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This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

Building Authentic Communities within Schools:
A Case Study of Two Korean High Schools

presented by

Young Taek Kang

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

PhD degree in Educational Administration

 

 

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2/05 p:/C|RC/DateDue.indd-p.1

BUILDING AUTHENTIC COMMUNITIES WITHIN SCHOOLS:
A CASE STUDY OF TWO KOREAN HIGH SCHOOLS

By

Young Taek Kang

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Educational Administration

2006

ABSTRACT

BUILDING AUTHENTIC COMMUNITIES WITHIN SCHOOLS:
A CASE STUDY OF TWO KOREAN HIGH SCHOOLS

By

Young Taek Kang
The intention of this study is to explore two Korean high schools as communities within
the framework of three models of community, that is, individualist. communitarian, and
alternative models. Before conducting the research, I developed a framework of three
models of community, informed by Western and Asian literature of community. I
conducted qualitative research, adopting an ethnographic method at the two research sites.
I interviewed more than forty school members, such as students, teachers, and parents.
and observed classes, teacher meetings. parent meetings, and everyday lives of students
and teachers.

To understand the school communities, I have investigated how the school
members perceived. that they were part of a community, more specifically, that there was
democratic community or professional community at their schools. At Blue Mountain
High School, students and parents consider their school to be democratic, although in a
limited way; however, teachers do not have the same sense. At Grand Valley High
School, students and teachers strongly perceive their school to be democratic; however.
parents do not report much participation. Teachers of both schools hesitate to say that
they are professional communities. Based on consistent reports. there is a lack of
professional collaboration among teachers in both settings. Teaching. they believe. is an

individual business.

To examine school communities in terms of these three models, this study has
dealt with tension among values which easily happens within communities. The case of
BMHS confirms the current acknowledgement that communality and caring are often in
tension with individuality and justice within a community. Although BMHS has some
qualities of a communitarian model, it, over all, is closer to an individualist model. The
study of GVHS shows the possibility of building an ideal community within a school. At
GVHS, such qualities as individuality, solidarity, caring, justice, and diversity are in
harmony. Moreover, at this school, relationships among people and between people and
nature are highly valued. In this vein, GVHS directs toward an alternative model of
community, which integrates Western thinking of community with Asian thoughts.

I have discussed the causes of differences between the two schools. At GVHS
there have been clear shared visions for justice and transformational leadership, through
which vision is shaped and shared. Furthermore, spirituality has functioned as the
foundation of the school visions and values and the leadership. By contrast, at BMHS the
initial vision changed, leadership became unstable, and conflicts among school members
appeared.

Lastly, I discuss implications for practice and policy. In addition, suggestions are

provided for future studies related to this research.

Dedicated to My Parents.
Sung—Gu Kang and Oe-Taek Cho,
Wife, Misung. and

Children, Hamin and Hakyung

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completing a doctoral study is a long journey that never occurs in isolation. I am
deeply grateful to caring and thoughtful persons who continue to encourage and support
me to finish my study. First of all, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Susan Printy, for
her considerate guidance and encouragement. She always welcomed me and was willing
to help me find a right way throughout the murky journey. I would also like to thank Dr.
Christopher Wheeler, who promoted me to think more deeply and critically. Truly he is a
scholar and teacher. I extend gratitude to Dr. BetsAnn Smith for her insightful comments
and suggestions.

I specially thank Dr. Jack Schwille, who is a mentor and supporter for many
international students, including me, at Michigan State University. I received
instrumental support and more importantly learned open-mindedness, passion, and a
caring heart from him. I am also very grateful for the efforts and suggestions provided by
Dr. Shung-mei Ma, Professor of English Department.

I want to acknowledge teachers, students, parents, and administrators at the two
research sites for their time and cooperation. I also want to express gratitude towards my
friends who financially and spiritually supported me during my study in the US.

In addition, I would like to thank my mother and father, Oe-Taek Cho and Sung-
Gu Kang, and mother-in-law and the late father-in-law, Sun-0k Oh and Jong-Nam Cho.
for their consistent love, trust, and prayer. Thanks to my son. Hamin, and daughter.
Hakyung. I am very proud of you. Finally, Special thanks to my adorable wife, Misung.

Without her unchanging love and support, I am sure I would not have completed this

 

lonely and long journey. I believe God has provided me with genuine communities in

which I met such wonderful persons. Thanks.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ x
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xii
1. Chapter One: Introduction ......................................................................................... l
l-l. Background ......................................................................................................... 1
1-2. Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................... l
l-3. Rationale of the Study ......................................................................................... 2
l-4. Significance of the Study .................................................................................... 4
l-5. Research Questions ............................................................................................. 5
1-6. Definitions of Terms ........................................................................................... 6
[-7. Delimitations ....................................................................................................... 6
1-8. Outline ................................................................................................................. 7
2. Chapter Two: Literature Review ............................................................................... 8
2-l. The Desire for Community ...................................................................................... 8
2-2. Three Models of Community ................................................................................. 10
2-2-1. Individualist/Liberal Model ............................................................................ 10
2-2-2. Communitarian Model .................................................................................... ll
2-2-3. Toward an Alternative Model ......................................................................... 13
2-3. School Community in Educational Literature ........................................................ 17
2-3—1. A sense of Community and Professional Community ..................................... 19
2-3-2. Democratic Community .................................................................................. 24
2-3-3. Community and Leadership ............................................................................. 27
2-4. Community in Korean Schools .............................................................................. 29
2-4-1. Community within a Typical Korean High School ......................................... 29
2-4-2. Alternative Schools in Korea ........................................................................... 31
2-5. Implications for the Case Study ............................................................................. 32
2-6. Outline .................................................................................................................... 33
3. Chapter Three: Method ............................................................................................. 34
3-1. Rationale for Qualitative Case Study ..................................................................... 34
3-2. Research Sites ........................................................................................................ 35
3-3. Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 37
3-3-1. Sampling Participants ...................................................................................... 37
3-3-2. The Researcher’s Typical Day at a Research Site ........................................... 39
3-3-3. Collecting Data ................................................................................................ 40
34. Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 44
3-5. Trustworthiness of Research Design ...................................................................... 45
3-6. Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................ 47
3-7. Outline .................................................................................................................... 48

vii

4. Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................ 49

4-]. Grand Valley High School (GVHS) ....................................................................... 49
4-1-1. The Outline and History of GVHS .................................................................. 49
4-1-2. Sense of Community ....................................................................................... 55
4-1-3. Democratic Community .................................................................................. 71
4-1-4. Professional Community ................................................................................. 79
4-1-5. Tensions within the School Community ......................................................... 82

4-2. Blue Mountain High School (BMHS) .................................................................... 93
4-2-1. Outline and History of BMHS ......................................................................... 93
4-2-2. Sense of Community ....................................................................................... 98
4-2-3. Democratic Community ................................................................................ 109
4-2-4. Professional Community ............................................................................... 1 19
4-2-5. Tensions within the School Community ....................................................... 122

4-3. Outline .................................................................................................................. 128

5. Chapter Five: Discussion .......................................................................................... 129

5-1. Comparisons ......................................................................................................... 129
5-1-1. Sense of Community ..................................................................................... 129
5-1-2. Democratic Community ................................................................................ 132
5-1-3. Professional community ................................................................................ 135
5-1-4. Summary ........................................................................................................ 137

5-2. Models of School Community ............................................................................. 138
5-2-1. Among Three Models .................................................................................... 139
5-2-2. BMHS ............................................................................................................ 141
5-2-3. GVHS ............................................................................................................ 143

5-3. Tensions within Community ................................................................................ 146
5-3-1. Solidarity vs. Individual Autonomy .............................................................. 146
5-3—2. Commonality vs. Diversity ............................................................................ 150
5-3-3. Caring vs. Justice ........................................................................................... 154
5-3-4. Summary ........................................................................................................ 156

5-4. Key Principles That Make a Difference ............................................................... 157
5-4-1. Shared Vision for Justice ............................................................................... 158
5-4-2. Transformational Leadership ......................................................................... 161
5-4-3. Spirituality ..................................................................................................... 164

5-5. Outline .................................................................................................................. 166

6. Chapter Six: Conclusion ........................................................................................... 168

6-1. Summary .............................................................................................................. 168

6-2. Implications for Practice and Policy .................................................................... 170
6-2-1. Organizational Structure and Culture ............................................................ 170
6-2-2. Continuity of School Values and Leadership ................................................ 173

6-3. Suggestions for Future Research .......................................................................... 175

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... l 77

1. The Methods of Data Collection ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

viii

2. Coding Lists of the Data ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3. Written Consent Form .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4. Parental Informed Consent ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5. Interview Protocol (for faculty) ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6. Interview Protocol (for students) .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7. Interview Protocol (for parents) ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8. Observation Protocol ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 190

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Matrix of the Connections of the Research Questions with Sources of Data

Collection ........................................................................................................... 40
Table 2. Reasons Why Apply for GVHS ......................................................................... 66
Table 3. Ten Commandments for Selecting a Job ............................................................ 68
Table 4. Kang, Jae-Won’s Answering Address at the Commencement 2003 ................. 69
Table 5. To what extent school members experience a sense of community ................... 92
Table 6. Responses to question as to whether GVHS is democratic ................................ 92
Table 7. Responses to question as to whether GVHS is a professional community ........ 92
Table 8. Whether they experience a sense of community .............................................. 127
Table 9. Responses to question as to whether BMHS is democratic .............................. 128

Table 10. Responses to question as to whether BMHS is a professional community 128
Table 11. Summary of two school communities ............................................................ 129

Table 12. Two Schools in Terms of Three Models ........................................................ 140

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Three Models of Community ............................................................................ 18

Figure 2. Educational Communities ................................................................................. 27
Figure 3. GVHS Main Building ........................................................................................ 50
Figure 4. GVHS Male Dormitory Building ...................................... ' ................................ 50
Figure 5. Mr. Park’s Bronze Statue .................................................................................. 51
Figure 6. GVHS Motto Stone ........................................................................................... 51
Figure 7. GVHS Dormitory Room .................................................................................... 52
Figure 8. Rev. Moon‘s Philosophy Class .......................................................................... 93
Figure 9. BMHS Buildings ............................................................................................... 95
Figure 10. Pond and the Statue of Virgin Mary ................................................................ 95
Figure 11. Program for Youth Growth ........................................................................... 106

xi

1. Chapter One: Introduction
l-l. Background
School mirrors society. The successes and failures of schools, to a substantial extent.
reflect the successes and failures of societies. In modem/postmodem societies such as
contemporary Korea and the US, people often experience isolation, alienation, and
meaninglessness. Some philosophers and sociologists believe that at the base of the
social problems is the loss of community (N isbet, 1953; Noddings, 1996; Oldenquist.
1991). So, for them, rebuilding community within society is a critical task. By the same
token, educational researchers. policy makers. and practitioners are also interested in how
community develops within schools. In fact, conceptualizing schools as communities, as
an ideal state, has become increasingly popular in the US. The same trends are evident in
Korea (Kim, Y.H., 2005; R0, 1998; Shin, HS, 2004; Sim, 2003; Yang, 2002). However.
many studies of school community reveal that emphasis on building community within
school results in negative consequences as well as positive ones. The tensions related to
school communities need to be carefully explored. Examining these tensions is the focus
of this research.
1-2. Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine how school members, experiencing a sense of
community in the schools, perceive and deal with other values often associated with
schools that might not coexist easily with community, such as individual autonomy,
diversity, justice, and democracy. In doing so, understanding whether and why students.
parents, and teachers perceive their schools to be communities, and what facilitates and

inhibits developing and sustaining school communities is necessary. Through the study

of characteristics and development of school communities, this research ultimately aims
at providing suggestions for building ideal communities in schools.

1-3. Rationale of the Study

The discussions of community in educational research, policy, and practice have received
special attention since the late 19805. The discussions have been carried out around two
topics, building a community within school and connecting a school to its surrounding
community (Beck & Foster, 1999; Merz & Furman, 1997; Furman, 2002). Many
researchers and policy makers argue that the two ideas can provide effective strategies for
improving school performance, and some educational scholars maintain that embracing
schools as communities is an important alternative to how schools generally function.
Their arguments are on the basis of the conceptual studies of a school community (Beck.
2002; Furman, 2002; Merz & F Urman, 1997; Oxley, 1997; Raywid, 1988; Sergiovanni,
1994) and the empirical studies showing positive relationships between a sense of
community or school-community connections with student outcomes or school
improvement (Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993; Coleman, & Hoffer, 1987; Driscoll, 1989;
Epstein, 2001; McDonough & Wheeler, 1998).

However, researchers think that community is “not an unalloyed good"; it often
has “a dark side” (Noddings, 1996, p. 245). Since community is based on “sameness“ of
kinship, location, or mind (F urrnan, 2002; Tonnies, 1957), the emphasis on community
sometimes leads to the suppression of individuality and autonomy (Bushnell, I998;
Noddings, 1996; Peshkin, 1986), the discouragement of difference and inclusiveness
(Furman & Starratt, 2002; Green, 1993; Young, 1986), and the generation of assimilation

and normalization (Fendler, in press). For these reasons, understanding the extent to

which these negative consequences are present within schools organized as strong

communities is critical in educational research.

Tensions over community and efforts to solve the tensions have also been
addressed in various ways in disciplines other than education, i.e., philosophy. politics.
and sociology. The philosophical debate between communitarianism and liberalism
occurring after the 19803 is one example (Abowitz, 2000; Lee, J., 1997; MacIntyre, 1981:
Teobald & Dinkelman, l995)‘. Some philosophers and sociologists have attempted to
develop alternative models of community, in which both individual autonomy and
common good are equally valued (Bellah, et. al., 1985; Etzioni. 1987; 1993; Kirkpatrick.
1986; Selznick, 1992; Wyschogord, 1999).

Understanding negative aspects of community and developing a new model of
community are extremely important in building a school community that does not
damage individuality. To date discussions of tensions around school community have
been actively conducted, but many of them focus on conceptual theorizing (Brint, 2001;
Fleming, 2002; Funnan & Starratt, 2002; Mawhinney, 2004; Shields. 2004; Shields &
Seltzer, 1997; Shin, HS, 2004; Strike, 1993; 1999a; 1999c; 2003). The notions of
“democratic community” and “community of difference” reflect current efforts to address
the tensions related to school community. There are not many empirical studies which
have tried to explicate how schools as communities deal with tensions inherent in

communities, i.e., whether and how schools harmonize communality with diversity or

 

' This debate has influenced educational scholars. Peabody Journal Qfeduculion 70(4) deals with this issue.

care with social justice (Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993; Kratzer, 1996). Moreover. research
investigating schools as communities in Asian countries is rare (Le Tendre, 1999).2
1-4. Significance of the Study
My study has significance for educational theory and policy in three aspects, as follows.
First, this case study examines schools as communities in a holistic approach. Numerous
previous studies of school community have focused on separated issues of community.
To be sure, they often deal with a sense of community as experienced by students, the
professional learning community of teachers, or the democratic community of school
members such as students, teachers, and parents (Beck & Foster, 1999; Merz & F urman,
1997; Furman, 2002; 2003). This categorization is useful for exploring each topic of
school community. However, all the topics are intimately intertwined in a real school,
and thus comprehensive study of a school community is necessary to understand a school
community as a whole.

Second, this case study examines two different school communities in Korea.
There can be found a number of studies on community within Korean schools (Bae, S..
2002; Hur, 2005; Kim, Y.H., 2005; R0, 1998: Seo, 2004; Shin, HS, 2004; Sim, 2001:
2003; Yang, 2002; Yeo, 2002). Some of them are interested in conceptualizing desirable
models of school community in a Korean context, and others focus on special
characteristics of alternative schools; there are a few empirical studies of the development
of community in the schools (Kim, Y.H., 2005; Seo, 2004). Given that many students

and teachers in Korea are suffering with severe competition and isolation (Sim. 2003).

 

2 However, there are a number of research studies of community participation in schools and community
development in Asian countries (e.g., McDonough & Wheeler, 1998; Rugh & Bossert, 1998; Sinclair &
Lillis. 1980).

studying how to build strong community in schools is urgent. My research sites have
contrasting contexts. One -- Blue Mountain High School3 -- is a relatively new, small
alternative high school located in a rural area, and the other -- Grand Valley High School
-- is a college-preparation school with a long history. In this regard, my study will
provide significant implications to policy makers and school administrators with
intentions to build a school community.

Third, this case study tries to interweave Western concepts of community with

Asian thinking. I deal with Korean schools in terms of the categories of school
community created by American educational researchers. These conceptual models of
community which emerge from my study will be derived from both Western and Asian
philosophy. My study reveals the features of school community in a Korean context so
that it contributes to generating the knowledge of school community in light of Western
and Asian perspectives.

1-5. Research Questions

The overall intent of this dissertation study is to explore two Korean schools as
communities within the framework of the three models of school community. This study
seeks to answer the following research questions:

1) How and to what extent do students, parents, and teachers experience a sense
of community characterized by qualities such as intimacy, belongingness,
interdependence, and care?

2) How and to what extent do teachers perceive their schools as professional
communities? Do they experience collaboration aimed at improving students'

learning and development among teachers?

 

ThlS name 15 a pseudonym. In this dissertation. all names of schools. cuties. and persons are pseudonyms.

1-7.

3) How and to what extent do students, parents, and teachers perceive their

4)

schools as democratic communities? Do they significantly participate in

decision-making processes of schooling?

How do students, parents, and teachers perceive and deal with tensions

derived from the school communities such as contradictions arising from

value for sameness or for diversity, for caring or for justice?

Definitions of Terms

1)

2)

3)

Community: This term is used broadly as the association of people. I use the
same term, community, to indicate two different kinds of community in this
study, that is, school community and local community. When I refer to school
community or community in school, the notion of community assumes that
school stakeholders are community members who share affective experiences
of intimacy, belongingness, and caring.

Sense of community: When a community exists, the community members
experience a sense of community. The sense of intimacy, belongingness.
interdependence, or care is evidence of the sense of community.

Authentic community: It is an ideal type of community that includes general
characteristics of community such as the sense of belonging, interdependence,
or care, and also overcomes general limitations of community such as
exclusivity, intolerance, or coercion. In addition, encouragement of diversity
and enactment of social justice are key features of an authentic community.

The word of genuine community is used interchangeably.

Delimitations

First, I will not discuss why building a strong community within a school is so significant
and why individuality, diversity, justice4, and democracy are key values to schools.
These are my presuppositions in this study.

Second, I will not study participation of members of the local community in
school. Although this is a very important topic in school community research, my study
focuses on building community within school. However, since I believe that a school
seeking an authentic community has concern for enacting justice in the surrounding
community, I will partially discuss the connections between school and community in
reference to my research problem's.5

Third, I will not focus on discussing the relationship between community and
student learning. Even though student learning is the key of schooling, this study mainly
deals with school culture and organizational structure related to building school
communities.

1-8. Outline

In this chapter, I have discussed research questions. purpose, backgrounds, rationale, and
significances of this study. This research investigates two Korean high schools in terms
of conceptual models of community, informed by Western and Asian literature. The next
chapter deals with the theoretical foundations on which this research is conducted. I
construct three models of community by reviewing Western and Asian philosophical,
sociological literature. I also discuss the three main areas of school community literature,

that is, sense of community, professional community, and democratic community.

 

4 Here, justice is broadly defined as fairness.

5 School communities are embedded in local communities. While the connection between school and local
community is not the focus of this study, I will be sensitive to the effects of external connection on the
development of community within the school. It is possible that these connections will be more important
than I anticipate.

2. Chapter Two: Literature Review

2-1. The Desire for Community

With the major exception of Dewey (1916; 1990), the discussion of “community” in
education is relatively recent. In contrast, studies of community in other disciplines such
as philosophy, theology, and sociology have a long history. A number of great thinkers --
from ancient Chinese philosophers, Confucius and Mencius, to Greek philosophers, Plato
and Aristotle, to modern social philosophers, Hegel and Marx -- took great account of
community (Kim, S., 2002; Kirkpatrick, 1986; Selznick, 1992; Sorokin, 1957).
Reviewing the studies of community carried out by philosophers and sociologists
provides a theoretical framework to my research of school community.

Before discussing some models developed by social thinkers, I need to review
briefly why major philosophers and sociologists consider the notion of community to be
significant. In other words, what is the rationale of humans’ desire for community? The
desire for community has been discussed in various ways, which can be organized into
two categories, that is, community as an aim and as a means. Some philosophers and
sociologists view the need for community as a fundamental desire of human beings
(Buber, 1958; 1970; Oldenquist, 1991; Bellah et al., 1985). According to them, human
beings are able to be genuine humans only through mutual relationships with others in
community. On the other hand, some social scientists consider community as a useful
vehicle for solving social problems (Braatz & Putnam, 1996; Coleman. 1985; 1990;
Coleman & Hoffer, 1987; Putnam, 1995a; 1995b)

Martin Buber (1958), an influential religious philosopher, says that creating a
genuine community of human beings has been a primary aspiration of human history.

Human beings, Buber (1970) says. pursue the community so as to experience actual.

communal life and mutual relationships as I and Thou. Only in the relation of I-Thou, do
humans meet one another in “mutual effect that is neither connected with nor colored by
any causality” (p.51). A social philosopher Andrew Oldenquist (1991) claims that
alienation, which is a serious social illness of modern people, correlates to the loss of
community. When people live in a community and experience it, they can have social
identities and cooperative endeavors for common goods. Without these, people often feel
isolated and alienated. Sociologists Robert Bellah and his colleagues (1985) question
whether modern individualism, which is the dominant culture in the US. can really
sustain genuine individuality. They maintain that an individual should exist in deep
relation to community; from this view, individual freedom is placed in the context of
religious and moral commitment. According to them, individuals who are socially
responsible to their community can nurture both public and private life, sustaining the
dignity of an individual.

In addition, some social scientists such as James Coleman and Robert Putnam set
forth a utilitarian approach and claim that living in a “functional community” or “civic
community” is “easier” because people are more likely to gain mutual benefit through
social trust and integration, active cooperation, engagement, and intergenerational ties.
The ability to secure benefits by virtue of membership in community, what they call
social capital, contributes to developing democracy and economy (Putnam, 1995b),
improving student achievements (Braatz & Putnam, 1996; Coleman & Hoffer, 1987), and
lessening educational inequality (Coleman & Hoffer, 1987). In sum, Putnam and
Coleman view community as a means for human well-being, whereas Buber. Oldenquist.

and Bellah consider building community to be an aim for human life.

2-2. Three Models of Community

2-2-1. Individualist/Liberal Model

How one sees community is substantially connected to metaphysical assumptions
regarding persons and their relations. In a Western tradition, liberalism/individualism
and comunitarianism are two major perspectives. The individualistic assumption is that
persons are fundamentally and naturally independent and isolated from each other and
capable of rational choice for pursuing their own interests (Beck & Foster, 1999).
Persons’ associations would come into existence “only through the voluntary contract of
individuals trying to maximize their own self-interest” (Bellah et al., 1985, p. 143). Since
a community in this perspective is derived from social contracts of atomistic individuals
seeking their interests, this model is called an atomistic/contractarian one (Kirkpatrick,
1986)

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke argue that the purpose of society is to protect
individual interests, primarily property, based on the assumption that persons are
“essentially isolated, individual, self-interested entities who must contract for
relationship” (Kirkpatraick, 1986, p. 23). The notion of this individualistic model is
congruent with the concept of gesellschaft spelled out by Tonnies (1957). In gesellschaft,
every rational association with others is based on a set of contracts among the members.
Every member strives for his/her own advantage; individuals affinn the actions of others
only as long as they can further their own interests.

The experience of alienation is identified as central to life lived in a utilitarian
contract-based society. Living in an atomistic society alienates us “not just from each

other. but more importantly, from our own essential nature” (Kirkpatrick, 1986, p. 52).

10

“Loneliness, impersonality, and the self-defeating quest for privacy” (p. 52) are other
negative phenomena that we can easily encounter in such a society. Excessive
individualism results “not only in undercutting the community, but also in diminution of
the self’ (Etzioni, 1987, p. 153). Therefore, in search of privacy in order to develop self-
interest and exercise freedom of choice, people “become more and more vulnerable to
conformity and determinism by others and by the state” (Kirkpatrick, 1986, p. 53).
2-2-2. Communitarian Model
The communitarian assumption about people is that they are social, cultural entities in
their relationships. Communitarians claim that the wellbeing of individuals and their
association is intimately connected to the health of the community (Beck & Foster, 1999).
Communities where people experience a strong sense of connection provide “ideal
contexts for the flourishing of persons as individuals and within relationships” (p. 340).
This model can be called an organic/functional model of community in the sense that an
appropriate metaphor of this perspective is bodily organs, which are essentially
interdependent and functionally related to each other within a larger organism
(Kirkpatrick, 1986).

Hegel describes reality as “a single whole composed of lesser wholes organically
related to each other and to the larger whole of which they were parts” (Kirkpatrick. 1986,
p. 62). This understanding of reality comes to be the foundation of an organic model of
community. Hegel and Marx assume that organic communities have “a kind of
ontological reality that drives, defines, and gives meaning to human life” (Beck & Foster.
p. 341). Thus, they both assert that people’s full and genuine lives are realized only when

they acknowledge their organic relationships to a community. This organic model is

11

compatible with the notion of gemeinschaft. Following Hegel, Tonnies (l 95 7) states that
a community can be organic as far as it is “related to the totality of reality and defined in
its nature and movements by this totality” (p. 35). According to Tonnies, gemeinschaft
should be understood as “a living organism,” - in contrast with gesellschaft, “a
mechanical aggregate and artifact” - so that it is “a genuine, lasting form of living
together” (p. 35).

Communitarian perspective leads to persuasive discourses of our time’s dilemma
such as alienation and meaninglessness, whereas it also causes a number of critiques
(Brint, 2001; Fendler, in press; Kirkpatrick, 1986; Noddings, 1996; Young, 1986).
Intolerance, parochialism, coercion, exclusivity, and totalitarianism are charges often
leveled against communitarianism. Noddings (1996) warns of possible dangers of a
community vulnerable to fascism and other totalitarianism in that a strong community
seeks unity and self-sacrifice. She suggests that Adolf Hitler also emphasized unity and
self-sacrifice in the community. Kirkpatrick (1986) points out the potential exclusivity of
gemeinschaft. In the gemeinschaft people are likely to feel “the walls of natural
distinctions and boundaries closing in” (p. 74) because human relationship in it is based
on the proximity of blood, location, and mind. The bonds of the relationship might be
“too narrow, too biological, to account adequately for that dimension of human
intentionality and freedom” (p. 74). Young (1986) suspects that the ideal of community
has “the same desire for social wholeness and identification that underlies racism [,]
ethnic chauvinism [, and] political sectarianism” (p. 2). She argues that the endeavors of
a community to create totality “[create] not one, but two: inside and outside” (p. 3). and

thus cause exclusivity and devalue difference.

12

2-2-3. Toward an Alternative Model
I have discussed individualist and communitarian models of community derived from the
philosophical and sociological literature. This discussion has relied on Western
perspectives. In order to discuss the third model, I need to review Korean and Chinese
literature on community. The third model of community derives from both Western and
Asian philosophy. Asian6 concepts of community generally are neither liberal nor
communitarian in the sense of Western perspectives. Of course, there have been
individual-centered philosophy and community-centered philosophy in Asian countries.
Out of two major traditional Chinese philosophies, Taoism is somewhat like
individualism, and Confucianism is near communitarianism (Kim, S., 2002, Shin, HS,
2004). However, comparison between Asian and Western notions is not easy. As Shin,
Y. (2004) asserts, modern Westerners tend to have a “substance-centered paradigm,” but
Asians have a “relation-centered one,” (p. 23). In other words, individual substance is
reality and a basic entity of the universe for modern Westerners, whereas substance exists
only in relation with other substance for Asians. Consequently, Taoism and
Confucianism are different from individualism and communitarianism. To be sure.
Taoism emphasizes individual freedom and the avoidance of social constraint, but more
importantly contextualizes human in a deep relationship with nature. For Taoism, nature
is more than a physical entity such as a river or mountain. It is fundamental cosmos and
harmony in the universe (Shin, Y. 2004).

Confucianism is the most influential philosophy and dominant ideology in

traditional Korean and Chinese societies. According to Confucius, human beings have to

 

6 To be exact, “Asians” here mean East Asians who share the tradition of Confucianism. They are Korean.
Japanese, and Chinese.

13

exist in social relations, and loving people (1": in Chinese)7 is the essence of humanity

(Kim, S., 2002). Mencius, another key master of Confucianism, maintains that the five
ethics of the five human relationships such as king and officers, father and son, husband

and wife, brothers, and friends are fundamental to humanity. He teaches that
righteousness (ii in Chinese) should be the basic virtue of people, and the righteousness

is against individual selfishness and desire and is embodied in community (Kim, S.,
2002). According to both Confucius and Mencius, family is a primary unit of community.
They believe that the ideal society becomes a family-like community.

Mozi, another major philosopher in China in the fourth century BC, argues for
the solidarity of community based on loving each other. Social justice is an essence of
his notion of community. Put succinctly, according to Asian thought, people should seek
to build a community where one, above all, helps other persons to enhance his/her own
personality because he/she essentially exists in the relation with other persons and nature
(Shin, Y., 2004).

Hegel thinks negatively about the Chinese model of community. He believes that
China is based on the way of family-like connections so that the development of the
country would be limited to natural, emotional motivation (Lee, D., 2002). According to
Hegel, in Chinese humanity of family, there can rarely be found individual autonomy and
independence. Instead, “enforcement of rules, obedience to existing hierarchy. and
following emotion are predominant” (Lee, D., 2002, p. 91). Hegel’s criticism of Chinese

thought is restricted to his knowledge of the humanity in ruling codes, not of the

 

7 C has various meanings. Here the interpretation as ‘loving people’ is derived from the chapter “Anhyun”
of the Discourses of Confucius. I: indicates two persons as follows: (’1 = A (person) + : (two).

14

humanity in Chinese philosophy (Lee, D.). Although it is partially correct that
Confucianism as the ruling ideology tends to ignore individual autonomy, individual
willingness and mutual respect are valued in Confucianism (Shin, HS, 2004).

Given the understanding of the two Western models and Asian concepts of
community, I attempt to develop an alternative model of community. Many western
thinkers and researchers have discussed the third model or alternative position that
embraces the virtues of the two models (Bellah et al., 1985; Brint, 2001; Etzioni, 1987;
1993; Kirkpatrick, 1986; Selznick, 1992). Selznick (1992) calls the third model
“communitarian liberalism” (p. xi). A true community in this perspective presumes
“diversity and pluralism as well as social integration” (p. xi). He suggests that the model
of community should be based on the reconciliation of two competing sources of moral
integration: civility and piety. According to Selznick (1992), “civility governs diversity.
protects autonomy, and upholds tolerance,” whereas “piety expresses devotion and
demands integration” (p. 387). Etzioni (1987) names such a position the “0an
Community” or the “I & We.” In the Open Community both individual members and the
community have the same fundamental moral standing. Bellah and his colleagues (1985)
also argue that the alternative model needs to, “without destroying individuality. serve to
limit and restrain the destructive side of individualism” (p. vii).

Kirkpatrick (1986) constructs the alternative model in the most thorough way and
calls it “mutual/personal model.” His concept of mutual/personal model is significantly
influenced by important religious philosophers, Buber and Macmurray. For Buber (1958;
1970) and Macmurray, a person is essentially not an individual entity neither a member

of group, but an individual in relatedness. Macmurray states, “the unit of personal

15

existence is not the individual, but two persons in personal relation” (Kirkpatrick, p. 174).
In Buber’s words, “through the Thou a man becomes 1” (p. 141). Thus, the ideal relation.
I and Thou become a mutual community. For the mutual community, openness to
relationship is essential so that the community is “intentionally inclusive.” A genuine
“community need not consist of people who are perpetually together; but it must consist
of people, who have mutual access to one another and are ready for one another”
(Buber, 1958, p. 145). In the mutual model of community, a person would be fulfilled in
mutuality, which is “a genuine desire to be with and for the other person” (Kirkpatrick. p.
181). The notion of person spelled out by Buber and Macmurray is in accord with the
Asian concept of person that I discussed earlier.

