talk another into voting a certain way, initiating a political discussion, voting, exposing oneself to political stimuli. As Pizzorno (1970: 30) has accurately pointed out these indicators have special significance for conventional political activities. The implication is that these indicators deal mostly with electoral type of political participation, and do not include other important types of political participation such as strikes or public demonstrations, which have a very militant character.1 Although I agree with Pizzorno with regard to the different ranges of political action which have to be taken into account for a true formulation of political participa- tion, I do not want to understate the contribution that conventional electoral participation studies can provide to the development of a general theory of political participa- tion. Studies like the two that I am comparing in this dissertation, which deal with the motivation to participate lPizzorno (1970: 38) states that: "Historical analysis has made it possible to clarify two more points. The first that there are several kinds of political acti- vity: political participation as an expression of private position; political participation pertaining to closed associations. The second point is that if political parti- cipation reflects not only a problem of consensus, but also of collective action in an inegalitarian structure, some- thing wider than the electoral process and even wider than what concerns the activity 0f the state must be meant by the word "politics." 2 a: electl electcral a The gclitical p 2563‘ a tri- ievelop the sad data c Cmty resi 38 in an electoral campaign, can also be applicable to non— electoral activity.2 The literature dealing with efforts to measure political participation indicates that many authors have used a tri-dimensional conceptual framework in which to develop their measures of the phenomena.3 Robinson (1952) used data concerning the political participation of Erie County residents, previously collected by Lazarsfeld and others (1948), and formed a correlation matrix with 12 of the questions asked these residents.4 He found three com- ponent dimensions of political participation which he called citizen, spectator and partisan. Finifter (1968: 38-40) after analyzing Robinson's research concluded that it is necessary to go one step further than Robinson, and show not only that participation acts have a tendency to cluster in distinct groups, but that these clusters are differentially motivated. 2Examples of in-depth studies in which the motiva- tion to participate in ways other than electoral and to disturb the system, are explored in Van Aken (1964) and Slote (1967). 3Finifter, who has done extensive research on the tOpic presents a comprehensive list of these works (1972a). 4These questions were: Votes, self-rated interest, reads about Republican convention, reads about Democratic convention, listen to Republican convention, listen to Democratic convention, knows who Wallace is, knows who Wilkie is, tries to convince others, is asked advice, does active political work, listen to political speeches. One i7 gravel the m :nfiimn is 1 gafcnted b)’ seated four t reiuctants, a cfthis data erasure of Finifter {19 that styles :homponent The 13‘s used a Scheme of m: ‘ n.;.CI‘1 can b! :+7'" m, *- Lure), 39 One important study in which an attempt is made to unravel the motivational structure behind political parti- cipation, is the study of Connecticut state legislators performed by Barber (1965). In this research Barber pre- sented four types of political participants: lawmakers, reluctants, advertisers and spectators. After an analysis of this data with an eye on studying the motivational structure of the ideas behind these classifications, Finifter (1972a) concluded that they corresponded to the three styles of political participation stipulated by the tricomponential theory of action. The very fact that a considerable number of studies have used a three dimensional conceptual framework (or a scheme of more than three dimensions, such as Barber's, which can be theoretically reduced to a tridimensional structure), makes the testing of the appropriateness of this structure worthwhile. In spite of the apparent con- sistency of these reported findings I will start not by assuming a priori that my political participation measures form a three dimensional structure, but I will test for their structure empirically. Discussion of the Dependent Variables Measures I will now discuss the decisions which were made to determine the items to be included in the scales of politi- cal participation, and how the scales developed in this study compare to those of the original study. For "5": 'n’thh .h—uu "-3! «fir: I" m}. am But since some c 7328, and be "3:3... 1 ""91. deia . 40 For the first study, Finifter (1968: 46) chose items which had a high capacity for discrimination—~between weak and active political participants-~and items used in previous research. He excluded questions on voting per se, since some of the students in his sample were too young to vote, and because voting was, as it still is, compulsory in Venezuela. 10. 11. 12. l3. 14. 15. l6. 17. My He arrived at the following Seventeen items: Discuss country's problems Interest in everyday politics Interest in last campaign Discuss student or university politics Read about general politics Discuss national politics Role taken in political discussions Advise others how to vote Write or put up signs Distribute leaflets or propaganda Ride in political caravans Wear buttons or car stickers Attend meetings and rallies Belong to political party Attend political dinners Make speeches for a candidate or party Other active party work initial intention was to utilize the same seven— teen items to measure the three styles of political parti- cipation. However, I decided to split two questions which are found in aid gladiator sedans cor: :rputting up Itwas felt t FHA: i auditor t 5:91:1ng ral 41 were found in the original study to confuse the booster and gladiator styles of political participation. These questions corresponded to items 9 and 13 above, "writing or putting up signs," and "attend meetings and rallies." It was felt that writing signs and attending meetings was a gladiator type of activity, while putting up signs and attending rallies was a booster activity. This procedure is a departure from a strict replication of the dependent variables, but I think it will allow for a clearer differ- entiation of the dependent variables measures. With the Splitting of the two original questions I had a total of 19 items. The exact wording of these nineteen items and the corresponding weights assigned to their response categories is given below: Question 9 (p. 3)--And what about the country's problems? Would you say you discuss these with your classmates? 2. Frequently 1. Sometimes 0. Almost never Question 64 (p. l7)—-We are also interested in how much attention people generally pay to what goes on in politics--I mean everyday politics, when the election campaigns are not going on. Could you tell me if you are 2. Very interested l. Moderately interested 0. Little interested Question 65 (p. l7)--And during the last election campaign would you say you were 2. Very interested l. Moderately interested 0. Little interested Questio interes do not we are person people you dis your c! k7 C (D n U) ’_l LL ) H Question 67 42 (p. 17)—-Now, some students are very interested in political activities, while others do not bother themselves much with this. What we are interested in here is not to what party a person belongs, but through which activities people participate in politics. For example, do you discuss student or university politics with your classmates? 2. Yes 0. No Question 68 (p. l7)—-Do you read newspapers and magazines about general political subjects? 2. Yes 0. No Question 69 (p. l7)-—Do you attend political (p. 17)—-Do you attend political meetings? 2. Yes 0. No Question 70 rallies? 2. Yes 0. No Question 71 (p. 17)——Do you belong to some political party? 2. Yes 0. No Question 72 (p. 18)--Did you try to advise someone else how to 2. Yes 0. No Question 73 vote? (p. l8)-—Did you go to any political (p. 18)--Did you put up any political dinner? 2. Yes 0. No Question 74 signs? 2. Yes 0. No Questio. signs? 2. 0. Questio in fave) 43 Question 75 (p. l8)--Did you write any political signs? 2. Yes 0. No Question 76 (p. l8)--Did you make any public speeches in favor of a candidate or party? 2. Yes 0. No Question 77 (p. 181f-Did you distribute pamphlets or other political propaganda? 2. Yes 0. No Question 78 (p. 18)-—Did you participate in the political car caravans? 2. Yes 0. No Question 79 (p. l8)--Did you wear or put on your car a political button or sticker? 2. Yes 0. No Question 81 (p. 19)--Did you do anything else? 2. Yes 0. No If Yes, 81a (p. l9)-—Mentioned a specific political activity? 2. Yes 0. No Question 82 (p. l9)--Do you talk about national politics with your friends? 2. Frequently 1. Sometime 0. Almost never Question 83 (p. l9)--Now looking at this list, what part do you usually take in these conversations 0. Although I have my own Opinions, I usually only listen 0. In general I listen, but now and then I express my own opinions l. I take an equal part in the conversation 2. I do more than just give my Opinions in the conversations; usually I try to convince others that I am right The named in is items 5 1 " :arai.‘ ans a toaster ty; feasible t r. the boos iifferent t Ilister is iilCi’l repre :mtrY'S E 2iVetsity The 15335 Was 1 :sea‘ in the ith item v ”"ted 1151' 44 The intercorrelation of these nineteen items, arranged in a simplex-type matrix, is shown in Table 2. The items seem to form three clusters. One cluster is formed by items 78, 79 and 73. Items 78 and 79, "ride in caravans" and "wear button or show sticker," are clearly booster types of activities. It is also theoretically plausible to include item 73, "attend political dinners," in the booster category. A second cluster is formed by items 74, 77, 71, 70, 75, 72, 76, 69, and 81a, which are different types of gladiator activities. Finally a third cluster is formed by items 82, 83, 65, 68, 64, 9, and 67 which represent spectator activities such as discussing the country's problems, reading about politics, discussing university politics, etc. The correlation matrix formed by these nineteen items was then factor-analyzed. The estimate of commonality used in the factor analysis was the multiple correlation of each item with all others. The factors extracted were then rotated using an oblique solution.5 The factor analysis of the nineteen items reveals in Table 3 the existence of a three factor structure. The three factors account for 47 percent of the total variance. In order to test the alternative hypotheses that a structure other than a three 5I used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences--SPSS--to do the factor analysis. SPSS's factor analysis type PAl allows for replacing in the main diagonal the unit for R2. 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Potential Explanatory Power (PEP) Three Styles of Political Participation: UCAB and UCV Studies 62 Table 7 Coefficients and Down Ranks for Spectator Booster Gladiator PEP Down PEP Down PEP Down Rank Rank Rank 1 FATHEROCCUPATION .09282 23 .08548 22 .05171 25 2 FATHEREDUCATION .15230 6 .10721 16 .06396 23 3 AGE .13778 12 .09346 21 .05230 24 4 SEX .06520 29 .02903 33 .02761 31 5 NATIV—FOREIGN .03977 32 .06071 29 .07338 21 6 SIZEPLABRTH .07283 26 .10655 17 .08667 14 7 MARITALSTATUS .04007 31 .01937 34 .01677 34 8 LABORFORCESTATUS .02046 35 .05816 30 .03571 28 9 FATHERABSENT .07280 27 .03362 32 .00809 36 10 PARENTPOLITICALINTER .26065 1 .22171 1 .13402 2 ll PARENTAGREE .08713 24 .09829 20 .03686 27 12 MATESINTEREST .13699 14 .08106 24 .02896 30 13 ASSERTIVE .08103 25 .08352 23 .06704 22 14 CONVENTIONALAUTHORITY .11976 19 .07493 27 .08277 15 15 EXTROVERSION .10347 20 .15743 7 .09573 9 l6 OPENMINDEDNESS .13590 16 .12199 12 .09727 8 17 FAITHINPEOPLE .14244 9 .18628 3 .09535 10 18 PERSONALEFFICACY .12972 18 .12385 11 .07635 18 19 POLITICALEFFICACY .24050 2 .16097 6 .11131 4 20 SOCIALISOLATION .15938 5 .13074 10 .09280 11 21 PUNITIVENESS .14091 10 .11152 15 .10350 6 22 Q—SORT .13199 17 .17574 4 .08163 17 23 CAREERINVOLVEMENT .13718 13 .14367 8 .11936 3 24 MOBILITYASPIRATION .09610 22 .05459 31 .03436 29 25 HAVEMODEL .02138 34 .01287 35 .01815 33 26 FAMILYINTEGRATION .01130 36 .01144 36 .01850 32 27 SOCIALIZE .03947 33 .13902 9 .01396 35 28 CHURCHATTENDANCE .13985 11 .07742 26 .07513 19 29 SELFPRESENT .14606 8 .10373 19 .10539 5 30 SELFPAST .13676 15 .10386 18 .09230 12 31 COUNTRYPRESENT .16702 4 .18728 2 .10169 7 32 COUNTRYPAST .09746 21 .11887 13 .07512 20 33 HUMANSOCSERVICE .05909 30 .06335 28 .04450 26 34 SOCIALREFORM .14772 7 .16324 5 .18205 16 35 NATIONALISM .07097 28 .11424 14 .08945 13 36 ROLERESPONSIBILITY .17839 3 .07897 25 .19583 1 63 H mN m HH NN m H+ m+ N+ N+ m+ H+ N+ m+ H+ NBHHHmHmzommmmmHom mm NH «H mN Hm mm NN. H+ N+ m+ N+ m+ H+ m.H+ m m.H+ SqudonammmUOmzBHHHmoz vN m m NH N m NH HI NI mI HI NI NI HI NI mI ezmzm>Ho>szmmm¢U mN NH v NH v MN HH m.Na HH m.N« H+ mu N» H“ mu N+ emomIo NN m mH 0H mN mN m H“ m“ N+ NI m“ Ha I I H+ wmmzm>HaHZDm HN HH 0H m mN mN v NI NI HI NI NI HI I I HI onBOmem mH mH NN mH wH NH mN HI NI NI HI NI NH m.HI m m.H+ waHmomBschonezm>zou vH NN MN mN m m «H H+ N+ m+ H+ N+ m+ H+ N+ m+ m>Hemmmm< NH om vN «H mH Nm NH NI N+ H+ NI m+ H+ m.HI m+ m.H+ emmmmeszmadz NH NN 0N vN m cm MN mI HI NI HI mI NI HI m+ N+ mmmoaezmmdm HH N H H mH v H m+ N+ H+ m+ N+ H+ m+ N+ H+ mmequcoHaHHomazmmHa¢z m Hm mm «N mm mm 0N NI NI H+ mI NI H+ + I H+ . xmm v «N HN NH w H mH NI NI H“ NI HI mu I HI + mo< m MN oH o m m HN m+ N+ Hh HM N+ m“ H+ N+ m+ onecuaommmma >UD m0: mdon mxcmmIc3oo mxcmmImmouo mononuomxm .moHpsum >0: paw m mo mQHnmcoHucme chHmwsuomhm m OHQMB ranks)? and 17m ranks M sreps result was necessal studies PCSE In C cf the resul From this 9' :cnsistentl) purpose of systematic I n formulation literature tion of the of this lit tion in gen ti ' not noun 531.1%! ing 1' «dilation il 30 Evalu: 64 ranks); and (3) to arrive at cross-style rank orders the down ranks were each ranked horizontally.l3 Each of these steps resulted in the loss of some information, but this was necessary to make the comparison across styles and studies possible. In order to determine the degree of reproducibility of the results across studies, a criterion was developed. From this evaluation it was decided which predictors showed consistently low explanatory power in both studies for the purpose of justifying their possible exclusion from the systematic replication phase of this research. I now proceed by presenting the rationale for the formulation of the hypotheses. A general review of the literature which was the starting point for the justifica— tion of these hypotheses is found in Finifter (1968). Most of this literature, however, refers to political participa- tion in general, and does not assume the existence of dis- tinct motivational meaning behind political participation. Following is a variable by variable comparison with an evaluation of the cross style ranks. The down ranks are also evaluated when necessary. Whenever the terms 13"1" means "most important and largest" PEP coefficient, "2" means "moderate" PEP coefficient, and "3“ means "least important" PEP coefficient. When I indicate "strength" of relationship in the text I refer to the importance of the ranks; "1" represents the strongest relationship, "+" indicates a direct relationship, "-" indicates an inverse relationship and "i" represents a pattern of curvilinearity. “spectator s to styles 0 rather ': 65 "spectators," "boosters" or "gladiators" appear they refer to styles of political participation, not to individuals. Socioeconomic Status 1. Father's Occupation Cross-Ranks . Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +1 +2 +2 +1 +3 24 10 13 23 22 25 Results reported in the literature indicate that there is a strong positive correlation between the SES of a person's father and his political participation. With regard to the three styles of political participation it was predicted that the relationship between father's SES was going to be positive for the three styles. Strongest for gladiator (+ 1), moderate for booster (+ 2), and weaker for spectator (+ 3). Father's occupation was obtained from question 114 4 . . . "What 15 (was) your father's occupation? (Spec1fy 1 (p- 23). name of occupation, kind of work, position, etc.)." To have a more precise picture of the father's occupation 14 . . For the purpose of comparison the same questions (for all 36 variables) asked in the UCAB study were asked in this study. for the ca unstable c Question 1 shen you w "What kind the occupa the respon substitute 05 compari the origi codes used Wit data corre Booster re 399cmtor relations} ThI 66 for the cases of retired fathers or of fathers with unstable careers then question 115 and 115a were asked-- Question 115 (p. 24) "Did your father have the same job when you were a child?" if no, question 115a (p. 24) "What kind of work did your father do at that time." If the occupation of the father was different at the time the respondent was growing up then that occupation was substituted for the response to question 114. For purposes of comparison I used the same response code utilized in the original study (for a detailed explanation of the codes used see the Appendices). With regard to direction the findings of the UCV data correspond to both the hypotheses and the UCAB data. Booster retained the highest positive PEP (+ 1), while Spectator (+ 2) and gladiator (+ 3) also showed positive relationships. The fact that in both studies it is empirically established that father's SES is strongly, positively associated to booster activity might indicate that booster activities are more prevalent in higher class individuals. The affiliative activities associated with booster, for example participation in car caravans, require the access to resources which are more easily obtained by those of higher SES. I I Father 5 Edi said to be a Iiiening the facts, by in splications fiance in one Ther strongly int 3We then t Wits shoul U. boost Path 67 2. Father's Education Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :3 +2 :1 :1 +2 +3 21 9 5 6 16 23 Education as Finifter (1968: 78) has put it "is said to be a powerful spring to political participation in widening the scope of one's acquaintances with political facts, by increasing one's capacity to perceive the personal implications of political events, and by enlarging confi— dence in one's own ability to act effectively in political life." Therefore, since education is expected to be strongly intercorrelated with SES for the reasons expressed above then the hypotheses relating education and the three styles should be similar to those of father's SES; gladiator (+ l), booster (+ 2), and spectator (+ 3). Father's education was obtained from question 113 (P. 23) "Up to what grade did your father study?" (For a detailed description of the code used please refer to the Appendices.) As mentioned before the father's of the UCAB students were somewhat more educated than their UCV coun- terparts. In spite of this however, father's education remains pos styles, anc‘ correspond 2‘19 origin expected i 68 remains positively associated with.each of the three styles, and the strength of the relationships does not correspond to those of the hypotheses nor to those of the original study. An exception however is booster, as expected in the hypothesis and confirmed in the original study, booster appears as moderately and positively (+ 2) related to father's education. Demographic Characteristics 3. Age. Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :3 —l -2 :1 -2 -3 l9 1 6 12 21 24 Age in a certain sense can be interpreted as an indicator of the "investment" that one has made in life, the more years of life lived might indicate a job and a family. In this study, age is interrelated to the fact of being married (+ .53), and of being employed (+ .28). Age therefore can be perceived, as indicated by Waisanen (1968) as "time left" which in turn affects the degree of participation. For these reasons the hypotheses are presented that age is negatively related to the gladiator and booster styles. In the case of gladiator the person could refrain from milit; in other a invest tin| emotional participat like" act: regard to Style of g p the higher Observer c aCtion. F3 5‘- 104 (p. 2; results 0: l_.