HIWIHHIWIWIHIHIIFH‘IWI WW 1 mg 0300 —|(0 _{ I I(I) 1007 This is to certify that the thesis entitled Parent Internet Usage presented by Jeremy C. Reuter has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the MA. degree in Family Studies ( (rifeflglz f3 /¥(C}jl/’/L/(" (JP, Major L9rof‘éssrt3‘?’s Sign'atu're Qt m7] Q” 7 A7, .36 22-6 Date MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution LIBRARY MiChiyun State University ‘ . _.—-o--c-o-I-o-I-c-o- o-o—o-o-o-c-o-o-o-a-o-o-Q--n-o-o-o-o-.--o-o-o-o-o—c—.—--n.-c_.--¢-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-a-—- PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE Jillizzlsz‘ligs 2/05 p:/ClRC/Date0ue.indd-p.1 PARENT INTERNET USAGE By Jeremy Charles Reuter A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family & Child Ecology 2006 ABSTRACT PARENT INTERNET USAGE By Jeremy Charles Reuter Internet access has become increasingly available with each passing year, and the capabilities of the World Wide Web continue to develop without in depth information on how parents utilize it as a parenting resource. The purposes of this research are to describe characteristics of parents' intemet usage and examine the relationships between these characteristics which include time Spent online, frequency of intemet access, number of average parenting topics searched, parents' self efficacy in using the intemet, and parents' perceptions of the rewards and costs of using the Internet as a parenting resource. Approximately 100 parents of children ages 0 to 5 years will be recruited for this study from local libraries and from online websites. The research will be conducted utilizing an online survey, available to respondents with access to the Internet, assessing usage of the Internet as a resource, perceived costs and rewards in using the intemet as a parenting resource, and user self-efficacy with online tools. Data analyses will include descriptive statistics, and correlation analysis. DEDICATION To Stephanie, whose endless patience, understanding, and support helped guided me through this project. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude and appreciate to Dr. Holly Brophy-Herb, my advisor and chairperson on my committee, for her encouragement and guidance, infinite suggestions and much needed feedback throughout this project. I would also like to thank the members of my committee, Dr. Anne Soderman and Dr. Robert Griffore, for their expertise, feedback, and continual flexibility during the course of this project. I would like to thank the College of Human Ecology for providing directions throughout the Families Studies program, through the coursework, and guidance throughout the degree. For all the things I have learned with the development of children, family development, professional service programs, and the opportunity work with faculty and students within the college I am grateful. iv Table of Content CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................... 5 Importance of the Problem ..................................................................... 6 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................... 9 Conceptual or Theoretical Model ............................................................ 11 Research Question and Hypotheses ......................................................... 14 Conceptual and Operational Definitions ...................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................................................................... 20 Internet Uses in the United States ............................................................ 21 Internet Uses by Parents ........................................................................................ 23 Accuracy of Information on the Internet ................................................ 25 Navigating the Internet ..................................................................... 27 Internet Usage and Gender ................................................................ 27 Social Exchange Theory: Rewards & Cost ................................................. 29 Parenting Education ............................................................................ 32 Online Education ............................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 3 METHODS .......................................................................................... 37 Research Design ................................................................................. 37 Participant Recruitment ........................................................................ 37 Instrumentation .................................................................................. 38 Parent Internet Usage Survey .............................................................. 38 Data Analysis .................................................................................... 41 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................... 43 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS ............................................................................................ 44 Introduction ...................................................................................... 44 Characteristics of the Sample .................................................................. 45 Internet Access and Use ........................................................................ 46 Results Regarding the Research Hypotheses ................................................ 53 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................ 56 General Characteristics of Internet Usage ................................................... 57 Access of the Internet and Common Search Functions .................................... 60 Common Search Topics ......................................................................... 63 Perceptions of Costs and Rewards in Internet Usage ...................................... 65 Time Spent ....................................................................................... 66 Significance of the Results .................................................................... 68 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................... 69 Recommendations for Further Research .................................................... 69 APPENDICES A. Recruitment Advertisement .............................................................. 73 B. Consent Form .............................................................................. 74 C. UCHRIS Approval Granted Letter ...................................................... 75 D. Parent Internet Usage Survey Instrument ............................................... 76 REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 83 vi Chapter One Introduction The public is becoming very accustomed to using the Internet to answer its questions, and it is likely that more and more parents will turn to the Internet for this purpose (Russell, 2002). The face of parenting education may change with this trend, and parents may rely more heavily on technology than at any time in the past. The 2001 US. Census Bureau reported that over fifty percent of all households had Internet access while almost forty percent of the working force also had access available. The US. Census recently reported in July of 2005 that there are thirty-six million families with children under age eighteen, and UNICEF reported 20.7 million early childhood aged children, ages five and under, living in the United States as of 2003. Considering those statistics, the Internet as an educational tool could be a critical part of parenting education in the future. Ince (2001) defines the Internet as a network which consists of a number of other networks connected together using the TCP—IP (transmission control protocol/Intemet protocol) set of Protocols. He also cited the most popular technologies used through the Internet are E-Mail, File Transfer Protocol, and the World Wide Web. Ince (2001) defines the World Wide Web as a collection of graphical web sites, which are stored on web servers, and are known collectively as the World Wide Web because each site usually contains hyperlinks to one another thus mimicking the structure of a spider’s web. The Internet Systems Consortium reported in July of 2005 there are currently 353 million domains available on the World Wide Web, a growth of over fifty three times its size in exactly ten years. This growth of domains providing websites would lead researchers to believe there has been an incredible grth in information available to users of the web. Access to the Internet and its network of information allows parents to search for resources regarding a wide variety of parenting topics without accessing traditional formats of parenting education. Traditionally, parenting education has been delivered through high school courses, parenting classes, community based programs, television, telephone, physicians, books and magazines (Russell, 2002). While these forms of parenting education are still prevalent, the Internet could be another media format to which parents turn in search of resources. As parents access the Internet, access to quality information is critical regardless of the source. In 1997 the US. Department of Education released the Parents Guide to the Internet and cited two benefits to utilizing the Internet, namely “the quick availability of educational materials and the increased ability to locate parenting information” stating that parents will have parenting information more accessible to them with great convenience. While the Internet can offer benefits to parents, there are some drawbacks that should be considered. Invest in Kids (Russell, 2002) reviewed several hundred parenting websites and found that ofien times sites were overcrowded with information, small portions were devoted to early childhood, and most information is very basic and not comprehensive. Another major concern about the Internet is the lack of peer review; the often anonymous nature of the Internet creates a high risk for propagation of misinformation (Ikemba, Kozinetz, Feltes, Fraser, McKenzie, Shah & Mott, 2002). The research articles reviewed for this study each recommended that the credibility of resources accessed by parents is a growing concern, and the possibility of IQ parents facing bias, misinformation, or incomplete information is widespread. These articles look at the usage of the Internet by parents presented with a child health issue, and the research is focused to document that parents are, in fact, accessing the Internet as a resource. In 2001, a study conducted by the Pew Internet and American Life Project reported that about 36% of people polled said material found during their most recent online search affected their medical decisions. Combine this with Nye’s (I979) assertion that people act in accordance with the best information available to them; the concern becomes how information from the Internet influences their actions. The information available through the Internet comes with the possibility of misinformation, bias, incomplete information, and the possibility higher quality materials are passed over. To date, most studies focused on parent Internet usage have documented how the Internet has been utilized as a medical resource and not as a parenting resource in general. Those studies focused primarily on parents accessing the Internet to gather more information about medical issues, and other studies have targeted how such Internet usage influenced their medical decisions regarding a particular medical condition. So. while there are statistics regarding the general population’s Internet usage, there iS a lack of knowledge on Internet usage by parents. Given the prevalence of Internet usage today. the concern for family science is that parents are, in fact, utilizing the Internet resource. and while facing bias, misinformation, and incomplete information, they are researching parenting topics without guidance (Tuffrey & Finley, 2002). With access becoming more widespread and usage increasing it could be advisable to all family science professionals to help increase the level of education that Internet users have in order to better use it as a b) positive resource. The Internet will always present a wide range of quality with information available, but the users who are online can be educated to locate higher quality materials that reduce the chances of misinformation, bias, or incomplete resources. The first step in preparing to educate parents on using the Internet is to fully understand how and how often the Internet is being used by parents, the number of topics that parents are accessing (e.g. as an indicator of variety of topics of interest to parents), parents' perceptions of the accuracy and value of the Internet, perceptions of costs and rewards in utilizing the Internet as a parenting tool, and mothers and fathers may differ in their use of the Internet. Russell (2002) noted that while parenting websites have been tailored toward females and motherhood, there are a growing number of special sections for fathers. Given the fact that contemporary fathers have more of active role in parenting than ever before (and take on primary parenting responsibilities in come cases) (Cabrera, Tamis-Lemonda, Bradley, Hofferth, and Lamb, 2000; Pleck, and Pleck, 1997), examining possible differences in how fathers and mothers use the Internet as a parenting tool and in how they perceive the costs and benefits is critical. Such information will be useful in better educating parents on how to better utilize the Internet as a parenting resource. The information will also aid professionals to better guide parents to online resources that fulfill their needs and to prepare parents to locate the most accurate and reliable information available. In order to better understand why parents who draw on the Internet as a parenting resource do so, we must also understand why they would choose to use this medium. Social Exchange theory (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995) may also provide a useful lens from which to study parental use of the Internet. Using the Social Exchange theory one could suggest that parents rewards received have outweighed the costs expended in order to gain access to this information. The basic concept that rewards exceed costs would help to explain why parents might turn to the Internet as a resource initially, but also help to explain continued usage. The Internet provides a variety of conveniences to all users, and could influence parents to utilize it as a resource. Statement of problem Parents are likely turning to the Internet as a parenting resource. Yet, virtually no studies have examined how parents use the Internet as a source of parenting information beyond medical information. There are virtually no studies outlining basic demographic profiles of parents who choose to use the Internet as a parenting tool. Little is known about parents' perceptions of the Internet as a valuable tool, nor is there available information on how parents perceive the costs and benefits of utilizing the Internet as a parenting tool. Finally, few studies have Specifically examined how mothers and fathers may utilize the Internet as a parenting tool differentially nor how they may perceive costs and benefits differently. As such, the focus of this research project is designed to describe the demographic characteristics of parents who currently use the Internet, to investigate how parents use the Internet as a parenting resource, how useful and reliable they perceive "parenting" websites to be, and how they perceive the costs and rewards of using the Internet as a parenting resource resources to better understand why parents may view the Internet as a useful parenting resource. Also, this study will investigate how mothers and fathers may utilize the Internet differently relative to time spent online in search of parenting information and the number of parenting topics accessed, and how perceive costs and rewards may differ. This research project is specifically aimed to examine Internet usage as it relates to parenting, among parents of children ages zero to five, who currently utilize the Internet. Specifically, the goals of this research are a) to identify demographic characteristics of current parent Internet users; b) to examine how parents are accessing the Internet as a parenting resource (e. g. where they access the Internet and what types of media formats are used); c) to identify the frequency, time spent, and the number of topics researched, including how time spent online and number