A COMPARISON or MENTALLY RETARDED ' Cyra‘w : , - - 3W1 mpmsowsn ADULTS AND Wurst-UAW H‘ORMAL: IMPRISONED ADULTS 0N VOLUNIARY qucmmow m AVOCATIONALACIMIIES4:, ' Thesis. for the Degree of Ph. D. ,- . MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY - : DAVED R. WALTERS ’ 1,970 .'. ,‘ L I BRA R Y Michigan State U .livcrsity L W ‘M‘F'W' \HFs‘“ s This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comparison of Hentally Retarded Imnrisoned Adults and Intellectually fiormal Ivorisoned Adults on Voluntary Participation in Avoca- tional Activities. presented by David K. Walters has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhflTJ. degree in Education Major pro essor 0-169 - +fi__._“._—_ -_,_.....__. .. ABSTRACT A COMPARISON OR MENTALLY RETARDED IMPRISONED ADULTS AND INTRLLROTUALLY NORMAL IMPRISONRD ADULTS ON VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION IN AVOCATIONAL ACTIVITIES By David R. Walters An estimated twenty thousand mentally retarded felons are housed in prisons in the United States of America. Little is known about this group and how they function. The intent of this study was to examine different methods of increasing the participation of mentally re- tarded felons in avocational, hobbycraft type programs in a Large penitentiary. It was hypothesized that (a) verbal information in a formal presentation would result in more self—referrals by inmates than informal communications alone, (b) verbal information coupled with experience and/ or exploratory opportunities would result in more self- referrals than verbal information alone, and (0) non- mentally retarded inmates would have more self-referrals after treatments than the mentally retarded. Ninety mentally retarded and ninety non—mentally retarded subjects participated in this study. Sixty David R. Walters subjects were given verbal information alone, sixty re- ceived verbal information coupled with exploratory oppor- tunities, and sixty served as a control group and received no treatment. Ten days after the treatments were admin- istered a count was made of subjects making written appli- cation for permission to use hobbycraft materials and equipment. Data was analyzed by use of a two-way analysis of variance. Post hoc comparisons were made using the Scheffé procedure, and Student's "t" test was used in analyzing chronological age, length of time served under current sentence, and average grade rating. Data analysis revealed that informal communications is least effective of all techniques; verbal information alone and verbal information coupled with experience re- sulted in more self—referrals. Both the hypotheses that verbal information in a formal presentation would result in more self-referrals and that verbal information coupled with experience would result in more self—referrals were retained. The hypothesis that the non—mentally retarded would have more self-referrals than the mentally retarded Was not supported by the analysis of data and was rejected. Significant differences were found to exist in age, with the mentally retarded felons being five years older than the non-mentally retarded, and in average grade rating where mental retardates were found to be functioning much David R. Walters lower than the non—mentally retarded. Signigicant differ— ence was not found in time served under current sentence. This study points up the relative ineffectiveness of informal communication with both groups. It would appear that the effectiveness of verbal information coupled with exploratory opportunity has been under-estimated with both the mentally retarded and the non—mentally retarded. This study is limited by use of a rudimentary cri- terion and by the population. From an experimental design View it would have been helpful to isolate the effective- ness of exploratory opportunity without being coupled with a verbal presentation. A COMPARISON OF MENTALLY RETARDED IMPRISONED ADULTS AND INTELLECTUALLY NORMAL IMPRISONED ADULTS ON VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION IN AVOCATIONAL ACTIVITIES By David R: Walters A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology College of Education 1970 $9 (a _J—--- CDL" ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere appreciation is given to Dr. James Engelkes who served as Chairman of my doctoral committee for his patience, guidance, and knowledge, along with many, many hours of his time. Dr. Guy Timmons served as a model for me since early in my studies, as did Dr. Richard Johnson, and I am in- debted to them for their encouragement, advice, and sup- port. Dr. William Goldberg was particularly helpful throughout my studies, and through his teaching and per— sonal influence has had great influence on my thinking in develOping systems for the rehabilitation of the criminal offender. Special thanks are extended to fellow students Rick Gay and Barry Mintzes. They have been friends, compa- triots, teachers, and a source of great strength throughout my studies. The staff of the Michigan Department of Corrections were most kind and helpful. I am particularly indebted to Mr. John Hawley, Counselor at the State Prison of Southern Michigan, who administered my treatments. Finally I wish to thank my wife, Bobbi, for her humor, patience, and inspiration without whose help this 11 would have been impossible. In the darkest hours neither she, my daughter Kimberly, nor my son Scott lost faith. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. LIST OF TABLES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Introductory Statement. . