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1 LIBRARY
ban Michigan State
‘ University
This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Fieldwork as an Effective Means of Teaching Ecology to
Secondary Students

presented by

Kirstin E. Atlee

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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FIELDWORK AS AN EFFECTIVE MEANS OF THEACHING ECOLOGY TO
SECONDARY STUDENTS

By

Kirstin E. Atlee

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

MASTER’S DEGREE
Interdepartmental Biological Science
2005

ABSTRACT

FIELDWORK AS AN EFFECTIVE MEANS OF TEACHING ECOLOGY TO
SECONDARY STUDENTS

BY

Kirstin E. Atlee
Science curriculum in ecology often lacks authentic investigations with real world
applications. Inquiries are frequently conducted in the classroom, out of the
context of the scientific community. Students sometimes view science a list of
terms and objectives to be learned for a test for the purpose of earning points
and passing a class.
The purpose of teaching this unit is threefold; 1) to teach students how to do
authentic scientific inquiry by giving them opportunities to do hands-on
investigations with real world applications; 2) to use the outdoor resources
available on the campus of Fowlerville High School to develop an ecology unit
that teaches the state mandated benchmarks to produce ecologically and
scientifically literate students; 3) to give students a sense of place by familiarizing
them with their local ecology.
Students took a pretest and a post-test on fundamental topics in ecology. The
results of these assessments indicated that students improved their
understanding of fundamental ecological concepts. Anecdotal observations from
investigations conducted by the students suggest that they also experienced and

increased awareness of the scientific process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My most sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. Merle Heideman for her advice,
constructive criticism, and most of all, her patience while helping me to complete
this thesis. I would like to express special gratitude to my colleagues in the
science department at Fowlerville High School and to my future husband,
Timothy J. Hoshal, for giving the enormous levels of encouragement and support

that I required to complete the Master's program.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................ iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................ v
INTRODUCTION
Statement of Study Objectives ................................................... 1
Rationale for Study Objectives ................................................... 6
Literature Review: A Comparison of Ecological and ..................... 13

Environmental Education

IMPLEMENTATION
Demographics ...................................................................... 34
Methodology ........................................................................ 35
RESULTS .................................................................................... 47
CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................ 50
LITERATURE CITED ...................................................................... 54
General References ............................................................... 56
APPENDICIES
A. STUDENT HANDOUTS ...................................................... 57
1. Pretest/Post-test Evaluation: Principles in Ecology .......... 58
2. Objectives: Principles in Ecology ................................. 61
4. Guided Reading Notes .............................................. 62
5. Nature Walk — Outside Ecology ................................... 63
6. Lab Investigation -— Mineral Nutrition of Lemna ................ 67

iv

7. Pretest/post—test Evaluation: Community ....................... 69
Distribution and Population Ecology

8. Objectives: Community Distribution and ........................ 71
Population Dynamics

9. Observing Soil Bacteria Using Wmogradsky Columns ...... 72
10. Calculating Soil Organic Matter Using Soil Ignition ........ 76
11. Water Quality Testing .............................................. 78
12. Eco-Column Observations and Questions Worksheet... 80
B. UCRIHS APPROVAL ......................................................... 82

C. UCRIHIS STUDENT CONSENT LETTER .............................. 84

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Pretestlpost-test Comparison — 3rd Hour ....................... 47
Figure 2: Pretest/Post-test Comparison — 4th Hour ....................... 48
Figure 3: Pretest/Post-test Comparison - 5th Hour ....................... 49

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Outline of Principles in Ecology Unit .............................. 36
Table 2: Community Distribution and Population Dynamics ............ 43
Outline

vii

INTRODUCTION

STATEMENT OF STUDY OBJECTIVES

After three years of doing tissue culture and wncer research at Michigan
State University, I realized a growing discontent with my professional life and a
need to do something different. My dissatisfaction stemmed from the fact that
the research I was doing wasn’t my own and that while I was generating
important data for the fight against cancer, I wasn’t seeing an immediate impact
on those people afflicted with the disease. Further adding to my restlessness
was that this particular research project did not afford me the opportunity to
pursue other interests and it did not allow for much ownership of the research.

A friend suggested that I combine several of my interests and my science
education by becoming a high school life science teacher. After all, I still loved
science. I just didn’t care for the job. This move would allow me to use my
science education, to pursue the interests I was missing, to have a very large
degree of autonomy in my job, and to have a very immediate impact on the target
group. Sol enrolled in a teacher education program and became a student
again.

Meanwhile, I took another research position at Barros Research Institute.
There were many benefits to this position. I was working with a brilliant scientist,
Dr. Barney Rosenberg, looking for a kinder, gentler cure for cancer than the
current best treatments at the time. He was just as concerned about teaching his

employees how to do “good science” as he was the completion of the project. It

provided me with the financial means and time necessary to get my teacher
certification. There was an additional bonus that came from working in what I call
“grassroots science” that I hadn’t counted on. I Ieamed how to do “true scientific
inquiry” and to really understand the scientific process. I became aware of the
creativity and malleability in the scientific process, and I came to realize that
science was in the service of mankind versus mankind being in the service of
science as I once thought. This was probably due to the fact that Dr. Rosenberg
used his talent at doing research to solve social problems. He could see that it
was a tool to better us all and that the power of the science mme from the
individuals performing it. I did not realize the value of the lessons and skills I had
Ieamed until I actually began teaching. In fact, to this day I believe it was this
experience in research and real life application of scientific method that earned
me my teaching position at Fowlerville High school.

Upon making the transition from scientist to science teacher I became
disappointed and discouraged at the lack of understanding of the scientific
process demonstrated by high school students as a whole. I found that they
could memorize the steps of the scientific method and that they could recite the
definitions to the science related terms. Yet, they had no idea of how to carry out
“authentic” scientific investigations. How could this be? After all, when do you
actually learn how to do science? 7th grade? 8th grade? When do you learn to
inquire like a scientist? The kids have the curiosity, but not the process. I think

because I had lived the scientific process, I didn’t realize that it was difficult skill

to master and that scientific inquiry involves a type of thinking that is not inherent
in anyone, especially 15 and 16 year olds in an isolated classroom.

I Ieamed how to do good science toward the end of my undergraduate
career when I had to do an independent research project and thesis and more so
in the workplace after college. I think it was a result of several factors. First, the
scientists I worked with and for were real scientists and themselves masters at
problem solving. Secondly, the work they were doing was real and important and
they knew that. It was not an exercise executed out of context in an isolated
classroom devoid of any real world application, as it so often seems to be in
current high school curricula.

Elaborating further, I thought to myself, what is it about the current way my
students are being taught that is causing this discrepancy between knowledge
and ability? As I considered this and observed my own teaching methods, I
realized that l was mistaking activity for achievement. In most every laboratory
investigation students were asked to perform, there I was standing over them
with a clear-cut answer. I would quickly guide the students to the desired
answers and conclusions using a cookbook procedure, which I provided for
them, all in the course of one class period. This was nothing like the science I
had done in the real world.

I had to construct my own procedures to test a hypothesis that we as a
research group had formed, or at least evaluate established procedures to
determine if they would be appropriate. When we had trouble or got results that

we couldn’t explain, there was no teacher there to tell us what it was suppose to

mean. We had to draw our own conclusions, modify our procedures, or simply
repeat the experiment. This is not something you typically see in the high school
classroom or at least not what I was doing. What would I have to do differently to
get my students to think critically and to be able to do authentic scientific inquiry?
This question brings me to my first study objective: to teach students how to do
scientific inquiry by giving them hands on opportunities to do investigations with
real world applications, and to identify elements of scientific inquiry that are
missing in my own teaching methods.

At Fowlerville High School there are thme instructors mat teach the
required Biology l course. We all use “Biology: The Dynamics of Life” published
by GlencoelMcGraw-Hill, 1995 as our textbook. We have aligned our curriculum
in most respects with the science framework benchmark established by the State
of Michigan in the document, Michigan Curriculum Framework Science
A Benchmarks (2000) and we all cover pretty much the same units during the same
semesters. The only deviation in order of chapters is a product of the fact that
we must all share the same equipment and resources and cannot teach the
same units at the same time. I understand this and so I wasn’t alarmed when we
skipped over the chapters concerned with ecology and environmental issues.

It was only as we came to the conclusion of the school year when time was short
and resources were in even shorter supply that I realized those objectives and
corresponding chapters were only being taught if there was time and in a
superficial fashion. In fact, the unit seemed to consist of a bunch of terms strung

together in lecture fashion with routine and uninteresting laboratory

investigations. Furthermore, the labs in no way provoked critical thinking or the
authentic scientific inquiry that I had noticed was missing from my student’s
education. The labs did not require the students to leave the classroom to use
the natural resources available around Fowlerville High Schools Campus. I
found this unacceptable for two reasons (1) We have a variety of natural
resources around the high school that would lend themselves well to fieldwork,
such as an old field that was turned over five or six years ago, a pine stand, a
man made pond, and a deciduous forest; (2) The routine laboratory
investigations that were in use at the time may teach a desired concept but seem
contrived and do not foster the problem solving skills that I had Ieamed dong my
own research and that I felt the students needed. With this in mind, I arrived at
study objective #2: Use the outdoor resources available on the campus of
Fowlerville High School to develop an ecology unit that teaches the state
prescribed benchmarks and produce an ecologically and scientifically literate
student with heightened environmental awareness. There is a considerable
amount of literature available, which suggests that field instruction is a valid and
possibly better means of instruction than the traditional approach depending
upon the concepts being taught. Disinger(1984) summarizes several different
studies about the effects of field instruction in school settings. In each case, a
group of high school students was divided into groups. One group incorporated
fieldwork into their curriculum. While, the other did not and received instruction
on the same concepts in a very traditional manner without leaving the classroom.

Greater improvements were shown in both affective and cognitive domains within

the fieldwork-based group. Additionally it was shown that recall and retention of
facts and skills improve as well.

The third study objective is a by-product resulting from observations made
while working on objective #2. It is to give students a sense of place by
familiarizing them with their local ecology. It seems they may care more about
the science they do if they can attribute immediate and personal importance to it.
I thought that they would be more likely to demonstrate an increase in ownership
and stewardship if they were more familiar with the surroundings in which the

research took place.

RATIONALE FOR STUDY OBJECTIVES

“Students in all grades and in every domain of science should have the
opportunity to use scientific inquiry and develop the ability to think and act in
ways associated with inquiry, including asking questions, planning and
conduction investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data,
thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and
explanation, constructing and analyzing alternative explanations and
communicating scientific arguments” (NSES; National Research Council, 1996
as cited in Eric Clearinghouse for Science Mathematics, and Environmental
Education2001) In short, students need to experience science directly through
hands on investigations in which they use their methods to test ideas they have
about their world. I think that these direst investigation skills have been lost for

several reasons but predominantly because information gathering has changed.

Real scientists are gathering information through experimentation as they have
always done. However, this information is immediately available to students in
quantities and at speeds unlike we’ve seen before in history. Students are losing
the scientific context and process in which the information was collected. They
have not had to gather the information for themselves as scientists once did. My
observations are that students often lack the ability to inquire and problem solve
effectively. They believe that information available on the Internet is inherently
valid because it is on the Internet. Students, by and large, do not have the
means for accessing validity or applicability of this information because they have
had no experience in the process by which the information was produced.
Another reason for revising the ecology unit was to increase student
participation and engagement. The original unit was taught very traditionally. It
was lecture oriented with the teacher talking to or at students interrningling
cookbook activities. Homework, typically worksheets, was assigned as a means
of practice and assessment. Sometimes this is necessary. The problem is that
when this becomes the norm my students lost interest and the less polite ones
would even act out, displaying disruptive behavior decreasing the potential for
learning. “Truancy and disruptive behavior have been identified as the main
manifestations of disaffection [with schools, lessons, and curriculum]. Early
research literature tends to suggest that disaffected pupils exhibit deviant
behavior and they require special treatment ...” (Battersby, 1999) The focus of
the labs was to provide an activity, which might have a learning benefit versus a

well-considered investigation, which are often messy and time consuming that

increases concept learning and mastery of the scientific process. Quite frankly,
the traditional methods bored me sometime too. Where was the science? I feel
it is my job not only to deliver reliable information but also, to give the students
opportunities to learn how to gather information for themselves. Liskowski (1987)
stated that employing an “ involvement oriented way of teaching will incmase
interest and motivation of the students” and that “teachers can improve student
interest by involvement in real life situations using real environmental issues
facing local communities”. With this in mind, I planned to replace some of the
teacher-centered discussions in which students passively listened with student-
oriented activities and inquiry based investigations. My goal was to engage the
students in experiences that related to their world and required them to be
actively involved.