of topics searched may vary by parent gender; (1) to identify the most popular parenting topics, types of sites, and resources that are accessed by parents; e) to identify how useful and reliable parents believe "parenting" websites are; f) to examine the costs expended by parents to gain access to information online; g) to examine the perceived rewards received by parents, including how perceptions may vary by gender. Importance of the Problem Internet access has become increasingly available with each passing year, and the capabilities of the World Wide Web continue to develop. Currently over 50% of families in the United States, across all income brackets, have access at home and almost 40% have access at work (US Department of Commerce, 2002). Thus, the “digital divide”, the division between those with and without access to technology appears to be decreasing. Current research on parental use of the Internet focuses on how parents utilize medical information regarding their child without much documentation on the other topics accessed. Recent research studies in the medical field have shown that parents are utilizing the Internet as a resource pertaining to their child’s health. and medical conditions. Ikemba, Kosinetz, F eltes, Fraser, McKenzie, Shah, and Mott (2002) found that 58% of parents in their study on childhood congenital heart disease presenting for cardiac surgery accessed resources online regarding this condition. A second study conducted by Semere, Karamanoukian, Levitt, Edwards, Murero, D’Ancona, Donias, and Glick (2003) found that 73% of parents with children facing pediatric surgery had also searched the Internet for information related to the particular procedure. This trend has been alarming to the medical field and lead to further investigation into the reliability and accuracy of medical websites available to date. Chen, Minkes, and Langer (2000) conducted a review of 141 medical websites and found lack of accountability, inaccurate information, and while some information is accurate it was incomplete. Combine these findings with the notion that parents are involving this information in their decision making process it could lead to disastrous outcomes. It is feasible that parents are accessing the Internet for a wider range of parenting topics, and not limited to their child’s medical concerns. They may access information through their online social network, professionals, and commercial advertised resources that are commonly available today. As the Internet continues to expand it will be important to understand how and why parents are accessing the Internet as a parenting aid. This study will guide family science professionals in better understanding Internet utilization by parents, and specific reasons in which parents will continue to turn to the Internet. In addition to documenting how parents are utilizing the Internet it will be critical to document the differences of usage among gender, and how the Internet is perceived by mothers and fathers. Ideals of fatherhood appear to be changing. to coincide with the demand for men to be true coparents, and while this increase takes place men are still spending considerably less time than mothers in some parenting activities, including decision making around common parenting issues (Pleck & Pleck, 1997; Talbot & McHale, 2004). Combine this with the idea that websites are often tailored to mothers (Russell, 2002), and that fathers may not feel welcomed at websites seemingly geared toward ‘generic’ parenting but actually synonymous with mothers (Morris, Dollahite, and Hawkins, 1999), there is reason to believe that fathers may utilize the Internet differently than mothers. This study will help to identify gender differences with usage frequency, topics researched, and cost/rewards perceived. Specifically, the Study will document the frequency in which the Internet is accessed as a parent resource, time spent, and number of topics accessed, as well as how useful and reliable parents believe the Internet is. This knowledge base is important in documenting the prevalence of Internet usage by parents as a resource today, and may help to predict future growth as a resource. Currently there is a gap in the data that details parent Internet usage, the frequency and time spent, and the number of topics that parents are researching. The literature currently available focuses narrowly to parent’s usages as medical resource with their children when parents could be accessing a larger number of topics such as developmental milestones, discipline, early education, and a extensive list of popular parenting topics today. Second, by utilizing the Social Exchange Theory, the study will focus on the rewards the Internet offers to its users and the costs associated with Internet usage, thus helping to explain why parents may utilize the Internet as a resource and may continue to do so. The study also seems to understand how costs and rewards may be viewed differently among mothers and fathers. With this improved understanding for parents utilizing this resource we will be better equipped to assist current and future parents maximize the potential of the Internet as a resource. This is an important problem that requires further investigation to match Internet growth as our society becomes more accustomed to accessing the Internet. The concern of misinformation, bias, and incomplete information as the medical research suggests are just some of many issues all users face online. With better research based finding on usage by parents professionals will be better prepared to assist parents in Internet education in their efforts to locate high quality materials. Purpose of the Study The overall purpose of this research is to examine the characteristics of parents' Internet usage among parents with children, zero to five years old, who currently access the Internet. This study addresses several gaps in the existing scholarly literature: 1) little in known about how parents utilize the Internet in regard to their parenting; 2) there is a lack of research on how parents view the costs and rewards relative to Internet usage and how these perceptions may vary according to parent gender. In order to address these gaps, this research will examine: a) the media formats of the Internet that are accessed to obtain parenting resources, the frequency, time Spent, and the number of topics accessed, including the most popular Internet sites, topics, and resources accessed; b) the costs expended by parents to access and obtain these resources; and, c) the rewards that parents receive from the Internet. Pursuant to these goals, the following specific objectives were developed. Specific research hypotheses follow the explanation of the theoretical orientation in this chapter, and research questions were designed to provide descriptive statistics to support data. To describe demographic characteristics among parents who are currently utilizing the Internet To describe how parents utilize the Internet as a parenting resource To describe the frequency of access by parents. To describe the time spent accessing parenting resources on the Internet by parents. To describe what communication media that is utilized in search of parenting resources. To describe the number of topics accessed by parents. To describe the most popular parenting topics accessed through the Internet. To describe how parents perceive the Internet and World Wide Web as a parenting resource. To describe the perceived rewards received by parents in relation to the costs expended. To document costs expended by parents such as time, energy, and economic goods expended by parents for parenting resources. To examine how aspects of using the Internet as a parenting resource may vary by parent gender. 10 Conceptual or Theoretical Model This study is guided by the basic principles of the Social Exchange Theory (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995) to help explain why the Internet is considered a valuable resource by parents seeking information online. The basic premise of the Social Exchange Theory is Utilitarianism, which refers to individual’s exercising the ability to rationally weigh the costs and rewards associated with choices, and choosing activities that maximize their rewards. If parents are accessing the Internet, and continuing this practice, their rewards must be outweighing the costs expended. Blau (1964) identified investment, direct, and opportunity as the three major forms of costs associated in exchange. Investment costs include time and efforts that people devote to the acquisition of skills to reward others, and Crocco (2002) states that “the Internet offers an inexpensive and timely source of information”. Outside of the financial costs of access other possible forms of investment costs include time expended searching the web, comparing resources, and determining the credibility of the resource. Misinforrnation and/or biased resources could lead to greater investment costs, as well as direct and opportunity costs. Direct costs are resources that are given to another in the exchange, and these costs are often minimized online but could be required to gain further access to better resources. While online these can be limited at the user’s discretion, access to some resources will require direct costs to be incurred. In order to become a member to some Sites, listserves, or bulletin boards users may have to sacrifice personal or financial information. Some sites charge for access to their resources, such as scholarly family and 11 medical journals. Other personal resource exchanges take place through the posting of personal websites, exchanges through synchronous and asynchronous communication media, and costs associated with access and space. Opportunity costs are the rewards from other exchanges that are forgone as a result of participating in an exchange relationship, and these may be the greatest costs associated with Internet, but possibly the least recognizable. The direct costs involved with reviewing all the information available online would reduce your opportunity costs, as you would be able to locate the more reliable and credible information, but at greater cost of time and effort. If this effort is not exerted then users of the Internet face the risk of not utilizing the best resources available, and can come at great opportunity cost if facing bias, misinformation, or incomplete resources. While the Internet does have a variety of costs to its users above the financial cost of access, it is important to also understand the rewards that can be received online. Rewards can be defined by individual interest and goal attainment from the cost expended. Rewards serve as positive reinforcements for behavior similar to B. F. Skinners Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1974), and will increase the likelihood of the continuation or the increase of reinforced behaviors. The focuses of this review are the resources obtained online, and the assumption is that access to the Internet is understood. Information on a wide variety of topics are readily available online, one can assume that rewards can easily be obtained online. Semere et a1. (2003) stated that the level of anonymity that the Internet offers will increase its use as a resource, as parents could gain resources without expending personal information or personal finances. Twenty-four hour access, meeting personal schedules, and easy access to family. friends, and professionals through E-mail, chat rooms, messengers. and bulletin boards all provide various convenience rewards. The Internet offers a fairly inexpensive communication medium in which information can be exchanged and a very low financial cost to users, and provides simple solutions to locating desired resources. Resources are material or symbolic commodities that can be shared through interpersonal behavior. F oa and F ca (1 980) suggested Six types of resources: love, status. service goods, information, and money. Resources can be concrete and observable such as the exchange of services, goods, and money while others such as love, status, and information exchange are not concrete but are capable of exchange. Service goods and information are the two resources that are most likely to available online to parents searching for parenting resources. Reciprocity can be defined as the exchange of resources between parties. Information exchanges are the primary forms of reciprocity through the Internet, and while service goods are usually advertised online basic information is often provided. Blau (1964) defined the “norm of reciprocity in the more people have exchanged rewards with one another, the more likely are reciprocal obligations to emerge and subsequent exchanges” (p. 391). Most exchanges of information online will be users taking information from posted sites, but exchanges between users are also likely in the exchange of resources. The focus of this research will be to measure not only how the Internet is used by parents as a resource, but the cost/reward structure that parents are facing in their pursuit of information. It is important to understand what communication media that are being used by parents to gain access to resources so that researchers have a greater understanding of how these resources are exchanged, and can assure that a system can be established to provide better credibility to users. It is important to understand why parents are choosing to use this technology and the rewards they obtain, and if these are greater than the costs expended by parents. As parents face the possibility of bias, misinformation, and incomplete information among others it is necessary to understand if parents utilize this technology frequently in search of parenting resources. If there is indeed a trend of Internet usage for parenting topics it will be critical for family science professionals to recognize the risks that face parents and families, and how we can aim to improve parent’s Skills to locate credible and useful information. It is important to see how the Internet is being used by both genders as a parenting resource, and how their perception of costs/rewards that are associated with its use as a resource may differ. Certainly mothers and fathers do perceive some aspects of parenting differently and their parenting activities often differ (Talbot & McHale, 2004). Given these known differences, they may also use and perceive parenting resources and their benefits differently. Rather than assuming that mothers and fathers perceive costs and rewards in the same way, it is important to identify potential differences. Research Questions and Hypotheses In order to accomplish these objectives, several specific research questions and hypotheses will be addressed: Research Questions 1) What are the respondent’s basic demographic characteristics relative to age, sex, ethnicity, parenting role, and education? 14 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) What are basic family demographic characteristics of respondents relative to annual income, number of children, development stages of children? Where do parents have access to the Internet? How often do parents access parenting resources online in an average day? How often do parents access parenting resources online in an average week? What are the most common Internet functions used by parents to share or receive parenting resources? What parenting topics do parents access on the Internet? What type of websites do parents visit in order to locate parenting resources? What type of websites do parents feel are the most useful to them? 10) Do parents feel the Internet provides a reliable and accurate resource to them in regard to parenting information? 11) What do parents consider are the ‘costs’ with using the Internet as a parenting resource? 12) What do parents consider are the ‘rewards’ with using the Internet as a parenting resource? Hypotheses H01: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is no relationship between time spent online and number of topics accessed. H31: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is a positive relationship between time Spent online and number of topics accessed. 