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . Need for the Study Definition of Terms. II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Criminological Studies. . . . \Mental Retardation . . Recreational and Avocational Activities Approaches to Learning. III. METHODOLOGY Subjects . . Materials and Procedures Design of the Study. Analysis of Data. IV. RESULTS. Introduction . . . Findings Summary. V0 DISCUSSION 0 o o o o o o o o 0 Implications of the Study. Limitations of the Study iv Page ii vi H \O \lU‘l-E'UUH 17 20 2A 2A 25 .28 29 29 29 37 39 A2 A4 Chapter REFERENCES APPENDICES Need for Further Research. Summary. Page 1&6 LI? A8 56 Table T‘J LIST OF TABLES Mean number and standard deviations of appli- cations for hobbycraft privileges of mentally retarded and non-mentally retarded inmated felons of the State Prison of Southern Michi— gan in groups receiving no treatment, verbal information, and verbal information plus ex- posure and experience. . . . . . . . Two-way analysis of variance table of appli- cations for hobbycraft privileges of mentally retarded and non-mentally retarded inmated felons of the State Prison of Southern Michi- gan in groups receiving no treatment, verbal information, and verbal information plus ex- posure and experience. . . . . Post hoc comparisons of mentally retarded and non—mentally retarded inmated felons of the State Prison of Southern Michigan in groups receiving no treatment, verbal infor- mation, and verbal information plus exposure and experience . . . . . . . . . ‘ Student's "t" tests and means by group on chronological age, time in prison under cur— rent sentence, and average grade rating of mentally retarded and non-mentally retarded inmated felons of the State Prison of Southern Michigan receiving no treatment, verbal infor— mation, and verbal information plus exposure and experience . . . . . . . . vi Page 30 33 34 36 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introductory Statement The offender presenting special problems has long been of interest to criminologists. Until recently studies of prison inmates have addressed themselves largely to persons violating specific laws (Bullock, 1955; Frankel, 1937; Harlan, 1950; Sutherland, 1947; and Newman, 1958). Of late, researchers have begun to examine human behavior rather than simply legal code violation (Wolfgang and Ferracuti, 1967). Recent concern has focused on the youth— ful offender and the educationally handicapped offender (McKee, 1967). Brown and Courtless (1967) surveyed every prison in the United States and found that twenty thousand inmates have intelligence scores low enough to be considered mentally retarded. These twenty thousand represent ten per cent of the total prison population of the country. Little is known about this group, other than for the fact that they return to prison with great frequency (Jacks, 1962). Even with opportunities for improvement of self available in prisons it has been found that many inmates l do not participate (Peters, 1969). This is true of educa- tional, occupational, recreational, and avocational pro- grams. This lack of involvement in programs has concerned penologists and specialists in mental retardation. At- tempts have been made to explain lack of involvement in programs via the concept of internal-external control func- tions of personality (Rotter, Seeman, and Liverant, 1962; Seeman, 1959; Peters, 1969). Rotter's construct of internal-external control is related to the individual’s expectancy of control or lack of control over his environment. If an individual per— ceives events as being related to his own actions he is "internal"; if related to forces beyond the control of the individual he is "external." The internal person feels he has a hand in controlling his own destiny. The external person, on the other hand, believes that luck, fate, or chance determine success or failure of the indi- vidual. l Lack of participation in programs may be due to other factors, however. While it is assumed that the in— formal communications system among inmates (the "grape- vine") is one of the most effective ways of imparting information, other methods and techniques may be more effective with certain groups and individuals. Most in- stitutions publish a host of written materials written at the eighth grade level or higher,and these impart information regarding the availability of existing pro— grams for many inmates. For those who are illiterate these methods are largely ineffective, and the mentally retarded are often in this category. New or different methods need to be explored so that not only the literate and normal, but the illiterate inmate as well will become involved. Because of the nature of their disability, the retarded in prison are often members of the hard to reach illiterate group. Statement of the Problem Use of leisure time is of growing concern to our nation. Through beneficial use of leisure time in avo- cational and recreational pursuits, many benefits accrue to the individual. Avocational programs are a social, cultural, educational, physical, and moral necessity in the lives of children, youth, and adults (American Associa- tion of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1966). Involvement in recreational and/or avocational programs for the individual may result in personal growth, emo- tional catharsis, creative expression, and enhanced social and interpersonal relationships. Retarded and normal prison inmates fail to make maximum use of available opportunities for self- development, however this fact may be more evident among the retarded because many cannot read the printed information available, and their problem in understanding abstract material is greater than for