Korean scholars, such as Park, Y. and Seo, also pursue the alternative model or
position beyond the individualist and communitarian models. Park, Y. (2000) argues that
communality and individuality can coexist when communal values are shaped through
reflective and free dialogue carried out by the community members. His discussions
partially depend on Haberrnas’ communication theory and also utilize an Asian idea to
articulate the alternative position. He suggests that the phrase “Be in harmony, but not in
sameness (#11 mi Nd] in Chinese)” issued by Confucius implies unity embracing
differences (p. 58). Seo (2004) develops a new notion of community from his
ethnographic study on a Korean elementary school. In his idea of community, the school
members understand each other’s difference and shape new identities together so that
they can exist as individuals and coexist with others at the same time.

The sociological theory on autonomous solidarity is also useful in developing an

alternative model of community. Kang, S. (2005) claims that individual autonomy can be

16

ensured even where strong social solidarity is formed and sustained. Autonomy and
solidarity coexist in harmony when the mutual understanding of participants in
communication and the sense of responsibility for others are secured (Kang, S., 2005).
Reviewing the philosophical and sociological literature of community sheds light
on developing the conceptual frameworks of educational community. I argue for an ideal
alternative conception of school community. School members such as students. teachers,
and parents can be meaningful beings only when they are in relation with others. In such
a school community, they can experience a sense of belonging and interdependence and
mutual caring, and at the same time accept their differences and diversity. The awareness
of being in relatedness does not limit relationships only to members of a school
community and human society. The members of an alternative model of a school
community pursue building a sustainable society through the enactment of social justice
and the deep relationship to nature. Figure 1 shows the relationship of the three models

of community, the foundations. and characteristics of the alternative model.

2-3. School Community in Educational Literature

In this section, I review the literature of educational community in light of conceptual
frameworks I discussed earlier. The concept of community in education has been studied
significantly since the late 19803. Thinking about schools as communities is not just a
fad. The focus on community is a “signifier of a sea change in our thinking about the
purpose of [schooling]” (F urman, 1999, p. 10). While some pieces of the literature focus
on the effectiveness of school-community endeavors (Adkins et al., 1999; Adler &
Gardner, 1994; Arguea & Conroy, 2003; Cibulka & Kritek, 1996; Epstein, et al., 1997;

2001; Hiatt-Michael, 2001; Ladd & Hansen, 1999), substantial documents

17

Figure 1. Three Models of Community

 
     
  
  
  
  
 
   

   
  
 

 

  

   
 

  

Liberal/Individualist Communitarian
Model Model
(Contractarian/ (Organic/ Functional
Atomistic Model; Model;
Gesellschaft) Gemeinschaft)

 

 

 

Individuality, Alternative Model A Sense of

Autonomy, Belonging,
Diversity, Interdependence,

Justice and Caring

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Person in Relatedness
(with Other Persons and Nature)
From
Macmurray, Buber, and
Asian Philosophy

 

 

 

of the school-community literature challenge the current dominant mentality of education,
and pursue alternative concepts of schooling (Foster, 1986; 2004; F urman, 2002; Furrnan
& Starratt, 2002; Furrnan & Gruenewald, 2004; Kratzer, 1996; 1997; Noddings, 1988;
1992; 1996; 1999; Sergiovanni, 1994; Shields, 2004).

The literature of school community can be divided into two categories: “School as
community” and “school-community connections” (Beck & Foster, 1999; Merz &
Furman, 1997; Furman, 2002). The first division focuses on community within school.

A sense of community, professional (learning) community, and democratic community

18

are examples among main concepts of this category. The second division is concerned
with the relationship between school, family, and the surrounding community.
According to Merz and Furman (1997), this category includes parent involvement,
coordinated agency services, and shared governance. In this study, I focus on community
within school. The connections of school, family, and surrounding community will be
discussed only when they are concerned with understanding the community within school.
After discussing the three topics of school as community, I will review the
literature of leadership in association with community. Some researchers have argued
that leadership plays a key role in building and sustaining school communities

(Sergiovanni, 2000; Starratt, 1991; 1993; 1995; 1996).

2-3-1. A Sense of Community and Professional Community

It has been claimed that the metaphor for a school should be changed from “organization”
to “community” (Foster, 2004; F urman, 2002; Merz & Furman, 1997; Sergiovanni, 1994).
In educational literature, the notion of organization shares much with the individualist
model of community that I discussed in the previous section. Because metaphors shape
our understanding in a distinctive yet partial way (Morgan, 1986), our thinking of schools
as organizations has made rational, bureaucratic, and impersonal characteristics of
schools largely unquestioned and unchallenged for a long time (Furman, 2002). When
we see schools as communities rather than organizations, relationships and a sense of
belonging become primary values of schooling. Some educational scholars focus on the
centrality of relationships in education (Noddings, 1986; Shields, 2004; Sidorkin, 1999).
Based on the relational ontology, they argue that relationships make up the essence of

human life and must not be pushed to the periphery of schooling (Shields, 2004).

19

Community is often articulated as an affective experience of belonging and trust,
rather than a specific social structure (Furman, 2002; Tonnies, 1957). In this regard,
where students and teachers cannot experience a sense of community, a community does
not exist. The benefit of a communal orientation has been well documented both in
conceptual discussions and empirical research (Battistich, et. al., 1995; Bryk, Lee, &
Holland, 1993; Bryk & Driscoll, 1988; Coleman, & Hoffer, 1987; Driscoll, 1989; Kratzer,
1996; 1997; Merz & Furman, 1997; Osterman, 2002; Phillips, 1997; Sergiovanni, 1994;
Shouse, 1995). In the 19805, a sense of community, or communal characteristics in
schools, received special attention in relation to the growing research of school
effectiveness. Many researchers found that effective schools have communal school
organizations (Bryk & Driscoll, 1988; Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993; Chubb & Moe. 1990:
Coleman, & Hoffer, 1987; Driscoll, 1989; Kratzer, 1996; 1997). Those who research the
correlation of the sense of community and student outcomes agree that the experience of
a strong community is associated with positive attitudes and behaviors toward self, others.
and academics (Battistich, et. al., 1995; Bryk & Driscoll, 1988; Coleman, & Hoffer,
1987; Driscoll, 1989; Kratzer, 1996; Osterman, 2002).

In the communal schools, teachers as well as students experience a sense of
community in reference to connectedness, trust, and collaboration. A great number of
researchers focus on the linkage of communal characteristics and teachers (Driscoll,
1989; Little, 2003; Louis & Kruse, 1995; Scribner, Hager, & Wame, 2002: Westheimer,
1998). When school faculty seeks to make a commitment to the continuous development
of their expertise through communal efforts, the faculty forms a professional community.

Teachers who experience their schools as professional communities are likely to have

20

higher teacher efficacy, satisfaction, enjoyment of work, and student learning outcomes
(Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993; Driscoll, 1989; Louis & Kruse, 1995). Most researchers
agree that teachers’ shared norms and beliefs of the purposes and practices of schooling
are key features of a professional community. Louise and Kruse (1995) argue from their
research that “a shared normative and value base paired with reflective dialogue” (p. 206)
forms a significant foundation for building and sustaining a professional community.
Other researchers claim that academic and social collegiality and collaboration among
teachers are important dimensions of effective communal schools (Bryk, Lee, & Holland.
1993; Driscoll, 1989). Louise and her colleague (1995) suggest that collegial
relationships need to be characterized by “mutual learning and discussion of classroom
practice and student performance” (p. 33). According to Driscoll ( 1989), teachers
working in communally organized schools see their efforts linked not only to the progress
of individual students, but also “as part of the mission and scope of the entire
community’s work” (p. 144). In such schools a collegial network emerges that provides
social and technical support systems for teachers. The philosophical and pragmatic
elements of the communal schools promote higher senses of teacher efficacy and
satisfaction.

Scribner et al (2002) require attention to the micro-political dimension of
professional community. They argue that building shared identity rather than collective
identity, emphasizing professional autonomy, and paying attention to individual needs are
necessary conditions of strong professional community.

While professional community is a very useful idea to school refonners. it seems

that the notions of professionalism and community are, in some senses, not harmonious

21

with each other. Professionalism is often considered to be “a technical activity involving
the delivery of expert services to clients” (Sergiovanni, 1994, p. 140) in a bureaucratic
society. The delivery of services is governed by rules of professional conduct, and the
relationships between experts and clients are impersonal. In this regard, professionalism
is more likely to be a feature of gesellschaft rather than gemeinschaft. Thus, some
researchers suggest that the technical competence and the moral dimension should be
equally emphasized in a professional community (Bryk et al., 1993; Sergiovanni, 1994).
Moral responsibility is derived from “a commitment to values that constitute the
professional ideal for any given practice” (Sergiovanni, 1994, p. 141).

I have reviewed the literature of a sense of community and professional
community. Many researchers discuss these issues based on the dichotomy of
gesellschaft and gemeinschaft introduced by Tonnies (1957). When school becomes a
community like gemeinschaft, students and teachers in the school are more able to
experience affective satisfactions and improve their works. However, some educational
researchers worry about the negative side of the school community concerned as
gemeinschaft resulting from the boundaries of the community. Exclusivity, intolerance.
and coercion are negative aspects frequently mentioned. Three types of gemeinschaft -
kinship, neighborhood, and friendship - that Tonnies suggested are essentially based on
sameness of blood, place, and mind. Thus, the notion of community as gemeinschaft
conceives the potentiality of exclusivity and conformity.

Iris Young (1986) criticizes the ideal of community for denying difference.
According to her, the logic of category or identity creates an inside/outside distinction.

keeps these borders firmly drawn, and elevates inside over outside. Funnan (2002) also

22

contends that the notion of community grounded in modernist thinking does not fit public
school contexts in a postmodern society. Contemporary public schools reflect the
multilingual and multicultural diversity of the postmodern times. The assumptions that a
community relies on common values, common cultural or religious background, and
kinship relationships, lead to the perception of boundaries between groups of people and
exclude some groups out of the boundaries.

While Young and F urman challenge the notion of community from a postmodern
perspective, Shields (2002; 2004) is more interested in the issue of difference in schools
in terms of social justice. Shields points out the existence of “pathologies of silence”
(Shields, 2004, p. 117) as pervasive in a school community. Since teachers are
uncomfortable with difference in ethnicity, class, and culture of students, they often
pretend that there is no difference and fail to hear the diverse voices of students that make
up their schools. When teachers are not able to overcome the pathology of silence, their
school cannot be a genuine inclusive community because silence about ethnicity and
class perpetuates the dominance of certain people and their culture and marginalizes
many disadvantaged students.

Some case studies of school community reveal how communities within schools
result in increased exclusion, conformity, and coercion (Bushnell, 1998; Peshkin, 1986).
Peshkin’s ethnographic study of a fundamentalist Christian school shows us a vivid
example of a school community as “total institution.” In the school, “[their] Truth
provides a yardstick for judging” the students’ entire lives (Peshkin, 1986, pp. 260-261).
The acceptance of the truth is a clear criterion for distinguishing insiders and outsiders.

The school retains shared values so strongly that it cannot allow the members to have

23

individual autonomy and it has “a strong we-they separation” (Merz & F urman, 1997. p.
14). Bushnell’s case study of a rural elementary school teaches us that even a non-
religious school can resemble the school Peshkin describes. Bushnell finds that the
community members have strong nostalgia, which relegates the school to “the past
something, like chastity that was supposedly more prevalent in a previous generation”
(Bushnell, 1998, p. 179). Their cultural expectations can be used as moral coercion over
individuals, denying difference, constructing boundaries, and perpetuating traditional

gender roles in the school.

2-3-2. Democratic Community

In addition to discussions of a general sense of community and to more focused
discussions of professional community, democratic community is an important concept in
school-community literature. Although many researchers assert that democracy is a core
component of a professional community (Louis & Kruse, 1995; Westerheimer, 1998).
democratic community is not synonymous with professional community. By
membership, democratic community is broader than professional community. In addition.
while studies of a sense of community and professional community are more or less

based on the communitarian model of community, the discussions of democratic
community are directed toward the mutual/personal model.

A professional community lacking in virtue is apt to be undemocratic. Such a
school may be controlled by the professionalism of teachers in the sense that “appeals to
expertise are used to justify teacher authority over the process of education” (Strike, 1993.
p. 256). Such professionalism presumes the existence of esoteric knowledge and treats

students and parents as clients, instead of as community members. Since clients are not

24

able to participate fully in decision making, the relationships of clients and experts are
unequal in status and power.

Discourse, dialogue, or communication is a fundamental vehicle for making a
school a democratic community (Buber, 1970; Haberrnas, 1984; Mawhinney, 2004;
Shields, 2004; Sidorkin, 1999; Strike, 1993). Schools can be considered as local
democratic communities if everyone acknowledges that “decisions are the property of the
community as a whole” (Strike, 1993, p. 266). When “open and undominated discourse”
(263) is fundamental, the community is democratic; teachers are central in educational
discussions, not as experts, but as holders of experience and wisdom who are primary
responsible parties for the education (Strike, 1993). Both autonomy and solidarity can
exist simultaneously in democratic communities because a process of deliberation is
capable of producing voluntary agreement on shared norms (Fleming, 2002; Strike, 1993).
Sidorkin (1999)’s vision of school is the realization of “ontological concept of dialogue”
(p. 141) based on the personal/mutual model of community. He asserts that in the
genuine school community students can experience the fullness of human existence
through dialogue, that is, mutual relation. Shields (2004), in tandem with Sidorkin,
maintains that schooling oriented toward moral purposes such as social justice, caring.
and democracy requires a relational pedagogy “forged with, not for. students to permit
them to develop meaningful and socially constructed understandings” (p. 1 15).

While some scholars such as Sidorkin, Shields, and Strike stress the processes of
democratic participation, F urman and Starratt (2002) focus on the morality of democratic
community. Taking account of the context of postmodern diversity, F urrnan and Starratt

question the notion of the gemeinschaft rooted in sameness. Since schools in a

25

postmodern society are characterized by diversity and fragmentation, Furman and Starratt
argue that schools as democratic communities should be “[communities] of difference, in
which difference is celebrated but interdependence is recognized, and the common good.
locally and globally, is the glue” (p. 116).

Justice also should be key morality of a democratic school community (Starratt.
1991; 1994; Brown, 2004). Given the three senses of j ustice, that is, procedural,
distributive, and substantive justice (Bellah et al., 1985)8, a school can pursue a
democratic community, in which not only opportunities to learn but also institutional
orders as a whole are fair to all students. This ethic of j ustice demands that the school
serve both the common good and the rights of the individuals. In concluding, a
democratic community encompasses “the enactment of participatory processes of open
inquiry in working for the common good” (Furman & Starratt, 2002, p. 116). At the same
time, it is guided by a social morality that appreciates the differences of all members and
values the justice of the school and society.

A sense of community, professional community, and democratic community are
three main categories of the studies of educational communities as I have discussed.
Figure 2 summarizes the characteristics of the three categories of educational

communities.

 

8 According to Bellah et al. (1985), procedural justice is defined as “the fairness of the rules under which
society operates and disputes are adjudicated” (334). Distributive justice is the fairness of the society‘s
reward systems and distribution of goods and opportunities. Substantive justice is “a matter of the
institutional order of society as a whole and its justice or fairness” (334)

26

Figure 2. Educational Communities

 

r Shared Decision
Making, Dialogue, / Relationship.

 

Difference, Justice Belongingness,
Trust, Caring

    
 

 

 

 

 

A Sense of
Community

 
 

 

 

 

 

 
 
    
   

 

 

 

   
 

   
    
 
 

Democratic School As Ellie: beliefs.-
Communit ' 0 a ora ron,
y Community Reflective
Professional Inquiry

 

 

 

  

 

Community

  

2-3-3. Community and Leadership

Some educational scholars elaborate on the roles of leadership in creating and developing
school communities (Foster, 1986; 2004; Sergiovanni, 1996: 2000; Starratt, 1991; 1993;
1995; 1996). They are concerned with building a moral school community and contend
that leadership plays a key role for the community. Transformational leadership is a
significant idea in regard with building a moral school community.
Transformational/transforming leadership was initially discussed by Burns (1978) and
has developed in a school context by a number of educational researchers (Brown, 2004;
Foster, 1986; 2004; Grogan, 2004; Marks & Printy, 2003; Meyer, 2005; Printy, 2005;
Shields, 2004; Starratt, 1996; Yoo, 2005). According to Burns (1978), transforming
leadership challenges persons to engage with others “in such a way that leaders and

followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 20). So. the

27

leadership is moral, not moralistic, in the sense that it raises the level of human conduct
and ethical aspiration of both leader and follower.

Some scholars develop the notion of transformational leadership on the basis of
critical theory (Brown, 2004; Foster, 1986; 2004; Hoffman & Burrello, 2004; Shields,
2004).9 Foster (1986) defines leadership to be “conscious of conditions and conscious of
change” (p. 188). Leadership focuses on releasing persons from prisons of ideology and
providing vision of a just. equal social order. So, for Foster, leadership is “the process of
transforming and empowering” (p. 188). Shields (2004) also argues that transformational
leadership should seek social justice and democratic community through transforming not
only practices of schooling but socially constructed and persistent understandings.

Starratt (1991; 1993; 1995; 1996) builds the concept of transformational
leadership in a more systemic and broader way. He maintains that the task of leadership
is to establish a larger ethical school community. Starratt (1991; 1996) suggests the
ethics of critique, justice, and caring as a multidimensional foundation for reconstruction
of a moral school community. The ethic of critique poses the fundamental ethical
challenge to the leadership, and the ethic of justice may offer a blueprint for
reconstructing the social order it is criticizing. The ethic of caring makes it possible to
determine claims in conflict. Therefore, leadership needs to embrace these critique.
justice, and caring ethics for building and administering a moral school community.

Some educational researchers call for attention to the issue of spirituality in the
research on educational leadership (F urrnan, 1999; Meier, 2005; Starratt & Guare, 1995).

Spirituality, leadership, and community building are considered to be inextricably linked.

 

9 Shields (2004) uses the term “transformative” instead of “transfonnational.” According to her.
transformational leadership focuses on “the collective interests in of a group or organization," whereas
transformative leadership is “deeply rooted in moral and ethical values in a social context” (1 I3).

28

Spirituality in the educational literature is generally defined as “a sense of connection or
relationship with something greater than oneself, whether a sacred entity or a
transcendent sense of purpose” (Furman, 1999, p. 11). Given that “spiritual persons tend
to bring that depth, sensitivity, and reverence to all or most of what they do,” genuine
leadership implies spirituality (Starratt & Guare, 1995, p. 192).

Yoo (2005)’s study on school leadership is also useful in understanding the
dynamics of a school community in Korea. He discusses the relationships among
transformational, transactional leadership, procedural, distributional justice, and trust
through a structural analysis. According to him, transformational leadership has a

positive impact on shaping trust and improving justice within a school community.

2-4. Community in Korean Schools

2-4-1. Community within a Typical Korean High School

This case study deals with two Korean high schools. which are quite different from other
Korean high schools in many aspects. To understand better the case schools, I need to
describe briefly features of typical Korean high schools. Today preparing students for
college entrance exams is the most crucial task for many Korean high schools. Most
students go to private institutes or cram schools (Hak-Won in Korean) and/or take private
tutoring afier school. It is widely considered that high schools sending their students to
competitive colleges are good schools. So, programs and activities of high schools are
developed and practiced to meet the narrowed educational aim. Schools’ structures and

culture are also shaped in relation with college entrance exams. In this respect, the

29

purpose of the Korean high schools is thoroughly instrumental. They have lost many
sound aims of schools and are subject to college entrance exams.

Efficiency is one of the most important values in a market system, and
competition is considered to be the best way to meet efficiency. This principle of the
market is widely accepted in educational circles today. Severe competition among
students and schools has occurred as a result of effortto achieve the aim of college
entrance. Many Korean high schools compete to be good schools. The new policy of
college entrance”), which will be applied from 2008, compels the high school first year
students to go into warlike competitions. In consequence, the keen sense of competition
among students is near to being immorally expressed at some high schools. Some
students hide other students’ books or tear their notebooks to keep them from getting
good test grades (Lim, J., 2005; Shin, HQ, 2005). Strong competitive relationships of
students erode community within schools. Modern Korean schools are generally
considered to be weak communities because of their strong bureaucratic features (Sim.
2003). In addition, the serious competition among students makes the school more like a
business company rather than a community. Consequently. students are not able to
experience intimate relationships, lack the sense of belongingness, and suffer with severe
stress and alienation (Sim, 2003). The heartbreaking news that more than two hundred
teenagers commit suicide per year in Korea is closely related to their suffering at the
schools (Koak, 2005). Recently Korean students acquired top rankings in the
international comparative tests, such as PISA and TIMMS, at the high expense of their

sufferings resulting from the loss of community within schools.

 

'0 Relative evaluation and consideration of the grade system of high school records are main characteristics
of the new entrance policy.

30

Teachers also sense a lack of communality within schools. Among teachers who
teach different or even same grade students and subjects and who belong to different or
even same departments and generations, professional communication and collaboration
rarely happen (R0, 1998). That is, teachers often prepare and teach their classes
individually. The relationships between teachers and principals are hierarchical, and
principals consider themselves to be bosses rather than helpers or colleagues (R0. 1998).
2-4-2. Alternative Schools in Korea
One of the research sites of this study is an alternative high school. So, here I need to
review briefly the history and situation of alternative schools in Korea. It is not until the
19905 that the discussions of alternative education and schools began to receive much
attention in Korea. In the early 19905, some after-school and camp programs designed
for alternative education were offered to k-12 students. The first alternative school was
established in 1997, and six alternative schools were first authorized by the Education
Department of Korea in 1998. BMHS is one of the six schools. Alternative schools have
grown rapidly and come to 26 authorized schools and more than 100 schools including
unauthorized ones in 2005 (Lim, T., 2005).

The backgrounds of alternative school movements are related to the crisis of
Korean schools in two ways. First, many students and parents strongly criticize the
systems and climate of the schools for failing to take care of students properly. They
point out that the schools focus only on preparing college entrance exams and then cause
severe competitions among students. Consequently, a number of students drop out of
schools and even commit suicide every year due to their severe pressures. Second, some

people are suspicious of the more fundamental limitations of schools. Korea adopted

31

Westem-styled school systems in the early twentieth century. Since modern schooling is
based upon “a rational/technical/instrumental set of assumptions” (F urrnan, 2002), it
cannot help but meet limitations in a postmodern, knowledge-based society. Some
Korean educators contend that schooling paves the way for the destruction of ecological
environments and alienation of individuals.

Alternative schools pursue not only overcoming the problematic systems and
climate of Korean schools but also developing ways for an alternative life. Now there are
four patterns of alternative schools in Korea, such as free schools, ecology schools,
schools for students at risk, and schools seeking their own philosophy (Lee, J .T., 2002).
While these schools pursue various aims, most alternative schools commonly stress
values such as the ecological way of life, a sense of community, and individual autonomy.
Many alternative schools have been founded and supported by religious institutions and
people. Generally alternative schools have much autonomy in administering schools, e.g.,
developing curriculum and recruiting principals, to achieve their educational aims. Yet,
since many unauthorized schools cannot receive financial supports from the government,
they suffer with financial difficulties.

2-5. Implications for the Case Study

I have reviewed the literature of community in philosophy, sociology, and education.
Philosophical and sociological discussions shed light on individualist, communitarian,
and alternative models of community. These three models provide a conceptual
framework for understanding a school community. I have argued that the alternative
model can be an ideal notion of a school community. To speak more specifically. a

school should attempt to become a genuine community, in which school members

32

experience a sense of belonging, interdependence, and mutual caring and also allow
individuality, diversity, justice, and inclusiveness. The educational literature of
community r the three strands of the study of school as community — sense of community.
professional community, and democratic community. Given these previous studies, I will
investigate two Korean schools in three spheres as follows: 1) the sense of community
perceived by school members, 2) professional learning community of teachers, and 3)
democratic community of students, teachers, and parents. Although such values
associated with community as individuality, solidarity, diversity, caring, and social
justice may be studied at the three spheres, in this research I discuss them in a separate
section. I collected data related to a sense of community and the three conceptual
approaches related to education. I then interpreted the data according to my proposed
models of community.

2-6. Outline

In this chapter, I have reviewed the philosophical and sociological literature of
community and educational literature of school community. I have developed three
models of community and outlined three main areas of school community research.
These models and categorization constitute a conceptual framework for this study. The
next chapter deals with the method of this research. I discuss the rationale of adopting a
qualitative research method for this study. After that, I elaborate on the research sites,
data collection, and data analysis. Lastly, I discuss the trustworthiness of this research
design, which is a corresponding concept of validity for quantitative research. and ethical

considerations.

33

 

3. Chapter Three: Method
3-1. Rationale for Qualitative Case Study
My research is about understanding the characteristics of the school as community. What
is going on in the school related to community and why the school does or does not
become an ideal alternative community are key questions of this study. To answer these
questions, I adopt a qualitative research method and take the case study approach to two
schools in Korea. Case study usually aims at examining some relevant “how” and “why”
questions about the relationship of events (Yin, 2003). Since the characteristics of the
school as community have to be explored in natural settings, not contrived ones, I choose
a qualitative approach (Creswell, 1998).

Here I need to discuss more about what type of case study is suitable to my
research questions. Stake (2000) distinguishes two types of case study, that is, intrinsic
and instrumental case study. Intrinsic case study is to undertake study for better
understanding of the particular case, not for some understanding of an abstract construct
or theory building. On the other hand, an instrumental case study is to investigate a
particular case “mainly to provide insight into an issue or to redraw a generalization”
(Stake, 2000, p. 43 7). In my case study, because an issue or framework is given, and two
cases are selected as instances drawn from a class, my study approximates an
instrumental case study (Bassey, 1999; Stake, 2000). However, this case study has also
intrinsic interests in cases in the sense that the understanding of the two schools is my
primary aim of this study, and other concerns cannot be studied at the expense of this aim.

For case study. researchers ofien aim at not only showing particularity of the case

but also searching for generalization (Stake, 2000; Yin, 2003). However, for qualitative

34

 

research, the notion of generalization is differently defined from positivistic perspectives.
for instance, logical or forrnalistic generalization. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest the
terms of transferability and fittingness, instead of generalization, based on the idea of
Cronbach. When considering local conditions, under which study is undertaken,
Cronbach says, “any generalization is a working hypothesis. not a conclusion” (Cronbach.
1975, p. 125 cited in Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 123). In sum, the tension between the
study of the unique and the need to generalize is necessary for case study.

My primary goal is to understand the particularity of the two schools. I place my
“best intellect into the thick of what is going on” (Stake, 2000, p. 445) to know the
characteristics of the two schools as communities. At the same time, I try to understand
the two schools in order to generate the knowledge about the ideal models of school
community and processes of building community in schools. In doing so, my intellect
needs to be observational and reflective (Stake, 2000).
3-2. Research Sites
I adopt a “two-case” case study rather than a single case study, following Yin (2003)’s
recommendation. The “two-case” case study rather than a single one can give better
answers to the question of how a genuine school community has been developed and
sustained in various circumstances. So, I chose two schools which pursue a strong
community in school, but in different situations.

Choosing sites for study is essential for understanding critical issues that I want to
explore. I have selected two schools as research sites, as Stake (2000) suggests. Stake
contends that balance and variety are key criteria for the selection of a case. This

principle of selection is similar as the strategy of maximum variation sampling (Creswell.

35

1998). My first case, Grand Valley High School (GVHS), is a middle-size, college-
preparation school located in a small city. It has a long history and a Christian tradition.
The second case, Blue Mountain High School (BMHS), is a small alternative boarding
school in a rural area. It began only eight years ago and has a Catholic affiliation. The
two schools are different in the sense of the length of history, size, location, and the aims
of the schools; they are similar in the sense of the characteristics oriented toward a strong
community.

Although it is not intentional, both schools are religiously affiliated private
schools. The situation of private and religious schools in Korea is totally different from
that in the US. In a Korean context, private schools are similar to public schools in terms
of curriculum, funding, and management. In Korea, the number of students attending
private high schools is around fifty percent of all high school students, and religiously
affiliated schools are twenty five percent of all private high schools. Most public and
private high schools regardless of religious affiliation adopt similar curricula and
textbooks. Almost all private schools are financially supported by the Korean
government. Students living in large cities decide their schools according to their
addresses, regardless of private or public and religiously affiliated or not. Thus. Korean
private schools are called quasi-public schools (Yum, 2005). However, as BMHS is an
alternative school, the school has more autonomy in administrating school as I discussed
in the previous chapter.

The steps taken to select the schools follow:

36

(1) I requested several educational scholars and some educators, who are
knowledgeable about educational communities in Korea, to recommend
research sites. Candidate schools would have strong communality orientation.

(2) I reviewed the web-sites of the schools they recommended. I found that the
schools intentionally seek to build strong school communities

(3) I emailed the administrators of four candidate schools to participate in the
study. Two schools agreed to my invitation.

(4) 1 confirmed that some mass media reported that the two schools were good
examples of high schools in Korea that pursued strong school communities

and educated students properly.

3-3. Data Collection
Data collection of qualitative research consists of a circle of interrelated activities aimed
at gathering good information to answer emerging questions about research design
(Creswell, 1998). These activities include locating sites, gaining access and making
rapport, sampling participants, collecting data, recording information, and storing data.
The process of the activities is not linear but circular. That is, researchers may choose
any entry point in the circle and repeat the process in order to answer revised questions.
For data collection, I stayed at the research sites for two months in June through
September 2005. Although I collected data by visiting the websites of the school before
and after the term, most data was collected during my stays at the schools. In this section,
I describe the process of sampling participants and collecting data.

3-3-1. Sampling Participants

37

As I have discussed, sampling for qualitative research is not so much random or
representative as purposeful or theoretical, because qualitative research does not aim at
facilitating logical or formalistic generalization, but generating “the information upon
which the emergent design and grounded theory can be based” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p.
201). Moreover, because qualitative sampling considers “informational redundancy,” not
statistical confidence level, its procedures “depend on the particular ebb and flow of
information as the study is carried out rather than on a priori considerations” (p. 202).
Here I discuss participants in interviews and observations conducted in
the site schools. For selecting interviewees, I asked the school representatives to
recommend participants and I made arrangements for those interviews to occur. When
asking people, I considered a variety of participants such as new and veteran, male and
female teachers. parents and students living in the local communities and elsewhere. I
interviewed around 20 people such as administrators, teachers, parents, and students at
each school. Interviewing students and teachers is especially important because the
persons are most sensitive to the characteristics of communality of the school. The sense
of community may be perceived and felt differently by administrators, teachers, parents,
and students of the schools. In addition, I interviewed a few community members at a
site to confirm the information gathered. Consequently, I interviewed 3 administrators, 6 -
teachers, 7 students, 3 parents, and 1 community member at GVHS and 2 administrators.
7 teachers, 6 students, and 2 parents at BMHS. Of course, I had many informal, casual
interviews with students, teachers, parents, and other people. I observed all kinds of

activities related to schooling including classes, teacher meetings, parent meetings, extra

38

curricular activities, informal gatherings, and activities from everyday lives. as long as
participants consent.

3-3-2. The Researcher’s Typical Day at a Research Site

I stayed in the school dormitory during data collection at GVHS and in a teacher’s home
and the inn near BMHS for that part of the. Following is my typical day at GVHS.