The table below shows the contrast between selected characteristics of a
traditional schooling and key characteristics of participatory, or hands-on learning

(Barab and Hay, 2000) as expected to accomplish.

Traditional Schooling Participatory Science
Learning
1. Learners listen about the doings 1. Learners do domain-related
of others to receive a grade. practices to address domain-
related dilemmas.
2. Learning occurs at the pages of 2. Learning is participatory

textbooks and mouths of teachers. and occur “at the elbows" of more
knowledge-able others including

teachers, scientists and peers.

3. The textbook and teachers ”own” 3. Practices and outcomes are
the problems which have classroom, authentic and owned by the learn
but not real-world applications. er and the community of practice,

in response to real-world needs.

“Over the last century we have seen formal [teacher centered] schooling
emerge as the predominant means of educating the young. One of the most
common features of relegating education to schools is that skills and knowledge
have become abstracted from their uses in the real world." (Barab and Hay,
2000) That is, knowledge and skills are being learned out of context and
therefore, students only value them in the situation in which they were Ieamed.
Students are unable to appreciate the skills, as they would apply to the
community that actually uses those skills. What happens in the classroom has
real world connections for the students and this practice minimizes the
importance and relevance of the skills. Telling a student about something is no
longer enough, and may never really have been, to positively affect learning.
“Telling children how scientists how to do science does not necessarily lead to
far-reaching changes in how children do science; indeed, it cannot, as long as
the school curriculum is based on verbally expressed knowledge” (Papert, 1991,

as cited in Barab and Hay 2000) Knowledge and skills must be taught in an

authentic and active environment where the Ieamers are doing meaningful
scientific investigations. “ . . . in many classrooms experiential learning or “hands
on” is starting to replace or supplement traditional “chalk talks”. Through
experiments, simulations, debates, and other participatory activities, students
discover concepts on their own. Experiential learning has been shown to
increase retention, motivate students to learn, and encourage group
cooperation.” Braus 8. Woods (1993)

Finally, I think that students are losing contact with and no longer have
knowledge of the world immediately around them. While out on a nature walk in
our deciduous woodlot I pointed out several very common trees and wildflowers
native to Michigan. I asked students to name them. None of them could. These
plants were not rare or unusual and I could hardly remember a time when I
couldn’t identify these organisms. I also remember that I did not come by this
knowledge in a formal education setting. It made me wonder what was different
about my educational experiences, either formal or informal, that accounted for
this observation.

Secondarily, an underlying motivation for getting students out into their local
environment to give them a sense of place is this. I believe that the transient
nature of our society and urbanization of our rural areas has resulted in a loss of
connectedness to the land. We live on smaller and smaller sections of the land
and move from city to city following jobs. Our daily routine is often
house-)car-)office-) and back again. Recreation time is spent differently than it

was a generation ago. Youth of today are frequently found in front of the TV or

10

computer, or watching a movie, in the shopping mall, or taking part in organized
sports. They simply don’t go into the woods, river, and field, whatever the local
environment may be anymore. It is not a matter of survival as it once was.
“When man settled into villages and townships he was no longer dependent on
[nature]. He had removed himself from intimate contact with nature and from the
necessity for remaining in contact with her.” (Smith, Steck, 8: Surrette, 1974)
The informal education gained from immersing ourselves in nature has been lost.
Cherif (1992) states that, “Teachers should concentrate more on fieldwork, both
observing and investigating an ecosystem to develop an accurate understanding
and appreciation of the environment and the human role in ecological process
and environmental management.”

Another observation I’ve made while growing up in the area and even in the
twelve years that I’ve been teaching is that family farms are disappearing. We
don’t gather, hunt, or grow our own food any longer. It is now left up to large
corporations and that too represents a loss of connectedness to the land.
Historically, agricultural societies have understood natural cycles and
relationships in an ecosystem because they were immersed in it daily and their
lives depended on it. The relevance of this is that we have lost the awareness of
how to use the land properly so that future generations have it to use too. “More
people argue that students around the world-especially in urban areas-are losing
touch with the natural world. In many places, outdoor experiences are not a
regular part of instruction. Instead of occurring throughout a students schooling,

outdoor experiences are often limited to a few outings in primary grades. Getting

ll

student out into the environment on a regular basis is part of a comprehensive
environmental education program.” Braus & Woods (1993) So it seems that this
problem is not just a matter of what is happening outside our formal education

but within it as well.

12

LITERATURE REVIEW: A COMPARISON OF ECOLOGICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

When I began this project my objective was clear and singular, to develop
teaching methods that would allow me to make use of the natural resources on
the campus of Fowlerville High School to teach fundamental ecological concepts.
After all, many of the articles that l have read said that experience is the best
teacher. Golley (1998) is very matter of fact stating, “Environmental literacy
begins with experience of the environment” and that, “experience is the trigger for
environmental literacy.” While these statements confirmed what I already knew
based on my own experiences as both student and teacher, the articles in which
they were found raised questions in my mind about the relationship between
ecology, environmental education, and environmental literacy, and a multitude of
other terms and disciplines that were found in the literature such as conservation
education, outdoor education, environmental science, and nature study to name
a few.

Therefore, my first task in this comparison and contrast between ecology and
environmental education was to clarify the terms. Are they synonymous or do
they have distinctly different meanings? I felt these terms needed investigation
because I needed to be clear on just what I was teaching if I intended to teach it
clearly. As it turns out, there are important differences and this research was a
worthwhile endeavor. “A continuing dilemma for those concerned with
environmental education lies in the matter of definition. . . It is at least interesting,
and may be productive, to assemble a representative selection of definitions for

the purpose of comparing and contrasting them.” Disinger (1998)

13

Ecology can be defined as the study of ecosystems, the interactions between
the living and nonliving components in a given geographical area. The teaching
of pure ecology is very academic and there is little room for social comment or
application of personal attitudes. Environmental education is much broader in
scope and knowledge of fundamental ecological concepts is a part of it.
“Environmental education is a process that leads to responsible individual and
group action. Environmental education should enhance critical thinking, problem
solving and effective decision making skills . . . Environmental education should
engage individuals as well as enable them to weigh various environmental issues
to make an informed and responsible decisions. (Federal Register, Oct 16,
1992, p. 47516) One other distinction that helped me was to understand how the
subject of environmental science differs from environmental education.
According to Allaby (1996) “Environmentalists and environmental science are
distinct. The former is a popular movement with political, social, and
philosophical implications. The latter provides a means for obtaining precise
information about the environment.”

This definition of environmental education is the product of many years of
deliberation and consideration by scientists, philosophers, and academics
defining and refining various terms and parts into a collective whole. The
antecedents of environmental education are nature study, conservation
education, and outdoor education. While the root of current environmental
education and literacy lie here, these studies may or may not have involved hard

science at all. In the most basic sense, these terms seemed to mean simply

14

moving students outside for inspiration and motivation in most any subject
matter. In short this means, “The use of resources outside the classroom for
educational purposes”. (Swan 1975 as cited by Disinger 1998)

Nature study is the earliest forerunner of environmental education. This
movement began in the late 1800’s when Wilbur Jackman published Nam—re
Slug! for the Common Schools. He called for taking students outdoors and into
the environment for the purpose studying the whole environment. He suggested
an integrated approach to learning about nature instead of dissecting and
isolating factors of the environment as seem to be the trend in the classroom at
the time. This book provided rationale for incorporating ecological concepts into
the science curriculum. (McComas 1992)

Conservation education followed Nature Study in the early 1900’s. This
perspective seemed to convey an awareness of natural resources in the United
States and a need to protect them. According to C. Roth (1978) this movement
coined the phrases “wise use” and “natural resource management”. It is easy to
see the roots of environmental education taking hold with these ideas.

The distinguishing characteristics of outdoor education, which seemed to
replace conservation education, were that it applied to almost any subject matter
and unlike its predecessors, must take place outside the classroom. It has been
closely identified with John Dewey’s philosophy of “learning by doing”. I think it
was best summarized by L.B. Sharp (1943) in saying “that which can best be

taught inside the schoolrooms should there be taught, and that which can best be

15

Ieamed through experience dealing directly with native materials and life
situations outside the school should there be learned.”

For as long as mankind has existed, I believe that there has been awareness
that humans use the Earth’s resources. Recently, in the last century or so, the
awareness has become more a sense of concern. I think with each passing war
or armed conflict we have become more aware of how we use the Earth. It is a
result of arguments over resources such as oil, waterways, and land that we
consider valuable and that each country needs to support its growing population.
Also, after each war there is always a period of remediation and restoration
where we become intimately aware of the effects that human activities have on
the land. We also understand that there are limited resource and that we all want
them.

Within the last thirty years or so even the tone of concern in the literature has
been replaced by a dire sense of urgency and what I call a “must do” attitude.
“Buttons, decals, and bumper stickers appeared proclaiming in iridescent colors,
Ecology Now. It is important and instructive to find out what elements have lead
to this general feeling of urgency. We appear to have crossed a threshold of
some sort. The deterioration of the environment has reached a level where it has
become immediately apparent to everyone” (Grahame, Steck, & Surette, 1974)
How do we continue to use the Earth’s resources and survive? How do we undo
the damage that we have done? We read about oil spills, ground water
contamination, and deforestation and habitat destruction on a daily basis. For

those that are in tune with or educated about the environment understand that

16

things must change. “It is essential that we all become aware of the potential
danger, not in a casual and superficial way but with a real understanding of why
the crisis is upon us” (Grahame, Steck, 8: Surette, 1974) The question is what
must change and once that is established, how do we as educators go about
affecting that change?

I believe environmental education has risen out of necessity and fear and in
an attempt to find answers to these questions and more. As opinions and
attitudes have evolved so has environmental education guidelines, curricula, and
teaching strategies. The publication of “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson in the
early sixties may well have been the origin of the modern movement in
environmental science. She wrote using only ecological concepts -food chain,
trophic levels, bioamplification, etc. However, in the end the book takes a very
political tone and so, in my mind modern environmental education was borne.
“Nonetheless, by the last days of the1960’s a body of informed opinion had
developed that was sufficient to constitute the basis for the ecological
[environmental] movement. Between the Santa Barbara Oil Spill in the spring of
1969 and Earth Day in the spring of 1970, the environmental question was
placed on the agenda of American Politics. Ecology was promptly declared by
many observers to be the issue for he 1970’s.” (Grahame, Steck, & Surette,
1974) The remainder of this literature review is an attempt to analyze and
understand those aspects of environmental education listed above from global

and local perspectives.

l7

Goals, Principles, and Objectives of Environmental Education
The specific goals and principles of environmental education will vary from
country to country. However, generally speaking they are universal and agreed
upon. They were established at the Tbilisi Conference in 1977 and published in
The Tbilisi Declaration. They are as follows:
1. To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social,
political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas,
2. To provide every person with an opportunity to acquire knowledge, values,
attitudes, commitment, and skills to protect and improve the environment,
3. To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups, and society a
whole towards the environment. I
The objectives of environmental science have been presented in a variety of
articles and readings. Here they are listed as they appear in the Tbilisi
Declaration (1977). The same five objectives have stood the test of time and
are also stressed by Braus and Wood in Environmenth Education in the Schggls:
Creating a prmram that Works (1994)
1. Awareness: which helps social groups and individuals acquire an
awareness of and to be sensitive to the total environment.
2. Knowledge: which helps social groups and individuals gain a variety of
experiences and a basic understanding of the environment and its

associated problems.

18

3. Attitudes: which help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values
and feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively
participating in environmental improvement and protection.

4. Skills: to help social groups and individuals acquire skills for identifying
and solving environmental problems.

5. Participation: which provide social groups and individuals with an
opportunity to be actively involved at all levels in working towards

resolution of environmental problems.