15 H02; Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is no relationship between time Spent and rewards perceived. H32; Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is a positive relationship between time spent and rewards perceived. H03; Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is no relationship between time spent and costs perceived. Ha3; Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is a negative relationship between time spent and costs perceived. H04: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will perceive no difference in level of rewards vs. costs than will fathers. H34: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will perceive a greater level of rewards vs. costs than will fathers. H05: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will access the same number of topics online as do fathers. H35: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will access a higher number of topics than will fathers. H05: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will spend no more time on online parenting resources than will fathers. Has: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will spend more time on online parenting resources than will fathers. l6 Conceptual and Operational definitions: 1) Internet Access: Conceptual: Individual availability to a computer meeting basic requirements to Sign on or log onto the network (Internet), and access web and file servers (Ince, 2001). Operational: Self reported availability to a computer meeting basic Sign on/log on to the network (Internet) and access web and file servers on the Parent Internet Usage Survey (Identification of locations with Internet access from a list provided in survey question IAI ). 2) Time spent on Internet: Conceptual: Time spent on the network (Internet) after sign/logging on a weekly basis. Operational: Self reported time spent (in hours) on the network on a daily and weekly basis on the Parent Internet Usage Survey (Average hours per week entered numerically in survey questions 1A3 and 1A4). 3) Costs Conceptual: Costs are negative consequences experienced, and rewards that are forgone as a result of engaging in behaviors (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995). Operational: Self reported costs associated with accessing the Internet as a parenting resource from a predetermined list of costs with an area to provide additional costs on the Parent Internet Usage Survey (Identification of specific costs checked, or reported in ‘other’ on survey question SE3). 4) Rewards: l7 Conceptual: Rewards are the goal attainment of individual interest gained from costs expended (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995). Operational: Self reported rewards received from access the Internet as a parenting resource from a predetermined list of rewards with an area to provide additional rewards on the Parent Internet Usage Survey (Identification of specific rewards checked, or reported in ‘other’ on survey question SE4). 5) Reward/Cost difference level: Conceptual: The measurement of weighing costs vs. rewards to identify greater cost or rewards obtained through resource exchange. (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995). Operational: The reward/cost level will be operationalized as the sum of all costs identified (survey question SE3) subtracted from the sum of all rewards identified (survey question SE4) (Rewards - costs). A positive value indicates a greater perception of rewards over costs. A negative value indicates a greater perception of costs over rewards. 5) Demographic Characteristics: Conceptual: Descriptive data regarding respondent characteristics relevant to respondent gender, age, marital status, family income, geographic location, parenting role, and ethnicity. Operational: Self reported responses of descriptive data on respondent's gender, age (calculated in years from birthdate provided by respondent), marital status (respondent selects from prelisted categories), family income (respondent selects from ordered categories), geographic location (respondent selects from lists of states and provides county and zip code), parenting role and ethnicity (respondent selects from prelisted 18 categories for both parenting role and ethnicity with options for adding "other" categories). (Survey sections 1-3 on the Parent Internet Usage Survey) Research Assumptions 0 This research assumes that respondents are current Internet users. 0 This research assumes that the responses from the parent participating will provided honest responses. 0 This research assumes that data gathered from the online survey will contain accurate responses. 0 This research assumes that respondents have children in the development stages of infancy through preschool. o This research assumes that the parents responding have access to the Internet. 19 Chapter Two Review of Literature AS we enter a new information age, researching the Internet will become an important piece to understanding how the information available online is being used by its users. AS we look at the growth of the Internet, the increased availability, and the increased usage we need to look further at how this information medium will influence its users. The review of literature will provide background information about the Internet, its usage, and more importantly the research currently available on how parents utilize the Internet. The focus of the research literature currently available describes how parents utilize the Internet as a resource with their child’s medical health and care. The Social Exchange theory may help to explain why parents are utilizing the Internet, and continuing usage. Additionally, the review will look at parenting education, online education, and the influence of gender on Internet usage. The Internet has become a mainline piece of communications infrastructure (National Academy Press, 2001, p51) and access to the Internet continues to grow in personal, public, and work systems. While history has shown that even as access to communication services are available, these resources may not be used in tandem with rising accessibility. For instance, historical documentation (NAP, 2001, p. 211) indicates that telephone and television usage did not rise dramatically until sometime after the initial accessibility of these items. With the Internet, however, usage has increased dramatically as access to the Internet increased. For instance, in a 1999 history of the Internet (Moschovitis, Poole, Schuyler. Senft. 1999) the growth of the Internet is reported to carry 43 million hosts from the Network Wizards website, an increase of almost ten times in fewer than ten years. The Network Wizards (\wmznwcom) has since become the Internet Systems Consortium (wwwiscogg) and, as of July 2005, reported the domain count to be at just over 353 million, an increase of over eight times its Size six years ago. The increase in domains on the Internet is a good reflection of the increase in Internet technology and how access demand continues to grow. With the Internet providing increased communication between individuals and groups it is critical to realize that parents are among those who access the Internet for a multitude of purposes. Some of those purposes may include accessing the Internet as a resource in their parenting experience. Understanding how parents use the Internet, what range of topics, and how common this practice is an important first step. AS we look closer at the use of the Internet in general and by parents we can begin to question the influence the Internet has on parenting education, social support, and social networks. Internet uses in the United States The 2001 United States Census reported in their Current Population Survey that approximately 50.4% of families reported household Internet access, and another 39.4% reported access availability at their work site. Moreover, between 2000 and 2005 (July), there has been an increase in Internet usage by 106.7%, and it is estimated in 2005 76.6% of Americans and have access to the Internet (Intemetworldstatscom, 2005). At one time the ‘Digital Divide' lead researchers to believe that Internet access is limited to those with higher income levels, but individuals are regularly accessing in the Internet across all income levels and locations (US Department of Commerce, 2002). As this trend 21 continues and the usage of the Internet continues to grow it is conceivable that parents are using the Internet as a source of information and decision making. The public is becoming very accustomed to using the Internet to answer their questions, and it is likely that more and more parents will turn to the Internet for this purpose (Russell 2002). Larkin (2002) believes that the potential of the Internet to be a source of social support is becoming increasingly evident. The Internet offers a variety of social support communities online as reported in 2002 the Internet may also lead users to realize that complementary and alternative ways of finding community exist online in addition to those available offline (Quan-Hasse, Wellman, Witte, & Hampton, 2003). Sakardi and Bremberg revealed in their study that Internet-based parenting support is a potentially useful and accessible tool in the provision of general support in the parenting role, the final goal of which is to promote child and family well-being. The top forms of general (i.e. not necessarily as parenting resource) Internet utilization today include the following: information access, email, chat rooms, bulletin boards, and various forms of research based on Internet. A 2002 study on relationships between social support and personality type documented email as the highest rated used format of the Internet, followed by information access, and research based searches (Swickert, Hittner, Harris, & Herring, 2002). In 2001 the general population used email 45.2% of the time, followed by service information searches 36.2%, and general news (sports, weather, daily headlines), 33.3% (US Department of Commerce, 2002). E-mail and information access/searches comprises majority of time Internet users spend online, and these forms of communication and information access are readily available to parents. k) to With the prevalence of the Internet and the usage statistics that are available it will be important to have more detailed information on how parents are using it for educational purposes. While usage statistics are available for the general population, there is a need to have more detailed statistics on how parents specifically utilize the Internet as a parenting education utility. Information access, email, communication tools, and general news can all be utilized by users to access topic specific resources, and provide exchange of resources. Resources on usage by parents have been limited to topic specific research such as parenting websites, child health, and medical research. Internet Use by Parents Invest in Kids (Russell, 2002) reviewed hundreds of parenting websites, and documented very few positives with websites servings as a parenting education tool. Russell found that sites were often overcrowded with information, advertisements, and that the basic designs of the websites were tailored to mothers versus any parenting type. In addition, of the sites reviewed, only a small portion is devoted to the early development years, and, while each Site did provide a FAQ page for users, the sites lacked comprehensive information on various topics. Lastly, there were virtually no online parenting education options available to the browsers of these sites (Russell, 2002). The lack of early education materials and the lack of comprehensive information on parenting topics with the lack of online parenting education classes is an alarming thought with the number of Internet users in 2005. Moreover, while some studies have documented problems with existing "parenting" website, virtually no studies have examined how and how often parents access these online sites. to U) The abundance of studies conducted on the Internet use by parents primarily focus on those seeking information on a medical condition related to their child’s health. The medical field took notice of the Internet and the proliferation of consumer health information available (Lamp & Howard, 1999). The medical field taking notice lead to a variety of research efforts aimed to document the usage of the Internet for health information including the parenting subgroup. This research has been limited to usage information pertaining to medical specifically to medical conditions with their children, and the relationship this has with their medical based decisions. A study by Ikemba, Kosinetz, Feltes, Fraser, McKenzie, Shah, and Mott (2002) sought to document the prevalence of Internet access and usage among families who have children with congenital heart disease presenting for cardiac surgery. This study found that 58% of parents had accessed resources pertaining to their child’s congenital heart condition, and 82% of those users defined this as ‘easy’. On average parents spent 3.2 hours each week online searching for cardiology related resources, and six of 275 respondents went as far as posting their own website sharing their family experiences with the child’s cardiology related condition. Semere, Karamanoukian, Levitt, Edwards, Murero, D’Ancona, Donias, and Glick (2003) conducted research with 150 parents of children facing outpatient pediatric surgery, and found that 73% of their respondents had searched the Internet for resources related to their child’s surgery. In addition to searching for information on the procedure they sought resources on the child’s hospital, surgeon, and risks related to the surgery. Even within a specified field, and further Specified medical condition research has Shown a wide variety of topics being researched by parents. Accuracy of information on the Internet. Chen, Minkes, and Langer (2000) The research evaluated 141 websites referenced web sites from Alta Vista, and the quality of the site evaluate on a scale of 0 to 2 on accuracy, completeness, and bias toward or against the medical profession to detail the quality of these sites. Overall the study showed there is an enormous amount of information on pediatric surgery available to the layperson on the Internet. Other findings included that 58% were accountable for the information, and 76% of the sites contained accurate information but in 93% of the sites information is incomplete. Only 21% of the sites referenced readers to a reliable source. Semere et a1. stated that “the doctor-patient relationship is evolving into an equal partnership, characterized by shared decision making” (2003, p. 562) and if this trend continues to evolve the Internet is likely to play a significant role in providing parents with the resources to take an active role in this decision making process. If this trend also applies to other topics online, it is important to have insight on how parents utilize the information that is provided to them from the Internet. Semere et al. referenced a CyberDialogue survey located on mmvintelcom, that is no longer available in 2005, but stated “users seeking health information said a doctor recommendation would make them more likely to trust a web site, but only 4% were receiving this assistance”. This is a concern for the medical field, and all family science fields alike. If parents are in fact using the Internet as a source of information without assistance they are facing the task of deciphering endless web pages, bias, misinformation, and incomplete information. Professionals can provide assistance to improve their searching skills, but also to present credible starting points before parents rely on Internet resources over professional advice. One study conducted using 480 pediatric outpatient parents to document Internet usage found that 32% had consulted the Internet for health related searches and overall 69% of parents have utilized it for any purpose (Tuffrey & Finlay, 2001). A more recent study conducted with parents of pediatric surgery patients had a sample size of 150 and found that 85% of parents had utilized the Internet in search of information, and more Specifically 73% of these parents had searched for health related information (Semere, Karamanoukian, Levitt, Edwards, Murero, D’Ancona, Donias, and Glick, 2003). These trends not only document the usage of the Internet for everyday purposes, but the use of the Internet by parents regarding the welfare of their child. Knowing that parents are accessing information how are they locating the resources on the Internet? The same study completed with pediatric surgery patients (Semere, et. al., 2003) reported that general search engines were by far the most popular means for parents to locate medical web Sites. Their concern with these findings is that of credibility in terms of locating accurate and credible medical documentation, and this same concern could be related to all sets of information that parents are seeking online. Vedder and Wachbroit (2003) point out that being ranked highly by a search engine on a