I wake up at 7:00 am. I cannot help but listen to the radio that the supervisor of
the dormitory turned on loudly. I go to the school cafeteria. I eat breakfast at 7:30 with
students. At 8:00 am, I attend the teacher meeting at the meeting room, which usually
lasts 10 to 20 minutes. After observing the meeting, I come to my assigned work space.
which is in the teachers’ large office. In the morning, I read a book of qualitative
research methodology and documents or books regarding GVHS, observing teachers’
lives in the office. Sometimes I transcribe interview audiotapes and type the scripts at the
meeting room or library. I eat lunch at 12:00 with teachers. 1 often talk with teachers. In
the afiemoon, I observe classes by permission or have interviews with teachers. Once in
a while, I visit the houses of parents or community members located in Grand Valley for
an interview. Classes end at 5:00 pm, except on Friday. Then, I come back to my room
in the dormitory and take a shower. At 5:30, I eat dinner at the cafeteria. I have casual
interviews with students during almost every dinner. After dinner, I take notes of the
informal interviews in my room, observe what students have done for their free times.
and take a walk around the campus. At 7:30, most students go to the main building for
study. I take a rest at my room, reading books and surfing the intemet. Sometimes I talk
with the dean or supervisor of the dormitory. At 1 1:00 pm, students come back to the

dormitory and clean the building. I watch them clean. I go to sleep at midnight.

39

3-3-3. Collecting Data

I employed ethnographic strategies to collect data. Both observations and interviews are
key methods for data collection. The other data collection methods such as analysis of
documents and physical artifacts are adopted to confirm and supplement the data
collected through observation and interviews (Yin, 2003). The anticipated connections of
my research questions with sources of data collection are described as in Table 1.

Table 1. Matrix of the Connections of the Research Questions
with Sources of Data Collection

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observation Interview Analysis of
documents
Class Staff Parent Everyday“ F S P C** and artifact
Q] X X X X X X X X
Sense of
community
Q.2 X X X X X X
Professional
community
Q.3 X X X X X X X X X
Democratic
communifll
Q.4 X X X X X X X X
Tensions

 

 

 

 

 

* Class: Classes including extra-curriculum activities, Staff: Staff meetings including
informal meetings of faculty, Parent: Parent meetings, Everyday: life during recess and
after school.

** F: Faculty (teachers and administrators), S: Students, P: Parents
C: Community members

X indicates that each question can be answered by each data collection source.

3-3-3-1. Interview
It is claimed that interview is not only a tool of data gathering but also an “active

interaction between two (or more) people leading to negotiated, contextually based

40

results” (F ontana & Frey, 2000, p. 646). For such an interview, interviewers are not seen
as neutral, “invisible” entities, but as active participants in interactions with interviewees.
In the same vein, interview is seen as “a form of discourse” between two parties or as “a
linguistic event in which the meanings of questions and responses are contextually
grounded and jointly constructed” (Schwandt, 1997, p. 75) by interviewers and
interviewees.

Given these concepts of interview, I as an interviewer tried to take some part in
the interactions or the discourse. To do so, I mainly used unstructured, open-ended
interviews or semi-structured interviews rather than structured interviews for my research.
Unstructured, open-ended interviews allow flexibility and responsiveness to issues
emerged as the interviews proceed (Schwandt, 1997). It is also claimed that unstructured
interviews are more appropriate options in the context that “the interviewer does not
know what he or she doesn’t know and must therefore rely on the respondents” (Lincoln
& Guba, 1985, p. 269).

Gaining trust and establishing rapport are significant for unstructured interviews.
The credibility of the data and findings depends upon the extent to which trust has been
established (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Since gaining trust is a “biographically specific”
and “developmental task,” (p. 257) an interviewer needs to seek to build trust with each
interviewee on a day-to-day basis. The interviewer also needs to see the situation from
the interviewee’s perspective to establish rapport.

I carried out interviews after a one-week observation and participation at each
school because I needed to be familiar with the climate of the schools and establish

rapport with the school members. Interviews consisted of face- to-face, one-on-one

41

formal interviews and informal interviews. Individual formal interviews with adults
lasted around 50 minutes apiece and interviews with students took 30 minutes. Although
all formal interviews followed the interview protocols (Appendix 5, 6, 7), they needed to
be flexible and responsive to the issues that interviewees raised as I mentioned earlier.
Most interviews with faculty members and students were carried out at the school
building such as the meeting room, teacher offices, teacher lounge, or benches on school
grounds. I had interviews with parents and community member of GVHS at their homes.
I audio-recorded the individual interviews, but in one case I took field-notes for the
interview instead of audio-recording because the respondent asked not to be recorded.
Informal, casual interviews were conducted everywhere. I had a good number of
informal interviews with students mostly at the school cafeteria. I talked with some
faculty members at their homes and with some visitors and workers at the schools. In the
case of informal and casual interviews, I took field-notes from memory when I returned
to my room.

My interview questions are organized around four categories, that is, a sense of
community, professional community of teachers, democratic decision making, and
tensions related to school community. Even though I prepared specific interview
questions before beginning interviews, sometimes the interview questions changed and
became more specific as the investigation moved because interviews for qualitative study

can be “negotiated texts” (F ontana & Frey, 2000).

3-3-3-2. Observation

Observation has been a fundamental base of all research methods in social science

(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000). Researchers using observation as a significant

42

research method traditionally have tried to maximize observational efficacy and minimize
observer bias. However, it is now rarely believed that researchers can take observation at
a distance from their subjects. Scholars increasingly concentrate on observation as “a
context for interaction among those involved in the research collaboration” (Angrosino &
Mays de Perez, 2000, p. 676) rather than as method. Therefore, I as a participant
observer tried to enter “dialogic relationship” with the members of the schools (p. 678).

My participant observation ranged across a continuum from observation to
participation. I liked to experience the full range of school activities as “participant as
observer” (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992) because I wanted to understand in depth the culture
of the students and teachers as well as the structure of the school from my perspective as
a former high school teacher. I also needed to observe and take notes from the back of
classrooms and meetings as “observer as participant.”

Since I stayed for a month at each GVHS and BMHS and lived with the students
and teachers as ethnographic researchers often do (Bae, S., 2002; Glesne & Peshkin,
1992), I anticipated finding their real voices and experiences as well as their thoughts
regarding school as community. For instance, because my research sites were private
faith-based schools, it was possible that teachers and administrators might have been
reluctant to talk negatively about their school or supervisors to others even though they
might have complained to themselves. Moreover, since teachers tend to consider a
researcher as an outsider or a person related to the school board in a Korean context (Bae,
S., 2002), it is difficult to hear true voices from teachers or administrators. Therefore, the

establishment of trust and rapport among researcher and subjects is critical.

43

I had observations of eight teachers’ classes, several worship services, yearly
assembly for reviving faith, club activities, teacher meetings on everyday mornings, and
everyday lives of students and teachers at GVHS. I also watched video-taped spring and
fall festivals. At BMHS, I observed six classes of common subjects and several special
subjects, Catholic mass, various activities, a parent meeting, teacher meetings. a teacher
seminar, the summer conference for professional development, and everyday lives of

students and teachers. I also watched some video-taped television shows about BMHS.

3-3-3-3. Analysis of Documents and Artifact

Analyzing school bylaws, curriculum plans. school brochures, student-produced news
letter, writings on the web-sites of the schools, and books written by faculty members
was used in order to achieve validity and trustworthiness of the data for this research.
The descriptions of the location and architectural design of the school buildings were also
helpful to understand the schools’ community-oriented characteristics.

3-4. Data Analysis

Data analysis is “the process of organizing and storing data in light of increasingly
sophisticated judgments” (Glesne & Peshikin, 1992, p. 129) so that researcher can make
sense of what he/she has done. Data analysis must begin at the very first phase of data
collection because continuing analysis can facilitate “emergent design, grounding of
theory, and emergent structure of later data collection phases” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985. p.
242). Writing memos and reflective passages. developing analytic files, applying
rudimentary coding schemes, displaying data in tables, figures, and flowcharts,

establishing patterns of categories, interpreting themes from the patterns, and developing

44

naturalistic generalizations are data analysis procedures (Creswell, 1998; Glesne &
Peshikin, 1992; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

During and after collecting data at the sites, I wrote memos on the data and tried
to categorize data and then find themes from the categorized data. Since interview
questions are organized into four categories, that is. sense of community, democratic
community, professional community, and tensions in community, the data resulted from
the interviews can be easily grouped. I also organized other data collected by
observations and document analysis into the same four categories. After that, I found
themes from the categorized data at each school. For instance, interdependence,
belongingness, meaningful relationship, and shared vision were the themes of a sense of
community at GVHS, and intimacy, caring, trust, and close relationship were the themes
at BMHS.

Since I adopted “two cases” case study, I first conducted a “within-case analysis”
and then a “cross-case analysis” (Creswell, 1998, p. 63). To be sure, I tried to provide a
detailed description of each school and themes within the school. These detailed
descriptions are in Chapter Four. After that, I compared and analyzed the similarity and
difference of the themes derived from the two schools. In the final interpretive phase, I
discussed the principles derived from the cases, in reference to “natural generalization”
(Stake, 2000) or “transferability” (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). These comparisons and
discussions are in Chapter Five. The coding lists of the data collected at the research
sites are in Appendix 2.

3-5. Trustworthiness of Research Design

45

For qualitative study, trustworthiness and authenticity rather than validity and reliability
are the standards upon which the quality of the study is likely to be judged (Creswell,
1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I followed the two procedures to establish the
trustworthiness and authenticity of my study.

The first and most commonly used strategy is triangulation. I made use of
multiple data resources, such as interview, observation, and analysis of documents and
artifact, to provide corroborating evidence. I also tried to triangulate perspectives to the
same data set (Yin, 2003). For instance, teachers, parents, and students might corroborate
each others’ comments, though they also might differently interpret even same data.

Secondly, clarifying researcher bias is a significant way to enhance
trustworthiness of qualitative research, though it is often overlooked (Creswell, 1998). I
mention my understanding, assumptions, and prejudices of the schools so that the readers
can understand my position and biases that may impact the study as follows:

1) Understanding or prejudice of the schools may influence the study. When I came
to the school, I had much information of GVHS. I heard that the school had a great spirit
in the early times but recently its spirit has deteriorated. So, 1 did not have high
expectation of the school. Such prejudice may influence the research of the school. I did
not know BMHS at all before I began the study. Since a professor of education who is an
expert of school community recommended the school, I had high expectation of the
school. When one has a high expectation, he/she may be more easily disappointed.

2) How the school members treat the researcher may influence research. The
administrators of GVHS provided the researcher with a large dormitory room to stay and

allowed him to use freely other facilities. On the other hand, the administrators of BMH S

46

did not allow him to stay in the dormitory and only allowed him to use school facilities in
a restricted way.ll
3) The personal predisposition of the researcher may have an impact on collecting and
interpreting data. Since the researcher attended and worked as a teacher in the schools
which value courtesy and order, he may have prejudice of the school which stresses
freedom and autonomy.
4) The researcher was a seminary student before pursuing the doctoral degree in
education. This background may have impact on viewing schools affiliated with
religions.
3-6. Ethical Considerations
One key element of ethical considerations for researching with human beings is obtaining
informed consent from participants (Creswell, 1998; Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Rudestam
& Newton, 2001). Even though informed consent cannot generate an equal relationship
between researcher and participant, it can contribute to the empowering of the participant
(Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). Informed consent needs to make participants aware that
participation is voluntary and whether there are benefits to be expected and potential risks.
For my research, I sent the written consent form (Appendix 3) to possible participants
and the parental informed consent form (Appendix 4) to the parents or guardians of the
student to participate in the study.

Confidentiality is another significant element for ethical research. I use

pseudonyms for the research sites and the participants to be interviewed and observed.

 

" At‘BMHS, although there was a vacant room in the female dormitory. the administrator did not allow the
researcher to stay there. The administrator said that the room was for a female. There was also a vacant
room in the male dormitory. Yet, the school did not provide the room to the researcher. The administrator
said that the room was for Catholic priests.

47

Since one of my research sites is a very small size of school community, some readers
may possibly identify certain individuals, even with the use of pseudonyms. In that case,
to protect their privacy, I changed descriptive characteristics of the individuals (Glesne &
Peshkin, 1992) or indicated as a risk that their identity may be known in the written
consent forms. To secure confidentiality of the data, I transcribed the recording scripts
by myself and stored the data in my home cabinet and at my computer with passwords.
Reciprocity is also an important ethical consideration. Reciprocity in research can be
defined as “the exchange of favors and commitments, the building of sense of mutual
identification and feeling of community” (Glazer, 1982, p. 50 cited in Glesne & Peshkin.
1992, p. 122). I as a researcher try not to view participants as means to collect data to
meet my ends. By listening to participants carefully, instead of giving remuneration, I
can give them a sense of importance. By asking questions important to them and
providing the opportunity to reflect on the questions, I can also assist them to understand
themselves better (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992).

3-7. Outline

In this chapter, I have discussed the method of this study. I described the processes of
selecting the research sites, collecting the data, and analyzing the data. Trustworthiness
and ethical considerations of the study were also discussed. In the next chapter, I spell
out the results of the data analysis. The features of the two schools are described in terms
of four main categories, a sense of community, democratic community, and professional

community, and tensions within community.

48

4. Chapter Four: Results
4-1. Grand Valley High School (GVHS)
4-1-1. The Outline and History of GVHS
When the researcher passes by a small signboard that says Grand Valley High School and
enters the school, he meets atypical school campus of Korean high schools. Two
squared buildings stand around a square-shaped sandy soccer field. The building that the
researcher can see straight in a distance is the main building where there are classrooms
and teachers’ offices (Figure 3). The building standing at the left side is the male
students’ dormitory (Figure 4). As the researcher walks to the main building, he finds an
old small building between the main building and the dormitory, which is an auditorium.
Beside it, there is a two-story building. The first floor is a cafeteria and the second floor
is the female students’ dormitory. Although this school is older than fifty years, there are
not many trees and flowers, so the researcher feels a sense of bleakness on the campus.

It is somewhat distinctive that GVHS has no school gates and walls at the back
side, unlike most other Korean schools. So, it is difficult to distinguish the school
campus from the local community. Almost every evening, some people living in the
local community walk around for exercise on the soccer field. Two architectures that
represent the school stand at the front of the main building. The bronze statue of Mr.
Park, the former principal standing at the right side points toward the sky with his right
finger (Figure 5). A big stone in which the school motto is inscribed stands at the left
side. The motto is Proverbs 1:7, “Fearing God is the beginning of knowledge” (Figure 6).

As soon as the bell rings to indicate the end of classes, students begin to walk

together out of the main building. The empty campus changes into a lively place with

49

Figure 3. GVHS Main Building

      
 

“Wm «m m...- , ..

allpialh III III II III IIII

Figure 4. GVHS Male Dormitory Building

 

50

Figure 5. Mr. Park’s Bronze Statue

 

 

:33“); 4. - .. ..

. .3-
; 74” , l )2 4.

I I" f I! 7,‘
(i4 l/, I /‘8‘

 

51

cheerful laughs and voices of the students. They politely bow to the researcher, a strange
visitor, when going to the dormitory building together. In the male students’ dormitory
building, study rooms and rest area are in the first floor, and bedrooms are in the second
and third floors. Bedrooms (Figure 7) array side by side and in the rooms closets are the
only furniture and washed clothes are hung on the hanger. Despite a relatively large
room, ten high-schoolers make the room tight. However, the students do not care about
the situation and go to the shower room that students living in the same floor use together.

singing in good spirits.

Fi_ure 7. GVHS Dormitory Room

 

GVHS was founded at the rural area called Grand Valley in 1953 and met
difficulties from the beginning. Mr. Park, who had just returned to Korea from the US
after earning his theology degree, became the third principal of the school in 1956. He

established spiritual and physical foundations of the school. “Nurturing democratic

52

citizens based on Christian mind” was his firm educational aim and became the school’s
goal. He built school buildings with assistance from international agencies and foreign
individuals. He stayed at the school building with students and taught them at the
classrooms. He worked himself to death in 1976. GVHS came to gain nationwide
reputation in 19905 owing to the sound foundation that Mr. Park set up. Now it is
considered that GVHS is an exceptional, good model which achieves two educational
objectives, i.e., character formation and higher student achievement that most high
schools hope for.

Today Grand Valley is a small city which has a population over 80,000. CV is
located at the southern area, and it takes three and half hours to travel from Seoul. It was
an isolated town because mountains surrounded the city, but now it has become an
important city because some main offices of the Kyung-Sang Province moved here. GV
has a long history and in GV civil movements for improving democracy such as YMCA
have been active. GV has a reputation as a city of education, thanks to the contributions
GVHS has made to it.

At GVHS, 406 students are enrolled and 30 teachers and staff work. Students
living in large cities like Seoul have no choice to enter schools located in places where
the students do not live. In some small cities like Grand Valley, schools recruit students.
considering the students’ applications. The enrollment policy of GVHS has changed
according to the Kyung-Sang Province Educational Office’s policy. Only students living
in Kyung-Sang Province had applied to GVHS until 2004, and thus GVHS accepted

second and third year students from the province by their GPAs at the middle schools.

53

1'2 in 2004, the school recruited

However, because GVHS became an Autonomous Schoo
first year students nationwide.

It was quite difficult for high schools in small cities like Grand Valley to recruit
good students. So, the teachers of GVHS were used to visiting middle schools to recruit
good students. However in recent years, thanks to the good reputation of the school, as
many as five times the number of incoming class apply to the school. In the case of the
first year students, the school gave privilege to the students living in Grand Valley and
thus firstly selected twenty percent of each incoming class from local students. The
school selected eighty percent of the students outside of Grand Valley. So, out of 122
freshmen, 25 students came from Grand Valley, 57 from Kyung-Sang Province outside
Grand Valley, and 40 from cities outside Kyung-Sang Province such as Seoul and Busan.
Consequently, GVHS became a unique school where students having very various
backgrounds have lived and studied together. There are some second and third year
students who originally lived in provinces other than Kyung-Sang Province but moved
into Kyung-Sang Province in their third year of middle school in order to enter GVHS. I"

Dormitory life, Christian spirit, and coeducation are apparent characteristics of
GVHS that its students and teachers frequently mention. As a teacher says (Gi 23),
dormitory life shapes community within a school, whereas Christian faith provides the

community with the spirit. Many high schools in Korea, especially most private schools

are either for male students or female. GVHS has adopted coeducation from the

 

'2 The Ministry of Education in Korea adopted the Autonomous School policy in 2002. Autonomous
sfhools can have autonomy in setting and operating curriculum and can recruit students from nationwide.
According to a second year student, around 30 students actually came from places other than Kyung-

Sang Province.

54

beginning. Now the ratio of male to female is around two to one because of the size of

the dormitory building.

4-1-2. Sense of Community

4-1-2-1. Students

It seems that the students at GVHS have felt a sense of community to quite an extent,
unlike students at other high schools that I discussed in the chapter on the literature
review. Above all, the researcher finds that the students experience a strong sense of
connectedness or interdependence among students. Five students whom the researcher
interviewed say that one thing they have learned importantly at their school is making
good relationships with other people. Students having different backgrounds come to
understand each other and learn how to care for others, through living and studying
together in the school. A first year female student says, “Students try to make our school
one family” (Gi 03).

Most students have several special relationships with other students, for instance,
class-mates, room-mates, club-mates, and sisterly relationships. Sisterly relationships are
a unique system for female students at GVHS. At the beginning of academic year, all
female students decide their partners in sisterly relationships by lot. The female freshmen
have “older sisters,” from the junior and senior classes. Older sisters take care of their
younger sisters. Sometimes, students go to restaurants outside the school with classmates.
roommates, club mates, or sisters. When freshmen or juniors encounter difficulties at
their study, they ask their seniors, and then seniors answer kindly (Gi 02). These various

relationships enable students to have interdependence with other students. Nevertheless.

55

several students feel uncomfortable with seniors. A male freshman complains that
seniors force their juniors to bow to them and make a monopoly of certain places like a
fancy bench (Gi 01). Yet, generally it seems that most students make good relationships
among juniors and seniors like real brothers or sisters.

Students have experienced interconnectedness with teachers as well as with other
students. Many students say that teachers at GVHS treat them very nicely. Protecting
individual autonomy of the students is a significant reason why students like the teachers
and the school. Students say that corporal punishment and violent speech from the
teachers hardly happen at their school, unlike other Korean high schools. The degree of
intimate relationship between students and teachers depends on teachers. Relatively
younger or single teachers try to establish closer relationships with students. One
homeroom teacher of a senior class brought all members of his class, i.e., 32 students, to
the restaurant outside the school to treat them to healthy foods. A homeroom teacher ofa
junior class said to the researcher. “Yesterday was my birthday. The students of my
homeroom class and club presented me a wonderful birthday party at night. I was
surprised. It was great. I am thankful to my students. I love them” (Gf 2, p. 5).

The close relationships among students and between teachers and students often
continue after graduation. Two graduates whom the researcher interviewed said that
people who shared a same dormitory room had regular gatherings and took trips together
during vacations every year (Gi 07). Many alumni of the same class at GVHS attend
regular reunion gatherings. A graduate who graduated five years ago said that he emailed
his teacher once a month and asked the teacher for advice when he met difficulties (Gi

ll).

56

The intimate relationships among students cause strong senses of belongingness
to the school. A senior student says that he has experienced belongingness through
participating in the school activities such as festivals and camping (Gi 06). The sense of
belongingness to the school contributes to the pride in their schools. Thus. students think
that they have to behave better because they are GVHS students (Gi 04). The sense of
belongingness to GVHS also does not decease after students graduate. During the
researcher’s stay at the school, a number of graduates visited the school. So
me of them brought food and talked with teachers. Some visiting graduates stayed at a
teacher’s home because they lived in different cities. When I asked why graduates often
visited the school, they answered that the school was like their home. According to two
graduates that the researcher met, they have stronger identity as GVHS alumni than as
SNU (Seoul National University) students (Gi 07).'4 Three other graduates also said that
most GVHS alumni had a strong sense of belongingness (Gi 11).

4-1 -2-2. Teachers

The sense of community is experienced by not only students but also teachers and
administrators. A new teacher who began her job this year says, “I thought that institution
like church was community, but after I came here, I’m thinking, a school can be
community. Here students, alumni, teachers, and parents have a strong tie. Teachers
care for me far more than I expected.” (Gi 21) Teachers at GVHS form a strong teacher
community. Twenty out of the twenty seven faculty members have worked at the school
for more than twenty years. Half of the teachers are the alumni of the school. Most
teachers live near the school and know where the other teachers live. All teachers, except

four homeroom teachers of senior classes, have their seats in a large teachers’ office. In

 

'4 SNU (Seoul National University) is the best university in Korea.

57

the mornings, teachers talk to each other regarding sports game, politics, or people, while
having coffee (Of 2, p. 6). Often the office becomes a casual party place for teachers to
enjoy food. Sometimes the teachers bring food from home or buy food to cerebrate some
occasions, and graduates who visit the school also bring food. On weekends, teachers
often meet together for their hobbies, e. g., tennis or mountain climbing.

However, some teachers say that the climate and relationships among teachers
have changed. A teacher who had worked for thirty years says, “We called the teacher
community GVHS family until 19805. If new teachers joined us, the principal and
teachers really welcomed and took care of them. We always provided a welcome party
for them” (Gi 24). Recently, the school adopted a new policy for hiring new teachers.
That is, during new teachers’ first year at the school, they are considered temporary
teachers. Nobody knows whether the teacher would become a member of the school
faculty. According to the teacher, “there exists distance between existing teachers and
new teachers” (Gi 24). In addition to the new policy, there was another factor to threaten
the close relationships among teachers. That is the Teachers’ Union. There was a
historic tragedy regarding Teachers Union in the late 19805 in Korea.’5 GVHS also
experienced the same difficulties. The difficulties caused a deep gap between the union
teachers and non-union teachers at GVHS (Gi 24; 25).

Despite such factors inhibiting the sense of community among the teachers, the
reason that GVHS can be a strong community of teachers is that most teachers have
shared visions and values of the school. A principal and a vice principal have a clear

vision of the school, which is related to the school aim, “Nurturing democratic citizens

 

'5 In late 19805, the authoritarian government prohibited the Teachers Union and fired 1.500 teachers
against people’s will because of their membership of the Union.

58

based on the Christian mind.” Most teachers share the vision although they express it in

9916

9, 66

different ways. “Individual autonomy, social justice,” “light and salt, and “respect
human beings” are the phrases that they mention. These values, they agree, are based on
the Christian belief. A vice principal says, “There needs to be something to unite
teachers generally. I think that the Christian belief is the case for this school. Most
teachers have worked here for a long time at the cost of themselves because of their faith”
(Gi 32).

The sense of community that the school members at GVHS have experienced is
associated with various factors of the school. Among them, dormitory, extracurricular
activities, school choice. and the former principal are significant. 1 will discuss each
topic one by one.
4-1-2-3. Dormitory
If GVHS is a strong school community, one of the powerful factors in shaping the
community would be students’ dormitory lives. Although the dormitory is optional, more
than eighty percents of the students live in the dormitory. Some students whose houses
are near the school or some seniors who want more time for studying live outside the
dormitory. Now 260 male students and 100 female students live there, and a dean of the
dormitory, a male supervisor, and a female supervisor work for them. Students have
classes from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm at the school building. After classes, they come to their
dormitory, take a rest, have dinner, and play games together for a while. At self-study

time, from 7:30 pm to 11:00 pm, students are supposed to study at classrooms or study

rooms of the main building. They come back to the dormitory at 1 1 :00, clean the room,

 

'6 “Salt and light” described in Bible represent people who work for others and benefit them at the cost of
themselves.

59

and talk together. Some students who want to study more go to the study rooms on the
first floor.

Students living in the same room come to have very close relationships, because
they study, eat, and sleep together at the same small place for one to three years. The
researcher often sees that roommates eat together at the school cafeteria. He also watches
that roommates celebrate a student’s birthday at the cafeteria before having dinner. The
parents of a senior student visited the school for a birthday party for their son and brought
all members of his dormitory room to a restaurant outside the school after class (Of 2, p.
10).

Of course, not all students at boarding schools experience a strong sen5e of
community. Whether students feel it or not depends on the culture and climate of the
schools and their dormitory to some degree. Freshmen say that they felt uncomfortable at
the dormitory in the beginning of academic year. Teenagers raised in large cities often
have their own room at home, but at the dormitory ten male students live in one room,
and even fifteen female students live together in their room. In this situation, students
cannot but experience inconvenience. Nevertheless, students at GVHS say that they have
learned more important things through living in the dormitory. A female freshman says,

I’m a person from Busan, and so have characteristics of Busan persons.
Other students have their own characteristics of their cities. I come to
understand through living at dormitory that we are different. I have
learned how I have to live together with different persons (Gi 02).

A graduate whom I interviewed says similarly.

60

I am the only kid at my home, and so I had difficulties with the dormitory
life at the time of my first year. But from the second year, I’d learned how
to live together with other persons. I learned something that I didn’t know
when I was alone. I came to know the joy that I could experience only
when I was with 'my friends (Gi 07).
It is clear that as the students live in the dormitory longer, their thinking of the dormitory
becomes positive. It is a good example to show that GVHS is a strong school community.
Although the facilities and buildings of the dormitory are not good, compared to
other schools’ dormitory, most students like their dormitory lives. Moreover, dormitory
functions as a key center to forge the school community. The meaning or role of
dormitory is connected to the spirit and tradition of the dormitory. The dormitory of
GVHS seeks to be “not just a place where students eat and sleep, but the learning place
where they practice the knowledge and virtues that they have learned in classroom” (Gi
31). A teacher, who was a dean of the dormitory for four years, says,
Working at the dormitory was very dynamic. Nurturing the power of
humanity through life was my aim as a dean. When some students’
belongings were stolen, I fasted from eating because I wanted to
strengthen students’ consciousness. I also led the candle processions with
the students on the soccer field on winter nights to provide them with time
to reflect themselves (Gi 31).
4-1-2-4. A Variety of Extracurricular Activities

1. Club Activities

61

GVHS is famous for energetic, various extracurricular activities, unlike other academic
high schools. These activities consist of club activities and yearly special events. All
students become members of twenty two clubs, e.g., drama, school newspaper, animation.
history study, traditional music, soccer, basketball, and so on. They have official club
activity time at 5:00 pm through 6:00 pm on Fridays. Some clubs also voluntarily have
activities on Saturdays. During summer vacation, club members often go camping.
When the researcher stayed at the school, the club time on a Friday was once cancelled
because of heavy rain. Some students missed the club time a lot. At 5:00 pm on next
Friday, the school campus became bustling with life. The students of the clubs of
newspaper, traditional music, and guitar are especially pleased to do their activities.
Some club activities revolve around the leading teacher, other activities around graduates.
and still others are organized by students themselves. Some senior students stay in their
classrooms to study more or take a rest. Club activities enable students to make close
relationships with other students and teachers. The members of a club prepare the
birthday party for their leading teacher after school.

2. Festivals

Above all the most famous yearly events are the festivals in spring and fall. The spring
festival continues for three days without classes. All students participate in the games of
the ten kinds of sports, ten kinds of arts, and ten kinds of traditional plays. Some teachers
and graduates come and join the games. While the spring festivals center on sports
games, the fall festivals are organized around art. The drama competition occurs on the
night of the first day of the fall festivals, and the choir competition on the second day.

Some parents visit the school to attend the festivals.

62

GVHS has two key principles in preparing and organizing the festivals. The first
one is students’ autonomy, and the second one is togetherness. Students are responsible
for everything regarding the festivals. They plan, prepare, and lead all events. Teachers
just help them. All students are encouraged to take part in the festivals in various ways.
Most students become players of the games. A few students who really dislike sports or
other activities become messengers. They report messages from the headquarters to their
teams. At GVHS, festivals are not for some talented people, but for all. “Festival must
be joyful, and joy becomes alive with life when it shares. In order to share joy we need
to learn living together” (Gd 2).
The researcher watched the video of the festivals. The following are some of the
field notes after watching the video.
I can feel the heated air of the students at the spring festival. Unity through
sports and excitement through cheering. Students completely blow off
their stresses through dancing according to the lively sounds of the gong
and drum at the last day’s “togetherness festival” (Dae-dong-je in Korean).
At the fall festival, it seems that esthetic atmosphere students produce is
full of the school campus. The school of the vitality of youthfulness in
spring becomes the school of the esthetic emotion in fall. The students’
talents are fully expressed (Of 2, p. 53).

Many teachers and students said to the researcher that he needed to see the festivals to

understand their school fully. Unfortunately, the researcher missed the festivals.l7

 

'7 The researcher came to the school in early June and thus he already missed the spring festival. So. he
decided that he would visit again to see the fall festival. However, he missed it too because he stayed at the
second research site, BMHS at that time. Two schools are located in different rural areas. It is very
inconvenient to go and return by public transportations.

63

Students often mentioned the festivals. They are proud of their school in that students.
not teachers, lead the festivals. They learn making collaboration to solve problems and
come to have a sense of belongingness to the school through festivals (Gi 06).

3. Other activities

In addition to club activities and festivals, GVHS has two days of camping and the first
snow day ceremony. In early summer, all students and teachers climb the mountains and
go camping. They learn about relationships with other people and nature through
cooking, camping, campfire, and climbing mountains. The first snow in winter is
cerebrated by an outing to the mountain near the school farm instead of studying. They
enjoy snow fighting and playing with rabbits. These events provide the students,
especially students raised in large cities, with precious memories (Bae, P., 2005).

Some students complain about too many occasions because they cannot
concentrate on studying. However, even the complaining students admit that they can
have interconnectedness and belongingness through these events. The school, by these
various activities, intends to provide the students with opportunities to learn autonomy
and to make meaningful relationships with other students, teachers, and parents (Gd 1, p.
42). A teacher, who is an alumnus of GVHS, says that such special occasions enable all
school members to balance intellectual and character education and to reduce tension and
relax. A sophomore says in the newsletter,

I was very selfish at my middle school times... [But] through
experiencing spring and fall festivals and camping, 1 have learned that l
sacrifice myself for our class and team and become oneness through

denying myself. Moreover, I have learned that I prepare something for us

 

64

in hidden places, wipe off my tears that I drop during preparing, and wipe

away the tears of other students in difficulties with my hand (Gd 4, p. 9).