Guiding Principles and What Environmental Education Should Do
Due to the lengthy nature of this section of the Tbilisi Declaration, I have

paraphrased the guiding principle of environmental education when possible.

1. Consider the environment in its totality natural and built, technological and
social.

2. Be a continuous lifelong process.

3. Be interdisciplinary in its approach.

4. Examine major environmental issues from local, regional, national, and
international.

5. Focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into
account historical perspectives.

6. Promote the value and necessity of local and international cooperation in
prevention and solutions.

7. Consider environmental plans for growth and development.

19

8. Enable Ieamers to have a role in their Ieaming experiences and provide

opportunities for making decisions and accepting consequences.

9. Relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, and problem solving to all

ages.

10. Help Ieamers to discover the symptoms and causes of environmental
problems.

11. Emphasize the development of critical thinking skills.

12. Utilize diverse learning environments and a wide variety of educational
approaches to teach . . . with emphasis on first hand experiences.

On an international level it appears that there is marginal success at
implementing environmental education programs in K-12 schools. Industrial
nations are doing better than developing countries in implementing
comprehensive environmental education programs. “Today there is a large gap
between the level of the use of EE in the curricula on the industrialized countries
on the one hand, and in developing countries on the other.” (Muyanda-Mutebi &
Yiga-Matovu, 1993) According to the African Social and Environmental Studies
Program (1993) the greatest constraints of environmental education being felt in
developing countries are:

1. Lacks of official recognition - Globally less than a quarter of the nations
have effectively implemented Environmental Education strategies in their
school curricula. Most of the world’s developing countries are among the
remaining three quarters that have not implemented environmental

education programs.

20

2. Lack of Funds — this problem is persistent in all countries and presents a
major hurdle to the implementation of environmental education strategies.
There is usually no special allocation of funds and so purchasing special
material and performing the necessary fieldwork are difficult.

3. Lack of Infrastructure and resources - There is a lack of personnel,
communication, and physical resources to sustain the development of an
environmental education program. Things like textbooks, teaching

materials, and student work packets are not available.

Environmental Education in the United States

There has been a great deal of progress made in the United States since
the passage of two very important environmental documents, the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-United Nations Environment
Programme, 1976 and the Tbilisi Declaration in 1978. Since this time, every
state in the nation has incorporated environmental education into formal public
education to some extent or another. Until the mid 1990’s the extent of the
progress was unknown. At that time, Kirk, Wilke, and Ruskey conducted a
survey identifying the extent to which each of me fifty states had achieved the 16
components of a comprehensive environmental education program as
established by Ruskey and Mike. It is interesting to note that 11 states had
master plans and 13 states were developing master plans for environmental
education. Only 12 states had established by-laws requiring incorporation of

environmental education into existing science curriculum. Of the 50 states, 15

21

had in place and 17 states were developing coordinated statewide teacher in-
service programs. Only 3 states require any sort of environmental education
training for pre-service teachers. Twenty-four states had provided adequate
funding for environmental education programs and funding for the future looked
optimistic. But, as of yet, no state in the USA had in place all 16 components of
a comprehensive environmental education program. The point of reviewing
these statistics is to point out that while we have made progress, there is still a

long way to 90.

Environmental Education in Michigan

Globally speaking the goals of environmental education is clear but
daunting. I think that they are out of reach for most secondary schools and high
school biology teachers. In order to achieve the objectives enumerated in the
Tbilisi Declaration schools would have to devote an enormous amount of time to
environmental education and find a substantial amount of additional resources to
support the class. Whether environmental education is taught as interdisciplinary
course or in a multidisciplinary, infused fashion one thing is clear. Budget
considerations will factor into the implementation process. A highly sophisticated
course that requires a great deal of lab equipment and field work is likely to be
out of reach financially for public schools. The multidisciplinary approach to
implementation and support of an environmental program will also be costly but
is more likely to be successful because the cost is spread over multiple

departments, curricula, and grade levels. (Hungerford and Peyton, 1986 as cited

22

by Volk) The reality of the situation for many high schools is that implementing a
comprehensive environmental education program is not possible at this time due
to budget limitations. So let’s examine what is possible using the current
curriculum and recommended by local agencies.

The following is from Michigan Curriculum Framework: Science Content
Benchmarks published in the summer of 2000. It lists the objectives, key
concepts and real world context for Ieaming goals. The benchmarks are an effort
to standardize science education in Michigan and ensure a thorough and uniform
education for all students from school district to school district. It seems that
while there are some strands that are devoted to environmental education, the
major emphasis is on teaching of ecological concepts. Those specific
benchmarks are listed below.

1. Describe common ecological relationships between and among species and
their environments.

Real World Context - Animals that live in packs or herds and plant colonies such
as -wolves, bison, lilies and other bulb plants, various forms of algae.

2. Explain how energy flows through familiar ecosystems.

Real World Context — Energy Pyramids for food webs in various ecosystems.

3. Describe general factors regulating the population size of an ecosystem.

Real World Context — Common factors that influence relationships, such as
weather, disease, predation, migration.

4. Describe the responses of an ecosystem to events that caused it to change.

23

Real World Context — Climax forests comprised of maple-beech or conifers,
effects of urban sprawl or clear cutting of forests, effects of catastrophic changes
such as the eruption of Mt. St. Helens.

5. Describe how carbon and soil nutrients cycle through selected ecosystems.
Real World Context —Movement of food materials through various food webs,
including decomposition.

6. Explain the effects of agriculture and urban development on selected
ecosystems.

Real World Context — Common factors that influence ecosystems, such as
pollution of ecosystems from fertilizer, insecticide, and other chemicals.

There are very few benchmarks or cun'iculum specified for environmental
education as a separate field of study in the state of Michigan. Benchmarks and
concepts that do relate to environmental education are infused into various
sections of the current science benchmarks. I find it interesting and disturbing to
analyze the benchmarks in light of the push for environmental education
programs at the secondary level. There is only one benchmark in the current
framework devoted entirely to environmental education. Others may have an
environmental education spin hidden in them but remain ecology concepts. This
makes me wonder if it Is really my job as a biology instructor to teach
environmental education. It requires me to focus on social and cultural issues,
polities, attitudes and sensitivities. As a scientist, have I received adequate

training in that arena to be an effective teacher?

24

As I look back at my own preparation for teaching, I can say that my
science education in my major and minor areas was exceptional. The same can
be said fithe teacher certification program I attended in order to become a
science teacher. It is clear that if I were to become an environmental education
teacher I would have to prepare differently. The education given to traditional
biology teachers would be only one part of the program. Teachers would need
additional training in topics such as issue analysis, values clarification, politics,
and philosophy of environmental education. It will be interesting to see how
national and local governments adjust their curriculum requirements to
remediate. Vlfill new requirements be added to the current standards for
certification as a science teacher or will there be entirely separate criteria
specified for environmental education teachers?

Assuming that a teacher has had the proper preparation to be skilled in
the instruction of environmental education, what exactly will take place in the
classroom? What exactly is the ideal K-12 curriculum? “The notion of curriculum
orientation is an interesting one with the most basic curriculum taxonomy
containing three distinct types: ideal, intended, and received. (Cuban, 1992) It is
important to know what the objectives are for the students, how you will
accomplish those objectives and finally how you will evaluate how well you did at
conveying those objectives. Sometimes what we teach isn’t always what the
student learns. The ideal curriculum is what students are provided through
classroom experiences, discussions, investigations, and goals held by the

teacher. This would usually relate to the curriculum benchmarks established and

25

mandated by each state. The received curriculum is what the students actually
learned or experienced for themselves, the information, attitudes, experiences,
and perceptions that they actually take away from the lessons. (McComas,
2002)

I think that in order for Environmental Education to have the intended
impact on our students and our future that it must have its own benchmarks and
curriculum separate from the Biology and Life Science class that high schools
offer. That is not the norm in most districts. According to Disinger (1987)
“Infusion of environmental topic into other curricular areas was noted as a
prevalent mechanism of inclusion in secondary schools”. Ninety percent or more
of the teachers he surveyed infusion as common practice and that it most always
happened in biology class.

Governor Granholm and the Michigan Deparlment of Education approach
the teaching of Environmental Education topics in a similar manner. In an article
published on the Sate of Michigan web site, and similarly in the August 2005
issue of Woods-N-Water News, “ tales ngize the Value of Environmental
Education” by Tom Carney. Granholm has earmarked one million dollars of the
Clean Michigan Initiative funds to a three-year project developing and evaluation
an environmental education for middle schools. The curriculum includes five
topics: Air Quality, Ecosystems, Energy and Resources, Individuals Impact on
the Land, and Water Quality. The program is reported to support the current
benchmarks for science education in the state of Michigan. In addition, 3000

middle school educators will be trained and given ample support to implement

26

this program into their current science curriculum during the 2005-2006 school
year.

While the new environmental education goals are being infused into
current curricula, environmental educators must have training specific to
environmental education. It appears that environmental education preparation
for teachers is applied like a bandage, fixing what’s wounded. There does not
seem to be any specific degree requirements in environmental education for
teacher certification. Although, there are a great number of environmental
studies and environmental science degree programs available at colleges and
universities across the nation for individuals entering different fields like
engineering, government, corporate and non-profit fields. This doesn’t make
sense. We need to teach environmental education but lack the specific training.
“There is no traditional grammar or secondary school subject that focuses on the
environment and relatively few school districts off a specific environmental
course. However, many states mandate teaching about the environment . . .”
“relatively few colleges or universities provide special environmental education
courses for pre service teachers. In the future, more will be expected from all K-
12 teachers in the area of environmental education.” (Peterson’s Guide 1993)

HR. Hungerford and RB. Peyton have very specific ideas about what
preparation is necessary for a K-12 environmental education teacher. (1986)

1. Focus on and reflect the multifaceted and interdisciplinary nature of the

environment. In doing so teachers should be provided with opportunities to

27

acquire and apply knowledge and attitudes important in environmental education.
At the very minimum, this preparation should include:
a. Basic training in ecology
b. Field and/or laboratory experiences in environmental science.
c. Knowledge of environmental issues and problems of resource
Management.
d. Competencies in environmental problem identification, issue analysis,
Issue investigation and evaluation and citizenship action.
e. Opportunities to develop value-clarification skills and knowledge of
roles of human values in environmental issues.
2. Provide instruction and experience with multidisciplinary curriculum as well as
instructional activities and methods similar to those they might use in their own
classrooms.
3. Provide instruction on philosophy and goals of environmental education and
the nature of interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary environmental education
curricula.
4. Provide specific training-particularly at the elementary level-in basic general
education skills.
5. Provide opportunities for teachers to develop skills identifying, inventorying,
and evaluating local resources for use in environmental education.
In order to teach about the environment an important consideration a
teacher must make is how to breakdown the topic into sub-groups. Just how do

you divide the topic of the environment? - Living vs. nonliving? That approach is

28

good if life” is your central consideration, which is probably true if you are a
biologist at heart. Perhaps you would split the topic into natural vs. built or
manmade if human activities are your central consideration. This approach
would suit you better if you were a social scientist at heart. Either way, it begs
the question, what is the role of the teacher in an environmental education
classroom?