particular topic may indicate relevance; but it does not indicate reliability. They also state that determining reliability of information on the Internet is not fundamentally different from determining reliability of information offline. Reliability is only one of many concerns regarding parenting information on the lntemet. Navigating the lntemet. An additional concern about Internet resources are the variety of ways to locate information, and the many different Sites that provide multiple formats of information. According to the comScore Media Metrix gSearch service 26 (searchenginewatchcom, 2005) during the month of July 2005 the most used search engine by English speakers worldwide is Google at 36.5% of users, followed by Yahoo! at 30.5%, MSN 15.5%, AOL 9.9%, Ask 6.1% and InfoSpace at .9%. With a large variety of search engines to choose from and each likely providing varying result there is a likelihood that parents are browsing are large number of parenting websites. In 1996 alexa.com is established and currently through the utilization of their Alexa toolbar, they are able to compile web statistics on website traffic making this information public and searchable by topic. The following sites are among alexa.com’s rankings of the top 10 parenting resource sites most often visited as of September 2005 are as follows: babyzone.com, parenting.ivillage.com, pampers.com, kidshealth.org/parent, family.go.com, iparentingcom, theideabox.com, parenthoodcom, surfnetkidscom and drspock.com. These parenting web pages provide parents with a network of information, access to “expert” advice, and access to other individuals who are concerned about parenting via discussion boards, chat rooms, and information posted on the site. As parents are exploring the Internet they may be creating social networks with other parents, parenting professionals, and maintaining current relationships. Thus the Internet may be a source of information and social support for parents. Internet usage and gender. Although virtually no studies have examined how Internet usage may differ among mothers and fathers, some studies have Shown that there are gender differences in general Internet usage. For example, Teo (2003) found that males are more likely to engage in downloading and purchasing activities while females are more likely to engage in messaging activities in study of Internet usage and activities. Other studies report few differences. Ono and Zavodny (2003) found that the gender gap 27 in being online that had existed in the 1990’s has since disappeared, but women were significantly more likely to use the Internet anywhere. Fallows (2005) of Pew Internet and Life project reports data Show that men and women are more similar than different in their online lives, starting with their common appreciation of the Intemet’s strongest suit: efficiency. Yet, Pew Internet and Life also state that more than men, “women are enthusiastic online communicators, and they use email in a more robust way”. While fathers are becoming more involved in parenting (Cabrera, Tamis- Lemonda, Bradley, Hofferth, and Lamb, 2000), some trends may reinforce the idea that mothers are still more active in parent research and decisions. According to McBride, Jane, and Bae (2001) research evidence suggests that men continue to lag behind mothers in terms of how they approach and become involved in parenting tasks even in the face of increased father involvement. Mothers are typically more influential than fathers in structuring or orchestrating family processes, especially when their children are very young (Talbot & McHale, 2004). In 1997, only about 11% of fathers in two parent households had taken a formal parenting class according to a study on dual parent families (Hofferth, 1999). In addition to mothers generally taking a larger role in parenting, the Internet, itself, may be more tailored to mothers and may discourage fathers' usage as a resource. For instance, Russell (2002) states while some special websites are tailored to men most websites are tailored to mothers. “Often times parenting is assumed to be synonymous with mothering, and fathers may feel as though their perspectives are not welcomed if a site is ‘generic’ parenting” (Morris, Dollahite, and Hawkins, 1999, p. 29). 28 Fallows (2005) suggests that there are a variety of differences on Internet usage and benefits based on gender, and that women are more likely to search for health and personal issues while men are more likely to search for general information such as news, sports scores, software, and music. Fallows (2005) notes that men are more likely to utilize the Internet as recreation, and women are more likely to recognize the overabundance of information available and focus on individual topics of interest. This principle in general could likely lead to differing perceptions on the cost and reward structure of parenting resources online, and may suggest that parenting may be a ‘topic’ of greater interest to mothers. If gender does play part of Internet usage and values of information available, it is possible that females will take greater value from parenting information available online, and perceive lower costs of time and effort to gain efficient access to resources. Social Exchange Theory: Rewards & Costs Rewards are the goal attainment of individual interest gained from costs expended. Semere et al. (2003) stated that the level of anonymity that the Internet offers will increase its use as a resource, as parents could gain resources without expending personal information or personal finances. Parents may be able to gain medical advice without having to disclose personal details about their child, or they’re family at relatively no cost, and serve as a comparison to professional medical advice already received or plans to consult with a professional in the future. This anonymity allows users to move at their pace, and refrain from sharing medical details with a professional. Access the Internet continues to grow it shows that getting online is not as difficult or as financially expensive as it was ten years ago, and with this availability of access it will be easier to access information inexpensively. Additionally the Internet is the available twenty-four hours a day also allowing users to locate resources at their availability rather than meeting the schedule demands of professionals. Users are also able to personally communicate using email, chat room, messengers, and bulletin boards with other parents and professionals. This is a short list of possible rewards parents see as a benefit to going online, but is not an exhaustive list of possibilities. In order to understand if these rewards are enough to keep parents coming to the Internet as a resource you must look at the costs associated with this source. Costs are punishments experienced, and rewards that are forgone as a result of engaging in behaviors. The three types of costs are investment, direct, and opportunity costs. Investment costs include the time and effort that users must devote in the acquisition of resources and rewards. Crocco et al. state that “the Internet offers an inexpensive and timely source of information” thus allowing parents to access information at a minimal investment cost. Users are able to access information online with relatively no additional costs above the cost of access meaning the largest cost may be the time that parents use the Internet in order to seek medical guidance. Searching the web, comparing websites, and comparing information that is offered could come at a great expense of time and effort in search of credible assistance. The credibility of information available has been a topic that most researchers stated to be a great concern, and the time it can take to locate quality and credible sources online could come at large investment costs. This search comes with greater costs to users. but the rewards that these sites yield could be in greater volume than that of the cost. Another cost associated with these searches is misinformation, and unreliable information that would be used in a decision-making process that may lead to bad choices and more incurred costs later. Direct costs are resources that are given to others in exchange for information, and online users often have the choice to pass on information with high direct costs. A large portion of web pages will not ask for personal information or request financial compensation in return for medical guidance. While other sites request users to become a member of the website or subscribe informative listservs, at the expense of sacrificing anonymity, and sharing varying levels of personal information. Some sites charge financial costs for access to information, such credible scholarly journals or individual articles from journal publications. Other resource exchanges take place through posting personal websites, exchanging emails, and posting on bulletin boards and carry direct costs associated with access and space. Opportunity costs can be defined as rewards that have been forgone from other exchanges, and are likely the most difficult to document. Regardless of the numerous websites available to users there would be no guarantee of which site offers the best and most accurate information. Users may have personal biases towards sites, limit searches to favorite sites, or rely of referrals from others users and search engines. Without knowledge of the opportunity costs parents may not access sites/users that offer the most credible resources. and provide parents with the best information to use in making decisions. Opportunity costs are likely the least visible costs associated with the lntemet. as it would be impossible for users to locate all information available before making an 31 informed decision. If users would be able to do this they would also be increasing their investment costs, and overall reducing the overall rewards gained. The largest cost that parent’s risk is locating misleading or inaccurate information that directly leads to a poor decision regarding their child’s health. This possibility would increase all three costs associated with medical information through this public media format. Comparatively the cost of professional medical attention and assistance can be greater to parents when you consider the time and effort it takes to visit a medical professional. The financial costs in addition to time and effort makes the cost structure of medical visits harder on parents who are seeking answers to minor health issues. While parents may be using the Internet to compare search results with professional medical advice this serves as reassurance on the medical advice received and is practical in reinforcing the professional advice. Parenting Education Campbell and Palm (2004) defined parenting education as “a process that involves the expansion of insights, understanding, attitudes, and the acquisition of knowledge and skills about development of both parents and their children and the relationship between them” (p. 18) in accordance with the definition provided by the National Parenting Education Network. Russell (2002) identified several formats for traditional parenting education methods such as community based programs, books and magazines, parenting classes and physicians. Parent education programs have multiplied throughout this country and, these programs differ widely in their service delivery models, target populations. and curricula (Slavik Cowen. 2001). Community based programs and parenting classes often are located through mental health organizations, faith based organizations, community organizations focused on early childhood, and public schools systems. Community based programs and parenting classes require that parents are able to attend the sessions and classes when they are being offered, and are not always accessible for various reasons such as time, transportation, or costs. Parenting books and magazines are a popular way to learn more about parenting topics that are popular with parents and researchers alike. Purchasing these may become expensive, but often can be located at public libraries, but also require that individuals have the means to access these materials at a library or bookstore. Physicians and medical staff also play a key role in parenting education, as they are involved with the family through each year of the child’s development. Primary care physicians often have set hours of operations, and may not always be conducive to a parents schedule. Walker and Riley (2001) researched the effectiveness of the social network in parenting education by providing a series of instructional newsletters to parents as an informal format of parenting education, and to document the involvement of their personal social networks. They documented that a high percentage of who participated discussed or Shared the newsletter content with other parents. This exchange of information included spouse or partner, grandparents, fi'iends, other parents, and professionals. The parents had cited reasons for sharing this resource to educate others. gain reassurances, promote the newsletter, and to learn from others. This same practice could be an integral concept with informal parenting education on the Internet. 9) DJ The Internet Should not replace traditional parenting education, but rather complement these resources for parents. As we are better able to understand why parents may choose to access the Internet as a resource alternative to traditional formats we can focus on how to integrate parenting education along with the more traditional styles. The Internet can provide a new format for more formal education to be offered to parents in a manner to which is convenient and affordable to parents that integrates successful parenting education techniques. Hybrid education could be a future parenting education format that would integrate in person and online education for parents. Online Education A 2001 study defined distance learning as improved capabilities in knowledge and/or behaviors as a result of mediated experiences that are constrained by time and/or distance such that the learner does not share the same situation with what is being learned (King, Young, Drivere-Richmond, & Schrader, 2001). The Internet provides access to informal parenting information on various websites, but as stated by Russell (2002) there was virtually no online parenting education classes and this leaves parents searching the web independently. There is a growing need for parenting education and family support programs that are comprehensive, integrated, responsive to community needs, flexible, and creative in using technology as a means to disseminate information (Mertensmeyer & Fine, 2000). Steimle and Duncan (2004) stated that the web can provide low-cost information to those who do not seek traditional family life education, either because they do not have the ability (financial or time limitations or the lack of a flexible schedule, babysitter, or classes available in their area) or the desire (inhibitions about social interaction or about admitting in public the need to learn about family issues). While distance learning has traditionally been looked at as term related to college style courses offered for college credits there are several forms of distance learning through the Internet currently. A 1999 study on parent use of the Internet for newborn education discussed how nurses could best help parents and guide them to the most complete and accurate care of information on the Internet (Lamp & Howard, 1999). In Alaska the Delta Greely Cyber Charter School allows an Internet based education for children ages five to nineteen. They have also invested considerable attention to connecting parents with teachers through live conferencing, live chat, and E-mail to keep the parents involved in the education process (Weis & Nieto, 1999). In summary, the Internet provides a resource that will help to expand insights, understanding, attitudes, and the acquisition of knowledge and skills about family and child development. The Internet provides a convenient resource to those who have access at home, work, or public institutions that has a wealth of information available. The Internet also allows for parents to access an online social network of personal contacts, other parents online, and professionals that provide various forms of assistance or contact information. While unlike most traditional parenting education resources the Internet allows parents to research information in an anonymous setting, and often provides the convenience of meeting their schedules and demands for assistance. If parents perceive the rewards gained by accessing resources outweigh the costs associated we can expects that parents will continue to access the Internet, and can expect that more parents may 35 follow this trend. If this access by parents continues it is critical that we are able to document how and why this resource is being used alongside other parenting education sources or in place of them. The goal of the research is to document usage of the Intemet as a parenting resource, time spent online by parents, the frequency of access by these users, numbers and types of topics accessed. Additional goals aim to document the costs and rewards by parents when accessing the Internet as a resource and to explore differences in time spent online, numbers of topics searched, and perceptions of costs and rewards by parent gender. The literature reviewed here has guided the research questions addressed in this study, the methods, and the instrumentation that has been developed. These are described in Chapter Three: Methods. 