4-1-2-5. School Choice
GVHS is a school that many students want to enter. While students at schools located in
large cities have to enter their schools by their location, the students at GVHS chose their
school and were accepted out of an application pool five times greater. It seems that
school choice of the students may be a cause of the strong sense of community. When
the researcher asked about the reasons for choosing GVHS, students answered variously
as follows:

“I didn’t know the school. My parents suggested it to me.”

“GVHS is a boarding school. I wanted to live in the school dormitory.”

“Because GVHS is a Christian school.”

“I heard that GVHS was a prestigious school.”

“I heard that GVHS was not a common school. It is different from many other

schools.”

A teacher at GVHS surveyed the same topic in 1992. The result is in the Table 2.

Since the reasons why students selected GVHS are various, it is hard to say that the
students’ school choice is directly connected to their sense of community. However, it is
evident that the school choice influences the building of community within the school.

The students at GVHS are screened by the school. In a Korean context.

65

Table 2. Reasons Why Apply for GVHS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(%)
Reasons Students Parents

Educational values 28.5 17.5
High rate of college admission 28.3 43.5
Home-like atmosphere and 23.4 7.1
coeducation
Christian school 12.4 15.6
Leveled Classes by achievement"? 7.4 22.1

 

 

 

 

(Bae, 1)., 2005. p. 266)

schools like GVHS should use the GPA from middle schools as the criteria for screening.
So, we know about high academic achievements of the entering students of GVHS but do
not know about their character. However, many students with whom the researcher
talked said that the students at GVHS had good personalities. Because of their good
personality, students were likely to make intimate relationships with each other. A
teacher said that GVHS could be a good school because the school accepted good
students (Of 2, p. 5).

4-1-2-6. The Former Principal

Dormitory, various extracurricular activities, and school choice are significant factors in
shaping the school community. In addition to these obvious and external causes, there is
something hidden, which still powerfully influences the school. It is the legacy of Mr.

Park, the former principal. Mr. Park was officially the third principal at GVHS, but he

 

'8 GVHS adopts leveled class system. At most Korean schools, students take same classes regardless of
their ability. For example, students having higher achievements and lower achievements take same math
class. Yet, at GVHS, they take difi’erent leveled classes of mathematics and English.

66

was the founder of the school in a real sense. He had worked as principal for twenty
years and died from overwork in 1976. His sacrificial work during the years became the
foundations of this school (Gi 32). Now he is standing as a bronze statue in front of the
school building and still speaking to the students mainly in two ways.

The first way is through the visions and values of the school that he had set up.
After Mr. Park’s death, two successive principals, his son and then his student, have
administered the school according to Mr. Park’s teaching and developed the values of the
school. The educational values and traditions of the school have deeply been rooted in
the whole schooling throughout the principalship of Mr. Park and his successive
principals. Today most teachers and students share the visions and values of the school.
Students at GVHS are used to calling the values the GV spirit. The GV spirit can be
found in “Ten Commandments for Selecting a Job” (Table 3), which is hanging on the
wall in the auditorium (Gi 27). The commandments were made by the two successive
principals, based on Mr. Park’s teaching. Some people see the spirits of service, pioneer,
and sacrifice from the ten commandments (Oh, 2004). Yet, Mr. Park 11, one of the two
principals, asserts that the commandments mean more than those spirits. He says, “The
purpose of the ten commandments is for students to feel something, not to interpret it
exactly. We have to pass through Jesus’ cross. Unless we experience and shoulder the
cross, truth cannot be internalized.” (Gi 27) All students acknowledge the
commandments, but some students do not think seriously about those. Some students say
that they are unrealistic. Nevertheless, it seems that many students have the teaching of

the commandments in their mind. One graduate states,

67

Table 3. Ten Commandments for Selecting a Job

 

1.

Choose a job for which salary is low.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Do not choose a job that you need, but do choose a job that needs you.

3. Choose a job in which opportunity of promotion is rare.

4. Do not choose a job that is already established completely, but do choose ajob
like wilderness where you have to do everything.

5. Do not choose a job that everyone desires to get, but do choose a job that nobody
wants.

6. Choose a job regardless of its social status.

7. Choose a job for which you cannot expect social respect.

8. Go to peripheral, not center.

9. Choose a job that parents, wife, and fiance' are strongly against.

 

 

10. Go to the places that expect suffering, not glory.

 

I did not feel something special by seeing the poster of the commandments
when I was at the school. I was extremely surprised when I visited the
school after graduation and saw the poster. I recognized that I had
forgotten the [GV] spirit and came to remember it again. The
commandment suggests symbolic meaning for the direction toward which
I have to live. Other graduates often take the picture of the poster when
they visit the school and put it on the web-pages. I think that other

graduates have similar thinking as mine (Gi 07).

The ten commandments were a way in which the two administrators understood the spirit

of GVHS in the 19705. There is another way in which a student understands the GV spirit

68

 

recently. When the researcher asked “what is the GV spirit?” a teacher and a student
answered that an address spoken by a student at the commencement properly
encompasses the spirit. Mr. Park II agrees. He says that Jae-Won’s address spoken at the
commencement (Table 4) excellently represents the spirit of GVHS. The point is that
most teachers and students share the vision of the school, and a strong sense of
community within the school have been formed and developed through the shared vision.
which was found by Mr. Park.

Table 4. Kang, Jae-Won’s Answering Address at the Commencement 2003

 

 

The bridge that the builder graduated from GVHS builds will not easily collapse.
The crops that the farmer from GVHS produces are eaten safely.

The doctor from GVHS cherishes above all human lives.

The judgment that the judge from GVHS pronounces is trusted.

The buttons of clothing that the worker from GVHS makes will not easily come off.
The teacher from GVHS is entrusted by people with their children.

The officer from GVHS never receives bribes.

The reporter from GVHS never reports falsehood.

The historian from GVHS is thirsty for truth.

The GVHS has provided us with strong enthusiasm to overcome everything.

We love our school very much so that it becomes our forever home in hearts.

The school has presented us with a beautiful vision which is worth embracing until the
end of our lives.

We will be light and salt in this troubled world...

 

The second way is through a number of people working at GVHS who were
deeply influenced by Mr. Park. Two successive principals, Mr. Park 11, Mr. Park’s son,
and Mr. Lee, Mr. Park’s student, have worked as principals each for fifteen years. They
were teachers of the school under the leadership of Mr. Park. After Mr. Park’s death.
they tried to understand the essence of what Mr. Park had taught and proceeded to

develop it. The ten commandments are one of their endeavors. GVHS became a

69

 

nationwide prestigious school under the leadership of the two principals. Mr. Cho, a vice
principal, says that the two principals have done successfully what one giant, Mr. Park,
did (Gi 32).

Around half of the teachers at the school are alumni of GVHS. It is a very special
case in Korean high schools. Many excellent graduates decided to become teachers of
GVHS because of their principal, Mr. Park. It was very difficult to recruit teachers of
schools located in rural areas like GV in the 19605 and 19705. Mr. Park often mentioned
the difficulties of recruiting teachers in his book. The students who studied at that time
knew the hard situation. So, when Mr. Park asked graduates at or after colleges to come
to the school, they willingly came down and taught the students. Teacher’s salary was
relatively low, and GVHS sometimes could not give a salary. Yet, most alumni teachers
who came to the school at the time earned degrees from competitive colleges. That
means that they could have taken better paying jobs elsewhere. Since they were heavily
influenced by Mr. Park at their high school years, they could not help but accept his
suggestion. Mr. Jang, one of the alumni teachers, says the following.

When I was a student at this school, I decided to contribute to this school.
I had received much from this school. Mr. Park contacted with me when I
was a middle school student. I had “individual relationship” [as I and
Thou] with him. I had received scholarship from him when I was a
college student. I had received both financial and spiritual support from
this school. So, I thought that I had to contribute to the school financially
or as a teacher. At that time it was hard that this school recruited teachers.

So, I became a teacher of this school (Gi 24).

70

The alumni teachers learned from Mr. Park that love and dedication could change
students. They have tried to follow him as teachers. Some teachers who have never met
Mr. Park also talk about him. A non-alumnus teacher who has worked for fifteen years
says,
I didn’t want to be a teacher. I thought that a teaching job was menial
work. So, when I became a teacher, I wanted to work as teacher just for a
while. Yet, working here, my thinking was changed. I was so impressed
to see the attitudes and life style of the teachers at this school.... I heard
from the alumni that Mr. Park did everything in the beginning of the
school. I think, he was not a democratic person but shared with students
everything he had and showed a sacrificial life himself. I believe, all these
things became GV spirit. This school community has developed based on

this spirit (Gi 33).

4-1-3. Democratic Community

4-1-3-1. Students

Many students believe that GVHS is democratic. They mention several factors in
association with democracy of the school, for instance, student council, a suggestion box,
festivals, educational values of the school, and teachers’ attitudes. “Nurturing democratic
citizens based on the Christian mind” is the aim of the school. “Autonomous education”
is one of the main educational methods stressed in the school. Students feel that the

school values their autonomy. When students were asked about the most distinctive

71

characteristic of the school, they often say the school’s emphasis on autonomy (Gi 01:
02; 03). They believe that emphasizing students’ autonomy represents the school’s
democratic characteristic. This educational value is related to the teachers’ attitudes to
students. Students say that teachers at this school treat them nicely and listen to their
voices. Such values and teachers’ attitudes have shaped the democratic atmosphere
within the school. Culture needs a system to support its continuity. GVHS has a system
to make the school democratic. Student council and suggestion boxes are main examples.
4-1-3-2. Student Council
Most schools in Korea have student councils, but their role and importance are quite
different among schools. The student council of GVHS plays a key role in making
decisions of the schooling. The room of the council is near the teachers’ office. In many
Korean schools, student council’s rooms are often located at the edge of school buildings.
which means that they are not near the teachers’ offices. The location and size of rooms
may reflect their school values.19 As I have discussed earlier, extracurricular activities
are entirely planned and carried out by the student council. The rules of student life such
as dress codes were made by the student council. A president of the council says that
students need to change nothing about the rules. Both students and teachers agree that
the student council is integral in the school.

The president and vice president of the council are selected by election in late July,
the last week of the first semester.20 The direct election of the presidents by all students

is a long tradition of the school. Today in many Korean schools, presidents of student

 

'9 In Korean schools, principal’s offices are often located at the center in the building and are very large and
luxurious.

2° ln Korean schools. first semester begins in the beginning of March and ends in late July, and second
semester begins in late August and ends in late December.

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councils are elected by students. Yet, until the 19805 in most schools, class presidents
were usually appointed by the homeroom teachers, and presidents of student councils
were elected by only class presidents, or also appointed by teachers. In the 19705. the
Korean dictatorial government commended all high schools to make Student
Organization for Protecting Country instead of student council. However, GVHS
persisted to elect presidents of the council despite severe pressure from the government.
After students elect a president and a vice president, the elected presidents choose
leading members of the council government, and thus around twenty students constitute
the government of the student council. The council government is democratic itself. The
members of the government have regular meetings and discuss any decision (Gi 04).
Furthermore, the government of the council tries to hear students’ Opinions in order to
work for the sake of students. Representative meetings and suggestion box (So-Ri-Ham
in Korean) are two main routes through which the council collects students’ opinions.
Members of the council government and class presidents become members of
representative meetings. Class presidents report the opinions of their classmates at the
meetings.
4-1-3-3. Suggestion Box
A suggestion box is an extremely important way through which students and
administration communicate. There are some boxes in the main building. If students
want to suggest anything about their schooling, they put memos into the boxes. At the
end of the month, the student council opens the boxes and reports the suggestions to the
head teacher of the department of students. The head teacher responds to the suggestions.

in cooperation with other teachers and administrators, and sends the responses to the

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council. Then, the council puts the response papers on the walls of hallway. The
researcher observed the response paper on the wall. There were about twenty suggestions.
which were mostly related to facilities that students used, for instance, fixing computers.
extension of library time, and extension of study time at night. In the paper most
suggestions were accepted, except two. The paper included explanations why the two
suggestions were not accepted. Some students were impressed by the suggestion box
communication. A student said, “There was a box like So-Ri-Ham in my middle school.
but that was just formality. However, here the box is very effective. Teachers carefully
listen to our suggestions in the box” (Gi 01). Two female students said that they would
suggest wearing uniforms.

4-1-3-4. Teachers

Where students feel the presence of democracy, so do teachers. A democratic
community of teachers may be a precondition of a democratic school community. Yet.
the meanings of democracy that students and teachers are thinking can be different.

To the question of whether GVHS is democratic, teachers answer yes. but with
some hesitation. The school has a system for making it democratic as well as creating an
equal atmosphere among the faculty. Teachers elect head teachers of departments and
they decide whether they become homeroom teachers and which department they belong
to.2| Teacher meetings are a public arena where teachers and administrators discuss and

finally make decisions by a show of hands. Teacher meetings have almost official

 

2' There are five departments, such as academic, research, religion, student. information, in GVHS. In
many schools, principal appoints head teachers, unlike GVHS. A homeroom teacher’s role is very
important in the Korean school system. He/she takes care of students at his/her homeroom class. His/her
job includes counseling academic and nonacademic affairs, teaching students” characters, and synthesizing
GPAs of all subjects. So, whether teachers become homeroom teachers is significant business. But
whether teachers become homeroom teachers is often decided by administrators, not by teachers
themselves.

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authority to decide some issues, unlike other schools in Korea22 (Gi 28). Teachers say
that the school is open to teachers in deciding certain issues like school activities
including teaching classes, but they rarely talk about some critical ones like hiring
teachers and a teacher union. As a teacher says, “the school has procedural democracy.
but only limited topics have been discussed” (Gi 25). Some teachers complain about this
aspect of the school, but other teachers understand it because they believe that the school
needs to maintain its values.

4-1-3-5. Teacher Meeting

Every morning, teachers and administrators have a teacher meeting at 8:00 am. It lasts
ten to twenty minutes. All teachers take turns facilitating the meetings. All attendants
sing a hymn, the facilitator prays, and teachers who have something to report say it
briefly. While in many Korean schools a vice principal leads teachers meetings and
administrators and head teachers usually speak, at GVHS any teacher speaks regardless
of his/her position. However, it seems that GVHS is similar to other schools in that
teacher meetings are often places where people report something from district offices or
the school to teachers rather than where teachers and administrators discuss schooling in
an in-depth manner. The vice principal of GVHS says that when the school has a
significant issue to discuss, teachers and administrators discuss it for a long time after
school. However, when the researcher stayed there, such a meeting did not occur. At the
teacher meeting on June 14th 2005, the head teacher of the academic department reported
the official documents about evaluating teachers received from the Ministry of Education

(Of 2, p. 15). Teacher evaluation is a very critical issue in Korea. Yet, teachers did not

 

22 Whether teacher meetings have the right to decide is a hot issue in Korea. In most schools. teacher
meetings are only for discussions and advices for administrators.

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talk about it at the meeting and after school. In short, teacher meetings of GVHS have a
democratic form, but the school has much work to do in order to be a democratic
community in a full sense.
4-1-3-6. Parents
Two out of three parents whom the researcher interviewed do not believe that GVHS
shares decision-making with parents. Parents can officially participate in the schooling
through a parent meeting. Committee of School Management”, and individual
communications. However, parent meetings take place only once in the beginning of
academic year, and the Committee of School Management does not work very well.
Since most parents live in distant places, they infrequently visit the school. So, parents
actually do not have enough opportunities to participate in the schooling. Yet, the fact
that parents cannot actively participate in the school does not necessarily imply that the
school is operated in opposition to parents’ opinions. Many parents do not feel the
necessity of participation in the school because they trust the school. They believe that
teachers teach their children in an appropriate way. A mother of a freshman living in
Seoul says,
I met my daughter’s homeroom teacher in the beginning of year. He was
good. It seemed that he took care of the students well... Parents living in
Seoul area meet together in every other month... I attended the meeting. I
was impressed because a number of dads as well as moms attended the
meeting. Most parents seemed to be satisfied with the school. They

trusted in the school... I found that many parents believed that God led the

 

2’ The Education Department of Korea asked all schools organize the Committee of School Management.
The committee is supposed to discuss and decide important issues. Some teacher representatives. parent
representatives, and local community members constitute the committee.

76

school. It seemed that they didn’t need to participate in the school because
the school has been operated according to faithful belief. They seemed
not to have different opinions from the school (Gi 41).
Even though many parents are satisfied with the school and trust in the teachers. some
parents feel regret about the absence of opportunities to participate. A member of the
Committee of School Management says,
There are no mom meetings in this school. The school just notifies about
school activities to parents through papers. There are few opportunities to
participate... GVHS is not open to parents because it is private. Since the
school does nearly everything by itself, the committee can participate in
very limited ways. We want to help the school more actively, but it is
difficult now (Gi 43).
The participation of the parents at GVHS is not active because of many parents’ distant
location and high trust in the school. In addition, the school does not encourage its
parents to participate in the schooling, which is related to the leadership of administrators
of the school.
4-1-3-7. Leadership
Mr. Park II’s thinking of parent participation is very firm. Mr. Lee, the fifth principal and
Mr. Cho, the vice principal have similar ideas of the issue. These administrators think
that parents must not participate in significant decision making of the school because
their participation may confiise the school values. Of course, they encourage parents to

visit the school. When a number of parents visit the school to see spring and autumn

77

festivals, they welcome parents. However, they do not want parents to influence
decisions of critical issues of the school.

The school unwillingly organized the Committee of School Management
according to the suggestion by the Education Department of Korea. Yet, the
administrators do not like the organization. The vice principal says,

It is very difficult for us to operate mechanically the CSM. When parents
participate in operating the schooling and if they understand the
philosophy of our school, we will not be against parent participation. But
if we have to follow the same way in which public schools that have no
special educational aims operate the CSM, it is very inappropriate... We
can’t select parents, who fully understand the school’s vision, as

representatives of parents. This system does not fit in our school (Gi 28).

There is a history behind the administrators’ suspicion of parent participation. When the
school suffered under the dictatorial government and bureaucratic district office,
administrators tried to protect their students and teachers in their conflict with the
government, but some parents wanted the school to continue even at the cost of
sacrificing the students and teachers (Gi 29). Moreover, recently some parents requested
the school to focus on preparing college exams rather than providing various activities for
character formation. In the Korean context, parent participation and financial donations
sometimes have negative impacts on schooling. So, GVHS prohibits donations by

parents during the time their children attends the school.

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However, Mr. Lee admits the necessity of the school’s openness with parents.
Since the situation of the school changes, the school needs to be open to parents and local

community and to collaborate with them for developing the school community.

4-1-4. Professional Community
Teachers at GVHS see themselves as professionals. They think that professionalism of
teachers means high knowledge and skills in the subject content, subject teaching,
character formation, and administrative working. Among them, knowledge of the subject
content is most frequently mentioned as teachers’ professionalism. Many teachers of the
school have master’s degrees and have published books related to their subjects (Gi 24).
Teachers say that since the students of the school are intelligent, if teachers are not
professional, they cannot teach at the school. Students also agree with the teachers’
opinions. Many students say to the researcher that their teachers teach very hard in the
classes and the quality of the teaching is high. The researcher observes that students try
to stay attentive at the classes and only a few students doze off.24

On the other hand, administrators evaluate the teachers’ professionalism a little
differently. Mr. Park II agrees that their teachers have a high level of knowledge of the
subject content. However, they do not have enough knowledge of subject teaching and
pedagogy (Gi 27). Mr. Lee also has a similar idea. Teachers need to study more to
improve their knowledge of teaching and counseling (Gi 29). Teaching methods in many
classes at GVHS are very traditional. Teachers explain, write on the blackboard, and

then students listen and take notes. At a Korean language class, a teacher and students

 

2’ Unlike GVHS, taking nap during classes is a common problem in other schools. Reasons are two. First,
since many students study until very late night, they lack sleeping time. Second, some students do not need
to study at schools because they already learned from private cram schools.

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study with a test preparation book. This style of class is common in Korean high schools.
It may be effective for preparing college entrance exams, but it does not aim at improving
critical thinking and deep understanding of concepts. When the researcher asked teachers
to sit in their classes, some teachers did not allow observation, saying that they are
studying with test preparation books.

Among the classes that the researcher observed, two classes were taught in
different, creative styles. They are the English speaking class led by an American teacher
and the Ecology and Environment class. In the English class, students participate
actively in the activities. Working together, students of a group make a story in
consecutive order. A student asks about the story and then the partner answers it (Gf 2. p.
1). In the Ecology class, a group makes a presentation on global warming. A student of
the group shows some clips of the movie The Day after Tomorrow, and another student
explains about the issue and each takes his/her turn. Other students listen and ask
questions. The teacher corrects some parts that the students presented and evaluates the
presentation. Most students participate in the class (Gf 2, p.2).

Teachers agree that they like to work individually with their classes.
Collaboration is not the culture of the teachers regarding their classes. Nobody says that
teachers should work together for planning, teaching, and evaluating classes. Class is
individual, not group business as a teacher says (Gi 26). On the other side, teachers
cooperate with other teachers as members of departments regarding administrative work.
A teacher responds to the researcher’s question, saying that the school has a good system
of teacher collaboration (Gi 25). But his response is not related with teaching classes.

only doing administrative duties. The researcher occasionally observed that two math

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teachers talked about some difficult questions and discussed the final test. An ecology
class teacher says that because his class is interdisciplinary in nature, he sometimes needs
to ask other teachers. Yet, there has been no team teaching or systemic team preparation
for classes.

A senior student states what he thinks of professional community of teachers,
“Our teachers are very excellent persons individually but rarely cooperate with each other.
The collaborations among teachers are not effective and systemic” (G1 06).
4-1-4-1 . Professional Development
The district office provides teachers with some opportunities for improving their
professionalism. Yet, the school teachers do not actively participate in the programs.
The most important program for building a professional community is the yearly teacher
conference for the school. All faculties go to a hotel or a conference place and stay there
for two days at the end of academic year. The principal, vice principal, and teachers plan
and lead the conference together. The conference consists of evaluating the school
activities of the year, making presentations on departments’ plans for next year, and
discussing significant issues. The principal speaks of the school’s visions and teachers’
attitudes. Teachers of the same department plan together and make a presentation.
Teachers actively participate in discussions and “talk freely without restraint about
diverse issues” (Gi 25). The issues that teachers and administrators deal with are school
activities, recruit policy of new students, and so on. This year the school skipped the
conference because the principal, Mr. Lee, retired in February 2005. Teachers missed the
conference. It seems that the conference is a good opportunity for the teachers to have

professional conversations with other teachers and administrators and develop a

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professional community of teachers. However, even the conference does not cover the
issues of teaching methods or subject content.

4-1-5. Tensions within the School Community

As I discussed in the previous section, there might be tensions within a strong community.
Emphasis on commonality sometimes leads to suppression of individual autonomy.
Since community often develops based on sameness of the members, it does discourage
diversity. In general, care is a more important value than justice in a strong community,
and the members tend to have more interests in the community rather than social justice
outside of the community. So, autonomy, diversity, and justice, which are considered to
be significant values of schooling, might not coexist easily with a strong school
community. At GVHS, students and teachers often mention these values. This section
shows how this school community deals with these tensions.

4-1-5-1. Autonomy

Most schools in Korea have lots of regulations for students. Strict dress code, hair style
guideline, tardiness regulation. smoking prohibition, and self-study rules are some
examples. Many students complain that they have experienced the suppression of their
autonomy by teachers and schools. GVHS also has a number of regulations for students.
Students can wear any clothing they like, but short pants and sleeveless shirts are not
allowed. They wear free hair style, but dying is prohibited. Students are supposed to
study in classrooms or study rooms of the main building at the self-study time, 7:30 pm
through 11:00 pm. They are not allowed to come into the dormitory during class times

and go out of the building after midnight. All students are supposed to attend the worship

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services at the school once per week for seniors and twice per week for first and second
grade students.

Even though some students mention the inconvenience of wearing long pants on
warm days, the regulations of dress and hairstyle are not problems for most students. The
researcher found that some students stayed in the dormitory during the self-study time.
They used to surf on the intemet or talk to each other in the intemet cable room during
the time. Since the researcher’s room was located by the room, he could hear what they
did. The researcher heard from students that some students went through the windows to
get out of the dormitory after midnight.

One day, a dormitory dean walked around in the teacher office, wearing a worried
look. Two teachers talked to each other about a few students who went out of the
dormitory and stayed at the church throughout the previous night, and complained that
the dean did not know whether students were in the dormitory. The problem came to an
end without punishment of the students.

At the end of June, a more serious incident happened. Money and belongings
were stolen in a dormitory room of the freshmen. Moreover, the money and belongings
were in the locked closet. Sometimes small things, such as clothes, earphones, and books
are lost. Yet, this case was very severe. The vice principal and the head teacher of the
department of students talked with the dormitory dean. The head teacher said to another
teacher that he could find the offender if he used various methods, but he preferred not to
use those methods. This incident was not discussed in public like at teacher meetings. A
teacher said that some students wanted to install CC (closed-circuit) television in the

dormitory with money, which was paid for the dormitory dean and supervisors. The

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night of the incident, the dean called meetings of the leaders of rooms. He asked students
how they should deal with the incident. Some seniors said that students needed to be
inspected abruptly, and another student said that this building needed CC television.
Students did not engage in a serious discussion of the issues. The dean said that he would
lock the doors of the dormitory during self-study time at night and asked them to follow
the rules (Gf 2, p. 47).

After the incident, there were no sudden inspections25 and CC television, but the
dormitory building was locked from 7:30 pm through 11:00 pm. These two happenings
show the difficulties of maintaining the school community, while protecting student
autonomy. Before the incident happened, the dean of dormitory said to the researcher
that he typically dealt with students who violated rules of the dormitory through dialogue
rather than school regulations. He said, “Freshmen sometimes cause troubles, but when
they become juniors and seniors, they hardly make problems... It is important that
students autonomously try to create good traditions and hand over them” (Gi 30). After
the incident, he said, wearing a troubled look,

Many freshmen of this year lose something. A week ago, a student lost
his cell-phone and I spoke to all freshmen for a long time. Thankfully, the
cell-phone was returned. Yet, a worse incident happened again. I think
that there are some students having a thieving propensity. This is very
difficult... When students become seniors, such an event does not happen.
But when students are in the tenth grade, they still have habits acquired at

middle schools. It’s hard to correct them (Gi 30).

 

2’ Sudden inspection is the frequently used method to find lost belongings in other schools.

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Many teachers at GVHS share the vision and values of the school. At the same time, the
teachers of the school have strong individuality. The school does not force teachers to
have the same thought as long as they agree with the foundation of the school, that is,
respecting individual persons based on the Christian faith. At this school, administrators
do not intervene in teachers’ teaching. A teacher teaches his history class in a radical
view. He interprets historical events based on a strong nationalism (Of 1, p.1). Mr. Park
II asserts that in his school, coexistence of individuality is more important than
persuasion through discussions, and coexistence admits various opinions of individual
persons (Gi 27). So, esteeming individual autonomy leads to valuing diversity.

4-1 -5-2. Diversity

GVHS is a homogeneous group certain perspectives. Half of the teachers, the dormitory
dean and the supervisor, and some of the staff in the administration office are alumni of
the school. Several teachers are couples. Two principals, Mr. Park II and Mr. Lee are
also alumni. Moreover, Mr. Park II is the former principal’s son, and a teacher is his
cousin. Many students are children of alumni or teachers of this school. A majority of
the students have higher academic ability and middle class family backgrounds. As a
teacher says, the parents of the school are highly educated, that is, they are very interested
in both their children’s academic ability and character formation (Gi 33). In addition,
many people affiliated with the school have Christian faith. On Sundays, some teachers
and staff worship together at the school church. So, a teacher who just began her job this
year says that at his school all teachers, students, parents, and alumni have a very close

tie (Gi 21). GVHS seems to be a typical traditional community which is based upon the

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sameness of kinship, location, and mind (Tonnies, 1957). This type of community often
does not encourage diversity. However, at GVHS, this is not the case.

The researcher finds that many students and teachers of the school do not
experience the repression of diversity and the sense of exclusiveness. Rather, they
emphasize diversity and enjoy it. While students seem to be similar in external aspects,
there are still various differences in location, family background, religion, and academic
ability among students. Students came from all over the country. The cultures of various
provinces in Korea differ greatly from each other. Each province has its own dialect and
accent. Any Korean can recognize where a person comes from when he/she speaks.
People having the same local backgrounds tend to make friendships more easily. Since
Mr. Park, the formal principal, was a person who came from Jeon-La Province, he met
more difficulties in operating GVHS in the Kyeong-Sang Province. However, students
like the diversity of students’ local backgrounds. A second grade student says that it is
interesting for students to speak in various dialects (Gi 04). A female freshman says that
living with students from different places is good because she can learn how to
understand the differences among people (Gi 02).

Generally speaking, family background, religion, and academic ability are
significant factors in making relationships among Korean students. At GVHS, there are
also differences in family social and economic status (SES) and academic achievements.
Most students who came from cities other than Grand Valley have middle class family
backgrounds and higher achievements. They can afford the dormitory fee and high

competition for admission. However, since the school accepts twenty percent of its

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students in advance from students living in GV,26 they may have relatively lower
achievements and may be poor because they do not need to pay dormitory fee.27
Moreover, some students enter the school through special considerations because their
parents are pastors or missionaries in difficult areas. According to the document showing
GPA range of the accepted students in 2005, 100 students out of 120 students have high
GPAs, and the rest of the students scatter through a wide range (Gd 5). Although GVHS
is a Christian school, the students’ religions are various. Fifty percent of students are
Christians, ten percent are Catholics, eight percent are Buddhists, and the rest of students
have other religions or no religion (Gd 1, p. 7). There is a Catholic student club as well
as Protestant Christian clubs in the school.

At GVHS, students say that they do not consider family backgrounds, academic
ability, and religion in making friends. A junior student says, “Those things do not
matter. Those never cause tensions among us. I sometimes ask a classmate who is smart
hard questions and I explain something to a classmate who is not good at study” (Gi 04).
A senior says, “Nobody excludes students because of their different backgrounds.
religion, and opinions. Instead, students are more interested in such diversity... There is
no collective bully (Wang-Ta in Korean) here”28 (Gi 06). The researcher asked non-
Christian students as to whether they were uncomfortable at the school because of their

religion. Most students who talked to the researcher said that since the school did not

 

2" The school adopted this policy in 2005. In the past the school had to accept all students based on same
criteria, their GPAs at middle schools. On one year, nobody living in CV entered the school. But the
school accepted 25 students in 2005.

27 The researcher interviewed a senior’s father living in CV. He has no stable job and works as a farmer
and computer worker.

2’ Collective bully (Wang-Ta) is a big problem in Korean schools. Some students are excluded by all other
students because of some reasons e.g., eccentric character or appearances and weird behaves. Some
students commit suicide because of serious Wang-Ta.

87

force the Christian belief on them, their different religion did not matter. With respect to
attending worship services, some students say that they can learn something from the
sermons, and other students say that they are sleepy during the sermon because they have
no idea about Christianity.

Teachers of the school are not much externally different from one another. Yet,
most teachers have their own strong opinions of education. Teachers are variously
situated on a spectrum of ideology. Some teachers in the teachers’ union sometimes
express their politically radical ideas. So, it is hard for them to reach consensus through
discussions. However, the school has public forums to discuss freely, unlike many other
schools. Mr. Lee says that when teachers encounter conflicts because of their different
ideas, he let teachers talk as much as possible (Gi 29). He also says,

What we think ideally is to find the best solution through enough
discussions. However, sometimes discussion might become a fight without
agreement because people are different and they have limitations. So I
believe we had better choose the second best rather than pursue the best
one, hurting each other’s feeling. Having harmony is more important (Gi

29).

