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THE INFLUENCE OF PACKAGING COLOR ON CONSUMER PURCHASE
INTENT: THE INFLUENCE OF COLOR AT THE POINT OF PURCHASE

By

Vickie Lynn VanHurIey

A DISSERTATION
Submitted tO
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment Of the requirements
For the degree Of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
MASS MEDIA

2007

ABSTRACT

THE INFLUENCE OF PACKAGING COLOR ON CONSUMER PURCHASE
INTENT: THE INFLUENCE OF COLOR AT THE POINT OF PURCHASE

By

Vickie Lynn VanHurIey

This study was designed tO add the body Of literature that investigates the
inﬂuence Of packaging design, speciﬁcally color, on consumer decision-making.
This study is unique because it used original three-dimensional packaging as
stimuli tO collect data. Cue utilization theory was used tO guide the investigation
Of packaging design color as a cue for product quality and product performance
as an inﬂuence on consumer purchase intent.

This benchmark study exploratory in nature synthesized color, packaging
design as an inﬂuence on consumer decision-making as an introductory mean of
investigating packaging design as the new advertising.

Approximately 80% Of purchase decisions are made at the point Of sale and
the rOle Of packaging has Shifted to include advertising the contents becoming
the “silent salesman.” With a new reliance on packaging design to persuade
consumers at the Shelf, it is important for packaging design to be studied as an
inﬂuence on consumer behavior.

Tangible three-dimensional packaging was used along with a 72-item
questionnaire to investigate the general research question: DO surface
graphics/packaging COlor (extrinsic cue) inﬂuence consumer decision-making and

the intent to purchase?

Results indicated that consumers utilize packaging color to make purchase
decisions. Consumers receive non-textural information about the product from
the packaging that helps the decision-making process. When consumers are
faced with a multitude Of product choices, especially in an unfamiliar product
category, the packaging is a source Of information. Blue and red packaging was
more likely tO be purchased than yellow, orange, green, or purple packaging.
Yellow packaging was the least likely to be purchased, and its contents were
perceived to have poor quality, poor shelf visibility, and low purchase intent.

Results also showed that COlor and product associations have an inﬂuence
on the intent to purchase. Although red was indicated overall as a packaging
color most likely to be purchased, red was the color packaging least likely tO be
purchased in the case Of toothpowder.

Results indicated packaging color influenced consumer purchase intent and
therefore color has an effect on product sales, market share, and proﬁts.

More research is needed tO augment these results that Indicate color does
inﬂuence the consumer’s intent tO purchase. Also, additional research could
strengthen the results that the consumer’s intent to purchase may be inﬂuenced
by product and color association. And more research could solidify the

relationship Of color and product associations for products.

Copyright by
VICKIE LYNN VANHURLEY
2007

This manuscript is dedicated in memory Of my grandmother, Mary Patton
who instilled in me at an early age the importance, value and power Of a good
education. This accomplishment is dedicated to all who had a desire for higher
education but were denied. This is also dedicated to my mother, Joan VanHurIey
and sister, Rhonda VanHurIey-Wilson. For without your unwavering love and

support this accomplishment would not have been possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Lucinda Davenport for your expertise, patience,
unwavering encouragement and support. I deeply appreciate yOU allowing me to
develop my passion Of advertising design and packaging design into a unique
discipline Of research. I would also like tO thank Dr. Teresa Mastin, Dr. Laura Bix,
and Dr. Kim Piper-Aiken for your expertise, dedication, hard work, and support.

I would be remiss if I did not thank Susan Chang and Mariko Morimoto for

their support and friendship along this journey.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................... 1
Chapter Two: Justification .......................................................................... 7
Chapter Three: Consumer Behavior and Decision Making ...................... 12
Chapter Four: Color ................................................................................. 36
Chapter Five: Advertising, Packaging Design, and .................................. 49
Purchase Intent
Chapter Six: Cue Utilization Theory ......................................................... 58
Chapter Seven: Research Questions and Methods ................................. 68
Chapter Eight: Results and Discussion .................................................... 81
Chapter Nine: Conclusion ...................................................................... 112
Appendix ................................................................................................ 125
References ............................................................................................ 157

v ii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Consumer Behavior Research Origins ....................................... 14
Table 2. Expected Quality Of Shaving Powder ......................................... 83
Table 3. Shelf Impact Of Shaving Powder ................................................ 83
Table 4. Shaving Powder Purchase Intent ............................................... 84
Table 5. Expected Quality Of Potato Rings .............................................. 85
Table 6. Shelf Impact Of Potato Rings ...................................................... 85
Table 7. Potato Rings Purchase Intent .................................................... 86
Table 8. Expected Quality Of Tooth Powder ............................................. 86
Table 9. Shelf Impact Of Tooth Powder .................................................... 87
Table 10. Tooth Powder Purchase Intent ................................................. 87
Table 11. Expected Quality Of Spray-on Pantyhose ................................. 88
Table 12. Shelf Impact Of Spray-on Pantyhose ........................................ 89
Table 13. Spray-on Pantyhose Purchase Intent ...................................... 89
Table 14. Red Packaging Expected Quality ............................................. 90
Table 15. Red Packaging Shelf Impact .................................................... 91
Table 16. Red Packaging Purchase Intent ............................................... 91
Table 17. Yellow Packaging Expected Quality ......................................... 92
Table 18. Yellow Packaging Shelf Impact ................................................ 92
Table 19. Yellow Packaging Purchase Intent ........................................... 93
Table 20. Blue Packaging Expected Quality ............................................ 93
Table 21. Blue Packaging Shelf Impact ................................................... 94

viii

Table 22.

Table 23.

Table 24.

Table 25.

Table 26.

Table 27.

Table 28.

Table 29.

Table 30.

Table 31.

Table 32.

Table 33.

Table 34.

Blue Packaging Purchase Intent .............................................. 94
Orange Packaging Expected Quality ....................................... 95
Orange Packaging Shelf Impact .............................................. 95
Orange Packaging Purchase Intent ......................................... 96
Green Packaging Expected Quality ......................................... 96
Green Packaging Shelf Impact ................................................ 97
Green Packaging Purchase Intent ........................................... 97
Purple Packaging Expected Quality ......................................... 98
Purple Packaging Shelf Impact ................................................ 98
Purple Packaging Purchase Intent ........................................... 98
Shelf Impact by Color ............................................................. 100
Intent tO Purchase by Color .................................................... 101
Perceived Product Quality by Color ....................................... 102

LIST OF FIGURES

Images in this dissertation are presented in COlor.

Figure 1. Study Positioning ...................................................................... 10
Figure 2. Cognitive Processing Model ..................................................... 23
Figure 3. Espresso Decision-Making Model ............................................. 25
Figure 4. Consideration Set Formation .................................................... 27
Figure 5. Complementary Relationship Based on Color Wheel .............. 39
Figure 6. Basic Model Of Consumer Problem-Solving .............................. 60
Figure 7. Sorting Rule Model ................................................................... 63
Figure 8. Experiment Packaging Stimuli ................................................ 152
Figure 9. Shaving Powder Packaging .................................................... 153
Figure 10. Potato Rings Packaging ........................................................ 154
Figure 11. Tooth Powder Packaging ...................................................... 155
Figure 12. Spray-on Pantyhose Packaging ............................................ 156

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Market research has shown consumers use information on packaging to
assist with purchase decision-making. Consumers are faced with several product
choices when shopping and assist with product selection; a shopper may turn to
the information on the product tO solidify the ﬁnal product choice. It is estimated
that between 73 and 85% Of purchase decisions are made at the point Of sale
and that packaging design plays a key role because it is Often the only factor that
differentiates two products (Sutton and Whelan 2004; Wallace 2001; Buxton
2000; Rattle and Brewer 2000). For many brands, packaging design has
acquired the responsibility Of advertising (Furness 2003, The Silent Salesman
2003)

Color may assist consumers with their purchasing behavior (Van De Laar
and Van Den Berg-Weitzel 2003). For example, when a consumer replaces a
used item, the he or she will scan the supermarket shelves for the familiar
packaging color then conﬁrm the correct product choice by reading the brand
name. Colors and shapes convey about 80% Of all visual communication
(LaCrOix 1998). Therefore, consumers have developed a habit Of using color as a
means Of gathering information. Thus, color must have an important role in
marketing and advertising.

Humans sustain a long relationship with color. Historically, meanings are

associated with color (Cheskin 1954; Schaie and Heiss 1964; Sharpe 1974). For

instance, the color blue represents clean, calm, and the heavens, while the color
red represents hot, danger, and blood. These color associations and perceptions
have extended into sociology and have been incorporated into the marketing Of
consumer gOOds (Lester 2000; Grossman 1999; Triplett 1995; Lane 1991). For
example, a popular powder laundry detergent added blue crystals to the white
detergent and employed an advertising Slogan “with added bluing for extra
whiteness.” A survey Of supermarket shelves lends support to color associations
with a multitude Of blue colored detergents and packaging. Some industry
creative directors consider color the most important element Of a package (Shell
1996). Often, color identifies and distinguishes a company’s gOOds from its
competitors. For example, Owens-Corning’s pink home insulation has U.S.
Trademark protection (Samuels and Samuels 1996). In 1995 the federal court
ruled that Owens-Corning was entitled tO trademark registration for the color
pink. The court was convinced by evidence provided which showed that the color
pink has been used in Owens-Corning’s advertising since 1956 and that more
than $42 million in consumer advertising has been Spent to emphasize the
distinctive color of the product (Samuels and Samuels 1996).

Researchers have spent the last four decades examining the behavior of
consumers in the market place (Petty, Cacioppo, and Shumann 1983). More
speciﬁcally, researchers have examined the effect media advertising has on
consumers’ attitudes and evaluations Of products and social issues. This area Of

study is consumer behavior.1 When consumers enter a market place or

 

' Consumer behavior involves the thoughts and feelings people experience coupled with the
actions performed during the Shopping process (Peter and Olson 1999).

2

supermarket, they make decisions on what to purchase. Consumer behavior has
been treated as a decision-making process. The assumption regarding consumer
decision-making is consumers have goals they seek tO satisfy. Consumers use
an evaluation process when considering which product to purchase that
highlights the importance Of investigating what impacts their evaluation Of
products that inﬂuence their purchase intent.

The success Of many companies is a result Of serving the needs Of their
consumers in addition to creating and maintaining relationships with those
consumers. In the 19803 Coke® decided to change the original formula Of the
cola and marketed it as “New Coke®” as an attempt tO compete with the rising
rival Pepsi®. Coke consumers’ attitude toward the new product was unfavorable
and their shopping behavior reﬂected their attitude. AS an attempt tO make
amends Coke returned tO the original formula and marketed it as “Coke
Classic®”. The “New Coke®” was not successful and eventually vanished from
supermarket shelves. The behavior Of Coke® consumers alerted manufacturers
and marketers tO the connection Of consumers and success. Learning from
Coke’s® experience, most companies consult consumers regarding their desire
for a product and how much they are willing tO pay for such a product prior to
launching it (Peter and Olson 1999). Examining how consumers behave during
their Shopping experience and what inﬂuences their shopping behavior continues
tO intrigue both academic and market researchers.

Marketing research has shown consumers use cues tO assist with purchase

decisions (Richardson 1994; Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994; RaO and Monroe

1988; Cox 1967). When faced with making a decision between two Similar
products a consumer may use the cues Of size, color, texture, shape, price, or
ingredients tO make the decision Of which product to purchase. Cue utilization
theory suggests that consumers depend on external or extrinsic cues (packaging,
price, brand name) when making a decision among products, especially when
determining quality (Richardson 1994). With packaging performing as the “silent
salesman” and inﬂuencing consumers at the shelf, cue utilization theory provides
a theoretical framework regarding the inﬂuence Of the color on consumers’
perception Of the product and their purchase intent.

The Objective Of this research is tO create a benchmark study (exploratory in
nature) that synthesizes color, packaging design2 and advertising as inﬂuences
on consumer decision-making. This is an introductory mean Of investigating
packaging design as a new type Of advertising. Thus, the purpose Of this
Objective is tO investigate the inﬂuence Of packaging color on consumer purchase
intent.

This study focuses on packaging design from a communication aspect not
an engineering aspect. More Specifically, this research investigates the use Of
packaging color as a cue. For example, let’s say a business executive travels to
another city discovers he failed tO pack his razor. He goes tO the hotel gift Shop
and does not see his normal brand. This consumer will rely on the cues on the
razor packaging tO make a purchase decision. In this situation, the cue Of color

may provide additional information that inﬂuences his purchase intent. This study

 

3 “The combination of materials, structure, typography, imagery, color and other visual design
components for the purposes Of communicating the marketing Objectives and strategies Of a
particular brand or product" (Klimchuk 2004).

investigates the inﬂuence Of color at the point Of purchase on the consumer
decision-making process by examining packaging design color.

The second chapter, Justification, further explains the need for academic
research to study the effect of packaging design, including color on consumer
decision-making and consumer purchase intent. This chapter also discusses the
impact Of this type Of research on the marketing and advertising industry and on
advertising design and packaging design academic research. The theoretical
framework for this research, cue utilization theory is introduced in this chapter.

The third chapter, Consumer Behavior, contains a review Of literature
regarding the consumer decision-making process and where packaging design is
positioned as part Of this process. Chapter three also highlights packaging design
as an inﬂuence on consumer behavior.

The fourth chapter, Color, contains a review Of literature regarding color,
color association, and color practices in marketing. Chapter four provides an in
depth look at the overarching question Of this research: Does surface graphics
color applied on packaging inﬂuence consumer decision—making by providing
cues associated with quality, performance, and purchase intent?

The fifth chapter, Advertising, Packaging Design, and Purchase Intent,
examines packaging design as advertising, and builds support for an emphasis
on Shelf impact. In other words, creating packaging design that attracts the
consumer from the shelf with the goal tO be the last attempt during decision-

making to inﬂuence consumer purchase intent should be implemented over the

traditional broadcast or print advertisement. This chapter also examines the use
Of packaging design as a source for information.

The Sixth chapter, Cue Utilization Theory, presents the theory that governs
the methodology for this study. Cue utilization theory, one facet Of consumer
decision—making, guide the investigation Of surface graphics color and its impact
on consumer decision-making. The chapter will show how this theory has been
used in previous studies and how the theory was adapted for this exploratory
research.

The seventh Chapter, Research Questions and Methodology, outlines the
research questions and the methodology Of this study. This chapter presents an
in-depth lOOk at the research questions. It explains the survey questions used for
data collection coupled with the application Of cue utilization theory.

The eighth chapter, Results and Discussion, provides the results and
statistical significance Of the data collection, and a discussion Of the results.

The ninth chapter, Conclusion, restates the goal Of this research, provides a
summary Of the research and discusses the conclusions as they relate to: 1)
packaging design as the new advertising, 2) the marketing and advertising
industry, and 3) advertising design and packaging design educators. This chapter
contains limitations Of the study, suggestions for future research, reﬂection on the
study for future replication, and how this study adds to the body Of knowledge
regarding the inﬂuence Of surface graphics color on the consumer decision-

making process.

CHAPTER TWO

JUSTIFICATION

Consumers are bombarded with about 3,600 selling messages a day
(Rumbo 2002). Yet, because Of technology allowing TV watchers to omit
commercials and declining advertising budgets, there has been an emphasis on
inﬂuencing the consumer at the store shelf (Furness 2003). For many products,
such as seasonal items, packaging design has acquired the responsibility Of
advertising (Often being the only advertising the product will receive) and has
evolved intO the “silent salesman” (Furness 2003; Rettie and Brewer 2000; Shell
1996). It is estimated that between 73% and 85% of purchase decisions are
made at this point and the packaging design must play a key rOle because it is
Often the only factor that differentiates two products on a shelf (Sutton and
Whelan 2004; Wallace 2001; Buxton 2000; Rettie and Brewer 2000). With a new
reliance on packaging design tO persuade consumers at the Shelf, it is important
for packaging design tO be studied academically as an inﬂuence on consumer
behavior.

Research in the area Of consumer response tO packaging design is being
encouraged tO assist with increased product sales and increased beneﬁts to the
integrated marketing communications (IMC) mix (TObOlski 1994). IMC refers to
the channels (advertising, packaging, personal selling, sales promotion, public

relations and direct marketing) used by companies/manufacturers tO

communicate product information tO the target audience or intended. users Of the
product (BNET 2004).

Packaging is expected tO protect and preserve its contents, differentiate from
its competitors, grab the attention Of the consumer, and persuade the consumer
to purchase (Packaging: good shelf image 2003; Product packaging: empty
promises? 2000). The vast consumer packaged goods industry continually relies
upon color as a method Of differentiation. Research has shown color (especially
nontraditional color) attracts the attention Of the consumer (VOight 2003).
Nontraditional color increases the ability tO separate a product from its
competitors and enhance brand identity (VOight 2003). According to marketing
research, colors allow marketers tO build brand loyalty at a time when consumer
loyalty has declined (Selame and KOUkOS 2002). With crowded product
categories, manufacturers desire brand loyal consumers.

More attention is now being devoted to inﬂuencing consumers at the point-
Of-purchase. According to brand managers, packaging acts as an advertising
medium and is cheaper than TV commercials (Selame and KOUkOS 2002). When
packaging doubles as a container and advertising, the packaging may be the
manufacturer’s last chance for reaching Shoppers (Selame and KOUkOS 2002).
This researcher’s informal review Of supermarket shelves support the marketing
trend Of Updating packaging designs Of products [e.g., ReaLemon’“ and
ReaLime‘“, Polar Ice vodka, Kellogg’s® pop-tarts®, Tyson® chicken, Canada
Dry® ginger ale, ACT ll® popcorn, DOle® salad blends, Starbucks® coffee, and

Van de Kamp’s® frozen seafood entrees] as a strategy tO garner more attention

tO the product at the Shelf and tO generate more inﬂuence on purchase intent
(packworldcom 2004; Pigeon 2001). Market research has discovered that the
supermarket shelf is more effective with inﬂuencing consumer purchase than
advertising, and advertising is more effective with heightening product recall
(Selame and KOUkOS 2002; Wallace 2001 ). Thus, more emphasis should be
placed on packaging design, the point-Of—purchase for consumer-packaged
goods, as a strategy to inﬂuence consumer purchase intent.

With marketers beginning tO devote more attention to inﬂuencing consumers
at the point-Of-purchase, cues on packaging (color being one) have moved to the
forefront as a means Of consumer inﬂuence as a link to increased market
revenue. Apple Offered colorful computers (the iMac) as an alternative to the
traditional beige colored computer. The bright colors and unique shape increased
the noticeability Of the iMac in a showroom Of beige personal computers. The
strategy Of Offering an array Of colors coupled with a unique design saved Apple
from financial ruin (Gibney and Luscombe 2000).

As the desire increases to inﬂuence consumers at the point-Of-purchase, the
role Of packaging design emerges tO the forefront Of advertising. Packaging now
assumes the role Of advertising in addition tO protecting and preserving its
contents. Considered young industries, packaging emerged near the end Of the
nineteenth century and packaging design surfaced (in the late 19305) as a result
Of mass production. Much research Is needed in these understudied areas
regarding their effect on consumer purchase intent. (Selame and KOUkOS 2002).

Understanding the effect packaging color has on consumer decision-making

would be as an introductory mean Of investigating packaging design as the new
advertising.

The Objective Of this research is tO investigate the inﬂuence Of packaging
design color on consumer decision—making. More specifically, this research
investigates the use Of surface graphics3 color as a cue by consumers for
product quality and product performance. This study also examines how different
colors inﬂuence consumer decision-making, and Ultimately, the consumer’s intent
tO purchase. It focuses on packaging design from a communication aspect, not
an engineering one. In an attempt tO properly frame this research, a diagram is
presented tO position packaging design as a separate entity from other aspects
Of packaging, such as structure, materials, and functional design or engineering

(Figure 1.).

Figure 1. Study Positioning

Packaging (container) Functional Design

I | I

Color Texture Shape

 

 

 

Packaglng Design

COIOI‘ Graphics Text

 

 

3 Surface graphics refers tO the photographs, illustrations, and typography that appear on the
packaging. Surface graphics is exclusionary Of the color, shape, and Size of the product.

10

Cues are product information consisting Of price, color, taste, feel, scent, and
the opinion Of friends, family, and retail sales consultants (Cox 1967). A package
can be made up Of a variety Of cues. Thus, this research is guided by cue
utilization theory. There are two types Of cues (intrinsic and extrinsic) and cue
utilization theory suggests that consumers depend on extrinsic cues when faced
with making a decision between products especially when determining quality
(Richardson 1994).

The results Of the present study have the potential tO alter design practices
regarding color use on packaging design and its inﬂuence on consumer purchase
intent and, results have the potential to reposition packaging graphic design tO
the forefront Of marketing strategy. At best, packaging design is included as a
significant part Of the entire marketing program (Calver 2004). The budget for
packaging design pales in comparison tO advertising and sales promotion
budgets (Calver 2004). A 2005 market study conducted by Shelf Impact reported
Of those surveyed 35% Of packaging design decisions are made by the marketing
department and 11% Of packaging design decisions are made by the packaging
design manager. With a Shift occurring from advertising as an inﬂuence on
consumer behavior tO packaging design as an inﬂuence on consumer behavior it
is plausible that packaging design elevates tO a higher level Of importance in a

marketing program.