____ 69 from militant participation because he is heavily involved in other activities, or because he is not willing to invest time in politics. In the case of booster the emotional satisfaction that can be obtained from political participation again could be realized in other "booster— like" activities in other areas of social life. With regard to the hypothesized relationship between spectator style of political participation and age ( + ), probably the higher the age the greater the propensity to be an observer of rather than an active participant in political action. The age of the respondent was obtained from question 104 (p. 21) "How old were you on your last birthday?" The results on this variable agree in direction with the hypotheses and with the UCAB findings. Age is the strongest indicator for spectator (: 1), even though there is a pattern of curvilinearity (for an illustration of this pattern see Appendices). Booster (- 2) and gladiator (- 3) show a negative relationship. 4. Sex Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +1 -2 -3 +1 -3 -2 20 35 35 24 33 31 L. general, I in Latin i expect th The hypoti spectator relationsl behind th participa intereste fact that not fOr i rationale mal‘3 and I from CIues Coded "1' tionShip Participa boos) 70 Liebman et_§l: (1972) have reported that, in general, men participate more than women in politics. And in Latin America they consider that it is reasonable to expect the male to be more of a participant in politics. The hypotheses predict a strong positive relationship for spectator (+ l), and a negative ( — ) and positive ( + ) relationship for booster and gladiator. The rationale behind these hypotheses is that men are indeed more militant participants, and thus they have traditionally been more interested in receiving political stimuli than women. The fact that more women than men could participate in politics not for intrinsic but for socializing reasons is the rationale behind the negative relationship between being a male and booster style of political participation. Information as to the respondent sex was obtained from question 103 (p. 21) "What is your sex?" Males were coded "1," females "0." There is a strong positive rela- tionship (+ 1) between sex and Spectator style of political participation, the relationship is weak and negative (- 3) for booster; and moderate and negative (— 2) for gladiator. In the evaluation of these results XEETEIXEE those of the original study one has to take into consideration that the two samples were very different with regard to sex. While the original sample had about 75 percent males, my sample was almost evenly distributed between the sexes. More women attend universities in Venezuela than was the case 10 y now than ' neverthel ingortant other is politics at this i: 599 that i visible d Places di‘ tive of a tical par Obtaining VO'CES bot Participa tionship Stems to from thOs "131 the 71 case 10 years ago. Women also participate more in politics now than was the case in 1963. In Spite of some of the dissimilarities, two facts nevertheless stand out. One is that maleness is more important for the spectator associated activities. The other is that the affiliative element of participation in politics is more important for wOmen than for men. Looking at this information in retrospect, young girls of about the age that one could expect in both the samples were very visible during the car caravans and were seen in public places displaying flags, T-shirts and other objects suppor- tive of a party or candidate. The two most important poli- tical parties tried to put emphasis in their campaigns on obtaining the female vote. And in order to obtain these votes both planned gigantic demonstrations in which women participated.15 With regard to the weak negative rela- tionship between being a male and being a gladiator, it seems to me that these results are not radically different from those of the original study which as said before agree with the direction of the hypotheses. 15During the campaigns it was believed by some political analysts working for the political parties that the female vote gave the winning edge to President Caldera in the 1968 elections. It was their contention that a particular "only women" COPEI political rally that took place days before the election made the difference. I do not think that a similar effort took place in the 1963 campaign. V— 5. Nativity tr Ongly C', L, A VJ 7' h NishOul ii'cdeIatel‘, .tlaeiOnSh “is relat Ne; Wyn ~.e YOU .. double 11:" ‘\,.Q \d‘\ 'l V“ b "‘ 72 5. Nativity Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +2 +1 -3 —2 +1 32 13 .9 32 29 21 If we consider nativity as a measure of length of residence in a community, then political participation seems to be linked to it. Participation then will increase with the "stakes" or commitment in a community. The political participation of persons who are foreign born in many cases is hindered by lack of knowledge of local customs, language, and political ways. They also lack identification with Venezuelan culture and have some restriction on their rights. For these reasons it is hypothesized that being native born will be positively and strongly correlated with gladiator (+ 1). To be native born should also be positively related to booster, but moderately (+ 2). In the case of spectator ( 3 ) the relationship expected was weak but the expected sign of this relationship was not determined. Nativity was obtained from question 105 (p. 21) "Were you born in Venezuela or in a foreign country?" To double check responses question 106 (p. 22) was also asked--"Where exactly were you born?" 73 The findings of the UCV study run completely dif- ferent from the hypothesized directions. The relationship between being a native and spectator (— 3) and booster (- 2) are negative which is a rejection of the hypotheses and the previous UCAB findings. The results for gladiator (+ 1) however agree with both the hypotheses and the pre- vious findings. 6. Size of Birth Place Cross-Ranks Down—Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -3 -2 -1 +3 +2 +1 28 25 22 26 17 14 The hypotheses only state that there is a positive relationship between the three styles and the size of birth place. The expected strength of these hypothesized rela- tionships is not discussed. Size of birth place was obtained from question 106 (p. 22) "Where exactly were your born?" The results of the UCV study confirm the hypotheses; the relationships are all positive, + 1, + 2 and + 3 for gladiator, booster and spectator, reSpectively. Both the UCAB and the UCV sample had a similar distribution with regard to the size of the places where the t his 5 5v 14,“ C . 11 will. a Vt 7... a a: . V . u u . "nu C such 3 P; J. we L" Ti 74 the respondents were born. About 70 percent of the students in both samples were born in cities over 200,000 population. It is possible that the dissimilarities in the two sets of data could be a consequence of coding biases presented in the first study. Finifter reported difficulties in determining the size of the birthplace in his study due to incomplete information about the exact place of birth. For example in some cases, names such as Mérida or La Corufia that could be either a Province or a city were used, he also had problems distinguishing cities such as Barcelona that might be in Spain or in Venezuela. 7. Marital Status Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 -1 -2 -l -2.5 +2.5 33 18 30 31 34 34 No established pattern is found in the literature between marital status and political participation. How- ever, it seems reasonable to think that if one considers marriage as an investment in a relationship, the marriage situation will compete with involvement in political life. Gladiator and booster styles should then be negatively correlated with married status; the strongest affiliative commitment for the latter. In the case of spectator, marriage does not necessarily have to compete with the 75 activities characteristic of this style, and a positive relationship is hypothesized. Marital status was obtained from question 119 (p. 24) "Are you now married, single, divorced, separated or widowed?" Married was coded "1," single and other "0," There is a disparity between these findings and those expected in the hypotheses and obtained in the UCAB study. Being married is strongly negatively related to spectator (- l), booster is negatively related to being married (— 2.5) in a moderate to weak strength. Gladiator (+ 2.5) is related positively in a moderate to weak strength. There were considerably more married students in the UCAB sample, 23 percent (n 122), than in my UCV sample, 10 percent (n = 49). These dissimilarities, plus the fact that in terms of down ranks this variable has consistently low explana- tory power for each one of the three styles, make me believe that the contribution of this variable to the explanation of the three styles of political participation is very limited. 8. Labor Force Status Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -2 +1 +3 -3 +2 +1 30 28 32 35 30 28 l1 denCY 1 unempl‘ done i‘ is verj holdinc societi natlofi United studen partic rarita alone, sense sorrel booste status 76 Persons who are employed have shown a higher ten- dency to participate in politics than those who are unemployed. The evidence, however, is obtained from studies done in the United States and with "adult" pOpulations. It is very possible therefore that the relationship between holding a job and being a university student in a developing society would have a meaning unlike that of a developed nation. Venezuela has a higher unemployment rate than the United States, and that lessens the opportunity for students to find full or part-time work. Employment participation, in this study, is related to age (.28), and marital status (.17). From the point of view of investment alone, as in the case of marital status and age, it makes sense to hypothesize that lack of employment is positively correlated with both booster and gladiator. For the booster style access to free time produced by unemployment status could be conducive to affiliative ways of spending one's energy. On the other hand, unemployment was expected to be negatively related to spectator style. Labor status was obtained from question 120 (p. 25) "Are you now working?" To double check responses question 120a (p. 25) was asked "What type of work do you do?" Unemployed was coded "l," employed "0." Being unemployed appears as the strongest positive relationship (+ 1) in the UCV data for gladiator. Booster is no weaklj 77 is moderately negatively correlated (- 2) and spectator weakly negatively (- 3) correlated. With regard to employment the two samples were radically different. Most of the members of the UCAB sample (346 or 60%) were employed while the correSponding figure for the UCV sample was 104 (or 20%). In spite of this sample dissimilarity, however, the direction of the hypotheses are sustained. This variable, however, has very low down ranks which indicate its low explanatory power. 9. Absence of Father Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +2 -1 -3 -1 :2 -3 35 33 36 27 32 36 The absence of a male role model or the existence of improper father-son relationships can be a deterrent for political participation (Lane, 1959). No indication of the particular incidence of this occurrence in the female is found in the literature that was consulted even though I expect that it would not be too different. This varia- ble is difficult to explain in its relationship to political participation. Finifter (1968: 91) has tried to do it by expressing: As on no -nflm300H. “In ' ”‘ x. C 11‘ L fir- r) a . «Edge 8 78 As Lane suggests, it may result in greater demands on the individual [the absence of a male role--my note] for self-discovery and in greater expenditure of energy in the management of one's life problems. If this is so, it is not certain how increased demands on one's own resources might affect parti- cipation. It would be reasonable to expect both that greater demands may deflect peOple from the political arena, and also that political partici— pation may be an especially attractive source of self-discovery for persons in this situation. The difficulties in visualizing this variable can be seen in the fact that no elaborate hypotheses are presented to explain its relationship with each of the styles. The assumption, however, that people who lack a male role can find self-discovery in politics serves just to hypothesize that booster, because of the lack of affiliative contacts is strongly positively associated (+ 1) with absence of father. Absence of father was obtained from questions 110 and 110a. Question 110 (p. 22) "Are your parents living," (if only one is living) 110a (p. 22) "Which one has died." If father was dead, the code was "1," if not "0." My data showed the strongest negative relation- ship for spectator (- 1), a moderate relationship of curvilinearity for booster (: 2) and a weak negative relationship for gladiator (- 3). About 12 percent of both samples reported that their father was dead, so with regard to distribution we find a very similar one. I feel, however, that no confi- dence should be placed in the results of this variable. First, this is a very crude indicator since the only thing Cf CIU: of alte Ielatec‘ politic 3 are E’Eirs u A 79 which is telling is that the father has died, and it does not indicate when he died, what was the influence of his death on the respondent, and/or if the respondent has a substitute father model. Second, and probably because of the confusion that was just expressed this variable has a consistently low explanatory power showing in both studies as illustrated by the low down ranks. Socialization 10. Parental Political Interest Cross—Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +1 +2 +3 +1 +2 +3 1 4 15 1 l 2 The influence of the family has been recognized as fundamental in the political socialization process. The assertion is that since the family has a virtual monopoly on the child during his formative years (Almond and Verba, 1963), then the patterns of behavior which are learned are of crucial importance. The assumption- is that "the range of alternative behaviors Open to the adult is also intimately related to his experiences as a child and that the kind of political reality the adult perceives and his attitudes about it are restricted by what he has learned during his early years" (Easton and Hess, 1962: 229). Therefore, the amount 80 of political interest displayed by the parents seems to have an effect on the behavioral pattern of the adults. The hypotheses predict that parental political interest is strongly positively associated with spectator (+ 1). The contention is that people engage in spectator activities in part because of their need to conform to their parents' diSplayed amount of political interest. It is also hypothesized that this variable will be positively moderately associated with booster (+ 2), because modelling oneself after parents tends to increase affectional rein- forcement from parents. For gladiator the direction should also be positive even though weaker in strength (+ 3). A scale of parental political interest was formed by using Question 116 (p. 24), "Would you say your mother is (was) interested in politics?", and Question 117 (p. 24), "Would you say your father is (was) interested in politics?" The response categories were: "a great deal," "moderately," and "very little," which.were weighted 3, 2 and 1 points respectively. The characteristics of this scale are presented in Table 9. The results of the AID analysis of this variable appear to provide strong support for the theory. There is a perfect agreement with both the hypothesis and the original study's results. Moreover, the results of the analysis show that this is one of the strongest variables. A look at the down ranks in Table 8 indicates that this variable holds the first and fourth place for Onsu flufi ~00me "MOHUUWU. MOHQFJNH'HCK/ UHNUUCflvAaHVMUCH Ghana .IHav mUfluerHUUUNMUCMU \ hid.l \.‘-Id 81 muo mm. mm. ao.a om.H mzommmmmqom em muo mm. «H. mm. ea. amazeaz mm omrH mm.a mm. mm.~ mw.v zmommmUOm em muo we. me. mm. mm. >mmm00mzqo>szmmmHaHzom Hm mane os.H Hm. om.~ mv.m onaaq0mHo0m om harm so.m em. am.m ma.ma mmquom ma maam H5.H mm. Hm.~ ms.qH mmSmemm ma muo ~m.a we. m¢.~ ma.m mHam ea mane mH.H mm. mm.H os.a mmmznmaszzmmo SH maum GN.H mm. mm.H mm.ca onmmm>omexm ma one GH.H ma. mm.a om.m 2mmomaoa>zoo 4H Haua mo.H hm. Hm.a oo.m m>Hemmmm¢ ma Gum mm. as. mm.a mm.v mmmoamazmmam Ha mum «m. Hm. mH.H aa.m mmazHezmmam oa mmcmm Honum hyaafinmwaom cowumfl>oo coo: mHQMHHm> oumocmuw use: cumocmum cowumoflamom Hmsuufl> may ca coma moamom moHQMHHm> ucopcomoch ecu mo moflpmfluouomnmco a magma kl ) 0—4 H O. 0 HI y. (n_ 1! LA) 82 spectator and booster and the fifteenth rank for gladiator in the UCAB data. In the UCV data "parents"politica1 interest" again ranks first for spectator, but in this replication it also ranks first for booster, while for gladiator it ranks second. 11. Parent-child Political Agreement Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -2 -3 -1 -2 -1 -3 23 34 8 24 20 27 There is evidence of an inverse relationship between parent-child political agreement and political participa- tion. Slote (1967) reports the rebelliousness of Venezuelan children against their parents especially against the father is a stimulant to political behavior. Other studies (Lane, 1959) indicate, however, that not only is this relation- ship not a deterrent but that many children take the model of their parents and participate in the same way they do and support the same political parties. I generally sup- port the former assertion, but the negative relationship should be true only for gladiator. Boosters may model self after parents to win attention; Spectators may conform to parental authority tradition; while gladiators may actively challenge parents' political ideas. 83 Following this line of reasoning it is hypothesized that there is a strong negative correlation between agree- ment with parental views and gladiator style of political participation (- l). Spectator will have a moderate positive correlation (+ 2), while booster will have a weak positive correlation (+ 3). Parent-child political agreement was measured by Question 117a (p. 24), "Generally, would you say that your father is (was) in agreement with your political ideas?", and, Question 117b (p. 24), "Is (or was) your mother generally in agreement with your political ideas?" The wording of these questions represents a departure from a strict replication of the original study, since in the UCAB the question was asked about both parents' agreement without differentiation between father and mother. However, I felt that this distinction would provide more validity to the responses, and allow for more refined analysis later. A scale of political agreement was constructed from these two questions. The response categories were: "disagree," "qualified agreement," and "agreement," count- ing 1, 2, and 3 points respectively. The characteristics of this scale are summarized in Table 9. +1 84 12. Perceived Political Interest of Classmates Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +1 +3 -2 +1 +2 -3 .12 32' 18 14 24 30 The more politically active a person perceives his friends and associates to be, the greater his tendency to emulate their political behavior (Walker, 1967). Liebman et_al, (1972) report this influence on Latin American university students' political behavior. The amount of activity depended on what they perceived that aspect of their classmates' behavior to be. . It is hypothesized that there is a strong to moderate inverse relationship (- 1.5) between perceived political interest of classmates and gladiator style of political participation. The fact that the purposive gladiator perceives low political interest in his classmates can in itself be an important motivation for action for the purpose of proselitizing and mobilizing others. For the normative Spectator, in contrast, the relationship should be positive (+ 1.5) Since spectators are expected to conform to perceived group norms. For booster the relationship is also positive but weaker (+ 3), because affiliative actors are not interested in politics per 53. (I) (‘f— (‘P 85 Perceived political interest of class mates was obtained from Question 66 (p. 17), "How many students in your faculty do you think are interested in politics?" The response categories were: "many," "some," and "a few," which were scored 3, 2, and 1, respectively. A minority of the student members of the sample (13%) saw their peers as not interested in politics. The remaining 87 percent either saw their peers as "moderately interested," and as "very interested." The results from the UCV sample Show this variable to be most important for Spectator and the relationship is positive (+ l). Booster Shows a weak positive relationship (+ 3), while gladiator (- 2) had a negative moderate rela- tionship. These results conflict with.the hypotheses in the case of spectator. Booster was expected to have a positive relationship with perceived classmates' political interests for the affiliative character of this type of style of political participation. For all the styles, this variable maintains its strongest predictive power (as measured by the down-ranks) for spectator; 12th in the UCAB data and 14th in the UCV data. Therefore, this variable is an important predictor for the Spectator style of political participation. 