At yearly teacher conferences in February, teachers and administrators often discuss
matters for a long time to decide an issue. If they are not able to reach consensus, they
decide by a show of hands. Teachers and administrators have an equal vote. After the
decision is made, all members accept it (Gi 22). Different ideas are always continued in

the school. Mr. Park 11 says that different opinions are very natural, and thus we need to

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allow them. He calls the situation coexistence (Gi 27). Coexistence would be a
condition of justice.

4-1-5—3. Justice

When the researcher asked about justice, he defined justice as fairness. Most students say
that their school is a just community because they have not experienced unequal
treatment from teachers. They say that there is no discrimination by gender, appearance,
academic ability, and family SES in the school. By contrast, in many Korean schools
students often are shown favoritism by teachers because of their higher achievements and
contributions made by their parents.29 Students believe that the school and teachers do
not receive dirty money. Yet, some students are suspicious that a few students were
accepted by the school despite their relatively lower GPA because they were children of
the school’s teachers (Gi 02).

Teachers talk positively about their school in terms of justice. They say that
teachers of the school never discriminate against students by their academic ability or
family background. Rather, they show more concern to the students who are poor and
have difficulties (Gi 22). A teacher says that he values and cares for weak people (Gi 25).
At a morning teacher meeting, Mr. Park II prays that the school can be a community
which cares and helps students who are in trouble, feel lonely, or have difficulties (Of 2,
p. 13). These teachers and administrators’ thoughts about justice are shown to other
teachers as well as students. The researcher asked whether there is favoritism by gender,

alumni, or age among teachers. Teachers assure that there is not. Mr. Lee says that

 

29 Students having higher achievements and middle or high family SES are likely to be class presidents and
they benefits in various ways. Parents’ contribution to schools is also important for their children’s
schooling. Sometimes parents give money to their teachers as appreciation or bribe. (The money is called
Chon-Ji in Korean.) Chon-J i often causes favoritism, and so it is a big problem in many Korean schools.

89

female teachers walk in a dignified manner at GVHS. He also says, “I don’t know
whether teachers who did not graduate from GVHS feel alienation. But there must be no
discrimination between alumni teachers of GVHS and others. If even a little
discrimination happens, we should kick off alumni teachers” (Gi 29).

A teacher claims that the school never receives dirty money for hiring teachers.
admitting students, and other affairs (Gi 25). But another teacher says, “I am not sure of
whether the schools deal with money justly. The school does not open this issue to us”
(Gi 22). A parent also expresses a little dissatisfaction about the school in the sense that
the school does not open the administrative aspects to parents (Gi 43). Several temporary
workers who work for repairing the dormitory building say that working conditions are
good and GVHS seems to be operated honestly (Gi 45). They also say that the quality of
the meals at GVHS is the best among schools they have been to. According to a staff
member in the administration office, the school provides high quality meals to their
students by justly using money that students pay.

The school members value not only justice within the school but also social
justice. The slogan of GVHS “light and salt” represents the school’s vision to perpetuate
social justice. Ten Commandments for Selecting a Job of the school encompass the spirit
of social justice. Students participate in some activities for serving needy neighbors and
agencies. The student council holds a charity bazaar in December and gives the collected
money to people in need. The students of clubs of Christian students and social service
regularly visit orphanages or homes for disabled people. There is a special club,
Association of Sunday School Teachers, in the school. Around forty students of the club

serve four small churches located in rural areas as Sunday school teachers (Gf 2, p. 38).

90

The school is developing a project in which the school makes sister relationships with
schools in developing Asian countries such as Laos by the support of UNESCO. The
leading teacher of the project says that the school aims to help students of the sister
schools and teach his students about social justice in world (Gi 24). The school stresses
preparing future life dedicated to needy people by means of practicing specific services in
their student years (Gi 06). So, graduates sometimes ponder their lives in terms of social
justice (Gi 07). According to a local community member,30 when the graduates of GVHS
became college students, many of them actively participated in democratic civil
movements in the past (Gi 44).

GVHS contributed to developing social justice in a special way. The school hired
some people, who were in difficulties because of their resistance against the authoritarian
regime, as the school faculty. One of the faculty, Mr. Kang, energetically worked for his
students and the local community members such as farmers. He led civil movements in
GV for enhancing democracy and began YMCA in Grand Valley along with Mr. Park II
(Gi 30; Gi 44).3 ' Mr. Park II was also actively involved in the civil movements. He
became the first chairperson of the committee of YMCA in GV. He delivered addresses
at various civil movement meetings. The researcher observed that the YMCA of GV
used the GVHS’ auditorium to show a traditional performance on a Saturday.

Table 5, 6, and 7 summarize to what extent students and teachers experience and
perceive a sense of community, democratic community, and professional community at
GVHS. These are the researcher’s classifications and assessments based on the evidence.

I did not use a survey. I classified the school members’ experiences into four groupings.

 

3° He is actively involving in civil movements in GV and was a secretary of YMCA ofGV. He graduated
from a different high school in GV.
3 ' In 19705 and 19805, YMCA played key roles in developing democracy in Korean societies.

9]

considering both the degree of what interviewees responded and the number of

interviewees who agree or disagree. For instance, if nine respondents out of ten answer

positively, it is double plusses.

Table 5. To what extent school members experience a sense of community

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sense of community Agree/disagree Expressions
Students Interdependence ++ “Our personality is developing
because we live together.”
Belongingness ++ “My most important identity is an
alumnus of GVHS.”
Teachers Meaningful + “Relationships among teachers of
relationship this school are different from those
of other schools.”
Shared vision + “This school community has

 

 

 

developed based on GV spirits.”

 

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

Table 6. Responses to question as to whether GVHS is democratic

 

 

 

 

 

Agree/disagree Expressions
Students + “Our opinions are willingly accepted by the school.”
Teachers + “Teachers say their ideas without restraints.”
Parents - “The school exclusively makes decisions without the

 

 

participation of parents.”

 

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

Table 7. Responses to question as to whether GVHS is a professional community

 

 

 

 

Professional Agree/disagree Expressions
community
Teachers Professionalism + “Most teachers are professionals in
attitudes and practices as teachers.”
Collaboration - “It is hard to find collaboration

 

 

 

among teachers.”

 

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

92

 

 

 

4-2. Blue Mountain High School (BMHS)

4-2-1. Outline and History of BMHS

The students of a class sit together at the arbor by the statue of the Virgin Mary, avoiding
the glaring sunlight under the blue sky in early September. Rev. Moon, the principal at
BMHS, wearing the Catholic priest’s chasuble decently, walks into the crowd of students
and leans upon the railing. He begins to speak, looking around the fifteen students sitting
there. Chickens cackle loudly in the pen near the arbor. Rev. Moon looks at the chickens
for a while and then asks the students a question: “What are differences between chickens
raised in the pen and chickens raised in the yard?” Some students ponder the question
and provide their opinions. This is a philosophy class of junior students (Figure 8). Rev.
Moon’s philosophy classes take place at various places, such as the principal’s office, on

the lawn, and at the arbor. As philosophy can be possible only with

Fi ure 8. Rev. Moon’s Phi

loso oh Class

’t-- ,‘ :2, t

 

93

unrestrained thinking, the philosophy class seems to show that it can be taught in every
open place, out of the boundary of the closed classroom.

The campus of BMHS is so beautiful that it is hard to find such a campus in
Korea. The school is located in a calm rural area, and there is rarely a home around it.
The blue mountain stands behind the campus and seems to embrace the school. The
silver river flows in front of the school. Such a location is traditionally considered to be
extremely good in Korea. There are wide, carefully tended lawns in front of two
buildings which are connected with a girdle bridge. A small pond, where two pink
lotuses are floating, is placed at the comer of the lawns. The statue of the Virgin Mary
holding baby Jesus looks at the pond with a smile on her face. If we go up toward the
mountain for a while, passing by the arbor, we can find a wide soccer field. The campus
of BMHS is quite different form other schools which often have square-shaped buildings
made of cold cement. It seems that the school campus was built to make students feel at
home. So, when a visitor enters the school, he/she probably can feel comfortably warm.
A student who had lived in Germany said that he liked the campus because he felt the
softness on his first visit to the school, unlike when he visited other schools in Korea.
The male student dormitory is located on the third floor of the main building, and the
female student dormitory is on the second floor of the new building. The design of the
dormitory is also different from other schools. It looks like condominiums in the US.
When one opens the door, he/she can see a wide living room, three bedrooms and a
bathroom in the center. Three to four students live in a large room and a teacher sleeps
in a small room. There are desks and closets in the bedrooms and a television in the

living room. This design intends to create a homelike atmosphere, with each unit

94

Figure 9. BMHS Buildings

--. V‘ . ' .-
51F I \. :-
‘ . . :-

to

 

95

consisting of around eight students and a teacher. The people at the school call the
dormitory room quality-home.

At BMHS, which was designed for building a school community like home,
around a hundred students and twenty teachers and staff live and study. Male students
number seventy and female students thirty. BMHS began as a Catholic alternative high
school in 1998. The school was officially established and supported by Catholic
churches in a parish. The first principal, Rev. Moon, has been in charge of managing the
school from its founding until now.

The objective of the school is to educate students at risk through careful character
formation based on Christian love so that they develop right values, aptitude, and self-
esteem (Bd 1, p. 99). The bylaws of the school say that the school aims at nurturing
excellent, creative students who respect life and have a sense of community (Bd 1, p. 99).
The curriculum of the school consists of common subjects and special subjects. Each
student is supposed to take 82 to 110 credits of common and special subjects for
graduation. Family relations, social service, labor, mountain climb, media education.
religion, field study, study trips to China, and counseling are examples of special subjects.

BMHS adopts William Glasser’s32 theories of psychology as its philosophy and
teaching methods. BMHS seeks a quality school. The school’s motto is written on the
wall at the main building entrance: “Quality school is built by good parents and good
teachers.” A school document suggests the criteria of a quality school as follows:

First, all school problems except trivial troubles should be solved in two

years.

 

32William Glasser (1925 ~ ) is an American psychiatrist and developer of Reality Therapy and Choice
Theory. He is notable for having developed a cause and effect theory that explains human behavior. His
theories are widely adopted in education.

96

Second, academic achievements of the students should be at least within

seventy five percentile from national exams.

Third, students seek high achievements in all subjects and should not be

below the minimum level.

Fourth, students develop study ability and do works of high quality every

year

Fifth, all students and teachers are familiar with the choice theory of

William Glasser and can apply it to their study and lives.

Sixth, the school should be a joyful school, and there should be no

absentees. (Bd 1, p. 143)
Choice theory and reality therapy developed by William Glasser are main theories that
the school often mentions. According to choice theory, people choose their behaviors
freely based on their perceived values. So, whether people’s behaviors are desirable or
not depends on their perceived values. The theory helps people to develop their
perceived value systems into a high quality so that they can always select good behaviors
(Bd 1, p. 144). Reality therapy assumes that people can select more responsible and
effective behaviors than present behaviors.

The BMHS has changed rapidly in spite of its short history. The school accepted
students maladjusted in regular schools during its early years, but recently has accepted
mostly regular, not at-risk students. In other words, mostly drop-out students became the
students of the school in early years. Yet, in 2005 only two students out of forty first
grade students were drop-out students. Consequently, the academic achievements of

students become higher, and the climate of the school changed.

97

4-2-2. Sense of Community

4-2-2-1. Intimate relationship, caring, and trust

BMHS pursues a home-like school community. The policy of teachers’ residence with
students as well as the design of the dormitory represents such a character of the school.
The principal, vice principal, and two teachers, who are Catholic nuns, live in the same
buildings with students. A few single teachers also live with them, and other teachers
stay in the dormitory with students every other night. However, students’ experiences in
the dormitory are not always aligned with the intent of the school. Most students agree
that the relationships with other people are most important to them. A female junior says,
“I spent almost all my energy in relationships with other students rather than in studying
throughout the whole last year” (Bi 04). What students experienced from the
relationships differs among the students. Some students talk positively, but other
students negatively. A female senior says that she has learned the value of people from
experiencing complicated relationships (Bi 01). Several students feel uncomfortable with
the oppressive climate that seniors produce. Three teachers that I interviewed have
observed that the relationships between seniors and juniors look like hierarchic relations
existing in the army (Bi 2]; 25; 27).

The relationships between students and teachers in BMHS are somewhat unique.
Teachers know students individually very well because the number of students in a class
is only ten to twenty and teachers stay in the dormitory with students at least every other
night. Moreover, they spend much time outside the school with students for various

special programs such as field studies in other countries, camping, and club activities. So.

98

students often say that they have close relationships with teachers. The relationships
between students and teachers at BMHS are quite different from the relationships that the
researcher experienced as a former high school teacher in Seoul. At most schools in
Korea, courtesy is more valued than intimacy among students and teachers, and thus only
a few students have close relationships with teachers. However, students at BMHS are
used to taking a break and chatting with teachers in teachers’ office during break times.
They sometimes ask teachers to buy them some snacks. It seems that the distinction
between students and teachers is unclear. A senior says that teachers are very friendly to
him like fiiends and thinks of them as counselors rather than instructors (Bi 02).

Many students answer positively to the question of whether teachers care for
students well. Some teachers try to have more time with students and provide after-
school programs that students need. Ms. Cha, the vice principal, seems to know the
names of all students and talks to students in a friendly manner in the hallway or in the
teachers’ office. She sometimes buys snacks or sandwiches for students at night. Rev.
Moon tries to talk to students through mass, students and teachers meetings, and
philosophy classes.

The intimacy and care are significant qualities through which BMHS can be a
school community. Generally, mutual trust is another essence for school communities.
However, at BMHS there exist tensions between students and administration. Many
students trust the teachers to some extent but they are suspicious of administrators.
Especially, most seniors show a strong distrust in the principal and vice principal.
Students point out that the principal makes too many regulations and the vice principal

emphasizes college entrance exams too much (Bi 01; 02). A senior says that there was a

99

rumor that two administrators investigated the economic status of students’ family (Bi
03). The student explains to the researcher why students came to distrust the
administrators. According to him, several months ago, a senior had to leave school at the
request of the principal. The wrongdoing that the student committed was not serious in
the view of students (Bi 03). Students were very disappointed at that time and thus all
seniors wanted to quit the school (Bi 02).

BMHS is changing now. The characteristics of the seniors and freshmen are quite
different from each other. Their behaviors and attitudes about studying are different.
Among freshmen, there are a few dropouts, some smart students, and many students who
want to study. The school tries to change the systems and rules of schooling according to
the features of the new students. Senior students and administrators clash over the
changes. Some seniors complain that the school increasingly regulates their autonomy
and intervenes in the relationship with their juniors. Two female seniors say, “The school
tries to separate us from our juniors. In the past, freshmen, juniors, and seniors lived
together in a dormitory home, but now live separately. We don’t have close relationships
with juniors and freshmen any more” (Bi 09).
4-2-2-2. Teachers
There are nineteen faculty members at BMHS. The school encourages teachers to build a
strong community. The school holds birthday parties for teachers during teacher
meetings. On Friday evenings, teachers play table tennis and billiards in the school
cafeteria or have seminars. Some male teachers often chat with each other, smoking in

the smoking area in front of the main building. A male teacher who has worked for one

100

and half years says that the teachers at BMHS are like friends or family. When he had
difficulties during his first year, other teachers helped him to overcome them (Bi 22).

However, some teachers feel differently about a sense of community. Four
teachers who the researcher interviewed wonder whether there is a shared vision among
all faculty members. They say that while they have formal meetings frequently, they
cannot afford to have informal gatherings where people can relax and Open their hearts.33
According to them, it is difficult to schedule teacher gatherings because some teachers
have to stay at the dormitory after school. Even in the day when teachers have no
dormitory responsibility, they want to rest at their home.

Some teachers feel a gap between the Catholic and layperson teachers on the
other hand, and male and female teachers, on the other.34 For example, a female teacher
complained that male teachers sometimes treat her impolitely (Bi 23). Three teachers
whom the researcher interviewed said that there exists a deep gap between teachers and
administrators (Bi 2]; 23; 26). Due to such reasons, the teacher community lacks
liveliness with which all faculty members can pursue together the aim of the school (Bi
21 ).
4-2-2-3. Dormitory
All students live in the dormitory. Around eight students live at a “home” of the
dormitory. A teacher must stay at the home with students every other night. Classes

begin at 9:00 am and end at 4:00 pm. Many students participate in the after-school

programs, but some students play or chat with other students. Most students spend much

 

3" In many Korean schools, teachers have frequently informal gatherings for playing sports games, having
dinner, or drinking alcohol. In the case of the school where the researcher worked as a teacher, many
teachers met together after school once per week.

3" At BMHS, the principal and chaplain are Catholic priests and the vice principal and two teachers are
nuns. The chaplain studies education at a university in Seoul. So, he rarely appears himself in the school.
Among lay teachers, two teachers and one social worker are female.

101

time in the dormitory talking, watching television, and studying. Many students have
difficulties living together with other students because most of them were raised in the
individualistic environment of large cities. As a result of these difficulties, some students
leave the school, other students just try to adjust themselves to the situations, but still
other students learn something important, e.g., living together harmoniously. While the
researcher stayed at the school, a freshman left the school because he suffered from a lack
of privacy. A female junior said, “I had difficulties with living together. Most students
were so different from me. I couldn’t understand them. Now I’m used to them... I can’t
say that I overcome the differences. I just want to avoid conflicts with them” (Bi 04).
However, some students acquired significant lessons from their experiences. A freshman
said, “I have learned how to live in the community. Before I came here I used to live
alone. Yet, here I can’t do that. When I behave, I always think how my behavior
influences others. Now I can live, honoring community” (Bi 05).

Most teachers sleep in the dormitory every other night. Two single teachers live
there everyday. Some teachers often talk or play games with students in the dormitory
before going to bed. However, many teachers stay in their offices until they go to sleep
in the dormitory. Many teachers are uncomfortable with staying too often in the
dormitory. Many teachers who are married worry about not spending enough time with
their families. A teacher said that he often felt fatigue on the day after he stayed in the
dormitory. A single female teacher was concerned about job security because of this
dormitory policy (Bi 24). She said that it was very hard for a married female teacher to

stay in the dormitory so often. It seems that the dormitory policy of teachers’ residence

102

endangers a sense of community among teachers, contrary to what the school has
expected.
Recently administrators began to consider changes to the design and policy of the
dormitory, in response to those complaints of students and teachers. Dormitory
remodeling was an issue at the parents meeting on September 2005. The vice principal
explained to the parents the reasons why the dormitory needs to be remodeled. She said,
Some students leave the school, complaining about having no private
places. So, dormitory needs to be designed for protecting private aspects
of students. It is also said that a supervisor of the dormitory is necessary.
But the current design of the dormitory is not fit for supervisor to work (Bf
3, p. 31).

She suggested a new dormitory model in which two students share a room. More than

half of the parents agreed as to the necessity of remodeling. They spent much time at the

parent meeting discussing what type of remodeling is proper and how they would fund

the project. After the researcher observed the meeting, he wrote observation comments

as follows:
Parents discussed the issue of dormitory remodeling for a long time.
Regarding the reasons for remodeling, they just listened to the
explanations by the vice principal without discussions. The vice principal
and parents assumed that students experienced difficulties because the
structure of the dormitory. When comparing with the dormitory of GVH S.
the researcher believes that they inappropriately understand reasons of the

difficulties that students face. Although it may be a reason of difficulty

103

for too many students to live in a room, the climate and culture of the
dormitory is more important. Around ten GVHS students live in a room,
but only a few students complain about the dormitory lives. The
researcher wonders whether providing two students with a dormitory room
is consistent with building a community, part of the aim of the school. It
seems that people focus on seeming aspects whereas they miss the essence
of the problems. They need to pay more attention to the culture and
relationships of the students (Bf 3, pp. 31-32).
A mother of a female student is also concerned with the idea of dormitory remodeling (Bi
42). After the parents’ meeting was finished, she said to the researcher that she was
against the suggestion that the dormitory needs to be changed into a structure in which
two students share one room. She wondered whether such a structure might weaken the
spirit of community life. She contended that the school should provide opportunity of
community life to the students, although they encounter difficulties.
4-2-2-4. Special Subjects for Alternative Schooling
BMHS has relatively much autonomy in drawing up curriculum because it is an
alternative school. Half of the curriculum is special subjects in order to achieve the aim
of the alternative school. Among the special subjects, family relationships, mountain
climbing, labor activities, programs for youth growth, and study trips to China are
associated with shaping senses of community. The researcher observed labor activities
and programs for youth growth and heard from students about study trip to China.
Labor activity is an important program for most alternative schools. The program

is designed for students to learn the value of physical labor and the deep relationship

104

between humans and nature. At BMHS, labor activities consist of labor and cooking for
freshman, labor and planting wild flowers for juniors, and labor and understanding
natural environments for seniors (Bd 1, p. 76). Students are supposed to take one activity
class for an hour per week. The researcher observed the labor activities several times.
Students weeded the school garden and planted flowers. Only some students did the
tasks diligently with their teachers, but many students chatted with each other on the
lawns. Some students said to the researcher that they did not understand why they had to
take the labor class.

A program for youth growth for this year was a two-day program led by a public
agency affiliated with the Department of Culture of the Korean government. The
program was called “experiencing culture by youth” (Figure 11). Several experts of the
agency led all activities for two days. The program consisted of three activities such as
virtual studio, board games, and playing together. On the first day, students did each
activity at a different site according to grade and then switch to the next activity. And on
the second day, students played various performances such as playing instruments.
dancing, and singing on the stage, and these performances were video recorded as in a
broadcast studio. The agency uploaded the recording on the intemet. Students actively
participated in some activities, but reluctantly in other activities. For the section of
playing together, because only a few seniors gathered, the activity hardly took place. A
teacher who was responsible for this program attended throughout the activities, and the
principal, vice principal, and a few teachers sometimes showed up as well. The program

leader said to the students at the closing meeting of the first day,

105

Fiure 1 1. Pro _ram for Youth Growth

 

Hey guys, you need more sense of community. Order is necessary even
while we enjoy freedom. You need to care for others... You have a strong
individualistic propensity. It was most hard to lead the activity of playing
together which needs your collaboration (Bf 3, p. 13).

The Study trips to China are comprehensive programs which integrate field study,
service activity, and mountain climbing. All freshmen and their teachers participate in
the program for eight days. The school intends for students to learn a sense of
community and how to care for each other through taking the trip together (Bd 1, p. 79).
Similar to field studies, students visit several places such as where the patron saint of
BMHS carried out his missionary works, where independent Korean soldiers fought
against Japanese soldiers in the colonial era, and where a famous Korean poet lived. On

the other hand, digging up potatoes is an important task for students. The potatoes are

106

supposed to be sent to the North Koreans. The work is students’ service activity.
Climbing Baek-Du Mountain is a key activity. Mt. Back-Du is the highest mountain in
the Korean peninsula and contains important myths associated with the foundation of
ancient Korea. Since it is located between China and North Korea, students can access
the mountain from China. A senior says that he learned a lot rather than just had fun
from the study trip to China (Bi 02). Another senior also remembers that although she
did not like the food nor the facility in which she slept, the experience was valuable. She
learned first-hand about Korean history through seeing historic sites (Bd2, p. 39).

BMHS has a variety of special programs as an alternative school. Every year, the
school publishes a book of the activities carried out in a year. Teachers say that now the
special programs settle down because they have practiced them for seven years.
However, in the several special programs that the researcher observed, students’
participations were not active. The researcher wonders whether students understand fully
the aim of each program. The doubts of the researcher are supported by a parent. The
mother said that programs done at the school did not fit the students. According to her, it
seemed that students did not understand the spirit of the programs.
4-2-2-5. Shared values of the school
Alternative schools have their own special aims of schooling. BMHS also has a mission
statement in its bylaws. The essence of the missions is to take care of students at risk
with Catholic spirits and to nurture personalities of students through valuing students’
autonomy. The espoused values are not always consistent with acting values, and acting

values are often more influential than written values. How the visions and values of a

107

school are shared among the school members is critical in building a strong school
community.

In order to examine the visions of the school, the researcher asked administrators
and teachers about the aims of the school. Most faculty members agree that the school
stresses character formation. However, they have various answers to the question of
what specific contents of the character formation are. Some teachers are suspicious of
whether faculty members have shared aims or values (Bi 25; 26). The doubts of the
teachers are associated with the recent changes of the school. Most entering students in
the last two years are not dropouts maladjusted to common schools, but students directly
graduated from middle schools. They have several reasons to enter the school. Some
students want autonomous climate and various educational programs. Other students
cannot enter college-preparation high schools because of their lower academic
achievements. Still other students want a Catholic alternative school. Along with this
change of the characteristics of the students, some students and parents request the school
to focus more on academic aspects. The vice principal increasingly emphasizes
preparing for college entrance exams. Many senior students complain about the change
of school values. Teachers are perplexed by the unclear ideas of administrators. Some
parents also complain that the direction of the school is uncertain (Bf 3, p. 26).
Furthermore, some teachers point out that recently the school has not met the Catholic
spirit of the school foundation, that is, caring for students at risk (Bi 21).

In contrast to the doubts of some students and teachers, administrators consider
the change of the school to be very natural. The principal emphasizes that the change has

been done by social needs, not by his will. He says,

108

The spirits of the foundation of the school have never changed. We did
our best from the beginning. Consequently, many people pay attention to
us and want to send their children to our school... BMHS is not an asylum
or hospital, but a school... Our teachers have limitations. We have to do
something that we can do (Bi 28).
The vice principal also asserted that the shift of the characteristics of the school was not
deterioration, but a proper response to the request of society (Bi 29). She explained to the
researcher that there were many students at risk whom even alternative schools could not
embrace. She learned from her experiences at the school that students who abused
alcohol or drugs, or had developmental problems such as autism needed doctors or
specialists, not teachers. Mr. Jeong, a head teacher of academic department, expounded
the change of the school, considering the perspectives of both administrators and teachers.
As the characteristics of entering students change, the identity of the
school also has changed. Students, parents, and teachers have requested
the modification of the identity. The units of the special subjects
decrease... I believe that the identity of a school can be and should be
modified according to the notions of the school members. However,
change may cause difficulties to people when preparation for the change is

not proper. That is the case of BMHS (Bi 27).

. 4-2-3. Democratic Community
BMHS has good systems in developing a democratic community. Students, teachers, and

parents are able to suggest their ideas or participate in making decisions through all-

109

school meetings, teacher meetings, and parent meetings. Whether and how the school
members freely and actively participate in the meetings, and whether the ideas suggested
in the meetings are significantly considered by administrators are investigated.

Students, teachers, and parents respond differently to the question of whether
BMHS is democratic. Students answer positively. They often mention all-school
meetings at which they can voice their suggestions. They say that the school willingly
accepts the students’ suggestions to some extent, e.g., regarding places of field trips and
whether they take national pretests. A student says, “Even though there is something,
which we really want, that the school does not accept, most of our suggestions are
accepted” (Bi 04). Teachers agree that the school tries to listen to the students.

By contrast, many teachers think that they exercise little impact on important
decisions of the schooling. They say that there are some democratic procedures in theory
but the principal and vice principal, exclusively, make decisions in practice. A teacher
who has worked for five years says, “This school is formally open to us through teacher
meetings and so on. But our opinions discussed at the meetings have not been hear ” (Bi
25). Parents also recognize that teachers play a small role in decision making of
schooling (Bf 3, p. 26). A parent says that the schooling depends mainly on the principal
and vice principal (Bi 41). Yet, another parent says that parents suggest their thoughts at
parent meetings that occur once per month (Bi 44). According to some teachers, parents’
suggestions are importantly considered by administrators (Bi 25). Some contents of
special programs are decided by parents. For instances. some parents suggest places for
field studies, providing cost of the activities. Even parents who complain that the school

does not respond to parents’ suggestions want to participate in schooling.

110

4-2-3-1. All-School Meeting

Every other Monday, all students and faculties are supposed to attend the all-school
meeting. The meeting is scheduled from 11:10 am through 12:00 in the multi-purpose
room. The researcher observed the meeting that happened on September 5'h 2005 (Bf 3,
pp. 17-19). Students and teachers were seated around the room. Soo-Min, the vice
president of the student council, led the meeting. First, the principal addressed the
students for five minutes and left after finishing his speech. After that, leaders of the
dormitory homes reported very briefly whether their homes had difficulties. Soo-Min
introduced a transfer student. Two head teachers explained the use of the exercise room
and the academic schedule. A head teacher suggested an agenda for the discussion
session, i.e., trash recycling. At the discussion session, the vice principal and several
students expressed their opinions. The discussion session was accompanied by the
suggestion session. For this session, many students actively participated. They
suggested that the computers be fixed, the study room be used more, light off time be
extended, and so on. This meeting ended with singing a school song.

The meeting has an excellent format for communicating between school faculty
and students. There are sessions when administrators and teachers speak to students, and
students voice suggestions to school administration. At the discussion session, all
students and faculties can participate in in-depth discussions of schooling. When an
agenda needs to be decided, each school member has one vote. While the meeting is
externally excellent, the actual feature has some problems. First, the participation of the
teachers is not active. Only seven teachers along with a principal and a vice principal

attended the meeting and the principal and two teachers left early. Second, much time

111

was spent for the one-way communication session, that is, the principal’s speech, head
teachers’ reporting, and students’ suggestions. Moreover, students did not actively take
part in the two-way communication discussion. Seniors mainly spoke, but freshmen
rarely did. Third, there seems no systemic procedure through which the suggestions or
ideas discussed at the meeting are accepted and carried out. Some students complain that
they sometimes do not know the responses to the suggestions raised by themselves.
4-2-3-2. Teacher Meeting
At BMHS there are two kinds of teacher meetings. The first one is the morning teacher
meeting. It takes place at 8:30 am every morning in a teachers’ office and lasts around
fifteen minutes. A teacher reads some verses of the Bible and then all members pray
together according to the Catholic doctrine. After the short devotion time, a head teacher
of academic department leads the meeting. Each head teacher of departments, including
a senior officer of the administration office, makes a report. After that, the vice principal
and principal suggest something for teachers to do. One day, a casual birthday party for a
teacher was celebrated at the beginning of the meeting (Bf 2, p. 3).

The second meeting is the Wednesday teacher meeting. It begins after school at
5:00 pm on Wednesdays and lasts forty to sixty minutes. The vice principal often
prepares refreshments for the meeting. The head teacher of the academic department also
facilitates the meeting. All faculty members freely discuss the agenda that they proposed
during the morning meeting on Wednesday. For instance, one agenda item was about the
experience study. Some senior students who were already accepted by colleges did not

study at the school anymore but participated in some programs outside of the school or a

112

few students worked to earn money.35 Some teachers and a vice principal said that it was
hard to force the students to come to the school, and suggested that their activities needed
to be considered as the study through experience. The principal maintained that all
students should study at the school before graduation and thus teachers must ask the
students to attend the school. This agenda was discussed for a long time, but they could
not bring the issue to conclusion.

The morning teacher meetings are mostly for reports, not for discussions. The
vice principal, some head teachers, and a senior administration officer report something,
and the principal often speaks of teachers’ attitudes and responsibilities. On the other
side, the Wednesday meetings were designed for discussions by teachers and
administrators. This is a good system through which faculty members can build a
democratic school community. However, teachers’ participation in the discussion was
not active even though all teachers attended the meetings. The discussion often centered
on the administrators and head teachers. Some teachers whom the researcher interviewed
said why they hardly spoke during the meetings. Two teachers who have worked from
the early times of the school said very similarly that during the early three years, most
teachers discussed a lot very actively, for instance, even until 12:00 am on one day (Bi
23; 26). However, they came to recognize that administrators made decisions according
to their thinking regardless of discussions at the meetings. Some teachers discussed the
policy of teachers’ dormitory residence with administrators, but the policy did not change.

They said that now they were exhausted. A teacher who came to the school last year said,

 

’5 This problem is common to high schools in Korea. Since many students at high schools study hard in
order to enter colleges, after they are accepted, they find no reasons to study at the schools.