the non-retarded. The mentally retarded are differentiated from the non—mentally retarded in native endowment and in socially adaptive behavior. This is true of retardates in the community and in prison. Several plausible explanations for the retardate's lack of participation in penal pro- grams exist: he is usually impaired earlier, has ex- perienced failure in attempting to achieve goals more than the non-retarded, and because of impaired comprehension may not be aware of many opportunities. Although in some instances special institutions have been created for the mentally retarded felon (West- wall, 1951) usually this group is kept in the general prison population. Consequently they are treated much the same as the inmate who is not retarded. Evidence exists in the field of mental retardation that other methods may be effective in involving this group in avail- ing themselves of avocational, hobbycraft activities than existing methods. Hypotheses Verbal information in a formal presentation regard- ing hobbycraft activities will result in more self- referrals to the Hobbycraft Center than through informal communications between inmates. Verbal information in a formal presentation coupled with exploratory opportunities will result in more self— referrals to the Hobbycraft Center than verbal information alone among inmates. Non-mentally retarded inmates will yield a greater number of self—referrals to the Hobbycraft Center after either treatment than mentally retarded inmates. Need for the Study The mentally retarded participate less in programs than the non-retarded. Moreover, the retardate functions consistently lower in motor skills than normals (Ross, 1969) and in other deveIOpmental areas (Heber, 1963; Howe, 1959). Although this deficit has been noted in retarded children, it need not be permanent. Corder (1966) found that with training and practice mental retardates can im— prove on a variety of skills. If retardates participate less in many activities as children, they may or may not continue this pattern as adults. Conversely, adult retardates may approximate normals as a result of maturation, experience, and prac— tice. This question needs resolution. The motivation to participate in many prison pro— grams is frequently related to the inmate's perceptions of how paroling authorities will view a given activity. Many worthwhile programs are available but are not used to the fullest by inmates. This study reveals and measures the effectiveness of different treatments in increasing parti- cipation, irrespective of inmates' perceptions of parole board decision making. A common problem in the fields of corrections, mental retardation, and recreation is in dispensing and disseminating information to clients. Bruner (1963) has called for the development and utiliza- tion of methods of stimulating the desire to learn and participate without consideration of external goals such as grades (or in this particular case, decisions of parole boards). A first step in this process in the prison set- ting is to examine methods of communicating with inmates, above and beyond the level of informal communications as represented by the "grapevine." Programs for the prison inmate are often based upon the notion that the non-retarded individual functions well with symbolic representation and the abstract. Bruner (1966) discussed the development of mental abilities and be listed three stages. The first stage of development is characterized by manipulation and single tract attention. The second broad stage is described and characterized by "internal representation" or "perceptual organization and imagery." The third and highest stage is represented by problem solving through the use of abstractions and sym— bolic behavior. It is usually assumed that adults function primarily in the third stage, and this implies thinking and cognition which allows abstractions. Deviants, and particularly the mentally retarded deviant, may not be functioning at the level assumed, and current methods of communicating with this segment of the inmate population may be very ineffective. This study addresses itself to this question. Definition of Terms l. Adul§.-—If a person is charged with the commis— sion of a felony, upon motion of the prosecuting attorney and with waiver from the presiding officer of the juvenile court, one may be considered an adult from his fifteenth year on up under Michigan law. 2. Institution.-—This term shall refer to the State Prison of Southern Michigan located at Jackson, Michigan. 3. Mentally retarded.-—An inmate is considered to be mentally retarded if he scores one or more standard deviations below the mean on a standardized group or individual intelligence test. A. Hobbycraft activities.-—This includes the acti- vities of leathercraft, wood carving, bead work, plastics, weaving, painting, model making, costume jewelry work, and related recreational and avocational activities offered through the Hobbycraft shop of the institution. 5. Average grade rating.-—The academic achievement score obtained by inmates using the Stanford Achievement Test, Intermediate Form II for those with IQ scores <94 and the SAT Advanced test for those with IQ scores >9A. 6. Verbal information.--This term shall refer to orally communicated information. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This investigation's focus on the mentally retarded felon and his participation in voluntary avocational activities draws upon knowledge in the areas of crimi- nology, mental retardation, recreation, and approaches to learning. Each of these areas share commonalities includ- ing a concern for human lives, the social behavior of the individual, and the reaction of society to behavior. Criminological Studies The study of the relationship between mental re- tardation and crime has a long history. After it was established that no causal relationship existed between the two factors, interest in the area waned. Re- examination of the mentally retarded felon gave evidence that differences exist when compared with the general prison population in crimes committed, with mentally re— tarded felons committing more violent crimes than the non- retarded. Although a few institutions were established for this group, very few of the estimated 20,000 mental retardates in prisons are housed in these special facili- ties. Further, evidence exists which shows that 9 10 retardates have a more difficult time in adjusting to the demands of community life after their release from prison. Early writers and investigators (Lombroso, 1897, 1913; Dugdale, 1910; Goddard, 1912, 1923; Goring, I913; Zeleny, 1938, Sutherland, 1931; Brown and Hartman, 1938) were concerned over the issue of causation of crime in relation to mental retardation and when it was established that no correlation existed between the two, researchers looked elsewhere in trying to understand deviant behavior. From the 1930's until l9u6 the literature had no research reported or published on this topic. Fox (19A6) analyzed the intelligence scores of 5,10A Michigan prisoners and found significantly higher intelligence in prisoners convicted of violations of state security laws, forgery, and robbery, than those imprisoned for assault, murder, and sex offenses. Grigg (1948) studied a sample of twenty-five mentally retarded adult prisoners in Virginia and concluded that a majority of those studied displayed an inability to foresee the long range consequences of behavior. He believed much of the behavior of this group to be attributable to momentary stimuli. Criminologists did not follow up on its examination of the mentally retarded offender and this client lived in an administrative twilight zone, unwanted by the fields of mental retardation, by mental health, and by ll corrections. An attempt was made to meet the needs of this group by the establishment of institutions specifi- cally for mentally retarded offenders. Best known of these special institutions is Patuxent in Maryland which was established after World War II, however, less than half of the inmates now residing in this facility are mentally retarded. Boslow and Kandel (1965) reported data which com- pared the retarded and non—retarded inmates at Patuxent. They found: 1. The average age of retardates was higher. 2. The largest percentage of retardates was black. 3. Retardates committed more violent crimes than the non—retardates. A. Retardates had a higher incidence of commitment for sex offenses. 5. Retardates' sentences averaged one year less than the non-retardates. 6. 0f 19 retardates paroled, 12 had to be returned to the institution due to inability to adjust in the community. Boslow and Kandel's findings must be interpreted with the knowledge that the non-retarded pOpulation of the institu— tion are all considered to be dangerous, and the indi- vidually tested I.Q. cutoff for retardates was 70 or below. Mental Retardation Central to this study is the assumption, based upon the definition of mental retardation, that each retardate 12 displays impaired adaptive behavior. Prenatal causes of mental retardation include toxoplasmosis (Feldman and Miller, 1956), phenylketonuria (Forbes, 1965), drug inges- tion, anoxia, and many other conditions. Prematurity alone is associated with 15 to 20 per cent of all cases of mental retardation (Baumeister, 1967) and accounts for 2A.5 per cent of all neonatal deaths (Gold, 1962). Postnatal fac— tors producing mental retardation include infections, allergies, and neoplasia (Tarjan, Wright, Dingman, and Sabagh, 1959). Emotional problems, physical and cultural handicaps, and maternal deprivation can cause normal children to function at the retarded level (Koch, Graliker, Bronston, and Fishler, 1965), thus the problem of diagnosis is often difficult. The mental retardate's inadequacies were found by Benton (1964) to rest in intellectual functioning, per- sonality, psychomotor skills, and sensory discrimination capacity. During the developmental period the retardate often finds he cannot compete with peers, or meet parental expectations. Gardner (1958) and Miller (1958) found that under such conditions, retardates frequently decrease effort or withdraw entirely. This could in part explain the lack of development of many skills in the retardate and could have great impact on later adjustment. Credence is given this thought by findings (Spradlin, 1960; Bialer, 1960) that growth and developmental processes in retardates 13 are often hampered by their tendency to return to pre— viously successfully completed tasks, rather than to ex- plore past learning situations where failure was en- countered. Language problems compound the difficulties of many retardates. Frustration and developmental difficulties arise due to an inability to articulate. Lack of language stimulation also compounds the problem of the retardate (Schiefelbusch, 1963). Vocal anomalies are noted among the institutionalized retardates and Schlanger (1953, 1957) found that these anomolies compound the adjustment problems of the institutionalized. Other problems facing the retardate are in inter- personal relationships and this may result in antisocial behavior (Banay, 1952; Gillin, 19A6; Benoit, 1967; and Wolfgang and Strohm, 1956). Many retardates are institutionalized when young due