86 PersonalityCharacteristics 13. Assertiveness Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +2 +1 +3 +2 +1 14 5 3 25 23 22 Individuals who assert themselves, and thus impose their wills upon others have a greater tendency to parti— cipate in politics. Assertiveness has been found to be associated with prominence in political leadership in general politics and in university student political leader- ship. In trying to explain the relationship between asser- tiveness and the three styles, the rationale behind the hypotheses takes into account that for any one of the styles a certain amount of assertiveness is needed. Assertiveness, therefore, is supposed to be related to each one of the three styles of political participation in a positive manner, although the intensity varies. Gladiator is expected to be most strongly related to this variable (+ 1), then booster (+ 2), and finally Spectator (+ 3). The scale to measure assertiveness, and two other variables (extroversion and openmindedness) was obtained fronrthe same instrument. Below is an explanation of how these three scales were constructed. 87 Students were asked in question 62 (p. 15) to rate themselves with regard to 30 personality characteristics.16 If the student thought that one characteristic described him very well then he gave it a "1" rating, a "2" if he thought that it described him more or less, and a "3" if the characteristic hardly described him at all. The respondents in this task were asked to produce three groups of descriptors, ranked "1," "2" and "3." This constitutes a departure from the procedures used in the original study. In the UCAB study, Finifter asked his students to organize the same 30 characteristics into three groups (according to the three ratings previously discussed) of ten characteristics each. According to post-interview information, however, this requirement appeared to be too rigid and too burdensome to a good number of the student respondents. Since the 10-10-10 requirement was tedious it may very well have produced some degree of artificiality. An important consequence of the forced character of the response choices may be to lower the level of inter- dependence among the items shown in the correlation matrix of these items, Table 10. The decision to minimize the forced nature of the instrument in my study was probably responsible in part for an increase in the level of inter- dependence among the items in the correlation matrix 16This instrument uses Stephenson's Q-Sort technique. For the purpose of the virtual replication I used the same 30 characteristics used in the original study. For detail about how the 30 characteristics were obtained see Finifter (1968: 98-100). 88 .pwuuHEo coon o>m£ mHmEHoooc II vH won mN nN eon No: 00 00 mo: HH mo: 00 no NN vo Nm mo: OH: NO: vo no mo Ho mo no Om mo mo: MN: Om umHzaoa II mo mN «H mo: No: No: mo mo: mo Non Ho: No nH Non HH mo: Ho: 00 00 HH oH vH vH mo mH Ho no mo: oN ucooHHHobcH In no: OH: NH 0H mH mo OH 00: mo 00 NH VH nH No: mo OH mo woo mo: 00 mo mo mo no: NH 00 00 mm poomaU nu Om mo: HHI Hon mo MN: NH no No HHI no oou 0H no: no: mo: 00 0H 0H mo Ho Non oH no vo mo nN HmsuooHHoucH I: won no: mo: 00 an mH no 00 mo: mH OH: OH mo: HHI go: Hon NH no no oN oH HN 00 OH: Ho: 0N poHumHuom no mo vo mo: NH NHI Non oHI vo oo NH Ho oo MH mo No No HHI HHI von mo: 00 von OH mo: mN o>HuocHooEH . II HH mo vH mo: Hon mo: mo vH no No Ho 00 mo mos mo: 00 mo: MH No 00 NH No oHu VN oHumaEHuQO I: mo mo 00 mo vo vH mo 00 no mo Hon No No mo: Ho mo: 00 vo mo 0H mo: mHn MN pooHooo on Ho 00 oo vH No mo mo 00 mo 00 No: 00 mo: Nov NH vo Ho mo MH woo woo NN oHQMum I: OH: no No OH mo: NH no mN mH 0H mo: von mo: won mo: mo oo mo: Ho: 00 HN oHanHom II vo No mo: oo 00: mo oHI HHI vou 00 MH won vo oo vo no mo: mo Ho 0N ucmcHEoo In nH Ho 00 mo: oo mo NOI mo won NHI Ho mo mo Non oH NH mo: oo mH HownuHmm I: OH No mo Ho mH No mo no: mo: mo NH mo: mo Ho mo oHI mo mH >Huopuo II mo NH vo HH NH No mo: HHI Ho mo 00 vH mo: 00 HNI Ho nH oHumHHmom nu HH oH mo no no mo: Hon no VH 0H NH HH oH mo: MHI oH Hoummooosm I: nH oH no mo mos mHu moo mo: No mo: mo Ho mo: vou mH o>Huouomoou II mo oou mo no: mo HH Ho mH no ON NH no: mo: VH coEooumm II oo MN Non won no NH mo: 00 00 mo HHI vo MH poHmcommom no mo no mo: 00: NHI voo mo: no: No mo NOI NH o>Huoonom no mo: Non mo Ho HH Ho HOI mo won No HH mumOCHm II MH mo: mHI m0: m0: won No m0: m0 oH ucopcomoch In mH no mo: mo mo Ho 00 mo 0 oHuwHHm2pH>HocH on NN oH oo HH mH 00: mo m ucoHonwm In no HH mo mo No: no n msoHosum u- mH mH oH mo: HH- 0 >dmm: or MH «on mo: No m ucmomHm In mo 00 mm: v omuum>0nuxm a: mo: No m ousm I: oo N oHumHHmmnH II H mDOAHQW Om oN wN nN 0N mN VN MN NN HN oN mH wH nH 0H mH vH MH NH HH 0H m m n o m v m N H "I'll ll. §.mmcHummIMHom uuomlo Hmcuoa OCOE< mcoHumHoquO 0H OHQMB 89 (Table 10). I did not receive significant complaints about the nature of this instrument, nor did the respondents express difficulty in filling it out. The 30 items were then factor analyzed using the multiple correlation of each item with all others as the estimate of communality and using an oblique rotation. I used a two, three, four, five and six factor solution, and after comparing them, I concluded that the three factor solution was the best from both an empirical and a theore- tical point of view. One factor, which will be identified as the "assertive-recessive“ factor, was composed of the following descriptors: reliable, intellectual, capable, optimistic, cooperative, individualistic, realistic, dominant, imagina— tive, reflective, decided, and Sincere. A second factor which will be called "extroverted-introverted" had the following items: popular; extroverted, esteemed, satisfied, successful, happy, serious, intelligent. Finally, a third factor identified as "openmindedness-closemindedness" was composed of: studious, orderly, responsible, efficient, sure, idealistic, faithful, elegant, stable, and independent. A comparison was made with the factor structure found in the original study (Table 11). The same proce- dures which were discussed earlier in this work were used to make a comparison of the two factor analyses. A comparison of the two factor analyses shows that the scale 9() Table 11 Arranged Rotated Factor Matrix for Actual Q-sort Self Ratings; UCAB and UCV Studies. (A-R = Assertive-Recessive; E-I - Extroverted-Introverted; O-C = Openminded-Closedminded). UCAB Study UCV Study No. Item A-R E-I O—C No. Item ' A-R E-I O—C 20 Dominant .48 .05 -.02 21 +Reliab1e -.43 .06 -.07 21 Reliable -.42 .07 -.02 27 Intellectual .42 -.28 -.07 13 Responsible -.4o .17 .13 28 Capable’ -.34 -.08 -.17 29 Intelligent .39 .00 .00 24 Optimistic* -.32 -.15 -.06 15 Cooperative —.36 -.24 -.03 . 15 +Cooperative -.32 —.12 -.08 18 Orderly -.34 .09 -.04 i 9 +Individua1. .29 -.09 .07 19 Faithful -.34 .09 .20 i 17 Realistic -.29 -.01 -.24 9 Individual. .33 .29 -.17 i 20 +Dominant* .28 -.09 .02 11 Sincere 112$ -.09 .02 i 25 Imaginative* -.27 -.04 .18 22 Stable* -.23 .00 .14 . 12 Reflective* -.27 .06 .05 16 Successful* .17 -.05 .12 23 Decided* -.24 -.18 —.11 28 Capable* .16 -.12 .14 ll +Sincere* 2;}; -.03 -.21 5 Elegant* .15 -.09 -.01 30 +Popular -.18 .55 .02 6 Happy .07 -.49 .16 4 +Extroverted -.05 .48 .07 30 Popular -.02 -.43 -.l9 l4 +Esteemed .02 .43 .16 12 Reflective -.21 .41 -.09 26 Satisfied -.36 .40 .19 1 Serious -.20 .41 .06 f 16 iSuccessful .11 .40 .21 24 Optimistic .13 -.39 .04 6 +Happy .01 .38 .22 14 Esteemed -.08 -.36 -.05 1 +Serious -.13 -.35 .13 10 Independent .17 .31 -.07 29 Intelligent‘ -.17 ;;1_ .10 4 Extroverted .10 1421 -.24 7 +Studious .14 -.07 -.39 26 Satisfied* .01 -.22 .04 18 Orderly -.04 .02 -.38 7 Studious* -.15 .17 .08 13 Responsible -.29 .03 -.33 2 Idealistic .13 .12 -.50 8 +Efficient .07 -.18 -.33 3 Sure .04 .00 .49 3 +Sure -.10 -.18 -.28 25 Imaginative .18 -.01 -.47 2 +Idealistic .09 .06 .24 17 Realistic .00 .14 .32 19 Faithfu1* -.03 -.16 -.21 27 Intellectual .21 .18 -.30 5 Elegant* .02 -.17 -.18 23 Decided .18 -.06 .30 22 Stable* -.05 -.13 -.18 8 Efficient* -.12 .01 .19 10 Independent* .09 .04 .15 *Excluded from cluster scales. +Corresponding item. \Ku Hit. - .Ilh 5.70 11‘ 91 which is most successfully reproduced is the measure of extroversionnintroversion. However, the data generally Show a good deal of replicability for the other two as well. After the factor analysis comparison was concluded the final scales were as follows: Assertive- Extroverted- Open- Recessive Introverted Closemindedness 21 Reliable+ 30 Popular+ 7 Studious+ 27 Intellectual 4 Extroverted+ 18 Orderly 15 Cooperative+ 14 Esteemed+ 13 Responsible 9 Individualistic+ 26 Satisfied 8 Efficient+ l6 Successfu1+ 3 Sure+ 6 Happy+ 2 Idealistic» 1 Serious+ +CorreSponding Items. As can be seen, 13 out of the 17 items used in the scales are corresponding items, that is they belong to the same factor as in the original study. In the case of the four non-corresponding items empirical evidence was very convincingly in favor of letting them remain in their respective factor. The relatively low Hoyt reliability coefficients (Table 9) for the measures of assertiveness and openminded- ness are due in part to the small number of items for each one of these two scales. However, the biserial correlation of each item has been consistently high in spite of the low reliability, and this latter criterion was instrumental in retaining the items for scaling. SE "n IV LE) 92 Having explained the construction of these three scales, I continue by analyzing the results of assertive- ness in the UCV AID analysis. The hypotheses with regard to assertiveness expected this variable to be positively correlated with all three styles, strong for gladiator, moderate for booster, and weaker for spectator. The UCAB study confirmed these hypotheses.‘ The UCV results also confirm the hypotheses in these exact directions and strengths. In spite of this confirmation the predictive power of this variable, as measured by the down-ranks, was consistently lower in the second study. In the UCAB analysis "assertive" was 19th, 5th and 3rd in down ranks for spectator, booster and gladiator, respectively, while in the UCV study the ranks were 25th, 23rd, and 22nd for spectator, booster, and gladiator. This however could have been produced by AID artifact. 14. Conventional Authority Orientation Cross-Ranks Down—Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :3 -2 -1 -2 -3 -1 25 17 16 19 27 15 Persons who question or are critical of conventional authority are more prone to participate politically than thOSe who do not. 93 The hypotheses contend that conventional authority is the most important predictor for both gladiator and Spectator. For the purposive gladiator this relationship should be negative (- 1.5), since gladiators probably tend to be critical of the authority and that non-conformity could be a strong motivator for action. For the normative spectator, however, the relationship Should be positive (+ 1.5), since he would support the values of the social group including its authority make-up. For booster the hypotheses indicate a weak relationship of undetermined Sign, ( 3 ). A scale to measure orientation toward civil authority was devised by adding the responses to the following two questions: Question 30 (p. 6)-—When peOple disagree with the government, they should not obey it. Question 85 (p. l9)+-A bad law should be changed, but while it stands it ought to be obeyed. Both questions were scored on a four-point scale. For question 30 the coding was "0" total agreement, "1" Partial agreement, "2" partial disagreement, and "3" total disagreement. For question 85 the coding scheme was reversed. The UCV results confirm the hypothesis with regard tOgladiator (- 1). This finding seems to have a good dEal. of generality and importance. For the other two Styleas there is neither agreement with the hypotheses nor with the UCAB findings. The relationship between ”A... an; vvl o 94 conventional authority and spectator and booster is inverse, moderate for Spectator (- 2) and weaker for booster (- 3). A look at the down rank confirms further the strength of the relationship between this variable and gladiator. For gladiator conventional authority orienta- tion has maintained a surprising degree of strength across the studies. In the first study it was 16th in importance, while in this study its position was 15th. 15. Extroversion Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :2 +1 +3 :3 +1 :2 16 14 27 20 7 9 Individuals who are extroverted are found through- out the literature to take an active part in politics. As with assertiveness there is a certain amount of extroversion required for all political activities, even though accord- ing to the theory it can be more important for one style than for others. It is predicted in the hypotheses that extroversion will be more important (+ 1) for the affilia- tive booster. Persons who Show a tendency to be extroverts thrive on booster type of activities because they provide Opportunities to be socially outgoing. Spectator is FHA "F 95 predicted to have a moderate curvilinear relationship with extroversion (i 2), while booster will show a weak posi- tive relationship (+ 3). The measurement of extroversion of the members of the UCV sample was obtained from the Q—sort instrument previously discussed. The findings of the UCV study confirm that extroversion indeed has a very strong positive relationship with booster activities (+ 1). However, there is a weak and positive relationship for gladiator (+ 3), and for Spectator the relationship is moderate and curvilinear (: 2). In spite of certain discrepancies the important information obtained from the evaluation of these hypo- theses is the strong correspondence which exists in corre- lation between extroversion and booster style of political participation. With regard to the down ranks for the case of booster this variable gained a Significant degree of explanatory importance. It was 14th in predictive impor- tance in the original study, and 7th in the UCV study. 16. .Openmindedness Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -1 +3 +2 -3 -2 -l 6 31 21 16 12 8 96 The evidence points out that persons who are curious, and are willing to consider information which may contradict their Opinions are more likely to participate in politics. It has been found that active participants expressed significantly broader cultural and intellectual interests. The measure of Openmindedness is built on a bipolar factor. Openmindedness Should be strongly nega— tively (- l) correlated to the spectator style of political participation. On the other hand, a moderate positive (+ 2) relationship is expected between this variable and gladiator political participation. Finally, a weak posi- tive relationship (+ 3) is expected between Openmindedness and booster style. Information about the degree Of Openmindedness Of the members of the sample was obtained from the openminded- ness scale discussed previously in describing the Q—sort instrument. The results of the UCV study do not agree with the results of the UCAB study, which did confirm the hypotheses. Openmindedness appears in the UCV data as being strongly negatively (- 1) associated with gladiator style, a result that was not expected. I wonder if this could have been Caused by some dogmatic feelings among highly politically Committed gladiators, and be a special historical condition. OPenmindedness is also negatively correlated with the booster and spectator styles, (- 2) and (- 3) respectively. 97 An explanation for the dissimilarities which are found can be inferred from the composition of the scales used to measure the variable. After the factor analysis no perfect degree of correspondence between the UCAB and UCV scales to measure openmindedness was found. The reliability Of this scale is relatively low .32 (Table 9). 17. Faith in People Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :1 :3 :2 +2 :1 :3 10 27 19 9 3 10 Persons who trust other people are more likely to participate actively in politics than those who are not trusting. The hypotheses as stated regarding this variable are incompletely specified. They recognize a negative relationship with spectator ( - ), a curvilinear relation- ship with booster ( i), and a positive relationship with gladiator ( + ), but do not Specify the relative magnitudes of these relationships. The scales to measure faith in people, and three other variables (personal efficacy, social isolation and political efficacy) were Obtained from the following questions: 98 Question 23 (p; 6)--Now, some peOple prefer to spend most Of their time with a group Of friends, while others Spend their time alone. DO you spend your time: alone, depends on my mood, with some friends. Question 24 (p. 6)--The most important thing is to be in agreement with other people--the question Of who is right or who is wrong is secondary. Question 25 (p. 6)--I have to study more than my classmates to get a good grade on an exam. Question 26 (p. 6)--There are many young students in this country who get involved in politics too much because of lack of discipline. Question 27 (p. 6)--My classmates have more luck than I do. Question 28 (p. 6)-—Sometimes politics and govern- ment seem SO complicated that a person like me cannot really understand what is going on. Question 29g(p. 6)--I have often felt that there 15 no sense in trying to be somebody in this life. Question 32 (p. 7)--If I do not watch out, people will take advantage of me. Question 33 (p. 7)--PeOple like me do not fit in society. Question 34 (p. 7)--Nowdays a person does not really know whom he can count on. Question 35 (p. 7)--It is not really fair to bring children into the world, seeing how things will be in the future. Question 36 (p. 7)--Voting is the only way that peOple like me can have any say about how the government runs things. Question 37 (p. 7)--It is better to content oneself with what one has than to get involved with new things. Question 39 (p. 7)--People like me do not have anything to say EBOut what the government does. ‘ m—i—r --—-""" 99 Question 40 (p. 7)~-Now, which would you choose: "Most people are disposed to help others," or "most people are disposed to help themselves?" Question 84 (p. l9)--The real difference between the people who succeed and those who fail is that those Who succeed have luck. That is, success is more a matter of luck than Of ability or individual effort. Question 86 (p. l9)--A bad law should be changed, but while it stands, it ought to be obeyed. Question 87 (p. 20)--In spite Of what people say, the conditiOn Of people like me is getting worse instead of better. Question 88 (p. 20)--It is not worthwhile to bother yourself about politics, because in general, the politicians are not the most qualified individuals in the society. Question 93 (p. 20)--Most of the time I feel lonely. Question 94 (p. 20)--Most public Officials are not interested in the problems Of people like me. Question 95 (p, 20)--There is little I can do to change my life. Question 96 (p. 21)--My Opinions carry less weight than the opinions of my classmates. Question 97 (p. 21)--When you get down to it, no one 15 gOing to care much what happens to me. Question 98 (p. 21)--Human nature is fundamentally cooperative. Question 99 (p. 21)--I seem to be the type of person that has more bad luck than good luck. Question 100 (p. 21)--Nowdays a person has to live for today and not worry about the future. Question 101 (p. 21)--I feel I chose the wrong career. Question 102 (p. 21)--Now, some people say that most people can be trusted. Others say that you cannot be too careful in your dealings with other people. How do you feel about it: most peOple can be trusted or cannot be too careful. 