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“[Teachers] have grown disenchanted, thinking that speaking their opinions will be
useless” (Bi 21).
4-2-3-3. Parent Meeting
BMHS emphasizes the role of parents in educating students. The school’s slogan,
“Quality school is built by good parents and good teachers” shows the importance of
parents for the schooling. The school has parent meetings every month except at
vacation time. The meetings generally take place from 1:00 pm until 4:00 or 5:00 pm.
They consist of the sessions of parent education and discussion. Parent education is often
led by experts outside of the school.

The researcher observed the parent meeting that occurred on September 7th. 2005
(Bf 3, pp. 24-32). Sixty four parents attended the meeting, which is more than seventy
percent of all the students’ parents. Considering that most parents live far from the
school and parent meetings occur every month, the rate of attendance is extremely high.
The meeting on that day was scheduled to begin at 10:00 am and end at 4:00 pm. Parents
who came on time cleaned their children’s dormitory. At 11:00, the principal. vice
principal, and representative parent of each grade had the meeting in the principal’s office.
At the same time, parents gathered in their children’s dormitory home and discussed the
agenda that the school proposed. The agenda items were the aims of alternative
schooling, the educational philosophy of BMHS, and remodeling of the dormitory
building. The researcher observed that twenty seven parents of freshmen discussed the
agenda vigorously at a dormitory room. Some parents criticized the problems of the
school, but other parents stressed their responsibilities and roles to build a better school

community. After the discussion session, parents had lunch at the school cafeteria.

114

At 1:00 pm, parents gathered again at the auditorium. The vice principal led the
first section of the whole parents’ meeting. First, the principal delivered an address for
ten minutes. His speech was about desirable parents’ attitudes, which was like a sermon.
As soon as he finished his address, he left immediately.36 A slide show was followed. It
showed activities that happened during the last semester. A senior student presented
what she had learned during her time in the school. After that, the vice principal spoke to
the parents. She asked parents to trust the school. She mentioned the necessity of the
dormitory remodeling and the increase of dormitory fee. The senior officer of the
administration office reported the financial status of the school. After the first section,
the chairperson of the parent association led the discussion section. He reported what
was decided at the representative meeting. Parents discussed actively the dormitory
remodeling and after-school programs. The vice principal frequently answered the
parents’ questions. The meeting ended around 4:00 pm. After the meeting, some parents
went to the teacher offices to meet their students’ teachers. The parent meeting on that
day was quite a long meeting.

The parent meeting at BMHS shows both the possibilities and limitations of
building a democratic community within the school. First, the parents’ strong interests in
the schooling can serve as the foundation of a democratic community. Many parents not
only attend the parent meetings every month but also actively participate in discussions.
Most of them are positive and energetic in building a better school. Second, the school
administrators stress the significance of parents for schooling. They set up the format of
the regular meetings and provide parents with good opportunities for parent education.

Whereas these two characteristics are possibilities, the following two features are

 

’6 The vice principal said that the principal went to a University to teach a class.

115

limitations. First, one-way communication rather than two-way communication is
predominant throughout the meeting. The school administrators planned the programs of
the meeting and proposed the agenda that parents would discuss. The principal and vice
principal spoke to the parents about their views but rarely listen to parents. Second,
teachers did not participate in the meeting. Parents wanted to talk with their teachers but
they could not spend enough time to do so (Bf 3, p. 24). All programs were designed to
be carried out among parents or between parents and administrators. No teachers
attended the parents’ discussion time.

4-2-3-4. Leadership

While BMHS has excellent systems for shaping a democratic school community, a
number of school members such as teachers and parents wonder whether the climate of
the school is democratic. It seems that the leadership of the principal and vice principal
heavily influence the climate of the school. The principal and vice principal founded the
school and they are only the faculty members who have worked since the foundation.
They established democratic procedures in the school. They said that they valued
individuality and autonomy of students and teachers. However, they were struggling
with building a democratic community because they had been raised in the undemocratic
environment as the Rev. Moon said (Bi 28).

Now the principal, Rev. Moon was formerly a parish priest and had taught an
ethics class at a Catholic high school. He is a doctoral student in educational philosophy
at a university and teaches philosophy to freshman and junior students at BMHS. He
frequently refers to parents’ improper attitudes about their children. He seems to believe

that many parents are too interested in college entrance exams. So, he warns students and

116

parents to have more holistic views on schooling at the all-school meetings and the parent
meetings. He thinks that teachers need to develop their minds as teachers at the
alternative school, and thus often asks the teachers to have a clear educational philosophy.
He frequently speaks to people, but rarely listens to them. He left immediately after his
addresses at the all-school meeting and the parent meeting.

Rev. Moon has a strong identity as a priest. He expounded his thinking about his
distinctive identity as a priest during the interview with the researcher: “When some
school administration positions were available for me, I did not want to become an
administrator at a common high school because I am a priest. So, I as a Catholic priest,
decided to begin an alternative school which was consistent with the Catholic spirit” (Bi
28). Yet there is inconsistency with Rev. Moon’s actions. All students and faculty
members have meals together in the school cafeteria. All members take their own meals
and wash their trays after eating, but only the principal is served by workers of the
cafeteria with more dishes.

Ms. Cha, the vice principal, was a science teacher at a Catholic high school. She
is in charge of many administrative jobs at the school. She attends all meetings, listens.
and responds to suggestions of students and parents. She does not talk as much as the
principal does. Yet, her evaluations of teachers and parents are similar to Rev. Moon’s.
She sometimes reveals distrust in parents during the teacher meetings and parent
meetings. It seems that the administrator’s distrust in parents is related to the frequent
transfer of students. She thinks that some parents are dissatisfied with the school’s less
focused preparation for college entrance exams and force their children to quit the school.

Ms. Cha disclosed her opinions about the teachers and parents to the researcher,

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In the past, we had teacher meetings until very late night. Yet, that was
not so effective. Although we talked a lot, we rarely got good results.
Parent meetings are the same cases. We cannot accept all parents’
opinions because parents’ ideas are not so mature. Considering the level
of thinking of our teachers and parents, it is hard to practice fully

democratic decision making yet (Bi 29).

Some teachers said that there existed a chasm between teachers and administrators
because two administrators are a Catholic priest and a nun. A female teacher said, “It’s
not easy to talk with the principal. Moreover, he is a priest, which makes it more
difficult.” The principal and vice principal often ask teachers to “do service and
sacrifice,” and on the other hand, some teachers request proper compensations and
democratic procedures (Bi 23).

The principal and the vice principal have many commonalities. However, their
leadership style is quite different. The principal is a charismatic person, whereas the vice
principal is more caring and soft-spoken. These different characters might function
positively as if father and mother often do at home. Yet, sometimes a lack of
communication between, and even the disharrnonized leadership of, the two
administrators cause confusion among teachers and students.37 For instance, since the
principal stresses character formation but the vice principal does the preparation for

college entrance exams, teachers cannot easily decide between the two (Bi 23; Bf 2, p. 5).

 

’7 The researcher experienced embarrassment because of a lack of communication between the principal
and the vice principal. He emailed to the vice principal for the study at BMHS and asked her for the

principal’s permission. He received permission from the vice principal. However, at the conference of
professional development, the researcher acknowledged that the principal did not know about the study.

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4-2-4. Professional Community

Teachers at BMHS answered negatively as to whether the school was a professional
community. They believed that the professionalism of teachers had to be presented
during teaching classes and counseling students. Many teachers whom the researcher
interviewed said that it was hard to develop their professionalism as instructors because
they had too many tasks. Teachers at the school generally teach their major subjects
around ten hours per week, teach after-school programs, lead special subjects, and do the
dormitory duty. Most teachers mentioned the dormitory duty as a big barrier to focus on
teaching classes. A female teacher complained that the school hardly provided support
systems to develop teachers’ professionalism (Bi 23). Another teacher contended that for
teachers to be professionals, the school should provide the teachers with professional
autonomy, but the school did not (Bi 26).

The teachers at the school are relatively young. Many of them are in their
twenties or thirties. There are a few teachers who have teaching experience at other high
schools. So, they need opportunities to learn about teaching from other experienced
teachers within and outside of the school. However, many teachers pointed out that
effective communication was lacking among faculty members at BMHS. A teacher
referred to the structure of the teacher offices in regard to the deficiency of
communication (Bi 25). To be clear, at most Korean schools many teachers share a large
office, whereas at BMHS teachers have their own spots in the classrooms which is the
same as in the US. Most teachers had no connections with other teachers outside of the

school because the school is located in a rural area (Bi 23; 26).

119

 

Administrators also believed that the teachers needed more endeavors to develop
their professionalism and collaborations among them. The vice principal said that the
amount of teachers’ tasks was not too much in the sense that teachers taught classes only
ten hours per week (Bi 29). According to the principal, the school provided teachers with
good programs to improve their professionalism, e.g., seminars for good school and
teacher conferences (Bi 28). Although both teachers and administrators admit that the
school is in need of professional community, they have quite different notions about the
causes of the deficiency.
4-2-4-1. Professional Development
BMHS has several professional development programs for faculty members. Seminar for
a good school, spring teacher conference, and summer conference for alternative school
teachers are the main programs. Seminars for a good school aim at providing teachers
with an understanding of psychological theories of personality so that teachers develop
teaching and counseling methods based on the theories (Bd 1, p. 45). The seminars cover
the theories of Freud, Adler, Erickson, Maslow, and so on. They take place once per
month. The researcher observed the seminar that occurred in September. On Friday at
5:00 pm, teachers and administrators gathered in the teacher office (Bf 3, p. 36). The
vice principal prepared fruits and snacks for the seminar. Mr. Jung, a head teacher of
senior classes facilitated the seminar. A female teacher made presentation about
Erickson’s theory for ten minutes. The facilitator made short comments. A teacher
talked about self-identity of teenagers. Another teacher reported her experience related to

the students’ thinking and how it differed from her own. The vice principal elaborated on

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the importance of emotional development of a child. The principal made last comments.
The seminar ended at 5:40 pm.

Spring teacher conference takes place for two or three days in February. February
is a month when an academic year ends in Korea. All faculty members evaluate the year-
long activities and plan for a new academic year. A teacher said that administrators and
some teachers such as head teachers usually talked at the conference (Bi 24).

Summer conference for alternative school teachers takes place for two days
during summer vacation.38 This conference is publicized outside of the school. The
conference aims to provide professional development to teachers at alternative schools.
especially Catholic teachers. Around thirty people, including the researcher, attended the
conference in 2005. Around seven teachers of other schools and similar numbers of
parents who wanted to send their children to BMHS participated in the conference. The
vice principal seemed to have planned the conference, but on that day Mr. Jung chaired
all programs. Most programs of the conference were lectures spoken by experts on
alternative schooling outside of the school. The history of alternative schools in Korea.
alternative schools in other countries, cases of other alternative schools in Korea, and the
Catholic idea of schooling were main topics covered during the conference. A teacher.
parent, student, and graduate of BMHS made presentations on the school experiences
from each perspective. Participants listened to the speeches of the speakers for the most
part, and at the late night of the first day they had a group discussion time. Some
participants talked with each other until after midnight.

4-2-4-2. Social Work Office in School (SWOS)

 

’8 Recently several conferences for alternative school teachers have taken place in Korea. Many of them
are planned and led by some alternative schools together. But this conference is hosted by BMHS.

I21

SWOS is an important system at BMHS to build a professional school community.
Recently some social work offices were housed at schools in Korea. Most social workers
of SWOS belong to the Association of SWOS affiliated to the Health and Welfare
Department of Korea. Yet, the social worker at BMHS belongs to the school exactly like
teachers. So, teachers consider the social worker as a member of teachers and the
collaboration between SWOS and teachers is good (Bi 33). SWOS aims at helping
students with solving and preventing their social, psychological problems and achieving
the school’s aim for character formation through developing special programs (Bc 1, p.
46).

The SWOS at BMHS is located on the first floor in the new building. The tables
of one head teacher and a social worker are on the corner, and a cozy sofa and a round
table are placed nearby. A tidy small room labeled group counseling room is in the office.
There are some board games and jenga where students play. The office is filled with
balladic music. The office seems to be rest area for students. Students often come to the
office, talk with their friends on the sofa, and play games during break times.

The social worker provides counseling to students. She also leads one group for
educating for human rights on Fridays. Developing and leading family relationship
programs, collaboration between school and local community, and sound school culture
are her jobs. She said that teachers and administrator helped her well with doing her jobs
so that she liked to work at the school.

4-2-5. Tensions within the School Community
The students at BMHS look free. Their behaviors and attitudes as well as outward

appearances such as clothing and hair styles seem to be unrestrained. The students enjoy

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autonomy at the school, but the autonomy seems to be in tension with responsibility and
lawlessness. The students at BMHS are different from each other in terms of academic
ability, background location, and motive for entering the school. There are also
differences among teachers, for instance, religious and lay faculty and different teaching
backgrounds. Therefore, autonomy and difference are significant themes which need to
be discussed to understand the community within BMHS.
4-2-5-1 . Autonomy
Most alternative schools cherish individual autonomy unlike other academic schools in
Korea. BMHS also tries to value students’ individual autonomy in some directions. First,
the school provides various academic and nonacademic programs that students can
choose. The students are supposed to take the same classes according to their grade level
on Monday through Thursday until 4:00 pm. Yet, for after-school programs, students
freely participate and choose courses. Academic courses such as mathematics, reading,
English, and Japanese as well as nonacademic ones such as piano, drum, soccer, and
dance are offered. Furthermore, for programs for youth growth and club activities carried
out on Fridays and Saturdays, students’ decisions are valued. Students choose a group
activity to participate on Friday. Among the choices are studying human rights, making
movie, drama, wooden craft, and cooking. Students do club activities once a month on
Saturday. They can choose one among around fifteen clubs such as bowling, fishing,
photography, mountain climbing, and the like.

Second, the school wants to encourage students autonomously and willingly to
participate in the school activities and follow the school rules rather than force them to do

so through regulations and coercion. In the early days of the school, since many students

123

were drop-outs and not interested in the study, the school allowed students not to
participate in the classes when they reported to their teachers. The faculty believed that
the students’ personalities and hearts needed to be healed and educated first of all, and
when their hearts were cured, they would enter the classrooms. Some students had
smoking habits and were older than eighteen years old. So, the school allowed them to
smoke at a certain place at the school.

The school’s policy of valuing students’ autonomy often causes a dilemma.
Students, once in a while, confuse autonomy with lawlessness and forget their
responsibilities. The researcher often observed that some students did not enter the
classrooms during class times and instead walked around on campus or talked with each
other on the bench. For senior classes, fewer than half of the students attended the
classes. At some classes that the researcher observed, several students came in the
classrooms five or ten minutes after the classes started. Some freshmen and juniors
smoke in the smoking place, although persons who are younger than eighteen years old
are not permitted to smoke legally.

These days the school faculty has difficulty harmonizing autonomy and
responsibility. Until recent years the school emphasized students’ autonomy and thus the
catchword was “let’s wait.” Yet, the school began to change the policy. The school
stressed responsibility or principle as well as autonomy. A teacher said, “In the past,
imposing principles to the students is helpless to them, but now our school needs more
clear principles. The situation is changed. I believe that our students are not ready to
enjoy fully their autonomy. If students are given autonomy when they are not ready,

their autonomy may be lawlessness” (Bi 2]). Rev. Moon said, “Autonomy needs

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principles. Autonomy without principle would be dangerous liberty. Although we need
to help students as they wish, we, as educators, also-have to assume our responsibility in
teaching principles” (Bi 28).

While many students do not appreciate the autonomy that the school allows. some
students use the autonomy in appropriate ways. A graduate said that after he struggled
with autonomy in his early years at the school, he came to understand the importance of
responsibility and living together in order to protect the autonomy of himself and others
(Bd 2, p. 36). A female senior said that while she had lived in a free atmosphere in the
school, she found herself and her dream (Bi 09).
4-2-5-2. Difference
Students enter BMHS with various motives. For some students, BMHS is the last
opportunity school to get a high school diploma because they already quit their previous
schools. Other students wanted to experience various programs that the school offered.
Still other students wanted to study in an autonomous environment. So, at BMHS there
are so-called students at risk, students who have experiences of studying in other
countries, and students who have a strong sense of individualism. Moreover, students’
academic abilities are very different from each other. Many students’ academic
achievements are relatively low, but some students’ levels are quite high. Students’
background locations are also various. Many students came from Seoul metropolitan
area, some from Chung-Cheong Province where the school is located, and others from

other locations.39

 

’9 Recently the school administrators try to restrict locations where applicants live. That is, the vice
principal believes that if parents live in the distant places from the school, their participations would be
harder. Moreover, the school has a family relation program, which requires students to go home every

125

Many students at BMHS experience difficulties because of the differences
existing among students. Age, gender, and personality are important factors resulting in
the differences. There is a strict hierarchy between juniors and seniors as in the army.
Although violence has disappeared gradually, senior students still often talk to their
juniors in authoritarian attitudes. For example, after school some students played soccer.
while several others watched it. A senior playing soccer commanded a freshman
watching it to join the game. The freshman ran into the dormitory to bring his soccer
shoes, complaining to his friends. A female student complained about male students’
rude behavior to her. She said that male students led everything and females had to
follow them because females were in the minority at the school (Bi 04). Many students
encounter conflicts resulting from personality differences. As they experience difficulties.
they become used to the conflicts and try to avoid them rather than overcome them (Bi
24). While many students are struggling with the differences, several students learn
crucial lessons from the experiences. A senior student said, “Everybody plays his/her
role. I’ve learned something from even students who are really different from me and
from students I don’t like. I understand from my experiences that there is no one who is
unnecessary in this world” (Bi 01).

Teachers refer to the differences between male and female teachers,
administrators and teachers, and religious and lay faculty. Teachers often express
negative feelings or experiences from the differences. A female teacher who had worked
for seven years at the school said that she felt uncomfortable with male teachers (Bi 23).

She experienced male teachers’ prejudice against female teachers. Another female

 

other weekend. So, the school would not accept the students who live in places where travel to home takes
more than around three hours.

126

teacher said that the policy of dormitory residence endangered female teachers’ job
security because married female teachers might not stay in dormitory often enough. The
differences between administrators and teachers were discussed in the previous section.
There are two priests and three Catholic nuns in the school. Teachers often talked about
the Catholic principal and vice principal. Some teachers said that since administrators
were priest and nun, it was harder to dialogue with them. To be sure, they believed that
the priest and nun tended to ask teachers to make sacrifices and do service rather than to
adopt democratic procedures.40

Table 8, 9, and 10 summarize to what extent students and teachers experience and
perceive a sense of community, democratic community, and professional community in
BMHS.

Table 8. Whether they experience a sense of community

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sense of community Agree/disagree Expressions
Students Intimacy + “I will contact with the friends I
met at this school during my life
time.”
Caring + “Teachers care for us carefully but
sometimes do not understand us.”
Trust - “Administrators are avaricious and
seek a good reputation of the
school.”
Teachers Meaningful - “The relationships among teachers
relationship are not very close.”
Shared vision - “I’m not sure whether teachers
share the aim of the school.”

 

 

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

 

’0 A nun teacher’s following saying shows that religious people value order and obeying more than
democratic decision among their world: “We, Catholic nuns. do not decide our own will by ourselves. but
obey commandments by the religious order. I came to this school willingly because my religious order sent
me here” (Bi 21).

127

 

Table 9. Responses to question as to whether BMHS is democratic

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Agree/disagree Expressions
Students + “It is democratic compared to other schools.”
“It is democratic to some degree, around eighty or ninety
percent.”
Teacher - “I give to this school bottom score regarding
s democracy.”
“I can’t say that the school is an open organization.”
Parents + “The school values the participation of parents.”
“Let us try to change the school.”

 

 

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

Table 10. Responses to question as to whether BMHS is a professional community

 

 

Professional Agree/disagree Expressions
community
Teachers Professionalism - “We need improvements in

professionalism with regard to
teaching subficts.”

Collaboration - “Communication among teachers is
not so active.”

+ agree; ++ strongly agree; - disagree; -- strongly disagree

 

 

 

 

 

 

4-3. Outline

In this chapter, the characteristics of the two site schools are depicted. I have described
how the students, teachers, and parents experience a sense of community within their
schools and perceive the schools as democratic and professional communities. In the
next chapter, I compare two schools in terms of the main themes of the school
community, such as a sense of community, democratic, professional community, and
tension within community. In addition, I discuss two schools within the framework of
three models of community that I developed. Lastly, I analyze the reasons why the two

schools have been developed in a different way.

128

 

5-1 . Comparisons

5. Chapter Five: Discussion

Table 11 summarizes the features of the two research sites, i.e., BMHS and GVHS in

terms of three thematic categories - sense of community, democratic community, and

professional community

Table 11. Summary of Two School Communities

 

BMHS

GVHS

 

Sense of Community

- The school members often
experience individual
relationships, such as
intimacy and caring.

- The school members
experience not only
individual relationships but
also communal relationships
such as belongingness,
mutual trust, and
interdependence.

 

Democratic Community

- Democratic systems have
been well established (e.g.,
All-School meetings, parent
meetings, and teacher
meetings)

- Democratic culture has not
fully developed yet.

- Students and teachers
experience a strong sense of
democratic community.

- Democratic culture has
been set up in some aspects.

 

 

Professional Community

 

- Teachers try to improve
their teaching methods, but
they are not confident of
their being professionals.

- Collaboration is not their
culture.

 

- Teachers perceive
themselves to be
professionals but do not need
collaboration among teachers
regarding teaching.

 

5-1-1. Sense of Community

Comparing to the images of high schools in Korea reported in the literature and the

popular press, both BMHS and GVHS are somewhat strong school communities. The

school members such as students, teachers, and parents at the schools experience a strong

129

 

sense of community to some degree. However, the study data suggests that the extent

and the characteristics of community in each case are quite different. Whereas students

at GVHS mostly like their school and generally express that they feel a very strong sense
of community, students at BMHS have more varied comments about community. While
people at BMHS often mention a sense of community focused on individual relationships,
reflecting intimacy and caring, people at GVHS refer to more collective experiences
involving interdependence, belongingness, and mutual trust.

Students at BMHS enjoy intimate relationships among and between students and
teachers. Many students have close ties with other same-grade students and their teachers.
It is noteworthy that such close relations between students and teachers are unusual in
Korean high schools. It is possible that such relations are found only at tiny alternative
schools like BMHS. Certainly, intimacy seems to be a distinctive feature of the school as
a community. Caring is also another quality that the students often feel at their school.
They believe that the teachers take care of them properly. However, their experiences of
caring are limited in the sense that mutuality is lacking in these relationships. As
discussed earlier, many seniors and administrators demonstrate distrust of each other.
Students complain that administrators enforce more regulations, and administrators say
that seniors often disregard school rules.

In contrast, school members at GVHS experience a sense of community in a
broader and deeper way. The sense of community at GVHS includes both individual and
communal characteristics. The relationships of students at GVHS with other students
encompass more than intimacy. The students not only come to have intimate relations

with other people but also have learned essential lessons from experiencing their

130

community life. That is, they understand that living together is difficult but valuable and
that interdependence is necessary for life. Sensing the importance of interdependence,
they come to acknowledge the value of other people, they find joy in communal life, and
they develop their personalities. Interdependence contributes to students’ sense of
belongingness. They understand the value of other people and the importance of the
community to which they belong. The students at GVHS are proud that they are
members of the school.

Mutual trust is a significant quality of a sense of community (Sergiovanni, 1994;
Yoo, 2005). Students at GVHS believe that teachers are excellent and put much effort
into teaching them. Teachers also say that GVHS has a reputation as a prestigious school
because of the personal and academic quality of its students. For GVHS, mutual trust
seems to be the foundation of the high degree of interdependence and belongingness that
the school members experience. Thus, interdependence, belongingness, and mutual trust
are critical qualities for individual and communal relationships in community. People at
GVHS have not only good interpersonal relationships among the members but also strong
solidarity with the broader school community.

To sum up, both schools have a strong sense of community but people at GVHS
experience deeper and broader senses of community than those at BMHS. At GVHS,
both individual relationships and communality are valued, unlike relationships at BMHS.
This difference seems to be associated with the fact that school members at GVHS have
strongly shared visions. Of course, both schools have mission and vision statements.
Written mottos or goals are easily found at the two school buildings. However, a written

vision is not always an enacted vision shared by the members. BMHS has goals and a

131

vision as a Catholic alternative school. Yet, the values expressed by the principal and
teachers are different, and students demonstrate an absence of a shared vision. By
contrast, at GVHS administrators, teachers, and students know what they pursue.
Commonly referred to expressions of their shared values, such as GVHS spirits, the ten
commandments for job selection (Table 3), or public addresses (e.g., Table 4), embody
the school’s vision. The school culture has developed based upon these values
throughout the history of the school. So today, school members come to understand the
vision of the school as they study and live within the school culture.
5-1-2. Democratic Community
When a school enjoys two kinds of autonomy, the school can be a democratic community
in a full sense (Lim, H., 2005). That is, a school needs to have autonomy from central
offices (e.g., site-based management) and school members such as teachers, parents, and
students also need to exercise their rights as key parts of the school. In regard to the
autonomy from central offices, while GVHS has very limited autonomy in designing
curriculum, implementing student recruiting policy, and financing, BMHS enjoys
relatively strong autonomy as an alternative school. However, what the students and
teachers of the schools think more importantly is whether or not they can exercise their
rights as a key part within the school.

Both BMHS and GVHS have democratic structures or procedures in some sense,
and many students at the schools experience a sense of democratic community. Since
BMHS is a small school, students at the school directly participate in decision making of

the school through the All-school meetings. On the other side, at GVHS, the student

132

council works on behalf of the students, and once in a while students directly suggest
their ideas to the school through suggestion boxes.

While students at both schools believe that their schools are democratic to some
degree, teachers and parents perceive their schools differently. BMHS sets up a
democratic system for students, teachers, and parents. Teacher meetings and parent
meetings are supposed to be places where teachers and parents discuss schooling with
administrators. However, many teachers and some parents rarely say that those meetings
are the appropriate arenas for democratic decision making. The school has external
structures for teachers and parents to participate in operating the school, but the top-down
leadership style of the administrators often inhibits the system from functioning properly.
Parents hardly complain that their school is undemocratic, but the teachers often do.
Certain influential parents actually have some impact on deciding school activities.
Although many other parents admit that they do not influence making decision, they
understand that the school tries to value the parents’ role in schooling.

GVHS also has some procedures through which the school can be a democratic
community. Teachers elect head teachers and they discuss various school issues with
administrators at the teacher meetings. Even though these procedures are not as many as
at BMHS, the administrators and teachers often effectively make use of them.
Consequently, teachers believe that they are significantly involved in operating the school.
In contrast with teachers, parents are not encouraged to participate in the school
discussions. Whereas some parents want to be involved more actively in schooling, most
parents just appreciate the school faculty for educating their children. It seems that

parents’ trust in the school makes it unnecessary to participate actively in schooling. as a

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point made in research on effective Catholic Schools in the US (Bryk, Lee, & Holland.
1993). In their comprehensive study on Catholic high schools, Bryk and his colleagues
(1993) found low levels of participation by parents in the governance of the schools
because “the foundation of the relationship between parents and Catholic schools is
fiducial, predicated on trust between professionals and parents” (p. 307).

BMHS and GVHS have their own strengths and drawbacks in building
democratic communities within their schools. BMHS has well-established systems for
building a democratic community. Students, teachers, and parents all officially have
rights to be involved in the schooling. They actually participate in the meetings, which
take place quite frequently. The suggestions, however, do not seem to work effectively.
Teachers rarely show up at the All-school meetings and parent meetings. Even when
teachers do attend, they speak their opinions reluctantly partly because of a lack of trust
in the administrators. Teachers’ distrust and administrators’ top-down leadership style
make one-way communication dominant at the meetings. Consequently, many teachers,
some parents and students are not satisfied with the democratic features of the school.
The case of BMHS shows that it is hard to build a democratic community only with good
systems when democratic culture, such as trust and participation. has not been formed
sufficiently.

The case of GVHS presents a very different feature of a democratic school
community. GVHS has some specific structures related to building a democratic
community, e.g., student council, teacher meetings, and suggestion boxes. These systems
are quite common at other high schools in Korea. Nevertheless, many students and

teachers at GVHS perceive their school to be a democratic community, whereas many

I34

other high school members do not. As a student of GVHS says, each system or structure
at the school, such as teacher meetings, suggestion box, or student council functions
properly. “We had similar systems like here in my middle school. But they did not work
very well. They were just formality. In contrast, here student council and suggestion
boxes are really different. These are extremely important for us” (Gi 02). GVHS has
built a democratic community within the school in spite of having no unusual structures
or systems because democratic culture takes root in the school, based on mutual trust
among the school members formed throughout the school history.
5-1-3. Professional community
The idea of professional community is not familiar to the teachers at either of the schools.
The teachers mainly talk about professionals as teachers or professionalism, not
professional community. They believe that teachers have to be experts on subject
contents, teaching methods, and character formation. Yet, their emphasis is slightly
different. Teachers at BMHS equally stress subject contents and character formation
including counseling, but teachers at GVHS place more emphasis on subject contents.
This difference seems to reflect the different characteristics of the students or mission.
While teachers at GVHS are confident that they are professionals, teachers at
BMHS are not. Administrators at both schools say that their teachers need to learn more
to be professionals. They point out that the teachers lack the knowledge of pedagogy.
Most teachers at GVHS teach their classes in a very traditional way, which typically
means teacher- and lecture-centered teaching methods. Of course. in some cases, such
methods can be effective. However, the traditional methods are so predominant at

Korean schools that they cause a number of negative consequences. It is widely

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criticized in Korea that the traditional teaching method fails to nurture students’ creative,
critical ways of thinking. It is just like “an act of depositing” at bank in some senses as
Freire (1997, p. 53) says. Teaching classes with test-preparation books, sometimes found
at GVHS, is a modified example which adopts the traditional teaching method. At such
classes, students are only interested in finding the right answers to the questions in a
limited time. They usually cannot afford to think deeply, creatively, and reflectively.

Even though teachers at GVHS know the limitations of the traditional method,
they rarely try to change it. Most teachers are accustomed to teaching in such a way and
they believe that it is effective in preparing students for college-entrance exams. As the
vice principal of GVHS says, educating for achieving the school’s goal, that is, nurturing
democratic citizenship based on the Christian belief, often conflicts with teaching
students in preparation for college exams. The principal at GVHS hopes that classes
taught by teachers are more aligned with the school’s spirit or vision rather than the
preparation of college entrance exams. Only a few teachers try to achieve the goals
through improving teaching methods. They adopt methods of group discussion, team
projects, and presentation by students at their classes, which are not yet popular in
Korean high schools. However, their endeavors remain individual tasks and do not
become collective concerns.

At GVHS, pedagogy or teaching method has not been a critical issue for teacher
meetings or yearly teacher conferences. Since most teachers think that the work of
teaching is the teachers’ individual business, systemic collaboration among teachers
related to teaching classes seldom happens. A few teachers attend professional

development meetings or teacher study groups outside the school. GVHS teachers’

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individualistic orientation to teaching seems to be a barrier to growth of their
professionalism. In order to make the classes livelier and to teach democracy and justice
more effectively at classes, teachers need to shape a professional learning community that
focuses on improving teaching and learning through reflective discussions and
collaboration among teachers.

Teachers at BMHS teach classes in a little more unconventional way. Since the
school is an alternative school, teachers have more autonomy in developing new teaching
methods and subject contents. A music teacher teaches rhythm through making students
create music with various rhythms. A language art teacher plans to visit a local rural
town with his students in order to collect myths and legends. Many teachers try to have
students actively participate in the classes. Such efforts of the teachers often have been
done individually. Based on the absence of significant elements of professional
community - shared norms and values, focus on student learning, reflective dialogue, and
collaboration (Louis & Kruse, 1995; Louis, Kruse & Marks, 1996) - the community of
the teachers at BMHS can hardly be called a professional community. “Nurturing shared
identity sown out of professional autonomy” (Scribner et al., 2002, p. 52) and calling for
attention to teachers’ individual needs are critical in building a strong professional
community.