According to John Hug (1998) an environmental educator “is not the
mediator, trade off specialist or negotiator, but a developer of skills and an
information analyst who prepares people who will participate in environmental
decision making.” He goes on to say that environmental educators are free to
hold their own opinions about environmental issues but when teaching must
remain neutral and must not be “propagandists for their own personal interests.”
The role that a teacher takes in an environmental education classroom hinges on
a variety of matters for example, the curriculum being used, the materials
available for teaching, the benchmarks that are mandated for the particular state
in which the teacher works. It seems that the teaching about the environment can
be seen on a spectrum with one end representing the pure ecologists and the
other end representing the pure environmental educators. On the ecology end of
the spectrum you'd see descriptors listed like: ecological conwpts, knowledge,
local, quantitative data analysis, outcomes based, organized, teacher driven and
compartmentalized. At the opposite and under environmental education you’d
find words like awareness, empowered citizenry, global, unstructured, moral and

ethical considerations, multidisciplinary, integrated, and environmental action

29

project. A teacher must consider his or her skills, interests, professional
responsibilities, resources, and motivation to locate their place along the
spectrum before beginning to teach EE. (Shoenfeld, 1969)

A comparison of environmental problem solving approaches, by John
Ramsey (1994) of four of the most influential environmental educators of our
time, Robottom, Hammond, Stapp, and Hungerford provide insight into what they
feel the teacher’s role should be in an environmental education classroom. In all
four instances it is presumed that high school students have a basic
understanding of ecological concepts. In fact, according to DC Engleson (1993)
by the time students get to high school ecology foundations should already have
been laid and in grades 10 — 12 are an area minor emphasis. Robottorn believes
that the teacher should work jointly with the students collaborating on original
research projects and organize educational experiences so that students have
opportunities to engage in problem solving and inquiry activities. Hammond
suggests that the role of the teacher is as a mentor and coach. He implies that
direct, teacher centered instruction is necessary but says it should be reserved
for significant skills. Stapp thinks that the teacher should be a facilitator, a
source of information, and a coordinator of educational activities and
opportunities. Hungerford would like the teacher to be much more directly
involved by leading discussions and providing structured skill development using
established curricular models. Teachers would primarily use direct and
traditional instruction for skill development, but allow for small group and

collaborative Ieaming.

30

Regardless of how teachers incorporate environmental education into their
curricula or what role they chose to take in their classrooms, they will need to
evaluate the effectiveness of their efforts. lf educators are specifying and
mandating learning objectives in environmental education, then they measure the
success of their students at accomplishing these objectives. Because
environmental education is a multidisciplinary subject evaluating student success
can be challenging and the tools used for assessments can take many forms.

How do you evaluate changes in attitude and awareness about the
environment or an increase in problem solving skills? The effective nature of
these objectives requires the use of nontraditional assessment tools. A
traditional test would be useful to measure the accumulation of knowledge or
increase in cognition about fundamental ideas in ecology, which is important for
environmental education. However, the experts like Stapp and Hungerford
recommend alternative assessments, which, are not necessarily new but have
not been commonly applied to the sciences until recently.

Stapp (as cited in Bardwell et al, 1994) suggests the use of student
reflection and self-assessment in the form of journals and peer review to evaluate
achievement of objectives. Hungerford looks for competency in skills by
employing teacher developed skill tests. Students are also responsible for
developing an investigation plan about an environmental issue. Students sign a
contract with the teacher on the plan and then the teacher uses the contract to
evaluate student progress. Students prepare final oral and written reports about

their investigations and issues for presentation to the class and teacher. These

31

are not the only tools that can be used to evaluate outcomes in environmental
education though. Marcinkowski (1989) explains many more alternative
assessments to a traditional test such as: manipulative tasks and investigations,
writing assessments, oral discourse, exhibitions, portfolios, and concept
mapping. The point is that there are a great number of assessment tools
available to environmental education teachers. Any of them alone or in
combination is sufficient and appropriate to use.

This literature review proved to be quite informative and brings to light
several interesting and significant differences between ecological education and
environmental education with respect to their respective goals, implementation,
and evaluation. While the goal of ecological educations’ goal is primarily
increasing knowledge base in the cognitive domain, environmental education is
targeted at a learners’ affective domain. This definition of environmental science
emphasizes that point, “Environmental Education is aimed at producing a
citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its
associated problems, aware of how to help solve those problems, and motivated
to work towards their resolution” (Stapp, et al., 1969)

Ecological education has been implemented in K-12 curricula throughout
the United States with relative ease and success. It think this is due in part, to
the fact that it is a single discipline, the curriculum is well defined, there are
plenty of resources available, and that student achievement if fairty easy to
evaluate by objective means. This is not the case for environmental education.

It is multidisciplinary in nature and the curriculum is still evolving. Every bit of

32

information I have read says that a comprehensive environmental education
program will be cost prohibitive to implement because is does span multiple
topics and involve a huge number of students and staff. In my own experience
the greatest difficulties with implementation come form:

1. Lack of financial resources

2. Availability of time

3. Accessibility to resources

4. Lack of appropriate teacher training

Finally, student achievement is much more difficult to evaluate in
environmental education because of its affective nature. In fact, measuring
success requires some pretty creative tools in comparison to those typically used

ecological education.

33

IMPLEMENTATION
DEMOGRAPHICS

Fowlerville is a rapidly changing village located in central, Lower Michigan
between Detroit and Lansing. Vifithin the last 20 years it has changed from a
small, rural, predominantly agricultural community to a manufacturing and
industry based town. Many of the large family farms that used to exist have
disappeared and given way to subdivisions. Although you will still see a family
owned IGA and a granary and feed warehouse as you pass the main four
corners of town.

Fowlerville is nestled in western Livingston County. Neighboring school
districts are Howell, Hartland, and Brighton. Livingston County is the fastest
growing county in Michigan and one of the fastest growing in the United States.
We are seeing a great influx of families from Lansing and Detroit, as it is centrally
located between the two cities on the l-96 corridor. This contributes to a
somewhat transient population and a large number of families living in rental type
communities. The NCA accredited district spans 116 square miles with a
population of 15,000 individuals. From the years 1997-2003 enrollment
increased 10.2%, from 2866 to 3188 students.

Students must pass three credits of science to graduate from Fowlerville.
Typically 9th graders will take Earth Science/Physical Science and10‘" graders
will take Biology I. The third year of science is an elective and so students may
choose from a variety of courses based on their needs and interests. All but a

few sophomores take Biology I and therefore we have seven or eight section of

34

it. I am responsible for three of those sections which are usually composed of 24
-28 students of varying talents. Within the classes there is great economic

diversity but little or no ethnic diversity.

METHODOLOGY

The unit designed for the study of the environment originally included only
one chapter from the textbook, “Biology: The Dynamic of Life” published by
Glencoe/McGraw—Hill, 1995. The unit was enfitled Principles of Ecology. Since
then the environmental unit has increased in scope to include three chapters in
the textbook: Chapter 3 — Principles of Ecology, Chapter 4 - Community
Distribution, and Chapter 5 - Population Biology. Figure 1 is an outline of the
Principles in Ecology unit showing individual chapter and topics of the textbook
along with the corresponding objectives and student activities. I have included
copies of student activities and assignments hat I feel are unique to this unit and
promote the development and use of authentic inquiry skills. Figure 2 is a similar
outline showing the topics and corresponding activities that have been added

since the original Principles in Ecology Unit.

35

TABLE 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY UNIT OUTLINE

 

 

 

Section Topic Activity/Assignment
with Appendix reference)
Organisms and Their . Biotic and abiotic Pretesthost-test(A1)
Environment factors.
Objectives (A2)
. Levels of biological
organization Vocabulary Terms
. Niche and Habitat Nature Walk - Outside
Ecology (A3)
How Organisms Interact . Types of symbiotic Transparency - Food
relationships Webs

 

. Ecological pyramids

and Nutrient cycles

 

Guided Reading Notes
(A4)

Relationships in a
Community Worksheet

Grassland Community
Food Web Worksheet

Transparency —
Biological Pyramids

Transparency -
Carbon and Nitrogen
Cycles

“Mineral Nutrition of
Lemna (A5)

Model Your Own
Ecosystem Using “Eco-
columns

Vocabulary Quiz

Chapter review

Post-test evaluation.

 

36

 

PretestIPost-test Evaluation: Principles in Ecology (A): The goal of the
pretest is to see what the student already knows and what they don’t. I use it to
establish a baseline or point from which to start the unit. It also serves as a tool
by which I can measure student achievement because it makes up a portion of
my post-test evaluation. Assessment should measure mastery of ecological
objectives and nothing else like the students ability to follow instructions or
grammar. I give it and show the results to the students and save it for later to
compare with post-test results. Students enjoy seeing their improvement.
Objectives: This is a list of goals. I determined the goals to include based on
what is mandated in the Michigan Curriculum Science Benchmarks. This gives
students an idea of daily activities and expectations for Ieaming. Also, it helps to
organize the students and teacher.

Vocabulary Terms: The students must read through the unit content and define
the terms listed. Then, often as a warm up I will ask them to use vocabulary lists
and practice them with a nearby partner. Students seem to like the vocabulary
assignments because they are not difficult to accomplish and are “easy points”.
What concerns me is the level of engagement that the students experience.
They can complete the assignment without ever really thinking about the terms
they are defining. I question the effectiveness of vocabulary assignments but
have not had the opportunity to measure. However, understanding vocabulary is
critical to success in science.

Guiding Reading Notes (8): The goal of this activity is to get students to read

critically and gather information independently. If students do their preliminary

37

work, then I do not have to lecture as much and can move to activities that
engage the students and reinforce concepts. I do go over notes to give
examples of and clarify concepts that I know students typically struggle with and
give them an opportunity to ask questions. Often these types of notes serve as a
reference for future labs and activities. Students learn very quickly that putting
effort into these will pay off later. So, the quality of the responses seen in these
types of assignments usually increases throughout the year. Students would not
be expected to complete these in one day. They are broken into sections to
correspond to the objectives being covered the next day. I try to make the
guided reading notes an inquiry type of assignment. There are questions
embedded in them that they must answer and diagrams that they must create
based on the information and examples given in the textbook, and their own
experiences.

Transparency 3 - Food Web: Allows me to assess whether students
understand basics and gives practice with comprehension and expression of
fundamental ideas. Low point value given. Completion is necessary for full
points and questions are discussed in class so that answers can be modified for
full point value. This motivates students to pay attention to discussions and
correct mistakes.

Nature Walk - “Outside Ecology” (C): In this activity students are split into
groups of three to four individuals. We take a 25 - 30 minute walk through an
“old field” which and then into a deciduous forest. I point out various organisms

and ask students what they know about them. Students are free to ask

38

questions about the organisms and to handle them if it is appropriate. The
assignment is that the students must decide the niche, habitat, and trophic level
of each organism and incorporate them into a food web consisting of eleven
organisms. They must also describe various biotic and abiotic factors in the
area and answer other questions about the woodlot. Groups must use
information about the organisms they observed to complete the Nature Study
Guide. Not all groups will be identical.

The students enjoy this activity and perform quite well on it usually. The
hands-on nature of it engages the students and motivates them to find out more
about the organisms they observed. They will often go back to the woodlot on
their own and investigate more.

Relationships in a Community Worksheet: Used in place of, or in addition to
the previous assignment. It is useful for general biology because it requires less
reading and writing which is extremely difficult for some students. It allows them
to work with the concepts and be successful but actively without getting bogged
down in the physical process of writing.

Grassland Food Web Worksheet: The goal is to get students to assimilate
concepts related to vocabulary. The types of question have changed from earlier
assignments. These questions require more detailed answers and explanations.
Also, students are asked to “predict” the results of human activity and construct
or synthesize new ideas. So, I am trying to guide them to the higher levels of

Bloom’s taxonomy.

39

Transparency 4 - Biological Pyramids: Biological pyramids are new to
students. They are provided with an example of each type of pyramid: energy,
numbers, and biomass. I make a point of trying to connect biological pyramids
with food chains/webs. By the time we reach concept, I have returned their
nature walk assignments. Then the students use the information they collected
to construct their own biological pyramids. Students seem to comprehend the
pyramids of energy and numbers, but have difficulty with biomass.
Transparency 5 - Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle: I have found that
students are already somewhat familiar with biogeochemical cycles as a result of
the ninth grade Earth science curriculum. I review biogeochemical cycles giving
them examples that relate more directly to biology and to specific local ecology.
Food web and trophic levels continues to be reinforced. By now, students are
expected to know those concepts. This serves as another chance to assess their
progress.

Mineral Nutrition of Lemna (Duckweed) (A5): was developed at MSU during
the summer of 2000. Specific objectives of lab are listed. Because we are
looking at different levels of N03 and P04, it ties in nicely to biogeochemical
cycles and the effects of human activity on them. Analysis questions provoke
students to apply scientific knowledge outside of ecology such as: scientific
method and attitudes about environmental issues. A data set is included so that
a teacher can have a valid set of results to use in anyway they see fit. This lab is
fairly easy, reliable and cost effective. This lab can be used or modified in a
variety of ways. The students find it challenging to isolate the duckweed required

40

for the investigation. We try to a source locally so that they can collect it
themselves. This gives them an idea if its natural habitat and frame of reference
for the lab. I will make this more or less open-ended depending on the level of
the class that is performing the lab. I try to serve only as a guide in my Biology I
classes and suggest to the students that they confer with their lab group when
questions come up.