1]

CHAPTER THREE

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND DECISION-MAKING

Shoppers in the United States spend about $6.5 billion on consumer goods
(Peter and Olson 1999). A company’s continued success is correlated with a
successful relationship with the consumer. Finding out as much information as
possible on consumer shopping choices and behavior provides companies the
tOOls to produce gOOdS and services tO strengthen their relationship with the
consumer. In other words, companies have discovered that information Obtained
from customer data bases4 and in-store Observation have proved valuable in
regard tO earning consumers’ repeat purchases or business.

The phrase “consumer behavior” refers to a discipline Of social science
research that examines how the consumer acts in the marketplace. More
specifically, consumer behavior research focuses on: 1) what inﬂuences the
consumer's actions in the marketplace and 2) how those inﬂuences affect the
purchase behavior Of the consumer. This chapter will examine consumer
behavior and consumer decision-making as well as position this study Of
packaging design COlor as an inﬂuence on consumer decision-making within the

discipline Of consumer behavior.

 

4 Database refers to information collected from consumers via product registration forms,
sweepstakes entry forms, catalog orders, and in store Observation usually compiled Of consumer
demographics and past purchase behavior.

17

h

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Consumer behavior5 refers to the feelings and thoughts people experience,
and the actions they take while engaging in the consumption process (Peter and
Olson 1999). Consumer behavior also includes the things in the environment
(product appearance, price information, advertisements, packaging, consumer
comments, shelf positioning, etc.) that inﬂuence the feelings and actions Of the
consumer. In addition, consumer behavior involves a process Of exchange
between buyers and sellers. People exchange money tO Obtain products or
services. In Short, consumer behavior involves the study Of what things in the
marketplace environment inﬂuence the feelings and actions Of people while
shopping.6

The behavior Of consumers is constantly changing. The wants and needs Of
individual consumers, society as a whole, and speciﬁc consumer groups change
at different times due tO the constant evolution Of feelings and attitudes. For
example a 1997 study discovered the reason 60% Of United States households
did not own a personal computer was because they felt they did not need one
(Peter and Olson 1999). This dynamic nature Of consumer behavior represents
the need for continual research regarding the inﬂuences on people’s attitudes
and feelings that affect their shopping behavior.

Consumer behavior is a complex and diverse field (Peter and Olson 1999).

Consumer behavior research is based on methods and theories from cultural

 

5 “Behavior refers to the physical actions Of consumers that can be directly Observed and
measured by others” (Peter and Olson 1999).

6 Shopping is defined as: to visit shops and stores, or view catalogs for the purpose Of purchasing
or examining goods (Random House Webster's College Dictionary 2000).

13

s

anthropology, sociology, as well as cognitive, social and behavioral psychology,
and economics and statistics. Table 1 shows the origins of current consumer

behavior methodologies (Peter and Olson 1999).

Table 1. Consumer Behavior Research Methodology Origins

 

 

 

Core Discipline Primary Method Primary Research
Objective
Cultural Anthropology Long Interviews and Understand consumption
Focus Groups and its meanings
Psychology and Experiments and Explain the decision—
Sociology Surveys making and behavior of the
consumer
Economics and Statistics Math modeling testing Predict consumer behavior
and shopping and consumer choice
simulation

 

 

 

 

 

Methodologies used to study consumer behavior are focus groups,
interviews, Observations, experiments, and surveys. The qualitative methods
(focus groups, interviews, Observations) generally are used to investigate what a
product or service mean to consumers, what consumers experience when they
purchase a product or service, what inﬂuences their decision to buy a product or
service. The quantitative methods (experiments, surveys) generally are used to
test theories, gain insight into how consumers process information, how
consumers make purchase decisions, and how social issues Inﬂuence consumer
behavior. Other areas Of interest include the depiction Of women and minorities in
advertising, how consumers’ possessions influence their self-image, and how art

and film inﬂuence consumption meanings.

The present study uses the primary method Of a survey tO gain insight into
the inﬂuence Of packaging design color on consumer decision-making. The
purchase decision is inﬂuenced by the consumer’s need to process the
information found at the supermarket Shelf (Peter and Olson 1999).

Information processing is requisite in the examination Of consumer behavior.
Prior tO making a purchase decision, the consumer must process or make sense
Of the information presented. Thus, it is necessary to discuss consumers’

information processing and its relationship tO consumer decision-making.

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING

A present—day superstore7 may stock more than 50,000 items in its 200,000-
square foot retail space. Research has revealed that the average amount Of time
a consumer spends in a supermarket is 25 minutes (Philips 2005). On average a
consumer will purchase 17 items at a cost Of $23 during this 25-minute Shopping
experience (Philips 2005). Based on this theory, the consumer would have tO sort
through the superstore stock at an average rate Of 33 items per second to ﬁnd
the desired 17 items.

Memory is a pivotal aspect Of consumer decision-making. Memory plays an
important role in recalling previous Shopping behavior and experiences. Different
types Of memory storage systems exist, each with its own properties and
functions (Bettman 1979). The normal memory system used in research

possesses two types Of memory: short term and long term (Bettman 1979). A

 

7 A very large store, especially one stocking a large variety of merchandise (Random House
Webster's College Dictionary 2000).

IS

basic processing sequence using the short-term and long-term memory system
has information attended tO passing from the sensory organs (eyes, nose, hands,
mouth, ears) and transferred tO short—term memory. Short-term memory has
limited capacity. A consumer is able tO process approximately seven chunks8 Of
information at a time (Bettman 1979; Philips 2005). The limit Of Short-term
memory is seven chunks plus or minus two which yields a range Of five to nine
chunks Of information for processing at one time. For example, a telephone
number minus the area code is seven digits or seven separate Chunks of
information. There are various ways an individual may reduce the number Of
chunks. An individual may reduce the seven chunks Of 777—9311 tO three (“777”,
“93”, and “11”). With one property Of short-term memory being limited capacity,
another property is the time it takes for information to transfer from short-term tO
long-term memory. Research suggests about five tO ten seconds is required to
rehearse one chunk Of information into long—term memory if the information must
be recalled (Bettman 1979). If recognition Of the information is needed instead Of
recall then about two to five seconds is required tO transfer the information from
Short-term tO long-term memory (Bettman 1979). However, active information
stored in short-term memory can be retrieved quickly, almost automatically
(Bettman 1979). Information in short-term memory can be processed further into
long-term memory.

Long-term memory is believed tO have unlimited capacity thus becoming a

permanent storage for information. An integral part Of the information stored in

 

8 A chunk is a single piece Of information; an understandable seven-word phrase constitutes one
chunk Of information. Where as seven unrelated words constitute seven chunks Of information.

16

long-term memory is concepts and the associations between them. Concepts
may include attributes Of Objects, events, and information processing rules.
Another crucial part Of long-term memory is memory schematag. A consumer
may have schemata regarding sales associates. For example a consumer’s
sales associate schemata may be that most sales associates work on
commission and it is their jOb tO sell the most expensive items or persuade the
consumer to spend as much money as possible on items. In conjunction with
schemata, scripts exist in long-term memory as expectations regarding the
manner in which various events will occur. Based on the previous example Of the
consumer’s schemata Of sales associates, an example Of a script would be the
consumer is shopping for a dishwasher and the sales associate will constantly
persuade the consumer to purchase the latest, most expensive model along with
the extended warranty.

Short-term memory and long-term memory (10 not Operate independently
but simultaneously (Bettman 1979). Information stored in long-term memory must
be retrieved and used to interpret active information in Short-term memory. For
example a consumer is inside a superstore shopping for a cordless can Opener.
The consumer is presented with several cordless can Openers and is processing
the information regarding each can Opener. After processing the information for
each can Opener, the consumer remembers the poor performance and the
difficulty Of use a family member experienced with Brand C and decided that

Brand C is not a purchase Option. The consumer retrieves information from long—

 

” A schemata is a structure developed based on living experiences that organizes incoming
information as it relates to previous experiences (Bettman 1979). A schema is an organized
pattern of expectations about an environment.

I7

term memory that determined the active information regarding Brand C should
not be processed further.

In addition tO the basic structure Of memory, there is the consideration Of
how consumers use memory. Consumers utilize different strategies for what
information tO process and how tO process it (Bettman 1979). In other words, the
consumer has to decide what information iS worth maintaining and if SO, whether
the information is placed in short-term memory or long-term memory. This
process also includes the decision Of how tO retrieve information from long-term
memory.

Another memory system Often used by consumers during the decision-
making process is external memory. External memory refers tO information
available to consumers that dO not need to be stored in their memory thus
reducing the burden placed on consumers’ memory. Examples Of external
memory are shopping lists, coupons clipped by the consumer, in-store
advertisements, and packaging information. It may be easier for the consumer tO
process information from packaging when conducting product comparisons than
tO try to retrieve and process the same information from internal memory
(Bettman 1979).

Memory Control Processes. Memory control processes are ways
consumers control the information that comes in and out Of memory. There are
six schemes used in the memory control process: 1) rehearsal 2) coding 3)
transfer 4) placement 5) retrieval and 6) response generation (Bettman 1979).

Rehearsal is employed after information has entered short—term memory.

The role Of rehearsal is to maintain the information (keeping it active) and
transfer the information to long-term memory. The prime concept behind the
rehearsal strategy is the repetition Of information. The amount Of time spent with
repeating the information is directly related to the transfer Of information to long-
term memory. For example an individual continues to repeat a phone number
until he or she finds a piece Of paper and pencil tO write it down. The individual
continues to look at and recite the phone number written on the piece Of paper.
Depending upon the amount Of time the individual rehearses the phone number,
the piece of paper may no longer be required thus the phone number is
transferred tO long-term memory.

Coding is a strategy used tO arrange information for rehearsal. Some coding
techniques commonly used in verbal learning are mnemonics, images, and
associations. For example a consumer may associate a symbol or image (stars
in the sky) with a product name (Celestial Seasonings Tea®) to assist with
remembering the product name. It is a common advertising practice for products
to use such associations tO facilitate the coding process because they want
consumers to remember the product (Bettman 1979). Another example is the
creation Of a mnemonic (COTS) tO assist with remembering a product name
(Chicken Of the Sea®).

Transfer is a control process that manages what information is stored as
well as in which form (short-term, long-term) the information is stored. What the
consumer expects to do with the information will determine what is stored and in

which form the information is stored. Depending upon the task or goal to be

I9

performed by the consumer, more or less information may be required for
transfer. For example, if a consumer is interested in the nutritional information Of
a product and is unable tO store the USFDA nutrition guidelines perhaps the
information the consumer needs to store for this task is Simply if the product is
nutritious or not. In the event that the consumer is comparing food products in the
superstore based on nutritional value taken from the packaging, the only
information transferred into memory are the brands to be compared. Information
deemed important by the consumer for accomplishing tasks will most likely be
given high priority. Information easily stored will most likely be given high priority
also.

Placement is a process that deals with where information is stored. The
“where” does not refer to an actual location but the association (coding) created
when the consumer processed the information. The placement decision is crucial
because retrieval Of the information may depend upon the reconstruction Of the
Specific placement strategy. For example if a group of names are placed a
specific order then the recollection Of the names tend to be grouped in the same
specific order. If the specific order is not recalled it is highly likely that the group
Of names remembered will be incomplete.

Retrieval is considered principal in the memory control process. This
process can range from immediate access for familiar items to an involved
search process for other items. Forgetting, in relationship to retrieval (from long-
term memory) is considered a failure rather than a loss Of information due to the

permanence Of long-term memory. For example a consumer may remember the

need to purchase an additional item not found on his or her shopping list but
seeing a product display for a similar item provides a stimulus that assists with
retrieval. A failed retrieval process Of information is possibly the result Of
searching the wrong set Of associations, running out Of time to conduct the
search for the association, or losing fOCUS during the search.

Response generation is the last memory control process. Theorist believe
remembering is a constructive process because items Of information are
reconstructed from memory. Items Of information are not stored in memory
precisely as entered intO memory nor are they retrieved completely (Bettman
1979). Reconstructive information may be biased because the information is
partly based upon the consumer’s expectations of “what must have been”
(Bettman 1979). For example, a biased reconstruction may occur when a
consumer does not remember the exact details Of an interaction with a sales
associate but decides “the sales associated did not explain this tO me” if he or
she is not pleased with the purchase.

Consumers use these six schemes (rehearsal, coding, transfer, placement,
retrieval, and response generation) Of the memory control process to determine
what information comes in and out Of memory.

Consumer Decision-Making. Consumer decision-making is viewed as a
problem-solving process. A decision is defined as the act or process Of deciding,
the act Of making up one’s mind (Random House Webster’s College Dictionary
2000). A decision involves a choice between two or more alternative behaviors or

actions. For example, an individual is considering whether or not to go bowling.

2|

The choice or decision is based on the behaviors involved in bowling versus the
behaviors involved in staying home, shopping, dining out, or attending a movie.
In the marketplace, consumers choose between alternative behaviors involving
products, brands, or stores instead Of the Objects themselves. Figure 2 Shows a
cognitive10 processing model Of consumer decision-making (Peter and Olson
1999). Figure 2 shows that all aspects Of emotions and attitudes along with the
process Of knowing and perception are involved in interpreting new information in
the environment. Consumer decision-making at the fundamental core involves
three cognitive processes: interpret, integrate, and retrieval (Peter and Olson
1999). First, the consumer must interpret or make sense Of relevant information
in the environment to create meaning or personal knowledge. The consumer’s
next process is to integrate or combine the new knowledge to evaluate possible
actions tO make a decision or choose between alternative behaviors. The third
and ﬁnal process is the consumer must retrieve knowledge from memory. The
retrieval process is necessary tO assist with the ﬁrst process Of interpreting the
relevant information in the environment and the second process Of integrating the
relevant knowledge to ultimately choose between alternative behaviors. For
example, a consumer is in a convenience store and while in the process of
deciding which caffeine drink to purchase, She notices an advertisement on the
drink COOler door for a version Of an espresso drink with less sugar and cream.

The consumer interprets this information as relevant because the original

 

'0 Pertaining to the mental processes of memory, perception, judgment, and reasoning (Random

House Webster's College dictionary 2000).

22

espresso drink had been purchased previously but thought it was a bit too strong

and sweet. The consumer has now added or integrated the new light espresso

Figure 2. Cognitive Processing Model of Consumer Decision-Making

 

Exposure to

environmental
information

 

 

 

    
   
       
      
       
   
     
    
    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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—-—— Behavior 4

 

 

drink as a consideration for purchase along with the other caffeine drinks. The
consumer remembers (retrieves product knowledge from memory) liking the
previously purchased original espresso drink. But she Ultimately decides to
purchase the light espresso drink. Figure 3 takes the espresso drink example
through the entire process decision-making process. Figure 3 illustrates the
thought processes Jane the consumer goes through to make a decision
regarding which caffeine drink to purchase. In Short, Figures 2 and 3 Show
consumer decision-making includes both cognitive processes interpretation and
integration and these processes are inﬂuenced by product knowledge“,
meanings, as well as beliefs.

Decision Heuristics and Consideration Sets. In conjunction with the
decision—making process, consumers may use decision heuristics12 to help form
their consideration set”. Heuristics are Often employed during the integration
process (see Figure 2). Heuristics are referred to as “if, then” processes that link
a behavior with an appropriate action (Peter and Olson 1999). A heuristic is a
simple procedure that combines beliefs regarding the consequences Of
alternative choices to assist with forming an evaluation toward each behavior
alternative. Heuristics are applied only tO small bits Of knowledge at one time and

are extremely applicable to specific situations. Because Of this, heuristics are not

 

" The characteristics or attributes Of a brand Of household cleaner (contains bleach), the
outcomes Of using the brand (my kitchen counter will be germ free), or the ability Of the household
cleaner tO meet the Objective (my kitchen counter is sanitary and clean) (Peter and Olson 1999).
'2 Encouraging a person tO learn, or solve problems on their own by evaluating possible answers
or solutions, or by trial and error (Random House Webster’s College Dictionary 2000).

'3 Brands consumers consider acceptable for the next purchase (Laroche, Kim, and Matsui
2003)

24

Figure 3. Espresso Decision-Making Model

 

 

Espresso Ad on

 

—> Convenience Store

Cooler Door

 

 

 

 

 

1 v

 

   
        
 
 

 

 
   

 
 

 

 

   
 

 

  
 

 

  
  

  
 

 

 

  
   
 
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 
 
   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
    

takes it to the check
out, pays, 8. leaves

 

‘T' -=~.'"-'-.'~I~: h"?- . . :: . “ ’ '
Janenouces -. .-. -_. Cognitive
..., it 2; espresso ad on I: 0" '. :e. J... ,' ... :2 1": :e' processes .3
-: -..'."'. '. cooler door .;0 5'; 3:12.: ; i , . 33...: . ”$2. 5.3%.. .. 3:;-
.Lt:":’ :1 ‘.;r...‘!'.‘-' ...}. . ’3 , 'i" ' "3i: 4- gp". .14"
”...... IL - ' ‘. .w' ‘ ... EV}: . -. "' 4 . z" . : ... '- 0.3
... -.=.- . .- -' ‘: -‘--."". '.',, " ,‘-', ‘; ‘. . -"- ‘3 "or -r' :.
Less cream, sugar 1.: - '1. ' ' -1 :“7‘ I. f“ . r -;".:',
_' ~ i -,r. gets attention. Jane ’ ' . - L.“ -~' Inf-13" ' ,,'-:',
. deems new '"fo . J.“ has pr.v|ou.ly " '0: ..
$1.: . ’ Im ortant drank on'gnal .. ~:
-. ',.-j espresso drink
I- v.33" :
’ . ‘2 ,- Jane likes espresso drink '
f” . ,. ~ Ja’ﬁmj“ but thinks it Is a bit 1 i
_, - '_.‘ taste, less calories strong 8‘ too sweet ' :
F...- -.. '
.."|".'. -'-- -'
I ~ Jane thinks the
.'.'-.‘. ' espresso "light" drink
n, " . will taste better
w ,
’_.'-," :1.
L. 3:.“ '.
-....‘. 2:
._,., ...
Mt: ° an espresso
1“..- ,-_'. 'light'drink 8. decides
'3 "2 . to buy it
Jane opens cooler
, door, selects a can, ‘

 

likely to exceed memory capacity and can be constructed instantaneously to

respond tO the immediate environment. There are three heuristics that are most

25

important tO consumer problem solving: search, evaluation, and choice. Search
heuristics are simple procedures used for ﬁnding information relevant tO a goal.
For example, the goal Of a consumer is to purchase a new 5-disc CD changer.
The search heuristic for where tO purchase a new 5-disc CD changer may be “if I
am buying audio equipment, always go to Best Buy®.” Evaluation heuristics are
procedures for assessing and weighing beliefs relevant to the goal. While at Best
Buy® the consumer may compare various brands Of CD changers based on the
criteria Of having a 5-disc changer and eliminate any brands that do not
accommodate 5 CDS. Choice heuristics simply compare the evaluations Of
alternative actions in order tO choose one. The consumer may Simply choose the
5-disc CD changer brand purchased previously or choose the 5-disc CD changer
in the price range that best correlates with his or her belief regarding price and
quality.

Consideration sets are usually a subset Of all possible alternatives. Some
choice alternatives that comprise considerations sets are product classifications,
brands, stores tO visit, payment methods, times Of the day to go shopping, and
day Of the week to gO shopping. Because Of the limited amount Of time and
memory capacity, consumers rarely consider every possible choice alternative.
Figure 4 illustrates the formation Of a consideration set (Peter and Olson 1999).
For instance, Jane has a goal Of replenishing her supply Of Shampoo. The ﬁrst
thing Jane may do is use a heuristic such as “I always purchase hair care

products at my local discount supermarket.” Once inside her local discount

26

supermarket in the health and beauty aisle, she may retrieve a consideration set

directly from memory (an evoked consideration set) Of familiar brands. Jane

Figure 4. Consideration Set Formation

 

All brands in product class

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unknown brands Familiar brands
B d f0 d
Brands found "tars”? “£3333,“ Unrecalled
accidentally intentional search from memory) brand.

 

 

 

 

   

 

i

Consideration set of
brand choice
alternatives

 

 

 

retrieves three brands Of clarifying Shampoo from memory (evoked set) and
makes a purchase decision based on those three brands. In the situation of
highly familiar decisions, such as Jane’s Shampoo, a consumer may not consider
brands beyond the evoked set. With familiar decisions, the consumer may
possess the confidence in knowing the important choice alternatives therefore
declining tO search for additional ones. In the situation Of unknown brands, a
consumer may consider a brand that is found by happenstance (in store sale,

coupon, recommendation by a sales person or fellow Shopper), or through an

27

intentional search (reading a beauty magazine, finding a brand while Shopping,
talking with someone knowledgeable).

Other Strategies. Advertisers and marketers develop strategies to increase
the potential for brands tO be activated from memory tO become part of an
evoked set Of choice alternatives. This is referred tO as “top Of mind awareness”
and is inﬂuenced by many factors. One factor that inﬂuences top Of the mind
awareness is the previous experience consumers have with purchasing or using
the brand. Other factors inﬂuencing top Of mind awareness are high market share
products (popular brands), advertising campaigns”, distribution strategies
(manufacturing, shipping, and stocking Of products on shelf), and packaging
design. For example a popular brand such as Pepsi® may use advertising
campaigns to keep the consumer aware Of the brand. It Is rare to walk into a
supermarket or convenience store and find Pepsi® absent from the Shelf or soft
drink cooler. Popular brand manufacturers such as Pepsi® employ people to
drive mass quantities Of Pepsi® products tO each supermarket or convenience
store and place the product directly on the shelf or in the soft drink cooler. This
distribution strategy removes the stocking burden from the supermarket manager
and employees and convenience store owner increasing the probability that the
product is always on the shelf. The bright blue packaging design Of the Pepsi®
bottle or carton and the product logo15 has the ability to attract the consumer’s

attention with the potential Of transferring into the consumer’s consideration set.