to difficulty in the home and school. Many display "acting out" types of behavior which leads to expulsion from school, referral to a juvenile court, and institu- tional commitment. Among those groups studied who are nOt delinquent but are institutionalized for their re- tardation, the effects of institutionalization are not clear. Saranson and Gladwin (1958) found it to be detri- mental to later adjustment yet Hartzler (1953), Grant 14 (1956), and Tong and McKay (1959) found the opposite to be true. One of the hypotheses of this experiment is that the retarded will participate less across all treatments than the non-retarded. Support for this hypothesis is found in comparing the mentally retarded and non—mentally retarded in motor skill level of functioning (Ross, 1969; Heber, 1963; Howe, 1959; Johnson, 1963; and Rabin, 1957). It is also important to note that motor skills can be improved upon and earlier defects can be overcome. Corder (1966) found that with training and practice retardates could improve upon a number of motor skills and become quite adept. This has implications for long term involve- ment in projects the retardate might not be able to ini- tially master. The obvious implication seems to be that exposure to and activity in avocational pursuits requir- ing motor skills are as applicable to the retarded as to the non-retarded. That is to say, with practice the re- tardate can improve upon many skills. A plethora of contradictory evidence exists regard— ing the presence or absence of learning deficit in mentally retarded children. It is not known if a linear relationship exists between retarded children and adults in behavior related to rote learning and retention. If a linear relationship does exist, it should be more obvious in adults, and should affect performance in many 15 ways. One obvious implication would be in failure to re— tain knowledge of objects such as tools, to be able to recall their name and purpose, or to meaningfully inte- grate this knowledge into the sphere of application. Denny (196A) and Lipman (1963) have reviewed many of these studies and pointed up the contradictory findings. Many similar studies have appeared since the reviews (Bau- meister, 1963; Blue, 1963; Giradeau and Ellis, 196A; Lance, 1965; and Vergason, 196A) and the issue has yet to be re- solved in favor of either point of view. Prehm (1966) recently summed up the area in his statement, "with re— spect to our knowledge of the verbal learning abilities of retardates, we are in a woeful state of ignorance." Again, it must be stressed that most of the research undertaken with mental retardates is with children. Re- search on the adult retardate is scarce, and research which addresses itself to the mental retardate who is imprisoned is non-existent. One might question whether the retardate in prison is like his retarded peer in the community. The answer would appear to be both "yes" and "no." The answer is affirmative in the sense that the mentally retarded in- mate meets the criteria for mental retardation as defined by authorities in the field. He is intellectually and socially impaired. On the other side, he is atypical if counted numerically for very few retardates are in prison 16 when we look at the total number of mentally retarded adults in the nation. Chronologically, the retarded prison inmate is much older than the average of retardates in the cOmmunity. Most obvious is the fact that he is imprisoned and this separates him from the mainstream of both re- tardates and non-retardates.. Finally, he does not repre— sent all levels of mental retardation and certain syndromes (e.g. Downs) usually associated with mental retardation are not found in prisons. Brown and Courtless (1967) estimate that somewhere in the neighborhood of ten per cent of all imprisoned felons are mentally retarded. This implies an over- representation of mental retardates in the penal system, as compared to retardates in the community. From a sociological vieWpoint the over-representation of mentally retarded in our penal system is understandable. Clinard (1968) points out that society selects those whom it will punish and imprison. The person so selected may violate a social, political, monetary, or interpersonal trust. Society also devises "rules" by which the game of deviance is played. Evidence of this is seen in a rather elaborate enforcement, prosecutory, judicial and correc- tional system in our country. To "play" the game of deviance some measure of sophistication is necessary if the person apprehended is not doomed to lose. He must be able to have access to a lawyer who is a full time 17 participant in the game so that he will be adequately de— fended. Second, in keeping with the spirit of Clinard's statement, he must not be a member of any group which society selects for punishment. He must approximate the norm if he is not to become enmeshed in the system. That is, if a person charged with deviant behavior does not literally have his wits about him, if he cannot obtain suitable legal representation, if his speech or attire do not approximate the society in which he lives, the chances of his removal from society are increased. We know by definition the mentally retarded offender has im- paired adaptive behavior. He may be more prone to become deviant by going outside "normal" or "approved" channels. He would appear likely to experience more difficulty in the legal system than the non-retarded by the nature of his disability. In a sense then, society may be select— ing certain retardates for inclusion in our penal pro- cesses. Consequently, they are over-represented in the penal system. Recreational and Avocational Activities Overs (1970) reported that special activities are needed for special client groups such as the aged, the amputee, and clients who are paralyzed. This principle also appears to be applicable to imprisoned felons and the mentally retarded. 