36 Chapter Three Methods Research Design This inductive and descriptive study is based on cross sectional data collection from an online survey. The study is national and the unit of analysis is individual parents of children (ages zero to five years) who currently access the lntemet. Participant Recruitment Participant recruitment was carried out via the Internet where parents who currently utilize the Internet can be recruited through popular parenting websites. Online recruitment was completed utilizing forum/discussion boards in which the researcher registered as users to website forum/discussion board. The researcher posted a topic related to the study providing basic information on the study, type of respondents asked to participate, and a link to the research website. The website forum/bulletin boards in which this recruitment was posted on parenting resource websites were identified by alexa.com as a top 20 parenting resource website that provides public forum/bulletin boards. The researcher registered for the website forum/bulletin boards in order to post a general description about the research, need for research, and the target respondents desired along with a link to the research website. Parents who ere willing to participate in the study will visited the main web page at reuterinc.com, which provided a direct link to begin the survey. The main page of the website contained basic information regarding the purpose of the study and the desired respondents to submit a survey, specifically parents of children ages zero to five. The first page of the survey contained the consent 37 form for participating in the survey, and a link for a printable version of the consent form for their records. At the end of the page a link was provided for those who consent to progress forward to the first survey question. The survey consisted of five sections that asked parents to answer questions honestly and to the best of their abilities. Basic information regarding their location such as state, county, and zip code was the extent of personal demographics requested by the researcher and will not be able to be linked back to the respondent's name or email address. Overall the study expected to have a sample size of one hundred respondents. A minimum sample size of 100 respondents was expected to complete the online survey with recruitment primarily taking place through parenting forums. Such a sample size is within the range of those cited in other studies utilizing online surveys. For example, the medical research literature on parent Internet usage related to medical research by Tuffrey and Finley (2001) reported 450 responses, Semere, Karamanoukian, Levitt, Edwards, Murero, D’Ancona, Donias, and Glick (2003) noted 150 responses, and Scharer (2005) reported fewer than 30 responses. Instrumentation Parent Internet Usage Survey Given the lack of research on use of the Internet as a general parenting tool, there are no existing measures of parental Internet usage. This survey, designed by the researcher, consists of five sections designed to document the respondent’s use of the Internet along the areas of access and usage, parenting on the Internet Specifically with children ages zero to five years, and the cost/reward structure of parenting resources online. Basic demographic information items are included in the survey as well. The 38 estimated time for completion of the complete survey is 10 to 17 minutes. The sections are as follows: Section 1 (Demographics: Location): This section was designed to allow the respondent to provide basic demographic information including: county, state, and zip code. The question outline included a multiple-choice selection for state of residence, and fill in the blank items for county, state, and zip code. This information is important to document diverse locations of Internet users who will access this survey. This section contains 3 items for response. Estimated time of completion is 1 t0 2 minutes. Section 2 (Demographics: Personal): This section was designed to allow the respondent to provide information including: birth date, gender, parenting role, marital status, income level, and ethnicity. The question outline included multiple choice questions with an option to include ‘other’ if the appropriate response is not provided, and fill in the blank for date of birth. This section contains 6 items for response. Estimated time of completion is 2 to 3 minutes. Section 3 (Demographics: Family): This section was designed to allow the respondent to provide information including: age/development stage of children, number of family members, and number of children. The question outline included multiple- choice questions with an option to include ‘other’ if the appropriate response is not provided. This section contains 3 items for response. Estimated time of completion is I to 2 minutes. Section 4 (Internet Access): This section was designed to allow respondent to provide information on how the Internet is used as a parenting resource, parenting topics 39 researched, most popular Sites, and how parents search the lntemet. This section also allowed parents to identify locations of access, frequency of access, and time spent online with both parenting resource and general usage. The question outline included multiple- choice questions with an option to include ‘other’ if the appropriate response is not provided. The outline also included questions that allow multiple answers to list one or more topics researched online, and an opened-ended response area for more detail on each topic including an ‘other’ option for responses not provided. An opened—ended question was provided to parents to list other useful websites the respondents may visit individually. Respondents were also be asked to rank order the variety of website domains on the Internet that are most useful to them. The respondents were asked which type of domain sites they use on the World Wide Web, and for each that they document having utilized a follow up question pertaining to that particular domain type will be provided for better detail response. This section contains a maximum of 10 items for response, I of which are contingency questions based on prior responses. Estimated time for completion is 3 to 5 minutes. Section 5 (Social Exchange): This section was designed to allow respondents to provide information on the costs and rewards associated with using the Internet as a parenting resource. The question outline included multiple choice/multiple answer format with an ‘other’ response if the appropriate response is not included, and included open-ended response questions for personal descriptions. This section contains 3 items for response. Estimated time for completion is 3 to 5 minutes. 40 Data Analysis First, descriptive statistics were used to examine the demographic characteristics of the sample, which relate to research questions (RQ) 1-2. Distribution of all data will be examined. Frequencies and percentages were examined and reported for the following: respondent geographic location, gender, parenting role, educational level, ethnicity, income, and child developmental stages. Means and standard deviations were calculated and reported'for respondent age and number of children. This descriptive information is expected to provide a more thorough context in which to interpret data relative to the research questions and hypotheses. Second, descriptive statistics were used to address the research questions (RQ) 3- 12. Specifically, parent access to the Internet was calculated as the mean number of locations at which the respondent is able to log on to the Internet (RQ 3). Internet usage (time) was calculated as the mean time Spent in hours on the network daily and weekly, , as reported by the respondent (RQ 4-5). Standard deviations from the mean were calculated and reported as well. The number of topics searched online were calculated as the totaled sum number of topics identified by each respondent, and frequency distribution for each topic category will be analyzed. Frequencies and percentages were reported here. The most common functions of the Internet to share or receive parenting resources were calculated and reported with frequencies and percentages of each function type (RQ 6). A summary of early childhood topics that parents access online through each Internet function was reported using frequencies and percentages (RQ 7). The types of websites parents visit in order to locate parenting resources were examined via frequencies and percentages (RQ 8). Ranking of websites that parents feel are most 41 resourceful to parents by domain types, most popular websites identified by parents, and most popular search engines were reported using frequencies and percentages (RQ 9). Parent perception of reliability and accuracy of parent Internet resources in general will be summarized using frequency of response and percentages (RQ 10). Rewards and costs were calculated, respectively, as the sum total of rewards / sum of costs identified by each respondent (RQ 11-12). An overall mean number of rewards and costs were calculated as well. Parent perceptions of rewards versus costs (cost/reward level) were calculated by subtracting the sum number of costs from the sum number of rewards identified by all parents. A negative value would indicate a greater perception of costs than rewards. A positive value indicates that parents perceive more rewards than costs relative to using the Internet as a parenting tool. Third, correlational analyses and t-tests of means were employed to test the hypotheses. Pearson correlations were calculated to test hypotheses 1-3 utilizing a 2 tailed analysis. Specifically, three correlations were calculated relative to associations of time spent online with mean number of topics searched, perceived number of rewards and perceived number of costs, respectively. The Pearson r correlation assumes a normal distribution of data and variables measured at the interval/ratio level. The Pearson r permitted for both positive and negative correlations to be reported. The closer the correlation is to either +1 or -1 , the stronger the correlation. If the correlation is 0 or very close to zero, there is no association between the two variables. Finally, T-test of means was used to test hypotheses 4-6 related to parent gender. In each of these cases, parent gender serves as the independent variable. With regard to hypothesis 4, the rewards vs. costs value (sum rewards - sum costs) serves as the dependent variable. With regard to hypothesis 5, mean number of topics searched serves as the dependent variable, and, in testing hypothesis 6, mean time Spent online serves as the dependent variable. T-test is an appropriate technique when the independent variable is nominal (e. g. gender) and the dependent variables are measured at the interval or ratio level. The t-test also assumed independence of groups, normal distribution and equal variances within the sample. Data will be examined to ensure that these assumptions have been met. Chapter Four Results Introduction The purpose of this study is to examine Internet usage in the parenting role among a national sample of current parent Internet users with children ages 0-5. The chapter was organized according to the research questions and hypotheses presented in Chapter 1. First, descriptive statistics on participant demographics and Internet usage are presented with regard to the research questions. Second, findings regarding the study hypotheses are presented. Research questions were as follows: I. What are the respondent’s basic demographic characteristics relative to age, sex, ethnicity, parenting role, and education? What are basic family demographic characteristics of respondents relative to annual income, number of children, development stages of children? Where do parents have access to the Internet? How often do parents access parenting resources online in an average day? How often do parents access parenting resources online in an average week? What are the most common Internet functions used by parents to share or receive parenting resources? What parenting topics do parents access on the Internet? What type of websites do parents visit in order to locate parenting resources? What type of websites do parents feel are the most useful to them? 44 10. Do parents feel the Internet provides a reliable and accurate resource to them in regard to parenting information? 11. What do parents consider are the ‘costs’ with using the Internet as a parenting resource? 12. What do parents consider are the ‘rewards’ with using the Internet as a parenting resource? Characteristics of the sample In total 142 responses were submitted via the online Parent Internet Usage Survey hosted at www.reuterinc.com. Eight responses were deleted from the final data set because the participants did not identify having children in infancy, toddlerhood or preschool. Fourteen responses were removed from the final data set as participants identified themselves from outside of the United States. The final sample consisted of 120 participants. AS noted in Table I, most respondents were female (82%) and identified their parent role as mothers (80%). Most respondents were primarily Caucasian (82%) and were married (90%). The average age of respondents is 32.06 years (SD = 5.76). Respondents were highly educated with 46 (39%) reporting completion of a four year college degree and another 29 (24%) describing themselves as holding masters or doctoral degrees. Thirty-five participants (31%) reported annual incomes over $100.000, and 48 (42%) of the respondents reported annual household incomes between $50,000 and $99,000. 45 As noted in Table 2, 72 (60%) of respondents are families with an only child, and majority of those having children that are currently in the infancy and toddler stages of development. Eighty (67%) families identified having only one child in a Single development stage, which showed some families have more than one child in the same development stage. Internet Access and Use Respondents were asked to identify all access to the lntemet. 100% of the respondent sample identified having access to the Internet in general. Respondents also reported 100% access to the Internet in their homes. The most common uses of the Internet functions for sharing or receiving parenting information were E-mail (90.8%), World Wide Web (89.2%), and forums/bulletin boards (86.7%). Table 3 identifies all access locations to the lntemet. and the most common Internet function by parents utilizing the lntemet. 