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SOCIAL SKILLS AND SPORTS ($3) PROGRAM: DEVELOPING
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SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES

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SOCIAL SKILLS AND SPORTS (S3) PROGRAM: DEVELOPING THE SOCIAL
SKILLS OF YOUNG ADULT SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES

By

Melissa Grace Fraser Alexander

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Kinesiology

2008

ABSTRACT

SOCIAL SKILLS AND SPORTS (S3) PROGRAM: DEVELOPING THE SOCIAL
SKILLS OF YOUNG ADULT SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES

By

Melissa Grace Fraser Alexander

The Social Skills and Sports (S3) program was designed to teach social skills to people
with intellectual disabilities within a sports setting. The purpose of the study was to determine
if participants could develop and reﬁne the target social skills as a result of S3 ; generalize
social skills to other environments; and maintain social skills ﬁve weeks after the completion
of the intervention. The three targeted social skills were contributing relevant information to a
conversation, making eye contact, and ttrrn taking. Five males and females between the ages
of 13 and 24 participated in the 14 week program that met for 90 minutes, two times a week.
Participants were taught social skills through classroom activities, soccer activities, and
material presented by their parents at home. F our peers who did not have a disability were
also included in the study to serve as role models for the people with disabilities. Participant’s
families (particularly their mothers) were incorporated into the home practice component of
the program. Data were collected through observations during the program, parent interviews,
parent rating forms, and staﬂ‘joumals. Participants’ social skills were measured on four
occasions, baseline, post—classroom, post-soccer, and retention. As a case study approach was
used, data were analyzed using visual analysis and qualitative methodology. The results of the
study are presented in two manuscripts. The ﬁrst manuscript provides results and discussion
for the three research questions. The second manuscript reports the practicality of

incorporating a social skills program into an adolescent’s home. The second manuscript also

discusses if parents valued the S3 program and if participants enjoyed the S3 program. Based
on the data, four of the ﬁve participants showed a clinically signiﬁcant increase in at least one
of the targeted skills. These four participants generalized the skills to other settings, and
maintained the skills ﬁve weeks after the completion of the intervention. Participants also
developed non-targeted social skills, such as maintaining a conversation. Three of the ﬁve
families reported that they practiced social skills for double the amount of time that was
requested for each week. However, parents felt that it was difﬁcult to ﬁnd time to practice the
social skills. Parents valued the soccer portion of the program, the speciﬁc social skills that
were chosen for the program, the use of people without disabilities as role models, and the
activities that were provided to incorporate practice at home. Participants enjoyed the soccer
and classroom portion of the program. However, two of the three participants did not enjoy

interacting with their mothers and practicing social skills at home.

This dissertation is dedicated to my loving and devoted husband whose patience and
support provided me the strength needed to complete this project. I also dedicate it to my
parents who have always supported my dreams and made me the person I am today.
Lastly, I dedicate this document to all the children in the world who have been told they

cannot do something and have gone on to prove the world wrong.

iv

ACKNOWLEDEMENTS

This research study was funded by the Special Olympics Healthy Athletes Health
Professions Student Grant and the Michigan State University Dissertation Completion
Fellowship.

The project would not have been possible without the assistance of Steven
Denton, Mary Martha Douglas, Amy Schmidt, Ashley Smeltzer, Lauren Stenson,
Madeline Weber, Courtney Wright, Samantha Wright, and Aaron Zabriski. Guidance
and support was also provided by Dr. Gail Dummer, Dr. Daniel Gould, Dr. Esther Onaga,
and Dr. Karen Pfeiffer. Lastly, a special thanks to the participants and their families for

their dedication to the program.

PREFACE

Melissa G. F. Alexander’s dissertation committee agreed to a non-traditional format for

her dissertation.

The committee accepted a grant proposal submitted to Special Olympics International
(Chapter 1) as her dissertation proposal, with the proviso that Melissa prepare and include
a more comprehensive literature review (Chapter 2) in the dissertation. The only changes
made to the grant proposal included minor revisions to the methods to reﬂect actual
participants, actual rather than proposed procedures, and changes from future to past

tense where appropriate.

The committee encouraged Melissa to present the results and discussion sections of her
dissertation (Chapters 3 and 4) in the form of journal manuscripts. This approach led to
redundancy for readers with respect to multiple presentations of the introduction,

literature review, and methods content.
m M . (SQ/rm

Gail M. Dummer, Ph.D.

Dissertation Committee Chairperson

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... xii
LIST OR FIGURES ....................................................................................................... xiv
CHAPTER 1: SPECIAL OLYMPICS GRANT PROPOSAL ....................................... 1
Project Name ..................................................................................................... 1
Project Description ............................................................................................. 1
Project Objectives .............................................................................................. 4
Rationale ............................................................................................................ 4
Social Skill for People with Intellectual Disabilities ............................. 4
Need for effective social skills ................................................... 4
Social skill characteristics of people with
intellectual disabilities ............................................................ 6
Results of social skills deﬁciencies ............................................ 7
Conceptual Model .................................................................................. 9
Direct Instruction ................................................................................... 11
Functional skills curriculum, relevant social skills .................... 11
Functional skills curriculum, developmentally
appropriate skills ..................................................................... 12
Functional skills curriculum, appropriate number
of skills ................................................................................... 12
Effective pedagogy, instructional strategies .............................. 12
Effective pedagogy, feedback and reinforcement ...................... 15
Effective pedagogy, presentation modalities ............................. 16
Effective pedagogy, disability appropriate ................................ 16
Qualiﬁed teachers ...................................................................... 17
Appropriate setting ..................................................................... 17
Effective Practice ................................................................................... 18
Appropriate activity ................................................................... 18
Multiple, natural settings ........................................................... 19
Adequate practice opportunities ................................................ 21
Multiple skilled instructors ........................................................ 21
Family involvement and support ............................................... 22
Methods .............................................................................................................. 23
Research Design ..................................................................................... 23
Participants ............................................................................................. 24
Special Olympics participants .................................................... 25
Parents ........................................................................................ 25
Partners ...................................................................................... 26
Intervention ............................................................................................ 27
Introduction phase ...................................................................... 31
Baseline phase ............................................................................ 31
Classroom phase ........................................................................ 31
Soccer phase ............................................................................... 33

vii

Party phase ................................................................................. 36

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet ...................................... 36
Instrumentation ..................................................................................... 38
Demographic proﬁle .................................................................. 38

Special Olympics Athlete Application to Participate
and Athlete Medical Update Form ...................................... 38
Interviews withParents .............................................................. 39
Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form for Parents ........... 4O
Observation Skill Rating Form .................................................. 40
Tracking Your Progress Form ................................................... 41
Journals ...................................................................................... 41
Data Collection Procedures .................................................................... 42
Staff training .............................................................................. 42
Consent process ......................................................................... 46
Data collection schedule and procedures ................................... 47
Data management ...................................................................... 49
Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 50
Personnel ............................................................................................................ 53
Student Investigator ............................................................................... 53
Faculty Advisor ...................................................................................... 54
Dissertation Committee ......................................................................... 55
Other Personnel ...................................................................................... 56
Resources ........................................................................................................... 58
Michigan State University ..................................................................... 58
Special Olympics Area 8 ....................................................................... 58
Facilities and Equipment ........................................................................ 58
Budget ................................................................................................................ 60
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 62
Social Skill Deﬁciencies of People with Intellectual Disabilities ..................... 63
Mental Retardation ................................................................................. 63
Pervasive Developmental Disabilities ................................................... 65
Cause of Social Skills Deﬁciencies ....................................................... 69
Implications of Social Skills Deﬁciencies ............................................. 7O
Conceptual Model for the Development of Social Skills .................................. 74
Alexander’s Model ................................................................................. 74
Bronfenbrenner’s Properties of Human Development and Model ........ 75
Sargent’s Conceptual Framework of Social Competence ..................... 80
Inﬂuence of Bronfenbrenner’s and Sargent’s Conceptual Models ........ 83

Research Supporting for Direct Instruction Component

of the Alexander Model ..................................................................................... 84
Functional Skills Curriculum ................................................................. 84
Relevant social skills .................................................................. 84
Developmentally appropriate skills ........................................... 86
Appropriate number of skills ..................................................... 88
Effective Pedagogy ................................................................................ 88

viii

Instructional strategies ............................................................... 88

Feedback and reinforcement ...................................................... 97

Presentation modalities .............................................................. 98

Disability appropriate ................................................................. 99

Qualiﬁed teachers .................................................................................. 99
Appropriate setting ................................................................................. 100
Support for the Effective Practice Component of the Alexander Model ........... 103
Appropriate Activity .............................................................................. 103
Multiple, Natural Settings ...................................................................... 105
Adequate Practice Opportunities ........................................................... 107
Multiple Skilled Instructors ................................................................... 108
Family Involvement and Support ........................................................... 111
Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 1 16

CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL SKILLS AND SPORTS (S3) PROGRAM: DEVELOPING THE
SOCIAL SKILLS OF YOUNG ADULT SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES ........... 117
Cover Page ......................................................................................................... l 17
Rationale for Manuscript 1: Social Skills and Sports (S3) Program:
Developing the Social Skills of Young Adult Special

Olympics Athletes ........................................................................................... 1 18
Abstract .............................................................................................................. 119
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 120
S3 Intervention ................................................................................................... 122

Introduction Phase ................................................................................. 122
Baseline Phase ....................................................................................... 122
Classroom Phase .................................................................................... 123

Soccer Phase .......................................................................................... 124

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet .................................................. 126

Party Phase ............................................................................................. 127
Method ............................................................................................................... 127
Design .................................................................................................... 127
Participants ............................................................................................. 127
Instrumentation and Data Analysis ........................................................ 129
Demographic Proﬁle .................................................................. 129

Interviews with parents .............................................................. 129

Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating form ............................... 130

Observation Skill Rating Form .................................................. 131

Results ................................................................................................................ 133
Tony ........................................................................................... 133

Jeff. ............................................................................................. 136

Billy ............................................................................................ 140

John ............................................................................................ 143

Jackie .......................................................................................... 147

Discussion .......................................................................................................... 149
Figures and Charts ............................................................................................. 156

ix

CHAPTER 4: TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS THROUGH SPORTS AND HOME
PRACTICE: IS INSTRUCTION PRACTICAL, VALUED, AND ENJOYED BY

ATHLETES AND PARENTS?