 

'4 A systematic course Of aggressive advertisements in various formats such as television,
magazine, newspaper, radio appearing during a speciﬁc time period.
'5 Ari identifying mark that separates a product or service from its competitors

28

Marketers and product manufacturers understand that collecting as much
information as possible regarding consumer shopping choices and consumer
shopping behavior provides invaluable tOOlS to produce goods, and services tO
satisfy the consumer therefore strengthening the consumer/product relationship.
Consumer information is most commonly collected via product registration forms,
sweepstakes entry forms, catalog orders, and in-store Observation. Consumer
behavior research focuses on what inﬂuences the consumers actions in the
marketplace as well as how those inﬂuences effect the purchase behavior Of the
consumer.

The Objective Of this research is to create a benchmark study (exploratory in
nature) that synthesizes COlor, packaging design”, and advertising as an
inﬂuence on consumer decision-making as an introductory mean Of investigating
packaging design as the new advertising. The purpose Of this Objective is tO
investigate the inﬂuence Of packaging design COlor on consumer purchase intent.
With the scope Of this study on the inﬂuence packaging design color has on
consumer purchase intent, the consumer research literature explores consumer

behavior as it relates to packaging in a retail or supermarket environment.

PACKAGING AND CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING
Currently marketers and manufacturers are devoting more attention to
inﬂuencing consumers at the point-Of-purchase. According to brand managers

packaging doubles as an advertising medium and is cheaper than TV

 

'6 “The combination Of materials, structure, typography, imagery, color and other visual design
components for the purposes Of communicating the marketing objectives and strategies Of a
particular brand or product" (Klimchuk 2004).

29

commercials (Selame and KOUkOS 2002). In fact, when packaging doubles as
advertising, the packaging may be the manufacturer’s last chance for reaching
shoppers (Selame and KOUkOS 2002). With more than 50,000 items to choose
from in a shopping environment, it is plausible that research needs to include
packaging and packaging design as an inﬂuence on consumer behavior and
decision-making.

Investigating consumer behavior and consumer decision-making has been
the focus Of many researchers. However, the role packaging and packaging
design plays in consumer decision-making has been virtually overlooked (Maule
2004). The area Of academic research is also delinquent in investigating
packaging design and its inﬂuence on consumer decision—making. Only a few
recent academic studies explored the packaging design and consumer decision-
making relationship.

Lawrence Garber (1995) proposed the visual perception Of package
appearance plays a role in the formation Of a consideration set. In the situation Of
the consumer purchasing a familiar or preferred brand, package appearance is
used to expedite search and identification Of the desired brand. Package
appearance may also interrupt a search, and in doing so reshape the choice
process. This study presented two strategies, visual typical packaging, and visual
atypical packaging tO increase the likelihood Of inclusion in the consumer’s
attention set. A visually typical package is defined as “the look consumers would
associate with a product category, and by which they identify brands that belong

to the category” (Garber 1995, pg. 656). In contrast, a visually atypical package

would lOOk different from the typical packages associated with a product category
and those brands identified in the category. The study suggested that attention to
a visually atypical package appearance is involuntary because the eye is unable
tO ignore the sensation Of an unexpected visual element that enters the ﬁeld Of
vision. However, in order for a visually atypical package tO move beyond the
attention set and move into the consideration set, the novelty Of the package
must be appropriate to the product category, product performance, and product
benefits.

A recent study by Pinya Silain and Mark Speece (2004) investigated the
packaging and purchase decision relationship by concentrating on the impact Of
time pressure and level Of involvement". Involvement normally is comprised Of
two levels, high and low. High involvement iS characterized by an intentional
search for information (reading magazines, in-store search, or talking with
someone knowledgeable), the evaluation Of characteristics, and spending time
on which one tO buy. High involvement is also associated with a high level Of
importance or relevance. Low involvement is associated with a low level Of
importance or relevance and Often the Choices (brands, stores, services) are
indistinguishable. FOCUS groups were used tO Obtain in-depth insights regarding
shopping behaviors for packaged fOOd products. The focus groups were
comprised two groups: 1) Of women who work outside the home, married with no
children and 2) women who work inside the home, married with children. Both

groups Of participants agreed the packaging elements (graphics, color, Shape,

 

'7 Refers to the consumer’s perception Of importance or personal relevance for an Object, activity,
or event (Peters and Olson 1999).

31

size, and product information) were the primary factors in their evaluations and
decisions on household purchases. The participants deﬁned involvement level as
the perceived importance Of the product. For lower level products, the
participants indicated the most familiar product brand would be purchased and
relied Upon the lOOk Of the packaging for information on quality. For higher level
products, such as those directly affecting health, the participants indicated a
stronger reliance on product characteristics as well as brand loyalty. One
participant reportedly postponed a purchase if the desired brand is unavailable or
will visit another store in search Of the desired brand. Participants from both
focus groups reported that they make quick purchase decisions without careful
evaluation when shopping under high time constraints. Overall, this study
indicated that packaging is important for marketing food products. More
Specifically graphics, shape, and size Of the packaging inﬂuenced the purchase
decision Of a product, and attractive packaging breaks through the array Of
competitive products. In regard tO low involvement, visual elements (graphics,
shape, and Size) positively influenced decision-making. However, high
involvement was less inﬂuenced by visual elements (graphics, Shape, and Size)
but was positively inﬂuenced by informational elements. In regards tO time
constraints, decision-making under high time constraints were inﬂuenced by
visual elements on the packaging in contrast to decision-making under low time
constraints.

Previous academic research revealed that packaging has a strong effect on

consumer response to a product by its form, appearance, and function

'4)
Id

(Underwood 2002). In a study conducted in 2001, Robert Underwood
investigated the effect Of package design (visual product imagery) and buyer
behavior. More specifically, he investigated whether brands with visual
information have a strategic advantage over competitive brands (high familiarity
versus low familiarity) containing only textual information. An additional
consideration for this study is whether the effects Of product pictures change
across products and brands. Underwood used a simulated Shopping software
system named Visionary shopper providing a virtual shopping experience. This
study indicated the use Of pictures on low familiarity brand packages was
signiﬁcant with gaining attention for the brand in the store. An additional ﬁnding
was that package design information may serve as an identification or attention
cue helping tO shape the products being considered for purchase rather than
determining a brand choice.

Another study by Robert Underwood and Noreen Klein (2002) extended the
academic literature with exploratory research investigating the informational
effect Of placing a picture on a product. This study exposed participants to a
stimulus bOOk that contained computer-generated images Of packaging designs.
The results Of the study indicated the package design does alter consumers’
attitudes toward the package. The packages with pictures were preferred over
the packages without pictures, and consumers prefer a familiar brand versus an
unfamiliar brand. The results Of this study also revealed consumers believed the

product with the picture on the package had better taste than the product without

33

the picture on the package. There was nO effect Of package pictures on brand
evaluation.

In 2001, the Paula Bone and Karen France investigated the inﬂuence Of
packaging graphics (colors and pictures) on consumer beliefs regarding
important product characteristics. Specifically, this study examined how the
packaging graphics inﬂuenced consumer beliefs when the textual information on
the packaging provides accurate product attribute information. This study was
guided by the principle that packaging graphics can be used tO strengthen or
weaken the product manufacturer’s textual claims or generate inferences that
could conﬂict with the textual claims. The results Of this study revealed that
packaging graphics were more vivid and garnered more attention than textual
information and as a result, the packaging graphics Significantly inﬂuenced
product attribute beliefs and, therefore, inﬂuenced consumer purchase intentions.

In summary, consumer behavior investigates the way consumers perform in
a retail environment and examined what inﬂuences their behavior. Information
processing and memory usage are an integral part Of consumer behavior
research. Due to the limited capacity Of short-term memory, consumers rely on
heuristics tO simplify the vast amount Of information in the market place.
Heuristics may include a specific store, brand, size, shape or color. Although it
may appear that consumer behavior and consumer decision-making processes
are sequential, they are not. Consumers are making decisions based on their
constantly ﬂuctuating thinking, feelings, and actions. Researchers recently have

noted that the color, size, shape, and graphics on packaging have an impact at

34

the point Of purchase on consumer decision-making and purchase decisions
(Silayoi and Speece 2004; Underwood 2002; Bone and France 2001; Garber
1995). With packaging inﬂuencing consumers at the point Of purchase, additional
research is needed tO delve deeper intO the visual elements of packaging design
that inﬂuence consumers. More specifically, the visual element Of color and its

inﬂuence on consumer purchase intent.

CHAPTER FOUR

COLOR

The purpose Of this chapter is to examine color and its relationship to
consumer behavior. The focus Of this chapter is on the human perception Of color
and color associations (not on the scientific aspects Of color) as it relates to
consumer purchase intent. More specifically, this research investigates the use Of
surface graphics18 color as a cue by consumers for ﬁnding out 1) perceived
product quality, 2) perceived product performance, and 3) which colors inﬂuence
consumer decision-making, on the consumer’s intent to purchase.

Color selections and their application may assist consumers with their
purchasing behavior (Van De Laar and Van Den Berg-Weitzel 2003). For
example, when a consumer needs tO replace a routinely used item, the
consumer scans the supermarket shelves for the packaging color then confirms
the correct product choice by reading the brand name. Colors and shapes
convey about 80% Of all visual communication (LaCrOix 1998). Consumers have
developed a habit Of using color as a means Of gathering information. Thus, color
must be considered as having an important role in marketing, advertising and
academic research.

Color in its basic nature refers tO what the human eye sees when light
passes through a prism and produces what is commonly referred tO as violet,

blue, green, yellow, orange, and red and is collectively referred to as the

 

'8 Surface graphics refers to the photographs, illustrations, and typography that appear on the
packaging. Surface graphics is exclusionary Of the color, shape, and size Of the product.

36

Spectrum (Cheskin 1954). In 1666, physicist Isaac Newton broke a ray of light
with a prism and named a seventh color, indigo. Indigo is rarely seen by the
naked eye, only the aforementioned six are commonly seen by the naked eye.
Color is also described as the relationship between an object’s pigmentation and
light. The type of light has the ability to affect surface color. For example, a white
piece of paper will appear blue in a room filled with blue light (Cheskin 1954).
Natural light also affects surface color. The time of day plays a role in the
proportions of the spectrum in natural light. North light (the sun at rising) contains
more violet, blue, a bit more green, less yellow, and much less orange and a
minimal amount of red than ordinary daylight (Cheskin 1954). A daylight
ﬂorescent tube mimics the Spectral colors of ordinary daylight. An incandescent
light bulb has less violet, green and blue therefore producing a yellow or warm
light. Light from various sources is known to create differences in the color
distribution of the spectrum (Cheskin 1954). The uneven distribution in the
spectrum of colors is responsible for some light being classified as cool and
warm. Light containing a large amount of red, yellow, and orange is referred to as
warm. Light containing large amounts of blue, violet, and a moderate amount of
green is referred to as cool. There is a direct relationship between cold and warm
light and cold and warm pigmentation. For example, a cold light makes an Object
appear cooler regardless of the actual color of the object and warm light makes
an object appear warmer. The difference in light has the ability to affect the color
of an Object. For instance a rug in a store under daylight ﬂorescent tubes looks

blue-green. The same blue-green rug looks less blue more yellow-green under

an incandescent light bulb at home. The terms “warm” and “cool” are not
referring to temperature but visual and psychological experience.

The color of an Object is contingent on pigmentation and light. Due to this
relationship there are primary colors of light (red, blue, green), and primary colors
Of pigment (red, yellow, blue). For the purpose of this study the primary colors
referred to are pigmentation. All objects or surface colors subtract light (absorb
parts of light) and reﬂect the rest (Cheskin 1954). For example, the human eye
sees red because the green has been absorbed. In other words, red can be
likened to white light minus green. The absorbed hue is the exact complement19
to a reﬂected hue. Therefore, the complement of red is green. TO experience this
phenomenon, one can simply stare at a solid red object at least 30 seconds and
then look at a completely white piece of paper. The eye will see green on the
white piece of paper. This phenomenon is referred to as afterimage. Figure 5
illustrates a Simplified artist’s color wheel to show a complementary color
relationship.

In actuality, when people characterize color, it is perceived color or reﬂected
color. Because color memory changes some individuals perceive colors
differently (Sharpe 1974). For example one person may see a pure red and
another person may see that same red as having a hint of blue or yellow. There
are numerous scientiﬁc studies examining the physical aspect of how individuals

view color including those individuals with color deficiencies (Sharpe 1974). This

 

'9 Two colors Opposite each other on the artist’s color wheel; Any two hues composed of equal
amounts of all three primaries

38

study does not examine the scientiﬁc aspects of color, only color as it is applied

to packaging design in the marketplace.

Figure 5. Complementary Relationship Based on the Artist’s Color Wheel”

Red
(Primary)

Violet 3‘»! Orange
(secondary) ti}, ’,:‘b'.; e; 5. (Secondary)

 

Green
(Secondary)

The identiﬁcation of primary colors was the result of studies of the human
eye. Herman von Helmholtz in 1859 and James Maxwell in 1867 found that only
three receptors--red, yellow, and blue-—are required to explain color mixing

(Colorsystem 2004; Lester 2000). von Helmholtz published The Handbook of

 

3” An artist’s color wheel displays 12 colors and is a tool used for color mixing and demonstrating
the relationship of one color to another.

39

Physiological Optics in 1851. The text contained empirical theories regarding
spatial and color theory and was the traditional reference for the field Of
researching the human eye (Colorsystem 2004). It is the mixture Of these primary
colors that constructs the color wheel that is used for color selection and mixture
in art and design, architecture, interior design, advertising, packaging, and
industrial design (Grossman 1999; Triplett 1995; Lane 1991; Schindler 1986;
Sharpe 1974). An artist’s color wheel (see Appendix B) displays 12 colors and is
a tool used for color mixing and demonstrating the relationship Of one color to
another. The artist’s color wheel is source for colors used throughout the course

of this study.

The Power of Color

Individuals are often unaware Of the tremendous inﬂuence colors have on
them (Cheskin 1954). Color attracts attention mostly because they are more
vibrant than black and white. In regard to visual communication,21 there is power
in the visibility of color. Color attracts attention based on visibility (Cheskin 1954).
Colors seen from the greatest distance attracts the eye quicker. When testing for
color visibility ratings the colors are often presented on a gray background
(Cheskin 1954). The maximum visibility and attraction power of a color can be
strengthened when it is used or placed with its compliment. However, pure
complementary colors vibrate making them difficult to view. For example, it is
believed that the color yellow—orange has the greatest visibility and is most

powerful when placed with its compliment of blue-violet. To gain maximum

 

3' Information (words, images) printed on a page, billboard, wall, or packaging

40

visibility with complementary colors, one Of the colors should be deepened or the
two colors should be separated by white. To ensure maximum visibility a color
should not be mixed with its complement or mixed with white (tint) or black
(shade) (Cheskin 1954). Mixing one color with another even slightly changes the
character of the first color thus changing its power of visibility. For example red
mixed with a slight amount of blue will alter the visibility of the red. Adding blue
results in the red looking less like a pure red but more of a red-violet.

The degree of coolness and warmth of a color is an important component in
visibility. Warm colors22 possess more visibility and the higher the warmth the
higher the visibility. COOI colors23 possess less visibility, and the higher the
coolness the lower the visibility. It is plausible that pure warm colors should be
used for maximum visibility for visual communication. When determining which
color to use for maximum visibility the color of the background (the color that the
highly visible color is placed on) should be considered. For example a yellow—
orange has good visibility against a dark blue-violet background but will have
poor visibility against an orange background. When creating visual
communication the background must be considered to achieve maximum
visibility. Colors with maximum visibility Should not be used for text. Highly visible
colors are difficult to view for a prolonged period of time. The relationship
between color and text or legibility is not explored in this study. This study is

concerned with the visibility of the packaging from the Shelf.

 

“ Warm colors are colors with a predominance of yellow
‘1 . .
" Cool colors are colors With a predominance of blue

41

Tests have demonstrated that color has the power to increase the retention
of an image in one’s memory (Cheskin 1954). In the market place image
retention is an important factor in developing brand identity. The trademark24 of a
business, product, or service serves the purpose of getting consumers
accustomed to seeing the trademark image associated with the business,
product, or service. The trademark with the greatest retention power is
considered the best brand identity builder and has the potential to gain popularity
over its competitors. For example, the trademark of the fast food chain
McDonalds is yellow arches and the phrase the “golden arches” is Often used in
place of the name McDonalds. The phrase “golden arches” is a visual description
of the trademark and color and is used interchangeably with the restaurant name.

In the market place, especially the supermarket, highly visible colors placed
on packaging play an important role in catching the consumer’s eye. The
purpose of color in the market place is to catch the buyer’s eye. If packaging
does not catch the buyer’s attention there is little chance the product within the
packaging will end up in the consumer’s home (Cheskin 1954). High color
visibility on packaging assists packaging with its role of the “silent salesman” as

well as inﬂuencing the consumer at the point-Of-purchase.

 

3“ An identifying mark that distinguishes a business, product, or service from its competitors; it
may also be descriptive in nature regarding the business, product, or service; another name for a
logo

42

Color and Perception

Research has revealed that certain colors Spark Specific brain activity and
evoke emotions (Lukiesh 1925; Schaie and Heiss 1964; Sharpe 1974). As early
as 1925, Matthew Lukiesh explained color associations in The Language Of
Color. Through experiments and references to art and literature Lukiesh
discovered an association of color to events, emotions, Objects, and ideas that
created a foundation for a language of color. The color associations, as
explained by Lukiesh, are red--danger and blood; yellow or orange--warmth and
sunlight; green--nature, springtime, and youth; blue-~the sky or heavens and
divinity; purple--royalty, superiority, and dignity; white--purity and innocence;
black--fear, crime, and danger; and gray--age and maturity. Lukiesh conducted
an experiment to test color preference. He determined that a color preference is
inﬂuenced by factors of association and environment or inﬂuenced by aspects of
everyday life. For example, the color yellow could be preferred because it
releases a reminder of the color of grandma’s kitchen and the cookies she used
to bake. The results revealed men have a propensity toward blue and women
have a propensity toward red. Lukiesh’s experiment also revealed that both men
and women prefer pure colors to tints (colors with white added, i.e. pastels) or
Shades (colors with black added, i.e. burgundy, dark blue).

In their 1964 text Color and Personality: A Manual for the Color Pyramid Test
researchers K. Warner Schaie and Robert Heiss conducted a series Of
experiments supporting the idea that colors have meaning. Their color

associations differed slightly from Lukiesh’s and resulted in the following: red--

43

agitation, aggression, hostility, happiness, stimulation, exciting, hot, and
powerful; both yellow and orange--stimulating, pleasant, warmth, cheerfulness,
exciting, stimulating and joyful; and blue--dignity, pleasant, social, strong, and
secure.

A survey of current packaging designs suggests Lukiesh’s, Schaie and
Heiss’ traditional color associations appear to be evolving over time, but remain
cited within academic research regarding color associations. For example,
yellow-green on food packaging was discouraged because yellow-green may be
associated with spoiled or molded food (Russell 1990) but based on yellow-green
is used on food packaging. Another example is the informal, societal
yellow/coward association. Yet, yellow has an alternate association of patriotic
support (i.e., yellow ribbons around trees to support ﬁghting troops) (Sutton and
Whelan 2004). The majority of the color associations for red, yellow and blue,
remain the traditional citations although the color associations appear to be
evolving. Maybe after 40 years it is time to test the color associations against
today’s society.

Packaging Design Color and Consumer Decision-making
Some researchers have determined color is crucial in capturing the attributes
of a product, and packaging color is a dominant visual attribute that can be seen
from a considerable distance by shoppers (Rex, Wai, and Lobo 2004; Garber,
Burke, and Jones 2000; Cheskin 1954). Studies suggest that redesigned
packaging color that are moderately to very dissimilar to the original packaging

color are considered novel and attract the consumer’s attention and increase the

44

consideration for purchase (Garber, Burke, and Jones 2000; Schoormans and
Robben 1997). Garber et al. (2000) study indicates that a change in package
color can enhance brand consideration for consumers who are not loyal to a
particular brand. Other researchers have determined that packaging redesigns
that apply color and graphics extremely different from old packaging designs so
much that it pushed the product beyond the acceptable regions of the product
category, have negative effects on the attitude toward the package and the intent

to purchase (Schoormans and Robben 1997).

Color in Advertising and Consumer Inﬂuence

It is a common practice to use color in advertising to inﬂuence emotional and
consumer behavior (Lee and Barnes 1989; Schindler 1986). Unfortunately, there
is limited empirical research investigating color in advertising (Lee and Barnes
1989)

Researchers discovered that attention to advertisements increased when
advertisements were printed in color rather than black and white (Guest 1966;
Lee and Barnes 1989; Schindler 1986). Also, advertisements printed in color did
not elevate consumers’ regard for the product or service advertised but did
elevate their regard for the manufacturer or company (Guest 1966). In other
words, the advertiser or manufacturer yields a greater chance of gaining prestige
in the market by printing advertisements in color and, thus, has an increased

chance Of being remembered.