18 The needs of the mentally retarded in the field of recreation and avocational activities has long been recog- nized in the institutional setting. In its broadest sense, something is recreation "if it is fun for the participant" (Lawler, 196A). The term "recreational therapy" is often applied to avocational activities or services that are offered to the retarded either in the institution or in the community. Formal recognition of the therapeutic aspects of these activities is given by the American Association of Mental Deficiency manual of institutional standards (A. A. M. D., 196“) which lists "recreational therapy" under the general rubric of "Therapies and acti— vities." Although the therapeutic aspects are not ex- plicitly defined in the manual, the major point is made that "recreational programming should provide each resi- dent with enjoyable leisure—time activities and promote physical and mental health through interesting and worth- while recreational pursuits" (p. A). The benefits of recreation for the retardates are many: personal fulfillment, the development of leisure time skills and interests, democratic human relations, health and fitness, creative expression, and aesthetic appreciation (American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1966). Avocational activities such as arts and crafts can lead to personal fulfillment as well as contribute to l9 occupational development (Hawley, 1970). This is part of the reason for inclusion of these activities in penal pro- grams. Moreover, financial gain may be a very desirable side effect of these activities. The relative lack of SOphistication of retardates need not be a handicap in recreational programming. The American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (1966) lists nearly one hundred arts and crafts activities for the retarded. Arts and crafts seems appro- priate for both the retarded and non-retarded, and for adults as well as children. Overs (1966) has defined a typology of these activities through use of a multidigit classification system which lists skills employed and their relative level of difficulty, among other factors. Very few arts and crafts activities are exclusionary for the mentally retarded although a few, such as metalworking, require a fairly high degree of spacial visualization. Lack of participation in avocational programs by mental retardates, whether it be in the home, community, center for the retarded, or prison can be due to a number of factors discussed earlier. In many instances lack of facilities preclude involvement but in many instances where facilities are available, it is due in part to individual variables and in part to problems connected with mental retardation. But that participation of the 20 mentally retarded in these activities is a desirable goal appears beyond question (A. A. H. P. E. & R., 1966). Approaches to Learning There are many approaches to learning, most of which have their base in antiquity. The demonstration method can be traced to Comenius, and the laboratory method to Plato. Socrates gave the foundation for the problem- solving method which is seen in many programs today. Bigge (196“) lists ten major approaches: mental disci- pline (faculty psychology), mental discipline (classicism), natural unfoldment, apperception, S-R bond, conditioning (with no reinforcement), reinforcement and conditioning, insight, goal insight, and cognitive-field, or field psy- chology. Each of these approaches has its disciples and emi- nent psychologists such as Titchener, Thorndike, Hull, Watson, Lewin, Tolman, and Bruner have been associated with the various schools. Each approach has fostered methodologies of their own that have found their way into the educational process. Central to any notion of education is that the stu- dent will receive and/or acquire knowledge in the way of facts, sets, concepts, and the like, and that he will assimilate this material which in turn will result in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral change. Each approach 21 differs somewhat in its interpretation of what should be acquired, how it should be acquired, and in what the re- sult of the process should be, or how it manifests itself. Nevertheless, information in some form is basic to the learning process. Mager (1968) suggests the crucial as- pect related to subject matter is in the test of whether it results in knowledge, problem solving ability, creativ- ity, or increased motor skill. Hutchins (1965) has pointed out the "facts" he learned in childhood were false when he became an adult, yet both Hutchins and Mager realize the necessity of the informational base of education. One approach of this experiment consists of informa- tion regarding hobbycraft activities in a verbal presenta- tion. In presenting information regarding avocational activities it represents what Bruner (1962) would describe as a "functionally equivalent category." That is to say, a number of similar activities are placed under the rubric of avocations and recreations in that each shares the same basic functions. Another approach of this experimental study utilizes a combination of verbal information coupled with exposure to various tools, materials, and products of the activi- ties. The two schools having major impact on education today, the Gestalt-field psychologists and the S-R associa- tionists (Bigge and Hunt, 196“) each recognize the term "experience" although they define it quite differently. 