Cover Page ........................................................................................................ 168

Rationale for Manuscript 2. Teaching Social Skills through Sports
And Home Practice. Is it Practical, Valued, and Enjoyed by Athletes? ............ 169
Abstract .............................................................................................................. 170
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 171
Method ............................................................................................................... 173
Participants ............................................................................................. 173
Social Skills and Sports (S3 ) program .................................................... 174
Classroom .................................................................................. 174
Soccer ......................................................................................... 175
Parent Supplemental Activities Packet ...................................... 175
Instrumentation and Data Analysis ........................................................ 177
Attendance ................................................................................. 177
Tracking your progress forms .................................................... 177
Parent interviews ........................................................................ 177
Staff Journals ............................................................................. 178
Results ................................................................................................................ 1 79
Was S3 Valued by Parents? .................................................................... 179
Parental support of child’ participation ...................................... 179
Selection of social skills ............................................................. 179
Sport context .............................................................................. 179
Integrated setting ........................................................................ 180
Parent supplemental activities packet ........................................ 180
Did Athletes Enjoy S3 ............................................................................ 182
Classroom and soccer components of program ......................... 182
Parent supplemental activities packet ........................................ 183
Were S3 Home Activities Practical To Implement ................................ 185
User-friendliness of packet ..................................................... 185
Incorporated into activities of daily living? ............................ 185
Amount of time devoted to the practice of social skills .......... 187
Recording practice time .......................................................... 188
Discussion .......................................................................................................... 1 89
Tables and Figures ............................................................................................. 195
CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL REFLECTION .................................................................. 198
Conclusions about Study .................................................................................... 199
Future Research Studies ..................................................................................... 202

APPENDICES

A. Sample Classroom Lesson Plan ................................................................... 204
B. Sample Soccer Lesson Plan ......................................................................... 206
C. Sample of Parent Packet .............................................................................. 208
D. Demographic Proﬁle .................................................................................... 212

E. Special Olympics Forms .............................................................................. 215
F. Parent Interviews ........................................................................................ 219
G. Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form for Parents ............................. 224
H. Observation Skill Rating Form .................................................................... 229
1. Tracking Your Progress form ...................................................................... 231
J. Coach, Instructor, and Partner Journals ........................................................ 233
K. General Manual Table of Contents .............................................................. 237
L. Consent form .............................................................................................. 239
M. Deﬁnitions .................................................................................................. 249
N. Submission for Guidelines for Education and Training 1n Developmental
Disabilities ................................................................................................... 260
0. Submission for Palaestrsa ............................................................................. 262
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 265

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1

Description of Parents and Participants in S3 .............................................................. 26
Table 2

General Format of a Soccer Session ... ......................................................................... 34
Table3

Schedule of Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 48
Table 4

Data Analysis by Research Question ............................................................................ 51
Table 5

Qualiﬁcations and Responsibilities for Other Personnel ............................................. 5 7
Table 6

Available and Needed Equipment ................................................................................. 59
Table 7

Proposed Budget for S3 ................................................................................................. 60
Table 9

Tony ’s Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills .................. 163
Table 10

Jeﬂ’s Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills ..................... 164
Table 11

Billy '3 Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills ................... 1 65
Table 12

John 's Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills ................... 166
Table 13

Data Reported on Tony 's Parent Skill Rating Form ................................................... 167
Table 14

Data Reported on Jeﬂ's Parent Skill Rating Form ....................................................... 168
Table 15

Data Reported on Billy ’s Parent Skill Rating Form ..................................................... 169
Table 16

Data Reported on John ’5 Parent Skill Rating Form ..................................................... 170

xii

Table 17

Data Reported on Jackie 's Parent Skill Rating Form .................................................. 171
Table 18

Description of Athletes and Parents in 5" ..................................................................... 201
Table 19

Total Number of Minutes Reported Each Week on the Tracking

Your Progress Form ..................................................................................................... 202

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Alexander model for the development, maintenance, and generalization

of social skills ............................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2. Research design ............................................................................................. 24
Figure 3. Phases of the S3 program .......................................................................... 30
Figure 4. Alexander model for the development, maintenance, and generalization

of social skills ............................................................................................................... 75
Figure 5. Ecological system theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979a) ..................................... 78
Figure 6. Sargent’s conceptual framework of social competence ................................ 81
Figure 7. Phases of S3 ................................................................................................... 161
Figure 8. Percentage of acceptable skills attempts demonstrated for

eye contact, turn taking and relevant information ........................................................ 162
Figure 9. Components of the S3 Program ..................................................................... 203

xiv

CHAPTER 1:
SPECIAL OLYMPICS GRANT PROPOSAL

Project Name
Social Skills and Sports (S3) Program: A Problem-Solving Approach to Developing the Social

Skills of Young Adult Special Olympics Athletes

Project Description

 

Jessica loves to play soccer with her Special Olympics team. She has a great sense
of humor when interacting with her family, but at practice she is very quiet. She responds
to her coach with smiles, but when her coach asks a question, (e. g., “do you want to be on
the green team or the red team?”) she simply murnbles “I don’t know” and stares at the '
ground. Jessica eventually joins the game and plays well, though she does not respond to
her teammates when they try to interact with her. When everyone lines up to shake hands,
Jessica stands to the side and watches. Her teammates yell for her to come over and join

them. Jessica cries and runs over to the coach.

Jonathon is skilled at every sport he tries. But Jonathon has poor social skills,
especially turn-taking. For example, he ran over to his teammates and coach, eager to join
their conversation. Using a high pitched voice that was close to a whisper, he started
repeating every word his coach said. He smiled at the coach while he spoke over his
teammates. His teammates responded by talking even louder so they could be heard.
Jonathon was overwhelmed by the noise, covered his ears, and walked over to another
group where he tried the same approach, with a similar lack of success. Jonathon ran over

to the corner of the gym where he bounced a ball by himself. Occasionally he would glance

 

 

 

 

over to the group with a look of anticipation.

Katie is very social, especially with boys. Katie constantly stops her teammates to
ask questions about what they are wearing, what they are doing, what their band-aids are
for, and what their names are. Some ’of her teammates get ﬁustrated by her constant
questions and tell her to leave them alone. Instead of choosing a different conversation
point, Katie becomes very quiet with a puzzled look on her face. When asked to ﬁnd a
partner for an activity, Katie typically grabs onto a male classmate and starts yelling “Jason

9’
!

is my partner. He is going to work with me! He is my boyﬁ'iend She then gives Jason a

hug. Jason quickly pushes Katie away and tells her to stop touching him.

 

 

 

These vignettes illustrate some of the struggles Special Olympics athletes may
have with their social skills. Through my work as a coach of Special Olympics soccer
players and swimmers, I have observed ﬁrst hand that many Special Olympics athletes
lack the social skills needed for effective participation in group activities. My
observations are not anomalous. The research literature provides evidence of similar
problems in the school and community settings. Individuals with intellectual disabilities
(ID)l have difﬁculties creating friends, keeping friends, and demonstrating socially
appropriate behaviors (Parker, Rubin, Price, & DeRosier,l995; Patton & Polloway, 1990;
Szyrnanski, 1980; Zetlin, & Murtaugh, 1988).

Little research has been done to determine the potential of social skills

development in Special Olympics. Special Olympics states, “children and adults with ID

 

' Throughout this document, the term intellech disabilities (ID) will refer to individuals with a cognitive
irrrpairment (CI) (e.g. mental retardation) and individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (e.g., autism and

Asperger’s syndrome).

who participate in Special Olympics develop improved physical ﬁtness and motor skills,
greater self-conﬁdence and a more positive self-image. They grow mentally, socially and
spiritually...” (Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.). However, while research has
indicated (a) the physical and health beneﬁts associated with a Special Olympics program
(Siperstein, Harada, Parker, Hardman, McGuire, n.d.); (b) the importance of Special
Olympics as a social network for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Farrell,
Crocker, McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004 ); and (c) the value parents place on Special
Olympics as a tool in developing their child’s social skills (Siperstein, et al., n.d.), there
is little empirical evidence about ways in which participants naturally develop their social
skills while participating in Special Olympics. There is also no literature exploring the
use of a social skills intervention within a Special Olympics setting.

As a doctoral student specializing in adapted physical activity and sport
psychology, I have decided to focus my dissertation research on helping to solve this
problem. Thus, the purpose of this project is to determine whether young adult Special
Olympics athletes can develop, reﬁne, and maintain social skills through participation in
a Social Skills and Sports (3’) program. Participants in this study will have a mild to
moderate ID. The S3 program will include classroom instruction in social skills, as well
as structured opportunities for participants to practice social skills in the context of
Special Olympics soccer training. Parents will also be given supplemental activities to do
at home with the participants to encourage and help develop the skills learned in S3. The
effectiveness of the S3 program will be determined by a series of parent interviews and

surveys, as well as repeated observations of participants’ social skills.

Project Objectives
The research questions focus on whether young adult Special Olympics athletes with
mild and moderate intellectual disability:
1. Develop and reﬁne social skills. as a result of the S3 program.
2. Maintain the social skills developed in the 33 program until six weeks post
intervention.
3. Generalize the social skills developed in the S3 program to home, school, and

community settings.

For the purpose of this research study, social skills will include making eye '
contact while talking with others, taking turns in the conversation, and contributing
relevant information to the conversation. The goal is for participants to learn/practice
these skills within safe, educational and controlled settings (S3 and with their families)
and then apply the skills when interacting with other participants in the study as well as
people in their family and community

Rationale
Social Skills for People with Intellectual Disabilities

Need for effective social skills. Effective social skills are needed in home, school,
work, and community environments. They are often referred to as an essential component
for life adjustment (Neel, 1988). Without social skills, people with an ID cannot
communicate their needs, establish appropriate relationships with others, and
communicate their thoughts. “Communication competence may be the primary factor
determining the extent to which individuals with ASD develop relationships with others

and participate in daily activities and routines at school, at home, and in the community”

(Woods & Wetherby, 2003, p.180). Non-disabled peers often reject people with mental
retardation not because of their academic incompetence, but because of the inappropriate
behaviors they demonstrate when in a social situation (Gottlieb, Semmel, & Veldman,
1978). Social skills are associated with having an increase in academic success, being
accepted by others, having high levels of self-esteem, and having high levels of self-
conﬁdence (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2003). When individuals do not develop necessary social
skills they are at risk of being rejected, experiencing increased difﬁculties in school,
suffering mental health problems, and being under or unemployed during their adult
years (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995; 1998; 2001).