45

By citing Old studies, research has perpetuated the concept that color
preferences differ between men and women. Yet, more recent research refutes
color preference differences in gender when speaking more from a physiological
aspect and less from a social, environmental, and cultural aspect (Schindler
1986). For example, exposure to certain colors (e.g., red) yield virtually identical
responses (increased blood pressure, eye blink frequency, and respiratory rate)
for men and women (Bellizzi and Hite 1992).

In addition, there may be color preference differences between ethnic groups
based on the differences in color usage in print advertisements appearing in
magazines that target black audiences or white audiences (Lee and Barnes
1989). It has been concluded that advertisers are not utilizing color to improve
advertising response, and further research is needed regarding color preferences
according to race and gender (Lee and Barnes 1989). Furthermore, there is a
need to examine ethnic and cultural differences in color preferences and color
associations (Madden, Hewett, and Roth 2000).

There have been studies on environmental color and its inﬂuence on
shopping behavior. One study examined color in a retail store design and the
ability Of color to attract consumers toward a retail display. Warm colors yielded a
stronger attraction and pulled consumers further into the retail store than cool
colors (Bellizzi, Crowley, and Hasty 1983; Bellizzi and Hite 1992). Warm colors
may be an Optimal choice when the desire is to attract consumers into a retail
establishment; however, some warm colors such as red were found to be

negative and intense (Bellizzi, Crowley, and Hasty 1983).

46

Color Associations and Consumer Influence

Consumers use packaging cues to give meaning to products and brands.
For example, research indicates that a shiny label on a wine bottle indicates a
less expensive product, and consumers will pay a higher price for gold foil
wrapped candy boxes (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and Selmanis 1987). Color is a
commonly used cue to identify brands and shape perception of products.
Research supports consumers use color to perceive weight as well as
temperature (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and Selmanis 1987). The Tom et. al. (1987)
study indicates that product perception is more inﬂuential than the product’s
objective reality. Consumers were given three different “ﬂavors” Of pudding. The
three ﬂavors were vanilla pudding with food coloring added (dark brown, medium
brown, and light brown) to create the three pudding ﬂavors. In their study it was
concluded that color proved to be more critical than taste in the consumer’s
identification and evaluation of the product. Of the participants, 62% perceived
the darkest brown pudding as having the best chocolate ﬂavor and 61% of the
participants perceived the darkest brown pudding as being the thickest. Tom at
al. (1987) conclude it’s not the product’s objective reality that inﬂuences the
consumer but their own subjective perception, and ultimately, consumers buy
what they perceive.

Unfortunately, few industry and academic studies on the impact Of colors in
packaging design exist. Perhaps commercial research was conducted on color
and packaging but remained unpublished for proprietary reasons (Bellizzi,

Crowley, and Hasty 1983). This assumption is based upon the numerous

47

marketing reports that appear in the public domain (i.e. trade magazines,
newspapers, and popular magazines) that forecast color trends for the
marketplace. Yet, academic studies on color, packaging design, and consumer
behavior utilize foundational color associations established 80 years ago. The
commercial studies overwhelmingly rely on sales trends (Triplett 1995). A sound
theory of color for marketing has not been established, hence the continual use
of old foundational color theory and color association. The study of color in the
arena of marketing remains in an infant state (Grossman and Wisenblit 1999).
It is proposed that future research be conducted regarding color as it is
used in the market place. More specifically, investigate the inﬂuence of
packaging color on consumer decision-making. Future research on color should
Specifically address the ways color is used for marketing. This future research
should include developing color theory unique to marketing and consumer

inﬂuence.

48

CHAPTER FIVE

ADVERTISING, PACKAGING DESIGN AND PURCHASE INTENT

The purpose of this chapter is to examine packaging design as advertising
and build support for a concentration on shelf impact. In other words, creating
packaging design that attracts the consumer from the shelf with the goal to be
the last attempt to inﬂuence consumer purchase intent. This chapter also
examines the use of packaging design as a source for information as it relates to
purchase decisions.

It is estimated that between 73 and 85% of purchase decisions are made
at the point of sale and the packaging design must play a key role at the point of
sale because it is Often the only factor that differentiates two products (Sutton
and Whelan 2004; Wallace 2001; Buxton 2000; Rettie and Brewer 2000). Market
research has shown that the supermarket shelf is more effective with inﬂuencing
consumer purchase than advertising (Fitzgerald 2003; Selame and KOUkOS 2002;
Wallace 2001). Research has shown that advertising is more effective for product
recall and less effective at inﬂuencing purchase decisions (Selame and KOUkOS
2002; Wallace 2001). There is growing awareness that marketing and research
should Shift packaging to the forefront as the primary method for product
awareness and consumer inﬂuence.

A recent visual survey Of supermarket shelves supports the marketing
trend Of updating packaging designs of products (e.g., ReaLemon’” and

ReaLime’“, Polar Ice vodka, Kellogg’s® pop—tarts®, Tyson® chicken, Canada

49

Dry® ginger ale, ACT ll® popcorn, DOle® salad blends, Starbucks® coffee, and
Van de Kamp’s® frozen seafood entrees) to create stronger shelf impact.
Packaging is not a new phenomenon to the common marketing strategy
however, using packaging design as means to inﬂuence consumer purchase
intent is. Packaging is one third of the typical marketing strategy and execution
(advertising, promotion, packaging). Packaging was habitually thought of as part
of the product, the protector of its contents, part of the distribution system
(shipping, storage, and display) and costly to change. However, the packaging of
a product provides information to the consumer to assist with purchase
decisions. Packaging is no longer considered a container for a product but a Sign
or billboard (Heller 1999). The packaging is what separates a product from its
competitor. A product’s packaging is seen on the shelf at the moment when
consumers are in the midst of making a buying decision. The money spent on
advertising, promotions, and education is irrelevant in the midst of the
consumer’s purchase decision because the packaging is the only thing available
at the supermarket shelf (Hilton 2005). Therefore the message on the packaging
is considered to reach more consumers than conventional advertising (Lazarus,
Pollock, Marney, and Racette 1997). The critical difference between packaging
and advertising is the packaging communicates the brand or product’s ﬁnal
chance to make a sale (Prone 1993). With the recent practice of packaging
replacing television advertising, it is proposed that the phrase “packaging as the

new advertising” be a descriptor for this new marketing strategy. The phrase

50

“packaging as the new advertising” is also proposed as a new area Of research

concentration into consumer inﬂuence at the point Of purchase.

Packaging As the New Advertising

The reduction in advertising budgets has elevated the expectations of
packaging to perform as compensation for the diminished quantity of
advertisements. Packaging is expected to inﬂuence the consumer purchases as
well as increase revenue for the product. According to market research the
increasing importance of packaging design has become a fact of life within the
marketing arena (Chilton 1998). Market research cites packaging design as the
“single most sales-effective and cost efficient marketing tool” (Wallace 2001, pg.
20). This belief mirrors the results of outstanding return on investment (ROI) for
money spent on packaging design. It is a growing marketing principle that a well-
designed package is the key to a successful product (Wallace 2001; Chilton
1998; Lindsay 1997; Prone 1993).

In the current marketplace Of beverages the product with the best taste for
most peOple is not necessarily the market leader. The Ultimate driver of success
is the package design (Farlander 2000). For example, the contour design of the
Cocoa-Cola® bottle was the key driver of the brand. Although the bottle shape
was retired in the 19703, it was brought back in the 19905 to generate excitement
for the brand (Farlander 2000). The success of Arizona® Tea is not a result of
advertising and promotions but a result Of packaging. Its manufacturer Ferolito

Vultaggio & Sons stated, “packaging is everything” (Holleran 1998, pg. 30) and

51

invested a substantial amount Of money into the packaging. This brand of “new
age” drink was the first to appear in the tall 25-Ounce can and the first to appear
in the long-neck widemouth bottle (Holleran 1998). In addition to the unique
containers, the Arizona® Tea continue to stand out on the shelf because Of their
bold, award-winning graphics. The popular product Rice-A-Roni® was losing
market share to new products in its category. The packaging was redesigned to
focus on the quality and appetite appeal, and true personality Of the product. The
Rice-A-Roni® brand experienced a 20 percent increase in sales (compared to
the previous year) when the revitalized packaging appeared on the shelf (Prone
1993). Del Monte experienced a Similar return on investment when it redesigned
its tomato product line. With both brands the only change in marketing strategy
was the packaging redesigns (Prone 1993). Aquafresh® Extreme Clean
toothpaste packaging helped improve the brand’s market Share. The clear plastic
box and stand-on-head lid elevated the Aquafresh® market share from 9.5
percent to 10 percent (Yeomans 2003).

Several market studies have concluded that shopping behavior is an
irrational process and packaging is effective because it appeals to the
subconscious (Hine 1995). Packaging often connects to the emotional needs of
the consumer. Thus, many consumer purchases are driven by emotion. For
some product categories (neutraceuticalszs, cosmetics, perfume, personal
hygiene) the consumer is purchasing an image not just the product (Hilton 2005).

Research indicates that 85 percent Of women recognize the fragrance they use

 

35 refers to nutrition products such as vitamins, weight loss aids, energy supplements and herbal
health remedies that are not regulated by the USFDA

52

by the packaging not the scent (“The shape of things to come” 2002). When
consumers first look at an appealing package, their concentration is Often not on
the product but creating a dream, an image (Shell 1996). For example the brand
Fiji® Natural Artesian water uses graphics to depict the waterfalls of Fiji
suggesting that drinking it would be akin to having a refreshing drink in a tropical
paradise. For some consumers packaging is everything. A survey of shoppers
indicates that consumers purchase products solely for the packaging. Others
purchase products for the packaging with no intention of using its contents. Case
in point, consumers were bombarding a display Of imported beer from South
Africa. The beer cans had vibrant illustrations of wild animals native to Africa, 17
different designs total. Several consumers were searching for the complete can
design collection to take home in spite of the price of $3 per can (McMath 2004).
If a consumer is looking to try something new (e.g., a new dishwashing liquid)
then the consumer may purchase the brand with the most innovative packaging
or the packaging that he or she likes. Packaging that looks good on the shelf at
home may continue to inﬂuence future product purchases. Research has shown
that packaging viewed daily in the home becomes an intimate part of the
consumer’s life. The packaging becomes the brand, reinforcing the brand’s
personality and building brand equity (Lindsay 1997). Some packaging especially
food products are designed to appeal to the consumer’s lifestyle, social and
health concerns (Heller 1999). The packaging for spirits (liquor) must
communicate brand values. Often consumers have sampled a specific brand of

liquor at a bar or restaurant before purchasing SO the package identification is

crucial because there are few spirit advertisements on television (Holleran 1998).
The makers of Wild Turkey®, a high-end Kentucky spirit, was launched in a
dramatic bottle that resembles turkey feathers as a strategy to differentiate itself
from other brown Spirits. Since the launch of Wild Turkey® in 1994 the packaging
has been awarded a Clio26 for packaging design and product sales have been
very good (Holleran 1998).

Some cereal marketers are using short-term package redesigns as
marketing tools. Such marketers as Kellogg, Post, and Quaker Oats have
redesigned packaging to include athletes, and movie characters. Although
considered a risky practice by some marketers, Short-term package redesigns
are an Opportunity to boost short—term product sales and attract new consumers.
Kellogg has found this practice so successful that it runs a minimum of four short-
term package redesigns a year (Lahey 1996).

In an effort to increase milk consumption by children the St. Louis school
system, the St. Louis Dairy Council the and Prairie Farms Dairy teamed up to
test the relationship between milk packaging and consumption. Market reports
indicated that children consume more milk if the milk container is more appealing
(Smith 2005). Students were introduced to multi-colored paperboard packaging,
improved ﬂavor formulas and new ﬂavors. A control group with no changes in
milk ﬂavors or packaging was included in the study. After three months milk sales
increased almost 20 percent. There was no increase in milk sales in the control

group. TO test the inﬂuence of the packaging one group of students was Offered

 

3“ annual awards presented by the advertising industry for outstanding achievement in TV and
radio commercials, and packaging

54

milk in packaging with more sophisticated graphics that featured active kids than
the other two colorful, “kid—friendly” packaging groups. The group with the most
sophisticated packaging (active kids graphics) had the largest increase in overall

milk sales (Smith 2005).

Packaging As lnforrnation

Packaging involves communication and persuasion. Packaging has much
more communication power than marketers and researchers realize. Packaging
is engaging. It is the part of the product that the consumer touches. In addition to
the textural information packaging provides other types of information. For
example in 1992 Planters introduced a new packaging concept for its fresh
roasted peanuts. The new packaging resembled the vacuum-packed bricks
normally used for coffee. The text on the packaging clearly stated “Planters
Fresh Roasted Salted Peanuts” and was positioned near the Mr. Peanut®
character. However, customers were taking the vacuum-packed peanuts and
attempting to grind them in the coffee grinder. The appearance of the new fresh
roasted peanuts resulted in incorrect information regarding the product.
Packaging design provides information that defines the product, the beneﬁts, and
usage. In 2001 a marketer in Florida introduced a product called White Soda, a
shelf-stable carbonated milk drink. White soda was packaged in a Slim 8.5 ounce
metal can similar to the cans used for energy drinks. The stylized graphics of
human ﬁgures holding a can (in various poses) did not reﬂect the contents of the

can and the product failed. Crazy Cow Company introduced a similar product in

'J]
'Jl

the same slim can as White Soda but with different graphics. The can features a
cartoon cow sipping milk through a straw from a small traditional gable-top carton
of milk. The words “delicious, nutritious Sparkling milk” enclose the cow in a
circular manner on the can. Crazy Cow Sparkling Milk has been projected to be a
leader in the new hybrid beverage category of milk-based carbonated beverages
as well as the most exciting drink Since Red Bull®, according to leading trade
beverage magazines Beverage Industry and New Products (The Sparkling Milk
Company 2003).

The overall appearance of packaging may Speak volumes about its
contents. For example, a marketing manager in charge of redesigning gift boxes
for a chocolatier was pleasantly surprised when he tasted the product from the
current “cheap looking” gift box. The taste of the chocolate and the packaging did
not agree. The cheap looking box sent the message of cheap quality, poor
tasting chocolate although the chocolatier is recognized as manufacturing
superior quality chocolates. Consumers perceive a gold metallic box of
chocolates wrapped with ribbon to be expensive and high quality (Fuhrman
2003). The appearance of packaging does inﬂuence consumer opinions (Scully
2001). Packaging gives information that leads to brand or product perception by
the consumer. A classic example Of packaging speaking about its contents is the
Tiffany® box. The Tiffany® blue box communicates the perception that love and
quality, commitment and consistency, respect and reputation are included inside
the box (Gomelsky 2003). Over time the blue box and the Tiffany® company

developed a correlation that signifies elegance and quality. Tiffany chose to

56

include the packaging in the merchandising plan instead of assigning it strictly for
utilitarian purposes in which the consumer discards the box in the trash.

Research has shown that packaging design is an important part of the
marketing process, possesses the ability to generate a return on investment, and
improve market Share. With this evidence in mind, it is reasonable to infer that
packaging design has is compatible with advertising in the ability to inﬂuence
consumers at the point of purchase. Packaging design deserves more attention
and credibility in the integrated marketing communication (IMC) mix. In the
cluttered supermarket aisle it is the packaging’s shelf impact that gets the
product noticed by the consumer and into the home. The shelf impact of
packaging is powerful and continuous. Although packaging does not reach
audiences of over million consumers Simultaneously, it does reach them for
longer periods Of time in a more intimate way. In other words, once a consumer
purchases a product the packaging remains an inﬂuence inside the home
(Wallace 2001). Each time the consumer uses or removes the product from the
packaging a relationship is developing as well as inﬂuence for future purchase.
Packaging design should not be considered mere decoration but a powerful,
persuasive force for developing a relationship with the consumer and

establishing a successful brand.

57

CHAPTER SIX

CUE UTILIZATION THEORY

This chapter presents the theory that governs the methodology for this
study. Cue utilization theory, one facet of consumer decision-making guides the
investigation of surface graphics color on packaging and its impact on consumer
purchase intent. This chapter will Show how cues have been used in previous
studies when investigating inﬂuence on consumer decision—making and how this
theory was adapted for this exploratory study.

Research has established that packaging has evolved into the “Silent
salesman” (Furness 2003; Rettie and Brewer 2000; Shell 1996). Packaging has
information consumers use to make purchase decisions. When shopping,
consumers Often look for the packaging before looking for the brand name.
Market research has Shown that shoppers often utilize the information on
packaging to assist with purchase decision-making. The USFDA’S Nutrition
Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) mandated the use of nutrition facts on all
food and beverage packaging (American Heart Association 2005; US. Food and
Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition 2004; Bone
and France 2001)). A recent survey Of food packaging has revealed the practice
of including allergy warnings at the end of the product ingredients list.
Consumers have learned to consult the information on packaging to make
purchase decisions. For example, packaging information may assist a shopper

with making a final decision between artificial ﬂavor and natural ﬂavor or which

product has the best health benefit by listing sodium content and saturated fat
found in the nutrition facts.

Academic research has shown that consumers use packaging attributes
such as text, shape, colors, Size, scent, and texture to assist with decision-
making (Product packaging: empty promises? 2000; Sherwood 1999; Grossman
and Wisenblit 1999; Nancarrow, Wright, and Brace 1998). The present study
concentrates on the packaging attribute of surface graphics color as a cue for
decision-making and is guided by cue utilization theory, which addresses a

Specific segment of the consumer decision-making process.

Theoretical Framework

Consumer decision-making has been treated as a problem solving process.
A decision involves choosing between two or more different behaviors (Peter and
Olson 1999). Although consumers make choices between products, brands, or
stores, they are actually choosing between different behaviors that concern the
product, brand, or store. The assumption regarding consumer decision-making is
that consumers have goals they seek to achieve or satisfy. In other words,
consumer decision-making is considered a goal-directed, problem-solving
process (Peter and Olson 1999). The basic model of the consumer problem
solving process (Figure 6) contains ﬁve stages: (1) problem recognition, for
example, while preparing dinner, a consumer discovers an empty container of
pasta (2) search for alternative solutions-the consumer goes to the local grocery

store (3) evaluation of alternatives- the consumer locates the pasta and surveys

59

the Choices (4) purchase- the consumer selects a brand/ container of pasta and
takes it to the check out counter (5) post-purchase use and reevaluation of
chosen alternative- the consumer prepares dinner with the chosen pasta and
determines if the choice was good one and considers a repeat purchase in the
future (Peter and Olson 1999). Although the basic model Of problem-solving is
commonly used to introduce the process, it is considered imperfect because the
consumer problem-solving process rarely occurs in a linear fashion. This basic

model of problem-solving is adequate for an investigation of brand choice.

Figure 6. Basic Model of Consumer Problem-solving

I Problem I Searchtor l Evaluationof I l I ileevaluation
Recognition —-) alternative —-} alternatives —-) Piloliase _.y of chosen
solutions altematlve

Consumers use an evaluation process when considering which product to

 

 

 

 

 

 

purchase. This occurs in the third stage of the basic model of consumer problem—
solving. This process involves sorting out product information that serves as cues
that inﬂuence consumer decision-making. A product can be thought of as a
variety of cues. Cues are product information consisting Of price, color, taste,
feel, scent, and the Opinion of friends, family, retail sales consultants (Cox 1967).
The consumer evaluation process should recognize three characteristics. Cox
(1967) defines these characteristics as: (1) a minimal number Of cues or bits Of
information (color, sound, texture) (2) the predictive value of a cue (associating a

given cue with product quality) (3) no need for an apparent logical relationship

60

between the cues on which the product evaluation is based (the scent of a bath
towel as an indicator of quality). In other words, the consumer evaluation process
is unique to each consumer, product based on selected cues associated with
quality, and driven by the relationship between the cue and the product
evaluation.

Research suggests that consumers sort products into attribute categories to
determine which cues are most meaningful when evaluating a product’s quality
when considering a purchase. The sorting rule model (Figure 7) for product
evaluation (Cox 1967) suggests a consumer proceeds through the product
evaluation stage in the following manner: Stage One is establishing attribute
categories for product judgment (taste, size, color, weight). Stage Two is
assigning values and consequences to each product attribute category (how
important is taste in the evaluation Of tomatoes and what is the consequence of a
poor tasting tomato). Stage Three is establishing criteria by which the product is
categorically defined (color and Size). Stage Four is establishing criterion
categories (Specific cues similar in nature but varying by different degrees) and
criterion-attribute relationships. For example, tomato color is a criteria category.
The shade of red may vary but may predict the same attribute of taste. The
criterion-attribute relationship may suggest the brightest red tomato is most ripe
and indicates the best ﬂavor and the palest red tomato is least ripe and indicates
no ﬂavor. Stage Five is assigning a predictive value to each criterion-attribute
relationship. Stage Six is establishing a confidence value for each cue. Stage

Seven is sorting the product into an attribute category. Stage Eight combines

6|

various previously formed judgments resulting in a higher order judgment. Stage
Nine is the final stage Of the sorting rule evaluation process that validates the
judgment made (tasting the tomato to determine the validity of the predictive
value of the color/quality relationship).