Model Your Own Ecosystem - Eco-column: I did not develop this activity, but I
have implemented it in my classroom. I have not included a copy of the original
but procedure but recommend strongly that you get a copy of the book, Bott_le
Biol : An Id Book for Ex I ri the W rl in Soda 8 la and her
Reeyclable Materials. This project ties in all objectives for the Principles of
Ecology unit. The instructions and diagrams are clear decreasing the students’
anxiety about a big project. Students are required to use what they have learned
about feeding relationships, interactions, energy flow, and nutrient cycling to
create their own mini ecosystems in 2-Iiter bottles. They must determine the
types and numbers of organisms that they include in their eco-columns and
provide justification for it. They must design and construct eco-columns so that it
is appropriate for their biotic components by providing the right abiotic
components. Once the eco-column is completed students are required to use a
variety of scientific process skills. They observe their eco-columns at least two
times a week for three to four weeks. Observations are recorded and at the end

of the time frame given, they answer questions about their eco-columns. They

41

are also required to observe their classmates’ eco—columns and compare and
contrast them with their own.

Guidelines for a variety of different eco-columns are provided. This is very
open-ended and allows students to be creative while using scientific process.
This is a great inquiry based Ieaming activity and students learn a great deal
from this activity. Because this activity requires three to four weeks of
observation, I set it up at the end of the basic ecology unit and let it run through
the next unit, Community Distribution and Population Dynamics. It has great
relevance and can be used to learn reinforce concepts in that unit.

Vocabulary Quiz: Formal assessment of understanding of vocabulary terms
which serves as a progress check for the students

Review: One last look at objectives, terms, and concepts. Give students a final
look at expectations and a chance to sample possible test questions. I make this
structures and teacher guided.

Post-test Evaluation - Principles in Ecology: Post-test evaluation of
achievement. It is the same as the pretest and scores are compared to pre-test
scores to determine improvement and to isolate concepts that require
remediation. Also, can be used to modify lessons and teaching methods,

especially for students with special needs and learning styles.

42

TABLE 2: COMMUNITY DISRIBUTION AND POPULATION DYNAMICS UNIT

 

 

OUTLINE
Section Objectives Activities with
Appendix Reference

Homeostasis in . Explain how limiting Unit Pretestlpost—test

Communities factors and ranges of (A6)
tolerance affect
distribution of Chapter Objectives (A7)
organisms.

. Sequence the stages Observing Soil Bacteria
of succession in Using Wmogradsky
different communities. Columns(A8)

Biomes . Compare and contrast Calculating Soil Organic
the euphotic and Matter Using Soil Ignition
aphotoic zones of (9)

ocean biomes.

. Identify major limiting

factors affecting the
distribution of
terrestrial biomes.

. Distinguish among the

terrestrial biomes.

Water Quality
Testing (A1 0)

Continue to observe and
analyze Eco-columns

Eco-Columns
Observations and
Questions Worksheet
(A1 1)

 

 

Population Dynamics

 

. Compare and contrast

exponential and linear
population growth.

. Relate the repro-

ductive strategies of
different populations
of organisms to
models of population
growth.

. Predict the effects of

environmental factors
on population growth.

Investigation already in
use serve this section.

 

 

When teaching these topics I followed a similar pattern of pre-test, post-

test, group work, discussion, and in class inquiry based activities as I did when

teaching the Principles of Ecology Unit. The lab investigations implemented in

43

 

this unit were: Calculating Soil Organic Matter Using Soil Ignition, Observing Soil
Bacterial Using a V\finogradsky Column, and Water Quality Testing. All of these
activities reinforce the concepts of ranges of tolerance, succession and the
relationship between biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. Students
collected all samples for these labs locally, which get them back outside
observing and collecting data in their environment. Ultimately, I would like
students to collect data one year to the next so they can see the on-going
dynamic nature of science. Although, I am unable to report formal data from
these chapters, l have given anecdotal observations and descriptions of the lab
investigations and Injury-based activities. I have included the pre and post-tests
and chapter objectives so that the goals of this unit are clear.
Observing Soil Bacteria Using Winogradsky Columns (A8): Soil bacteria can
fill many roles in the environment from producer, to decomposer, to nitrogen
fixer, to parasite. However, since bacteria are small, students tend to
underestimate their importance in the ecosystem and fail to understand their
niche. In this lab students construct Wmogradsky Columns, which they use to
observe many different types of bacteria. Concepts discussed in this lab are:
decomposition, succession, niche, chemosynthesis, photosynthesis, nitrogen
fixation, and bacterial structure and classification.

This lab requires the students to be very active. They must build the
column themselves and then observe over the course of three or four weeks.
They take ownership of and become very protective of their Wmogradsky

Columns, almost like they were pets. They get particularly excited when the

44

colored bacteria become visible and become very animated and curious when
the sulfur bacteria start producing the rotten egg smell. This sparks a great deal
of discussion and comparison within and between lab groups.

Calculating Organic Matter Using Soil Ignition (A9): Decomposing organic
material in the soil allows many nutrients to be available that in turn influence the
plant, animal, and microorganisms populations in the soil. In this investigation,
students determine the amount of organic material in soil samples collected from
various locations on the campus of Fowlerville High School or at their homes.
Once they have determined the amount of organic matter present in the soil, they
compare the various forms of life that are present there. Concepts reinforced by
discussion resulting from this lab are succession, nutrient cycling, tolerance
limits, decomposition, and biomes.

Students become engaged in this lab easily because they are allowed to
choose which soil they will use and to go outdoors to collect the samples. They
are surprised to see the differences in organic material in the soil and how that
affects the living things in the area. They become especially excited about this
activity after the fact when they realize the connections it has to the previous unit,
Principles in Ecology, and that they can use the information learned there to
explain results from this lab.

Water Quality Testing (A10): Water samples were collected from three different
sources on and around the campus of Fowlerville High School. The samples
were from a pond, a stream, and an aquatic eco—column constructed by a

student. Students worked in groups using Hacht Kits to determine the levels of

45

dissolved oxygen, nitrates, total solids, pH, turbidity, and the biological oxygen
demand of the samples. The students analyzed results and tried to explain
differences between the water sources. Students were given a reading
assignment in Wag, a book by V\filliam Stapp, to provide
information and resources so that they could attempt to find meaning in their
results.

Initially students have a difficult time with this lab. The procedures for the
individual tests are a little confusing and the newness of the materials causes
frustration. However, because the students must repeat their particular test on
multiple samples, they develop comfort and competency with their skill. I see a
sense of satisfaction evolve in students as we conduct this investigation and I
see a great deal of mentoring between more and less proficient students.

One aspect of this lab that I really like is not all students get to do all of the
tests. This is because of budget constraints within the school district. Therefore,
students must rely on other groups to determine some of their test results for
them and then share information. I think this gives them a realistic view of the
collaboration that goes on in a real science laboratory and an understanding of
how data is generated and analyzed in a group.

Eco-column Observations and Questions Worksheet A1 1: This activity it the
wrap up activity and brings closure to the unit. Students must apply all of the
concepts they’ve mastered in order to be successful. They work collaboratively
to get the best answers they can and reveal that they really understand the

material.

46

RESULTS

The data formally presented here represents data from only one school
year. It is one set of pre-test and post-test scores for the unit entitled Principles
of Ecology from the year 2001.

Figure 1: Student Pretesthost-test Comparison Graph — 3rd Hour

Pretesthost-test Comparison - 3rd Hour

‘ IPretest
lPost-test
10':
I
5?
L1727374WSVG77787779V10811'127

Student Number

Score out of 25

O

A paired t-test was performed for the 3'‘1 hour class data. The results are as
follows:

t = -7.10

Degrees of freedom = 11

The probability of this result, assuming the null hypothesis, is 0.00.

47

Figure 2: Student Pretesthost—test Comparison Graph - 4th Hour

Pretesthost-test Comparison - 4th Hour

lllllllllllllllllm

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Student Number

Score Out of 25

A paired t-test was performed for the 4th hour class data. The results are as
follows:

T = -10.4

Degrees of freedom = 16

The probability of this result, assuming the null hypothesis, is 0.00.

48

Figure 3: Student Pretest/Post—test Comparison Graph - 5th Hour

Pretesthost—test Comparison - 5th Hour

30

N

0

I Pretest
I l I Post-test
O

9 10 11 1213 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Student Number

Score out of 25

UI

A paired t-test was performed for the 5th hour class data. The results are as
follows:

T = -6.10

Degrees of freedom - 19

The probability of this result, assuming the null hypothesis, is 0.00

49

CONCLUSIONS

This data set represents the first attempt at modifying my curriculum to
address the objectives discussed in the introduction portion of this thesis. In the
years since the unit has evolved to include approximately 2 V2 chapters worth of
information. It now includes ecology fundamentals with more Environmental
Education based themes like increasing social awareness, developing a
responsibility for the environment, and understanding that resources can be used
in a variety of ways, preferably in a fashion that promotes sustainability. Pre and
post-test have been created for the newer portions of the unit but I cannot report
formal results for these sections due to policy constrains. However, I can
comment on them informally and have included the student materials in the
appendix so that the evolution of my unit over the last several years can be seen.

The average improvement for all three classes was 43.6%, which indicate
that to some extent students are learning ecology concepts and that this style of
teaching is effective. I am concerned about the validity of the data with respect
to what it actually represents. Was the improvement a reflection of the fact that
the pre and post-test were the same and the students felt more comfortable with
it the second time around or did they truly learn the concepts? I suspect that
both play a part in the results. Although, I did not discuss the questions or
answers to the pre-test after it was given. The only input was the information and
activities discussed in the implementation section and shown in the appendix.

Since then, I have altered the pre and post-tests to be more objective.

Certain portions have been modified to a Scan-tron format so that the answers

50

are either correct or incorrect and are scored by a machine. There are still
questions that are subjective and are included to show changes in attitude and
awareness. These questions are short answer and essay style and require the
students to write. As a result, student with poor reading or writing skills may
score lower on this portion but I think that relative improvement will still be
indicated. I also use other tools now to evaluate the more affective, attitudinal
aspects of the unit. Often times this takes place informally as a “warm-up”
question on the board at the beginning of class or as reflection questions given at
the end of class. More formally, student responses to analysis questions
included in the investigations can be used to monitor progress.

Some students did not use complete sentences on the short answer section of
the tests. Because this expectation was clearly indicated in the instructions,
points were deducted if this didn’t take place. Obviously this is a test of
instruction following skills and not scientific knowledge and may have affected my
results in ways that I had not intended.

When asked, students indicated that they sometimes could not answer the
question because they were unsure of what the question was asking. In future
years I instructed the students to circle the terms that they did not recognize in
the pre-test. The terms frequently circles were in #2 — “symbiotic relationship”
and in question #3 - “niche”.

It was also possible that students are not motivated to perform well on pre-
tests because they are pre-tests. Most students understand that pre-tests scores

do not count toward their grade like a post-test does. I try to counter act that by

51

assigning a small point value to the pretest that is given if the students make a
reasonable effort. I determine that using two criteria. First, did they take the
time to read the entire test? Second, did they circle the terms they were
unfamiliar with in the short answer section of the test?

My final observations are as follows:
1. Students are more interested and engaged in an active, investigation-oriented
classroom.
2. Students perform the investigations better and have an increased
understanding of the scientific process after experiencing this type of unit as
demonstrated by designing experiments in future units.
3. Students did become more aware of their local ecology as a result of this unit.
On subsequent nature walks students were able to identify various organisms
that they couldn’t previously. They also reported back to me on occasion of
activities that they had engaged in since the unit that immersed them in their
environment.
4. The campus at Fowlerville High school does provide many resources and
opportunities for fieldwork but I have more difficulty making use of them than I
thought. Factors such as weather, class behavior, time of day the class is
offered, portability of equipment, mobility of students can vary from year to year
and make an entirely fieldwork based unit unlikely. I will still take my students
outside and approach this unit with fieldwork opportunities whenever possible

and appropriate for the learning objective. However, I have Ieamed that some

52

concepts can be taught in the lab just as well or better than outside and that

sometimes going outside distracts from the learning.