Signiﬁcant others, teachers, and people with ID disabilities all value the
development of social skills. Signiﬁcant others of adults with MR [sic] commonly
reported vocational, social, and personal skills as the skills most needed to be successful
in community living (Lovett & Harris, l987a). Adults with MR [sic] have also reported
that they feel social skills are essential for success in community living (Lovett & Harris,
l987b). Despite public misconception, individuals with ASD want to build social
relationships and enjoy contact with their peers (Mesibov, 1984). Especially with higher
functioning children with autism and individuals with Asperger’s syndrome, it has been
found that the largest social difﬁculty is related to social-emotional understanding and is
not because of social insensitivity or social disinterest (Bacon, Fein, Morris, Waterhouse,
& Allen, 1998; Sigrnan & Ruskin, 1999). Just like any other person, peeple with ASD do
not like situations where they do not know what they are supposed to do, what they
should expect others to do, or how to react to other’s behaviors (Coyne & Fullerton,

2004). In the school setting, many of individual education plans (IEP) focus on the need

for appropriate social skills (Epstein, Polloway, Patton, & Foley, 1989). In fact, IEP goals
for individuals with disabilities are most frequently related to language, speech and
communication and make up around 25% of all IEP objectives (Campbell, Stremel-
Campbell, & Rogers-Warren, 1985)..

Social skill characteristics of people with intellectual disabilities. The research
literature indicates that persons with ID often have ineffective social skills. The nature of
the social skill deﬁcits varies for different cognitive disabilities.

By deﬁnition, persons with MR [sic] often have poor social skills. The DSM-IV-
TR (APA, 2000) states that an individual with mental retardation has “sub average
general intellectual ftmctioning. .. that is accompanied by signiﬁcant limitations in
adaptive functioning in at least two of the following skill areas: communication, self-care,
home living, social/interpersonal skills, use of community resources...” (p.41). While
individuals with MR [sic] struggle with social skills, there is a large amount of variance
on which particular skills are a problem (Korinek & Polloway, 1993). Therefore, there is
no speciﬁc list of social skills that individuals with MR [sic] need to improve.

Individuals with ASD are also described as demonstrating very poor social skills.
The DSM-IV- TR (APA, 2000) states that individuals with pervasive developmental
disorders (including individuals with autism and Aspergers) “are characterized by severe
and pervasive impairments in several areas of development: reciprocal social
interactional skills, communication skills, or the presence of stereotypical behavior,
interests, and activities” (p.69). Individuals with ASD not only receive and process
information differently than the general public, but they also respond to the information

in a unique manner (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004). They tend to have great difﬁculties with

the development of their pragrnatics (Gerber, 2003). As a result they tend to “include
irrelevant details in conversations, interrupt, shift inappropriately to another topic, and
overall fail to develop conversations” (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2000, p.325). Individuals
with ASD have difﬁculties with social learning (difﬁculties learning social interchanges
used in everyday society) (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002). One young man with
autism describes his difficulties in society as “getting off of a plane in a foreign country
without knowing the language, cultural gestures or cultural norms” (Coyne & Fullerton,
2004, p.19). They also have difﬁculties integrating verbal and nonverbal components of
communication (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002). Many of the stereotypical behaviors
associated with ASD, such as hand wringing, self-stimulatory behaviors, and echolalia,
also make social interactions and communication difﬁcult (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw,
2002). All of these behaviors lead peers to perceive persons with ASD as odd or
unapproachable. On top of that, their inability to express their opinions in a socially
expected manner often leads to inappropriate or aggressive verbalizations which ostracize
them even more than before they tried to initiate contact (McGee, Krantz, &
McClannahan, 1984).

Results of social skill deﬁciencies. Because of social skill deﬁcits, persons with ID
of all ages are likely to experience challenges in their daily interactions. Many
individuals with MR [sic] have difﬁculties interacting with their classmates (Korinek &
Polloway, 1993). As a result, they have a much greater chance of being neglected or
rejected by peers at their school (Parker, et al., 1995; Polloway & Smith, 1983; Zetlin &
Murtaugh, 1988). The friendships that the individuals with mild MR [sic] do have tend to

be less stable and are sustained over a shorter duration than the friendships of their

nondisabled classmates (Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1988). Social isolation experienced by the
individuals with ID occurs in both the segregated and inclusive environments. Krauss,
Seltzer, and Goodman (1992) found that when students with ID were placed ﬁrst in a
segregated classroom and then an integrated classroom, they experienced a great deal of
difﬁculty making friends in both settings. Lufti g ( 1988) supported these ﬁndings when he
noted that individuals with ID who were integrated demonstrated much higher levels of
isolation and loneliness compared to their peers without ID. Social skills have also been
found to affect successful adjustment into employment and independent living post-
school (Chadsey-Rusch, Rusch, & O’Reilly, 1991; Edgar, 1987; Edgar, 1988).

Social skills deﬁcits can also affect the leisurely activities of people with ID.
Individuals with ID often lack social skills needed to participate in more active and
socially inclusive activities (Schleien & Ray, 1997). Without social skills training, adults
with mental retardation [sic] tend to become increasingly isolated from normal adult
activities and participate in activities alone within their home. Furthermore, leisure
activities tended to be very sedentary such as watching television or doing arts and
crafts.(Johnson, McGrew, Bloomberg, Bruininks, & Lin, 1996; Lancioni, & Kierans,
2000; O’Reilly, Thurlow, Bruininks, Lange, 1989; Schleien, Meyer, Heyne, & Brandt ,
1995). Because of the difficulties individuals with ASD have with social skills, they are
often not welcome to participate in inclusive program including community leisure

programs (Schleien & Ray, 1988).

Q

Conceptual Model
The student investigator was unable to locate theories or conceptual models that
address the development, maintenance, and generalization of social skills by persons with

ID. Therefore, she developed a unique conceptual model for use in this study (Figure l).

 

Direct Instruction
Functional skills curriculum
0 Relevant social skills
0 Developmentally appropriate skills
0 Appropriate number of skills
Effective pedagogy
0 Instructional strategies

 

 

0 Feedback and reinforcement
0 Presentation modalities
0 Disability appropriate
Qualiﬁed teachers
Appropriate setting

 

 

 

 

 

Maintenance of Development of Generalization
Social Skills Social Skills of Social Skills

 

 

 

Effective Practice
Appropriate activity
Multiple, natural settings

 

Adequate practice opportunities
Multiple, skilled instructors
Family involvement and support

 

 

 

Figure 1. Alexander model for the development, maintenance, and generalization of

social skills

In order for individuals with ID to develop, maintain, and generalize social skills,
they must be provided with direct instruction and effective practice. A participant must
receive direct instruction that contains: (a) ﬁrnctional skill curriculum; (b) effective
pedagogy; (c) a number of qualiﬁed teachers; and (d) is taught in the appropriate setting.
Concurrent with direct instruction, the participant must participate in effective practice
that consists of: (a) the appropriate activity; (b) multiple, natural settings; (c) adequate
practice opportunities; (d) multiple, skilled instructors; (e) family involvement and
support. While both direct instruction and effective practice are essential for skill
development, direct instruction does have an effect on effective practice. Without
receiving information on the appropriate social skill and how to demonstrate it, one
cannot practice the skill. However, the combination of direct instruction and effective
practice will lead to the development and generalization of social skills. While direct
instruction has some impact on the maintenance of the individuals’ social skills, the
primary factor that is needed for an individual to maintain their social skills is effective
practice.

While this is an original model, other theoretical positions were inﬂuential in its
creation. The Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979a) was a strong
inﬂuence on the incorporation of numerous practice setting and teachers into the model.
Bronfenbrenner suggests that the child is affected by four different interrelated system
starting with the microsystem (e. g., family, school and peers) and moving all the way to
the macrosystem (e. g., dominant beliefs, cultural values). As the child moves from one
system to the next, the level of inﬂuence becomes broader. Teaching the social skills

directly in a structured environment relies on the use of the microsystem. The effective

10

practice seen in the proposed model takes advantage of the microsystem as well as the
mesosystem (e. g. home, neighborhood, community) and exosystem (e. g. extended family,
health and social service agencies).
Sargent’s (1989) created a model regarding social competence in individuals with
mental retardation [sic]. Sargent’s model consists of three main components: (a) social
affect (the appearance of the person to others); (b) social skills (the speciﬁc skills that are
necessary for social interactions; and (c) social cognition (the individual’s intelligence
and its relationship to his/her ability to respond to social interactions). All three of these
components must be addressed for social skill development in people with mental
retardation [sic].
Direct Instruction
Functional skills curriculum, relevant social skills. Social skills taught to people with

ID must be relevant for daily living and improve social interactions. Pragmatics are a set of
cultural rules that govern social interactions, particularly in regards to the use of language
(Bates, 1980). It is “the social use of language as is involved in sustaining or initiating a
conversation” (Baker, 2003, p.17). Many of the skill deﬁcits demonstrated by people with ID
are issues with pragrnatics, such as making eye contact, using correct tone and volume,
having appropriate body language, being able to respond to a comment appropriately, and
staying on topic in a conversation. To address this problem, educators have started to focus on
teaching proper pragrnatics instead of focusing on proper syntax (how the thought is
communicated through the use of proper grammar) (Haring, Roger, Lee, Breen, & Gaylord-
Ross, 1986). Which exact social skills are taught is decided upon by the educator and should

be based on the needs of the participants. Many researchers suggest focusing on social skills

ll

that participants will need to make immediate interactions and that will enhance their chances
of being successfully integrated into the community with the general population (Morgan, &
Jensen, 1988; Polloway & Smith, 1983; Sargent, 1989).

Functional skills curriculum, developmentally appropriate skills. Participants
need to understand the purpose of the skill they are supposed to be learning (Scruggs &
Mastropieri, 1993). If the skill is not developmentally appropriate and therefore is not
considered signiﬁcant to the individual, he/she is unlikely to learn the skill due to lack of
motivation. Students with MR [sic], like any students, tend to learn better when they are
motivated to do so (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981).

Functional skills curriculum, appropriate number of skills. Programs that focus
on the development of a few skills are much more effective than those that try to teach
numerous skills in one program. While many published social skills interventions focus
on numerous skills, focus should be placed on a few concrete skills with repeated
practice, especially when working with students who have difﬁculties with abstract social
skills (such as individuals with ID) Therefore, the number of skills taught should be an
appropriate match to the amount of available instructional time (Baker, 2003; Karnps, et
al., 1992; Sasso, Melloy, & Kavale, 1990).