100 These twenty-nine items were the same as those used by Finifter to measure personal and political efficacy, faith in people and social isolation. Even though some new items were included most had been used in previous research. The faith in people items were Obtained from Rosenberg (1957), and the social isolation items from Srole (1956), Campbell and associate's items (1954) were utilized to measure political and personal efficacy. The above measures were tentatively assumed by Finifter to cluster empirically in ways Similar to those in previous studies, and to measure the same dimensions. This assumption was similar to the one that I had to test when measuring the dependent variables and some of the independent variables which required the use of complicated scales. In the particular case of these four variables, Finifter found that all the items that he included were consistently related as the originators of these scales stipulated except for Srole's items used to measure social isolation. Then, as Finifter (1968: 112) puts it: . . . On the basis Of these findings, a choice had to be made between two alternative strategies: I could ignore the empirical cluster patterns in order to maintain the 'nominal' identities of the various scales, as intended by their authors, or I could let the data themselves dictate the construc- tion of dimensions and thereby risk the di31ntegra- tion Of some previously devised scales. The second choice seemed preferable for several reasons, . .Particularly because no prior work had been carried (mat with these scales for the kind of population I WEis studying, and there was little to be gained by sSupposing on §_priori grounds that the items would behave in Specific ways. 101 The scales to measure these four variables in the original study therefore were constructed taking into account the empirical clustering Of the items. This was a plausible decision and is discussed later. After asking the same twenty-nine questions, I factor analyzed the correlation matrix Of these items, again using the multiple correlation of each item with the rest as the estimate of communality and an Oblique solution for the rotation. A comparison of the factor analyses of the items in the UCAB and UCV studies is presented in Table 12. After excluding items from the scales the final composition of the four scales was as follows: Personal Efficacy Scale: 96 My Opinions carry less weight +99 Have more bad than good luck +95 There is nothing I can do +100 Have to live in present +84 Success is luck vs. individual effort +101 I chose the wrong career 87 Conditions of people like me worse Social Isolation Scale: +93 Most Of the time I feel lonely +86 Classmates have more friends +23 Prefer to spend time alone +33 People like me do not fit in society Faith in People Scale: +34 DO not know who can be counted on +102 Can trust majority of people +32 People will take advantage of me Political Efficacy Scale: 27 Mates have more luck than I +37 Better not get involved in new +28 Politics and government too complicated +36 To influence government can only vote +25 I have to study more for exams +39 Do not have any say about government *CorreSponding items. 102 Table 12 Political Efficacy, and Faith in People; UCAB and UCV Studies. Arranged Rotated Factor Matrix of Items Measuring Personal Efficacy, Social Isolation, UCAB Study UCV Study No. Item PE SI PP Pol E No. PE SI FP Pol E 99 Have more bad than good luck .64 .05 -.23 -.ll 96 -.55 .28 - O9 24 84 Success is luck vs. individual effort .62 -.26 -.O3 -.19 99 .54 -.24 .17 - 32 27 Mates have more luck than I .51 -.06 .01 .02 95 .42 -.05 .05 -.26 95 There is nothing I can do .47 -.05 -.02 .03 100 39 -.O7 .10 -.13 101 I chose the wrong career .45 .10 -.32 .00 84 .35 .Ol .17 -.28 24 Agreeing is more important .43 -.27 .15 .Ol 97* .38 -.18 .35 -.15 29 Not worthwhile try to be someone .40 .14 -_22 .00 101 .34 -.21 .04 -.12 100 Have to live in present .33 -.09 .01 -.16 87 -;33 .20 - 14 -.O3 35 Not fair to bring children into world .30 -.Ol .02 —.12 93 -.3O .50 - 22 12 93 Most of time I feel lonely .12 .60 -.27 .00 86 -.29 .50 -.04 .15 86 Classmates have more friends -.24 .58 .08 —.05 23 .00 .48 .02 -.Ol 33 People like me do not fit in society .01 .50 -.32 .02 33 -.13 .30 -.16 .06 87 Conditions of people like me worse .06 .46 .01 .07 29' .17 -.28 .09 -.ll 23 Prefer to spend time alone -.23 .46 -.06 .00 94* -.15 #31 -.22 .02 94 Officials not interested in my problems .23 .34 .04 -.26 34 .12 -.16 .45 —.28 96 My opinions carry less weight .14 .112. .09 .09 102 .09 -.02 .43 -.10 39 Do not have any say about government -.22 .15 .56 -.04 32 .15 -.13 .34 -.22 36 To influence govt. can only vote -.02 .14 .44 .05 40' .03 -.13 .21 -.02 37 Better not get involved in new .00 .06 .37 .08 98' .06 .07 _‘16_ .07 26 Too many students in politics -.Ol -.14 .36 -.06 27 .35 -.21 .10 .44 25 I have to study more for exams .l4 -.14 .35 .01 37 .21 .09 .02 .44 28 Politics and govt. too complicated .09 .12 .34 .01 28 .21 -.13 .10 .42 88 Not worthwhile bother with politics .01 .13 .31 ;‘1g 36 .18 -.13 .13 .38 102 Can trust majority of people -.17 .29 .OO .53 25 .13 -.02 .07 .38 40 Most people help others vs. self -.10 .14 .02 .49 39 .26 -.13 .08 .36 34 DO not know who can count on -.13 -.10 -.14 .44 24' .19 .Ol -.10 .33 32 People will take advantage of me .01 .07 -.06 .42 35‘ .11 -.15 .18 -.29 98 Human nature is cooperative .04 .00 .03 .38 26' -.Ol .01 .05 -.25 97 No One cares what happens to me -.29 -.09 .10 .34 88' .24 -.15 .19 .26 'Excluded from cluster scales. 103 Only three Of the twenty items which finally com— prised the four scales were non-corresponding items, which is strong evidence for the stability of these scales. The appropriateness Of Finifter's decisions to allow the empirical evidence to determine the construction Of the scales is validated by my data. This is especially indi- cated by the high degree Of correspondence of the scales measuring social isolation and faith in peOple.l3 The plausibility of this procedure for scale construction also strengthens the early decisions I made with regard to con- structing the dependent variable measures discussed at the beginning Of this chapter. After discussing the construction Of the measures of these four variables I will continue the AID analysis Of the UCV data with regard to the variable "faith in people." Faith in people appears related strongly in a curvilinear pattern (: 1) to the booster style of political participation. This variable is related curvilinearly to gladiator (: 3), and positively (+ 2) to spectator style. The strong relationship between faith in people and booster Style makes theoretical sense Since in order to be affilia- tive a person has to have great deal of confidence in his fellow human beings. The pattern of curvilinearity shows 13In considering the Scale analysis (Table 9) of these nmasures I not only took into account the Hoyt reliakoility, since reliability may have been lower due to e SHEUJ.number Of items in some of the scales, but I alsO Considered the biserial correlations for each item. 104 (please refer to the Appendices) that the relationship between faith in people and booster style is positive toward the middle scores Of faith in people, the relation- ship then becomes positive again toward the higher scores. For the normative spectator a minimum amount Of confidence is also important in order for them to adhere to the norms of their group or society. However, for the purposive gladiator these considerations are not as important because people are perceived as raw material for indoctrination (such as we found in the case of "mate‘s political interest"). With regard to the down-ranks, this variable is an important predictor for all three styles in the UCV data. In the particular case of booster this variable is 3rd in importance. For gladiator and Spectator it is also impor— tant, 10th and 9th respectively. 18. Personal Efficacy Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +1 -2 +3 +3 -1 +2 9 15 17 18 ll 18 Persons who perceive themselves as efficacious and who in general do not possess a sense Of powerlessness are more likely to participate in politics. Personal efficacy 105 is hypothesized to be positively related to both spectator and gladiator styles Of political participation, strongly for the former (+ 1) and moderately for the latter (+ 2). In the case of booster personal efficacy is expected to be negatively and weakly associated (- 3) to this variable. For gladiator and Spectator styles in which an intrinsic political motivation is present, perceived personal efficacy is important, and hence the positive hypothesized relationships. The inverse relationship between personal efficacy and booster style could be produced by a low sense Of self-worth, and gains in self-validations could be Obtained in the process Of social interaction, afforded by political campaigns. The UCV data confirms the hypotheses with regard to the negative relationship between personal efficacy and the three styles of political participation. There is a strong negative correlation (- l) for booster. With regard to spectator and gladiator the relationship is also main- tained even though the strength Of it was not that pre- dicted-—(+ 3) and (+ 2) respectively. 19. Political Efficacy Cross-Ranks Down—Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +2 +3 +1 +1 +3 +2 3 8 l 2 6 4 g an . #5 m we K“ (I) .q. a“ V\ (j. 106 People who consider themselves as politically efficacious are more likely to participate in politics than those who do not. The contention behind the hypotheses is that political efficacy is positively related to all three styles Of political participation, since for all a sense Of political efficacy is necessary. This variable should be positively and strongly associated (+ 1) with the gladiator style Of political participation. For spectator the relationship should be moderate (+ 2), while for booster should be weaker (+ 3). The contention that booster is the least politically efficacious is that boosters do not participate in politics EE£.§E! but rather in affiliative aspects Of it. Therefore, a sense of political efficaciousness is not as essential an ingredient for this style. This variable has a positive relationship to the three styles of political participation as was predicted in the hypotheses, however, the intensity of this relationship does not coincide perfectly with that which was expected, as seen in the case of Spectator participation. Political efficacy appears strongly negatively related (- l) to this variable. There is however, a fact that indicates on one hand the importance of this variable for a theory of political participation, and on the other hand makes the evaluation Of these results difficult. Political efficacy is one Of the most powerful predictors for all styles in both studies. 107 In the UCAB study the down ranks on this variable are 3rd, 8th, and lst for Spectator, booster and gladiator respec— tively. In the UCV study the down ranks are 2nd, 6th, and 4th for spectator, booster and gladiator. Since these ranks are so close and they could change very easily due to the characteristics Of the AID Operation, the only judgement that I want to make at this point is the recog- nition Of the importance of this variable and recommend its inclusion in further analyses. 20. Social Isolation Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV secs B G SBGSBG -l -3 -2 -l -2 -3 4 29 26 5 10 ll People who feel lonely and isolated tend to parti- cipate less in politics than others. Anomie has also been found associated with political participation, and for this reason the items on anomie developed by Srole were used. However, when they did not empirically "hang together" the measurement Of anomie pg£_§g_was dropped. Instead Of anomie a measure which Finifter called social isolation was included in the analysis. As was said earlier the same items which measured "social isolation" appeared in the factor analyses Of the UCAB and UCV data. 108 With regard to this variable the hypotheses predict a strong inverse relationship between social isolation and spectator participation (- 1). For the other two styles, booster ( — ) and gladiator ( - ), the hypothesized rela- tionship is negative, but is not specified as to relative strength of relationship. The hypothesized strong inverse relationship between spectator and social isolation is predicated on the grounds that the more a person who is normatively inclined feels estranged from his group, the less he will participate as a spectator. In the case of booster and gladiator, social isolation is also considered an impedi- ment to the development of the activities of these two styles. The results Of the UCV study also confirm the strong inverse relationship (- 1) between this variable and Spectator style. With regard to the other two styles the negative relationship is again confirmed by these data. The importance and the stability of the relation- ship between social isolation and spectator style Of Political participation is illustrated by the importance of this predictor to explain spectator for both studies. In the UCAB study this variable was 4th in importance as a Predictor Of spectator, while in the UCV study it was 6th. 109 21. Punitiveness (Strength of Superego) Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :1 :3 -2 +2 :3 :1 8 26 25 10 15 6 Persons who have a strong sense of moral respon- sibility, a highly developed conscience, or a developed superego using the Freudian terminology, are more likely to participate in political activities which are encouraged by these norms. It has been found that a feeling Of "citizen responsibility" is associated with a certain mode of participation in politics. The hypotheses suggest that there Should be a strong positive (+ 1) relationship between punitiveness and spec- tator style of political participation. Since the spectator Style by definition reflects a normative orientation to political participation, the strength of the superego Should be the most important ingredient for this participation Style. Since this is not the case for either of the other tWo styles, the relationship expected between punitiveness and booster and gladiator styles Should be negative, although the strength Of those relationships is not SPeCified. 110 A rationale for the formulation of these hypotheses in the direction and the strengths previously stated is also found in a study which included a sample of Venezuelan student leaders performed about the time that the data for the original study was collected. In this study (CENDES, 1967) it was found that punitiveness as measured by ques— tions very similar to those used in the original study (and in this replication) appeared to be negatively related to the political participation of the students in a sample, which by its very characteristics should have been made up mostly Of gladiators.18 A scale Of punitiveness was formed by the combination Of questions 20, 21, and 22; these questions were Of the projective type. Question 20 (p. 5)--What do you think should be done with the son who neglects his schoolwork? Question 21 (p. 5)--With the woman who is not faithful to her husband? Question 22 (p. 5)--And with the son who is Old enough to work, but does not want to? The six categories into which these three questions 'were coded were intended to describe the degree Of 18In CENDES (1967: 45-6) six questions were asked. Iflhat should be done to (l) the person who never attends church; (2) the father who deserts his family; (3) the jhusband who is not faithful to his wife; (4) the wife who is not faithful to her husband; (5) to the son who does not want to work; and (6) to the neighbor who disturbs the ;public peace. Questions 4 and 5 were asked in both the UCV’and the UCAB studies. ‘I' 5%)“ N.) 111 punitiveness expressed by the respondents (for an explana- tion Of these categories see the appendices). The results Of the UCV AID analysis do not provide conclusive evidence with regards to the direction of the relationships between punitiveness and the three styles Of political participation. This makes it difficult to evaluate the plausibility of the hypotheses. However, with regard to the strength of the relationship some rejection can be seen in the fact that the strongest relationship for the UCV data is for the gladiator style (i 1). Spectator has a moderate relationship (+ 2) with this style, and booster a weak one (: 3). A look at the down ranks shows that the down ranks of this variable for booster are remarkably constant: 8th place for the UCAB data and 10th place for the UCV data. 22. Self-Satisfaction Cross-Ranks Down—Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :2 :3 +1 :2.5 :1 i2.5 11 23 4 12 4 17 NO uniform Opinion is found in the literature about the relationship between political participation and self- satisfaction, self—esteem, self-acceptance, or self— contentment. 112 The hypothesized relationships between self— satisfaction and the three styles of political participa— tion are as follows: A strong relationship is expected for gladiator (i l), and a weak for booster (i 3); both relationships are expected to be curvilinear. The con- tention here is that for the purposive gladiator self— satisfaction is an important ingredient Of action. Rational mastery over external and internal events is crucial to the gladiator style of political participation. In the case Of booster that necessity is not the one that is dominant, thus the hypothesized weak relationship. In the case of spectator a moderate (+ 2) positive relationship is expected. The same Q-sort instrument used to measure asser— tiveness, extroversion and Openmindedness was used to measure this variable. Self-satisfaction is the discrepancy in the answers to questions 62 and 63. In question 62 (p. 15) the students were asked to rate on a three point scale 30 personal characteristics. In Question 63 (p. 16) the students were presented again with the same characteristics, except that this time they were asked to rate themselves according to how they would like to be from an ideal point Of view. The two sets Of characteristics were correlated. High positive correlation coefficients reflect high self- satisfaction. High negative correlation coefficients reflect high self-dissatisfaction. The correlations 113 obtained for the UCV sample ranged from +1.00 (for students highly satisfied with themselves) to -.38 (for students who wanted to be very different from the way they perceived themselves at the time).19 The results of the AID analysis for this variable shows the relationships to be most intense for booster (: l), and equally for spectator (: 2.5), and gladiator (: 2.5). A look at the down-ranks, however, Shows that the results for spectator are highly stable; 11th place for the UCAB data, 17th place for the UCV data. However, the relationship between booster and gladiator and self- satisfaction appears highly unstable; 23rd and 4th for the booster and 4th and 17th for gladiator for the UCAB and UCV data, respectively. Career Orientation 23. Intrinsic Career Involvement Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -3 -2 -l -3 -2 -l 13 6 2 l3 8 3 19In order to facilitate the AID analysis (the AID ,program used does not accept negative numbers and does not ‘allow variables with values equal or greater than 63), 'the correlation coefficients were recoded. 