Cox’s 1967 study also determined that consumers assign information value
to cues on at least two dimensions, predictive value and conﬁdence value. The
predictive value Of a cue iS “a measure of the probability with which a cue
predicts a specific product attribute" (Cox, p. 331 ). For example, if a consumer
knows that a brand of ice cream uses real vanilla beans instead of artiﬁcial
vanilla in its ice cream, then there is a high probability that the brand of ice cream
is Of good quality. The confidence value of a cue is “the degree Of confidence
with which the cue can be categorized or evaluated” (Cox, p. 344). An example
Of the confidence value Of a cue is the consumer has tasted vanilla ice cream
with both artificial ﬂavoring and natural vanilla bean ﬂavoring and the consumer
knows (tasted) the difference. Predictive and conﬁdence value can be
categorized as high and low. When confronted with two approximately equal
predictive cues the consumer is more likely to select the cue with the highest
confidence value (Richardson 1994, Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994, and Cox
1967). For example, the consumer wants to buy fresh tomatoes, and considers
color and size as attributes for quality but has difficulty in determining a color
differentiation in the tomatoes available then color would be considered a low
predictive cue. The tomato size becomes the cue (for quality) with the higher

conﬁdence value.

Figure 7. The Sorting Rule Model

 

Establish
attribute
categories

 

Assign values
and

WUOHCOI

 

 

Establish
criteria

 

Establish criteria
categories a
criterion-attribute
relationships

 

 

 

 

 

Validate the
judgment made

 

63

Cue utilization theory provides a framework to examine the consumer’s
perception of a product. This theory is based on the sorting rule model of product
evaluation (Cox 1967). There are two types of cues, extrinsic and intrinsic.
Extrinsic cues are product-related but not part of the physical product such as
packaging, price, and brand name (Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994; Richardson
1994). Intrinsic cues are product-related such as ingredients, color, and shape
(Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994). Cue utilization theory suggests that
consumers depend on extrinsic cues when faced with making a decision
between products especially when determining quality (Miyazaki, Grewal, and
Goodstein 2005; Richardson 1994; Bearden and Shimp 1982). Research has
revealed evidence that extrinsic cues are more easily interpreted and recognized
(Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994).

Consumer’s decisions are guided by their perception of a product (Tom,
Barnett, Lew, and Selmants 1987). Their perception is heavily inﬂuenced by cues
(brand name, packaging, color). Participants in a study were exposed to a
nationally branded27 product and a store brand28 product of potato chips and
chocolate chip cookies and completed a taste test. They determined that the
brand with the better packaging was of better quality even though both the
nationally branded product and the store brand product contained the same
product (Richardson 1994). Study participants relied upon extrinsic cues
(packaging) to determine which product had the better quality. Research has

shown that extrinsic cues inﬂuence consumers’ quality judgments Of products

 

27 National brand refers to products that are produced by one manufacturer and distributed nation
wide.

'8 Store brand refers to all merchandise sold under a retail store’s private label

64

even when intrinsic cues are present (Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994).
Research participants were exposed to nationally branded products and store
brand products of cheese, potato chips, potato chip dip, chocolate chip cookies,
and jelly. During the taste testing a list of intrinsic cues (ingredients, nutrition
value) was placed next to each taste sample along with the price and brand
name. The intrinsic cue (ingredients, nutrition information) list was enlarged and
created to mimic the labels that would appear on each brand. Some participants
received the store brand product coupled with national brand intrinsic cues
(ingredients) or the national brand product coupled with store brand intrinsic cues
(ingredients). After completing a taste test, participants assessed the national
brand product of being higher quality although the national brand was coupled
with the store brand intrinsic cues (ingredients). Participants also assessed the
national brand intrinsic cues (ingredients) as being lower quality when coupled
with the store brand extrinsic cues (packaging). The results of this study suggest
the product expectations evoked by the packaging (extrinsic cues) inﬂuenced
consumers’ judgment of the product quality. The Richardson, Dick, and Jain
(1994) study also indicates that consumers appear to be more interested in
quality than value for the money. The researchers indicate that consumer
assessment of store brand product quality is largely due to their reliance Upon
extrinsic cues. In other words, consumers determine product quality by the
appearance of the packaging.

To illustrate the power of cues on consumer perception and decision-making,

one study used color (extrinsic cue) as the principle cue to inﬂuence consumer

65

perception. This study was testing the extent color plays in inﬂuencing the
consumer’s taste or quality of a food. The product Chosen for the study was
chocolate pudding. The researchers believed that color is an important cue in the
consumer’s identification Of the ﬂavor of the pudding (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and
Selmants 1987). It was also believed that consumers would make inferences
about other product attributes based on the color of the chocolate pudding. For
the study the chocolate pudding was actually vanilla pudding with food color
added. The three “ﬂavors” created were: dark brown, medium brown, and light
brown. Participants were informed that the study was testing consumer
preference for a new variation of chocolate pudding and were asked to taste
each pudding sample and answer a short questionnaire. Of the participants, 62%
perceived the dark brown pudding had the best Chocolate ﬂavor and 61%
perceived the dark brown pudding was the thickest. The participants also
perceived that the lighter color chocolate puddings were the creamiest (37% for
the medium brown chocolate pudding and 36% for the light chocolate brown
pudding). Based on these results, color was an important cue in the perception Of
the product. It looked like chocolate pudding SO it tasted like chocolate pudding.
The researchers concluded that in the consumer’s identification and evaluation Of
the pudding the color was more important than the taste (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and
Selmants 1987).

Research has shown that consumers use cues (intrinsic and extrinsic) to
identify and give meaning to products and brands. Cues, more speciﬁcally,

extrinsic cues are developed by the marketer of the product. Incorrect perception

66

of a product as a result of incongruent cues can result in a disaster as in the case
of Sunlight® dishwashing liquid. The dishwashing liquid was developed to
include lemon juice as an ingredient for extra cleaning. During the 1982 launch of
Sunlight dishwashing liquid small packets containing the dishwashing liquid were
mailed to households as part of a promotional campaign. The sample packet
included the words “Sunlight dishwashing liquid” along with a large picture of
lemons and the words “real lemon juice.” Apparently the words “dishwashing
liquid” was an inadequate cue for the contents because consumers thought the
sample packet contained lemon juice. When the dishwashing liquid sample was
Opened, it smelled like lemon juice. Assuming it was lemon juice, several
consumers used the liquid in their iced tea. Research should begin to explore the
inﬂuence that specific cues have on the consumer’s perception of products as

well as how their perception inﬂuences their purchase intent.

67

CHAPTER SEVEN

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODS

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the research questions and
methodology used in the investigation of packaging color and its inﬂuence on
consumer decision-making. More speciﬁcally, this chapter contains a description
of research questions, the methodology, study participants, stimulus choice,
independent and dependent variables.

Previous research has Shown the important role packaging plays in
influencing consumers at the point of purchase (packworldcom 2004; Selame
and KOUkOS 2002; Pigeon 2001; Wallace 2001; Chilton 1998). Research has also
shown that consumers use cues to form a perception about a product and the
perception Of a product has more inﬂuence on consumer purchase than product
reality (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and Selmants 1987). Academic studies investigating
how consumers use cues to make purchase decisions are few. In fact, this area
is largely neglected. This exploratory study investigates the inﬂuence Of a Speciﬁc

extrinsic cue (color) has on consumer purchase intent.

Central Research Questions

The objective of this research is to investigate the inﬂuence Of packaging
color on consumer decision-making. This exploratory study focuses on
packaging design as a communication aspect, not an engineering aspect. More

specifically, this research investigates the use Of extrinsic cues (packaging color)

68

to assess perceived product quality and perceived product performance. This
study also examines how different color cues inﬂuence decision-making, and
Ultimately, the intent to purchase.

General Research Question. The general research question guiding this
study is: Do surface graphics/packaging color (extrinsic cue) inﬂuence consumer
decision-making and the intent to purchase? The following research questions
guided the investigation on surface graphics colors as an inﬂuence on consumer
decision-making. The general research question was inspired by a study that
compared current color uses on packaging for gender-biased products with
traditional color associations to discover an indication that traditional color
association are outdated for the current marketplace (VanHurIey 2004). It was
this survey that directed attention toward a vast amount of information (cues)
available to consumers for making purchase decisions and how cues inﬂuence
consumer purchasing. Three Specific research questions are derived from the
general research question.

RQ1: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging increase shelf impact
(visibility)?

R02: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging inﬂuence perceived
product quality?

RQ3: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging serve as a cue for

product information that inﬂuences purchase intent?

69

METHOD

Choice of Stimulus

Some marketers believe that testing packaging in a focus group is a poor
indicator of purchase intent because participants are not in a shopping mode and
one participant’s opinion may inﬂuence the entire focus group (Murphy 1998;
Lubliner 1996). It is based on this belief that tangible packaging was used as
stimulus for the study. This study investigates the inﬂuence of packaging color on
the store shelf on consumer decision-making. To investigate consumer shopping
behavior in a controlled environment, that environment should be created to
mimic shopping behavior. In an actual supermarket shopping situation
consumers pick a product from the shelf and examine the surface graphics to
formulate perceptions about the product.

This exploratory study iS unique in that it uses real packaging as the stimulus
for data collection. Only one study regarding color research is based on
consumers evaluating color chips (Brengman and Geuens 2004). Prior research
regarding packaging design effect on consumer behavior used a stimulus book
(Underwood and Klein 2002), and a virtual Shopper computer program
(Underwood 2001) as the stimulus for data collection.

The independent variables for the study were the colors of the packaging
surface graphics. The dependent variables were Shelf impact, perceived product
quality, and purchase intent.

Four product categories were selected (toothpowder, Shaving powder,

bacon-ﬂavored potato rings, and Spray-on pantyhose) to assess the possibility Of

70

surface graphics color having inﬂuence on diverse product categories. These
product categories were selected to reduce the possibility Of prior product
associations and create a situation where the consumer must rely on the
extrinsic cues (color) of the packaging to assess the quality and effectiveness of
the product. A total Of 24 packaging designs (six per category) were created for
this study (Appendix D). The choice to use unfamiliar product categories was the
result of limiting prior effect to inﬂuence product choice. When a consumer is
faced with an unfamiliar brand he/she is likely to evaluate the packaging more

closely (Underwood 2002).

Stimulus Specifications

The product categories did inﬂuence the type of packaging necessary for
each product. Since the focus Of this study was on packaging color and not on
structure or shape, it was determined that reassigning or redesigning packaging
was beyond the scope of this study and the type of packaging established for
each product category was acceptable. There are three slit—lock, top tuck folding
cartons and one wrap around label on a prefabricated aluminum can. Products
were purchased at a local supermarket that are similar in nature to each product
used in the study. If a product similar in nature, Size, and weight was not
available locally, then specifications were obtained from various websites to
assist with acceptable packaging dimensions. The dimensions Of each carton

were determined by the size and shape of its contents. Each carton was

71

fabricated according to the dimensions of that product. The label was created
according to the dimensions of the prefabricated aluminum can.

The Artios® CAD computer program was used to select a template for the
folding cartons. The template was modified for each container based on
individual dimensions. The industry standard slit lock, top tuck folding carton was
selected because it limits material waste and therefore reduces production costs.
The material used for the all of the folding cartons was a Sheet of 24 inches x 36
inches 14 point board, .25 mil thickness. Each folding carton template was
transferred via computer disk to the electronic cutting table where the carton
templates were cut and scored29 simultaneously.

Toothpowder Packaging. The toothpowder carton (Appendix D, Figure 11)
was based Upon toothpaste that was similar in weight and size. Information
Obtained from a drug store website provided a picture and weight speciﬁcations
per carton for a popular brand toothpowder since this product or one similar was
not locally available. The folded dimension of the carton measured 2 inches in
width x 1.625 inches in length x 1.625 inches in depth.

Bacon-Flavored Potato Rings Packaging. The bacon-ﬂavored potato rings
carton (Appendix D, Figure 10) was based Upon a box Of snack crackers that
was similar in weight and size. Information obtained from an international snack
website provided a picture and weight specifications per carton for a similar

snack Since this product or one similar was not locally available. The folded

 

39 A printing term used to describe a technique Of cutting shallow lines into thick paper or
cardboard to ensure crisp folds.

72

dimensions of the carton measured 5.125 inches in width x 6 inches in length x
2.5 inches in depth.

Spray-on Pantyhose Packaging. The spray-on pantyhose carton
(Appendix D, Figure 12) was based on an artiﬁcial tanning product that was
similar in weight and size. Information Obtained from a cosmetics website
provided a picture and weight specifications for a similar product available only in
limited areas in the United States. The folded dimensions of the carton measured
2.125 inches in width x 7 inches in length x 2.125 inches in depth.

Shaving Powder Packaging. Shaving powder is a product that was popular
years ago as an alternative to razors for Shaving a tough, curly, stubborn beard.
This product still exists on some local supermarket shelves. In an attempt to
create realistic packaging these prefabricated shaving powder cans were used
and a wrap-around label covered the complete cans (Appendix D, figure 9). The
wrap-around label measured 8.4375 inches in width x 3.75 inches in length.

Color and Surface Graphics. The colors used for the surface graphics (red,
yellow, blue, orange, green, and purple) were selected because they are
considered foundation colors in basic color theory. In addition, primary (red,
yellow, blue) and secondary (orange, green, purple) colors were selected
because prior color associations exist for these colors and these associations
continue to be referenced in academic research (Lukiesh 1925; Schaie and
Heiss 1964; Sharpe 1974). The decision to design the surface graphics using
one color was to control the identiﬁcation of the color Of inﬂuence. Multiple colors

would complicate identification of the color of inﬂuence. Also, placing two or more

73

colors adjacent to one another may change the perception of a color. The
decision to use a white background was to prevent interference from another
color that could complicate color perception. The surface graphics were designed
with one color30 and tints31 of the one color to afford the maximum amount of
surface graphic interest permitted with one color. The color yellow required a tint
of black to prevent the color being absorbed by the white background (Appendix
D, Figure 10). Yellow on a white background is barely visible. PMS?’2 colors were
assigned to match the established primary and secondary colors. PMS colors
were used to mimic the professional process of specifying colors for printing
surface graphics on a ﬂexography33 printing press.

The electronic cutting table used for cutting and scoring the slit lock, top tuck
folding cartons did not have printing capabilities so the surface graphics were
made separately and wrapped around each carton. Since the focus Of this study
was on the inﬂuence of surface graphics color on purchase intent the packaging
must rely on color to control for other inﬂuences not being measured. The
surface graphics do not contain photographs or illustrations. Photographs and
illustrations introduce another element of packaging design that is not covered in
this study. Other cues such as ingredients and content weight were held constant
within each product category. The text (weight, ingredients, instructions, nutrition

information) on the packaging was obtained from similar products purchased

 

3” identiﬁes a monochromatic color palette used in graphic design

3 ' refers to white added to a color; Pink is considered a tint of red.

33 Pantone Matching System (PMS) refers to the comprehensive reference for selecting,
specifying, matching, and controlling ink colors

33 refers to the printing method most commonly used when printing food packaging, medical
packaging, corrugated containers, and plastic bags.

74

from the local supermarket or from various websites if a product similar in nature,
size, and weight could not be obtained locally. The graphics for each product was
in part determined by the size of the packaging. In an effort to reduce an
association bias, basic shapes or patterns were used to create the surface
graphics. TO further mimic the look of actual products, other elements such as
weight, ingredients, nutrition information, directions, logo“, and UPC35 bar code
were added to each package design. The template for each slit lock, top tuck
folding carton was imported into Adobe InDesign (a professional design program)
and surface graphics were created. The wrap around label for the prefabricated
aluminum cans was also created in Adobe InDesign. The surface graphics for the
folding cartons and prefabricated cans were printed using ink jet printers. The
folding carton surface graphics were printed on premium grade bright white ink
jet paper. The labels for the prefabricated can were printed on name brand large
label paper with adhesive backing. Once the surface graphics were printed for all
of the packaging, each surface graphic sheet was trimmed to size. The surface
graphics for the slit lick, top tuck folding cartons were adhered to the unfolded
carton with double stick Scotch® tape and then folded. The backing paper for the
adhesive labels were removed and adhered to the prefabricated aluminum cans.
Each product category had six packages with the surface graphics being
identical (with the exception of color) and unique to each category (Appendix D,

Figures 9, 10, 11, and 12). Four different surface graphic designs (one per

 

"4 refers to a symbol or name displayed in a unique manner that is used to separate a product or
service from its competitors in the marketplace.

35 an abbreviation for universal product code; UPC bar codes contains electronic information such
as price used at checkout and product inventory.

75

product) were created to prevent comparison between product categories. A
complete category includes one package with surface graphics using each

primary color (red, yellow, blue) and secondary color (orange, green, purple).

Data Collection

In this study’s attempt to provide a shopping mode for participants, tangible
packaging was placed on a Shelf (Appendix D, Figure 8). The room set-up was
identical for every participating group and each participating group evaluated all
packaging. Data was collected in groups to control the number Of participants at
the shelf at one time. The stimulus for this study was considered a three-
dimensional stimulus book. Every product category packaging was placed on the
shelf. The alignment Of the packaging on the shelf was held constant according
to color by category. The color arrangement is red, yellow, blue, orange, green,
and purple. This color arrangement was consistent with the order Of the color
choices on the questionnaire. This consideration was made to help facilitate the
ease of completing the questionnaire.

A 72-item questionnaire (Appendix C) was used to collect data. Participants
first viewed the product shelf and then responded tO the questionnaire. While
viewing the product shelf, participants could remove the packaging from the shelf
for closer examination. Participants were allowed to look at the product Shelf
while completing the questionnaire from their seat. The tables and chairs were
positioned between the range Of 7.4 feet and 10.9 feet from the product shelf.

The distance was determined by the Space needed to accommodate 10 to 15

76

participants at the product Shelf at one time as well as allowing clear visibility of
the product Shelf from the seating area. Upon entering the data collection area,
participants were directed to the product shelf and encouraged to handle the
packaging for further examination. Collaboration between participants was not
allowed. Participants were given a maximum of fifteen minutes to closely view
the product shelf. The participants were allowed a maximum of 45 minutes to
complete the questionnaire. Participants were allowed to complete the
questionnaire at their own pace and each participant read a short debrieﬁng
statement about the experiment before leaving the lab setting.

Cue utilization theory is used to guide this study. Consumers use cues to
assist with decision-making that often leads to a product purchase (Cox 1967;
Underwood 1993; Richardson 1994; Richardson, Dick, and Jain 1994; Garber,
Burke, and Jones 2000; Underwood, Klein, and Burke 2001; Underwood and
Klein 2002; Underwood 2003). Cue utilization theory has two categories of cues
(extrinsic, intrinsic). Extrinsic cues are those that are product-related but not part
of the physical product such as packaging, price, and brand name. Intrinsic cues
are things that are part of the physical product SUCh as ingredients and are not
part of this study. The independent variables in this study surface
graphics/packaging color qualified as an extrinsic cue.

Research question 1 (Does the color Of surface graphics on packaging
increase shelf impact?) was designed to investigate the shelf impact of the
packaging. Participants were asked to compare the packaging visibility against

one another as well as select which packaging captured their attention ﬁrst. In

77

conjunction there was an open-ended question asking participants to explain why
the selected packaging grabbed their attention.

Research question 2 (Does the color of surface graphics on packaging
influence perceived product quality?) was designed to investigate the notion
that consumers use color to perceive information regarding a product. More
specifically, this research question was created to measure the cue utilization of
packaging color to make a decision regarding the perceived quality of each
product in the four categories (shaving powder, bacon-ﬂavored potato rings,
tooth powder, spray-on pantyhose). Participants asked to rate each packaging
color according to expected overall quality of each product in each of the four
product categories. The responses were based on a Likert scale from 1
(excellent quality) to 6 (can’t be determined). The response of “can’t be
determined” was included in the Likert scale to investigate if respondents would
choose to form a judgment regarding product quality based on packaging cues.

Research question 3 (Does the color of surface graphics on packaging
serve as a cue for product information that influences purchase intent?)
was created to explore intent to purchase, Participants were asked to select one
packaging of each product of which they would prefer to receive a free Six-month
supply. In conjunction there was an open—ended question asking participants to
explain why they preferred to receive each selected packaging from the four
categories.

The four product categories asked identical questions; although product

speciﬁc questions addressed the products mentioned above. The questionnaire

78

asks the participants to evaluate each surface graphics color packaging within
each category individually, encouraging product differentiation between each
color. General shopping behavior questions and demographic questions were

also asked of the study participants.

Participants

In 2006 there were approximately 69 million people In the United States
aged 18 to 34 (Spending Power Of Young Adults 2006). With in this age group,
individuals 18 to 24 possibly pursuing an education and living at home have more
discretionary income. This age group also enjoys shopping as a social activity.
With these statistics in mind, subjects for this study were graduate and
undergraduate advertising students from a large Mid-western university. Of the
39 participants, 23% (n=13) were male and 67% (n=26) were female. Of the
participants, 82% (n=32) were between 17 and 22 years of age and 18% (n=7)
are between 23 and 28 years of age. Of the 39 participants, 38 reported the
ethnic group they most identified with. Of the participants, 53% (n=20) are
Caucasian, 18% (n=7) are African-American, 5% (n=2) are Hispanic, 11% (n=4)
are Asian-American, and 13% (n=5) are of other racial identities. “Other” was
representative Of international students. This identiﬁcation was created to
differentiate students who are citizens of another country and perhaps have

different cultural and social values.

79

As encouragement for participation, each participant was entered in a rafﬂe
for gift certificates to various establishments (Cold Stone Creamery, Starbucks,

and Best Buy).

80

CHAPTER EIGHT

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the results from the data collection.
The discussion of the significance Of the data is reserved for this chapter.