Effective pedagogy, instructional strategies. Researchers have tried many different
methods to teach social skills to individuals with ID including behavioral rehearsal (Bates,
1980; F ilipczak, Archer, & Friedman, 1980) direct instruction (Blew et al., 1985; Matson &
Andrasik, 1982; Oznoff & Miller, 1995), pivotal response training (Haring, et al., 1986;
Koegel, Koegel, & Schreibman, 1993), social scripts (Loveland & Tunali, 1991; Thiemann &

Goldstein, 2001; Zanoli, Daggett, & Adams, 1996), and peer mediation/peer modeling (Blew,

12

et al., 1985; Egel, Richman, & Koegel, 1981; Goldstein, Kaczrnarek, Pennington, & Schafer,
1992; Karnps et al., 1992; O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995). However, two strategies that seem to be
the most promising are social problem solving approach and modeling.

The social problem solving approach, sometimes referred to as process training, is
a four step approach that can be applied to any social interactions. Instead of teaching a
speciﬁc response or action for each situation, which often leads to very poor
generalization, people are taught to work through a situation using a progressive step
model allowing them to apply it to a variety of different settings and situations (McF all,
1982). Each intervention or personalized strategy uses different steps. However, the steps
are usually:“(a) discriminating salient social stimuli (decoding); (b) identifying
alternative social behaviors and identifying the most appropriate social behavior for the
social situation (deciding); (c) performing the social behavior(performing); and (d)
evaluating the effectiveness of the social behavior once it has been performed
(evaluation)” (O’Reilly et al., 2000, p.251). A simplistic example of this approach would
be (a) A stranger walks up to Sue and smiles at her, (b) Sue could run away, give him a
hug, give him a “hi ﬁve”, or say hi and introduce herself, (c) Sue chooses to say hi and
introduce herself, ((1) Sue then watches the facial expressions of the stranger and listens
to the stranger’s response to determine if the stranger responded to her fondly. This
process would then repeat itself. While the stages in this process may seem complex, they
are performed by individuals in the general public everyday. However, because people
who do not have difﬁculties with social skills process this information naturally and

within an extremely short period of time (less than a second), they do not think about it.

13

The goal of this approach is to get people with ID to the point where they also apply the
skill naturally without having to think about it (O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995).

Because the social problem solving approach can be applied to any social
enviromnent and does not rely on speciﬁc social cues, it has a high level of maintenance,
transferability, and generalizability (Browning & Nave, 1993; O’Reilly & Chadsey-
Rusch, 1992; O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995; O’Reilly et al., 2000; Park & Gaylord-Ross, 1989;
Rosenthal-Malek & Yoshida, 1994). O’Reilly and Glynn (1995) taught people with
mental retardation [sic] how to initiate and respond appropriately to a teacher’s
questions. The two students who participated in the study transferred the skill from the
training setting into the classroom setting and maintained the skill when tested four
weeks later. In another study by O’Reilly et a1. (2000), four adults with moderate levels
of mental retardation [sic] were taught social skills needed to be social in a local bar.
Using the problem solving approach, the participants were able to develop the social
skills needed and were able to maintain these skills up to three years after the training
was completed.

Modeling is one of the most commonly used strategies to teach social skills.
When using the modeling approach, a skilled coach demonstrates the appropriate actions
and then asks the person with a disability to replicate the skill (Baker, 2003; Foss, Auty,
& Irvin, 1989). A four step approach can be applied; (a) tell the student they are going to
perform the skill when the demonstration is over, (b) tell the students what they should
focus on in the demonstration, (c) say each step as you demonstrate the skill, and ((1) help
the students remember the steps before they attempt the skill themselves (Yelon, 1996).

In order for modeling to be successful, the individual who is observing the modeling

l4

must pay attention and realize what the coach is trying to demonstrate (Goldstein,
Spraﬂcin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980; Yelon, 1996). Because individuals with II) may have
increased difﬁculties recognizing what part of the demonstration they should focus on,
extra direction may be needed. Modeling must also be accompanied by other methods in
order to teach the person “how” to demonstrate the appropriate behavior and “why” they
should demonstrate the behavior (Goldstein et al., 1980). For this reason modeling is
often paired with one or two other approaches.

Effective pedagogy, feedback and reinforcement. Feedback that is given to the
participants needs to be developmentally appropriate, immediate and speciﬁc. Feedback
that is developmentally appropriate uses terminology that is understood by the participant
and helps to clarify how to produce the skill. If participants have to think about what a
word means or what an unfamiliar expression is referring to, it distracts them and deters
their learning. It is also essential that the feedback that is provided is immediately after
the skill is completed. If the feedback cannot be given immediately, the purpose of the
feedback should then be to improve ﬁrture performances. Whether feedback is given
immediately or after a period of time, participants must be given the opportunity to retry
the skill. Feedback also needs to express exactly what was good and bad about the
performance. When ﬁrst developing a social skill, the feedback given to the individual
should focus on the intent of the skill and not on the small details. This helps to increase
motivation, and self conﬁdence. As the individual progresses in skill, more focus is
placed on the smaller details (Rink, 2002). Reinforcements should also be used to “help

deﬁne the behavior and make clear the expectations” (Rink, 2002, p. 148). Positive

15

reinforcement helps to increase self conﬁdence as well as self efﬁcacy (Weinberg &
Gould, 1999)

Effective pedagogy, presentation modalities. A variety of different presentation
strategies should be used to accommodate different styles of learning. The use of
instructional media, lectures, active learning, and demonstrations should all be used.
Instructional media can include PowerPoint presentation, movies, pictures, and audio
recordings. When using a variety of modalities to teach material, one increases the
interest of the students by addressing the different learning styles (Sargent, 1989).

Eﬂective pedagogy, disability appropriate. When working with individuals with
ID, consideration should be placed on language choice as well as developmentally
appropriate material. Because of the decreased IQ of individuals with ID, they may not
have the vocabulary that their peers have. Using simple language where there are only a
few key terms, pictorial cues, and minimal reading and writing activities increases the
individual’s understanding while not detracting from the information being presented
(Korinek & Polloway, 1993). When working with an individual with autism, use short
utterances that do not include unnecessary words. One should also use statements that
tell the person what to do instead of what not to do (e. g. “look at Johnny when you are
talking to him” and not “don’t look at the ﬂoor”) (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004). The use of
visual supports, images that enhance understanding like a schedule, also increase
understanding and learning of people with ASD. These images should remain simplistic
and each image can only represent one thought. Images with busy backgrounds or

numerous objects in them often lead to confusion (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004).

16

Qualified teachers. As with any teaching environment, the teachers need to be
knowledgeable on the material that they are presenting, the learning styles of the
participants, and the needs associated with the disability population they are teaching.

Appropriate setting. The use of a group setting has lead to a more positive
development of social skills compared to a single-trainer model. Interventions for people with
disabilities that have been based on a single-trainer model have had limited success (Koegel &
Rincover, 1974; Strain, Kerr, & Ragland, 1979). The single-trainer model is not only
unsuccessful, but it also requires a great deal of the teacher’s time, making it difﬁcult or
muealistic in many classroom settings (Brown & Odom, 1995). The more current approaches
that uses two-trainer interaction or groups of people with and without disabilities interacting,
have been found to be more successﬁrl in teaching skills such as expressive language,
contextually appropriate behaviors, and play skills (lhrig & Wolchik, 1988; Pepperberg &
Sherman, 2000; Pierce & Schreibman, 1997). When teaching social skills, the use of a group
also allows for a larger number of social contacts that are more diverse than those that would
occur when conducting a single-trainer model.

The teacher to participant ratio must also be taken into consideration when teaching
social skills. Special Olympics general ratio of supervision is 3 participants to 1 adult.
Exceeding this number during direct instruction decreases the amount of interactions a
participant has with the instructors and could decrease the amount of information developed
and maintained. Even in general education lower student-to teacher ratios decrease the
amount of time needed to develop a skill (Kelly & Melograno, 2004).

Lastly, the environment where the skills are being taught need to be considered. Small

sensory occurrences such as a ﬂickering light, the chatter of people in a hallway, or sitting in

17

very close proximity to other can be incredibly distracting to people with ID disabilities,
especially those with ASD (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004). Provide an enviromnent that
minimizes distractions and creates a warm comfortable environment for all participants.
Effective Practice

Appropriate activity. The sport setting is an ideal environment to teach social
skills because of the social relationships that are established amongst teammates.
Castaneda and Sherrill (1999) found that the beneﬁt of a Challenger baseball team
program that the parents valued most was not the physical activity but the social
interactions their children received. As one father said, “. . .The little friendships that
occur are the most important thing of all because they have to struggle so much for
friends.” (p. 385). One of the most commonly reported reason for Special Olympics
athletes to participate in Special Olympics is so that they could socialize with other
people and make friends (Farrell et al., 2004; Shapiro, 2003; Siperstein, eta1., n.d.). In
Shapiro (2003) the Special Olympics athletes described the optimal environment as one
“where coaches provided time for fun, facilitated opportunities for ﬁtness, provided time
to be with friends, and emphasized effort and improvement” (p. 150). It is important that
educators provide children the opportunity to choose their own situation, activities, and
peers to interact with (Brown & Odom, 1995). A natural setting such as Special Olympics
does not force the participants to be social but allows them to choose when they would
like to interact with others. In a few documented cases, the Special Olympics
environment has been successful in teaching a variety of skills including self-conﬁdence,
social competence, self-image, and the ability to develop and maintain ﬁ'iendships

(Castagno, 2001; Riggen & Ulrich, 1993)

18

The use of play to teach social skills has also proven to be very successful.
Delprato (2001) found that an intervention that was normalized and that included play or
everyday activities was more successful in teaching language to children with autism
compared to interventions that weremore discrete-trial based . Physical education and
sports have been cited as ideal natural environments to practice newly developed social
skills (Groft & Block, 2003). Other studies have found that game experiences help people
with disabilities to become more capable of interacting (Collard, 1981; J ansma, 1982;
Schleien, 1983; Wehman & Schleien, 1981).