114 Persons who are more involved in their careers are less likely to participate in politics than those who are less involved. The idea behind this assertion is that the resources that an individual invests in a career cannot also be used at the same time for participation in poli- tics, because these are competing activities. This is the same type of reasoning that was used to explain the rela- tionship between being married, or being employed and political participation. Following this line of reasoning it is hypothesized that a negative relationship should exist between intrinsic career involvement and all three styles of political parti- cipation. However, the negative relationship will be strongest for the gladiator style (- 1). Gladiator activities are the most demanding, and therefore compete more for the individual's resources. A moderate negative relationship (- 2) is also expected for booster, because the affiliative type Of activities associated with this style also compete with time and effort involved in the studies, even though not with the same intensity as the gladiator activities. In the case of spectator activities one can say that in comparison to the other two styles they do not require the same amount of time and effort, and for this reason the negative relationship is hypothesized to be weaker (- 3) than booster and gladiator style. A scale intended to determine the amount Of career involvement was developed from the following questions: 115 1 Question 3 (p. l)-+What are the reasons that influenced your choice of this field? Reasons associated with career involvement were scored 6 points; if no mention was made Of career involvement the score was 0. 2 Question 5 (p. 2)--And what are the specific things about your field that you do not like very much? If no specific complaints were mentioned the scoring was 6, if negative aSpectS Of the field were mentioned the scoring was 0. 3 Question 4 (p. l)--What Specific things do you like best about your career? Same codes as question 3 4 Question 6 (p; 2)--Would you say that your career is a means to reach other ends, or is an end in itself? Iffwend in itself," the code is 6; if a means to reach other ends the code is 0. 5 Question 6a (p. 2)--What goals are you pursuing by studying this career? Question 6b (p. 2)--Why do you consider it as an end in itself? These two questions were coded as if they were one. The codes are the same as question 3. 6 Question 8 (p. 3)--How Often would you say you discuss classwork with your fellow students? Coded 6 if frequently, 3 sometimes and 0 almost never. 7 Question 10 (p. 3)-—If you had to choose your career over again, would you choose? Coded 6 for the same career, 0 for another career. 8 Question 11 (p. 3)--After you have finished your classes at the university do you review your notes? 6 everyday, 3 sometimes, 0 only before examinations or almost never. 116 9 Question 12 (p. 3)-—Approximate1y how many hours did you spend studying last week? Question 13 (p. 3)--DO you usually spend about the same number of hours studying each week? Question 13a (p. 3)--If no, how many hours do you usually Spend? Coded into 7 categories, from 6 for 30 or more hours per week to 0 less than 5 hours or never study. After making theanalyses of the scales formed by these nine items I decided to drop three items which had very low biserial correlation and which had a very low discriminating capacity. The scale used for the final analysis is composed of the six items above numbered 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8. The results Of the UCV study confirm the hypotheses and corroborate the findings of the UCAB study in their entirety: Gladiator (- l), booster (- 2), and spectator <- 3). ‘ A look at the down+ranks related to this variable indicates also the impressive stability of the prediction for each of the three styles of political participation. For the UCAB study intrinsic career involvement ranked 13th, 6th and 2nd in predictive power respectively for Spectator, booster and gladiator. In the UCV study the predictive importance was 13th, 8th, and 3rd also for spectator, booster, and gladiator. These results I think are one of the most important contributions made by the replication, since in spite Of all the compexity Of the AID analysis, the low Hoyt reliability Of the scale used, and other 117 complications that could have prevented reproduction, the original results are strongly corroborated. 24. Mobility Aspiration Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV . UCAB ‘ UCV s B G s B G s B G s B G +2 -1 -3 :1 -3 -2 17 2 24 22 31 29 It seems as if time and other resources Spent in pursuing upward vertical mobility compete with political participation. With regard to the hypotheses linking this variable to the three styles Of political participation because of its "resource allocation" characteristics, its relationship to the booster and gladiator styles Of political participation is expected to be negative. However, the intensity Of the relationship will vary. It is expected that the relationship between booster and mobility aspiration should be negative and strongest (- l). The rationale is that the affiliative activities Of booster will conflict more with political participation than any of the other styles. In the case Of the gladiator style, the relationship is expected to be negative and weak (- 3), again some competition is expected but the strength Of the hypothesized relationship reflects the possibility that some mobility can also be achieved through the political 118 route, because politics can be an important avenue for social mobility. For spectator style the relationship is expected to be moderate and curvilinear (: 2). A scale to measure mobility aSpiration was con- structed from the following four questions: 1 Question 3 (p. 1)—-What are the reasons that influenced your chEice in this field? Coded 5 if money or professional status or other mobility related answers were mentioned, 0 if not. 2 Question 4 (p. l)--What Specific things do you like best about your career? Same codes as question 3 3 Question 6 (p. 2)--Would you say that your career is a means to reach other ends, or is an end in itself? If means to reach other ends the code is 5, if end in itself the code is 0. 4 Question 123 (p. 25)--How do you think your future level of life will be compared to what your parents have (had)? Would you say it will be Coded into 5 categories from 5 a lot higher, to l a lot lower The UCV results confirm the hypotheses only with regard to the direction Of the relationships between booster (- 3) and gladiator (- 2) and mobility aspiration. For spectator style, however, the relationship is strong and curvilinear (i 1). An inspection of the down-ranks reveals that the predictive power Of this variable, for the spectator and gladiator styles, has remained stable between the two studies; respectively 17th place for UCAB and 22nd place 119 for UCV, 24th for UCAB and 29th for UCV. However, a large discrepancy occurred in the relationship between this variable and booster: 2nd for UCAB, 3lst for UCV. This change leads me to reject the hypotheses. I wonder if there has been a change over time on booster which has made the affiliative element less important for social mobility. It may reflect a decrease in particularistic ways of attain- ing upward social mobility. Social Integration 25. Acknowledged Ego Model Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +1 +2 +2 :3 +1 34 7 34 34 35 33 Persons who follow the example Of others, and who find an identifiable model in other persons, are more likely to participate more in politics than those who lack these personal models. The hypotheses only predict the relationship between acknowledged ego model and booster style of poli- tical participation. The relationship between booster and this variable is predicted to be strong and positive (+ l), the contention is that identification with another person is important for affiliative reasons. 120 Students were requested to provide information about the existence of ego models in a series Of questions: Question 7 (p. 2)--In choosing a career, or in draw1ng up a general plan of life, many people follow the example given by individuals whom they know and admire, and whom they would like to resemble. Now, try to think of the people you know. Can you think Of anyone you would like to be like? 1 yes, 0 no The respondents who answer "no" to question 7 were further asked: Question 7b (p. 2)--For example, some peOple say that they would like to be like a member Of their family, a professor they have known, a boss they have had, or a speaker they have heard. Is there anyone you would like to be like? 1 yes, 0 no The results Of the UCV study do not confirm the hypotheses: (+ 2), (: 3) and (+ 1) for Spectator, booster and gladiator, respectively. However, a look at the down-ranks indicates the consistently low predictive power Of this variable. In the UCAB study it was 34th for spec- tator, and 34th for gladiator. In the UCV study for the three styles the order was 34th for Spectator and 33rd place for gladiator. Booster, again, showed a large dis- crepancy; 7th in the UCAB study and 35th for UCV. 121 26. Family Integration Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +1 +2 -2.5 -2.5 -l 29 19 29 36 36 32 Persons who are members of highly cohesive families are more likely to participate politically than those who are not. Family integration is hypothesized to be positively correlated with all the three styles of political partici- pation. A relationship of equal importance is predicted for gladiator (+ 1.5) and booster (+ 1.5), since it was hard to differentiate theoretically for which of these two styles this variable would be more important. For Specta- tor, however, the same direction Of relationship was hypo- thesized, but its strength was predicted to be weaker (+ 3). Information about family integration was Obtained from question 3 (p. 1). If a student answered either that he had chosen his career because Of family influence, or to emulate his father or other family members, they were scored 1, if not they were scored 0. The results Of the UCV study run completely Opposite to the hypotheses. The relationship between family integra- tion and the three styles of political participation are all 122 negative. This relationship is strongest for gladiators (- l) and of and equal Size for booster (- 2.5), and spectator (- 2.5). Any definitive conclusion about the strength and stability of the findings regarding family integration is limited by the consistent low explanatory power of this variable in both studies. In the UCAB study family inte- gration ranked 29th, 19th and 29th for Spectator, booster and gladiator. The corresponding ranking for the UCV study were 36th, 36th and 32nd. This means that the con- tribution to the explanatory power of the theory provided by this variable was close to.nil, and replicably so. 27. Sociality Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -3 +1 +2 -2 +1 +3 36 21 33 33 9 35 Persons who spend their leisure time socializing are more likely to participate in politics than those who do not. Since booster activities are concerned with the affiliative aspects of behavior, this variable Should be strongly and positively associated (+ l) with this style Of political participation. With regard to the other two styles, it is also hypothesized that the relationship 123 in both cases is curvilinear. The hypotheses recognize that there is a certain element of socializing for gladiator, while in the case of spectator the inverse relationship shows low interpersonal skills and competence. Information about sociality was obtained from question 48 (p. 12) "Most of us have some hobby that interests us outside of our studies or work. What do you do in your leisure time?" If socializing with friends, visiting, dating, or going to parties or similar socializ- ing activities were mentioned the question was coded 1, if not it was coded 0. The results of the UCV study confirm the strong and positive (+ 1) relationship between sociality and booster style. With regard to the other two styles, also a positive relationship was found between gladiator and sociality even though this time it is weak (+ 3). It is moderate and negative for spectator (- 2). In this study, the relationship between sociality and spectator is also negative. A look at the down ranks of the two studies indi- cates the increasing importance of this variable as predic- tor of sociality for the booster style of political participation. It was let in the UCAB study and it is 9th in the UCV study.- What is more important to point out, however, is that for gladiator and spectator styles 124 this variable has very low predictive power. This leads me to believe that sociality is indeed a very important variable for booster, but of little value for either of the other two styles. 28. Church Attendance Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks :- UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G ~~ :3 +1 +2 +1 :3 +2 15 12 12 ll 26 19 Persons who attend religious services are more likely to participate in politics than those who do not. No information is provided for the strength of I the expected positive relationships except for the case of booster when this is expected to be strong (+ l). The hypothesized direction for the booster style is again associated with the interpretation that attendance at religious service is often an affiliative type of activity. Information about the church attendance patterns of the students was requested in Question 122a (p. 25) "How often do you go to church (temple)?" There were eight coding categories from never (coded 1) to every day (coded 8). Since UCAB is a Catholic University, and UCV a State sponsored university I expected to find a significantly higher church attendance from the first sample. The 125 evidence, however, is that there are no major differences with regard to this variable between the two samples. In the UCV study the hypotheses are not confirmed with regards to booster; booster has a curvilinear rela- tionship of (i 3) while spectator has one of (+ 1). For booster the relationship between this variable (see appen— dices) starts out as a negative one, it becomes positive when the frequency of church attendance is from 3 to 11 times a year, and then becomes negative again. These find- ings, however, can be interpreted in the light of the theory. The normative, tradition-supporting value of church attendance for spectators, is greater than the affiliative value of church attendance for boosters. Life Evaluation, Happiness and Optimism 29. Evaluation of Self at Present Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G —1 +2 -3 12 :3 -l 3 24 23 8 19 5 Persons who are generally content with themselves are more likely to participate in politics than those who are not. The literature on social movements (see Blumer, 1969) presents the idea that a certain amount of dissatis- faction is necessary for individuals to engage in political 126 activity. Davies (1962) also points out that dissatisfac- tion with oneself can provide the incentive for political action, that when collectively organized, could become the germ of a revolutionary movement. The hypotheses only express that a negative correlation ( — ) is expected between evaluation of self at present and the gladiator style. The defense of this contention is that engaging in gladiator—type activities is contingent on the state of personal dissatisfaction as expressed by low evaluation of self at present. The self-anchoring scale devised by Cantril (1965) was used to measure this variable as well as three others (rating of self in past, rating of country at present, rating of country in past). Information about rating of self at present, and rating of self in the past was obtained from questions 43a and 43b. The students were presented with a picture of a ladder, this ladder had 11 steps, numbered 0 to 10. They were asked to place themselves and Venezuela on this symbolic ladder. In question 43a they were asked infor- mation about where they felt they stood at the present. In question 43b they were asked where they thought they stood on the ladder five years ago. Questions 46a and 46b also followed the format of the self-anchoring scale which used the ladder, except that in this case students were asked to rate their 127 country, Venezuela. In question 46a the request was to place Venezuela on the ladder at the present, and in question 46b (p. 11) was to place Venezuela where it was on the ladder five years ago.20 The results of the UCV study confirm the hypo- theses. Gladiator is indeed negatively (— l) correlated with the evaluation of self at present. A look at the down-ranks of the two studies indi- cates that the importance of this variable for explaining gladiator style of political participation appears to have increased markedly over the time span between the two studies: from 23rd in UCAB to 5th in UCV. The increasing importance of this variable for explaining the gladiator style should not cause us to dismiss the fact that for spectator "evaluation of self at present" has shown a remarkable degree of stability over timé ,3rd in UCAB and 8th in UCV. 30. Evaluation of Self in Past Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -2 +3 -1 -2 +3 -1 22 30 10 15 18 12 20To facilitate computer analysis of these variables steps 0 and 1 were combined (step 0 had an average of 3% of ‘the cases), and then a constant of 1 was subtracted from eaach score. The range of this variable therefore was from (J to 9. 128 Following the same rationale as for “evaluation of self at present,“ a person who is dissatisfied with his evaluation of himself in the past should be a more likely participant in political activities. The hypotheses therefore reflect this fact by expecting a negative relationship ( - ) between evaluation of self in past and gladiator participation. No hypotheses were advanced for the two other styles. The measures were obtained from the self—anchoring scale. The results of the UCV study also confirm the hypotheses. Furthermore, these results are identical to those of the first study in both the direction and in the strength of the relationships. With regards to the down- ranks the relative importance of this variable has remained relatively stable over the two studies. This relative stability was also found in the relationship between all three styles and evaluation of self in present. 31. Evaluation of Country at Present Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G :1 +2 -3 -2 +1 -3 18 20 28 4 2 7 The hypotheses predict that for the affiliative lmooster the relationship with evaluation of country at 129 present should be positive. Emotional support for the country should be the motivating force for this style. For gladiator and spectator, where this type of motivating force is not expected, the relationship is expected to be negative. A positive and strong relationship (+ l) was found between booster participation and this variable. The rela- tionship was moderate and negative for spectator (- 2), and slightly inverse for gladiator (- 3). The most important fact about this variable, how- ever, is its increasing importance. There were many factors which in early 1974 could have made the evaluation of their country by the university students included in this research somewhat high. As stated before in this dissertation, a new administration was about to be installed, the government had changed hands for the second time. That is, had changed from one political party to another. This made many Venezuelans more optimistic about the stability of the political system, and the future of democracy in the Country. On the economic side there were aalso some signs which warranted optimism; the full reali- zation of the surplus produced by the OPEC oil price 0 I I 21 O D O 0 increases was in the air. The new administration beSides Iuiving control over vast resources also had political support 21Venezuela is a member of OPEC (Organization of Ekatroleum Exporting Countries), and a major oil producer. 