46 Table 1 Respondent Demographics by Mean Age N % Total N 120 100 Gender Male 22 19 Female 97 82 No Response 1 -- Race White 96 82 Hispanic/Latino 9 8 Black or African American 6 5 American Indian or Alaskan Native 2 2 Asian 4 4 No Response 3 -- Parenting Role Father 22 18 Mother 96 80 Other 2 2 Current Level of Education Doctoral degree 6 5 Four year degree 46 39 High School degree / GED 4 3 Master’s degree 23 19 Some college 30 25 Two year degree (Associate) 1 1 9 Current Marital Status Divorced/Separated l 1 Living w/ partner 8 7 Married 108 90 Never married 3 3 Current Annual Family Income More than $150,000 15 13 8100,000-8149,000 20 l 8 890,000-899,999 2 2 880,000-889,999 10 9 870,000-879,999 1 1 10 860,000-869,999 1 5 l 3 850,000-859,999 10 9 840,000-849,999 l 0 9 830,000-839,999 8 7 820,000-829,999 8 7 810,000-819,999 3 3 Less than 810,000 1 I No Response 7 47 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Children in Families and Children's Development Stages N % Total N 120 100 Children in family One child 72 60 Two children 31 26 Three children 7 6 Four children 5 4 Five or more children 5 4 Development Stages Infancy 60 Toddler 63 53 Preschool 35 29 Elementary 17 14 Middle School / High School 12 8 College 1 1 Single and Multi stage families One stage 80 67 Two stages 38 32 Three stages 2 2 Cross development stages 38 Infant/Toddler l 1 9 Infant/Preschool 9 7 Toddler/Preschool 20 1 7 48 Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Internet Access and Functions N 340 Total N 120 100 Where accessed Home 120 100 Work 57 48 Local public access 13 l I School 8 7 Friend/family home 8 7 Internet Functions E-mail 109 91 World Wide Web 107 90 Forum/Bulletin Boards 104 87 Chat/Messengers 45 38 Web Design 13 1 1 Other: Blogs 6 5 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 2 2 On average, respondents reported utilizing the Internet as a parenting resource 2.7 hours per day (SD = 2.23). Weekly, respondents reported spending 13.5 (SD= 13.5) hours online for parenting resources. Female respondents reported utilizing the Internet on average 2.8 (SD = 2.38) hours per day, and 14.9 (SD = 14.5) hours per week. Male respondents reported utilizing the Internet on average 2.0 (SD = 1.26) hours per week, and 7.9 (SD = 5.99) hours weekly. Overall, five of the fifteen parenting topics listed on the survey were accessed via the Internet by at least 50% of all respondents, and an option to add ‘other’ topics was provided. Most parents (n=106, 88.3%) reported accessing the Internet in search of medical resource information on their children; 97 (80.8%) responded they had accessed resources on child nutrition; 91 (75.8%) of respondents had accessed resources on child milestones and age comparisons; 80 (66.7%) identified accessing education resources, and 73 (60.8%) had accessed resources on safety. Interestingly, the Master’s degree level 49 parents identified the second highest number of total topics (mean = 7.0) among all education levels with four-year degree parents identifying a mean score of 7.02. Table 4 Descriptive Statistics for Parenting Topics N 22 Total N 120 100 Topics Medical information on child 106 89 Child Nutrition 97 81 Child milestones/age comparison 91 76 Education 80 67 Safety 73 61 Discipline 55 46 Communication w/ child 54 45 Toilet learning 48 40 Speech/language 45 37 Reading/literacy 4 1 34 Temper tantrums 34 28 Biting 17 14 Sibling rivalry 1 1 9 Lying 6 5 Dealing w/ death 3 3 Other: When respondents were asked to identify the type of websites visited for parenting 11] (92.5%) identified using search engines such as Yahoo or Google while 105 (87.5%) identified visiting popular parenting websites. In table 5, respondent’s responses to the types of websites used for exchanging parenting resources were identified. In general, respondents (63%, n = 76) indicated that they felt the Internet provide reliable and accurate parenting information. Some participants (23 %, n = 27) strongly agreed that the Internet is reliable while 11% (n = 14) were uncertain and 3% (n = 3) disagreed that the Internet provided reliable parenting information. 50 Table 5 Descriptive Statistics for Website Type Visited for Parenting Information N % Total N 120 100 Topics Search engines 1 1 l 93 Popular parenting websites (.com) 105 88 Human service organizations (.org) 50 42 Government website 48 40 Academic 40 33 Costs and rewards in using the Internet Respondents were asked to identify the cost and rewards associated with parenting resources on the Internet from a list provided in the survey. Results regarding the costs and rewards in using the Internet as a parenting resource are summarized in Table 6. Overall 13 ‘costs’ were identified but only 3 were identified by at least fifty percent of respondents. Fifteen ‘rewards’ were identified, and 11 of these topic areas were identified by at least fifty percent of respondents. Respondents identified 24 hour availability (91%, n = 109), the large quantity of information to research (87%, n = 104), easy access to resources (85%, n = 102), and access to resources (85%, n = 102) as the common rewards. The most common identified costs were time (61%, n = 74), biased information (60%, n = 72), and uncertainty of resource accuracy (50%, n = 60). Table 6 Descriptive Statistics for Costs and Rewards identified N % Total N 120 100 Rewards 24 Hour Availability of the Internet 109 91 Large quantity of information to research 104 87 Easy access to resources 102 85 Access to other parents 102 85 Topic specific resources for research 85 71 Ability to post questions & check back later 85 71 Range of topics available to research 69 58 Access to education/professional websites 68 57 Wide variety of web site sources 67 56 Low cost 64 54 Anonymity 63 53 Access to professionals 52 44 Ability to chat w/ others via chat software 38 32 Access to other family members 35 29 Costs Time 74 62 Biased information 72 60 Uncertainty of resource accuracy 60 50 Work/effort to browse several sources 49 41 Time away from family members 47 39 Uncertainty of complete resources 40 33 Spam/junk E-mail 39 33 Too much information to compare/contrast 37 31 Financial cost of Internet access 30 25 Lack of assistance from professionals/experts 18 15 Difficulty locating information on specific topic 16 13 Additional financial costs of accessing resources 4 3 Time availability to access lntemet connection 4 3 52 Results regarding the Research Hypotheses Six research hypotheses were formulated for the purpose of this study. Each hypothesis and corresponding results from the analyses are presented below. Ha]: Among parents who access parent resources on the Internet, there is a positive relationship between time spent online and number of topics accessed. To test this hypothesis the following variables were analyzed: 1) time spent online daily, 2) time spent online weekly, 3) total number of topics accessed by parents. There is a negative relationship between the mean number of topics researched and mean time spent, daily (r = -.26, p < .05) and weekly (-.09, p < .05) analyzed with a 2-tailed test. The higher the self reported hours spent online accessing parenting resources, the fewer parenting topics were identified documenting a correlation in the opposite direction than expected. The null hypothesis was rejected. H02, Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is a positive relationship between time spent and rewards perceived. To test this hypothesis the following variables were analyzed: 1) time spent online daily, 2) time spent online weekly, 3) total number of rewards perceived. A Pearson r correlation analysis of the relationship between time spent online daily and weekly, and the rewards perceived was performed. There is a positive relationship between the rewards perceived and time spent online with regard to parenting daily, r = .02. p < .05. 53 and weekly, r = .04, p < .05 analyzed with a 2-tailed test. The null hypothesis was rejected. H03, Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet there is a negative relationship between time spent and costs perceived. Pearson r correlation analyses of the relationships between time spent online daily and weekly and number of costs perceived were significant at the .01 level. There is a negative relationship between the number of costs perceived and time spent online daily (r = -.17) and weekly (r = -.15) analyzed with a 2-tailed test. The more time parents reported Spending time online accessing parenting resources, the fewer the costs identified by respondents. The null hypothesis was rejected. H04: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will perceive a greater level of rewards vs. costs than will fathers. An independent samples t test is used to compare reward/cost difference scores between males and females. The reward/cost difference is calculated by subtracting the costs identified by each parents from the rewards identified, providing each parents with a difference score. Mothers had a mean score of reward/cost difference of 4.85 (SD = 3.57), and fathers had a mean score of 3.61 (SD = 3.79). The reported mean difference is not significant, t (118) = 1.24 p > .10. and, therefore, there was a failure to reject the null hypothesis. Ha 5: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will access a higher number of topics than will fathers. 54 An independent samples t test analysis is used to examine differences in numbers of topics accessed by mothers and fathers in the study. Mothers searched a mean of 6.64 (SD = 3.16) parenting topics, and fathers searched a mean of 6.30 (SD = 3.44) topics. The number of topics searched did not differ significantly between mothers and fathers, t (118) = .34, p > .10, and there was a failure to reject the null hypothesis. Hag: Among parents who access parenting resources on the Internet, mothers will spend more time on online parenting resources than will fathers. Mothers reported spending a mean of 2.84 (SD = 2.3 8) hours online daily, and fathers reported a mean of 2.02 (SD = 1.26) hours for daily lntemet usage. Mothers reported spending a mean of 14.95 (SD = 14.51) hours on line weekly while fathers spent 7.86 (SD = 5.99) online weekly in accessing online parenting resources. The differences in daily Internet usage between mothers and fathers differed Significantly, t (60.6) = .82, p < .10, mothers spend Significantly more time online for parenting purposes than did fathers, t (82.5)= 7.04, p < .10. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. 55 Chapter Five Discussion and Conclusions The purpose of this research was to examine the characteristics of lntemet usage among parents with children, ages zero to five years. Specifically, this study was designed to address two gaps in the research literature. First, this study contributes to the sparse, existing literature on how parents utilize the lntemet in regard to their parenting. Second, the results provide needed insights on how parents View the costs and rewards relative to lntemet usage and how these perceptions may vary according to parent gender. Findings from this research showed that parents who access parenting resources online are primarily Caucasian, educated females. Parents identified that their children come from varying development stages, and parents access a wide variety of parenting topics online. The findings also suggest that, overall their experiences with the lntemet (with regard to parenting) have been overwhelming positive, as indicated by the identification of rewards in comparison to the costs associated with usage. These findings, discussed in detail below, will help to build the knowledge base of how parents utilize the lntemet in regard to their parenting, help identify the major rewards and costs associated, and help to understand why parents continue to use the lntemet as a parenting resource. General Characteristics of lntemet Usage Four demographic categories summarized primary respondent characteristics of the parent lntemet usage survey, posted through parenting website forums. Females (mothers) were the majority respondents (82%), and most respondents were Caucasian 56 (82%). Nearly all of the respondents (98%) came from a two parent family with 90% of respondents being married, and the remaining eight percent living with their partners. There are several explanations as to why most respondents were married. In the U.S., approximately 33 % of children under the age of 18 are being raised in single parent homes (US Census Bureau, 2005). Dual parenting families may have more resources, both in terms of monetary and time resources, to utilize the lntemet as a parenting resource. While the number of fathers acting as primary caregivers has increased dramatically since 1996 when it was reported to be 18% (Child Trends, 2002) mothers are still the most frequent primary caregivers of young children. Therefore, findings in this study indicating that mothers are the primary lntemet users, with regard to parenting, was not surprising. Perhaps in line with such statistics, studies have Shown that many "parenting" websites are tailored to females (Russell, 2002). In fact, Pew lntemet and Life noted, “women are enthusiastic online communicators,” which fits the parenting resource forum communities. Current level of education and current annual family income provided a wide range of responses. Most respondents (63%) had earned at least a four-year degree up to a doctoral degree, while 47% had less than a college education. According to the 2005 American Community Survey reports (US Census) the median household income was 846,242. Respondents were predominantly (74%) middle class family with annual earnings 850,000 and above. These responses help document that users come from varying range of education and mostly middle class economic levels who accessing parenting resources online. According to (US Department of Commerce, 2002) the higher level of education and higher level of income the more likely you are to access the lntemet. Findings from this study Show that the higher level of education and higher level of income does not guarantee greater usage regarding parenting resources. Using time reported on daily usage parents possessing a two-year degree report using the lntemet for parenting resources most often with a mean score of 4.09 hours daily. Respondents with total family income earning less than 850,000 per year identified usage on a daily basis of 2.94 hours, and respondent’s family income greater than $50,000 reported usage on a daily basis of 2.6 hours daily. Differences among education showed that Master’s degree level parents identified the lowest mean score of reward/cost difference of 2.91 (SD = 2.53) suggesting they are the least likely to continue using the lntemet. Parents possessing a two year degree identifying the highest mean score of reward/cost difference of 6.09 (SD = 3.36) suggesting they are the most likely to continue. In comparison the entire sample provided a reward/cost difference score of 4.60 (SD = 3.63). Interestingly, the Master’s degree level parents identified the second highest number of topics (mean = 7.0) among all education levels with four-year degree parents identifying a mean score of 7.02. This finding suggests that parents with higher levels of education appear to be searching a wider spectrum of topics, but not perceiving a greater level of rewards. Educational level may provide them with additional knowledge on the downfalls of the lntemet, or likely to locate resources that may provide a higher level of rewards. 