Data was collected in a lab setting using tangible packaging as stimulus
(Appendix, Figure 8) and a 72-item questionnaire (Appendix C) to explore the
general research question: DO packaging colors (extrinsic cues) inﬂuence
consumer decision-making and the intent to purchase? This experimental study
was created to explore the following research questions to answer the general
research question.

RQ1: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging significantly increase
shelf impact (visibility)?

R02: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging signiﬁcantly inﬂuence
perceived product quality?

RQ3: Does the color Of surface graphics on packaging serve as a cue for

product information that inﬂuences purchase intent?

Data Interpretation. Results were first examined according to each product.
Then results were examined according to color without regard to the product.
The numbers in the tables represent frequency. Data was examined to
investigate the inﬂuence packaging color had on consumer intent to purchase.

Then, the data was examined to investigate if the product had any inﬂuence on

81

the color of packaging the participants intended to purchase. Because of the
exploratory nature of this study the data collected from the survey was collapsed
into categories (positive, neutral, negative) that reﬂected the participants’ attitude
toward the perceived quality, the likelihood of purchase, and shelf impact
according to each product. Then, the data was collapsed into categories
(positive, neutral, negative) that reﬂected the participants’ attitude toward
perceived quality, the likelihood of purchase, and shelf impact without regard to

the product, but according to color.

Individual Product Results of Color on Packaging

Shaving Powder Packaging Color Results. Participants were asked to
form quality judgments based on individual packaging color. R0 2: Does the
color of surface graphics on packaging influence perceived product
quality? The data indicated the blue packaging was perceived by participants to
have the highest quality, the red and green packaging were both perceived to
have the second highest quality, orange and yellow packaging were perceived to
have satisfactory quality and the purple packaging was perceived by the
participants to have the poorest quality. Despite the quality judgments of good
and poor, participants considered all packaging design colors to be of
satisfactory quality (Table 2). The data also Showed that participants used
packaging color to infer information regarding shaving powder quality.
Participants were not forced to formulate an Opinion regarding quality because

“can’t be determined” was a response option on the questionnaire.

Table 2. Shaving Powder Packaging Expected Quality

Red I7
Yellow _ 17 I4
Blue I4 7
22 8
Green I6 I0
I2 18

2
3
2
3
,
j
,
J

 

R0 1: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging increase shelf
impact (visibility)? Data showed participants made judgments about how visible
each packaging was from the Shelf. Participants determined the blue packaging
had the strongest shelf visibility, the purple packaging the second strongest, then
the green, orange, red packaging were perceived to have moderate visibility, and

the yellow packaging was determined to have the worst shelf visibility (Table 3).

Table 3. Shaving Powder Packaging Shelf Impact

Red
Yellow
Blue

Green

 

R0 3: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging serve as a cue for

product information that influences purchase intent? The participant

83

perceived the green packaging to have little difference between good and
moderate visibility. Although a few participants perceived yellow packaging to
have good Shelf visibility, the majority of the participants perceived yellow
packaging to have the poorest shelf impact (visibility). When asked which
shaving powder they would like to receive a free six-month supply participants

selected blue most, and orange and green the least (Table 4).

Table 4. Shaving Powder Packaging Purchase Intent

Yellow Blue Orange Green Purple

 

 

Bacon-ﬂavored Potato Ring Packaging Results. Participants were asked
to form quality judgments based on individual packaging color. The data
indicated the red packaging was perceived by participants to have the highest
quality, the orange packaging was perceived to have the second highest quality.
Green packaging was perceived to have satisfactory quality and the purple, blue
and yellow packaging was perceived by the participants to have the poorest
quality. Despite the quality judgments of good and poor, participants considered
all packaging design colors to be Of satisfactory quality (Table 5). The
participants perceived the orange packaging to have little difference between
good and satisfactory quality. The data also showed that participants used
packaging color to formulate information regarding bacon-ﬂavored potato rings
quality because participants were given the Opportunity to ignore forming an

Opinion regarding quality by selecting can’t be determined.

84

Table 5. Bacon-flavored potato rings Packaging Expected Quality

Red I 1
Yellow I 3

Blue I3
14
Green I3
I3

 

Data showed participants made judgments about how visible each
packaging was from the Shelf. Participants determined the red packaging had the
strongest Shelf visibility, the blue packaging the second strongest Shelf visibility.
The orange, green, and purple red packaging was perceived to have moderate
visibility, and the yellow packaging was determined to have the worst shelf
visibility (Table 6). However, participants perceived the orange and green

packaging to have little difference between good and moderate Shelf visibility.

Table 6. Bacon-flavored potato rings Packaging Shelf Impact

Red ' 7
Yellow 1 1

Blue 13
I9
Green I8
13

 

When asked which shaving powder they would like to receive a free six-month

supply participants selected blue most, and orange and green the least (Table 7).

85

Table 7. Bacon-flavored potato rings Packaging Purchase Intent

Yellim Blue Orange Green Purple

 

 

Toothpowder Packaging Results. Participants were asked to form quality
judgments based on individual packaging color. The data indicated the blue
packaging was perceived by participants to have the highest quality, the green
packaging was perceived to have the second highest quality. Red packaging was
perceived to have satisfactory quality and the yellow, orange and purple
packaging was perceived by the participants to have the poorest quality. Despite
the quality judgments of good and poor, participants considered all packaging

design colors with the exception of yellow to be of satisfactory quality (Table 8).

Table 8. Toothpowder Packaging Expected Quality

Red

Yellow
Blue

Green

 

The participants perceived the red and purple packaging to have little difference
between good and satisfactory quality. The data also showed that participants

used packaging color to formulate information regarding toothpowder quality

86

because participants were given the opportunity to ignore forming an opinion
regarding quality by selecting can’t be determined.

Data showed participants made judgments about how visible each
packaging was from the Shelf. Participants determined the blue packaging had
the strongest shelf visibility, the green packaging the second strongest shelf
visibility. The orange packaging was perceived to have moderate visibility, and
the yellow packaging was determined to have the worst shelf visibility (Table 9).
However, participants perceived the orange and green packaging to have little

difference between good and moderate shelf visibility.

Table 9. Toothpowder Packaging Shelf Impact

Red

Yellow
Blue

Green

 

When asked which shaving powder they would like to receive a free six-month

supply participants selected blue most, and red and purple the least (Table 10).

Table 10. Toothpowder Packaging Purchase Intent

Ycllim Blue Orange (ireen Purple

 

 

87

Spray-on Pantyhose Packaging Results. Participants were asked to
form quality judgments based on individual packaging color. The data indicated
the orange packaging was perceived by participants to have the highest quality,
the blue and red packaging was perceived to have the second highest quality.
Purple packaging was perceived to have satisfactory quality and the yellow and
green packaging was perceived by the participants to have the poorest quality.
Despite the quality judgments of good and poor, participants considered all

packaging design colors to be of satisfactory quality (Table 11).

Table 11. Spray-on pantyhose Packaging Expected Quality

Red
Yellow
Blue

Green

 

The participants perceived the red packaging to have no difference between
good and moderate visibility. The participants perceived the yellow and blue
packaging to have little difference between good and satisfactory quality. The
data also showed that participants used packaging color to formulate information
regarding spray-on pantyhose quality because participants were given the
opportunity to ignore forming an opinion regarding quality by selecting can’t be

determined.

88

Data showed participants made judgments about how visible each
packaging was from the shelf. Participants determined the red packaging had the
strongest shelf visibility, the blue packaging the second strongest shelf visibility.
The orange, green, and purple red packaging was perceived to have moderate
visibility, and the yellow packaging was determined to have the worst Shelf

visibility (Table 12).

Table 12. Spray-on pantyhose Packaging Shelf Impact

Red

Yellow
Blue

Green

 

However, participants perceived the orange and green packaging to have little
difference between good and moderate shelf visibility. When asked which
shaving powder they would like to receive a free Six-month supply participants

selected orange most, and orange and green the least (Table 13).

Table 13. Spray-on pantyhose Packaging Purchase Intent

Yellow Blue Orange Green Purple

 

 

89

Red Packaging Color Results. Participants perceived the red potato rings
packaging to have the best quality (Table 14). The red toothpowder packaging
was perceived to have the second best quality. Although participants made good
and poor quality judgments, the shaving powder, bacon-ﬂavored potato rings,
toothpowder, and spray-on pantyhose packaging were perceived to have

satisfactory quality.

Table 14. Red Packaging Expected Quality

Shaving
Powder
Potato

T
Spray-On

Total

 

The red bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging was perceived to have the best
shelf impact. The Spray—on pantyhose packaging was perceived by participants
as having the second best Shelf impact (Table 15). Although participants made
specific judgments regarding shelf visibility, there was little difference between

moderate and good shelf visibility for the toothpowder and spray-on pantyhose

packaging.

90

Table 15. Red Packaging Shelf Impact

 

 

 

 

 

 

Good Moderate Poor
Product
Shaving I I I6 [2
Powder
Potato 29 7 3
Rings
Toothpowder l 8 l 7 4
Spray-On 19 l 7 3
Pantyhose
Total 77 57 22

 

 

 

 

 

Participants selected the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging most for their

free six-month supply (Table 16).

Table 16. Red Packaging Purchase Intent

Shaving Potato Rings Toothpowder Spray-On

Powder Pantyhose

 

 

Yellow Packaging Color Results. Participants did not perceive any yellow
packaging to have good quality. The yellow shaving powder packaging was
perceived to have satisfactory quality (Table 17). The toothpowder packaging

was perceived to have poor quality.

91

Table 17. Yellow Packaging Expected Quality

Shaving
Powder

Potato

T
Spray-On

 

Total

Participants did not perceive any yellow packaging to have good Shelf impact.
However, a few participants perceived the yellow bacon-ﬂavored potato rings

packaging had moderate shelf impact (Table 18).

Table 18. Yellow Packaging Shelf Impact

Shaving
Powder
Potato

T
Spray-On

Total

 

Participants selected the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging and the shaving
powder packaging most for their free six-month supply (Table 19). Of the

participants who selected to receive yellow packaging some stated. “it’s really

92

bright and when you think of your teeth you want them to be bright and white as

well" and “yellow reminds me of the golden crispness of potatoes."

Table 19. Yellow Packaging Purchase Intent

Shining Potato Rings ’l‘oolhpoodcr SPWF'OH

Powder Pant) hose

 

 

Blue Packaging Color Results. Participants perceived the toothpowder
packaging had the best quality and the shaving powder packaging had the
second best perceived quality. The spray—on pantyhose packaging shared a
perception of good, satisfactory, and poor quality equally. The bacon—ﬂavored

potato rings packaging was perceived to have the poorest quality (Table 20).

Table 20. Blue

    

Shaving
Powder
Potato

T 'der
Spray—On
Pantyhose

Participants perceived the toothpowder packaging to have the best shelf impact.

However, the shaving powder packaging, spray-on pantyhose packaging, and

93

bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging were also perceived to have good shelf
impact (Table 21). Participants selected the toothpowder packaging and the

shaving powder packaging most for their free six-month supply (Table 22).

Table 21. Blue Packaging Shelf Impact

Shay i n g
Powder
Potato

T
Spray-On

Total

Shming Potato Rings 'l‘oothpoorler Sl)ra_\-()n
Po“ der Pant )llose

 

 

Orange Packaging Color Results. Some participants perceived the bacon-
ﬂavored potato rings packaging had the best quality and the spray-on pantyhose
packaging had the second best quality. However, participants in general
perceived the shaving powder packaging had satisfactory quality. Although
participants perceived the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging had good
quality, there was little contrast between good and satisfactory quality perception.

The toothpowder packaging was perceived to have the poorest quality (Table

94

23). Participants perceived both the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging and

the spray-on pantyhose packaging had the best shelf impact. However, the

toothpowder packaging was perceived to have moderate shelf impact.

Participants perceived no contrast between good and moderate for the bacon-

ﬂavored potato rings packaging shelf impact (Table 24). Participants selected the

spray—on pantyhose packaging most for their free six—month supply (Table 25).

Table 23. Orange Packaging Expected Quality

Shaving
Powder

Potato

T
Spray—On

Total

 

Table 24. Orange Packaging Shelf Impact

Shaving
Powder
Potato

T
Spray-On

Total

 

95‘

Table 25. Orange Packaging Purchase Intent

Shaving Potato Rings 'l‘oothponder Spray-On

Powder Pantyhose

 

 

Green Packaging Color Results. Participants perceived the toothpowder
packaging had the best quality. The shaving powder packaging was perceived to
have satisfactory quality. The participants perceived no contrast between
satisfactory and low quality for the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging. The
spray-on pantyhose packaging was perceived to have the poorest quality (Table

26).

Table 26. Green Packaging Expected Quality

Shaving
Po\\ der
Potato

T 'der
Spray-On

Total

 

Participants perceived the toothpowder packaging had the best shelf impact.
However, the shaving powder packaging and the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings
packaging was perceived to have minimum contrast between good and moderate
shelf impact (Table 27). Participants selected the toothpowder packaging most

for their free six-month supply (Table 28).

96

Table 27. Green Packaging Shelf Impact

Shaving
Powder
Potato

T
Spray—On

Total

ShaVing Potato Rings Toothpooder Spray-On
Powder Pant ) hose

 

 

Purple Packaging Color Results. Participants overall did not perceive
purple packaging had good quality. Some participants perceived the spray-on
pantyhose packaging had good quality although an equal number of participants
perceived the same packaging had poor quality. However, participants perceived
all packaging had satisfactory quality. The shaving powder packaging was
perceived to have the poorest quality (Table 29). Participants perceived the
spray-on pantyhose packaging had the best shelf impact. The shaving powder
packaging and the bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging was perceived second
and third for good shelf impact. However, the toothpowder packaging was

perceived to have no contrast between good and moderate shelf impact (Table

97

30). Participants selected the shaving powder packaging most for their free six-

month supply and the spray-on pantyhose packaging second (Table 31).

Table 29. Purple Packaging Expected Quality

Shaving
Ponder

Potato

T
Spra)r‘—()n
‘hosc

Total

 

Table 30. Purple

 

Shelf Impact

     

Shav i n g
Powder
Potato

T

Spray-On
Palm hose
Total

Table 31. Purple Packaging Purchase Intent

Shaving Potato Rings
Powder

'l‘oothpoo (ler

Spray-0n
Pantyhose

 

98

Discussion of Data

The results of this exploratory study addressed the central research question
(Do packaging colors inﬂuence consumer decision-making and the intent to
purchase?) and showed that consumers do in fact utilize packaging color to
make purchase decisions. Without prior knowledge of the products used in the
study, participants formed perceptions regarding expected quality and ease of
use for each product category (shaving powder, bacon-ﬂavored potato rings,
tooth powder, spray-on pantyhose) when “can’t be determined” was a response
option on the questionnaire.

More specifically, the study results addressed RQ1: Does the color of
surface graphics on packaging increase shelf impact? Data indicated there
was a difference in shelf visibility when surface graphics color on packaging
varied. Of all the packaging colors, participants perceived blue had the best shelf
impact and yellow had the poorest shelf impact. The data indicated a color
change within the same product category had an effect on shelf visibility. Within
the product category of shaving powder participants determined the blue
packaging was significantly more visible from the shelf than the purple, green,
orange, and red packaging (Table 32). The shaving powder packaging graphics
were identical with the exception of color (see Appendix D, Figure 9). Within the
product category of bacon—flavored potato rings participants determined the blue
packaging was significantly more visible from the shelf than the red, yellow,
purple, green, and orange packaging (Table 6). The bacon-ﬂavored potato rings

packaging graphics were identical with the exception of color (see Appendix

99

Figure 10). Within the product category of toothpowder participants determined
the blue and green packaging were most visible from the shelf than the red,

purple, orange, and yellow packaging.

Table 32. Shelf Impact by Color

Red 77 57
Yellow 75 28

Blue 1 s 39
59 74
Green 72 6]
70 51

 

The toothpowder packaging graphics were identical with the exception of color
(see Appendix D, Figure 11). Within the product category of spray-on pantyhose
participants determined the blue packaging was signiﬁcantly more visible than
the purple, red, orange, green, and yellow packaging (Table 12). The spray-on
pantyhose packaging graphics were identical with the exception of color (see
Appendix D, Figure 12).

Of the six packaging colors (red, yellow, blue, orange, green, and purple),
participants determined blue packaging had the best shelf impact and yellow
packaging had the poorest shelf impact. Data indicated that the product makes a
difference in color preference. Red and blue were selected most often for good
shelf impact, good quality, and intent to purchase. However, when red was

applied to toothpowder the intent to purchase was minimal (Table 33).

100

Table 33. Intent to Purchase by Color

 

 

 

 

 

 

Red Yellow Blue Orange Green Purple
Product PurChaSC Purchase Purchase Purchase Purchase Purchase
Intent Intent Intent Intent Intent Intent
Shaving 4 5 l7 3 3 7
Powder
Potato I 7 5 7 7 2 1
Rings
Toothpowder l 3 l 9 2 l 3 l
Spray-On 9 2 8 I l I 6
Pantyhose
Total 31 15 51 23 19 15

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The results of this exploratory study also indicated that capturing the
attention of the consumer does not mean the consumer intends to purchase the
product that grabbed their attention. One participant responded that the green
spray-on pantyhose packaging grabbed their attention because “I thought how
odd to have a green package. The colors on the boxes should reﬂect the color
that would spray on your legs.” The color may have grabbed the attention of the
participant for some other reason (color does not match the product) not
associated with purchase intent. Participants selected the blue spray-on
pantyhose packaging as the color packaging that grabbed their attention most
(Table 12) but opted to receive the orange spray-on pantyhose packaging for the
free six-month supply (Table 13). Asking participants which product they would
prefer to receive a free six-month supply of is a stronger indicator of purchase
intent than simply asking participants which product would you buy. In other
words, if a product is noticed from a shelf, this noticeability is not a reliable

indicator of purchase intent. Participants also indicated that product association

lOI

 

inﬂuenced the shelf impact of packaging color. For example, a participant stated
the red bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging grabbed their attention because
“red and potato seemed like a natural fit.” Another participant responded to the
shelf impact of the yellow toothpowder packaging with “it’s really bright and when
you think of your teeth you want them to be bright and white as well.” The
packaging color may garner attention from the consumer however, if the
packaging color does not fit the preconceived product association or product
benefit then the packaging color is not an inﬂuence on consumer purchase intent.
The results of this study also addressed R02: Does the color of surface
graphics on packaging influence perceived product quality? Data indicated
surface graphic colors did inﬂuence the consumer’s perception of product quality.
Of all the packaging colors, participants perceived blue and red to reﬂect the best
product quality and yellow to reﬂect the poorest product quality. Within the
product category of shaving powder participants perceived the blue packaging
reﬂected the highest quality above the red, green, orange, purple, and yellow

packaging (Table 34).

Table 34. Perceived Product Quality By Color

Red
Yellow

Blue
Oran e

Green
Pu Ie

 

102

Within the product category of bacon-ﬂavored potato rings participants perceived
the red packaging reﬂected the best quality above the orange, green, yellow,
blue, and purple packaging (Table 5). Within the product category of toothpowder
participants perceived the blue packaging displayed the best quality above the
green, red, purple, yellow, and orange packaging (Table 8). Within the product
category of spray-on pantyhose participants perceived the orange packaging to
exhibit the best quality above the blue, red, purple, green, and yellow packaging
(Table 11). The results indicated participants made quality judgments regarding
each packaging color within each product category when “can’t determine” was a
response option on the questionnaire.

The data also indicated participants used packaging color to obtain
information about the expected performance or beneﬁt of the product. Some
participants made responses that indicated quality judgments (when asked why
they would prefer to receive a free six-month supply) regarding the red bacon-
flavored potato rings packaging with “seems like a trustworthy product,” “they
(Bacon-ﬂavored Potato Rings) just seem like they would taste better.” Some
participants indicated good quality judgments regarding the blue toothpowder
packaging with “looks expensive” and “would get my teeth clean” when asked
why they preferred to receive a free six-month supply of the blue toothpowder
packaging. Another participant explained their six-month free supply preference
by stating “I want the blue one because I predict that just as it stands out from the

others on the shelf in looks, it will do the same in performance.”

I03

Data indicated the inference of product quality made by participants was
based on packaging color. The packaging used in this study did not contain any
visual or textual information that would indicate quality (see Appendix D, ﬁgures 9
through 12). The textural information on the packaging was: product name,
content weight, ingredients, nutrition information if applicable, and instructions for
use. The textural information included on the packaging was specific to each
product category and the information on the packaging was identical within each
product category. Thus rendering the packaging within each product category
identical except for color. The results of this exploratory study indicated
participants formed quality judgments about each product that lead to product
performance expectations based on the packaging color.

This study addressed R03: Does the color of surface graphics on
packaging serve as a cue for product information that inﬂuences purchase
intent? The data indicated that surface graphics color (extrinsic cues) provided
product information that inﬂuenced consumer purchase intent. Participants were
forced to rely on the surface graphics color of each unfamiliar product category to
gather information (perceived ease of use of a product, perceived product
quality) that might inﬂuence purchase intent. Although not asked on the
questionnaire, some participants formed expectations regarding shaving powder
and spray-on pantyhose performance solely based on packaging color. In
reaction to the red shaving powder packaging a participant responded: “red, I
think it’s going to burn.” When asked why a particular color packaging was

selected for a free six-month supply a participant responded with “the bright color

104

of the yellow packaging, I predict will correspond to the golden crispness of the
bacon ﬂavored potato snacks.” Additional product judgments formed by
participants based on surface graphics color as a cue for product information
included “the color (blue) seems to ﬁt the product better so it seems like it would

nu

work better,” “product is fresh, product is worth trying due to packaging,”
“probably has a nice scent,” and “packaging means mint ﬂavor.” The intrinsic
cues (ingredients, net weight, nutrition information) remained constant, forcing
the participants to rely on packaging color. Results indicated packaging color
inﬂuenced participants by assisting with the formulation of judgments regarding
product quality, product performance, and intent to purchase.