130 which was manifested in control of Congress by the govern- ment party. All these factors contributed to the general mood of optimism that was prevalent during those recent days in Venezuela. In spite of the increased importance of this variable, I feel that the most important finding which can be reported from this data is the fact that booster remained positively associated with evaluation of country at present; a development that is concordant with the general theory. 32. Evaluation of Country in Past Cross-Ranks Down-Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G -1 :2 +3 +3 —1 -2 7 ll 14 21 13 20 This variable is deemed to be strongly associated with the one previously discussed, and for that reason the rationale for the hypotheses and the expected relationships are the same. No confirmation of the hypotheses is provided from the UCV data. There is no pattern which can be compared ‘vith any of the hypotheses-expected relationships. This ‘variable is strongly and negatively (— 1) associated with kxooster style; gladiator (- 2) is negatively and spectator 131 (+ 3) is positively associated, respectively. In retro- spect, I feel that an interpretation of these results is not at odds with the tricomponential theory. The more a person values the immediate past of his country, the less his tendency to participate because of affiliative reasons. The reverse argument could be made for the normative Spec- tator: the more he lauds his country's past, the more he will engage in normative-type of activities. The down-ranks indicate that the relative impor- tance of this variable for booster and gladiator has remained very stable. Participation—Specific Attitudes 33. Humanitarian Social Service Orientation Cross-Ranks Down—Ranks UCAB UCV UCAB UCV S B G S B G S B G S B G +3 +1 +2 -3 -2 -1 31 16 20 30 28 26 This variable and the next three (social reform nes familiares ? Que crec Ud. que se le debo hacer a1 hijo que descuida sus estudios 1-64( 1-65( ) 20. a 21. Z. A la mujer que engafia a su esp-use ? 422’.” z, 111 hijo que esta en edad de trabajar, y n3 quiere trabajar ? Ahora, algunas personas prefieren pasar la any un grupo de amigvs, mientras que otros se p Jr parte del tiempo can 13 asan solos. 23. Ud. pasa la mayoria de su tiempo '; . i lp——-——-7 / con amigos! o / sslo / l ‘ J *4 .A continuacifin, vamos a presentarle algunas frases. Tod? lo que Ud. tiene que hacer es tensor sabre cada frase y luego indicar con una equis (X) Si esta totalmente de acuerdo, un poco de acuerdo, un Deco en desacuerdo, O 24. 25° 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Lo mas importante e ester de acuerdo con otra persona, la cuesti&1 do quién tienc 1a razén o quién esta equivocado es secundaria. ___J / Total acuerdoi/kPoco acuerdiz /F§QCO desacuerdOV /Total desacuerdpj/ / i . . Tengo que estudiar mas que mis compafieros de clase para sacar una bug na note an un examen. [Tetal acterch] /Poco acuerdo/' /’Poco desacuerd67 / Total desacuerdo7 Hay muchos estudiantes jdvenes en este pais que se meten en la politi ca per fa ta de discipline. /Total aouerdo 2 /7Poco acuep3§7 / Poco desacuerdo/ /Total desacuerdp/ Mis compafieros dc class tienen mas suerte que yO. r— t . ——1 r / Total acuerdo/ / Paco acuerdo/ / Paco desacuerdoy / Total desacuerdo/ - A veces 1a politics y 01 gobierno paracen tan complicadas que una per sona coma yo no puede realmente ontender que esta pasando. F ? 7 _"—" Y—7 /Total acuerdo//—Poco acuerdo; / Paco desacuerdo/ / Total desacuerdo/ ' .._1 J_i _.l He sentido fiecuentemente que no tiene valor tratar de ser alga en es ta Vida. gTotal acuerdo/ /Poco acuerdo/':rPoco dcsacuerdo/ / Total desacuerdo/ I - . -, .Cuando la gente esta en desacuerdo con el gabierno, no deoeria abode- cerle. 7 I J , .. - :I I Ir' 7 ] TOtal atherdo/ /Peco acuerdo, /Poco desacuerdqj ; Total desacuerdo , , ammo 1-66( ) 1-67( ) 1-68( ) 1-69( ) 1.70( ) 1-71( ) 1-72( ) 1-73 ( ) I CCDI 31- La religién tiene una gran importancia en mi Vida 1-74 ( ) flotal acuerdp] / Paco acuerdo/ [Paco desacuerdo/ /Total desacusrda7 7 l' 32. Si no anda con cuidada, la gente ms sxplotara 1-75 ( ) 1/ Total acuerdj [Paco acuerdo/ [Paco desacuerd6_7 / Total desacuerdp/ 33. La gents coma yo no encusntra sitio en la sociedad 1-76 ( ) [Total aouerdq LPOOO acuerdo7 [Paco desacuerdy A Total desacuerdp/ 34. Hay en dia una persona no sabe verdaderaments can quien puede contar 1—‘77 ( ) LTotal:cuerdp// Paco acusrdrE/T / Paco desacuerdfl /—Tata1 desacuerdo/ 35. Es poco justo traer nifias a1 mundo, viendo coma sstaran las cosas en 61 1.78 ( ) future _ . —7 f \ 3 j LTotal acuerdp7 [Paco acuerdo/ [Paco desacuerdO/ 1" Tot l desacuerdfl 36. La Unica manera en que una persona coma yo puede apinar acerca de las - 1.79 ( ) cosas que hace s1 gobierno es votando ~ flotal acuerdp7 /_Poco acuerdg LPoca desacuerd? Z Total desacusr'd—o/ 37. Es mejor contentarse con la que uno tions que meterss en cosas nuevas 1.80 ( ) [ Total acusrdo/ LPoc-o acusrd37 [Paco desacusrdp/ / Total dssacuerdj 38. Mis ideas religiosas tienen una influencia considerable sabre mis pun- 2-8 ( ) tas ds vista sabre atros asuntas LTotal acuerdgz Paco acuerdj [Paco desacuerdp/ Eotal desacuerga/ 39. La gents coma yo no tiene nada que decir acerca de la que hace e1 go— 2-9‘ ( ) bierno / Total acuerdo7 / Paco acuordoj’ LPOCO desacuerdo] / Total desecuerdo? 40. Ahara, 'que escageria Ud.: "La mayor-1a de la gents esta dispussta a ayu 2-10 ( ) dar a loo atras" O, "La mayoria de la gente esta dispuesta a ayudarse a Si misma" fl las otrosq [A 51’. misma7 ' 41:' Ahora, todos nosotros aspiramos a ciertas cases en la Vida. 42. Cuando Ud. piensa en lo que realmente ls imports en su Vida, a cuales son sus deseos y generanaas para el futuro ? En atras palabras, si Ud. se imaginara su future de la farms major, mas Optimists pos1blg, ; cémo deberia ser su vida entoncss, para que Ud. se sintiera feliz ? Ahora, Si pensamos lo cantrario de la situacién ideal anterior, L cuales son sus preocgpagioges y ignores acerca del future ? T'En otras palabras, Si Ud. se imagina su futuro dosde e1 pea; punta de vista, de la mansra mas pesimista, ; came veria su Vida entonces ? £90100 2-u( ) 2-12( ) incontinuaciSn esta e1 dibujo de una escalera. Suponga que el dltimopeldafio (n'imsro 10} de la escalera represents 1a mi: vida posibls para Ud., y que el primer peldafia (numero 0) re- presents 1a pegr_vida posibls para Ud. 43a. 3, En que peldafio de la escalera sients Ud. que Se encuen tra 2.119.112 ? Peldafio N° 43b. 3, En qué peldafia de la escalera diria Ud. que sstuva I s 0' so a a ? Peldafio N° 430. g'En qué peldafio de la escalera piensa Ud. que estaré dentro de cinoo g has ? Peldano N° '__ 10 ’ CODIGO. 2-13 ( ) 2-14 ( ) 2F15 ( 2 IP‘ 44. 45. 10 Ahara, 5 cuales sen sus dossos 1 es eranz para 61 future do nuestra'pais ? Si Ud. se imaginara el future de Venezuela can s1 ggyar'optimismo posibls, 5 cémo 1e parecsrian las cosas, d1 games, dentre de diez afios ? Y, & cuélss son sus :mo es o are iones acerca del future de nusstre paig ? Imaginese e1 future de Vsnezuc1a con el mayo; pssimisma posibls, a cSmo 1e parecsrian las cosas, digamos, dentro ds diez afios ? 4 CCDIGO 2-16 ( ) 2-17 ( ) 11 AhIra, viende nusvamente 1a escalera ds la pégina 9, supenga que sus mgzarss ssperanzas para Venezuela estén en la parts superior de la secalsra, y sus peerss tamerss para Venezuela estén en la ' parts mas baja. , 46a. ; En qué parts ds 1a escalera calocaria Ud. a Venezuela en la actualidad ? Peldafie N0 46b. 5 DOnde diria Ud. que sstuvo Venezuela hace cinco afias ? (Peldafio N0 46c. Trate de hacer una supasicion lo mas acertada posibls y di- ganos, a dSnde piensa que estara VOnezuela en la escalera dentro de cince ones ? _ Peldafio No Tenemes intsrés también en saber cfima la gents logra las no ticias del die. . .ro-W' 47. Tememos, per ejemple, las periddicos. 5 Lee muche, regular, poco, a casi nada sabre las netioias del dia ? {IMucheg 7 Regular! { Pecof //Casi nada/ 47s. a A qué temas de las perifidicos los presta mas atenCiOn ? 47b. 2 Y cual de las siguientes tipas de notioias 1e interesan a Ud. mas 2 -1___ lo que pasa en otres paises 2+23 —2___ lo que pose on Venezuela -3___ la que pasa en Caracas -4___ deportes -5___ eventos religieSos 2-18 ( 2-19 ( 2-20 ( 2-21 ( 21:-22' ( , 00mg ) S . ~_~. , o 48. La mayoria de nosostros tions algunos pasatiempos o cosas que . 1e interesan fuera de sus estudios O trabaja. -z Qué hace Ud.' en sus rates ds ocio ? M... .1” l 49. Hey en dia se habla mucha sabre clases sociales. a Cuales Ola , .ses cree Ud. que existen en Venezuela ? : l I x a . , 5Q.,.De las mencionadas, 6 a cual dirfa Ud. que pertenece 7 51. & Diria Ud. que esta en la parts superIOr de la (CLASE ESUOGIDA) i ~s_,o en la parts inferior de esta class ? "_ . fi/Fparte inferior/4 Z;parts superiorj/ 52. & Gualss ores Ud. que son las principales diferencias entre estas clases sociales 7 . , 8 . 53. L Y, que pisnsa Ud. sabre esas diferencias ? CODIG) 2-24 ( ) 2-25( ) 24.-EM) 2-27_() 2—28( ) 2.2M) 13 Ahera, queremes hacerle preguntas de otro tipa 54. 5 Cuénta educacién piensa Ud. que les hijos de personas come Ud° deberian tener ? 55. Des nines de docs afies de edad tomaron tiempa de su trabajo en una plantacifin de HBIZ. Ellos estaban tratande ds encentrar u na manera do cultivar-la misma cantidad de maiz utilizando me- nOs horas de trabajo. A“ El padre do uno ds las nifies dijo: "Esta es alga buena que debsmes considerar, dejenms saber sus ideas de como nosetres deberiames cambiar nuestra manera de cultivar maiz" E. El padre del otro nine dija: "La mansra de cultivar méiz es la manera que nosostros siempre hemos utilizade, hablar de cambios de procsdimiento es una pérdida ds tismpo". 5 Cual de las padres prenuncié las palabras mas sabias ? —I A/fipadre A / A/ padre B / 56. .5 Que es la que debs calificar a una persona para ocupar un alto puesto pfiblica ? —1___ E1 ser miembre ds una familia adecuada —2~-_,Su devocifin a las tradiciones nacionales +3__~.Su pepularidad sntre el pueblo -%;___Su buena eduoacidn y canecimientos sSpecializados e estas C‘PCvCIOn 8 es lo mas import para el future Oz uela ? 1____ F1 dura trabajo de su pueblo -2____ls buena planificacién de parte de su gabierno -3___ La ayuda de Dios —4___ La buena suerte 570 Z, Cual C1 ds Vs on 58. Ibos cientificos en las universidades estén estudiande tales ca- snis come que es lo que determine el sexa de un bebé, y que es 113 que permits que una semilla crezco para convertirse en plan- +;,. 5 Piensa Ud. que estas investiqaciones son: ~1____Thdas benefieiosas -2___ Todas alga beneficiosas ~3__u Tadas alga perjudiciales --4-____ Tod-as muy perjudiales 2-30 ( 2-31 ( 2-32 ( 2-33 ( CODIGO 2-29 ( ) ) ) ) ) 60. 610 A. Alginas personas dicen que es necesario para un hombre y su esposa limiter el nfimero de sus hijos de manera de podn: dar mas a los hijos que ya tienen B. Otros piensan que no es correcto que un hombre y su es— p051 limiten a proposito el numero de los hijos por na- cor & Con cual de estas Opiniones esta Ud. més de acuerdo ? —1_ Opini on A —2___ Opinion B Si Ud. llegara a conocer a una persona quien vive en otro pais distante miles de kil5metros de Venezuela, 5 podria Udo ontonder la manera de pensar de esa persona ? a Piensa Uda que un hombre puede ser realmente bueno sin tener ninguna clase de religion ? _7 . Si 6 No ; , cameo 2€M.() 2-35 ( ) 2-36 ( ) 15 Esta parte del cuestionario es un poco diferente a lo hecho anterio; manta. las preguntas estén relacionadas con la mnera como uno se percibe a 81 mismo. A continuacion hay una lista de 30 caracteristi . cas 'que las personas usan para describirse. Lea Ud. la lista de ca- racteristicas y decida hasta que punto cada palabra lo describe MUY BIEN, ms 0 MEN(B BIEN, 0 My! P00 . Piense en come as Ud. ELI, REALIDAD, no en como Ud. quizés quiera ser. 62. "g, COMO SE IERCIBE UD. ACTUALMEN’I‘E ? 1. Péngase “1" al lado de 5 :5 mas palabras que lo describen MUY POGO. _ 2. Pongase "2" a1 lado de 5 6 mas palabras que lo describen m 0 MENOS BIEN. 3. Pongase "3" a1 lado de 5 6 mas palabras que lo describen MUY BIEN. SERIO IDEALISTA SEGURO EXTRAVERTIDO EIEGANE FELIZ ESTUDIOSO EFICIENTE IND IVIDUALISTA INDE PEND IEN'IE SIN CERO REFIEXIVO RESPONSABIE ESTIMADO COOIERADOR EXITOSO REALISTA ORDENADO CONSTANTE DOPHNANTE CUMPLIDOR ESTABIE DECIDIDO OPTIMISTA IMAGINATIVO SATISFECHO IN TEIECTUAL CAPAZ IN TE LIGENTE POPULAR Revise, por favor, si hay al menos 5 palabras Wde los tres grupoa mrcados "l", "2" y "3". CODI 16 Ahora, he aqui otra lista con las mismas 30 palabras antelivres. Divida Ud. Lestas 30 palabras otra vez en tres grupas, pero en es te caso dividalas segun lo que le GUSTARIAS RaDESDE UN PUNTO DE VISTA IDE ’aL._ Es decir, n) como Ud. cree que es en realidad, o considera que otros desoen que Ud. sea, sino cuéles son sus IDEAP LES PERSONAIES}V \[TL‘ ‘2" 63. '_ "g, cor-Lo IE GUSTARIA SLR IDL ALLEZ l. P6ngase "1" al lado de 5 6 mas palaoras que describen MUY POGO 3 lo Que a Ud.;le gustaria so -r. 2. P6ngase "2" al lado do 5 6 :.;5s palabras que describen MAS 0 ME- EQ§:BIEN lo que a Ud. le gu star ia ser. 3. P6ngase "31::al lado de 5 6 ’3 lo que a Ud,“le gustaria ser. SERIO IDEALISTA EGURO EXTRAVERTIDO ELEGANTE FELIX ESTUDIOSO EFICIENTV INDIVIDUALISTA INDEPENDIENTE SINCERO REHLEXIVO RESPONSABLE ESTIMADO COOPEP ’LDOR EXITOSO REALISTA ORDENADO CONS TAN TE DOMIN NTE GUMPLIDOR ESTABLE DECIDIDO OPIIMISTA IMAGINATIVO SATISFECHO ILM ELECTUAL CAPAZ I N TE LI GENTS POPJLAR |Ill|llllIHIHIHIHII‘HIIH Revise, por favor, si hay menos 5 palabras en cad; uno do 103 tres grupos marcados ”l", "2" y "3". spalabras que describen MUY BIEN CODIGO 3-56 3-67 AAAAAAAAMAAWMAMfiAAAM VVVVVVVvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv 17 (i. A nosotros nos gustaria saber también que atencién presto la gente generalmente a lo que pasa en la politics. Nos referimos a la po- litica de todos los dies, cuando no hay campafias electorales on marcha. a Padria Ud. decir si sigue la politics con /fancho interés/ , Z/ moderado interés , o// poco interéiz 7 65. 5,Y durante la filtima campafia electoral ? g Diria Ud. que estaba ' / may interesego/ ,1/ moderadamentehinteresa§§7 , o //§6¢o intereseéé] en la filtimo campafia ? 66. z, Guéntos alumnos de su faculted considers Ud. que estén interesados en la politics 67. .Ahora, algunos estudiantes so interoson macho por las aggiviggggs, pg ' liticas, mientros que otros no se preocupan tanto ellas. Lo que nos interesa aqui no es a que partido pertenece la gente, sino mediante que actividades una persona participa en la politics. For ejemplo, discute Ud. con sus compafieros sabre la politics universitaria [a No 68. a Lee periSdicos y revistas sobre temas politicos en general ? O E El / . 09- a ASlste a reuniones politicas ? O E El 0. . . _ 7 _ 3' ASlSte a mitines polit1cos ? E! H 71. . 3- Esté afiliado a algLin partido politico ? GODIGO 4-8 ( ) 4-9 ( ) '4-10 <_ 4—11 ( 4-12 ( . 4-13 ( ' 4-14 ( 4-15 ( 7 F337 No7 v 72. 73. 74. 76. 77. 78. 79- 80. l__! 00 Traté de orientar en el vato de otros ? No B Fue a alguna comida de carécter politico ? / No E 001006 cansignas politicas ? Sl ‘ ' ‘ No D ° EscribiS consignas politicas ? E H Hizo discursas pfiblicos a favor de un candidato 0 un partido ? If N O L.__./ Distribuyé panfletos u otra prepaganda politica ? B No ° Participé en las caravanas paliticas de carros ? Si N El ° Puso un distintivo politico en su carra 0 en su rOpa ? 81 , I No D Participa 3n asaCiaciones voluntarias ? 51 N L? Q CODIGO 4-16 ( 4—17 ( 4-18 ( 4-19 ( 4-20 ( 4-21 ( 4—22 ( 4—23 ( 4-2J+( ) \J l9 GODIGO 81. Z. Hizo alguna otra cosa ? ' 4—25 ( ) Si No 81a. 2, PJdria decimos que ? 4-26 ( ) 82. 5 Habla Ud. de la politica con sus amigos ~- 4-27 ( ) /frecuenténienty , A algunas veces] , o /casi nuncaJ ? 83. z, Ahora, rrLirando a esta lista, generalmente qué parte toma Ud. 4-28 ( ) en estas conversaci Ones ‘2 IETRA ' . . O. . x. ‘ A. Aunque tango mis propias epini mes, generalmente 3510 escg Choc B. En general escucho, pero de vez on cuando expreso mis pro- pias Opinienes. C. Toma igual part0 en las conversaci mes. D. Hag) algo ma’s que dar mis Opini mes en las .conversacienes; usualmente tram de convencer a las otros que 'bengo la ra- ano . Ahera, tenem‘vs unas pvcas preguntas més del tips "Acuerdo- , ' Desacuerdo", coma ya le hicimes anterisrmente. De nuevo, todo lo que Ud. tiene que hacer es penszr sabre cada frase gcuerdo, gag pace de aeueggo, un poco en des;_ca nerd), o o lmente en (1 - ggcuerdo. 84. La diferenCia real entre la gente que triunfa y la que fracasa ' 4-29 ( ) es que la gente que triunfa tiene'suerte; cs decir, triunfar ' es cosa de suerte més que de habilidad y esfuerzo individual. A ' c. -\ /Total acuerdo: LPoco acuerdo/‘r / Paco desacuerdo7 [II Total desacuerd—o/ . 85. Una mala ley dobe ser cambiada, peri: miz’anfiras no se modifique, 4—30 ( ) debe ser cumplida .- . 1 / T3158]- acuerdq/é Foe-o acuerdg Face desacuerdj LTQtal dosacuemflf “\ .l 86. Mis compafierss de clase tienen mis amigos que yo. 4-31 ( ) ‘1 {Total aeuerg LPQCO acueri—o7 LPoco desacuerdy fietal desacuerdo/ 20 8 A 3 of _ , , o I u .0 7. ’pLSor do lo que algunas perswnas dlCOH, la condiclfin de la gente como yo esta empcirandd, on vcz dc mojorar. . - .— _-_.. ZiTotal acucrdo/i Poco acuordi7[ Poco dcsccucrdzy Total desocuordo7 (*0 . ' . , do. No vale la pond ocnparse de la politlca, perque los politicos no son los individuos més preparedws de la sociedad. Z Total acucrda LP'wco acuerdo7 Livery d-omcucrda] i Total desacuerdo/ 89. La asistencio a los serviciJs religi;s*s es un indice de la mora- lidad de una naci5n. ZrTotal acuerdo7ZLPoco acucrdq/ [LPicu dosccucrdo/ [LTotal desacuerd37 U) 900 Y9 trsto de haccrme agradcblo a tty fl . fig . '--" ' ’ Z Total acuerdo/LP-vco acuerdo, 1, P903 cosocucrdn- T'Jtal desacucrdo. -. - .—_. l - . -........_ -._.._h-4--- 9l. Siemprc troto de hacer 13 correctd y pctiar do acuerdo a las prin- cipios moralcs que me hon ensoficd . { Total acuerdo/ {Paco acuerds/l “vcv dcsocuerdq/ A Total desacucrdo/ .1 L , 92. Siento placer tratcndo dc entcndcrme a mi mismv, y c>noccr mis fog talezas y debilidades. . . 7 “ /’Total acuerdd7/IPoco acuerdo/l, Poco dasacuerdojz Tatal desocuerdo/ ‘ s 93.' La mayoria dcl tiempo me siento sol). ..Z:Total aousrdo7/[TOCDTacuerdo/ Z Paco dosocuerdo/z Total desacuerdo/ 1 _-- -. -. - _..__-___. __ __.,_. -..__.__ -.__._.._.__. 94. La meyoria de 103*funcionarios pfibliCJS no ostén realmente intere- sados en los problemas dc la gente coma yv. I —7 I I I ’ - " ’ / Total acuerdo//'Poco acuerdo] , Poco_desacuord0; L Total desacuerdo/ z « . g 95. Es muy poco lo que puede hacer para ambiar mi Vida. ~ [1 Total acuerdo7//Poco acuerdo/I/ Poco dosecuerdg/ / Total desacuerdo/ { L'mdfit‘ f 4-«32 < > I I 4-33( 3 4-34( ) I, 71* " \ 4—36( > 4—37( ) /.~9s3( l I f; ( ) MM 1 96. 97. 98- 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. L —'-‘-./. ' 7- h u" 21 'Mis Opinio es tienen menos peso que las opiniones dc mis compafieros de clase /Total acuerdo/ /Poco acuerdo/ /Poco dcsacuerdo7 / Total desacuerdo/ Z _ I .__J [L— 1' ’ A la hora do la verdad, nadic va a preocuparsc macho p3r mi ’- / Total acuerdj/ Paco acuerdo//f§3co desacuerdof /’Total desacuerdo} l I La naturaleza humane cs fundamentalmente cowporativa '—.' 31' [Total acucrdoj/ /Poco acu-QrdJ L/ Poco dosacuerdry /Total desacuerdo7 Li Me parece que soy la clase dc persona que ticne mas mala suerte que buena sucrte I L..._..-...... c-d' [Total acucrdo/ /T.>co acuerdo’ /Poco desza‘cuerdjj7 [—lTotal desacuerdo/ Hoy en dIa una persona tiene que vivir bicn el prescnte, y desatcn- dersc del futuro [/Total aCDGIdQFZCTOCD‘écuCTEE— [FToco desacuerdo? /TTotal desacuerdg/ Siento que me equivoquo de carrera LTotal acuerdo l/Poco acuerdo7 ‘/-Poco desacuerdoF/T /To’ca1 desacuerdcy _ , _A 1 iir Ahora, algunas persona: diccn que podemos confiar en la mayoria de la gente, mienTras que o ras dicen que es major ser desconfiado. & Que cree Ud. ? A Z Poienos confiar/ 1/ Es major ser desconfiado/ Para concluir tencmos unas pocas pregnntas mas, del tipo censo con las cuales Ud. esta bien familiarizadv 5 Dual cs su sexo ? O ’r O / Masculinfl / Femenmj ; Guantos afios tiene Ud. (en su mas cercano cumpleafios) ? QfiOS ; Nacié Ud. en K Venezuela], 0 en cl.Zextranjero/ \l/ M couch 4-41 ( ) 4'42 ( ) 4‘43 14~44 ( ) 4-45 ( ) 4H46 ( ) 44H) 44.