53

LITERATURE CITED

Adkins, Carol and Bora Simmons Outdoor, Experiential, and Environmental
Education: Converging or Diverging Approaches, ERIC Digest, ERIC
Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston, VW, 2002

Allaby, M. Basics of environmental Science, Routledge, New York, 1996

Bardwell, L., Monroe, M., 8: Tudor, M. (Eds) (1994). Environmental Problem
Solving: Theory, Practice, and Possibilities in Environmental Education. Troy,
OH: North American Association of Environmental Education.

Barab, S. A. and Kenneth Hay Doing Science at the Elbows of Experts: Issues
Related to the Science Apprenticeship camp. School of education, Indiana
University (PROFFI'IT Grant), John erlet and Sons, inc. 2002

Battersby, J. Does Environmental Education Have “Street Credibility” and the
Potential to Reduce Pupil Disaffection Within and Beyond Their School
Curriculum? Cambridge Journal of Education; NOV. 1999; 29,3; Education
Module pg. 477

Braus, J. A. and David Woods Environmental Education in the Schools: Creating
a Program that Works! Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and
Environmental Education, the Ohio State University. Originally published by the
US. Peace Corps, Information and Collection Exchange, Washington DC, 1993

Cherif, Abour H. Barriers to Ecology Education in North American High Schools:
Another Alternative Perspective, Journal of Environmental Education, VOL. 23,
NO. 3 1992: p. 36 - 46

Cuban, L. Curriculum Stability and Change, In The American Biology Teacher,
Washington: MAR 2003, Vol. 65. Iss. 3; p171

Disinger, John F. Environmental Education’s Definitional Problem, In Essential
readings in Environmental Education, edited by H. Hungerford, W. Bluhm, T.
Volk, J. Ramsey. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL, 1998

Disinger, John F. Environmental Education in K-12 Curriculum, Clearinghouse
for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education, Information Bulletin
NO. 2, Columbus, OH, 1987

Disinger, John F. Field Instruction in School Settings, ERIC/SMEAC

Environmental Digest NO. 1, ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and
Environmental Education, Columbus, OH, 1994

54

Education for the Earth: A Guide to Top Environmental Studies Programs.
Peterson’s Guides, Princeton, NJ, 1993

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development for Primary School
Teachers and Educators in Africa, Edited by P. Muyanda-Mutebi and M. Yiga-
Matovu, The ASESP Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya, 1993

Federal Register, October 16, 1992, p. 47516

Fowlerville Community Schools Annual Report, 2002 - 2003

Gill, R, and Ingrid C. Burke Using an Environmental Science Course to Promote
Scientific Literacy: Expanded Critical Thinking Skills Beyond the Environmental
Sciences, Journal of Science Teaching, NOV. 1999, p.105

Grahame, J.G. Smith, Henry J. Steck, and Gerald Surette Our ecological Crisis:
Its Biological, Economic, and Political Dimensions, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, 1974

Golley, Frank B. A Primer for Environmental Literacy, Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1998

Haury, David L. Teaching Science Through Inquiry with Archived Data, ERIC
Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental
Education, Columbus, OH, 2001

Hug, J. Two Hats, In Essential Readings in Environmental Education, Edited by
H. Hungerford, W. Bluhm, T. Volk, and J. Ramsey, Stipes Publishing,
Champaign, IL, 1998

Hungerford, H, and RB. Peyton Procedures for Developing an Environmental
Education Curriculum, In Essential readings in Environmental science, Edited by
H. Hungerford, W. Bluhm, T. Volk, and J. Ramsey, Stipes Publishing,
Champaign, IL, 1998

Kirk, M., Richard Nike, and Abbey Ruskey A Survey of the Status of State-
Level Environmental Education in the US, In Essential Readings in
Environmental Education, Edited by H. Hungerford, W. Bluhm, T. Volk and J.
Ramsey, Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL, 1998

Lisowski, M. The Effects of F ield-Based Learning on Student Understanding of
Selected Ecological Concepts, ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics,
and Environmental Education, Columbus, OH, 1992

McComas, eriam F. The Ideal Environmental Science Curriculum: I. History,

Rationale, Misconceptions, and Standards, In The American Biology Teacher,
Washington: NOV/DEC 2002, VOL 64, Iss. 9; pg. 665

55

Michigan Curriculum Framework: Science Content Benchmarks, Summer 2002

Stapp, William B. The Concept of Environmental Education, Environmental
Education, Vol. 1 (1): 1969, p. 30—31

Swan, Malcom Forerunners of Environmental Education, In Essential Readings
in Environmental Education, Edited by H. Hungerford, W. Bluhm, T. Volk, and J.
Ramsey, Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL, 1998

The Tbilisi Declaration, Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental
Education: Oct 14 — 26, 1977

GENERAL REFERENCES
Biology: The Dynamics of Life, GlencoelMcGraw-Hill, 1995
Bottle Biology: An Idea Book for Exploring the World Using Soda Bottles and
Other Recyclable Materials, Kendal/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, IA,
2003
Mitchell, Mark K. and William B. Stapp Field Manual for Water Quality

Monitoring: An Environmental Education Program for Schools, Kendall/Hunt
Publishing Company, Dubuque, IA, 1997

56

APPENDIX A
STUDENT HANDOUTS

57

PretestIPost-test A1 Name:
Unit 1: Principles of Ecology Date:

Instructions — Read the following earagregh carefully. Then, respond to the
guestions below in comelete sentences. Please do your veg Est. However, if
you do not know an answer, eimgly skip the guestion.

Milkweed, pictured in figure 3-1 is a plant found in pastures and along
roadsides in eastern and central North America. It gets its name from the milky,
white sap that oozes when the plant is injured. Milkweed flowers June through
July and if fertilized, large seedpods form that will open in the fall. The following
observations were taken from a scientist’s field study of the milkweed plant from
spring through fall.

In the summer, the sugary nectar made by the milkweed’s flower attracts
bees, butterflies, moths, and a variety of smaller insects that cany pollen away
when they leave. Milkweed nectar seems to be the main source of nutrition for
several species of small moths, ants, mosquitoes, and flies. Monarch butterflies,
which visit in large numbers, lay their eggs on the plants. The caterpillars feed
on the leaves when they hatch. As fall approaches, milkweed bugs begin to
attack the developing seeds and milkweed beetles eat the leaves.

Aphids, which suck the milkweed sap, are found throughout the year. Crab
spiders do not feed on the plant itself, but on most of the insects that visit the
plant. In two to three weeks while the milkweed are in bloom, successful adult
female crab spiders may increase ten times in mass before laying their eggs on
the inner surface of the leaves. Some of the species of flies and wasps that
come to the plant feed on these eggs. Harvestmen spiders also called “daddy
Ionglegs” recover and feed on the remains left by predators.

1. Based on the scientist’s observations, formulate two possible hypotheses
about the effect of the crab spiders on the survival of the milkweed plant

2. How would you describe the symbiotic relationship between the aphids and
the milkweed?

3. What is the niche of the harvestrnen spiders?

4. Based on the scientist’s observations, what is one food chain that begins with
the milkweed?

5. How would you characterize the interaction between the milkweed and the
organisms that visit or live on the plant?

lnstructiens — Using figure $2, in the seace at the left, write the letter of the word

r h th t tcom Ietest tatement or answ rs ue ti n.

6. Suppose that 10,000 units of energy are available to the grasses, what

58

is the total amount of energy lost by the _time it reaches the coyote?
a. 9 units b. 90 units c. 990 units d. 9990 units

7. As matter and energy move from grasses to coyote, the amount of
available energy and population size
a. decrease, increases 0. decreases, increases or decreases
b. increases, decreases d. increases or decreases, remains the
same.

 

8. The relationship between the cats and mice could best be described as

a. predator-prey c. parasitehost
b. scavenger-carrian d. autotroph-heterotroph

9. The coyotes would be considered
a. herbivores c. second-order consumers
b. third-order consumers d. decomposers

10. Energy flows from

a. coyotes to grasses c. mice to cats
b. cats to mice d. coyotes to cats

59

Figure 3-1

 

 

 

 

[Milkweed Beetle

Figure 3-2 ’11 Idme‘mw" was?

 

6O

Figure 3-1

 

Mud-daubcr wasp

 

Figure 3-2

60

Objectives A2
Unit 1: Principles of Ecology

1.

2.

9°

9" P

Distinguish between biotic and abioitc factors in the environment.
Compare the different levels of biological organization used in ecology.
Explain the difference between habitat and niche.

Compare and contrast the different types of symbiotic relationships.

Explain the relationships between energy and matter as shown by ecological
pyramids.

Compare and contrast the ways in which nitrogen, carbon, and water cycle
through the biotic and abiotic parts of the environment.

61

Nature Walk - Outside Ecology A3

Observations and Analysis Questions

1. List three biotic factors that are found in the woods.

2. List three abiotic factors found in the woods.

3. Find two organisms and describe each organism’s niche.

4. What are the habitats of the organisms listed above?

5. is a relationship between two organisms in which one
benefits and the other remains unaffected. Find and describe on e example.

 

6. is a relationship between two organisms in which both
organisms benefit from the relationship. F indand describe one example.

7. is a relationship between two organisms in which one
organism benefits and one is harmed. Find one example and describe it.

8. List three producers that are found in the woods.

9. List three first-order consumers that you observed.

10. List three second order consumers that you observed.

11. List two decomposers that are found in the woods.

12. Diagram a food web using all eleven organisms that you listed above.

62

Principles of Ecology A4
Guided reading Notes

I. 3.1 Organisms and Their Environment

A. Ecology — the study of interactions of organisms with their physical
environment and with each other.

1. Biotic Factors - all the living organisms that inhabit an environment.
> Biosphere — the zones of air land and water at the surface of the
Earth occupied by living things.
. Aquatic - water
- Terrestrial — land
2. Abiotic Factors — the nonliving parts of the environment
Air temperature
Air currents
Soil
Moisture
Elevation
Slope

B. Levels of Organization — The Hierarchy of Life

Qrganism - anything that exhibits all of the “attributes” of life.
> Species - a group of interbreeding individuals that can produce fertile
offspring. (They are reproductively isolated from others.

Poeuletion — a group s of organisms of one species living in the same
place at the same time that interbreeds.
> Individuals with in a population compete for resources.
How do organisms with in a population reduce competition?
- Spread out - increase range.
- Have different food requirements between juveniles and adults
Example — fawns and does/bucks.
- Have different habitat requirements between juveniles and adults.
Example - tadpoles and frogs.
Dragonfly and larva.

CommunEy' - a collection of interacting populations,
> A change in one population will cause a change in the other
populations.
Example -

63

Ecosystem — all the organisms in a community plus the associated abiotic
factors with which they interact.
> Within an ecosystem, each organisms has a job or function called it’s

niche

Niche = the role a species plays in a community.
- Food

- space

. conditions needed for reproduction.

Habitat = where an organism lives out its life.
Example =

How Organisms Interact
A. Feeding Relationships
1. autotroeh - organisms that use energy from the sun or
energy stored in chemical compounds to manufacture their
own food.
Example =

- Photoautotroph = organisms that use light as a source of
energy for food productions. (photosynthesis)
Example -

- Chemoautotroph = organisms that use chemicals such as
sulfur compounds, instead of light as an energy source
for food production.

Example -

2. Heteretroeh = organisms that depend on autotrophs as a
source of their nutrients.
- ngenge - animals that feed on carrion, refuse, and
similar dead organisms.

- [33mm - Organisms that breakdown and absorb
nutrients from dead organisms.

Hey, these two sound a lot alike. What’s the difference?
B. Close Relationships
Symbiosis = “living together”

1. Commenealiem = a relationship between two organisms in
which one benefits and the other remains indifferent.

- Example = Spanish moss in a cypress tree.

2. Mutuelism = a relationship between two organisms in which
both organisms benefit from the relationship.

. Example = bacteria in the gut of termites.