Multiple, natural settings. Naturalistic teaching, when the individual learns
through guidance in natural interactions and experiences, has been found to be a
successful teaching strategy that results in the skills being maintained and transferred to
other settings (Barnett, Carey, & Hall, 1993; McClean & Cripe, 1997). Many
interventions in the past have focused on having adults provide verbal and physical
prompts, directions, and praise in order to teach social skills to young children with
autism (Kohler Strain, 1990; Strain & Odom, 1986). With this approach, an adult sits
with the child and provides him/her with a speciﬁc prompt. When the child responds
appropriately the adult gives praise verbally or through a token system. If needed, the
adult gives directions on how to improve the response. One of the reasons this particular
approach often fails is because it does not promote generalization or maintenance (Brown
& Odom, 1995). Without the prompt presented by the adult, the individual does not
demonstrate the desired behavior. When taught in a natural setting, participants do not
rely on the prompt. Naturalistic settings also lead to generalization. Because many

individuals with ID do not generalize new skills to a different situation without speciﬁc

19

guidance, naturalistic programs are a more suitable approach for teaching and assessing
social skills (Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, & Hoyson, 2001; McGee, et al., 1984). A
natural setting is also essential to determine if the social skill training has been effective
(Korinek & Polloway, 1993). In order to determine if the participants truly developed the
social skill, they must be observed in natural settings where the environment and their
interactions are not controlled. Observations taken in a natural environment allow one to
pinpoint exactly what aspects of the intervention were successﬁrl and what components
of the skill have been developed.

In a previous publication, Special Olympics Inc. acknowledged the importance of
using an appropriate environment to facilitate skill development, stating that “policy
makers and health organizers need to frame appropriately the opportunities that exist to
facilitate skill development and independence for persons with mental retardation [sic] ”
(Special Olympics Inc., 2001, p.7). The natural environment created by a Special
Olympics program can be structured to provide individuals with the opportunity to
receive instruction and still practice their social skills naturally. Participants need a
natural environment where they can practice their social skills in a natural setting without
fearing the consequences associated with making a mistake (Baker, 2003). During a
Special Olympics program, participants can practice their social skills through the use of
fun activities and games while not having to worry about the social consequences of
making a mistake. Participants then associate the social skills with a fun and positive
experience. Feelings of success lead to a higher level of self-conﬁdence, encouraging the

participant to continue practicing and developing the skills.

20

Adequate practice opportunities. When compared to their peers, individuals with
ID tend to require more repetition and practice of a skill in order to master and maintain
the skill. Therefore, an extended amount of structured practice time must be provided
(Korinek & Polloway, 1993). Individuals with ID often lack of adequate social
experiences where they are able to practice their social skills. As social inadequacies pair
with a general lack of experience, people ﬁnd themselves in a situation where they are
constantly failing at their social attempts. Eventually the constant failures lead to
isolation where the individual does not want to try to interact with others or develop
meaningﬁrl relationships for fear of rejection (Kirby, 2002). In order to combat this
problem, a signiﬁcant amount of time must be given to practice the development of social
skills. The amount of time that participants have to practice their skills within the natural
setting may affect the level of skill development more than the actual intervention. When
comparing different social skills teaching strategies, Foss, et a1. (1989) found that all
strategies were effective to some extent. However, the amount of time spent actually
teaching the skill had a negative effect on the students’ performance of the skills.
Activities that allowed for less teaching time and more practice and development of the
skill in a natural setting were found to be more successful. Therefore, it is not the amount
of instructional time that results in the development of skills, but the amount of time the
individual is able to practice the skill in a natural setting.

Multiple skilled instructors. Instructors need to be knowledgeable on the social
strategies that are being taught as well as how to help the participants develop the skills
naturally. They should be skilled in providing reinforcement and feedback to provide the

needed information to the participants while they are practicing the social skills. The use

21

of multiple instructors allows for an increase in diverse social interactions as well as
practice time. Multiple instructors can be used within one enviroment (e.g., having
buddies and coaches as seen in the Special Olympics Uniﬁed model) or they can be in
different environments (e. g., the teacher at school, the coach at Special Olympics, and the
parent at home).

Family involvement and support. Researchers have shown that having parents
serve as a teacher in the home environment increases the child’s learning and retention of
skills (Baker, 1989; Graziano & Diarnent, 1992; Tiedemann, Georgia, & Johnston, 1992;
Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1990). Having parents work with the child at home
increases the number of instructional hours received by the child while avoiding the large
expenses associated with extensive one-on-one therapy or instruction. Home instruction
can occur seven days a week and can be done numerous times through out the day,
increasing the participants’ exposure to with the material. Another advantage of including
parents is that they are able to provide meaningful reinforcers that may not be available to
a practitioner. While information and feedback can be given to the participants in a
program, the reinforcers that are provided at home tend to be much more powerﬁrl
(Goldstein & Lanyon, 1971). Parents are also with their children with disabilities in a
variety of environments outside of the school setting. When they have received training
on how to help their children, parents can remind them of essential skills when entering a
new environment (e.g., work) or when the skill may be forgotten (Ozonoff & Cathcart,
1998)

Lastly, having the parents serve as another teacher allows the child to practice the

skills in another natural setting while also receiving necessary direction. As discussed

22

earlier, a natural setting is necessary for skill development and transferability. Because
parents are teaching the child throughout the day, they are able to encourage the use of
appropriate social skills whenever an appropriate situation arises and not just within the
planned period of time. Because of numerous beneﬁts associated with using parents in an
intervention, many models including the well known TEACCH model (Treatment and
Education of Autistic and Related Communication-Handicapped Children)
(http://www.teacch.com) rely on the use of parental involvement to complement in-
school interventions that are provided by a teacher or therapist.

Providing instruction to parents on how to teach their child with ID, results in
parents serving as more effective teachers in the home setting. In order for the parents to
be successful, many need to be given instructions on how to help their child develop and
how to provide different opportunities to practice the social skills. Gerber (2003) states
that one common problem seen with using parents as a teacher is that parents are so eager
to help their child develop social skills that they constantly ask their child questions and
do not give the child a chance to initiate a conversation or ask a question. In order to
prevent parents from putting their child in a passive role, Gerber recommends that parents
should be given suggestions and guidance about what they should expect and how to
incorporate it into their own lives.

Methods
Research Design

This study consisted of multiple replications of a single-subject research design,

speciﬁcally an A-B-C-A quasi-experimental repeated measures design. The independent

variables were the classroom, soccer, and retention phases of the Social Skills and Sports

23

(S3) program. The dependent variables were social skills, namely making eye contact,

staying on topic, and taking turns during conversations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C
B
A. Classroom S . Bas‘e‘line
Baselrne . . Instructron and .
Instructron 1n . . Retentron
Phase . . Socral Skills
Socral Skills . Phase
Practice

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Research design

Inter- and infra-participant variability is a major challenge when conducting
research among persons with intellectual disability (Batshaw & Shapiro, 2002; Towbin,
et al., 2002). A single-subject design permitted the student investigator to search for
aptitude-treatment interactions. Having participants serve as their own controls
sidestepped the virtually impossible challenge of trying to identify a matched control
group. The repeated measures feature permitted the student investigator to account for
“off-days” in participants’ social behaviors. The A-B-C-A components of the design
allowed analyses of the effectiveness of each phase of the intervention (Barlow &
Hersen, 1984).

Participants

The primary participants were young adults who were eligible to participate in
Special Olympics programs. To recruit the participants, Melissa Alexander distributed
ﬂyers that provided a brief overview of S3, along with her contact information. The ﬂyers
were distributed to all of the schools within a 45 minute driving distance of the facility,
Area 8 Special Olympics ofﬁce, Special Needs Network at Michigan State University,

soccer organizations in the area (e. g. Capital Area United Soccer Club), and disability

24

support groups in the Lansing area such as the Down Syndrome Support group.
Participants included:

Special Olympics participants. Five young adults (4 males and 1 female) from mid-
Michigan participated in the study. They were between the ages of 14 and 24 with the mean
age being 17.4 (SD= 2.57). In order to be included in the study participants had to (a) have a
mild/moderate intellectual disability (such as mental retardation, autism, and Asperger’s
Syndrome) as the primary disability, (b) be verbal, (c) have cm'rent Special Olympics
Application for Participation and Medical Update forms, and (d) have parent consent and
participant assent. Potential participants who had atlantoaxial instability were not eligible to
participate because of the potential for injury in the soccer component of the intervention.

The disabilities represented by the participants were autism, mental retardation, Down
syndrome, severe learning disability, ADI-ID, and emotional impairment (some participants
had more than one disability). All participants were enrolled in special education classrooms
within a 20 minute radius of a Midwestern city, were verbal, and demonstrated a lack of
general social skills before entering the program. None of the participants had received social
skills training outside of school. However, all participants had worked with speech therapists
and/or paraprofessionals and teachers through out their lives in an attempt to improve their
social skills. Four of the ﬁve participants had participated in Special Olympics sports before
participating in this study.

Parents. One parent for each participant was involved in the study. Parents provided
written informed consent for their involvement. Three of the ﬁve families were single
parent homes with the mother serving as the primary caregiver. The other two

participants were raised by a mother and a father, however the mother was the primary

25

participant in this study. In both of the dual parent homes, the parents were in their
second marriage. The ﬁve mothers/step-mothers were between the ages of 38 and 50
with a mean age of 45.8 (SD= 5.03). Their level of education ranged ﬁom “did not
complete high school” to “completed an associates degree” and none of the mothers had
received previous training on how to teach social skills to their child.

Partners. Through out the entire program, four young adults from local high schools
served as partners to the participants with disabilities as in the Special Olympics Uniﬁed
Sports Program. There was one male and three female partners who were all 15 years of
age. The partners were all current member of a private traveling soccer club in the Mid-
Michigan area and they had assisted with the local Special Olympics Soccer team during
the previous year.

Five participants were chosen to ensure the safety and a quality program. The initial
research proposal suggested that eight individuals would participate in the program.
However, due to difﬁculties recruiting individuals who met the project’s qualiﬁcations

and were interested in participating, only 5 participants enrolled in the program.

 

 

Table 1

Description of Parents and Participants in S3
Name Age Education Child’s Child’s Child’s Disability

Narrre Age
Laura 38 Completed high school Tony 14 Down Syndrome
Amanda 44 Completed high school Jackie 16 Emotional impairment and
learning disability
Kathy 47 Associates degree Jeff 15 Autism and intellectual
disability
Sandy 50 Did not complete high school Billy 18 Down syndrome
Martha 50 Associates degree John 24 Down syndrome and
ADI-ID

 

26

Although ﬁve individuals participated in the intervention, complete data were
only collected for four participants. All ﬁve participants received the full intervention,
and their social skill development was evaluated using all of the instruments except for
the Observation Skill Rating Form. The Observation Skill Rating Form could only
practically be conducted with a small number of participants. Therefore, only four
participants were observed. The four participants that were observed were selected based
on their disability and level of social skill demonstrated at the program’s onset. The four
males were chosen because they encompassed the Down syndrome and autism disability
labels and demonstrated the lowest level of social skills at the onset of the program.
Intervention

In the 14—week S3 program, participants learned social skills in a classroom
setting, practiced those skills in the context of soccer activities, and practiced the skills
with their family in the home and community setting. Several attributes of S3, determined
from the review of literature, helped to insure the success of the program.