Overall, the hygiene products (shaving powder and toothpowder) in blue
packaging were perceived as having the better quality, highest shelf visibility, and
the highest intent to purchase. The visibility for blue pantyhose packaging was
the highest but the intent to purchase was highest for orange spray-on pantyhose
packaging. The visibility for the purple spray-on pantyhose packaging was
slightly lower than the visibility for the blue spray-on pantyhose packaging.
However, the purple spray-on pantyhose packaging had the lowest intent to
purchase. The red bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging was perceived to have
the highest quality and highest intent to purchase. The red bacon-ﬂavored potato
rings packaging also was perceived to have the highest shelf visibility the blue
bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging ranked 3 close second for having high

shelf visibility. In other words, high shelf impact (visibility) does not guarantee

consumer intent to purchase.

When the data was collapsed to reﬂect each packaging color of all products,
intent to purchase was most associated with blue, then red packaging and was
least associated with yellow packaging (Table 33). The overwhelming intent to
purchase blue packaging was potentially inﬂuenced by the two personal hygiene
product categories (shaving powder and toothpowder). Research has shown blue
is associated with cool, water, and cleanliness (Russell 1990) and as a result a
well known laundry detergent once employed the phrase “with added bluing for
extra whiteness” in their marketing & advertising. Since traditional color
associations have encouraged the use of certain colors as well as discouraged
the use of others especially in the market place yellow traditionally associated
with cowardliness may have inﬂuenced participants’ intent to purchase products
in yellow packaging. Participants may have formed the assumption that the
yellow packaging products were inferior, weak in performance and expected
quality.

Participants determined the blue packaging had the best shelf impact (Table
21), green packaging received notable responses (Table 27), and yellow was
perceived to have the poorest shelf impact (Table 18). The color blue’s ability to
be highly visible against a white background allowed the blue packaging to be
more noticeable from the shelf. The color green also contrasted well against a
white background. Yellow does not contrast well against a white background. In
fact, when yellow lettering appears on a white background the lettering

disappears when viewed from a distance.

106

Red and blue packaging garnered the highest perceived quality (Table 14
and Table 20). Yellow packaging was perceived to have the poorest expected
quality (Table 17). As stated earlier, the color blue was positively associated with
hygiene products and the color blue contrasted well with the white background
that rendered blue packaging high shelf impact. Hence the positive color
association and high shelf impact may have inﬂuenced the participants’
perception of quality of blue packaging. The color red is traditionally associated
with excitement, heat, anger, powerful, happiness (Schaie and Heiss 1964).
However color is also associated with products in the marketplace. The color red
is best associated with the product category of bacon-ﬂavored potato rings.
Common color associations often function as logic in the marketplace. Some
participants responded with “red is the color that is closet to the color of bacon”
and another participant stated “I like it when the package approximates the
contents. I don’t want purple bacon. The red is natural.” This product association
of red with bacon suggested the other colors of bacon-ﬂavored potato rings
packaging would taste less like bacon. The color association with yellow (weak,
inferior) and the poor shelf impact may have inﬂuenced the participants’
perception of quality of yellow packaging with the assumption that products in
yellow packaging perform poorly or exhibit little benefit of product use.

Attitudes Toward Packaging Color and Intent to Purchase

To further examine the data as part of this exploratory study, the data

collected was collapsed to reﬂect attitudes participants formed regarding

packaging color since consumers purchase products to improve mood and

l07

attitude (Pare 2001; Prior 2003). The questionnaire (Appendix C) responses of
“excellent quality” and “good quality,” “very good shelf visibility ” and “good shelf
visibility,” “highly likely to purchase” and “likely to purchase,” were collapsed to
reﬂect a positive attitude toward product quality, shelf visibility and likelihood of
purchase. The questionnaire responses of “satisfactory quality,” “moderate
visibility,” “maybe purchase,” were collapsed to reﬂect a neutral attitude towards
product quality, shelf visibility, and likelihood of purchase. The questionnaire
responses of “low quality” and “poor quality,” “poor shelf visibility” and “very poor
shelf visibility,” and “may be not purchase” and “not likely to purchase” were
collapsed to reﬂect a negative attitude towards product quality, shelf visibility, and
likelihood of purchase. The questionnaire response of “can’t be determined” was
collapsed to reﬂect participants had no attitude towards product quality and
product ease of use. Research has shown that a consumer’s attitude toward a
product or an advertisement has the potential to inﬂuence purchase decisions
(Granger and Billson 1972; Peter and Olson 1999).

Shaving Powder. Data in tables 2 through 4 were collapsed to conclude the
participants reﬂected a positive attitude toward the blue shaving powder
packaging when forming perceptions regarding quality, likelihood of purchase,
and shelf visibility. The collapsed data showed the participants reﬂected a neutral
attitude towards the red, yellow, orange, and green shaving powder packaging in
all three areas of product quality, likelihood of purchase, and shelf impact. The

collapsed data reﬂected a negative attitude formed by participants towards the

likelihood of purchase and shelf impact of the purple shaving powder packaging.

I08

For some product categories (neutraceuticals36, cosmetics, perfume, personal
hygiene) the consumer is purchasing an image not just the product (Hilton 2005).
When considering packaging design consideration must be given to the color
blue as a dominant color for hygiene products because the color blue was
associated with being clean which may be an expectation of the consumer. This
association may suggest well groomed.

Bacon-Flavored Potato Rings. The collapsed data from tables 5 through 7
indicated participants reﬂected a positive attitude toward the quality, likelihood of
purchase, and the shelf visibility of red bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging.
The participants indicated a negative attitude toward the blue bacon-ﬂavored
potato rings packaging regarding the likelihood of purchase despite the indication
of a positive attitude toward the blue bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging
regarding shelf visibility. The yellow bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging
garnered a negative attitude from participants when forming perceptions
regarding product quality, likelihood of purchase, and shelf visibility. Data
indicated that the blue packaging shelf impact was received with a positive
attitude. However, highly visible packaging did not guarantee consumers would
purchase the product. Product associations should be considered when
designing packaging. Although different colors are entertained in an attempt to
“break through the clutter” with packaging design consumers used the packaging
to help with decision-making and desired to see packaging resemble the product

or the benefits of using the product.

 

3" refers to nutrition products such as vitamins, weight loss aids, energy supplements and herbal

health remedies that are not regulated by the USFDA

109

Toothpowder. The collapsed data from tables 8 through 10 indicated
participants reﬂected a positive attitude toward the blue toothpowder packaging
when forming perceptions of product quality, likelihood of purchase, and shelf
visibility. The green toothpowder packaging garnered enough response to reﬂect
a positive attitude toward shelf visibility. The yellow toothpowder packaging
garnered a negative attitude from participants when forming perceptions
regarding product quality, likelihood of purchase, and shelf visibility. Like shaving
powder, toothpowder fell under the category of a neutraceutical and the
consumer is purchasing an image in addition to the product. Blue packaging was
viewed positively because the color blue associates the product or beneﬁt of
using the product as clean, well groomed. For toothpowder the color green was
also received positively due to the association of the color green and mint. Mint
has become a standard association for fresh breath. When designing packaging
consider the color blue or green for the dominant color. Other colors (red, yellow,
orange) may be used to emphasize a certain feature or attribute. During a recent
survey of dental care products one well known brand used blue as the dominant
color on the packaging but used red to reﬂect cinnamon ﬂavor and orange to
reﬂect a citrus ﬂavor.

Spray-on Pantyhose. The orange spray-on pantyhose packaging indicated
the participants formed positive attitudes toward likelihood of purchase and
perceived quality. The blue and purple spray-on pantyhose packaging reﬂected a
positive attitude by participants respectively regarding shelf visibility. The yellow

spray-on pantyhose packaging reﬂected an extremely negative attitude in

110

regards to product quality, likelihood of purchase, and shelf visibility. As indicated
earlier highly visible packaging does not guarantee consumers will purchase the
product. Product associations should be considered when designing packaging
especially cosmetics. It was apparent that consumers viewed spray-on
pantyhose as a product to improve image. Especially with image improving
products the dominant color used on packaging design should reﬂect the product

performance, the image, or the benefits of using the product.

II]

CHAPTER NINE

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summary of an investigation of
packaging design color and its influence on consumer intent to purchase as well
as present ideas for future research regarding packaging color, packaging design
and the inﬂuence on consumer intent to purchase.

The objective of this research was to create a benchmark study exploratory
in nature that synthesized color, packaging design37, and advertising as an
inﬂuence on consumer decision-making as an introductory mean of investigating
packaging design as the new advertising. The purpose of this objective was to
investigate the influence of packaging design color on consumer purchase intent.
This study focused on packaging design from a communication aspect not an
engineering aspect. More specifically this research investigated the use of
packaging color as a cue.

This study was driven by the general research question: Do packaging colors
(extrinsic cues) inﬂuence consumer decision-making and the intent to purchase?
This experimental study was created to explore the following research questions
to address the general research question: R01: Does the color of surface
graphics on packaging significantly increase shelf impact (visibility)? R02: Does

the color of surface graphics on packaging significantly inﬂuence perceived

 

37 “The combination of materials, structure, typography, imagery, color and other visual design
components for the purposes of communicating the marketing objectives and strategies of a
particular brand or product” (Klimchuk 2004).

I12

product quality? R03: Does the color of surface graphics on packaging serve as
a cue for product information that inﬂuences purchase intent?

Red packaging was indicated to reﬂect a positive attitude on perceived
product quality, shelf visibility, and ease of use despite an indication of a negative
attitude toward the likelihood of purchase. Yellow packaging was indicated to
reﬂect a negative attitude toward perceived quality, likelihood of purchase, shelf
visibility, and product ease of use. Blue packaging was indicated to reﬂect an
extremely positive attitude toward shelf visibility despite an indication of a
negative attitude toward the likelihood of purchase. The blue packaging also was
indicated to reﬂect a positive attitude toward perceived product quality and
product ease of use. Orange packaging was indicated to reﬂect a positive
attitude toward shelf visibility in despite of the indication of a negative attitude
towards perceived product quality, likelihood of purchase, and product ease of
use. Green packaging was indicated to reﬂect a positive attitude toward shelf
visibility, and product ease of use, despite an indication of a negative attitude
toward the likelihood of purchase. Green packaging also equally indicated a
reﬂection of a positive and negative attitude toward product perceived quality.
Purple packaging was indicated to reﬂect a positive attitude toward shelf visibility
despite an indication of a negative attitude toward product perceived quality,
likelihood of purchase, and product ease of use.

Participants expressed in an open-ended question why one color of
packaging caught their attention most as well as why one particular color of

packaging was selected to receive a free six-month supply. Participants

responded most often with “color stands out” regarding why the color packaging
that caught their attention. When asked why a particular color packaging was
selected for a free six-month supply (an indication of purchase intent) participants
responded most often with “I like that color” and “it's my favorite color.” Research
indicates that a preferred color is not a reﬂection that an individual would prefer
his or her entire environment to be saturated with this preferred color but that
preferred color has a special meaning to the individual in comparison with other
colors (Sharpe 1974). It is plausible that a “favorite color” preference may not be
associated with a product but something more personal and all together
unrelated.

In summary, the results indicated blue and red packaging were most likely to
be purchased than yellow, orange, green, and purple packaging. Yellow
packaging was the least likely to be purchased. Furthermore, yellow packaging
was perceived to have the poorest quality, the poorest shelf visibility, and its
contents were perceived difficult to use. The results of this study also indicated
that product associations had an inﬂuence on the intent to purchase. Various
types of products are often associated with certain colors. For example, red is
associated with meat products (bacon, beef) and blue is often associated with
hygiene and cleaning products. Product associations are developed through
repetitious relationships with products and the colors that best represent them.
For example, one participant responded to the red bacon-ﬂavored potato rings
packaging with “red is the color that is closet to the color of bacon” and another

participant stated “I like it when the package approximates the contents. I don’t

II4

want purple bacon. The red is natural.” Although red was indicated overall as a
packaging color most likely to be purchased, it was the color packaging least
likely to be purchased for toothpowder. It can be assumed that product
association inﬂuenced the intent to purchase because red is not a color normally
associated with clean and teeth. Perhaps color association and product
association inﬂuenced the intent to purchase due to the nature of one color
appearing on the packaging. With a single color dominating the packaging
participants were likely inﬂuenced by “it is my favorite color” or “it is the color of
bacon.” In the marketplace it is a common practice to use more than one color on
packaging therefore minimizing the dominance of one color on the packaging.
During a recent informal survey of supermarket shelves, more speciﬁcally dental
hygiene products showed orange, yellow, purple, green, red, and blue on the
packaging. The colors red and blue appeared most often and were most
prominent on the packaging and the colors orange, yellow, purple, and green
were used in a secondary or descriptive nature (such as green to suggest mint).
The red was depicting the color of the cinnamon-ﬂavored toothpaste therefore it
was not the only color appearing on the toothpaste packaging. This study also
indicated that product associations have an inﬂuence on the intent to purchase.
Although red was indicated overall as a packaging color most likely to be
purchased, in the case of the toothpowder red was the color packaging least
likely to be purchased. It can be concluded that red is not a color normally

associated with clean and teeth by consumers.

IIS

Another factor that may have inﬂuenced the intent to purchase is culture.
The intent to purchase the green bacon-ﬂavored potato rings packaging was low
however, a participant from Asia responded with an intent to purchase the green
bacon—ﬂavored potato rings packaging because “it looked like a more healthy
product.” Another participant from Asia preferred to receive a free six-month
supply of the yellow shaving powder because “shaving powder is something for
cleanness and yellow color gives me the idea of cleanness so I have more
expectation and interest in yellow packaging.”

The results of this exploratory study indicated packaging colors do inﬂuence
consumer decision-making and consumer purchase intent. The results showed
consumers receive information regarding a product from the packaging that
assists with the decision-making process. When consumers are faced with a
multitude of product choices, especially in an unfamiliar product category, the
packaging is a source of information. Color provides information to the consumer
that assists with individual inference of quality and product performance,
therefore inﬂuencing consumer purchase intent. Overall, packaging color did
inﬂuence the intent to purchase. However, other inﬂuences such as product
association and culture also must be considered as an inﬂuence on the intent to
purchase. A participant preferred the yellow bacon-ﬂavored packaging because
“the yellow coloring reminds me of snack type foods like potato chips.” One
participant’s prior experience with a product and its color association may have
inﬂuenced her intent to purchase. When asked why a particular color packaging

was selected for a free six-month supply the participant replied, “blue is a

116

soothing color... I’ve had bad experiences with Nair® and it was in a hyper-pink
bottle.” A few participants indicated that purple is gender speciﬁc in the case of
the spray-on pantyhose with the responses “it is girly for a girl’s product” and “it’s
(purple) a more feminine color.” Traditional color associations have long
indicated that pink is the color for girls and blue is the color for boys. Perhaps
with the broadening of gender roles in American society comes the broadening of
color associations. It can be concluded that the results of this exploratory
research indicated a need for further research investigating the inﬂuence of
packaging color on consumer purchase intent.

It can be concluded that best perceived product quality, best shelf impact,
and the highest purchase intent marketers and manufacturers should consider
packaging with blue or red dominant color. The dominant color should also
associate with the product. For another conclusion the color yellow should be
discouraged as a dominant packaging color. The results indicated yellow had the
poorest perceived product quality, the poorest shelf impact, and the lowest
purchase intent.

Marketers more often link color associations to the product and not
psychological associations (Torn, Barnett, Lew, and Selmants 1987). Yet, in
academia, the practice of using traditional psychological color associations in
academic research is continued. The results of this research should serve as an
indicator for change. It would benefit the marketplace if consumer behavior
academic research would investigate and evaluate the shopping behavior using

current marketing tactics that would allow marketers to employ their academic

117

findings. The marketplace would also benefit from academic research using
product associations because this inclusion could be incorporated into textbooks
and articles (a result of academic research) that often appear on course syllabi in
institutions of higher learning. The preparedness of the next generation workforce
is a direct reﬂection of the numerous academic studies conducted and a direct
reﬂection of the success of the United Sates and global economy.

This study stands to add to the limited body of knowledge regarding
packaging color inﬂuence on consumer decision-making and the intent to
purchase. This exploratory study brings a unique perspective because of the
three-dimensional stimuli used to collect data. Previous studies investigating
packaging design and its inﬂuence on consumer purchase intent used stimulus
books and a virtual shopping computer program. Although this is a benchmark
study, and additional research in packaging color and consumer intent to
purchase needs to be conducted, this study lends support to the notion that
consumers are more influenced by color and product association than traditional
psychological color associations.

This exploratory study as well as future studies indicated a major beneﬁt for
marketing, packaging design, graphic design, and advertising professional to
loosen their strongholds on traditional psychological color associations. Specific
color and product associations have the potential to increase brand loyalty with
the consumer as well as further personalize the branding experience. The
popular belief that market share is the core of branding strategies is shifting to

“mind and emotions share” (Gobé 2001). Gobé deﬁnes emotional branding as

118

providing the means to connecting with the consumer in an emotionally profound
manner in addition to focusing on the human characteristic of transcending
material satisfaction and experience emotional fulfillment (Gobé 2001). Studies
have indicated that consumers maintain an emotional attachment to packaging ,
(Gobé 2001). As a result of improved printing technologies, packaging has
reached a new level of design expression and continues to support the new role
of packaging as the “new advertising”.

Educators, of marketing, packaging design, graphic design, and advertising
can also benefit from the results of this study by loosening their strongholds on
traditional psychological color associations in their curriculum and encouraging
the use of product and color associations.

This study indicated as well as supported the burgeoning notion that color
associations in marketing are more closely associated with the product and color
associations need to be developed specifically for marketing purposes. Creating
relationships between color and products resulting in color associations
specifically for marketing should be the emphasis of future color association and
purchase behavior studies. Future research regarding color associations should
examine culture and racial identity to discover similarities and differences.
Another population segment of study should be age. Previous studies have
indicated that children, teens, and adults have different color associations.
Therefore, future studies should concentrate on developing color and product

associations that specifically address each age group.

119

As the popularity of “packaging as the new advertising” develops, it
behooves the academic researchers and the professional marketing industry to
continue to investigate the inﬂuence of packaging design on consumer decision-
making and ultimately, the consumer intent to purchase.

Future Research

This exploratory study has inspired additional research in the area of
packaging color as an inﬂuence on purchase intent. Future research will include
a qualitative research method regarding the inﬂuence of packaging design color
on the intent to purchase. Future research will include the investigation of the
inﬂuence of packaging design color using color combinations of two or more
colors on the packaging to investigate the inﬂuence of color combinations on the
intent to purchase. Additional research will be conducted to begin to develop
color associations used speciﬁcally for marketing thus reducing the reliance upon
traditional color associations. This study has also indicated a need to investigate
the color associations with objects and how those associations inﬂuence
consumer purchase intent. Overall, this exploratory research has indicated a
need for future research that investigates the inﬂuence packaging design shape,
color, and texture has on the consumer intent to purchase and the effect it has on

product sales, market share, and proﬁts.

Limitations of the Study
With this study being unique to its counterparts and solely exploratory in

nature there were elements of this study that could be modiﬁed for future

120

research. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to elements of the study if
changed, would have created different outcomes of the study.

Participants. The reliance upon university students created a majority of
participants between the ages of 17 and 22 although a viable target for studying
shopping behavior, this limited the overall ability to generalize the ﬁndings to a
population of consumers. The time of year had an impact on data collection. Data
was collected during the second half of the summer semester when the number
of students attending class were at its lowest. It was also believed that the time of
year was inﬂuential in the lack of commitment to participate in the study. It is
believed with a more diverse age range the overall ability to generalize to a
population of consumers would have a great impact on the importance of
research of packaging design as the “new advertising.” Recruiting off campus is
a consideration in addition to finding another location that better reﬂects a
supermarket for future research.

Stimulus. Creating surface graphics and assembling packaging manually
absorbed a considerable amount of time. Thus the notion of creating a mock
supermarket shelf was unrealistic for this particular study. The chosen location’s
shelf system did not allow for multiple packages of the bacon-ﬂavored potato
rings due to the packaging size and therefore would create an asymmetrical
product shelf. It is believed that an asymmetrical shelf balance would bias
product perceptions. The manual production of the surface graphics also
presented challenges with color matching. Relying on the color accuracy of an

inkjet printer did not provide accurate color representation. Some PMS colors

selected on screen printed poorly. Problematic PMS colors were abandoned and
colors were selected based on the printed inkjet color and the match to the
perceived primary and secondary colors. Using a professional printing press with
direct printing on the packaging is the ideal production method for creating the
stimulus for this study.

As a result of these limitations, it is believed that ﬁnding a lab setting that is
permanently configured to mimic a supermarket shopping experience to conduct
this study would provide strong support for packaging as the “new advertising”
and add to the growing notion that packaging design has more inﬂuence on
consumer purchase intent than advertising.