“) 4-49() 106. 107. 108. ‘ 109. 1:10, 22 105:1. [en un p631? fvfuera de la 7 , dc América/ / America La-/ . i_. tina __A/ Z. Dénde exactar‘nente nacié Ud- 7 ( GIUDAD o PUEBLO, ESTADO o PAIST ;, Diria Ud. que la ciudad o pueblo donde Ud. NACIO tenia ' 4—53 3, D6nde vivio Ud. por mas tiempo cuando era nifio (entre las edades ~l menos de 500 habitantes -2 cntre 500 y 999 habitantes -3 : entre 1.000 y 2.499 habitantes ' -4 entre 2.500 y 4.999 habitantes -5 entre 5.000 y 9.999 habitantes ~6 entre 10.000 y 24.999 habitantes ~7 entre 25.000 y 199.999 habitantes -8 5200.000 y mas habitantes de 5 y 15 $303) ? (CIUDAD o mam, ESTADO o PMS? z, Diria Ud. que la ciudad o pueblo de donde Ud. se CRIO tenia 4-55 -l menos de 500 habitantes -2 cntre 500 y 999 habitantes -3 ' entre 1.000 y 2.499 habitantes a4," entre 2.500 y 4.999 habitantes -5 entre 5.000 y 9.999 habitantes -6 entrc 10.000 y 24.999 habit-mtes -'7 entre 25.000 y 199.999 habitantcs -8 200.000 y mas habitontes ' g, Estén‘ vivos' sus padres '2 / Sélo uno vivej' fl t V” 110a. z, Cuél ha muerto ? [ padre? : mare] C(DIGO 4-50 ( ) 4-51 ( ) 4-54( ) 4-56 ( ) 4-57 ( I 1n. glfiye Ud. actualmente en -2 en la residencia do uno de sus padres -3 _____en hotel 0 pensifin —4 con familiares -5 ____ en vivienda aparte 3-36 -1 en la residencia do sus padres 02. a Tiene Ud. hermanos (as) ? / 317 // no, Soy hijj \J/ ~ tinic e 112a. En relacifin con el orden de _. ‘ - ‘-.m%- w"Thacimientysuyo y de sus he; 'menos (as), & Ha sidw Ud. 4-60 —1 - el primero en LCC3T -2 cl segund? en naccr —3 el tercerw on nacer -4 el cuarto en nacer -5 e1 quinto en hacer -6 el sexto on nacer +7 el septime en naCer -8 ____ el en nacer -9 cl ultimo en hacer 13. & Haste que afie estudio su padre ? ‘4-61 -1 no asistio a la escuela -2 primaria incompleta (1° a 5° grade) -3 primaria complete (6° grade) -4 f bachillereto incomplete (1° a 4° afie) bachillerato complete 0 educacién técnica (59 afio). Carrera universitarin (incluyendo pedagfigico) no concluida -7 carrera universitaria completada -5 ____. - A Chlé]. /..-62 ( ) k) Ll ,ll5ai_¢iTuve No contest6 Nfimero de columna 74 75 ’— C) Pregur ta I§2_(R, 25)fi L -¢ . o.u6 religi l. Catolica 2» 1I‘3‘3 63F“ 1.1.811 3. Judie ~ 0 n I . 4. Otra (cr1st1ana: metsf1s1ca) 5. Ninguna 8. No contest6 Progrntanl22a p. 25) sCon cue fre Ud. a :1 jg es 311 (temple)? (1).? HUI STE"'131° T153 (E ffl'O. AEETNEUILJICLLR :31 MES 3 o m? c) 1. Nunca 2. De una a dos veces a1 aro 3. De tres a once veces a1 afio 4. Una vez a1 mes 5. De dos a tres veces a1 mes 6. Una vez a la semana 7. De dos a seis veces a la semane 8. Todos los dias 9. No contest6 L-re gunta Ufip. 25) JC6mo cree cu n1ve1'EE V1aa comTarado con el que sus padres? <‘1r1c oue sora 5. Mucho m6s a1to 4. Un poco mis alto 3. Aoroximadamento el mismo 2. Un joco més bajo l. Huoho m6 3 bajo No contest6 (D Deck 4 on pertenec Ud.~ cuoncia asiste "AERU DJ?) VECES PCR ES TOR SENANA: e seré su futuro tienen (ten1an) Nfimero de columna 77 78 79 ~52— Deck 4 Pregunta de evaluaci6n del ouestionario (p. 26) Esto es todo. oEn general podr1a Ud. decirnos c6mo 1e parec16 este ouestionario? GHubo partes que en- oontr6 d1f1oiles o que no la gustaron? 1. Si O. No 8. No contest6 Parte A (p. 26) 6Cuéles son? O. Muy largo 1. Las preguntas relacionadas con la p011tica 2. Pre untas 62 y 65 (caracteristicas de personali- dad 3. Preguntas 20, 21, y 22 (que se debe hacer en ciertas situaciones familiares) 4. Preguntas 41, 42, 44, y 45 (deseos y esperanzas y preocupaci6nes y temores con respecto a 81 mis- mo y con respecto a Venezuela) 5. Otras preguntas espeoificas' por ejemplo 1a 17 (tienen los estudiantes universitarios obligacio- nes especiales aparte de sus estudios) y las 45a, b y c y 46a, b y o (la escalera) No me gustan las preguntas de desarrollo 7. Otras razones (no me gustaron las preguntas so- bbre la relig16n porgue la relig16n es el opio del pueblo, preguntan muohas tonterias, el cues- tionario es fas tidioso, etc.) 8. No contest6 9. No aplicable, e1 cuestionario no le pareoi6 mal n1 d1f1c11 Parte B gp. 26) éPor qu6 fueron difioiles para Ud. To no le gustaron)? 1. El esp1oio era muy pequeno para contestar algunas preguntas cuya explicaci6n era bastante complica— da 2. Prevuntas 62y y 65 (caracteristioas de personali— dad) es muy dificil definirse a uno mismo 5. Preguntas 20,21 y 22 (situaciones familiares) es muy dificil saber que hacer ante esas situa- oiones 6 nunca me he planteado tal problema (continua en la pr6x1ma pagina) v"- o.”- Nfimero de columna _53_ Deck 4 (viene de la pégina anterior) 4.‘ 5.’ ‘Las preguntas relacionadas con la p011ticas no creo que a tréves de la politica se puedan solucionar los problemas de Venezuela 6 tcngo particular dificultad en contestar este tipo de preguntas ' Hay algunas preguntas que no comprendo! se dam como ejemplo las situaciones familiares y los rasgos de personalidad El cuestionario es muy largo No contest6 'No aplicable, el cuestionario no le parecio mal n1 dificil APPENDIX IV ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE CODEBOOK Dear student: This is a scientific study of the activities and vocational plans of university students. This research is directed by an instructor of sociology from Universidad Central de Ve- nezuela. The present study concentrates on a description by university students of their problems, both educational and other. By this means we hope to obtain a clear picture of university life, including its social, economic, political and psychological aspects. # The study is absolutely anonymous, and for this reason we request that you do not write in your name or any other indication of your identity as an individual. We are in- terested solely in frequencies and statistical tendencies, not in individual cases. If you have any questions about the filling out of the questionnaire, please raise your hand and you will be helped. If you would be interested in receiving a summary of the results of this research, please check this box Z::::7 , and write your name and permanent address on a separate paper and return to the questionnaire administrator. 261 262 Question 1 (p. 1) What is your major? I. 2. '\lO\kn-F-'\.O Law Architecture Pharmacy Medicine Computer Science Physics Mathematics Question 3 (p. 1) What are the reasons that influenced your choice of this field? A. Economic Advantages (money, financial security, a comfortable life, economic independence, better standard of living) Social Advantages (prestige, opportunity to move upward socially, to be somebody, to become cul- tured, to get ahead) Professional Advancement (to get ahead in a job, to improve one's professional position, etc.) To achieve a certain style of life: to associate with important people, etc. (Mobility Aspiration scale) 5. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned Humanitarian Reasons (for the common good, spirit of service, human welfare, a desire to do something for others, Christian ideals of service, better human relations, etc.) (Humanitarian Social Service Orientation scale) 1. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned Nationalistic, Patriotic Reasons (to help build the country, for the welfare of the country, useful to the country, etc.) (Nationalism scale) 1. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned 263 D. Social Reform Reasons (to solve social problems, to realize social justice, desire to reform society, etc. (Social Reform Orientation scale) 5. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned E. Reasons of Intrinsic Career Involvement (positive va- lence toward specific courses, activities, concepts, intellectual curiosity, the field allows or requires use of certain personal abilities and skills, is cre- ative: personal satisfaction, intellectual satisfac- tions, in electricity I see the answers to many things, as an ultimate end - it is my maximum aspiration, with the career I can reach all goals I seek, the career in itself, to build, etc.) (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned F. Family Reasons (influence of father or other family member: because of family traditions: most of my fam- ily are in the same career, etc.) (Family Integration scale) 1. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned Question 4 (p. 1) What specific things do you like best about your field? (SAME CODES AS FOR QUESTION 3) Question_5_(p. 2) And what are the specific things about your field that you do not like very much? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. No specific complaints (nothing -- I like every- thing about it: I do not know: nothing special) 0. Mention of specific negative aspects of the field (the field is underdeveloped, too specialized, too theoretical, too materialistic, too technical, lacks applicability to real problems: dislike of certain courses such as statistics, penal law: too much work is required: the system of studies is inadequate, too much memorization: corruption in the field, too much competition for jobs, etc.) 264 Question 6 (p. 2) Would you say that your career is a means to reach other ends, or is an end in itself? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. End in itself 0. Means Question-6a (p. 2) What goals are you pursuing by studying this career? Question 6b (p. 2) Why do you consider it as an end in itself? (SAME CODES AS FOR QUESTION 3) Question 7 (p. 2) In choosing a career, or in drawing up a general plan of life, many people follow the example given by individuals whom they know and admire, and whom they would like to resemble. Now, try to think of the people you know. Can you think of anyone you would like to be like? 1. Yes 0. No (IF "NO" TO QUESTION 7) Question Zb (p. 2) For example, some people say that they would like to be like a member of their family, a professor they have known, a boss they have had, or a speaker they have heard. Is there anyone you would like to be like? 1. Yes 0. No (IF "YES" TO QUESTIONS 7 OR 7b) Question_2a and 7b (p. 2) Who is it? (Family Integration scale) 1. Family member 0. Other person Question 8 (p. 3) We are also interested in knowing which subjects students discuss. How often would you say you discuss classwork with your fellow students? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. Frequently 3. Sometimes 0. Almost never 265 Question_2 (pL3) And what about the country's problems? 2. Frequently 1. Sometimes 0. Almost never Question 10 (p, 3) If you had to choose your career over again, would you choose (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. The same career 0. Another career Question 11 (p. 3) After you have finished your classes at the university do you review your notes? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. Everyday 3. Sometimes 0. Only before examinations 0. Almost never Question 12 (p. 3) Approximately how many hours did you spend studying last week? . Question l3_(p.33) Do you usually spend about the same number of hours studying each week? (IF NO): How many hours do you usually spend? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 6. 30 or more hours per week 5. 25-29 hours A. 20-24 hours 3. l5-l9 hours 2. 10—14 hours 1. 5-9 hours 0. Less than 5 hours, or never study Question 14 (p. Q)When you are studying, how often do you feel that you would rather be doing something else? (Intrinsic Career Involvement scale) 0. Frequently 3. Sometimes 6. Almost never 266 Question l5 (p, A) How satisfied are you as a student? 2. l. 0. Very satisfied More or less satisfied Very unsatisfied Question 16 (p, 4) Specifically, how satisfied are you with the following aspects of your university experience? 2. l. O. A. B. C. Very satisfied More or less satisfied Very unsatisfied The professors The courses The facilities The examinations The student government Question lZ_(p, 4) Do you think that being a university student involves any special obligations, apart from your studies, or not? (IF YES). Question 17a. What are they? 1. Mention of obligation to become involved in university or general politics: religious or spiritual obligations with political implications: obligation to become in- volved in politics, to lead, etc. Other mention Question 18 (p. A) Do you think that university students have special responsibilities in the change and develOpment of the country? (IF THEY DO) 18a. What do you think the students can do? 1. O. Mention of responsibilities to participate in political activities, to advise others or express dissent in pol- itics, etc. Other mention Question 19_(p. 5) Do you think that you personally can do anything—in the process of change in Venezuela? (IF YES) 19a. What can you do? l. O. 267 Mention of contribution through general political activity Other mention Now, we are going to ask some questions about what should be done in certain family situations. Question 20 (p._5) What do you think should be done with the son who neglects his schoolwork? 5. Would use physical punishment or coercion: (punish him, use sanctions, force him to study, insist that he study: repress him, keep him in check: make myself into the most severe person in the world, etc.) . Would use deprivation, restrict activities, or with— hold pleasures: (deprive him of his recreation and of the things he likes most: cut his allowance: send him to a boarding school, put him in a military academy: make him go to work, etc.) Would use shame and guilt and appeals to son's sense of responsibility to other persons, or would scold, berate, criticize or reprimand son: (counsel him by family example, make him responsible for his acts: create a sense of conscience: persuade him, reason with him, etc.: scold him, constantly remind him of his studies: moral coercion, etc.) Would use appeals to self-interest: (make him realize the harm he is doing to himself: threaten with possi- ble consequences in son's future for not studying now: point out importance of study for his future, make him see that without study he will be a "Don Nadie," etc. Would attempt to find out causes, would use laissez- faire, permissive approach, would avoid use of force, but does not specify what course of action should be taken, or do not know: (inquire, investigate the causes of son's negligence: get to know him and his attitudes: do nothing, in time he will convince himself, let him find his own road in life: should never make a big deal of the problem, rather view it as a natural event: not everybody is born to study: give him freedom to develop his own aptitudes: nothing is gained by forcing him: force will fail: respondent does not know what he would do because of lack of experience, etc.) Would use positive reinforcement or therapeutic ap- proach: (try to stimulate him, encourage him, get him 268 interested in studies: rouse his aspirations, in— still a love for study: get him interested in good schools: talk with him, be a friend to him, friend- to—friend, man—to-man, father-to-son: try to remedy his faults, correct his defects: send him for psycho- analysis to find the causes, etc.) Question 21 (p. 5) With the woman who is not faithful to her husband? 5. Would use corporal punishment or judicial punishment! (kill her, shoot her, beat her, punish her: she should be punished according to the law: should receive a jail sentence or other judicial penalty: throw the book at her, etc.) Would use divorce! (immediate divorce, etc.) Would use separation or social isolation! (separate her from society: throw her out of the house: send her back to her family: separate her from children, etc. . Would use social condemnation and public ridicule or would use shame, guilt or appeals to family, re- ligious values! (she should be held in contempt by society, be scorned, condemned: put a sign on her and let her walk the streets, etc.: make her realize the seriousness of her acts, reason with her about vio- lation of Christian values or consequences for chil- dren, reprimand her, make her feel ashamed, etc.) Would search out causes or would use laissez-faire permissive approach! (look for causes, reasons why she cheated: need to ascertain husband's role in causing her cheating: nothing, there is nothing to be done: leave her and wish her happiness: let her try her luck: forget her, look for another woman: it is none of the husband's business, etc.: or do not know: indeterminate recommendation: cannot say without having had the experience, would depend on how it affects the man, etc.) Would use positive reinforcement or therapeutic re— socialization! (have to help her: prevent it from happening again: try to get her to return to good ways: get spiritual counsel for her: get psychiatric treatment for her, etc.) 269 Question 22 (p; 5) And with the son who is old enough to work, but does not want to? 5. Would use physical punishment and coercion! (beat him, punish him severely: carry him off to jail: force him to work, etc.) 4. Would use categorical or definitive deprivation! (throw him out of the house: let him die from hunger- I would not give him one cent: deprive him of all help in the home: refuse to maintain him further: deny him all sustenance, including meals: withdrawal of financial support, etc.) ~ 3. Would use qualified or provisional deprivation! (would not give him anything but he could live in my house: deprive him of everything except meals, etc.) 2. Would use shame and guilt and appeals to sense of responsibility! (counsel, warn, advise him of the need to work: make him see that to work is dignity: make him realize his shamelessness: tell him he has the re- sponsibility to work, convince him, use persuasion: make him see he cannot spend his life vegetating, etc.) 1. Would search out causes, would use laissez—faire, per- missive approach, or indeterminate recommendation! (talk to him and try to find out reasons why he does not work: one has to have patience, let him continue without work until he feels the need: I am against impositions- this must come from one's own will: I cannot say without being a father with a son like that, etc.) 0. Would use positive reinforcement, would use vocational rehabilitation, taking son's inclinations into account! (try to orient him, talk to him like a friend, help him like a father should: try to stimulate him, make him am- bitious, show him an.incentive to work, show him the satisfactions one gains from earning money, try to induce a love for work: help him get a good job: I would not force him to work as long as he would find something else worthwhile to do such as continuing his education, etc.) Now, some people prefer to spend most of their time with a a group of friends, while others spend their time alone. Question 23 (p. 6) Do you spend your time 3. Alone I. Depends on my mood 0. With some friends 270 In the next questions we are going to present you some statements. All you have to do is think about each state— ment, and then indicate with an x if you totally agree with it, agree with it a little, disagree with it a little, or totally disagree with it. UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, QUESTIONS 24 TO 40 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 0. Totally agree 1. Agree a little 2. Disagree a little 3. Totally disagree Question 24 (p) 6) The most important thing is to be in agreement with other people, the question of who is right or who is wrong is secondary. Question 25 (p. 6) I have to study more than my classmates to get a good grade on an exam. Question 26 (p. 6) There are many young students in this country who get involved in politics too much because of lack of discipline. Question 22_(p. 6) My classmates have more luck than I do. Question 28 (p, 6) Sometimes politics and government seem so complicated that a person like me cannot really under- stand what is going on.- Question 29 (p. 6) I have often felt that there is no sense in trying to be somebody in this life. Question 39 (p, 6) When the peOple disagree with the gov- ernment they should not obey it. Questionp32 (p. 7) If I do not watch out, people will take advantage of me. Question 33 (p. 7) People like me do not fit in society. 3. Totally agree 2. Agree a little 1. Disagree a little 0. Totally disagree Question 34 (p. Z) Nowdays a person does not really know whom he can count on. Question 35 (p, 2) It is not really fair to bring children into the world, seeing how things will be in the future. 