Numerous skilled teachers. During the classroom activities, the participants
received expert instruction from one classroom teacher and the head coach. They also
received information from the assistant coach and high school aged partners. During
the soccer portion of the program, participants’ social skills were reinforced and
redirected by the coaches and partners. In addition, parents reinforced the use of
social skills in home and community settings using the Parent Supplemental

Activities Packet.

27

Natural settings. Participants practiced the skills in a variety of real-life settings,
including soccer, home, and community. The multiple settings were used to help
facilitate eventual generalization of social skills to other environments.

Phjgical activity commnent: Soccer was an ideal team sport because it is
common, popular with a variety of age groups, affordable, and understood by the
student investigator. By acquiring basic skills in soccer, participants can now play in
disability-speciﬁc programs such as Special Olympics. They can also participate in
inclusive soccer activities with their families, their peers, and other people in the
community. Soccer does not require a large amount of equipment, making it an
affordable sport, as well as one that can be played in a backyard or a community
center. At the completion of the program, participants were given their own soccer
ball, allowing them to continue practicing their skills at home.

Because soccer is a team sport, the participants were also able to learn how social
skills can lead to friendships as they developed positive relationships with their
teammates. The social relationships that were developed increased the participants’
enjoyment of the social skills activities as well as the sport. The primary investigator
was currently certiﬁed as a Special Olympics soccer coach and had coached a Special
Olympics soccer team in the previous year, helping to ensure a quality experience for
the athletes. The two coaches also had extensive experience playing and coaching
soccer.

ﬁfe. funLand positive environment. Soccer provided a fun environment where
participants felt safe to practice their emerging social skills. Special Olympics athletes

received positive reinforcement from other participants, partners, and coaches. The

28

student investigator ensured that all participants felt safe and comfortable through out
the program by directly communicating with the participants’ about their emotions,
correcting and redirecting any negative behavior between participants, and talking
with parents through out the program. The student investigator also ensured the
program was fun by incorporating drills that the participants reported they enjoyed,
asking the participants for suggestions on discussion topics, talking with the parents
to ensure the participants were expressing enjoyment about the program, and
reviewing the partners’ and coaches’ daily journals.

Extensile socialization opportunities. Participants interacted with a variety of
people including other participants, partners, coaches, the student investigator, family
members, and community members. As the ratio of coaches and partners to
participants was at least a 1:1 ratio, participants were always given the opportunity to
interact with a partner or a coach during the program. Partners and coaches were
trained to initiate a social interaction when they were waiting in line, were taking a
water break, or waiting for soccer practice to start. During the two informal
scrimmages that were arranged with a local Special Olympics soccer team,
participants were also given the opportunity to interact with other people who have
intellectual disabilities. In addition to approximately 12.4 hours of social skills
instruction and 35.6 hours of practice opportunity during the soccer component of S3,
participants also practiced their social skills at home and in the community with their
families. Parents were asked to practice social skills 4 days a week x 15 minutes per

practice across 12 weeks.

29

Effective pedagogy S3 consisted of 14 weeks x 2 sessions per week x 90 rrrinutes
per session. There were six phases of the program; introduction, baseline, classroom,

soccer, party, and baseline/retention (Figure 3).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction Phase 45 minutes team building activities
Session 1 45 minutes soccer practice
No intervention

A Observation of social skills during 90 minutes
Baseline Phase of soccer practice
Sessions 2-5 No intervention

B 45 rrrinutes classroom instruction in social skill 5
Classroom Phase 45 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
Sessions 6-13 15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

 

 

 

 

<‘ I,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C 8 minutes review of social skills
Soccer Phase 74 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
Sessions 14-27 8 minutes review of social skills
Party Phase 90 minutes party and informal soccer scrimmage
Session 28 No intervention .

A No activities
Baseline/Retention No intervention
No sessions 15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

 

 

Figure 3. Phases of the S3 Program

30

Introduction phase. The purpose of this phase was to start developing a sense of
group unity and trust amongst the participants. Participants were introduced to the staff
and other participants, received a tour of the facility, participated in team-building
activities, and played in soccer activities. During this time the participants also came up
with a team name. There was no social skill instruction given during this phase.

Baseline phase. The baseline phase was used to determine the participant’s
baseline level of social skills using The Observer Skill Rating Form. Participants were
engaged in soccer drills and activities, but the staff did not encourage or reward
participants for socializing with each other nor did staff provide speciﬁc instructions on
the target social skills. During this phase, one session had to be canceled due to bad
weather. However, observation data were still collected over four sessions.

Classroom phase. The purpose of the classroom phase was to directly teach the
participants social skills before giving them the opportunity to practice the skills in
soccer. Each session of the classroom phase consisted of 45 minutes of classroom
activities for participants to discuss social skills and play games and 45 minutes of soccer
where participants practiced social skills while participating in soccer activities.

The intervention, written by Melissa Alexander, applied a combination of proven
strategies including direct instruction (Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Gresham, 1984),
modeling (Baker, 2003; Foss et al., 1988), and process training (Huang & Cuvo, 1997;
O’Reilly et al., 2000). As suggested by Baker the intervention consisted of a lot of
“. . .teaching strategies that rely on pictures, physical prompts, and direct modeling...”
(2003, p. 29). In order to accommodate the cognitive level of the participants, process

training was-taught in a very simplistic form. Participants were taught to (a) look at the

31

person you wanted to talk to, (b) listen to what the person was saying, (c) think about
what you should say in response, (d) talk to the person, and (e) repeat the steps. To assist
the participants in remembering the steps, the participants and student investigator would
summarize the steps as “look, listen, think, talk”. As they said the step, the student
investigator and participants would point to the appropriate body part. For example,
when participants said “look” they would point at their eyes. A poster that showed the
four steps was also created. This poster was incorporated into all activities in the
classroom, on the soccer ﬁeld, and at home.

For each lesson, a PowerPoint presentation that used both pictures and words was
created in order to accommodate the different levels of abilities and learning styles. The
presentation was projected on a screen and was also printed and placed in a 3-ring binder
that was given to each participant. While each lesson varied a general format was
followed. When participants ﬁrst arrived to each session they talked casually amongst
each other. For the ﬁrst 2-3 minutes of each session the classroom instructor would ask
the participants to share information about their day or the previous weekend. The
following 7-10 minutes were used to present the PowerPoint material and introduce the
concept of the day. During this time participants were also provided with a small healthy
snack. Following the PowerPoint presentation, the participants were engaged in
structured activities for approximately thirty minutes. These activities were created to
help the participants learn and practice the speciﬁc social skill discussed during the
session. They were also given direct feedback on the performance of the skill and

instructions on how to improve the skill. For the remaining 45 minutes of each session,

32

the participants completed soccer activities where they continued to practice their newly
learned skills.

During Sessions 5-7 the classroom instruction focused speciﬁcally on
contributing relevant information to the conversation. Sessions 8-9 focused on taking
turns, and Sessions 10-11 focused on making eye contact. Session 12 was a review of the
three social skills. As the sessions progressed, participants were reminded to incorporate
previously learned skills. For example, during Session 9 participants were reminded that
while they are taking turns, they should also contribute relevant information. For a
sample lesson plan please refer to Appendix A.

Soccer phase. The purpose of the soccer phase was to allow participants to
develop and practice the skills they learned during the classroom portion of S3 through
natural interactions and planned activities. Speciﬁc lesson plans that included soccer
drills as well as social activities were created for each session. The participants were
instructed on soccer skills for a total of 74 minutes each session. During the 8 minute
review sessions that occurred before and after the soccer activities, participants discussed
the three social skills (Table 2). The classroom instructor reminded participants of the
social skills, encouraged to use of the skills, provided verbal positive reinforcement for
proper demonstration of the skill, and gave redirection as needed. Participants also
participated in brief games to remind them how to perform the skill correctly.

Throughout the soccer practice, structured activities fostered social interaction.
For example, during snack, participants could bring an item in to share with the group.
Each participant was given a turn to talk about their item with the group and participants

were encouraged to contribute to the conversation by asking questions or adding

33

information. Each soccer practice would also have one or two drills speciﬁcally
formatted to allow the participants to develop their soccer skills while also conversing
with a partner. For example, participants would play a modiﬁed game of tag where they
would dribble the ball around in a large box. When a participant was tagged they were
required to wait until another participant asked them a question. The “frozen participant”

had to respond to the question using relevant information and making eye contact before

they could continue playing the game.

 

 

Table 2

General Format of a Soccer Session
Time Interval Activities
8 minutes Review of social skills
74 minutes Soccer

10 minutes warm-up

45 minutes skill development
25 minutes modiﬁed game time
10 rrrinutes cool-down

8 rrrinutes Review of social skills and positive reinforcement of skills applied

There were also a variety of natural social interactions that occurred thought out
the soccer practice. The high school aged partners intermingled with the participants
helping create spontaneous social interactions through out the practice. When waiting in
line, during warm-up and cool-down, during water break, and while doing activities
where the partners and participants were paired, natural conversations were strongly
encouraged. Partners also provided positive reinforcement when they observed
appropriate social interactions, and provided redirection as needed. Another time that

social interaction occurred was during the two informal scrimmages that were arranged

34

with a local Special Olympics team. These two scrimmages, lasting 25 minutes each,
occurred at the end of two soccer sessions. Participants were strongly encouraged to
interact with the other team during the half time water break as well as before and after
the scrimmage.

The soccer portion of the program resembled a typical Special Olympics soccer
practice with only a few modiﬁcations made to the drills in order to encourage social
interactions. While the rules speciﬁed by Special Olympics (Joseph P. Kennedy
Foundation, n.d.) were applied, there was some ﬂexibility to accommodate the
participants’ development and understanding of the game. Due to the fact that there were
only ﬁve participants and they were not physically ﬁt, the playing ﬁeld was shortened so
that participants felt successful and did not become too fatigued. For a sample soccer
lesson plan see Appendix B.