22 If an S—R associationist were to discuss the term he would view it only as a conditioning process, or perhaps as a link in the learning chain. Skinner (1953) even had doubts that it was a link in a causal chain. To the Gestalt— field psychologists experience is the interaction of the person and his perceived environment. Thirty years ago Dewey (1938) explained this View in his statement, "An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between an individual and what, at the time, constitutes his environment" (p. 31). Earlier (1916) Dewey had viewed experience as both "trying" and "under— going." Many educational methods and approaches stress the learning environment, and the effect the environment can have on the learning process. Throughout Montessori and the Summerhill approach, although they differ in basic philosophy, both approaches place heavy emphasis upon ex- posure of the child to the learning environment. Kephart's (1960) classic, The Slow Learner in the Classroom, placed emphasis upon the classroom and its materials, and exposure of the child to beneficial ex- periences. The movigenic school of Barsch (1965) is also in part based upon the notion of exposure and experience. There is ample indication that the combination of verbal information-coupled with experience and exposure is beneficial to the child with learning disabilities 23 (McCarthy and McCarthy, 1969). Whether this technique is effective with mentally retarded imprisoned adults is a focus of this investigation. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Subjects This study contained six groups of thirty subjects each. Each of the one hundred eighty subjects were im- prisoned in the institution where the experimental treat- ments were administered. Ninety of the subjects were mentally retarded and ninety were not. Each of the sub— jects in the population was pre-selected on the basis that he had not previously participated in hobbycraft activi- ties. After excluding those who have or were participat- ing in hobbycraft, the population for this study was selected randomly from the institutional population. All of‘the subjects were male and ranged in age from eighteen i;o sixty-one. Subjects who had been institutionalized for less than ninety calendar days were eliminated from inclusion in this study. It would appear that this is sufficient tflJne for an inmate to receive information through informal (Kunmunications (e.g. the "grapevine") regarding institu— tic>na1 programs and if he did not apply for hobbycraft Priuvileges in that length of time it could be assumed that 2“ 25 he could be classified as a "non-participant" who would not apply for this privilege. Subjects were randomly selected from the institu— tionalized populations of mentally retarded and non— mentally retarded inmates. They were then randomly assigned to the groups receiving Treatments I, II, and III. Materials and Procedures The materials for Treatment II and the first half of Treatment III were the same. This consisted of a verbal presentation of information and facts regarding hobbycraft activities in the institution (Appendix A). Treatment I consisted of a control group and received no treatment. Treatment III, in addition to the verbal presenta— tion of Treatment II, consisted of the subjects going to the Hobbycraft Center work area where they viewed a dis— play of raw materials, tools, partially completed pro- jects, and completed prOjects for each of the activities. Subjects were given standardized instructions to explore and examine the items at hand. Factual information was given when a question arose as to the function or purpose of any tool, material, or product. Subjects were given twenty minutes to see the complete display, and to explore the items at hand through visual and tactile contact. At 26 the end of Treatment III, subjects were returned to their regular institutional assignments. The administrator of the verbal treatments to the four groups receiving the presentation was a counselor employed by the institution. This person was selected by the experimenter, the Director of Treatment of the institution, and the Director of the Hobbycraft Center in a joint decision. Reasons for the selection of the pre— senter were: he did not represent custody personnel or an authoritarian figure, he was not employed by the Hobby- craft center, and his diction was excellent. In a period of four successive trials of Treatment II, after practic- ing several times, the administrator did not vary over i two seconds from the presentation time of nine minutes and twelve seconds. Treatments were administered in the "Old Hobbycraft Shop" in the institution which now serves as a meeting place for activities and instruction, for that part in— volving verbal presentations. This space was selected due to its relative proximity to the Hobbycraft Center (which is in an adjacent building) and on the basis of space available. Treatments were administered on two successive days. Treatment II was administered to two groups on February 23, 1970 at 12:30 and 1:30 p.m. Treatment III was admin— istered on February 2“, 1970 at 12:30 and 1:30 p.m. 27 Data were also collected from inmate Central Office files of the Michigan Department of Corrections to obtain the chronological age, length of time in prison under cur— rent sentence, and average grade rating at time of im— prisonment. These data were obtained so that partial com— parisons with Boslow and Kandel's (1965) findings could be made. Design of the Study The design used in the present study was a 2 X 3 factorial design which was crossed and balanced. The independent variables are as follows: A. Type of Subject A —-Mentally Retarded l A2—-Non—Mentally Retarded B. Type of Treatment B ——T (Control Group - No Treatment) 1 l B2—-T2 (Verbal presentation alone) B3——T3 (Verbal presentation + experience and exposure) The dependent variable was written application to the Hobbycraft Center for use privileges. Ten days was lloted after the administration of the treatments for subjects to apply or not apply. At the expiration of the ten day period a frequency count for each group was ob- tained. 