58 Recent lntemet access studies (US Department of Commerce, 2002) Show that over 50% of families in the United States, across all income brackets have access at home and almost 40% have access at work. This research did not document if the access was constant or reliable, and what type of work sites access was found most often. While it is argued that the “digital divide” is decreasing based on access (US Department of Commerce, 2002), responses from this study indicate that lntemet users are still more likely to be from dual parenting, middle class families. If access was available to a wider range of families, reasons for differing usage may be due to lack of training on utilizing the lntemet, not accessing the same popular websites which contained access to this survey due to different usage priorities, or time availability to access the lntemet. Most respondents were two parent families allowing additional flexibility to access the lntemet. About half (71%) of the respondents were parenting infants or toddlers, and 60% of respondents had only one child, suggesting first time parents utilize the lntemet as a parenting resource. Only 29% of parents identified a child in the preschool development stage while 40% of parents reported having at least two children. These findings would suggest that a larger number of first time parents and parents of younger aged children perceive the lntemet as a viable source of information. . The websites in which the survey was posted for response focused primarily from conception through early elementary, but were identified as the top parenting websites in general by alexa.com. Looking closer at how parents with children in these three developmental stages utilize the lntemet as a resource we can closer examine the topics searched, and cost/reward difference. Grouping parents of children with preschool children and 59 parents with no preschool children (only infant/toddler) we find that parents of preschool only children search a mean score of 7.54 topics, and parents of infant/toddlers search a mean score of 6.17. Parents of preschool children identified a cost/reward difference score of 5.31 while parents of only infant/toddler aged children identified a score of 4.31 suggesting that preschool parents find a greater level of rewards from online resources. Further investigation of families of a single child compared to families with multiple children also provided results that parents with multiple children searched more topics and identified a greater cost/reward difference score. Parents of a single child searched on average 6.40 topics and identified a cost/reward difference score of 4.44. Parents of multiple children identified 6.83 topics on average with a cost/reward difference score of 4.85. Not only do parents of multiple children search a wider range of topics, but they also identify a more positive experience. First time parents and parents of infants and toddlers may have more questions, and less knowledge of accessible resources available to parents. Parents of children in the preschool stage may have identified additional access resources. The lntemet also provides an anonymous resource option so that parents with questions they may feel uneasy asking and easy access around the clock when other resources may be unavailable in their time of need. Access to the Internet and Common Search Functions Respondents each reported that they had lntemet access available to them at home, and more than half had access available through their employment. A quarter (25%) of respondents also accessed the lntemet for parenting resources outside of these 60 locations. This suggests that users who are regularly accessing parenting resources have access at home, and frequently access at work or a second location. Respondents to this survey were also predominantly two parent families who are earning more than the median income as of 2005. This demographic of parents are possibly the most primed to utilize it as a resource with accessibility at home, a 2nd parent in the family, and according to access studies the higher level of income the more likely you are access the lntemet in general. Parents are also referred to the Internet as a resource from a variety of sources such as television ads, magazine ads, child product promotions, and even professional resources such as physicians or agencies. The most popular lntemet functions for accessing these parent resources were through e-mail, the World Wide Web, and through popular website forums/bulletin boards. Search engines such as Yahoo! or Google were the most popular sites to gain access to parenting resources followed closely by popular parenting websites often under “.com” format. Respondents were not asked to identify the sites that they most often browsed, but rather the site in which the survey was located. In the current study, the lntemet usage survey was posted on the most popular parenting sites, as identified by alexa.com, which ranks of parenting websites by traffic (number of visitors). Parents may locate these same websites when utilizing Yahoo! or Google and were among the top parenting sites listed by alexa.com. These same sites are likely reference by search engines when using key word searches. This shows the wide variety of access points parents have to resources. Interestingly, many sites are not monitored with regard to the accuracy of information posted, or the sites may fail to publicly mention professional monitoring of 61 forum content in which members of the website freely share information with one another. This survey was posted specifically at popular identified sites that provided access to member forums where parents could freely start topics or respond to current posts. Volunteers and parent members monitor some sites as well serving in the best interest of the moderation rules of the site and its members' best interest. Articles posted by the site often document the author but rarely their credentials, and or research references. This was likely a reason why researchers (Tuffrey & Finley, 2002), as well as parents, identify inaccuracy and bias as two of the major concerns of utilizing the lntemet as a parenting resource. Structured websites that provide articles, calendars, and topic driven responses are likely to be more credible than sites based on community sharing of information. As of October 2006, wwwpamperscom was the highest ranked parenting website by alexa.com, and, upon further investigation, this statement was found on the website, “The Pampers Parenting Institute is committed to providing parents with the best in information and support from the world’s leading experts in child health and development” after 4 pages from the main site under “about us”. While this site was popular and does identify that the site provides parents with resources from leading experts, it was not clearly identified upon first visiting the site. A second Site states this “Parenthoodcom is committed to helping families grow by offering interactive tools and more than 10,000 pages of award-winning, resource-rich content that is a trusted source for parents and expectant parents” (httpWWarenthood.com/about.html), but fails to mention guidance of any experts or professionals. This Site was predominantly a forum based website that allows parents to 62 interact with other users while researching popular topics. The Site states that the forums are “moderated by two coordinators and more than 100 volunteer hosts who have specific knowledge, interest, or Skills related to their topic area”. These two examples are highly ranked websites each offering a wide range of resource information by developmental stage and topic with some assurances of moderation and expertise. While both of these sites receive a high level of traffic on a daily basis and offers some form of assurances to quality of information and moderation there was still room not only for doubt, but distribution of misinformation most notably in parenting forums. Sites that are not as closely monitored increase the chances for bias and misinformation to be included. Currently over 50% of families in the United States, across all income brackets, have access at home and almost 40% have access at work (US Department of Commerce, 2002). These statistics lead to belief that the “digital divide” is deteriorating and that access to the lntemet is more widespread, but even with access the “digital divide” is a multifaceted issue. Having lntemet access alone today does not ensure easy and quality access to new websites designs that require additional downloaded software or a high- speed connection. High speed access to the hitemet while more widespread than in years past may not be the most accessible or affordable access available to users of all economic levels. Having a slow connection may dissuade parents from particular websites or choose not to wait the additional time required to download necessary software. While access was prevalent there are more issues to be considered with the “digital divide” debate. 63 Common Search Topics Parenting topics such as medical information pertaining to the child, child nutrition, and child milestones were identified as the most popular parenting topics. During the survey parents were asked to identify all topics that they have researched online while searching for parenting resources, but were not asked to rank order most popular topics. The literature review identifies medical information pertaining to a child as the most common and popular topic researched, and this was confirmed in the current study as 89% of respondents identified medical questions as a primary search topic. Other topics were also identified with high response rates, suggesting that parents use the lntemet for a wide range of topics than being limited to medical information. Respondents identified topics such as nutrition and child milestones frequently. A physician regularly provides medical information, including resource information on milestones and nutrition, during well baby and child checkups, but current research on parent lntemet usage with medical information (cite) suggests that parents still seek other resources for information. For instance, Semere et a1 (2003) reported that 73% of parent’s further researched information provided by their surgeons and made additional efforts to research the hospitals and surgeons on the lntemet. This suggests that parents might also be utilizing the lntemet to a) verify medical advice from their physicians and b) verify the quality of the hospital and medical staff. Topics that were identified by fewer than 15% of the respondents included biting. Sibling rivalry, lying, and dealing with death. Unlike medical information, which can include an umbrella of numerous individual topics. these are very specified topics that 64 may be researched only when the topic arises. Other frequently identified topics such as safety (61%), discipline (46%) and communication with a child (45%) are likely to be more common issues parents face with children. Next, perceived costs and rewards of accessing the lntemet are discussed. Perceptions of Costs and Rewards in lntemet Usage The basic premise of the Social Exchange Theory (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1995) is Utilitarianism, which refers to individuals exercising the ability to rationally weigh the costs and rewards associated with choices, and choosing activities that maximize their rewards. The defining principles of the Social Exchange Theory help to explain why the lntemet was considered a valuable resource by parents seeking information online. In the current study, the more time parents report spending online accessing parenting resources, the fewer the costs identified by respondents. Results indicated that rewards associated with using the Internet as a parenting resource heavily outweighed the costs associated with accessing information. These results met expectations of the respondent population as parent users of the lntemet that currently access parenting resources online. The respondents may feel comfortable with the lntemet as an information resource, and are familiar with the parenting resources available. Those rewards that received the highest response rates included: 24 hour availability of the lntemet, large quantity of information to research, easy access to resources, and access to other parents. The reported mean difference in reward/cost difference did not differ according to gender. This suggests that parents of both genders feel that the lntemet as a parenting resource was, in general, a positive resource that provides more rewards than costs 65 expended in order to utilize it. The costs identified by both genders documented that parents are aware of well documented concerns of research regarding the lntemet based on the literature review. However, the sample was predominantly female, making it hard to distinguish if this would be a consistent finding with a sample equally representing males and females. Biased information (60%) and uncertainty of resource accuracy (50%) were two of three costs identified by 50% of parent respondents. Tuffrey & Finley (2002) identified facing bias, misinformation, and incomplete information as a cost and concern for users researching parenting topics without guidance. Time expended was the highest identified cost (62%). While these parents are familiar and comfortable with the lntemet and parenting resource, there still was a high level of cost that could be involved with the resource. Twelve rewards were identified by at least 50% of respondents, which suggests that the respondents felt the rewards garnered their experience worthwhile and worth the cost of time. Most frequently identified rewards included: 24 hour availability of the lntemet, large quantity of information to research, easy access to resources, and access to other parents, with each of these rewards identified by more than 85% of respondents. There was a positive relationship between the rewards perceived and time spent online by parents accessing resources online, again suggesting that while the lntemet can be time consuming, parents see it as a worthwhile resource. This suggests that the parents who are willing to spend time online perceive a level of rewards worth accessing these resources. The 24 hour availability of the lntemet will provide parents with a busy or hectic schedule the opportunity to access resources 66 based on their availability rather than working within other’s schedules. The large quantity of information provides a wealth of resources for parents to further research topics until they are satisfied with their findings. Access to other parents helps to provide parents with a social support network that often can be informal or anonymous if desired. Time Spent Interestingly, the more time parents spent online accessing parenting resources, the fewer the number of topics searched. This suggests that parents who are accessing the lntemet as a parenting resource are accessing Specific topics rather a general spectrum of topics. Again some of the "umbrella" topics (e.g. medical, education, etc.) provided on the survey did not provide specific information on particular topics searched. Parents appear to be coming to the lntemet with specific topics, and questions in mind and Spend their time searching for answers pertaining to their identified topics. This conclusion was supported by earlier research from the medical field, Semere et a1 (2003), Ikemba et a1 (2002), and Chen et a1 (2000) indicated that parents often use the lntemet to confirm and elaborate on information they have already received. While reported rewards were not significantly related to time spent online there was a significant, inverse relationship between time Spent online and identification of fewer costs in lntemet usage. That is, the more time they spent online daily and weekly, the fewer costs (in utilizing the lntemet) they perceived. One explanation might be that those who are choosing to spend more time online accessing parenting resources may be more comfortable with the lntemet and the resources they are locating. These parent users may still identify with costs, but not view costs as extensive or prohibitive given their comfort level or past experiences on the lntemet. According to the Social Exchange 67 Theory, if the rewards outweigh the costs in a given interaction, the individual will continue usage. These findings suggest that parents are likely to continue to use the lntemet as a parenting resource. There were no differences in time spent online with regard to parent gender. This finding suggests among others based on gender suggest that users of the lntemet as a parenting resource appear to be utilizing the lntemet as a parenting resource in the same capacity. Respondents were asked to report hours spent online each day and each week, in separate questions. However, the reported times were seemingly contradictory when compared to one another. Time reported for daily usage often did not equal to time reported for weekly usage. For instance, a respondent might report an average of 2.5 hours online daily and 30 hours online weekly. The survey instrument failed to define a week for respondents, and it was possible that respondents felt this could have been a five day work week or a seven day calendar week. This could play part of the explanation for the discrepancies within the reported hours of usage by parents. These discrepancies suggest that self-reporting techniques may not be providing an accurate depiction of actual usage rates. Such information is important for future studies aimed at understanding and studying lntemet usage. Significance of the results The significance of the results from this study was the confirmation that parents are utilizing the lntemet as a parenting resource on a daily and weekly basis; they are accessing a wider scale of topics outside of medical information (as has been the focus of most research to date), and respondents perceive far more rewards than costs in utilizing 68 the lntemet as a parenting resource. While parents feel the largest costs they face include bias and inaccurate information, they do report that overall the rewards have outweighed the costs. Parents responding to this research survey also identified that accuracy and bias on the lntemet are costs associated with this resource, which was critical for parent, lntemet users to be aware of. The results from this study helped to identify the most common user of parenting resources, but also the range of users that have and utilize access to the same resources. Through self-reporting the study was able to report time usage but failed to document consistency of reported usage through the survey. The Study also located respondents at popular parenting websites identified by alexa.com and approved by site moderators and may not have captured