In order to ensure the coaches were comfortable delivering the different drills, the
head coach assisted the student investigator in designing the lesson plans. The head
coach contributed information regarding the warm-up activities, drills, and games played
by the participants. The lesson plans were made at least one week in advance. Both
coaches discussed lesson plans with the student investigator before the start of the
program. Coaches went over the goals for each session and responsibilities that each
coach was going to take during the session. The partners were also told of the lesson plan
before the start of the session. If a revision to the lesson plan was needed (e.g.,
participants struggled to understand the concept of an activity putting the group behind

schedule) the student investigator and head coach would make the change to the schedule

35

on the spot and inform the assistant coach immediately. These changes were then
recorded in the coaches’ and student investigator’s journals.

Party phase. The party was a time to recognize the participants for their
accomplishments while also creating a sense of closure. Occurring on the last day of the
program, the party consisted of a scrimmage where the participants played against their
families followed by an award ceremony and pizza party. Each participant received a
certiﬁcate for completing the program, a certiﬁcate listing areas of personal
improvement, and a soccer ball to take home. Parents were given a picture frame with a
team picture.

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. The parents helped participants develop
their social skills at home through an activities packet that complemented the classroom
material discussed in S3. On the ﬁrst day of the classroom session, parents received a 3-
ring binder that contained the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. This packet
contained additional information about the social skills being discussed; information
about how to practice and encourage the use of social skill in the home; activities parents
could do at home to complement the classroom material discussed in S3 ; and a copy of
the PowerPoint presentations used in the classroom. For a sample of activities provided
in the packet refer to Appendix C.

The list of activities was designed to be incorporated in the family’s daily lives
and was not meant to interfere with their normal routine. Many of the activities were
games that could be done while driving in the car, doing chores, or eating dinner. For
example, an activity that was designed to practice contributing relevant information was

to play “I spy” in the car. People involved in the game would point out something they

36

saw as they were driving by it. They would then try to think of things they could say
about the object or questions they could ask a person. For example, I spy a woman
walking her dog. I could ask “what is your dog’s name?” or “how old is your dog?”
Some of the other activities were more structured and required the families to set aside a
speciﬁc amount of time. For example, all families received cards that could be used to
play the Memory game. While playing Memory, the parents where encouraged to talk
about the pictures on the cards (e. g. a card with an apple could start a conversation like “I
don’t really like apples, but I love apple pie”). Parents were also encouraged to place
emphasis on turn taking within the actual game as well as within the conversation.

Along with the activities, parents were asked to provide positive reinforcement to their
child when they saw him/her demonstrating the social skills correctly through out the day. If
the participant was not demonstrating the skill correctly, parents were asked to redirect the
behavior giving direct instruction as needed.

Parents were asked to practice the social skills at least 4 times a week for 15 minutes each
practice session, resulting in at least 60 minutes of practice time each week. When parents
received the packet, the primary investigator met with them to discuss how to properly use the
activities. The parents were instructed to pick the activities that they felt best ﬁt into their
family’s routine and would be enjoyed by their child. It was emphasized that their child may
not like all of the activities. Parents were also told that they could modify the activities to ﬁt
the needs of their family as long as they made note of modiﬁcations. The researcher also
encouraged parents to come up with their own activities if they felt their child would prefer a
different activity. If a new activity was created, parents were asked to describe it when

recording their practice times.

37

For the following 4 weeks, the primary investigator met with the parents twice a week
for 15 minutes to discuss how to teach the skills to the participants, how to use the parent
activities, and how to complete a progress report on the child’s practice attempts during the
program. One area of particular focus was introducing the “look, listen, think, talk” model.
While in these meetings, parents were also encouraged to discuss which activities were
working well, any ﬁ'ustrations they may be having, or ask questions about unclear
information. After the four week period, the student investigator called parents every two
weeks to check on their progress and to answer any questions.

Instrumentation

Several instruments were used for data data. Please refer to the data collection
procedures for information on who administered the instruments, when they were
administered; and where they were administered.

Demographic proﬁle (Appendix D). Parents were asked to provide basic
information such as the participant’s age, sex, disability, extent of participation in extra
curricular/sports activities, and past social skills training. They were also asked to provide
their own age, experiences teaching social skills to their children, and highest level of
education.

Special Olympics Athlete Application to Participate and Athlete Medical Update
Form (Appendix E). To insure eligibility for Special Olympics and to obtain relevant
health information, participants were asked to complete the paperwork required by
Special Olympics. Parents were asked to sign a waiver (part of the consent form) that
allowed Special Olympics Michigan to provide the student investigator with a photocopy

of these forms. The information obtained ﬁ'om the Special Olympics forms was used to

38

determine any health concerns that needed to be addressed, such as allergies, and to
indicate medical clearance to participate in soccer. Coaches, partners, and the interviewer
were provided with a summary of need to know medical information for all participant.

Interviews with Parents (Appendix F) . Parents were interviewed before the
program started (baseline), at the completion of classroom phase (post-classroom), at the
completion of the soccer phase (post-soccer), and 5 weeks after the intervention was
completed (post-retention). Before starting an interview, parents were reminded that they
could skip any question that they were not comfortable answering and could stop the
interview entirely at any time. They were also reminded that they should answer all
questions as honestly as possible and not give answers that they thought the researchers
wanted to hear. All interviews were semi-structured. Therefore the interviewer followed a
script but had the freedom to ask follow-up probes as needed.

The baseline, post-classroom, and retention interviews lasted approximately 5-15
minutes and the post-soccer interviews lasted about 15-20 minutes. In all of the
interviews, the parents were asked to reﬂect on the participant’s social skills at home, at
school, in the community, and with strangers. During the post-classroom, post-soccer,
and retention interviews, they were also asked about any changes in their child’s social
skills abilities. Another area of discussion during the post-classroom, post-soccer, and
retention interviews was the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. Parents were asked
to discuss their use of the packet, activities they did and did not like, activities their child
did or did not like, struggles they had with the packet, and recommendations to improve
the packet. Lastly, parents were asked some questions regarding their overall opinion of

the program and recommendations for future programs.

39

Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating F arm for Parents (Appendix G). The
Alexander adaptation of Baker’s Skill Rating Form (2003) was completed by the parents
before each interview (baseline, post-classroom, post-soccer, and retention). Parents were
asked to rate the participants’ social skills on a scale of 1-5. A score of 1 represented that
the participant almost never demonstrated the skill and 5 represented that the participant
almost always demonstrated the skill. Next to each social skill there was also a column to
record if the skills were inconsistent or varied depending on the environment.

Observation Skill Rating Form (Appendix H). The Observation Skill Rating F orrn was
used to judge the participants’ social interactions while playing soccer. Each observation
periods was 70 minutes long. The participants were observed for 4 days during baseline, 2
days post-classroom, and 2 days post-soccer. Observers recorded how many times
participants demonstrated the behaviors, with whom they demonstrated the behavior, and the
quality of the demonstrated behavior. The quality of each demonstrated behavior was based
on a three point scale consisting of a zero, minus, and plus sign. A zero sign suggested
participant did not attempt the appropriate behavior or the correct behavior was
unrecognizable. A minus sign signiﬁed an attempt was made at the correct skills but that it
was demonstrated at a beginning level or at an emerging level. A plus sign signiﬁed that the
participant demonstrated a ﬁrnctional and proper use of the skill. A notes column was also
present to record any thoughts or observations made by the observer. For example, the
observer could elaborate on why the skill was labeled as a beginning level.

There were two observers. Each observer was responsible for observing two participants at
one time. In order to ensure inter-observer agreement, the observers participated in a training

period before the start of the program where they observed a video that replicated the

40

program. In order to ensure inter-observer agreement, the observers participated in a training
period before the start of the program where they observed a video that replicated the
program. During this training period, observers had to be in agreement 85% of the time with
each other and the primary investigator. Inter-observer agreement was calculated as the
number of agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements multiplied by
100 (Kazdin, 1982). Inter-observer agreement during training was calculated at 87%. While
the observers were collecting data, the coaches and partners did not provide participants with
social skills instruction or redirection, but simply allowed for natural social interactions to
occur.

Tracking Your Progress Form. (Appendix I). Parents were asked to keep a weekly
record of the practice activities they did at home. On the Tracking Your Progress form,
parents recorded what activity they did with their child, how much time they spent on the
activity and the results of the activity (e. g. did their child enjoy the activity). Parents were
asked to return the completed sheet the following Monday.

Journals (Appendix J). After every session, the coaches, instructors, and partners
completed a one to two page journal entry that summarized any observations about
participants’ social skills during the session. The coach journal focused on the
implementation of the lesson plans and participants’ reactions to the lesson planes. The
partner journal focused on the quality of social interactions with the participants. The
instructors’ journal recorded observations about data collection, classroom instruction,
and soccer instruction. All journals asked about observations such as a positive change
towards the goal behavior, a decrease in the goal behavior, frustration demonstrated by

the participant when trying to perform a goal behavior, or an unusual approach at a goal

41

behavior. Reasons that a participant may be having an “off day” or an exceptionally good
day were also recorded by all staff. The journals were sent to an email account
speciﬁcally created for this project within 48 hours of the session completion. The
student investigator immediately read the journal entries to determine the integrity of the
data-collection process and the ﬁdelity of the S3 intervention as well as to address any
problems or concerns expressed by the staff.
Data Collection Procedures

Staﬂtraining. All staff members were required to complete preliminary training.
Before there was any interaction with the participants, coaches and the student
investigator were required to complete a Special Olympics Volunteer A Form, the
Special Olympics General Orientation Online, The Special Olympics Protective Behavior
Lesson Online, First-Aid Certiﬁcation, and CPR certiﬁcation. All staff were also trained
by the student investigator on how to interact with Special Olympics athletes and their
parents.