Questionnaire and Data. With this study being exploratory in nature, a
qualitative method may have provided richer data. Although there were open-
ended questions on the survey, the data presented and discussed was
descriptively statistical. Since it has been indicated that in marketing, color
associations are more commonly linked to the product, not psychological
associations (Tom, Barnett, Lew, and Selmants 1987) delving into product
associations and the emotional connection between the product and the
consumer with interviews and ethnographies coupled with a questionnaire would
provide more in depth information regarding the inﬂuence packaging color has
the consumer intent to purchase.

Since the data was collapsed to reﬂect attitudes toward packaging color

and expected product quality, product shelf impact, and product intent to

purchase perhaps an investigation of attitudes toward the packaging and the

products should have been conducted prior to the 72 -item questionnaire.

Research Reﬂection

In summary, it is believed that this study adds to the limited academic
research that investigates the inﬂuence that product aesthetics have on
consumer purchase intent. Although future research is necessary, this study also
supports the current marketing notion that packaging sells products hence
becoming the “new advertising.” This research supports previous marketing
oriented research that state color preferences are difficult to assess apart from
objects as well as serving as additional support for the need of separate color
associations for marketing consumer-packaged goods. This exploratory research
serves as an indicator to academic researchers that consumer inﬂuence has
migrated beyond attitude and recall to include the supermarket shelf as a viable
research area. This study also supports the notion that academic researchers
consider testing color associations that are not traditionally based but market
based to better measure the inﬂuence of color in the marketing sector. This study
has the potential to effect educators and the information disseminated to
students regarding color associations as it relates to marketing. With continued
research in the area of color associations an alternative to traditional color
associations can be developed and integrated into marketing curriculums. This
study also identified consumers have an emotional connection with their

purchases positioning this research as an addition to the burgeoning body of

research that advocates using emotion as a means to understand consumer
shopping behavior as well as a method to inﬂuence consumer purchase intent.
This study is believed to be positioned with the new research areas of emotional
branding and NeuroDesign®38 that embrace the practice of inﬂuencing
consumers by creating an emotional connection to brands and products through

deggn.

 

3” A proprietary design research and management instrument that combines neuroscience,
psychology, and iconology to align consumer desire and design to create real results

124

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

TERMS

TERMS

Packaging design: is distinct from the terms “packaging” and
“package" despite being related and often used interchangeably. The
covering and wrapping of an item are referred to as “packaging.” Packaging
design is “the combination of materials, structure, typography,
imagery, color and other visual design components for the purposes of
communicating the marketing objectives and strategies of a particular brand
or product” (Klimchuk 2004).

Package: a vague reference to a container, carton or bundle and does not
suggest a relationship with the marketing component of packaging
(Klimchuk 2004).

National brand: refers to products that are produced by one manufacturer and
distributed nation wide.

Store brand: refers to all merchandise sold under a retail store’s private label
(Private Label Manufacturers Association 2005).

Principle display panel (PDP): refers to the front or main side of the packaging
that is visible to the consumer from the store shelf.

Surface graphics: refers to the photographs, illustrations, and typography that
appear on the surface of the packaging. Surface graphics is exclusionary of
the color, shape and size of the product.

Tint: is white added to a color. A tint is often expressed as a percentage of a
specific color. For example, 20% red would appear to the
viewer as a pale pink and red is100°/o.

Color Tint Chart

Tint

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

White 20% Red 40% Red 60% Red 80% Red 100% Red

127

One color: identifies a monochromatic color palette used to create the surface
graphics.

Pantone Matching System (PMS): the comprehensive reference for selecting,
specifying, matching, and controlling ink colors (Pantone 2005). The PMS
method of color selecting has been in existence for over 40 years and is
used internationally.

Flexography: the printing method most commonly used when printing food
packaging, medical packaging, corrugated containers, and plastic bags.

APPENDIX B

ARTIST’S COLOR WHEEL

129

Artist’s Color Wheel

 

130

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRE

I31

Packaging Design and Purchase Decision-Making

You are being asked to complete a questionnaire entitled “Packaging Design and
Purchase Decision-Making.“ The questionnaire should take about 30 minutes to
complete. This questionnaire is intended to help better understand the relationship
between packaging design and consumer purchase intentions.

This is a voluntary questionnaire: you may choose not to participate or discontinue your
participation at any time. You may also choose not to respond to speciﬁc questions.

Each participant will be entered in a drawing for $100 worth of prizes. Each participant
will be entered in the drawing even those participants who choose not to complete the
questionnaire.

Data that are collected from you will be held in the strictest confidence. No personally
identifiable information will be used to link back to you, or shared with a third party.
Only researchers involved in this study will have access to these questionnaires. All
results of this study will be reported in the aggregate. Your privacy will be protected
to the maximum extent allowable by law.

If you have questions or comments regarding this study, please contact Vickie
VanHurIey. Doctoral Candidate in Mass Media at Michigan State University at
517-353-5465 or vanhurl 1 @msuedu, or Dr. Lucinda Davenport, Acting Dean for
Graduate Education and Research at Michigan State University at 517- 355-6574 or
ludavenp@msu.edu.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participant, or are
dissatisﬁed at any time with any aspects of this study, you may contact anonymously, if
you wish- contact Peter Vasilenko. Ph.D., Chair of the University Committee on
Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) by phone at 517-355-2180, fax at
432-4503, email at ucrihs@msu.edu or regular mail at 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI
48824.

You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this
questionnaire.

Thank you for your participation.

|n'truCtlonsOO.....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Questionnaire. Once you enter the room you will be directed to a shelf containing
several products. Once in front of the shelf you will be asked to view each product
packaging. You are encouraged to select each product from the shelf and examine it
further. After selecting each product packaging please return it to the shelf in the same
spot it was removed. You will be allowed to spend approximately ten minutes viewing
the product packaging.

After you have finished viewing the product packaging you will be given a questionnaire.
You will be asked to sit at a table and complete the questionnaire. While completing the
questionnaire you will be allowed to look at the shelf from your seat but you will not be
allowed to revisit to the shelf area. While completing the questionnaire you are asked to
refrain from talking. If you have any questions while completing the questionnaire feel
free to ask the survey proctor for assistance.

The completion of the questionnaire is an individual effort. Once you have completed the
questionnaire give it to the survey proctor. If at any time you decide to discontinue with
the completion of the questionnaire give the questionnaire to the survey proctor. Once
you give the questionnaire (complete or incomplete) to the survey proctor you will be
given a rafﬂe ticket to enter the prize drawing.

Rafﬂe Drawing. The prize drawing will be held after all participants have completed
the questionnaire. Do not loose or throw away your raffle ticket. You will need your
rafﬂe ticket to redeem your prize. Raffle winners will be notified by the email addressed
listed on the back of the raffle ticket. Raffle winners will be notified when prizes will be
available for pick up in COM 33].

Packaging Design and Purchase Intentions Questionnaire
The brand name has been removed from the packaging to eliminate branding bias. The
purpose of this survey is to test consumer reaction to the packaging.

After viewing the packaging shelf. please read each question carefully and follow the
directions of each question closely. Please place a check (/) in the box to select your
answer. Please feel free to revisit the packaging to assist you with responding to the
questionnaire. Choose the one best answer.

I. Are you the primary grocery shopper for your household?

CI Yes CI No
If you answered yes. skip to question #3.

2. Do you ever request specific items be purchased for you?
[I Yes CI No

3. Where do you shop for groceries? Check (/ ) all that apply.

[I Grocery Store Chain CI Neighborhood Grocery Store
CI Warehouse Club E] Discount Super Store
D Discount Retailer CI Convenience Store

Cl Other. Please Specify (please print):

 

Shavlng Powder Packaglng

The following questions refer to the shaving powder category. Please reference the
shelf area that contains the shaving powder packages while responding to this
section of questions.

4. Please rate the expected overall quality (effectiveness) of each shaving powder. Please circle
the number under the response that indicates the shaving powder's expected quality.

Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Can’t Be
Quality Quality Quality Quality Quality Determined

Shaving Powder Packaging 1 (red) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 S 6

Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Can’t Be
Quality Quality Quality Quality Quality Determined

to
w
4:.
u:
0

Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) I

to
L»
4.».
U!
0

Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple) 1

Please rate the overall ease of use of each shaving powder. Ease of use means how easy you
expect it will be to measure. mix. and apply the shaving powder. Please circle the number
under the response that indicates the shaving powder’s expected ease of use.

Can’t Be
Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Determined

Shaving Powder Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) I 2 3 4 5 6

to
w
A
Ur
ON

Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple) I

If you were going to purchase shaving powder for yourself or someone else how likely would
you be to buy each shaving powder. Please circle the number under the response that
indicates the likelihood of you buying each shaving powder.

Highly Maybe Not

Likely Likely Maybe Not Likely
Shaving Powder Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5
Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5
Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5
Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5
Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) I 2 3 4 5
Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple) l 2 3 4 5

7. Have you ever tried shaving powder?
CI Yes CI No CI Not Applicable
If yes, was it a positive experience?
CI Yes CI No
8. Do you currently use shaving powder?
CI Yes C] No CI Not Applicable
9. Do you know someone who uses shaving powder?
CI Yes CI No
If yes. was it a positive experience?

CI Yes Cl No

10. Please select the shaving powder packaging that first grabbed your attention.
Check (I) one.

CI Shaving Powder Packaging 1 (red) :I Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow)
:I Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) Cl Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange)
CI Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) Cl Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why the packaging grabbed your attention:

 

 

l 1. Which shaving powder would you prefer to receive a free six-month supply?
Check (I) one.

CI Shaving Powder Packaging | (red) C] Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow)
D Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) D Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange)

D Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) D Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state wh ' 'ou refer to receive the selected ackaginv:
a C“

 

 

The following questions ask you to rate the shelf visibility of each shaving powder
package. Shelf visibility means how well each shaving powder package can be seen
among the other packages from the shelf. Please circle the number under your
response.

12. Compared to the other packages on the shelf, Shaving Powder Packaging 1 (red) appears

to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
13. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Shaving Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
14. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Shaving Powder Packaging 3 (blue) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
15. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Shaving Powder Packaging 4 (orange) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
16. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Shaving Powder Packaging 5 (green) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
17. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Shaving Powder Packaging 6 (purple) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaglng

The following questions refer to the bacon-flavored potato rings packaging. Please
reference the shelf area that contains the bacon-flavored potato rings while
responding to this section of questions.

18. Please rate the expected overall quality (flavor. crunch) of each package of bacon-ﬂavored
potato rings. Please circle the number under the response that indicates the bacon-flavored
potato ring’s expected quality.

Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Can’t Be
Quality Quality Quality Quality Quality Determined

Potato Rings Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5 6

Is)
J)

Potato Rings Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 4 5 6

IO
DJ
$3
LII
0‘

Potato Rings Packaging 3 (blue) 1

Potato Rings Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Potato Rings Packaging 5 (green) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Potato Rings Packaging 6 (purple) l 2 3 4 5 6

19. If you were going to purchase a snack for yourself or someone else how likely would you be
to buy each package of bacon-ﬂavored potato rings? Please circle the number under the
response that indicates the likelihood of you buying each bacon-ﬂavored potato rings snack.

Highly Maybe Not

Likely Likely Maybe Not Likely
Potato Rings Packaging 1 (red) 1 2 3 4 5
Potato Rings Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5
Potato Rings Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5
Potato Rings Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5
Potato Rings Packaging 5 (green) I 2 3 4 5
Potato Rings Packaging 6 (purple) l 2 3 4 5

20. Have you tried bacon-flavored snacks before?
CI Yes CI No
If yes, was it a positive experience?

CI Yes CI No

21. Do you currently eat bacon-flavored snacks?

D Yes CI No

IQ
ls)

. Do you know someone who eats bacon-flavored snacks?
CI Yes :I No
If yes. was it a positive experience?

:I Yes :I No

l\)
'N

. Please select the bacon-flavored potato rings packaging that first grabbed your
attention. Check (I) one.

CI Baum-flavored Potato Rings Packaging 1 (red)
CI Bacon-ﬂavored Potato rings Packaging 2 (yellow)
:1 Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging 3 (blue)
Cl Bacon—flavored Potato Rings 4 (orange)

CI Bacon-flavored Potato Rings 5 (green)

CI Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why the packaging grabbed your attention:

 

 

24. Which bacon-flavored potato rings snack would you prefer to receive a free
six-month supply? Check (J) one.

D Bacon—flavored Potato Rings Packaging 1 (red)
CI Bacon-flavored Potato rings Packaging 2 (yellow)
CI Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging 3 (blue)
D Bacon-ﬂavored Potato Rings 4 (orange)

D Bacon-flavored Potato Rings 5 (green)

Cl Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why you prefer to receive the selected packaging:

 

 

The following questions ask you to rate the shelf visibility of each bacon-ﬂavored
potato rings package. Shelf visibility means how well each bacon-flavored potato
rings package can be seen among the other packages from the shelf. Please circle the
number under your response.

25. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging
1 (red) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

26. Compared to the other packages on the shelf, Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging
2 (yellow) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

27. Compared to the other packages on the shelf, Bacon-ﬂavored Potato Rings Packaging
3 (blue) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

140

28. Compared to the other packages on the shelf, Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging
4 (orange) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

29. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging
5 (green) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

30. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging
6 (purple) appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Tooth Powder Packaglng

The following questions refer to the tooth powder products. Please reference the
shelf area that contains the tooth powder packages while responding to this section
of questions.

31. Please rate the expected overall quality (fresh breath. cleansing, taste) of each tooth
powder. Please circle the number under the response that indicates the tooth powder’s
expected quality.

Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Can’t Be
Quality Quality Quality Quality Quality Determined

Tooth Powder Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green) | 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple) l 2 3 4 5 6

141

- 2. Please rate the overall ease of use of each tooth powder. Ease of use means how easy you
expect it will be to measure. mix. and apply the tooth powder. Please circle the number under
the response that indicates the tooth powder‘s expected ease of use.

Can‘t Be
Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Determined
Tooth Powder Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5 6
Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5 6

IO
DJ
.Ls
U1
0

Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue) I

I J
L»
.L‘.
'JI
0‘

Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1

I»)
2»)
.3;
LII
O‘

Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green) 1

lo
a»
42:.
Lil
O‘

Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple) 1

'JJ
'JJ

. If you were going to purchase tooth powder for yourself or someone else how likely would
you be to buy each tooth powder. Please circle the number under the response that indicates
the likelihood of you buying each tooth powder.

Highly Maybe Not

Likely Likely Maybe Not Likely
Tooth Powder Packaging 1 (red) I 2 3 4 5
Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5
Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5
Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5
Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green) I 2 3 4 5
Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple) l 2 3 4 5

34. Have you ever tried tooth powder?
:I Yes CI No
If yes. was it a positive experience?

CI Yes [I No

35. Do you currently use tooth powder?
[I Yes CI No
36. Do you know someone who uses tooth powder?
CI Yes CI No
If yes, was it a positive experience?
[I Yes :I No

37. Please select the tooth powder packaging that first grabbed your attention.
Check (J) one.

CI Tooth Powder Packaging 1 (red)

CI Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow)
CI Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue)
[I Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange)
CI Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green)
[3 Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why the packaging grabbed your attention:

 

 

38. Which tooth powder would you prefer to receive a free six-month supply?
Check (I) one.

:I Tooth Powder Packaging 1 (red)

CI Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow)
CI Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue)
:1 Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange)
D Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green)

CI Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple)

I43

Please state why you prefer to receive the selected packaging:

 

 

The following questions ask you to rate the shelf visibility of each tooth powder
package. Shelf visibility means how well each tooth powder package can be seen
among the other packages from the shelf. Please circle the number under your
response.

39.

40.

41.

43.

44.

Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging I (red) appears
to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging 2 (yellow) appears
to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging 3 (blue) appears
to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5
. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging 4 (orange) appears
to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging 5 (green) appears
to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Tooth Powder Packaging 6 (purple) appears
to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

I44

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaglng

The following questions refer to the spray-on pantyhose packaging. Please reference
the shelf area that contains the spray-on pantyhose packages while responding to
this section of questions.

45.

46.

Please rate the expected overall quality (effectiveness) of each spray-on pantyhose product.
Please circle the number under the response that indicates the spray-on pantyhose‘s
expected quality.

Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Can‘t Be
Quality Quality Quality Quality Quality Determined

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging | (red) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow) l 2 3 4 5 6
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green) 1 2 3 4 5 6

[\J
J)
J;
J'I
0‘

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple) 1

Please rate the overall ease of use of each spray-on pantyhose. Ease of use means how easy
you expect it will be to apply the spray-on pantyhose evenly. Please circle the number under
the response that indicates the spray-on pantyhose’s expected ease of use.

Can’t Be
Excellent Good Satisfactory Low Poor Determined

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging I (red) I 2 3 4 5 6
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Spray—On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue) I 2 3 4 5 6

IJ
JJ
4:.
w
0

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange) 1

lo
a)
L
J‘
O

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green) I

Ix)
J»)
J;
J‘
G

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple) l

47.

48.

49.

If you were going to purchase Spray-on pantyhose for yourself or someone else how likely
would you be to buy each spray-on pantyhose product. Please circle the number under the
response that indicates the likelihood of you buying each spray-on pantyhose product.

Highly Maybe Not

Likely Likely Maybe Not Likely
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging I (red) I 2 3 4 5
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow) I 2 3 4 5

to
w
.p.
Ut

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue) I

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange) I

Id
J3
.Ls
Ui

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green) I

fJ
JJ
4.x
LII

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple) I 2 3 4 5

Have you ever tried spray-on pantyhose?

D Yes D No C] Not Applicable
If yes. was it a positive experience?

Cl Yes :1 No
Do you currently use spray-on pantyhose?

:I Yes D No D Not Applicable

. Do you know someone who uses spray-on pantyhose?

[I Yes C] No
If yes. was it a positive experience?

D Yes D No

I46

51.

Please select the spray-on Pantyhose packaging that first grabbed your attention.
Check (l) one.

CI Spray—On Pantyhose Packaging I (red)

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow)

DD

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue)

Spray—On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange)

DU

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green)

[3

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why the packaging grabbed your attention:

 

 

. Which spray-on Pantyhose would you prefer to receive a free six-month supply?

Check (I) one.

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging I (red)
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow)
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue)
Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange)

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green)

DDUDDU

Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple)

Please state why you prefer to receive the selected packaging:

 

 

I47

The following questions ask you to rate the shelf visibility of each spray-on
pantyhose package. Shelf visibility means how well each spray-on pantyhose
package can be seen among the other packages from the shelf. Please circle the
number under your response.

53. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging I (red) appears

to have:
Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility

I 2 3 4 5

54. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 2 (yellow)
appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
I 2 3 4 5

'JI
'JI

. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 3 (blue)
appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
1 2 3 4 5

56. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray—On Pantyhose Packaging 4 (orange)
appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
I 2 3 4 5

57. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 5 (green)
appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
I 2 3 4 5

58. Compared to the other packages on the shelf. Spray-On Pantyhose Packaging 6 (purple)
appears to have:

Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor
Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility Shelf Visibility
I 2 3 4 5

I48

General Packaging and Shopping Questions

Please rate how much you agree with each following statement. Please circle the
number under the response that best indicates your level of agreement.

Strongly Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
59. Packaging increases the price of I 2 3 4 5
the product.
60. There is too much wasted packaging I 2 3 4 5
with the products that I purchase.
6|. I have retained a package after all the I 2 3 4 5
contents have been used.
62. I have purchased products because I 2 3 4 5

of the look of the packaging.

to
L»
.3;
U:

63. I don‘t care about packaging. I just I
throw it in the trash after I've used or
removed the contents.

to
w
4:.
M

64. I prefer not to go shopping. It takes too I
long to get my purchases and takes too
much time out of my day.

IQ
JJ
A
Ll!

65. I love to go shopping. I can always find I
time in my day to go shopping.

to
U)
A
LII

66. When I shop. I browse and search for I
my purchases.

67. When I shop. I take the hurried I 2 3 4 5
hit-and-run approach (I hurry to the
specific product area, make a selection
and head Straight to the check out).

For tabulation purposes only, please tell us:

68. What is your age?

CI 17—22 Cl 23—28 :I 29-34 CI 35-40 CI 41-46

CI 47-52 CI 53 and over

149

69. What is your gender?

CI Male D Female

70. What is your highest completed degree?
C] High School Cl Bachelor D Master's CI Doctorate.

7 I. If you are currently enrolled in college please select your status. Check (l) one
C] Freshman Cl Sophomore Cl Junior CI Senior
Cl Master's Graduate Student D Ph.D. Graduate Student

Cl Post Graduate

72. Which racial group do you identify with? Check (J) one.

CI Caucasian D African-American
Cl Hispanic CI Asian-American
D Native American CI Other

 

150

APPENDIX D

STIMULUS PACKAGING

15]

Figure 8. Stimuli

J

. ...il ti-..

@3343?......1...

 

152

Figure 9. Shaving Powder Packaging

h‘a furl * ‘, «a.

”items-sue. L:
rang-u. ...

t! IPQ‘ ‘ ’F

..‘lv~'r.lr‘v- 1
”Ev -- \.'.. 3...

p545: .,!~ . . r1

 

153

Figure 10. Bacon-flavored Potato Rings Packaging

.,, ; '5‘";va -
"ll; lllllyl

 

154

Figure 11. Tooth Powder Packaging

ltoothl

lpo‘wfl all
I I

"II We...
"Didi“I‘ 01:02:;

mnlmiﬁ Debi-nulls!”

 

155

Figure 12. Spray-on Pantyhose Packaging

 

 

156

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I57

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