users who regularly browse less popular parenting sites. Limitations of the Study A limitation to the research design was that the sample of respondents was parents who are current users of the lntemet, and were recruited Specifically from parenting websites. Thus, findings cannot be generalized to parents who do not currently access the lntemet or have chosen not to visit parent resource websites. The findings from this research will help provide insight on how and why they use the lntemet as a parenting resource, but will not answer questions about parents on the cusp of becoming users. The research design does not allow for non-lntemet users to gain access to the survey. Recommendations for Further Research Respondents identified that they Spent considerable time accessing parenting resources on daily and weekly basis, but the reported times were seemingly contradictory when compared to one another. Future research should incorporate measures that will 69 identify time parents spend accessing resources by tracking log on/off times. This could help to identify not only the amount of time that is spent on a daily and weekly basis, but also on a session to session basis depending on the parents need and possibly parenting topic. A further recommendation is that lntemet usage be studies in greater detail with regard to how utilization will likely continue in accordance to the Social Exchange Theory. The usage of the lntemet as a resource is undeniable and more research must be devoted to how this utilization could grow or evolve over time if parents continue to feel that rewards outweigh costs associated with accessing this resource. Identified costs associated with this resource Show that parents have strong concerns regarding biased information and the accuracy of the resource itself. Considering the concern that parents and experts express with regard to bias and inaccuracies on the lntemet, studies examining and documenting accuracy of information are warranted. Such studies would be useful not only in understanding the need for monitoring of information, how successfiil parents are in their search for accurate and unbiased resources, and in determining the value of the lntemet as a quality resource. This survey was also conducted on those top identified sites that allowed access to site forums for members to post topics and comments. Future research should also document users who may not frequently visit parenting forums. Other highly identified costs by respondents were time required accessing information, work/effort to browse the resources, and time away from family. Examining how parents can be more effective and time efficient in using the lntemet, or perhaps 70 more precisely, how lntemet sites and search engines may be better integrated and organized would be a valuable contribution. If parents can effectively and efficiently navigate the lntemet and access reliable, unbiased information online, the lntemet can be a very valuable resource. AS noted earlier in this chapter further research needs to be conducted on the “digital divide” not only in terms of access in general, but the type of access users can afford or access locally and any hurdles this presents to the online experience. Further research should also focus on how parents in lower income families or single parent families access parenting resources with those of higher income brackets. Research should also explore why lower income parents may not be accessing the lntemet as a resource. It would critical to compare parents who do not currently utilize the lntemet with those who utilize it sparingly or frequently, to examine how resources, satisfaction with experiences and other costs and rewards may be related to using the lntemet as a parenting resource. Lastly further research should consider a broader range of parent user groups to include ages beyond the zero to five age ranges focused in this research study to broader group of parents in general. 71 Appendices 72 Parents, tell us how you use the Internetll Participate in a short, anonymous online survey about you use the Internet! Investigators at Michigan State University are conducting a research study to better understand how parents use the Internet as a parenting education and resource tool. In this study you will be asked to complete a brief questionnaire concerning how parents use the Internet, whether or not parents think the Internet is a useful tool for parents, and how often parents turn to the Internet in their role as parents. Information from this survey will help investigators understand how the Internet can be most useful to parents. There are 27 questions on the survey, and we estimate it will take about 10-15 minutes to complete. To participate in this study please visit: http: / / www. reuterinc.com / survey/ index. php?sid=1 3 73 Title of Research: Parent lntemet Usage Investigator: Jeremy Reuter, Graduate Student, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Parent Internet Usage You are being invited to participate in a research study to investigate the use of the lntemet as a parenting education and resource tool. If you choose to participate in this research study, you will be asked to complete an online survey concerning how parents use the lntemet, whether or not parents think the lntemet is a useful tool for parents, and how often parents turn to the lntemet in their roles as parents. There are 27 questions on the survey, and we estimate it will take about 10-15 minutes to complete. Your completion of this survey is completely voluntarily. You are free to not answer any question or to stop participating at any time. All survey responses are anonymous, and your responses cannot be linked to your identity. Survey responses will be kept confidential by the researcher to the maximum extent allowable by law. There are few risks or individual benefits associated with participating in this research study. One risk to participation in this study is that participants are responsible for any financial costs incurred during lntemet usage while completing this survey. However, there are no additional costs associated with completing the survey. One benefit of participation in this study is that the information you provide will assist in understanding lntemet use as a parenting tool. Such information is an important part of understanding how the lntemet can be most usefirl to parents. If you have any questions about this research study you may call or e-mail the investigator, Jeremy Reuter, at (517) 214-8733, reuterje@gmail.com or the faculty sponsor, Dr. Holly Brophy-Herb, at (517) 355-3397, hbrophy@msu.edu. If you have any questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participant, you may contact Peter Vasilenko, PhD, Director of Human Subject Protection Programs at Michigan State University (517-355-2180, Fax 517-432-4503, irb@msu.edu, 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing 48824). By completing this survey, you indicate your voluntary consent to participate in this study and have your answers included in the project data set. Please print a copy of this consent document for you records, a printable copy may be downloaded at: wwwreuterinc.com/consent.pdf 74 @Lllltl] DIED FYI—W OFFICE OF REGULATORY AFFAIRS BIOMEDICAL 8: HEALTH INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (BIRD) COMMUNITY RESEARCH INSTITUTIONAL REVEW BOARD (CRIRB) SOCIAL SCIENCE! IEIIAVIORAL i EDUCATION msrmmomu. REVIEW BOARD (SIRE) 202 Olds Hall East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1046 517-355-2180 Fax: 517432-4503 «whumanresearchmsuedu IRB & BIRB: lRB@msu.edu CRIRB: crirb@msu.edu USU is an aflirmative-action final-opportunity institution. lVllbI'llUI-UV DIAI I; U N l V E R SIT Y Initial IRB Application M,.,h23,2006 Determination *Exem t* T0: Holly E. BROPHY-HERB p 3 Human Ecology MSU Re: IRB ii X06-246 Category: EXEMPT 1-2 Approval Date: _ March 22, 2006 Title: PARENT INTERNET USAGE The Institutional Review Board has completed their review of your project. I am pleased to advise you that your project has been deemed as exempt in accordance with federal regulations. . . The IRB has found that your research project meets the criteria for exempt status and the criteria for the protection of human subjects in exempt research. Under our exempt policy the Principal Investigator assumes the responsibilities for the protection of human subjects in this project as outlined in the assurance letter and exempt educational material. The IRS office has received your signed assurance for exempt research. A copy of this signed agreement is appended for your information and records. Renewals: Exempt protocols do not need to be renewed. If the project is completed. please submit an Application for Permanent Closure. ‘ Revisions: Exempt protocols do pg; require revisions. However, if changes areimade to a protocol that may no longer meet the exempt criteria. a new initial application will be required. Problems: "issues should arise during the conduct of the research, such as unanticipated problems. adverse events. or any problem that may increase the risk to the human subjects and change the category of review. notify the IRB office promptly. Any complaints from participants regarding the risk and benefits of the project must be reported to the IRB. Follow-up: If your exempt project is not completed and closed after M. the IRB office will contact you regarding the status of the project and to verify that no changes have occurred that may affect exempt status. Please use the IRB number listed above on any forms submitted which relate to this project. or on any correspondence with the IRB office. Good luck in your research. If we can be of further assistance, please contact us at 517-355-2180 or via email at lRB@msu.edu. Thank you for your cooperation. ' flail-Q- Peter Vasilenko, Ph. D. SIRB Chair Ci Jeremy Reuter 327 S. Magnolia Lansing. MI 48912 75 Parent Internet Usage This study is designed to provide feedback on how parents use the lntemet and its various functions as a parenting tool. Section 1 - Demographics (Location) This section of the survey is to document information on your location. dlI : In which US state do you current reside? Please choose only one of the following: Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon 76 Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Outside the United States d12: What county do you reside in? Please write your answer here: dl3: What is the zip code of your residence? Please write your answer here: Section 2 - Demographics (Personal) This section of the survey is designed to provide feedback on you personally. de .' Sex of respondent Please choose only one of the following: Female Male dp2: What is your birthdate? Please be sure to follow the format provided Please enter a date: dp3: What is your parenting role? Please choose only one of the following: Mother Father Grandmother Grandfather Stepmother Stepfather Adoptive mother Adoptive father Other 77 dp4: What is your current marital status? Please choose only one of the following: Married Divorced/Seperated Widowed Never married Living with partner dp5: What is your current level of eduction? Please choose only one of the following: Not yet completed high school High School Degree / GED Some college Two year degree (Associates) Four year degree (BA/BS) Master's degree Doctoral degree dp6: What is your ethnicity? Please choose all that apply Asian Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander Hispanic or Latino American Indian or Alaska Native Black or African American White Other: Section 3 - Demographic (Family) This section of the survey is designed to provide feedback on your family. dfl : What is your current annual family income? Please choose only one of the following: Less than 810,000 810,000-819,999 820,000-829,999 830,000-839,999 840,000-849,999 850,000-859,999 860,000-869,999 870,000-879,999 880,000-889,999 890,000-899,999 8100,000-8149,000 More than $150,000 78 df2.‘ How many children are in your family? Please write your answer here: df3: What developmental stages are your children currently in? Please mark all that apply — for Infancy, Toddler, and Preschool more specific questions will be asked later. Please choose all that apply Infancy Toddler Preschool Elementary Middle School / High School College Section 4 - Internet Access This section of the survey will provide insight to how the Internet is used as a parenting tool. iaI .' Where do you access to the Internet? (please mark all that apply) Please choose all that apply Home Work School Local Acces (Library, coffee shop,etc.) Friend/Family member Other: ia2: In general, how often do you access the Internet Please choose only one of the following: Daily A few times each week At least every other week At least once once a month Other ia3: In a typical day, how many hours do you spend online visiting websites, accessing email, etc. while at work, home, and other locations for parenting resources? Please write your answer here: ia4: In a typical week, how many hours do you spend online visiting websites, accessing email, etc. while at work, home, and other locations for parenting resources? Please write your answer here: 79 pi I : Have you used any of these functions to share or receive parenting information? Please choose all that apply Email Chat / Instant Messaging World Wide Web Forums / Bulletin boards File Transfer Protocal (FTP) Web design pi] c: What parenting topics about your child have you accessed online? Specifically children ages 0-5. (please feel flee to elaborate) Please choose all that apply and provide a comment Medical information Discipline Nutrition Safety Education Potty Training Temper Tantrums Speech/Language Reading Child Milestones / Age Comparison Dealing with Death Sibling Rivalry Communication with your Child Lying Biting Other (If selected, the next page will provide a text area to elaborate) pi] ca: Please elaborate on the other topics that you have accessed. Please write your answer here: pi2: What type of websites have you visited searchingfor parenting information? Please choose all that apply Web Searches (Yahoo,Google,Etc.) Academic Websites (domain: .edu) Government Websites (domain: .gov) Human Service Organizations (domain: .org) Popular parenting websites (Likely domain: .com) Other: 80 pi2a: Please rank the types of websites that are most useful to you as a parent? Please number each box in order of preference from 1 to 5 Web Searches (Yahoo,Google,Etc.) Academic Websites (domain: .edu) Government Websites (domain: .gov) Human Service Organizations (domain: .org) Popular parenting websites (Likely domain: .com) pi2e: What are some of the popular websites your frequently visitfor parenting information? (Example: parents.com, parentingcom, etc.) Please write your answer here: Section 5 - Social Exchange SE1: In general, do you feel the Internet provides parents with a reliable and accurate source of parenting information? Please choose only one of the following: Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree SE3: What would you consider are the 'costs ' for using the Internet as a parenting resource? Please choose all that apply Time Financial cost of lntemet access Addition financial cost of accessing resources Work/effort to browse several sources of information Time away fi'om family members Uncertainty of resource accuracy Uncertainty of complete resources Too much information to compare/contrast Lack of assistance from a professional/expert Biased information Difficulty locating information on a specific topic Spam / Junk email Time availability to access a computer w/ lntemet connection 81 l SE4: What would you consider are the 'rewards' of using the Internet as a parenting resource? Please choose all that apply Easy access to resources Large quantity of information to research Anonymity 24hr availability of the lntemet Access to other parents Access to professionals Access to other family members Low cost Topic specific resources for research (Ex. potty training) Access to educational/professional websites Ability to chat w/ others via chat softward Ability to post question/information and check back later Wide variety of web sites sources (.com, .edu, .gov, etc.) Range of topics available to research Section 8: Closing This is the final section of the survey and will provide you an opportunity to give feedback to the researcher. ch: Are there any additional thoughts you would like to convey to the researcher about the Internet as a resource to parents? Please write your answer here: cl3: What website was the link for this research project posted? 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