3. Parasitism = a relationship between two individuals in which
one organism benefits and one is harmed.

- Example = a tick on a whitetail deer.
C. Matter and Energy Flow in Ecosystems
1. Food chain - a simple model of how matter and energy
move throughout an ecosystem.
algae -) fish 9 heron
- Arrows indicate the direction in which energy is
transferred.
. There are always 3 links but rarely more than 5.
a. Treehic Level — “feeding level” or “feeding step”.
1) Autotrophs = producers

' W - the amount of organic

material that photosynthetic organisms of an
ecosystem can produce.

2) first order consumer — herbivore

3) second order consumer - carnivore

4) detritivores — organisms that feed on dead and
discarded organic matter; include large
scavengers, smaller animals such as earthworms
and some insects, as well as decomposers like
fungi and bacteria.
. Can function at any point in the food chain.

2. PM Web — a more complex diagram showing all possible
feeding relationships in a community.

65

3. Ecological Pyramid — diagram showing the quantitative
relationships between numbers of organisms, biomass, or
energy flow between trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Pyramid of Energy — illustrates that energy decreases at each succeeding
trophic level.

- The amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next is only
about 10%. What happens to the other 90%?

Example -
El! — 10 kg of grain are needed to build 1 kg of human tissue if we eat grain
directly. However, 100 kg of grain is needed if a cow eats the grain first and then

we eat the cow.

Take Home Lean -> eating “low on the food chain is energy wise and
ecologically beneficial.

Pyramid of Numbers — based on population sizes of organisms in each trophic

level.
flremid A flramid B

Pyramid of Biomass - expresses the weight of living material at each trophic
LavelEI'ow do you suppose this is calculated?
4. Nutrient Cycling Maintains Homeostasis
a. The Water Cycle
b. The Carbon Cycle

c. The Nitrogen Cycle

66

Mineral Nutrition of Lemna (Duckweed) A5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Purpose: (1) To determine the mineral requirements of duckweed.
(2) To relate growth rates of duckweed to abiotic factors present in
the environment.
(3) To become aware of natural an artificial causes of
eutrophication in wetland communities.
Materials: 200 ml pond water
clear plastic cups
forceps or inoculating loop
graduated cylinder
grow light or shop light
KNO3
fresh duckweed (3-4 lobes each)
phosphate buffer (See Cell and Molecular Notes for instructions)
plastic wrap
Procedure: 1 Collect Lemna (duckweed) and pond water from a local source.
2. Label plastic cups with desired treatments.
3. Use a graduated cylinder to measure 200 ml of pond water and
pour into each cup.
4. Add the desired treatment. See table 1 or determine your own.
5. Count 10 Lemna consisting of 4 lobes each and transfer them to
the cup using an inoculating loop. (it is least likely to damage
the Lemna.)
6. Cover the cups lightly with clear plastic wrap, making sure it is
not air tight, and place under the lights.
7. Observe the plants every 2 days for 8 days. Count the number
of lobes and note their arrangement and color.
8. Record your data and graph the number of living lobes on
each observation day.
Table 1
Cup # Pond Water Nitrate Phosphate Duckweed
1 200 ml -- -- 10 - 40 lobes
2 200 ml .1 % (OE) -— 10 - 40 lobes
3 200 ml .5% (1.09) -- 10 - 40 lobes
4 180 ml -- .01 molar 10 — 40 lobes
5 198 ml -- .001 molar 10 — 40 lobes
6 198 ml .1% (0.29) .01 molar 10 — 40 lobes

 

67

 

Results:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Day 0 Day Day Day Day
Cup # Living Living Living Living Living
Lobes Lobes Lobes Lobes Lobes
1
2
3
4
5
6

Analysis Questions:

1. Which cup served as the control and why?

2. What effect did adding nitrate have on the duckweed?

3. Did you see any additional effects on other organisms in the nitrate
treatments?

4. Design an experiment that would test if the duckweed and the green algae
are competing for minerals present in the water.

5. What effect did adding phosphate have?

6. Imagine that you are an ecologist and have the responsibility of managing a
lake around which many beautiful and expensive homes have been built. The
homeowners like having lush green lawns that grow right up to the shoreline
and so they fertilize their lawns heavily. Predict what will happen to the lake
over several years time. Describe the appearance of and biodiversity in the
lake in 5 years.

7. There is a shallow pond located at the bottom of a hill, on top of which sits a

dairy farm. Describe in detail what the pond would look like and the types of
organisms it would support in mid-August. Explain why you responded the
way you did.

68

 

Pretestlpost-tea A6 Name:
Unit 2: Part I - Community Distribution Date:

In the sgce at the left, write the mrd true if the stagment is true. If the

statement is false chan e the und rscored word to mak it e. Write at

W

1. A eieneer communiy is a stable, mature community
that undergoes little or no succession.

2. Conditions that restrict the existence, population
size, reproductive success or distribution organisms are called limiting factors.

3. Succession is the replacement of one community by
another as environmental condition change.

4. The range of factors under which an organism
functions and survives are called limiting factors.

5. A large group of ecosystems characterized by the
same type of dominant vegetation is called a community.

 

 

Instructions - Resflnd te the following guestions ueing comelete
gntences. Please de your b_eet. If yeg go not know an ensmr, simely
ek'e the guestion.

6. Describe the sequence of events that might happen if a slab of rock slid off
the side of a mountain in a temperate deciduous forest.

7. How can the success of one species cause the disappearance of another
species?

8. What are the three major factors that determine which biome will be dominant
in a terrestrial location?

9. Would a cleared area in a tropical rain forest make rich or poor farmland?
Please explain.

69

PretestIPost-test Name:
Unit 2: Part 2 — Population Dynamics Date:

Instructions - In the space at the left, write the letter of the term or phrase
that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Organisms that employ a strategy of slow reproduction usually require

an environment that .
a. is stable c. has cold days

b. fluctuates from year to year d. has 24 hour growing periods

2. Density-independent factors are limiting factors whose effects are
a. confined to the habitat of the population.
b. determined by how much competition there is for resources.

c. not influenced by population densities.
d. determined by the difference between birth rate and death rate.

3. For a particular species, the carrying capacity is the maximum number

of individuals that
a. the species could reach in a given time period if all of the offspring

survive and reproduce.
b. could be supported by the environment indefinitely.
c. are in their post reproductive years.
d. could be supported by the environment over a one-year period.

4. Population control factors whose effects increase, as the population
gets larger are

 

a. abiotic factors c. limiting factors

b. density-independent factors d. density-dependent factors
5. Unrestricted populations of organisms experience

a. linear growth c. fertility

b. exponential growth d. slow growth

Instructions - Answer the following questions to the best of your ability.
Use complete sentences and clear detailed responses. If you do not
recognize a word in the question, please underline it.

6. How are the reproductive patterns of a population of mosquitoes and a
population of white tailed-deer different?

7. Explain the concept of canying capacity.

8. Hungary has the world’s slowest population growth. Which age groups do
you think make up the largest portion of the population in Hungary?

70

Objectives A7
Unit 2: Community Distribution and Population Ecology

1. Explain how limiting factors and ranges of tolerance affect the distribution of
organisms.

2. Sequence the stages of succession in different communities.

3. Distinguish among terrestrial biomes by describing their climax communities.

4. Identify the major limiting factors affecting the distribution of terrestrial
biomes.

5. Compare and contrast aphotic and euphotic zones of ocean biomes.
6. Compare and contrast exponential and linear population growth

7. Relate the reproductive strategies of different organisms to models of
population growth.

71

Observing Soil Bacteria Using Winogradsky Columns A8
Introduction:

In many ways bacteria are the most successful organisms on Earth. The earliest
known fossils are 3.5 billion year old bacteria, making them the oldest group of
organisms. They existed for 2 billion years before any other living thing. Today,
bacteria can be found living almost everywhere on the globe, even is some very
hostile habitats. Bacteria occur in great abundance. One gram of rich soil can
contain about 2.5 billion bacteria.

Most bacteria are one of three different shapes, coccus, bacillus, or spirillium.
These bacteria can group together in different arrangements. Strepto means in a
chain. Staphyo means in a cluster like grapes. Put the two parts together and
you may hear some names you recognize.

Streptococcus pneumonia -> pneumonia
Staphylococcus aureua -> staph infections of the skin

All bacteria are prokapyom, which means they have no nucleus or organelles
that are covered by a membrane. They do have a “nucleoid region” and
ribosomes. In addition, they have many unique coverings that protect them and
allow them to adhere to surfaces or to each other for conjugation.

Autotrophic bacteria make their own food using simple molecules. Many
autotrophic bacteria, such as freshwater cyanobacteria are photosynthetie.
However, there is a different approach taken by some autotrophic bacteria.
Instead of light, chemosynthetic bacteria are able to use the energy stored in
sulfide, H28, to assemble carbon atoms into simple sugars. These bacteria live
in soil or around volcanic vents on the ocean floor where no sunlight can reach.

Most bacteria cannot make their own food and are therefore mm.
Many act as decomposers, feeding on dead animals, animal wastes, dead
plants, fallen leaves, fruits and branches. Other types of heterotrophic bacteria
are parasites. Parasitic bacteria are the cause of many diseases such as
tetanus, tuberculosis, syphilis, and Lyme disease.

One unique group of bacteria called nitrogen-fixing bacteria is worthy of special
mention. They are found in the soil, in aquatic ecosystems, and within the roots
of some plant species. (Legumes -> peas, clover, beans) These bacteria live in
commensal relationship with the plants. They convert atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) in to ammonia (NH4), a form of nitrogen that plants can use. This process is

called niggen fixation.

Since bacteria are so small, they are difficult to see. As a result we often
underestimate their importance in an ecosystem and fail to understand their

72

 

niehe. In this investigation we will construct Winogradsky Columns, which we
will use to observe many different types of bacteria. Upon completing this lab
you should be able to:

Explain the structure of a typical bacterium

Describe the niche of bacteria in an ecosystem

Explain the function of nitrogen fixing bacteria in the nitrogen cycle.

Relate the way a bacterium earns a living to its position in the Wmogradsky
Column.

Compare and contrast photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

Discuss several abiotic factors that affect bacterial growth.

Describe the process of succession.

Materiels: (per group of 2 — 3)

- 1 - 2 liter clear plastic bottle with 2 inches cut from the top of the bottle
' C8804

' C8CO3

0 Miracle Grow or other general fertilizer

- Sucrose

- Shredded paper towel or newspaper

NP’S" 99°10?

Stirring rods

Bucket, trowel, mud from shore of lake, stream, or pond
Plastic wrap, varying colors

Milk jug

pH test strips

The Wmogradsky Column is named after a Russian microbiologist, Sergei
Winogradsky who first used the soil column to describe the growth of various
microorganisms, particularly the photosynthetic, anaerobic bacteria. The column
is really a contained ecosystem with anaerobic and aerobic regions that develops
over a period of weeks and visually demonstrates the sulfur cycle. You will be
able to see how the system changes over time and how different organisms
interact with each other to facilitate geochemical cycling of sulfur.

Let’s consider the players Put on your thinking capsl There’s a lot of
chemistry here!

a. Oblig' ag, ehemesynthfle eneerobes (Desulfovibrio) earns a living using

organic corn ounds as a source of carbon and energy. This bacteria uses
sulfate (80.. ‘) instead of oxygen as an electron acceptor at the end of the
electron transport chain. It can be detected easily in two ways: 1. H28 gas is
produced and smells like rotten eggs. 2. A black precipitate is formed (FeS).

b. Anaegebic photgynthflc bacteria (green sulfur, purple sulfur and purple
non-sulfur bacteria) unlike plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that use H20 to

73

replace electrons lost by chlorophyll during photosynthesis and make 02 as
waste, these bacteria use a substance other than H2O. The purple and green
sulfur bacteria use H28 or 8 to replace the lost electrons and produce 8042' as a
waste product.

0. Aerobic sulfur using bacteria (Beggiatoa Thiobacillus) these are bacteria
that use suifur compounds fozr energy and CO2 as a source of carbon. They use
H28 and 8 and produce 8042‘. The 8042' reacts with H + and produce sulfuric
acid. This can cause the pH to drop to 1.0 creating very acidic conditions. Not
many things can live here.

P ure:

1. Collect enough mud to fill your bottle. Upon returning to the work area,
remove the large pebbles, twigs, and leaves etc,....by hand. Collect pond water
in a separate plastic container.