5-1-4. Summary

The analysis of the data of the schools shows that a school can be a democratic
community based on school members’ strong senses of community but it may not be a
professional community. The analysis also reveals that perception and experience of a

school as community can be different among school members such as students, parents,

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and teachers. More importantly, even where school members experience a strong sense
of community, the characteristics of the sense are quite different according to schools.
Such different features of community are discussed with respect to school community

models in the next section.

5-2. Models of School Community

Many educational researchers and reformers maintain that making educational policy and
running schools based on the understanding of school as community is an effective way
to achieve schools’ goals. Moreover, such an approach challenges the recent educational
mentality which overemphasizes instrumental, technical features of schooling. However,
as I discussed earlier, seeing school as community does not always result in positive
consequences. Some researchers point out that stressing communality once in a while
leads to coercion, exclusivity, intolerance, and the like.

To date the studies of school community done by educational researchers often
depend upon the dichotomy of gemeinschaft and gesellschaft spelled out by Tonnies
(1957). This study tries to develop more thoroughly the theoretical foundations of school
community, beyond the dichotomy, by reviewing the notions of community discussed by
Western social thinkers and in Asian philosophy. The data derived from the two Korean
high schools show that how actual school communities can be understood in terms of the
models of community based on Western and Asian thought.

The models are individualist, communitarian, and alternative models. The
individualist model is shaped by a contract which represents the individual interests. This

model places more emphasis on individual relationships formed to help members achieve

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their goals than on communal solidarity. This model, considered a type of community,
fails to overcome alienation, a problem associated with individualism. The
communitarian model seeks communal solidarity above accomplishment of individual
interests. In this model, community is not a means to achieve individual goals; rather
communal relationship and cohesion is an aim in itself. Individuals are valued as
members of community. When communality is overemphasized, individual autonomy of
the community members may be suppressed. Moreover, the community may be
exclusive and have no concern with social justice outside of community.

In the alternative model, a person is neither an individual entity nor just a part of a
group, but is considered to be a relational being with people and nature. Thus, in terms of
this model, individuality can be fully actualized in community. Yet, the alternative
model is not an exclusively different model. That is, the model shares some aspects of
individualist and communitarian models in different ways. This model tries to synthesize
the strengths of the two models and solve the weaknesses. To be specific, in this model,
one can properly deal with possible tensions within community, such as solidarity in
tension with autonomy, commonality in tension with diversity, and caring in tension with
justice.

In this section, I discuss to what extent BMHS and GVHS have characteristics of
the three models. This discussion leads to conclusions about how the two schools
perceive and deal with tensions within the school communities.

5-2-1. Among Three Models
Individualist, communitarian, and alternative community are possible theoretical models.

However, in practice it is hard to find such perfect models. In this study, both school

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Table 12. Two Schools in Terms of Three Models

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BMHS GVHS

Individualist — Students and teachers try to - Teachers believe that
Model achieve their own individual goals. teaching classes is individual

- They value the instrumental worth business.

of the school. - The school lacks systemic

- They lack shared visions. collaboration among teachers

- Professional works are individual for teaching classes.

business.

- Students and teachers are allowed,

but not required to participate in

various activities.

- Individual relationships like

intimacy and caring are more

important than collective

relationships.

Communitarian - The school officially pursues a - The school’s goal is deeply
Model home-like school community. connected to goals of students
- Administrators ask teachers to and teachers.

make sacrificial commitments to - The school members have
the school. strong social solidarity based
- Some religious faculty members on shared visions.
have strong dedication to the - Teachers have strong
school. commonality.
- Many students have close - Personal and professional
relationships with teachers. works are not clearly
separated.
- Students and teachers are
required to participate in
school activities.
- Collective relationships such
as interdependence,
belongingness, and mutual
trust are more dominant.
Alternative - The school pursues deep - Both individuality of students
Model relationships between nature and and social solidarity of the
people through various programs school community are equally
cherished.
- The school encourages
students to have various
meaningful relationships with
other people.
- The students learn proper
relationships between nature
and people and people’s
responsibility to care for nature

 

I40

 

communities have some characteristics of all three models, summarized in Table 12.
Although the two schools cannot be categorized into a perfect model, they may have
stronger orientation toward certain models. While BMHS has more individualist model-
oriented characteristics, GVHS has more communitarian or alternative model orientation.
5-2-2. BMHS
BMHS certainly has some characteristics of a communitarian model of community. A
traditional notion of home is a good example of this model of community. The
traditional home, based upon the proximity of blood, location, and mind, cherishes the
unity and intimacy of the family members. BMHS officially pursues a home-like school
community. People of the school call the dormitory a quality home. The structure of the
dormitory building and the residence policy of teachers present the external aspects of the
home-like school. The design of the dormitory is like a condominium in the US.
Teachers have to stay in the school dormitory every other night. In practice, many
students experience close relationships with other students and adults, just as they do at
home. By tradition, Catholic priests and nuns are supposed to dedicate themselves to the
community that they belong to. For them, it seems that the personal and the professional
are merged into the school community. Communal goals rather than individual goals are
more important. Furthermore, the religious administrators ask all teachers to behave as
the religious faculty does, including spending every other night at the dormitory and
dedicating much of their life to school activities.

As written in the documents of the school and evidenced in the words and
attitudes of administrators and some faculty, BMHS embraces the communitarian model.

The features of the individualist model, however, are more dominant in observation of

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the broad school community. True to the individualist model, people primarily pursue
their individual interests and value associations that are instrumental, that is, help them
achieve goals they have set for themselves. For many students and faculty at BMHS,
there is worth in community as long as it contributes to the achievements of its members’
goals.

Students of BMHS enter the school with various motives. They appear to
maintain their individual goals regardless of the school’s goals, which is somewhat
surprising, given that students live and study at the school for years. Students, who
perceive that the school helps them achieve their individual goals, appreciate this fact.
Students, who do not believe the school is helping them achieve their goals, complain.
For instance, entering college is a goal for many students. Some students and parents ask
the school to offer more appropriate programs to assist with preparation for college
entrance exams. Getting into college is such a strong motivation for students that some
seniors stop attending school before graduation once they have achieved college
acceptance. They pursue their individual interests rather than being concerned with the
interests of the school. Of course, there are a few students who absolutely agree with the
aims of the school and appreciate the fact that they are members of the school community.

Many teachers began their jobs at the school because of their individual needs.
Their professional goals are very individualistic and there are few shared vision
representations of any. For the teachers, achieving their individual goals may be
separated from pursuing the school’s goals. Teachers sometimes complain when they

believe that the school hinders them from seeking their individual interests. For instance,

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teachers dislike the residence policy of teachers because they think that it prevents them
from living their private life comfortably.

Teachers at BMHS emphasize personal rights and responsibilities, as much the
Brandeis’ liberal teacher community described by Westheimer (1998). They take the
responsibilities for teaching classes, planning and leading special programs. They
perceive their responsibilities to be personal rather than collective. Teachers work hard,
but they do work by themselves. They often do not participate in activities or meetings
because they do not think that participation is their responsibility. In an individualist
model, participation is considered to be a right (Westheimer, 1998), and so many teachers
do not participate in parent meetings, All-school meetings, and a youth growing program.

Many students and teachers experience intimacy and caring from their
relationships. Intimacy and caring are important qualities of individual relationships
within community, whereas interdependence and belongingness are collective
relationships. At BMHS individual relationships are more pervasive than collective
relationships.

5-2-3. GVHS

Some characteristics of the individualist model of community are found at GVHS. For
instance, teachers rarely collaborate with other teachers regarding planning and teaching
classes, believing that teaching classes is individual business. The school predominantly
has features of communitarian and alternative models of community, however. Students
and teachers enter the school with various motives but they actively interact with the
values and visions of the school. As they study and work at the school, they come to

have a strong communal solidarity based on shared values. Their goals seem to be deeply

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related to the goals of the school. For students, when they decide which colleges to enter,
they are influenced by what the school pursues, that is, service for society.4|

Some teachers try to achieve the school’s goals, which align with their individual
goals. A teacher writes a proposal for the Asian school connection project to UNESCO,
and tries to find sister schools in developing countries such as Laos or Vietnam. He
wants his students to help students in the sister schools and learn about the world through
relationships with them.

For most teachers at GV HS, private and public affairs or personal and
professional jobs are not clearly separated. Some teachers bring food that they made at
home and share with teachers in the teacher office. A teacher buys fruits to share with
other teachers to cerebrate his son’s winning of a soccer game. Many teachers often
come to the school to see their students at night. A female teacher voluntarily teaches a
subject to some students after school because they need it to prepare for college entrance
exams.

In a communitarian model, participation is not just allowed, but required
(Westheimer, 1998). At GVHS, participation is highly valued. All students are required
to be involved in school activities such as spring and fall festivals and camping. When
school has special events like the yearly assembly for reviving faith, most teachers attend.
Along with participation, interdependence, mutual trust, and belongingness are also
easily found at the school. These communal qualities are main features of communitarian

model of community.

 

4' Deciding which colleges to enter is most important for Korean students at academic high schools. Most
students want to enter prominent departments at prestigious colleges. The criterion of good majors and
colleges is to get betterjobs. So, many smart students want to enter law, medical, and business
departments regardless of their propensity. Yet, many academically talented students who graduated from
GVHS became school teachers and Christian ministers.

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Teachers have strong commonality. Half of the teachers are alumni of GVHS.
Their home town is Grand Valley or somewhere nearby. Most teachers live in Grand
Valley. Some of them are couples. Most teachers have Christian backgrounds. Such
homogeneity likely contributes to making the school a communitarian model of
community.

GVHS has some features of an alternative model as well as a communitarian
model. Many features described above as a communitarian model can be also ascribed to
an alternative model. In an alternative model, persons, most importantly, exist as
relational beings. GVHS emphasizes meaningful relationships among students and
authentic individual meeting as I and Thou with others. Nurturing the Power of
Humanity through Life published by GVHS says, “True life is genuine meetings among
people. I become genuine ‘I’ through a deep relationship between you and me” (GVHS,
2000). GVHS students have various relationships with their classmates, roommates, club
mates, and “sisters.” Some students say that they discover themselves and learn the value
of persons through the relationships. Some teachers experienced authentic individual
meetings with the former principal, Mr. Park, and try to establish similar relationships
with students. At the school, students’ relationships with nature as well as with other
people are stressed, similar to Taoist doctrines. All students take an ecology class, plant
some vegetables, and go camping in the mountains. Through these activities, they learn
the worth of nature and how to care for nature. The school’s emphasis on a deep
relationship with nature is likely to be derived from Asian thought. Such features are

critical qualities of an alternative model. To decide whether GVHS has more

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characteristics of an alternative model, we need to understand how the school addresses

other tensions which are sometimes found in a communitarian model of community.

5-3. Tensions within Community

A number of educational studies point out dangers that sometimes result from
communitarian relationships (Bushnell 1998; Furman & Starratt, 2002; Green, 1993;
Noddings, 1996; Peshkin, 1986; Young, 1986). A strong sense of community sometimes
leads to the suppression of individuality and autonomy, the discouragement of diversity
and inclusiveness, and the indifference to social justice. Where these dangers are solved,
an alternative model of community is present. In other words, solidarity and
communalin coexist with individuality, diversity, and social justice in the alternative
model of community. In this regard, the alternative model is an ideal model as
theoretically conceived. This section discusses how, in practice, the two schools
successfully deal with such tensions or fail to harmonize those qualities.

5-3-1. Solidarity vs. Individual Autonomy

Solidarity is not necessarily opposite to individual autonomy. Yet, we often see that in a
society where individual autonomy is emphasized, social solidarity becomes weak, and
vice versa. In the contemporary US, where modern individualism permeates, social
integration declines (Bellah, et a1, 1985; Putnam, 1995a). In contrast, when shared values
are so strong and social cohesion pervades, the school members’ individual autonomy
may be suppressed. Peshkin (1986) demonstrated this to be the case at Bethany Baptist

SchooL

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However, theoretical studies of social solidarity argue that individual autonomy
can coexist with strong social solidarity. Moral solidarity is formed and sustained only
when all members of community ensure their individual autonomy (Kang, S., 2005).
People can seek cohesive relationships - for the purpose of relationship - or for moral
responsibility for others on the basis of their individual autonomy. The literature related
to democratic community also ensures that autonomy and solidarity are key qualities of a
democratic school community (Fleming, 2002; Sim, 2003; Strike, 1993).
Communication, discourse, or dialogue is a main vehicle in shaping a school community
where autonomy and solidarity are simultaneously established (Buber, 1970; Haberrnas,
1984; Mawhinney, 2004; Shields, 2004; Sim, 2003; Strike, 1993).

At GVHS both social solidarity and individual autonomy are equally valued.
When students are asked about the most distinctive characteristic of the school, they often
answer that it is the school’s honoring of individual autonomy. Student council is a good
example that ensures the autonomy of students. Students, through the student council,
can actively get involved in making some decisions of schooling, such as school festivals
and club activities. On the other hand, the suggestion of a first year teacher that “all
members of this school have a strong unity,” leads one to recognize that solidarity is also
another key feature of GVHS.

The tradition that the school values students’ individual dignity and autonomy has
derived from the former principal, Mr. Park. He returned from the US where he studied
theology for several years and emphasized a democratic way of thinking and living.
based on the Christian belief which esteems human dignity. In the 19505, democracy and

Christianity were unfamiliar idea and religion respectively for many Koreans. especially

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in rural areas like Grand Valley. In addition to this, difficult school situations contributed
to shaping the school culture honoring individual students. In the early days of the school,
it was difficult to recruit students. The principal and teachers at that time treated the
students very importantly and faithfully. Because of these considerations, GVHS did not
lapse into collectivism, and instead gave special attention to students’ individual dignity.

On the other hand, GVHS could keep a strong solidarity as a community as well
as value individual autonomy because the principal and teachers dedicated themselves to
the school. Their personal lives were not separated from their work at the school. They
tended to consider the school to be their family and had mutual responsibility to each
other, which could be connected to the Asian thinking. Over time, the school has
inherited their spirit and attitude of commitment. In the culture respecting individuality
and commitment to the school, students and teachers have learned how to deal with
others and school community.

Students and faculty members experience a sense of belonging on the basis of the
shared vision. They understand the visions and values of the school very well. Two
graduates whom I interviewed said that they had stronger identity as GVHS alumni than
as students at one of the best universities. Solidarity and autonomy are not in tension. but
in harmony at the school.

The communication systems of GVHS help to produce autonomous solidarity.
Communication or dialogue enables the school members to have mutual understanding
and recognition, which are bases of the solidarity. Students and teachers communicate
with each other through teacher meetings, student council, and a suggestion box. They

form solidarity through talking about shared values on the one hand, and they ensure

I48

individual autonomy through listening to individual voices on the other. Students hear
about values of the school addressed by faculty members or guest speakers and their
voices are also heard by the school teachers and administration through dialogues,
student council, and a suggestion box. To sum up, people at GVHS experience both
social solidarity and individual autonomy.

BMHS shows quite different features regarding solidarity and autonomy. At the
school the two qualities are in tension. The culture that individual persons are esteemed
and cared for has not yet been entirely established. In the early days of the school, at-risk
students entered the school, and they often left when they encountered difficulties. Some
students were too problematic for teachers to deal with. In such a situation, it was
difficult to honor all students’ individual autonomy and care for all. Many students used
to do simply what they wished. They hated studying and regulations. Faculty members
understood the needs and situations of the students and tried to respond appropriately to
individual needs. Thus, the behaviors of the students and the responses of the faculty
members began to shape culture at the school.

Today students pursue individual autonomy, whereas administrators stress
solidarity. Administrators try to make solidarity stronger, but their efforts often meet
resistance because students perceive this stress on solidarity as endangering their
individual autonomy. The principal and the vice principal attempt to strengthen school
rules and academic climates in order to achieve the school goal of higher achievement,
but some students are against the administrators’ efforts. Many special programs aim to

increase the solidarity of students, but students do not actively participate in the programs.

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Most students of BMHS have strong individuality, and there is a lack of compelling
vision or other motivation to bring them together.

Communication systems are in place, but they do not work effectively. Active
communication does not occur during the all-school meetings, teacher meetings, and the
like. Thus, it is difficult for autonomous solidarity to be formed in the school. Students
request more individual autonomy because this is what they expect from an alternative
school. By contrast, the school administrators emphasize a commitment to the school
community. Requesting rather than listening is predominant in the school.

5-3-2. Commonality vs. Diversity

Gemeinschaft-like communities are shaped on the basis of affinity of blood, locality, and
mind (Tonnies, 1957). Such communities often discourage diversity and difference
among community members (Furman & Starratt, 2002; Green, 1993; Peshkin, 1987;
Young, 1986). Yet, many social theorists argue that the recent proper understanding of
community presumes diversity and pluralism (Bellah et al., 1985; Selznick, 1992).
Differences in schools can provide “a rich tapestry of human existence that must be the
starting point for a deeply democratic, academically excellent, and socially just
education” (Shields, 2004, p. 127). For instance, Kratzer (1997) finds from her case
study of Jackson Elementary School, an urban school in LA, that differences and
diversity strengthen and enrich the school community by “allowing creative processes to
bring about better solutions” (p. 22) and protecting a school from undesirable elements
like exclusivity, intolerance, and lack of individual identity, which exist in some

communities. She argues that familiarity rather than similarity draws people together

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into community and thus “fostering familiarity help[s] to bridge diversity and difference”
(p. 25).

Both GVHS and BMHS seem to be homogeneous, at first look, compared to most
schools in the US. All school members share the same racial background and language.
Since the schools are religion-affiliated private schools, their values and missions are not
expected to be diverse. Moreover, student composition was not decided by students’
addresses, but by students’ willingness to enter the schools. So, students’ ideas of
education are more likely to be similar within each school. Nevertheless, there are still
substantial differences within the schools, and the differences are significant for the
school members. Recently differences based on class, geographic, and generation have
received special attention among Korean social theorists (Kang, S., 2005). The
differences are considered to be causes of severe social conflicts in the Korean society
including schools. Therefore, how to deal with differences matters in Korean schools as
well as in the Korean society.

Although diversity is not apparently distinctive at GVHS, there are various
differences in family SES, location, religion, and academic achievement among students.
Yet, such differences among school members do not cause conflicts within the school.
Instead, differences are protected, not suppressed. The differences existing among
students do not diminish the sense of community of the students. Of course, at GVHS.
there is a mainstream culture, i.e., a culture representative of middle class, residents of
Grand Valley or Keoyng-Sang Province, who are Christians, and have high academic
achievements. Yet, students from the mainstream culture generally do not look down

upon students from peripheral culture and do not try to force assimilation into the

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mainstream. Students at GVHS are interested in differences. They concern themselves
with dialects and customs of other areas and want to learn the differences. They have
learned from their experiences that diversity enriches their ways of living and thinking.
Such open-mindedness of the students to differences seems to be influenced by teachers.
Teachers of the school treat students equally regardless of students’ differences, and
value their individuality.

Teachers have a relatively high degree of commonality but do not alienate
teachers who are different. There is no discrimination between teachers as GVHS alumni
and non-alumni or male and female teachers. For teachers, differences of opinions and
ideology rather than external differences such as alumni and gender are more significant.
Most teachers express their ideas freely in public arenas and do not feel pressure to be
assimilated or normalized, which is not a common occurrence in strong communities
(Fendler, in press). Nevertheless, the difference of opinion does not lead to creative
processes to bring about better solutions through in-depth discussions and dialogue, as
Kratzer (1997) showed occurrence at Jackson Elementary School. The coexistence of
differences presents the most salient feature of community of GVHS. In sum, diversity is
never discriminated and willingly tolerated, although rarely celebrated, at GVHS. In this
regard, GVHS falls short of a “community of difference” suggested by Furman and
Starratt (2002).

BMHS also appears to be a homogeneous community. At BMHS, however, there
are real differences that result in weakening the school community rather than advancing
it. For students, the differences of age and gender are important. The Korean society

cherishes seniority, and age is a key factor in determining seniority. Hierarchy is shaped

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by age at BMHS as at many other high schools in Korea. Younger students have to speak
in a strict way of politeness to their seniors even though they are in the same grade.
These characteristics are also similarly found at GVHS. However, while such features
are gladly accepted by students of GVHS, students of BMHS are uncomfortable in such a
climate. At GVHS, many younger students make meaningful relationships with seniors
through club activities and dormitory lives. Seniors and juniors have a team spirit, and
seniors care for their juniors. In contrast, at BMHS, an individualist climate reigns over
team spirit. Seniors and juniors organize themselves in a hierarchy as found in army or
bureaucratic organizations. Juniors listen to their seniors at BMHS because they are
bound to listen by rules. At GVHS, juniors listen to their seniors because they like their
seniors.

At BMHS, gender difference makes some female students feel uncomfortable.
They think that school activities and programs are mainly directed by males because the
number of female students is small. The school does not seem to discriminate against
females institutionally, but some females reported a male-centered culture at the school.
They think that some male students treat females impolitely.

Age and gender play an important role in making relationships among people in
the Korean society. In Confucianism, age and gender are key factors through which a
society functions properly. People of different ages and gender are supposed to have
mutual responsibility to each other (Shin, HS, 2004). Yet, in Confucianism as a ruling
ideology, age and gender often cause discrimination. That is, females and the young are

treated as the weak. BMHS reflects such a feature of Confucianism.

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In the culture of hierarchy, teachers reluctantly speak about their ideas frankly
that are different from those of administrators. Although the principal asks teachers to
suggest creative ideas, the climate, in which differences are not welcomed, is likely to
block teachers’ diverse thoughts. In sum, BMHS looks like a cohesive community, but
within the school there are tensions resulting from differences among school members.
5-3-3. Caring vs. Justice
Caring and justice are often compared or contrasted in considering appropriate values for
communities (Enomoto, 1997; Jos & Hines, 1993; Noddings, 1999; Strike, 1999a; 1999b;
Starratt, 1991; 1994). Caring pursues building communities where nurturance and
relationships are highly valued, whereas justice aims at building communities where
people are treated fairly and get what they deserve (Strike, 1999a). Caring and justice are
not inherently antithetical, and can be harmonious. In the Catholic Schools illustrated by
Bryk, Lee, and Holland (1993), the languages of caring and justice are woven together
and justice is for the sake of caring and human well-being (Strike, 1999b). James
Comer’s schools in New Haven, Deborah Meier’s schools in East Harlem, and the
Jackson Elementary School in Los Angeles are also good examples that show successful
harmony of caring and justice (Kratzer, 1996; 1997; Meier, 1995; Schorr & Schorr, 1988).
Even though these schools have mostly poor and minority populations, all the members
of the schools, i.e., students, teachers, and families, build together caring and just school
communities where they all experience respectful and trusting personal relationships,
putting the vision of social justice into practice.

At BMHS nurturing, caring, and relationship receive great attention. “Let’s wait

and go to their eye heights” is its motto of teachers. Teachers wanted to wait until

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students got ready for study, and they tried to understand students from the students’
perspective. The school was initially built for providing students at risk with proper
educational opportunities. So, faculty members believed that their students needed caring
treatments and encouragements. Teachers allowed students to do what they wanted and
tried to have intimate relationships with them. Recognizing that their at-risk students
required unique approaches, the school provided a smoking room for the students and
was lax in enforcing attendance. Many students experienced caring and nurturing
relationships. On the other side, as the school emphasizes caring, students tend to
disregard their responsibilities and school rules. For instance, some students often do not
attend their classes without giving notification or return to dormitory after due time.
Recently, the school has come to stress school rules and students’ responsibilities more
strictly. As students’ demographic characteristics change, the school has tried to create a
more normative school climate. In this year only two students out of the current
freshmen were dropouts. Such a school policy causes conflicts between students,
especially seniors and administration. In sum, at BMHS caring and justice are in conflict.
Moreover, the school does not show great interest in social justice related to the
larger community. As teachers say, taking care of their students is the primary concern
for the school. It appears that the school cannot afford to concern itself with social
justice outside of the school. At its inception, the school accepted and taught at-risk
students, which was really a contribution to the enactment of social justice. Now,
however, the school mostly accepts typical students, not at risk students or dropouts. and

there is little mention of social justice.

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At GVHS, justice is stressed not only in school documents and teachers’
addresses but also in school culture. Students value school rules. Students believe that
teachers do not show favoritism. In fact, many teachers show more interest in poor or
weak students. Although academic climate is cherished, students of lower achievements
rarely feel shamed. Students do not feel discrimination because of their gender, location.
religion, family backgrounds, and so on. While justice is valued formally, caring
pervades the school. Teachers take care of students properly and students care for one
another. At GVHS caring does not seem to be in conflict with justice.

One of the critical characteristics of GVHS is a strong concern with social justice.
As the school motto. “salt and light,” shows, the school is really interested in the
enactment of social justice. Salt is used to prevent rottenness, and light to enlighten a
dark place. Mr. Park, the former principal, says, “The criteria of the success of persons is
dependent not on whether they have wealth or political power, but on whether they serve
other people (Park, 1977, p. 218). Under the influence of the school’s spirit, many
students consider their future career or majors at colleges in terms of the justice
perspective. Moreover, many students are involved in activities related to rendering
social justice. For people at GVHS, their efforts for social justice are derived from their
care for people in need.

5-3-4. Summary

I have discussed the commonalities and differences of the two schools in terms of three
models of community. On the surface, the schools look similar. The school members of
both schools experience a strong sense of community. Nevertheless, I have found that

the schools have critical differences. I have shown that solidarity and autonomy.

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commonality and diversity, and caring and justice are in tension at BMHS, whereas they
are in harmony at GVHS. Therefore, I would say that BMHS presents an individualist

model of community, and GVHS reflects an alternative model.

5-4. Key Principles That Make a Difference

Why are these two schools so different? What are key principles in making them
different? Organizational components might be considered. BMHS is a quite new school.
For the school, there has not been enough time to solve conflicts or tension among school
members and adjust school culture to the school’s organizational structure. Changes have
occurred in the mission and clientele of the school. In contrast, GVHS, with a longer
history, has stabilized over the years. Recruitment may be a critical component. GVHS
recruits students having high academic achievement and middle class family backgrounds,
although the recruitment is determined by social situation regardless of the school’s
intention. The school has recruited principals and many teachers out of alumni. Such
recruitment might function significantly both in providing stability and in building a
strong community within the school.

In addition, whether or not the school members have a clearly shared vision and
what the nature of the vision is constitute the main factors related to the differences of the
two schools. The key task of leadership is to induce school members to share the visions
and values of the schools. Leadership shapes school values and culture and, in turn.
leadership is influenced by values and culture. Therefore, a clear shared vision and
leadership that makes it possible are some factors for building strong school communities.

This analysis is consistent with the finding from another study that examined other

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Korean schools (Kim, Y.H., 2005). Kim, Y.H. (2005) finds from her study on twelve
Korean schools that leadership, shared vision, and the capacity to manage conflicts are
critical factors to shape strong communities within Korean schools. This study also
suggests one more important cause. Leadership, school values, and culture could be
connected to spirituality. Spirituality is just recently becoming a significant issue in the
discourse of educational leadership. For both schools are religiously affiliated, religious
spirituality can influence building the school communities. Here, I elaborate on three
interrelated but distinctive themes, shared vision, leadership, and spirituality as key
factors that make a difference.

5-4-1. Shared Vision for Justice

A number of reformers and researchers agree that clear values and visions shared by
school members are essential for building effective schools or strong school communities
(Bryk, et al., 1993; Sergiovanni, 1994; Starratt, 1995; Westheimer, 1998). This case
study confirms current knowledge of the relation between shared values and school
communities. Furthermore, it also shows that the nature of the shared values and visions
matters.

At BMHS, the school members have identity of the school as an alternative
school. It is assumed that school members, such as administrators, teachers, and students.
share the school visions and values. Yet, it is somewhat difficult, surprisingly, to find
clear communal visions and values of the school on which all school members agree.
Since administrators, teachers, and students report their own values of the school, and
communication among these members has not been carried out actively. communal

visions and values of the school are not in evidence.

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The recent change of demography of the students highlights the lack of shared
vision of the school. The school began as an alternative school caring for students at risk.
In the situation where school dropouts were largely ignored, the school founders sought
to practice Catholic love through schooling. Under this goal, many Catholic churches
supported the foundation of the school and several religious people dedicated themselves
to the operation of the school. However, the school today has changed into a school
serving typical high school students who want a variety of educational programs. The
administrators consider this transition to be positive and even the result of successful
schooling (Bi 18). They seem to believe that an increase in applicants, especially
students of higher academic achievement instead of dropouts, enhances the school’s
reputation. They do not intentionally exclude at-risk students, but they no longer recruit
dropouts. Even though some head teachers participate in the admission process. the
principal and the vice principal make most of the key decisions.

In regard to this transition, some teachers question whether the school keeps the
initial vision of the school, that is, concerns for marginal students. The change of the
school’s vision without adequate discussion among school members may lead to conflicts
of values, such as solidarity to individuality and caring to justice. Students ask for more
individual autonomy and caring, but the school administration stresses solidarity and
responsibility. Since the changed values may not be the consensus of the school
members, the school values do not play a key role in making harmony.

In contrast with BMHS, Seo (2002), in a study of a Korean elementary school,
showed that the transition of school values and the conflicts among school members can

contribute to building a school community. The teachers and parents at the elementary

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school pursued a place where all members worked together and had an equal
participation. However, they experienced conflicts between and among teachers and
parents because of their different political power and thinking. Through many meetings
and in-depth discussions derived from the conflicts, they came to understand each other’s
difference and change their own values. Difference and conflict may result in building a
“community of difference” as at that elementary school or it can weaken a school
community as at BMHS.

On the other hand, GVHS has strong shared visions and values. Administrators.
teachers, and students at the school clearly understand what the school pursues. The
values and visions of the school are easily found at teacher meetings, sermons addressed
by several faculty members, and special occasions as well as in written documents and
programs. In other words, the vision is institutionalized in the everyday life of the school
(Starratt, 1995). Strong solidarity at this school has been shaped based on the clear
shared visions and values.

At the center of shared visions of the school is justice. Many people at the school
honor the autonomy and rights of individual people and are especially concerned with the
rights of the weak. The school vision for justice opens the school community to a
broader society. Thus, a great number of students are doing social service activities in a
local community, and many graduates are also struggling for the promotion of social
justice. Honoring individual autonomy and rights is a key element of caring. The school
members’ concern for justice is expressed through caring for others. Care and justice are

harmonious in the school. The people at GVHS experience and enjoy solidarity,

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individuality, (social) justice, and caring without conflicts, on the basis of a shared vision

for justice.

5-4-2. Transformational Leadership

Leadership plays a significant role in shaping, sharing, and rooting visions and values in
the schools. The leadership of the both schools’ principals seems to have some
commonalities. They seem to be charismatic figures. Yet, they are different in dealing
with school values and visions.

Rev. Moon, the principal of BMHS, looks solemn because of his priesthood and
imposing appearance. He has firm beliefs on schooling. Yet, it seems that his beliefs are
not shared with other faculty members fully. He is a founder of the school and remains in
charge of managing the school. Consequently, he sometimes behaves and talks like an
owner of the school. He tries to maintain connections to students, for instance, by
teaching classes. However, some students and teachers do not feel comfortable talking
with him. The vice president of the student council says, “I know the principal tries to
reach out to us. But his thinking is often out of accord with ours.” (Bi, 01)

The leadership of the vice principal, Ms. Cha, has significant impact on the school
climate. She looks like a caring mother and tries to honor the individuality of students.
She has also confident beliefs about the programs of the school. Yet, her beliefs are not
communicated with other teachers and the principal effectively. So, the leadership of the
administrators sometimes causes confusion among other school members.