28 Analysis of Data The data were analyzed by use of a two way ANOVA. This test is appropriate with proportions (Smith and Torrie, 1960) and with dichotomous data. Hsu (1968) and Hsu and Feldt (1969) in studies of the effect of limita— tions on the number of criterion score values on the significance level of the F-Test found no contraindica- tions to its use. The .05 level of significance was selected. Scheffé method post hoc comparisons (Hays, 1963) were utilized when significant main effects war- ranted this method. Comparisons of mean differences in chronological age, length of time in prison under current sentence, and average grade rating were by use of Stu- dent's "t" test. The Michigan State University Computer Laboratory facilities were used for determination of analy- sis of variance. CHAPTER IV RESULTS Introduction The major intent of this study was to examine dif— ferent methods of increasing the participation of mentally retarded felons in avocational programs in prison. It was hypothesized that (a) verbal information in a formal pre— sentation would result in more self—referrals than informal communication alone, (b) verbal information and exploratory opportunities would result in more self-referrals than verbal information alone, and (c) non—mentally retarded inmates would have more self-referrals after treatments than the mentally retarded. Findings Twenty-three of 120 subjects in the two groups re- ceiving treatments I and II applied for institutional hobby- craft privileges within ten days of the administration of the treatments. One subject in the control group of 60 also applied for hobbycraft privileges. Appendix B con- tains the raw scores for each cell and group. Table 1 presents the means which were utilized to compute the two—way analysis of variance and for 29 30 TABLE l.--Mean number and standard deviations of applica- tions for hobbycraft privileges of mentally retarded and non-mentally retarded inmated felons of the State Prison of Southern Michigan in groups receiving no treatment, verbal information, and verbal information plus exposure and experience. T 2 No Treatment Verbal Information Plus Experience Verb. Mentally Retarded Non Mentally Retarded M. .033 S.D. .179 M. .000 S.D. .000 M. .017 S.D. .127 .067 .2A9 .116 .372 .117 .321 .333 .A71 .200 .HOO .267 .AA2 .1AA .351 .122 .327 .133 .340 31 examination of the hypotheses. This table shows little change resulting from T which consisted of thirty men- 1 tally retarded male inmates and thirty non—mentally re- tarded male inmates who served as a control group. Those receiving verbal information displayed some pre-post treatment change as did those who received both the verbal information plus the experience and/or exposure to hobbycraft activities. The greatest participation resulted from those subjects in the treatment condition of verbal information plus experience and exposure to hobbycraft activities. Verbal information is more effective than informal communications alone. Further, this table indicates that differences exist in the effec- tiveness of verbal information alone with both groups of subjects. Verbal information alone is more effec- tive with the non—mentally retarded. The combination of verbal information coupled with experience has a mean of .267 as opposed to a mean of .116 for verbal information alone thus indications are that Treatment III is more effective than Treatment II. The effective— ness of both treatments were nearly the same for the non-mentally retarded subjects, and both treatments appear to be more effective with this group than Treat- ment 1, which was a control. 32 Table 2 presents the two-way analysis of variance table with the computed values and approximate signifi- cance probability of the F statistic. The treatment ef- fect is significant at p < .005 level. The analysis of variance reflects the treatments as being significant but does not speak to the question of what treatment appears most effective. The hypothesis that the non—mentally retarded would have more self-referrals than the mentally retarded was not found to be significant by the analysis of variance and this hypothesis is rejected. Post hoc comparisons using the Scheffé method were then computed to examine these data in detail. Table 3 presents these results. The presentation of verbal infor- mation alone was examined against no treatment and was found to be significant at p < .01 in its effectiveness in obtaining voluntary self—referrals to hobbycraft acti— vities. This finding supports the hypothesis that verbal information in a formal presentation would result in more self—referrals than informal communications alone. A comparison was then made between verbal information and experience against verbal information alone. Table 3 presents the finding that the combination of verbal infor— mation plus experience is significantly more effective at p < .01 in obtaining self—referrals to hobbycraft activi- ties than verbal information alone. 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