2. Mix in a teaspoon of CaCOa and a teaspoon of Ca804. (These will provide an
immediate source of sulfate and carbon dioxide for the bacteria.) The mud
should be the consistency of heavy cream. Fill to the height of about three
inches.

3. Add a 1/2 inch layer of shredded paper towel. This will provide a long-term
source of CO2 and other organic material, as the anaerobic soil bacteria degrade
the cellulose in the paper.

4. Continue to add mud until 2 inches from the top of the plastic bottle. Pack the
column tightly, eliminating all air bubbles.

5. Add a water layer to the level of about 1 inch. Cover the column with plastic
wrap. It is important that the column never dry out.

6. Incubate the column at room temperature under indirect sunlight or with
artificial illumination. Vlfithin 3 - 6 weeks it will develop the characteristic
appearance.

7. If you chose to test an abiotic factor such as addition of nitrogen (fertilizer),
extra organic material (sucrose), or changing light color or absence of light
altogether, “okay” your procedure with the instructor before beginning.

8. Observe regularly. Look for color changes, developing layers, smells, and
test the pH of the water at the top. Be sure to compare your column with others.

At the bottom of the column, where it is anaerobic, you will observe black
patches next to green and purple/bright red patches and green and purple
bacteria. The purple and red patches are intense and vivid.

Towards the middle of the column where it is still anaerobic, the purple non-sulfur
bacteria will grow. As you reach the top of the column oxygen content increases
and conditions become aerobic. Here you will find obligate aerobic sulfur users
such as Thiobacillus or Beggiatoa.

74

Results:

Use the table below to record weekly observations and changes in your
column.

 

 

 

 

Date: general observations bacteria identified
(smell, color, striations) pH

Day 0

Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

 

 

 

 

 

75

Calculating Soil Organic Matter Using Soil Ignition A9

Introduction:

One of the four major components of an ideal soil sample is the organic matter
content. The quantity of organic matter compared to inorganic minerals,
moisture, and air is only about 5% of the total for an ideal sample.

Decomposing organic material allows many necessary nutrients to be available
that in turn will influence the plant, animal, and microorganism populations of the
soil. Organic matter slows water runoff, absorbs moisture, and binds minerals
that prevent erosion and reduce Ieeching.

Organic matter has a complex and varied chemical structure. It is made mostly
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. As a result of its chemical structure, heat can
be used to remove it. The carbon and oxygen can be removed in the form of
CO2 gas and the hydrogen molecules can combine with oxygen to form water
vapor and other gases. Inorganic materials will remain. This heating technique
is called soil ignition.

The problem in this lab is to predict which soil sample has the higher organic
matter content, a managed area or an unmanaged area or a cultivated field, or
from a fencerow.

Hypethesis:

Write three or more hypothesis for this problem. Choose the one that you feel is
the best.

Materials:

Crucible tongs ring stand

Clay triangle burner

Balance soil samples

Crucible lid goggles MUST BE WORNI
N0 EXCEPTIONSI

Proeedgg:

Collect soil samples from designated locations and allow to air-dry overnight.
Weigh the crucible and lid to the nearest 0.1 9. Record this weight.

Fill the crucible with soil, cover, and reweigh. Record this weight.

Place the covered crucible on the clay triangle and the ring stand and heat.
Heating is complete when no fumes are observed leaving the crucible and the
soil sample appears uniform in grayish-black color.

5. Allow the crucible to cool for 5 minutes.

9.09.”?

76

6. Reweigh the crucible and top along with the heated sample.
Data:

Develop a data table that will include the above measurements and show the
calculations of percent organic matter.

The mass of the original sample minus the mass of the heated sample will equal
the mass of organic matter.

Mass of original sample

 

Mass of heated sample

 

Mass of organic matter

 

The mass of the organic matter divided by the total soil mass prior to heating X
100 will equal the percent organic matter.

Mas for anic tt r X 100 = %organic matter
(Mass of total soil sample)

Conclusion:

Carefully analyze the data collected. Accept or reject your hypothesis on the
basis of the data collected. Be sure to explain your reasons for accepting or
rejecting your hypothesis on the basis of observable and tabulated data.

An I is:

Answer the following questions using complete sentences and well thought out
responses.

1. According to your data, which soil sample contains the largest amount of
organic matter?

Describe the area from which the soil samples were taken.

What chemicals are used in the area from which the soil samples were taken?
Suggest possible reasons for the differences between the soil samples.
Explain how using a mulching mower instead of bagging mower could help
your lawn to grow better. Consider the carbon cycle as you think of your
answer.

9'92”.”

77

Water Quality Testing A10 Name:
Questions 8. Analysis Data:

Watershed = the land area that drain rain and snowmelt to a river.

Instructions - Use the data table to record the values determined in class for the
water quality tests. Then use this information and the information provided in
the reading material“ to answer the following questions. Read carefully and
respond thoughtfully using your best writing skills.

*Page 18 — 59 in Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring: An Environmental
Education Program for School by Mark K. Mitchell and V\filliam B. Stapp.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

W
DO N03 T8 pH TURB BOD
Pond
Stream
Eco-col
DO

1. What is the source of dissolved oxygen in lakes and streams? Explain one
way in which oxygen might become dissolved in a body of water.

2. Describe how human activities can impact the amount of dissolved oxygen in a
body of water.

3. Give example of 2 organisms that require high oxygen levels and two
organisms that can tolerate low levels of oxygen.

4. Which of the three water samples tested, the pond, the Red Cedar River, or
the eco-column water had the highest percent saturation of oxygen. Explain
why this is so.

pH

5. What is pH? Explain the pH scale.

78

6. What is acid precipitation? How does it compare to the pH values of natural
bodies of water in the US?

7. What types of organisms have the greatest range of tolerance for pH? The
narrowest?

8. pH values were determined for three different samples. Were any of them
acidic? Explain why that might be.

BOD
9. What does BOD measure?
10.What are the main contributors to high biochemical oxygen demands in rivers?
11. What is point pollution? Give two examples.
12. What is nonpoint pollution? Give two examples
13. Explain what could happen to a river that has high BOD levels.
Temperature
14. Why is the temperature of a body of water important for water quality?

15. What is one way human activity can greatly impact the temperature of a
stream?

Nitrates
16. What do living things use nitrogen for?
17. How do aquatic animals obtain the nitrogen they need?

18. Describe the three major sources of nitrogen introduced into the watershed
by human activities.

Turbidity
19. What does turbidity measure?
20. What are some sources of turbidity?

21. Which water sample had the greatest turbidity? Does this make sense?
Explain

79

Eco-Column Observations and Analysis Questions A11 Name:
Date:

Instructions - Observation should be made no less than twice a week.
However, you are encouraged to do more. Observation must be made
prior to starting class or at the end of class. Record your observations
carefully in a data table that you have created. Notice as many things as
you possible can like growth, death, condensation, decomposition, etc. Be
sure to make careful observations. Many discussions will be based on
these observations. After we have discussed your observations, answer
the following questions using complete sentences when appropriate and
always using well thought out answers.

1. What did you put inside our eco-column? Diagram your column and label the
biotic and abiotic factors you put in each of the three levels of your column.

2. Illustrate the energy transfers taking place in your eco-column by drawing a
food web of your eco—column.

3. What organisms filled the producer niche in you eco-column? Explain

4. What organisms filled the niche of herbivore in your eco-column? How do you
know?

5. What organisms filled the niche of predator in our eco-column? Wnat did you
observe that led you to believe that?

6. What organisms filled the decomposer niche in your eco-column? Did you put
them there? If not, how do you suppose they got there?

7. Is decomposition taking place in you column? What observation did you
make that support our answer?

8. Consider a biome such as a rainforest, tall grass prairie, or desert. In your
head, list some habitats that you might find in these biomes. What types of
habitats can did you represent in your eco-column?

9. Explain and example of competition that you observed in your eco-column.

10. Define succession. Did you observe it in your eco-column? Explain.

11. How does water move through your eco-column? Draw the water cycle as it
occurred in your eco-column.

8O

 

APPENDIX B

UCRIHS APPROVAL

81

 

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Midioan State University
246 Administration Building
East Lastly, Miclllmri
48824-1046

51 71355-2180

FAIL- 517/353-2976

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MICHIGAN STATE
u N l v E R s l T Y

October 23, 2001

TO: Merle HEIDEMANN
118 North Kedzie Hall
MSU

RE: IRB# 01-557 CATEGORY: EXEMPT 1-A, 1-C, 1-D
APPROVAL DATE: October 23, 2001

TITLE: F IELDWORK AS AN EFFECTIVE MEANS OF TEACHING ECOLOGY TO

SECONDARY STUDENTS , .
The University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects' (UCRIHS) review of this
project is complete and I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human
subjects appear to be adequately protected and methods to obtain informed consent are
appropriate. Therefore. the UCRIHS approved this project.

RENEWALS: UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year, beginning with the approval
date shown above. Projects continuing beyond one year must be renewed with the green
renewal form. A maximum of four such expedited renewals possible. Investigators wishing to
continue a project beyond that time need to submit it again for a complete review.

REVISIONS: UCRIHS must review any changes in procedures involving human subjects, prior
to initiation of the change. If this is done at the time of renewal, please use the green renewal
form. To revise an approved protocol at any other time during the year, send your written
request to the UCRIHS Chair, requesting revised approval and referencing the project’s IRB#
and title. Include in your request a description of the change and any revised instruments,
consent forms or advertisements that are applicable.

PROBLEMSICHANGES: Should either of the following arise during the course of the work,
notify UCRIHS promptly: 1) problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving
human subjects or 2) changes in the research environment or new information indicating
greater risk to the human subjects than existed when the protocol was previously reviewed and
approved.

If we can be of further assistance, please contact us at (517) 355-2180 or via email:
UCRIHS@msu.edu. Please note that all UCRIHS forms are located on the web:
http://www.msu.eduluser/ucrihs

Sincerely,

0W

Ashir umar,M.D. ’
UCRIHS Chair

AK: br

CC: Kirstin Atlee
572 Lincoln Avenue
Lansing, MI 48910

82

APPENDIX C
PARENT CONSTENT LETTER

83

October 12, 2001

Dear Parent and Students,

I have been working toward the completion of a Master's Degree through the Division of
Science and Mathematics Education at Michigan State University for several years. I
spent six weeks this past summer developing an Ecology unit that met the state mandated
educational objectives and made use of the natural resources that exist on Fowlerville
High School’s campus. It will be implemented this spring and will take approximately
four weeks to complete. The greatest change from what has been done will take
approximately four weeks to complete. The greatest change from what has been done
previously is that the laboratory investigations will be conducted primarily as fieldwork,
getting the students outside, interacting with and understanding their natural environment.

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of my work, I will be collecting data fi'om the
students. The data will be in the form of pre- and posttests, lab activities, homework,
journal entries and the use of technology in the classroom. The workload for the students
will not change fiom previous years and the same assignments will be required. of all
students. However, I would like your permission to use the data mentioned above in my
Master's thesis. Student names will never be associated with their work and
confidentiality will be maintained to the maximum extent the law will allow. As
mentioned, th purpose of collecting this information is to see if my efi‘orts have made a
positive impact on your child's education.

 

PTA . _

Please fill out the bottom portion of this letter and return it to me by November 15, 2001.
There is no penalty or negative impact on your student's grade if you chose not to
participate. Your child's data would simply be excluded. Your child will still be
responsible for the same work as all other members of the class. I would simmly be
unable to collect data fi'om his/her work for publication of the thesis.

Thank you for your time and consideration. If you have any questions please contact the
building principal, Mr. Don Buggia at (517)223-6002 or me at (517)223-6073.

If you you‘have any questions or concerns related to your rights as a participant, please
contact Dr. Ashir Kumar, Chair of the University Committee on Research 111ch .

Human Subjects at (517)355-2180 or email: crihs u.

Sincerely, UCRIHS APPROVAL FOR
THIS project EXPIRES:

Ms. Kirstin Atlee 0 T a

Biology Teacher C l 3 2002

Fowlerville High School SUBMIT RENEWAL APPLICATION

ONE MONTH PRIOR TO

ABOVE DATE TO CON I INUE

 

84

 

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