Although the administrators have many meetings with teachers, teachers often
complain that their voices are not heard. The two administrators’ leadership is not

democratic in the sense of the Western idea. Since the exercise of leadership is strongly

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influenced by institutional contexts and community (Hallinger & Leithwood, 1998),
hierarchy in Catholic churches and authoritarianism in a Korean society are deeply
embedded in their leadership. The principal and vice principal as Catholic practitioners
dedicate themselves to the school and ask other people such as teachers, parents, and
students to do the same. They wield their authority, much as the patriarch of a traditional
Confucian family would do. However, not all teachers and students are members of
Catholic churches, nor are they familiar with the culture of the traditional Confucian
family. So, their leadership causes tension or conflicts with some younger teachers and
students.

According to Starratt (1995), leadership needs to involve “a communal
articulation of the vision that builds into a covenant” (p. 14) and requires continuous
renewal of schools through “everyday celebrations of the vision” (p. 15). Yet, the
administrators of BMHS did not structure a collective vision that all school members
willingly agreed to, and thus they were not able to lead the change of the school actively.
Instead, they just followed the transition of a social situation, such as the demographic
change of applicants. Such leadership might cause tension among the school members.
and appears to be the case at BMHS.

The GVHS principal’s leadership has some commonalities and differences with
that of the BMHS principal. Mr. Park II is also a charismatic person. He preaches
sermons at the worship at school and the school church. Many teachers of the school
were his students. His job at the government strengthens his charismatic character. He is
confident in his beliefs on education. He has a clear vision for the school and shares his

beliefs with other school members fully.

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When discussing leadership of GVHS, the leadership of Mr. Lee, the previous
principal and Mr. Park, along with Mr. Park 11, needs to be considered altogether. Mr.
Lee had a little different leadership from Mr. Park II. He was a friendlier person and
talked much with teachers and students. Yet, his conviction on education was very solid
like Mr. Park 11’s. He communicated his values with other school members effectively.
Although Mr. Park II and Mr. Lee have different personalities and interact differently
with teachers, students, and parents, they both are confident in their school vision and
values and have eagerly tried to communicate them with other school members. The
leadership of the two principals was strongly influenced by Mr. Park, who was a principal
when Mr. Park and Mr. Lee attended the school. The transformational leadership of Mr.
Park became a model for his following principals. Mr. Park had charisma, idealized
influence, inspirational motivation, and individualized considerations, which are key
elements of transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Yoo, 2005). The clear
visions and values of GVHS had been initially formed by Mr. Park and have been
sustained and developed by the following principals. Now the visions and values are
shared with all school members.

When many students enter the school, they do not know exactly what the school’s
visions and values are. However, as they study at the school for years, they come to
understand the values of the school and like them. The change of the students is directly
and indirectly influenced by principals. The leadership of the principals has been a key
factor for the students to reflect on their thought and consider the school vision to be
theirs. The principals have transformed the way of thinking and living of the students. In

other words, they have raised “the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration” of the

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students (Burns, 1978, p. 20). To be specific, many students come to have an open mind
regarding diversity and be concerned with social justice. In addition, the principals’
transformational leadership contributes to forming the teachers’ trust in the administrators
as other research shows (Yoo, 2005). In sum, students and teachers of the GVHS come
to share the school vision and values and like them under the transformational leadership

of the principals.

5-4-3. Spirituality

For BMHS is a Catholic parish school and GVHS has a Christian tradition, religious
elements are significant for both schools. How Catholic and Christian religion influences
building school communities in the US is well documented (Bryk, et al., 1993; Coleman
& Hoffer, 1987; Parsons, 1987; Peshkin, 1986; Rose, 1988; Stronks et al., 1993; Wagner,
1990). Yet, these Korean schools reveal somewhat different results from the literature on
American schools. Catholic high schools in the US embrace caring and justice and are
highly concerned with social justice (Bryk, et. al., 1993). Some Christian schools in the
US pursue separation from society in light of a dualistic worldview that considers this
world to consist of the secular and the sacred (Kang, Y., 2001; Parsons, 1987; Peshkin,
1986). In addition, the schools tend to suppress individuality because of their strong
emphasis on communal beliefs of the schools. In contrast with these cases, BMHS, a
Catholic school, is struggling with conflicts between caring and justice, but GVHS, a
Christian school, enjoys individual autonomy of students and endeavors to promote social
justice. Therefore, understanding how religions such as Catholicism and Christianity

affect does matter.

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At BMHS, Catholicism had a significant impact on the founding of the school.
The religion was a key factor in forming the initial vision of the school and in its
foundation. All administrators and several teachers are Catholic priests and nuns.
Students take a religion class and have Mass regularly. Teachers have devotion time at
teacher meetings every morning. Religion at BMHS seems to be crucial in shaping the
school community. Moreover, the nun vice principal and teachers are dedicated persons
to education. They are very diligent and have close connections to students. However, it
is hard to find spiritual passion during the religious meetings such as Mass and devotion
time. Most students and teachers rarely speak of religious spirits concerning the visions
and values of the school. Religious elements are shown externally, e.g., in the statue of
Virgin Mary, clothing of the priest and nuns, religious class, and Mass. Yet, when it is
considered that spirituality forms a basis for values, a meaning system, and connections
with others (Meyer, 2005), spirituality is not the collective feature of the school. Catholic
spirituality is seldom deeply embedded in visions, values, policies, programs, and culture
at the school. At BMHS, there is a lack of “inspirational ideology,” which is a main
motivation for building effective and just communities in the US Catholic high schools
described by Bryk and his associates (1993).

The Christian religion at GVHS has played a critical role in forming values and
vision of the school throughout the school history. Mr. Park studied theology and was
devoted to the Christian faith. He became the principal of the school in an extremely
difficult situation at the cost of his prospective higher social position because of his
Christian faith.42 He tried to build the school on the basis of the Christian spirit.

Sacrificial love and service came to root in the school culture under his leadership. At

 

’2 He was offered the vice presidency of a seminary in Korea

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the very beginning of the school, Mr. Park and teachers voluntarily returned half of their
salary to the school to pay the school debts and rebuild it. Christian spirituality has been
the foundation for the visions, values, culture, and leadership of the school.

The spirit of the school from its early days has been transmitted as its legacy until
now. For spirituality provides “a meaning system from which a person operates” (Meyer.
2005, p. 23), it can be found in various places and forms. At religious activities, such as
school worship time and yearly assembly for faith revival, participants experience
religious passion or values. Christian spirituality is also rooted in ordinary, trivial
activities and affairs, for example, teachers’ prayer at teacher meetings, discussion in the
classes, and caring behavior for students. A number of teachers, parents, and students say
that at the core of the schooling is the Christian spirituality. For the school, the Christian
religion becomes Christian spirituality. While religion provides us with “a rubric for
working with the deity,” spirituality is “the energy that connects us to the deity” (Houston,
2002, p. 6 cited in Meyer, 2005, p. 22). GVHS nurtures higher values, such as social
justice, diversity, caring, and individual dignity, based on the Christian spirituality. So,
various qualities like individuality and solidarity, justice and caring are harmonized in the
schooL
5-5. Outline
In this chapter, I have discussed the two schools within the framework of the models of
community. GVHS moves toward the alternative model, and BMHS is near the
individualist model. I talked about the three factors that make a difference between the

schools. They were shared vision of justice, transformational leadership, and spirituality.

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In the last chapter, I summarize my dissertation research and suggest two
implications for practice and policy. After that, I point out some important questions that
I have not studied completely, and provide suggestions for future studies related to this

research.

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6. Chapter Six: Conclusion
6-1. Summary
The intention of this case study is to explore two Korean high schools as communities
within the framework of three models of community, that is, individualist, communitarian,
and alternative models. Before conducting the research, I developed a framework of
three models of community, informed by Western and Asian literature of community. I
conducted qualitative research adopting an ethnographic method at the two research sites.
I interviewed more than forty school members and observed classes, teachers meetings.
parents meetings, and everyday lives of students and teachers.

To understand the school communities, I have investigated how the school
members perceived that they were part of a community, more specifically, that there was
democratic community or professional community at their schools. Both schools, BMHS
and GVHS, officially stress communality of schools, and in practice many school
members of the schools experience a sense of community and agree that democratic
community is present. Yet, the degree and nature of their experiences are somewhat
different. While students of BMHS feel intimacy and caring, students of GVHS
experience communal qualities. such as interdependence and mutual trust, as well as
intimacy and caring.

At BMHS, students and parents consider their school to be democratic, although
in a limited way; however, teachers do not have the same sense. At GVHS, students and
teachers strongly perceive their school to be democratic; however, parents do not report
much participation. Teachers of BMHS, who do not feel that they have much say in a

democratic community, complain that their voices are not heard. While parents are in a

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similar situation at GVHS, they rarely complain about a lack of opportunity for
participation because they trust the school faculty. Teachers of both schools hesitate to
say that they are professional communities. Based on consistent reports, there is a lack of
professional collaboration among teachers in both settings. Teaching work, they believe,
is an individual business

To examine school communities in terms of three models, this study has dealt
with tension among values which easily happens within communities. A number of
research studies of community point out that community based on sameness often may
not coexist with individual autonomy and diversity. Justice is also considered to be
opposite to the quality of caring. The case of BMHS confirms the current
acknowledgement that communality and caring are often in tension with individuality
and justice within a community. BMHS is an example of a school in which
characteristics of individualist and communitarian models are opposite to one another.
Although BMHS has some qualities of the communitarian model, it, over all, is closer to
an individualist model. So, at BMHS individual autonomy and solidarity, difference and
commonality, and caring and justice are in tension or conflict.

On the other hand, the study of GVHS shows the possibility of building an ideal
community within a school. As GVHS officially emphasizes individual autonomy and
justice, its students and teachers not only honor diversity and social justice but also feel
strong solidarity and caring. At GVHS such qualities as individuality, solidarity, caring.
justice, and diversity are in harmony. Moreover, at this school, relationships among
people and between people and nature are highly valued. In this vein, GVHS directs

toward an alternative model of community, which integrates Western thinking of

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community with Asian thought. Nevertheless, GVHS has some limitations in the sense
that the school seldom tries to build a professional community that intends to improve
teaching and learning in classrooms.

I have discussed the causes of differences between the two schools. At GVHS
there have been clear shared visions for justice and transformational leadership, through
which vision is shaped and shared. Furthermore, spirituality has functioned as the
foundation of the school vision and values and the leadership. By contrast, at BMHS the
initial vision changed, leadership became unstable. and conflicts among school members
appeared.

I hope that this study contributes to the enrichment of the knowledge of school as
community. My study constructed a conceptual framework of community based on both
Western and Asian thought and explored two high schools in an international context.
This case study vividly revealed how and why a school was struggling with tension
among values in a community but the other school enjoyed various values related to
community. This study also has discussed how the issue of community is related to
shared vision, transformational leadership, and spirituality, which are significant topics in

educational research.

6-2. Implications for Practice and Policy

6-2-1. Organizational Structure and Culture

A number of school reformers and researchers argue for building communal
organizations to make schools more effective and successful (Bryk, Lee, & Holland,

1993; Coleman & Hoffer, 1987; Driscoll, 1989; Sergiovanni, 1996; Yang, 2002).

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Restructuring of school systems to create communal organizations has been one of the
main policies for school reform. Site-based management is a common example of
restructuring policy. This study supports that schools need to have characteristics of a
communal organization to be strong school communities. To be specific, when schools
have organizational structures promoting productive relationships and shared decision
making, the members of the schools sense that they are members of a community,
experiencing caring and intimacy, and democratic participation to some degree.

However, this study importantly implies the limitation of restructuring for real
school change. Restructuring may not work effectively unless culture is reshaped
properly for the restructured organization. My cases show that when structure and
culture of a school are harmoniously integrated, the school can be a school community
with which school members are satisfied.

BMHS has well established organizational structures and procedures for creating
solidarity and a democratic community. The school has tried to involve teachers, parents.
and students as well as administrators in decision making processes. For instance, all-
school meetings, teacher meetings, and parent meetings, which are held regularly and
frequently, are excellent systems for students, parents, and school faculty to discuss
schooling and shape communality. However, the systems do not work as well as they are
intended. At BMHS, a culture of mutual trust has not developed fully. A lack of trust
among administrators, teachers, and students tends to hinder members from active
discussions and the full of participation of teachers and students. Although BMHS
appears to be a good school having communal structures, the members of the school are

struggling with tensions among them.

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The case of GVHS also supports the significance of a culture properly aligned to
an organizational structure. Democracy is a key value for GVHS. The school has
organizational structures necessary for carrying out the value. Student council, a
suggestion box, teacher meetings, and an election system for head teachers are some
examples. Unlikely at BMHS, these systems at GVHS work effectively because an
appropriate culture becomes the foundation on which a democratic community can be
shaped. Since students believe that teachers listen to their voices, they actively take part
in the student council and give suggestions. Teachers consider themselves to be a key
part of the decision making processes. A culture of mutual trust and honoring of
individuality permeates the school and enables the school to be a strong, democratic
community.

Restructuring is an important policy for school reform. However, as some
researchers (Datnow & Castellano, 2001) and this study show, developing proper culture
or “reculturing” is necessary for successful school changes. Building or changing
systems or structures of a school may be possible by a few policy makers or
administrators, and it might be accomplished in a relatively short time. Yet, it is
extremely difficult to shape or change culture because culture is “taken-for-granted basic
assumptions held by the members of the group” (Schein, 1992, p. 15). So, to build an
authentic school community, all school members, such as students, teachers, parents, and
administrators need to work together for quite a long time. Policy makers should not
believe that a top-down reform policy can change schools as a whole. This study implies
that reform policy needs to be concerned with helping school members willingly shape

culture proper to their school communities.

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6-2-2. Continuity of School Values and Leadership

1 have discussed that GVHS tends toward an alternative model of community, which I
have argued is an ideal model of school community. The school has characteristics of an
alternative model partially because there has been continuity of the school visions and
values. The initial values of the school, that is, emphases on individuality of students,
democracy, and justice continue to be important values in the present; they have been
continually developed throughout the long history of the school. The school members.
including students, teachers, and parents, experience strong solidarity on the basis of the
long-standing school values, and at the same time they honor individuality and social
justice according to the teaching of the school values.

The school values have remained strong due to the continuity of the school
leadership. Even though other persons took the role of principal after Mr. Park, who
established the foundation of the school vision and values, the school values became
more solid and rooted in the processes and routines of the school. The principals who
succeeded Mr. Park were his students, understood what he wanted to do, and tried to
follow him. Teachers as well as principals have made commitments to the success of the
school and development of the school values. Some of Mr. Park’s students became
teachers, came back to GVHS, and had contributed to the continuity of the schooling. Of
course, when students of a school become teachers and administrators of the school
continually, the school may be a closed and exclusive community. It is true that GVHS
has such a potential danger. However, for schools in a rural area and small cities like the

Grand Valley, it was very hard to recruit good teachers. If the alumnae teachers of

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GVHS did not come to the school, GVHS would suffer from a critical shortage of
teachers.

By contrast, in the case of BMHS, a principal and a vice principal have worked at
the school from the foundation until today, but the school is struggling with the transition
of the school values. The school leadership has not properly dealt with the structural and
cultural changes resulting from shifts in student demography and social situations; this
reality has led to tensions among school members. Therefore, I conclude that the
continuity of school values and leadership depends not only upon whether a same person
holds a leadership position for a long time, but upon how leaders continue the spirit of the
school.

In the Korean public school system, teachers are supposed to move to another
school every five years, and principals four years. A number of principals work at a
school for fewer than four years because they want to move to better positions (Kim,
Y.K., 2004). The policy of a short term in office contributes, in a sense, to the
development of educational equality in that poor schools can have highly qualified
teachers. However, stable school visions and values are seldom shaped and continue
under the leadership of principals who work for only one or two years (Sim, 2003). This
study implies that teachers and administrators need to work for longer years at a school
and they need to be recruited not by the central government, but by the local school or a
committee that is knowledgeable about the school. In sum, policy makers need to pay
special attention to how to keep the continuity of school values and leadership in the

Korean context.

174

Principals of public schools in the US may work at a school for a longer time.
Yet, the longer term leadership of a principal does not always mean continuity of school
values and leadership as the case of BMHS shows. Korean policymakers need to develop
a policy that promotes the continuity of leadership in order to sustain and develop school
visions and values. Especially, schools in difficult situations, e.g., urban and rural schools.
might need special assistance to keep continuity of school value and leadership.
Recruiting principals and teachers out of the school alumnae administrators and teachers
who fully understand the school visions and values may be an effective way as GVHS

practices.

6-3. Suggestions for Future Research

The relationship between individuality and community is a significant issue in
educational research as well as political, sociological, and philosophical research.
Individuality and community are often considered to be antithetical as in
liberal/communitarian debates. However, some social theorists and educational
researchers maintain that individual autonomy can be ensured where strong community is
formed and sustained (Fleming, 2002; Kang, S., 2005), and both individual dignity and
communality are highly honored in some schools (Bryk, et al., 1993; Kratzer, 1996).

I also have argued that individuality and community are not antithetical, but can
be harmonious. The students and teachers at GVHS experience a strong sense of
community, and at the same time understand that their individual autonomy is highly
valued. This case study makes a contribution to the development of an ideal school

community by revealing a vivid description of a school where such diverse qualities as

175

individuality, diversity, justice, and communality are harmonious in a Korean context. In
addition, this study has discussed how and why a school community does or does not
successfully deal with individuality and community.

My study intended to examine the entire school process of the research sites in
terms of models of school community. So, I mainly have been interested in
organizational structures, procedures, and culture of the schools. On the other hand, I did
not focus on teaching and learning in classrooms, which is the essence of schooling. 1
have not discussed fully how community is related to teaching and learning. How do
teaching and learning influence building and developing a strong school community
emphasizing individuality? How does a strong school community honoring individuality
improve teaching and learning in classrooms? How does communality influence a school
in achieving its academic mission? Whether or not building an authentic school
community is connected to improving school performances or student outcomes, and how
remain to be discovered? All these questions are critical ones related to this study but
they remain unanswered subjects for future research.

In this study I investigated two private schools having religious affiliations.
Although private schools are akin to public schools in Korea as I explained earlier, I need
to study public and non-religious private schools in the near future. Such a study may
provide some different considerations in building a strong community within a school.
Through the study I want to see whether religion, spirituality, or organizational
explanations make a difference, and how they interact to build an authentic school
community. This study is a beginning effort at doing research on a complicated but

valuable subject.

176

 

APPENDICES

1. The Methods of Data Collection

Formal Interview

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Administrators Teachers Parents *Students Local Total
community
BMHS 2 7 2 8 0 19
GVHS 3 6 3 8 1 21
*Students include graduates at each school
Informal Interview (with taking notes)
Administ- Teachers Parents Student Local Others Tot
rators s Commun a1
ity
BMHS 1 4 2 Many N/A Camp N/
leader A
GVHS 2 4 2 Many Workers, Speaker N/
barber Visitors A
Observation
Classroom Staff Parent Professional After- Dormit
meeting meeting development school ory life
activities
BMHS X X X X X X
GVHS X X N/A N/A X X
Document Analysis
School School *News Books Papers Others
curriculum web-site letters regarding the and
Plan schools memos by
students
BMHS X X X X X Books
GVHS X X X X X Books

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*The newsletters of B.M.H.S are made by a teacher, and the newsletters of G.V.H.S by

students.

177

 

 

 

2. Coding Lists of the Data

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I78

BMHS
Types Students/Graduates Teachers/Administrat Parents/Others
Interview ors
Name Code Name Code Name Code
F ormal Student a Bi 01 Teacher a Bi 21 F Bi 41
Interview Student b Bi 02 Teacher b Bi 22 Mom
Student c Bi 03 Teacher c Bi 23 F Bi 42
Student d Bi 04 Teacher (1 Bi 24 Mom
Graduate Bi 05 Teacher e Bi 25
a Teacher f Bi 26
Graduate Bi 06 Teacher g Bi 27
b Admin. a Bi 28
Admin. b Bi 29
Informal Freshmen Bi 07 Teacher h Bi 30 J Mom Bi 43
Interview Juniors Bi 08 Teacher i Bi 31 F Dad Bi 44
Seniors Bi 09 Teacher j Bi 32 Camp Bi 45
Graduates Bi 10 Teacher k Bi 33 leader
Types (Observation) Code
Class Observations Bf 1
Teacher meetings Bf 2
Observations
Other Observations Bf 3
Reflective Journal Bf 4
Types (Document) Code
School Curriculum Plan 2005 Bd 1
Summer Conference Bd 2
Handbook
Event Plan on September Bd 3
News letters Bd 4

 

 

GVHS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Types Students/Graduates Teachers/Administrators Parents/Others
(Interview)
Name Code Name Code Name Code
Formal Student a Gi 01 Teacher a Gi 21 F Mom Gi 41
Interview Student b Gi 02 Teacher b Gi 22 M Dad Gi 42
Student c Gi 03 Teacher c Gi 23 M Morn Gi 43
Student d Gi 04 Teacher d Gi 24 Commu Gi 44
Student e Gi 05 Teacher e Gi 25 nity
Student f Gi 06 Teacher f Gi 26
Graduate Gi 07 Admin. a Gi 27
Admin. b Gi 28
Admin. c Gi 29
Informal Freshmen Gi 08 Dormitory Gi 30 Workers Gi 45
Interview Juniors Gi 09 Teacher g Gi 31 Barber Gi 46
Seniors Gi 10 Teacher h Gi 32 Cleaner Gi 47
Graduates Gi 11 Others Gi 33 Visitor Gi 48
Parents Gi 49
Types (Observation) Code
Class Observations Of 1
Other Observations Of 2
Reflective Journal Gf 3
Types (Document) Code
Schooling Plan 2005 Gd 1
School Brochure Gd 2
School Outline Gd 3
Newsletters Gd 4
Enrollment of new students Gd 5

 

 

 

179

3. Written Consent Form

Building a Genuine Community within School: a Case Study of the Two Korean Schools

To participants in the study:

This research investigates what a genuine school community looks like and how
such a community has been formed and developed. This research project is performed as
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the researcher’s Ph.D degree in educational
administration at the Michigan State University.

There are no predictable risks with this research. Even though there is no specific
benefit to be expected, potential benefit is in contributing to knowledge for school reform.
No cost and payment are associated with participating in the study. Pseudonyms
will be used for all individuals in the study and for the schools and the research will take
every step possible to insure confidentiality of the data.

I agree to participate in the research project and I understand that:

. The time required for interview is about 60 minutes.

2. My participation is entirely voluntary. I may decide to stop participation at any time
without penalty.

3. All my data are confidential. All data will be destroyed within five (5) years after
completion of the study.

4. All data are research purpose only and will not affect my grade or promotion.

5. If I have any questions regarding the study, or if I would like to receive a copy of the
final findings of the study when it finished, I can contact by calling or (e) mailing one
of the researchers, YoungTaek Kang or Dr. Susan Printy, at the addresses or numbers
below.

6. If I have questions or concerns regarding my rights as a study participant, or am
dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, I may contact — anonymously if
I wish — Peter Valisenko, Ph. D., Chair of the University Committee on Research
Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517) 432-
4503, or email: ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall, E. Lansing, MI.
48824. USA

~

 

I indicate my voluntary agreement to participate by signing below:

Signature

 

Date

 

Name (please print)

Please initial here for agreement to have interview recorded:

Name of Researcher: Kang, YOUIIJ Taek

 

180

Address of Researcher: 1639 Simian Village H East Langing, MI. 48823
Tel. 1-517—353-6839 or 051-754-9250
Email: kangyou2@msu.edu
Name of Research: Dr. Susan Printy
Address of Research: 412 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing. MI
48824 Tel. 1-517-355-4508 Email: sprinty@msu.edu

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H—IAI‘: 4189101888 8188481331 848780114. (7178218 018191 7851.

Peter Valisenko, Ph. D., Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects

(UCRIHS) by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517)432-4503, or email: ucrihs@msu.edu, or regular mail:
202 Olds Hall, E. Lansing, MI. 48824. USA

9‘99.“

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QIEZI O1%: 7808 E—‘I
1639 Spartan Village H East Lansing, MI. 48823
818 71 783:: Tel. 1-517-353-6839 or 051-754-9250
Email: kangyou2@msu.edu
81% XI 01 {337: Dr. Suszm Printv
412 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing
MI. 48824 Tel. 1-517-355-4508 Email: sprintv@msu.edu

4. Parental lnforrned Consent
Date

Dear Parent:

I am currently involved in a dissertation research addressing characteristics of
school as community. The research investigates what a genuine school community looks
like and how such a community has been formed and developed. This study is performed
as partial fulfillment of the requirements for my Ph.D degree in educational
administration at the Michigan State University.

I would like permission for your child to participate in a study that includes
interviews. Your child was chosen to participate in this study because his/her teacher
recommended him/her as interviewee. There are no foreseeable risks with this
participation in the interview.

Your son or daughter’s interview will be recorded and transcribed by myself. The
recording or transcribed script will be used only for study. If you decide to allow your
child to participate, you or your child is entirely free to stop your child’s participation at
any time. Pseudonyms will be used for all individuals in the study and for the schools
and the research will take every step possible to insure confidentiality of the data.

If you have any question, please contact me at 051-754-9250 or 1-517-353-6839.
Please sign and return this form. Thanks a lot.
Sincerely.

Researcher: Young Tack Kang

 

I have decided to allow my child to participate in this study. My signature indicates that I
have read this information above and have given permission for my child to participate.
My child’s signature indicates that he or she agrees to participate.

Child’s Name Parent’s Name
Child’s Signature Date

 

 

182

Parent’s Signature Date

 

 

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1639 Spartan Village H East Lansing MI. 48823
Tel. 1-517-353-6839 or 05 l -754-9250
Email: kangyou;@msu.edu

‘?I [1‘21 017377131: {I 3821151 ‘117‘1’ Dr. Susan Printv
412 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing,
MI. 48824 Tel. 1-517-355-4508 Email: sprinty@msu.edu

8444898444884884444 8848 48884484844484
48888484884484.

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183

5. Interview Protocol (for faculty)
Project: Building a genuine community within school

Time of Interview:
Date:

Place:

Interviewer:
Interviewee:

This research project is to investigate what a genuine school community looks like and

how such a community has been shaped and developed in the school. For this research I
have five sub-questions. Interviews will be carried out according to each question.

Research question #1

 

When and to what extent do you experience a sense of belonging and connection and care
in the school?

Main topic: a sense of community

Interview questions:

1) Are there shared beliefs and interests in your school? What are they?

2) Describe meaningfirl relationships in your school.

3) Can you tell me about a time when you experienced a strong sense of belonging?

4) Do you think that administrators and other teachers care for you?

5) If you have teaching experiences at other schools, compare the schools with this
school in terms of a sense of community.

Research questions #2

When and to what extent do you experience collaboration and collegiality among
teachers?

Main topic: professional community

Interview questions:

1) What are your beliefs about professional community?

2) Does your school have a goal of having a strong professional community?

3) Describe your experiences of collaboration with your colleagues.

4) How much time do you spend with your colleagues for planning, conducting, and
evaluating classroom works?

5) If you have teaching experiences at other schools, compare the previous schools with
this school in terms of professional community.

Research questions #3

When and to what extent do you perceive your school to be democratic?

184

Main topic: democratic community

Interview questions:

1) Does your school operate as a democratic community? In what ways?

2) Do teachers, students, and parents participate in setting school policies?

3) Do teachers participate in planning staff meetings and staff development programs?

4) Do you think that dialogue is a critical way for facing tensions occurred in your
classrooms and school?

Research questions #4

 

How do you perceive and deal with individual and group differences among school
members?

Main topic: diversity

Interview questions:

1) Describe individual and group differences in your school.

2) Do teachers in your school tend to be alike or do they tend to be different from one
another? Are students more alike or are they more different?

3) Is diversity or difference of opinion valued in your school community?

4) Is there any public discussion arena where dissent can be voiced in a risk-free way?

Research questions #5
How do the school members perceive social justice, and what do they do to achieve it?

Main topic: social justice

Interview questions:

1) Do you think that the advancement of social justice is one of key aims of your
school?

2) Do you think that your school is a just community? Why?

3) Describe the examples that your school tries to do for enactment of social justice
inside and outside the school.

6. Interview Protocol (for students)

Project: Building a genuine community within school

Time of Interview:
Date:

Place:

Interviewer:
Interviewee:

185

This research project is to investigate what a genuine school community looks like and
how such a community has been shaped and developed in the school. For this research I
have five sub-questions. Interviews will be carried out according to each question.

Research question #1

When and to what extent do you experience a sense of belonging and connection and care
in the school?

Main Topic: Sense of community

Interview questions:

1) Are there shared beliefs and interests in your school? What are they?

2) Describe meaningful relationships in your school.

3) Do you think that administrators and teachers care for you?

4) Can you tell me about a time when you experienced a strong sense of belonging?

Research questions #2

When and to what extent do you experience collaboration and collegiality among
teachers?

Main topic: professional community

Interview questions:

1) Do you think that your teachers help each other for their teaching works?

2) Describe your experiences of teachers’ collaboration in your class or other activities.

Research questions #3
When and to what extent do you perceive your school to be democratic?

Main topic: democratic community

Interview questions:

1) Does your school operate as a democratic community? In what ways?

2) Do students participate in setting school policies?

3) Do you think that dialogue is a critical way for facing tensions occurred in classrooms
and school?

Research questions #4

How do you perceive and deal with individual and group differences among school
members?

Main topic: diversity

Interview questions:
1) Describe individual and group differences in your school.

186

2) What do you feel when you have classmates very different from you in the sense of
physical and intellectual abilities and family background?

3) Are students more alike or are they more different?

4) Is diversity or difference of opinion valued in your school community?

Research questions #5
How do the school members perceive social justice. and what do they do to achieve it?

Main topic: social justice

Interview questions:

I) Do you think that the advancement of social justice is one of key aims of your
school?

2) Do you think that your school is a just community? Why?

3) Describe the examples that your school tries to do for enactment of social justice
inside and outside the school.

7. Interview Protocol (for parents)
Project: Building a genuine community within school

Time of Interview:
Date:

Place:

Interviewer:
Interviewee:

This research project is to investigate what a genuine school community looks like and
how such a community has been shaped and developed in the school. For this research I
have five sub-questions. Interviews will be carried out according to each question.

Research question #1

When and to what extent do you experience a sense of belonging and connection and care
in the school?

Main topic: a sense of community

Interview questions:

1) Are there shared beliefs and interests in your school? What are they?

2) Describe meaningful relationship in your school.

3) Do you think that administrators and teachers care for you?

4) Compare your previous schools with this school in terms of a sense of community.

Research questions #3

 

187

When and to what extent do you perceive your school to be democratic?

Main topic: democratic community

Interview questions:

1) Does your school operate as a democratic community? In what ways?

2) Do parents participate in setting school policies?

3) Compare your previous schools with this school in terms of a democratic community.

Research questions #4

 

How do you perceive and deal with individual and group differences among school
members?

Main topic: diversity

Interview questions:

I) Describe individual and group differences in your school.

2) Do you think whether or not diversity can contribute to developing your school
community?

3) Is diversity or difference of opinion valued in your school community?

Research questions #5
How do the school members perceive social justice, and what do they do to achieve it?

Main topic: social justice

Interview questions:

I) Do you think that the advancement of social justice is one of key aims of your
school?

2) Do you think that your school is a just community? Why?

3) Describe the examples that parents try to do for enactment of social justice inside and
outside the school.

188

8. Observation Protocol

 

Observer School Date:

Time .

Type of activity class ( ) staff meeting ) parents meeting ( ) others
I ).

 

 

 

 

Teacher Grade Subject # member
Synopsis of activities & Comments on community issues:
Description of room: Q1. Sense of community

Q2. Professional community
Q3. Democratic community
Q4. Diversity

Q5. (Social) Justice

 

 

I89

 

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