271 Question336 (p, 7) Voting is the only way that people like me can have any say about how the government runs things. Question 37 (p, 7) It is better to content oneself with what one has than to get involved with new things. Question 39 (p.7) PeOple like me do not have anything to say about what the government does. Question 40 (p. 7) Now, which would you choose! "most peOple are disposed to help others," or "most people are disposed to help themselves?" 3. Help others 0. Help themselves Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose we say that the top of the ladder represents the best possible life for you and the bottom represents the worst possible life for you. QUESTIONS 43a TO 460 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 0. Worst, dissatisfied \OQ‘J'QOUX-P‘wmt—J . Best, satisfied Question 43a (p. 9) Where on the ladder do you feel you personally stand at the present time? Question 43b (p. 9) Where on the ladder would you say you stood five_years ago? Question 43c (p._9) And where do you think you will be on the ladder five_years from now? Now, looking at the ladder on page 9 again, suppose your greatest hopes for Venezuela are at the top: your worst fears at the bottom. Question 46a (p, ll) Where on the ladder would you put Venezuela at theppresent time? 272 Question 46b (p. ll) Where did Venezuela stand five_years ago? Question 46c (p. ll) Just as your best guess, where do you think Venezuela will be on the ladder five years from now? We are also interested in knowing how peOple get the daily news. - Question 47 (p. 11) For instance, let us take the newspapers. Do you read a lot, moderately, a little, or almost nothing about the day's news in the newspapers? 3. A lot 2. Regularly l. A little 0. Never Question 47a (p. ll) To which topics of the newspapers do you pay most attention? 1. Mention of national political news or politics in general 0. Other mention Question 47b (p. 11) Which of the following kinds of news interests you most? 3. Happenings in other countries 2. Venezuela 1. Caracas 0. Sports and religious events Question 48 (p. 11) Most of us have some hobby that interests us outside of our studies or work. What do you do in your leisure time? A. Political Activities 1. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned (Scale of Socializing) B. Socializing with friends, visiting, dating, going to parties, etc. 1. Mentioned 0. Not mentioned 273 Question 49 (p. 12) There is a lot of talk about social classes. What classes do you think there are in Vene— zuela? l. Lower-Lower ClaSS! (extremely low, paupers, miserable people, those who do not eat, ultra-low, the infra- human class, completely low, deprived, destitute, help— less, abandoned, dispossessed, have—nots, those who have nothing, those who live in the hills, etc.) 2. Upper-Lower Class! (those who do not have money, the humble, poor, needy, low level, inferior, pOpular class, campesinos, unskilled labor, farm workers, the proletariat, those with at least something, etc.) 3. Lower-Middle ClaSS! (lower middle, skilled workers, the pessimistic middle, technicians, etc.) 4. Middle—Middle Class! (intermediate class, office workers, medium income, families with not well—known surnames, middle working class, etc.) 5. Upper-Middle ClaSS! (high middle, strong income, the monied middle, moderately wealthy, middle burgeoisie, the new rich of the middle class, bureaucrats, profes- sionals, intellectuals, political leaders, the group with power, etc.) 6. Lower—Upper ClaSS! (the wealthy, rich, high class, management class, high bourgeoisie, powerful high administrative officials, large incomes and superficial luxuries, etc.) 7. Upper-Upper ClaSS! (millionaires, the super-elevated, very wealthy, very rich, economically powerful, cap- italists, magnates, heads of industry, oligarchy, owners of capital and the means of production, high society, aristocrats, the country clubbers, the priv- ileged class, the old rich, etc.) Question 50 (p. 12) Of those you have mentioned, to which would you say you belong? (SAME CODES AS FOR QUESTION 49) Question 5l (p. 12) Would you say you are in the lower part of (CLASS CHOSEN) or in the upper part of this class? 1. Lower part 2. Intermediate 3. Upper part 274 Question 52 (p. 12) What do you think are the most important differences between these social classes? 1. Economic differences 2. Educational differences . Cultural differences Social status differences Religious and moral differences Political differences Personality and Characterological differences Racial and ethnic differences Occupational differences \OCDme-F'KA) Question 53_(p. 12) And what do you think about these dif- ferences? 5. Strongly oppose existing class differences! strong negative attitudes: desires for complete class lev- elling or shifting the base of existing class struc— ture, e. g., from ascription to achievement, etc.! (are hateful to me, disgusting, are terrible, it is unjust, inequitable, workers and campesinos are ex- ploited, all should be equal, they are artificial, accidental, hypocritical, false, illogical, ridiculous, goes against social and distributive justice, are inhumane, socialism will reduce these_differences, are the errors of capitalism, class differences should not exist, should do whatever possible to eliminate them, etc. 4. Moderately oppose existing class differenceS! attitude of basic discontent with or disapproval, resentment of existing class differences coupled with a willingness to work within existing system to improve rather than replace or destroy it: emphasis on reducing, ameliorat- ing class differences by redistribution of income or other reforms! (have to reduce them, wealthy should contribute prOportionally to poor, tax wealthy, would try to make classes more equal, are necessary but re- pugnant, reform is needed, I am in favor of class strug— gle - there will always be classes and have to reduce differences, are remediable, need to equilibrate them, it is a necessary evil, need to evolve better distribu- tion, etc.) 3. Indifferent! respondent makes factual observations with no indication of opposition or support! (are very marked, they could be cause of friction, are very large, etc.) 2. Moderately support existing class differences! attitude 275 of basic acceptance of existing class structure cou- pled with concessions to poor classes, including noble- sse oblige: class differences are inevitable or proper, and should be maintained with ocassional adjustments to reduce friction which might threaten survival of pre- sent class system or some viable version of same! (there will always be rich and poor but should help eliminate the poorest, will always exists-— I do not agree but I accept them, should educate the unemployed so they can work, classes have to be but should be reduced, but should not dissapear, the middle class should expand, the upper class has obligations with the lower classes, etc.) Strongly support existing class differences! appeals to natural order to legitimize existing class structure or unqualified acceptance of it! (class differences are normal or natural, they have their origin in a principle of Natural Law and will always exist, should be main- tained, are necessary, are very reasonable, logical, must exist, are inexorable, etc.) Now, we want to ask you a different type of questions. Question554 (p, 13) How much schooling do you think chil- dren of people like yourself should have? 3. 2. 1. The maximum schooling Just the necessary schooling The same as everybody else Question 55 (p. 13) Two twelve-year-old boys took time from their work in the corn fields. They were trying to figure out a way to grow the same amount of corn with fewer hours of work. A. 3. o. The father of one boy said "that is a good thing to think about. Tell me your thoughts about how we should change our ways of growing corn." . The father of the other boy said "the way to grow corn is the way we have always done it. Talking about change will waste time but not help." Which father said the wiser words? Father A Father B 276 Question 56 (p. 13) What should most qualify a person to hold high office? 0. Coming from the right family background 1. Devotion to the old time-honored ways 2. Being the most popular among the people 3. High education and special knowledge Question 57 (p. l3)Which is most important for the future of Venezuela? The hard work of the people Good planning on the part of the government . God's help . Good luck OF—‘Nkfl Question_58 (p. 13) Scientists in the universities are studying such things as what determines whether a baby is a boy or girl and how it is that a seed turns into a plant. Do you think that these investigations are! 3. All very beneficial 2. All somewhat beneficial 1. All somewhat harmful 0. All very harmful Question 59 (p. 14) 3. Some peOple say-that it is necessary for a man and his wife to limit the number of children to be born so they can take better care of those they already have. 0. Others say that it is wrong for a man and his wife purposely to limit the number of children to be born. Which of these opinions do you agree with more? Question 60 (p. 14) If you were to meet a person who lives in another country thousands of kilometers away from Vene- zuela, could you understand his way of thinking? 3. Yes 0. No 277 Question 61 (pJ 14) Do you think a man can be truly good without having any religion at all? 3. Yes 0. No Question 62 (p. 15) This part of the questionnaire is a little different from the previous part. The questions relate the manner in which the person sees himself. Fol— lowing is a list of 30 characteristics that persons use to describe themselves. Read the list of characteristics and decide to what extentpa particular word describes you, vepy well, more or less, or very little. Tell how you real- ly are, and not how you wish you were. How do you really see yourself? 1. Put a "l" beside 5 or more words that describe you very little. 2. Put a "2" beside 5 or more words that describe you more or less. 3. Put a "3" beside 5 or more words that describe you very well. THE 30 CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO QUESTION 62 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 1. Very little 2. More or less 3. Very well Serious Idealistic Sure Extroverted Elegant Happy Studious Efficient Individualistic Independent Sincere Reflective . Responsible l4. Esteemed . COOperative 16. Successful l7. Realistic 18. Orderly l9. Faithful 20. Dominant 21. Reliable 22. Stable HHHHomflmmeNH WNHO. o o o o o o o o |._a \J‘l 278 23. Decided 24. Optimistic 25. Imaginative 26. Satisfied 27. Intellectual 28. Capable 29. Intelligent 30. Popular Question 63(p. 16) Now, here is another list of the same 30 words. Divide up these words into three groups, but this time tell how you would;like to be ideally. That is, not the way you think that you really are, nor the way others might wish you were, but your own personal ideal self. How do you wishpyou were? 1. Put a "l" beside 5 or more words that you would least like to be like. 2. Put a "2" beside 5 or more words that you would say more gr less describe your ideal. 3. Put a "3" beside 5 or more words that you would say describe your ideal veryswell. THE 30 CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO QUESTION 63 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 1. Least 2. More or less 3. Very well (SAME 30 CHARACTERISTICS AS QUESTION 62) We are also interested in how much attention people generally pay to what goes on in politics - I mean everyday, when the election campaigns are not going on. Question 64 (p. 17) Could you tell me if you are very interested, moderately interested, or only a little interested in everyday politics? 2. Very interested l. Moderately interested O. A little interested Question 65 (p. 17) And during the last election campaign? Would you say you were very interested, moderately inter- ested in the last campaign? 2. Very interested I. Moderately interested O. A little interested 279 Question 66 (p. 17) How many students in your Faculty do you think are interested in politics? 3. Many 2. Some 1. A few QUESTIONS 67 TO 81 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 2. Yes 0. No Question 67 (p. 17) Now, some students are very interested in political activities, while others do not bother them- selves much with this. What we are interested in here is not to what party a person belongs, but through which activities people participate in politics. For example, do you discuss student or university politics with your classmates? Question 68 (p, 17) Do you read newspapers and magazines about general political subjects? Question 69 (p, 17) Do you attend political meetings? Question 70 (p. 17) Do you attend political rallies? Question 71 (p. 17) Do you belong to some political party? Question 72_(pp 18) Did you try to advise someone else how to vote? Question 73 (p. 18) Did you go to any political dinners? Question374 (p, 18) Did you put up any political signs? Question 75 (p. 18) Did you write any political signs? Question 76 (p, 18) Did you make any public speeches in favor of a candidate or party? Question 77)(p. 18) Did you distribute pamphlets or other political propaganda? Question 78 (p. 18) Did you participate in the political car caravans? Question_79_(p. 18) Did you wear or put on your car a political button or sticker? Question 81 (p.l9) Did you do some other thing? (IF YES) 81a. Could you tell me what? 280 2. Mention of active party work 0. Active party work not mentioned Question 82 (p. 19) Do you talk about national politics with your friends? 2. Frequently 1. Sometimes 0. Almost never Question 83 (p, 19) Now looking at this list, what part do you usually take in these Conversations? 0. Although I have my own opinion, I usually only listen. 0. In general I listen, but now and then I express my own opinions. I. I take an equal part in the conversations. 2. I do more than just give my opinions in the conversa- tions: usually I try to convince others that I am right. Question 84 (p. 19) The real difference between the people who succeed and those who fail is that those who succeed have luck. That is, success is more a matter of luck than of ability or individual effort. UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, QUESTIONS 85 TO 101 ARE CODED AS FOLLOWS! 3. Totally agree 2. Agree a little 1. Disagree a little 0. Totally disagree Question485 (p. 19) A bad law should be changed, but while it stands, it ought to be obeyed. Question 86 (p. 19) My classmates have more friends than I do. Question 87_(p. 2Q) In spite of what some people say, the condition of people like me is getting worse instead of better. Question 88 (p. 29) It is not worthwhile to bother yourself about politics, because in general, the politicians are not the most qualified individuals in the society. 0. Totally agree 1. Agree a little 2. Disagree a little 3. Totally disagree 281 Question 93 (p. 20) Most of the time I feel lonely. Question 94 (p. 20) Most public officials are not really interested in the problems of people like me. Question 95 (p. 2Q) There is very little I can do to change my life. (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 88) Question_96 (p. 21) My opinions carry less weight than the opinions of my classmates. Question 97 (p. 21) When you get down to it, no one is going to care much what happens to me. (SAME. CODES AS QUESTION 88) Question 98 (p. 21) Human nature is fundamentally cooper- ative. Question599 (p. 21) I seem to be the type of person that has more bad luck than good luck. (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 88) Question 100(p. 21) Nowadays a person has to live for today and not worry about the future. (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 88) Question 101 (p. 21) I feel I chose the wrong career. (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 88) Question 102 (p. 21) Now, some people say that most people can be trusted. Others say you cannot be to careful in your dealings with other people. How do you feel about it? 3. Most peeple can be trusted 0. Cannot be too careful Now we only have a few more questions, the census kind that you are already familiar with. Question 103 (p, 21) What is your sex? 1. Male 0. Female 282 Question 104 (p. 21) How old were you on your last birth- day? 17. Seventeen years 49. Forty—nine years Question 195 (p. 21) Were you born in Venezuela or in a foreign country? 1. Born in Venezuela 0. Born in a foreign country Question 106 (p. 22) Where exactly were you born? 1. Born in Caracas Metropolitan Area 0. Born in Venezuela, but outside Caracas 9. Born abroad Question 106 (p. 22) Where exactly were you born? Question 107 (p. 22) What would you say the size of the cIty or town were you were born was? . Less than 500 population 500-999 . 1000—2499 2500-4999 5000-9999 l0,000-24,999 25.000—199,000 200,000 or over CDVO‘xKfi-C—‘KDNl—J Question 110 (p. 22) Are your parents living? (IF ONLY ONE IS LIVING) Question llOa_(p. 22) Which one has died? 1. Father 0. Mother or both alive Question ll3 (p, 23) Until what grade did your father study? 1. No school Primary incomplete Primary completed High school incomplete High school or technical education completed College incomplete College completed \lCfiU‘t-F‘WN 283 Question 114 (p. 23) What is (was) your father's occupation? (SPECIFY NAME OF OCCUPATION, KIND OF WORK, POSITION, ETC.) Unskilled laborers Semi-skilled and skilled laborers Accountants, office workers, minor officials Owners, merchants in small business, administrators Professional and middle management Directors, high level management Top executives in business and government \lCfiU‘J-TWNH Question 115(p, 24) Did your father have the same job when you were a child? (IF NO) Question 115a (p. 24) What kind of work did your father have at that time? (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 114) Question 116 (p, 24) Would you say your mother is (was) interested in politics? 3. A great deal 2. Moderately 1. Very little Question 117 (p. 24) Would you say your father is (was) interested in politics? (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 116) Question 117a (p. 24)Generally, would you say that your father agree with your own political ideas? 1. Disagree 2. Qualified agreement 3. Agree Question 117b (p. 24) Generally, would you say that your mother agree with your own political ideas? (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 117a) Question 118 (p. 24) During your university studies, what would you say has been your grade point average? . Less than 10 points Between 10 and 12 points Between 13 and 14 points Between 15 and 16 points Between 17 and 18 points . Between 19 and 20 points mm-P‘WNl-J 284 Question 119 (p. 24) Are you now? 1. Married 0. Single, divorced, separated, widowed Question 120 (p. 25) Are you now working? 1. Yes 0. No (IF YES) Question 120a (p. 25) What type of work do you do? (BE SPECIFIC) (SAME CODES AS QUESTION 114) Question 122a (p. 25) How often do you go to church (temple)? (GIVE NUMBER OF TIMES PER WEEK, MONTH, OR YEAR. SPECIFY IF IT IS PER WEEK, MONTH, OR YEAR) 1. Never 2 l to 2 times a year 3. 3 to 11 times a year 4. Once a month 5. 2 to 3 times a month 6. Once a week 7. 2 to 6 times a week 8. Every day Question 123 (p. 25) How do you think your future level of life will be compared to what your parents have (had)? Would you say it will be 5. A lot higher 4. A little higher 3. About the same 2. A little lower 1. A lot lower APPENDIX V CURVES FOR PATTERN OF CURVILINEARITY OF SELECTED VARIABLES CURVES FOR PATTERN OF CURVILINEARITY OF SELECTED VARIABLES* Booster (Q-Sort) 60 50 40 B88 30 20 10 O H N w .5 U1 ON \1 (1) KO Codes Booster (Church Attendance) 90 80 7O 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 885 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Codes *For an explanation of the codes, please see Codebook. 285 286 Gladiator (Punitiveness) 90 80 70 60 B88 40 3O 20 10 012 3 4567 891011121314 Codes Pooster (Faith in People) 60‘ 50 4O 30 20 10 385 0 l 2 3 44 5 6 7 8 9 Codes 287 mmoou hv mv mm mm mm vm mm «m am on mm mm hm mm mm «N mm mm Hm om ma ma 5H Amm¢v Houmuommm 0H cm on ow om cm on om om mmm