The student investigator met with the two coaches at two different occasions for a
total of 2.5 hours. During the ﬁrst session, the coaches received three manuals: (a) a
general staff manual, (b) a ﬁrst aid manual, and (c) a coaching manual. The general
manual gave an outline of the program, clear deﬁnitions of the social skills that were
being emphasized in the program, important information to know about the population
they would be interacting with, policies regarding conﬁdentiality, payroll information,
and important contact numbers (see Appendix K for the General Manual’s Table of
Contents). The ﬁrst aid manual outlined general ﬁrst aid procedures that would most

likely be needed given the physical activity and the population. The coaching manual

42

gave a detailed outline of expectations and responsibilities, a general outline of a
coaching plan, important coaching strategies including behavior management techniques,
motivational tools, information on how to provide positive reinforcement, and a list of
different activities that would be done doing the program. During the ﬁrst meeting, the
student investigator highlighted important parts of the manual and discussed the program
in general. She also discussed how to complete the journals and had the coaches
complete a practice journal. During the second meeting, the student investigator created
the ﬁrst four soccer lesson plans with the assistance of the coaches making sure to
educate the coaches on important disability principles. She also answered questions they
had about the manuals and the overall program. During this meeting the student
investigator also informed the coaches of the enrolled participants general interests,
disability information, motivations, and possible things to avoid. Lastly, she reviewed
how to appropriately interact with people with disabilities as well as their parents.

The partners met for one training period that was two hours long. During the
meeting, the partners received the (a) general manual, (b) ﬁrst aid manual, and (c)
partner’s manual. The partner’s manual was very similar to the coach’s manual but
focused on the responsibilities of the partners. During the meeting, the student
investigator went through the manuals in great detail and discussed how to complete the
journals. The coaches were also required to attend this meeting so that the coaches and
partners could become acquainted before the start of the program. After discussing the
lesson plans for the ﬁrst two weeks, the student investigator then had a discussion with
the partners about how to appropriately interact with the participants, how to encourage

good socialbehaviors, how to initiate social interactions, and how to provide positive

43

reinforcement. The meeting was concluded by discussing any questions, concerns, or
fears that the partners were experiencing.

The observers met with the student investigator on two different occasions for a
total of 2.5 hours. Before the ﬁrst meeting, the observers were given a general manual as
well as an observer’s manual. The observer’s manual gave a detailed description of their
responsibilities, directions on how to complete the Observation Skill Rating Form, and a
sample of a completed Observation Skill Rating Form. The observers were asked to
review the material before the meeting. At the meeting, the student investigator went
through the general manual highlighting the important information. She provided
directions of how to use the Observation Skill Rating Form in detail. After giving
instructions on the instrument and answering the observer’s questions, the observers were
asked to practice using the instrument on a video recording of a Special Olympics soccer
practice. The student investigator then took the practice instruments and did a
comparison of the two observers. The observers had to show 85% inter-observer
agreement between each other as well as in comparison to the student investigator. As
this level of agreement was not met, another meeting was scheduled. During the second
meeting the student investigator reviewed the instrument and discussed the different
levels of skill demonstration. She then demonstrated how she would code the social
interactions by watching 10 minutes of a video clip and verbally analyzing the
participants’ interactions. After the demonstration, the student investigator answered the
observer’s questions and had them conduct another practice attempt. At this point, the
observer demonstrated inter-observer agreement between themselves. They also

demonstrated inter-observer agreement with the student investigator at an acceptable

level. Before the ﬁrst day of data collection, the observers were given a lab notebook to
record notes that would not ﬁt on the instrument as well as a sheet that provided the
observers with the coaches, partners, and participant’s name and photo. This information
was given to the observers in advance so they could familiarize themselves with the
people they would be observing.

The interviewer met with the student investigator on two occasions for a total of
three hours. During the ﬁrst meeting, the interviewer was provided with the general
manual as well as the interviewer’s manual. The interviewer’s manual outlined the
expectations for the interviewer as well as the interview protocol for all four interviews.
The manual also discussed how to complete ﬁeld notes, how to work the recording
equipment, and how to transcribe the data. After discussing how to properly conduct an
interview, the interviewer was asked to conduct a mock interview on the student
investigator using the protocol from Interview 1. Through out the interview, the student
investigator would stop the interview in order to provide the interviewer with instruction
or to clarify the procedures. The interviewer then conducted a second practice interview
on the student investigator using the protocol for the second interview. During this
interview the interviewer was not provided feedback from the student investigator until
the completion of the interview. Following this meeting, the interviewer was required to
conduct the interview at least four more times with a peer. She was asked to tape record
each of the practice interviews. During the second meeting, the student investigator
listened to the interviews providing a running commentary to the interviewer. Satisﬁed
with the quality of interviews provided by the interviewer, the student concluded the

interviewers training.

45

Consent Process. Once the parents contacted the student investigator, a preliminary
meeting was arranged at the family’s home. The student investigator provided the parents
with the consent form (Appendix L) and then gave a detailed description of the program
including the purpose of the intervention, responsibilities of the child, responsibilities of the
family, potential beneﬁts of the program, and potential risks of the program. With the parents’
permission, the student investigator then spoke with the potential participants who had a
disability. After introducing herself, she had a casual conversation with the participants asking
questions like “Where do you go to school” and ‘What did you have for lunch today”. The
purpose of this interview was to determine the participants’ level of functioning abilities to
ensure they qualiﬁed for the program. If the participants could answer at least 4 out of 6
questions, they were considered eligible (assuming they met all other criteria).

Once the parents provided consent for their children to participate, the student
investigator talked with the potential participants about the program. Parents were asked to
observe these interactions to ensure that the student investigator were not upsetting or coercing
potential participants. The student investigator showed a brief video clip of a Special
Olympics soccer practice so that the children would understand what the activities would be
like. She also discussed how the group would learn how to talk to people and make new
ﬁiends. Ifthe participants said that they wanted to participate in the program, they were asked
to sign an assent form.

Before leaving, the student investigator asked the parents to also complete the
demographic proﬁle. If they did not have a Special Olympics Athlete Application to
Participate or a current Special Olympics Medical Update Form on ﬁle with Michigan Special

Olympics Ofﬁce, they were given the appropriate document and asked to complete it before

46

the start of the program. Parents were also given a second copy of the consent form and
information packet to keep.

Data collection schedule and procedures. Data was collected at four different
intervals throughout the program: (a) during the baseline phase; (b) after the classroom
phase; (c) after the soccer phase; and ((1) ﬁve weeks after the completion of the
intervention (Table 3).

Attendance was taken at every session to ensure that participants were being
exposed to the classroom material and receiving sufﬁcient time to practice the skills
during the soccer sessions. Participants had to be present for at least 75% (9 out of 12
sessions ) of the classroom/baseline phases of the program and 80% ( 23 of the 28
sessions) of the entire program to be included in the sample population. One participant
was present for 100% of the sessions, two participants were present for 96% of the
sessions, one participant was present for 93% of the sessions, and the last participant was
present for 89% of the sessions.

The interviewer was responsible for arranging the interviews, conducting the
interviews, and reporting back to the student investigator. She contacted the families and
arranged for a convenient time and location to administer the Alexander Adaptation of
Skill Rating Form for Parents and the interviews. At the completion of each ofﬁcial
interview, the interviewer completed a ﬁeld note report that was emailed to the student
investigator. The report included the amount of time the interviews took, a general
overview of how she felt the interviews went and any of the interviewer’s concerns. This
data was recorded by the student investigator in a separate lab notebook. The interviewer

was then responsible for transcribing the interviews verbatim within two weeks after the

47

completion of the interviews. The interviewer was also responsible for entering the data

gathered on the Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form for Parents. After

transferring this data into an electronic ﬁle, the data was placed into a secure ﬁling

 

 

 

 

 

 

cabinet
Table 3
Schedule of Instrumentation
Instrumentation Administered By Where Administered
Pre-program (before program starts)
Consent/Assent Form Student Participant’s Home
Investigator
Demographic Proﬁle Student Participant’s Home
Investigator
Special Olympics Athlete Application to Student Participant’s Home
Participate Investigator
Special Olympics Medical Update Form Student Participant’s Home
Investigﬂrr
Baseline (Sessions 2- 5)
Observer Skill Rating Form Observers Soccer Sessions
Parental Interview Interviewer Participant’s Home
Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Interviewer Participant’s Home
F orm
Post-Classroom (Sessions 13-15)
Observer Skill Rating Form Observers Soccer Sessions
Parental Interview Interviewer Participant’s Home
Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Interviewer Participant’s Home
Form
Post-Soccer (Sessions 25-27)
Observer Skill Rating Form Observers Soccer Sessions
Parental Interview Interviewer Participant’s Home
Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Interviewer Participant’s Home
Form
Retention (5 weeks after soccer)
Parental Interview Interviewer Participant’s Home
Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Interviewer Participant’s Home

Form

48

The Observer Skill Rating Form was completed during 70 minutes of soccer play by
two investigators who have no other role in the research project. When the observers arrived
at the program, they were given a clipboard, two blank copies of the Observation Skill Rating
Form and a copy of the session’s lesson plan. As two of the partners were identical twins,
clothing differences between the two young women were also identiﬁed. The observers were
then told which two participants they would be observing for that particular session. In order
to ensure that each observation period was exactly 70 minutes, the student investigator told the
observers exactly when to start and stop recording social interactions. At the completion of
each data collection session the observers returned the completed observation forms to the
student investigator. These forms were then placed into a ﬁle folder that went into a secure
briefcase. The observers were responsible for keeping their lab notebook until the completion
of the ﬁnal observation. At this time the student investigator collected the notebooks and
stored them in a locked ﬁling cabinet.

Data management. Data management includes three main components,
ownership, access and control of the data.

Ownership. Michigan State University owns all data that was collected in this

project.

Aim. Melissa Alexander and her advisor, Dr. Gail Dummer, were the only
people who had access to all of the raw data collected in this study. Other members of
the research staff and the dissertation committee had access only on a need-to-know
basis (e. g., the interviewer had access to the Demographic Proﬁle to learn about the

participant and family as a means of facilitating a successful interview).

49

m In order to protect participants’ privacy, consent and assent forms are
currently stored in a locked ﬁle cabinet that is located in a locked private ofﬁce at
Michigan State University. All print and digital media data are also stored in a
separate locked ﬁle cabinet. Digital recordings of interviews were erased as soon as
interviews were transcribed and the transcription had been veriﬁed for accuracy.
Different items of data from the sample participant are linked using code
numbers/pseudonyms, and the link between participants’ names and the code
numbers/pseudonyms will be destroyed as soon as practical.

Data Analysis

Qualitative and quantitative methodology was applied to analyze the data gathered
from the different instruments (Table 4). As this study involved ﬁve separate case studies,
each participant’s data were analyzed separately. When analyzing the Observation Skill
Rating Form, a 5% change in the mean of skill attempts from one time period to another was
considered clinically signiﬁcant. For the Parent Skill Rating Form, a change of one level was
considered clinically signiﬁcant. The data gathered on the Observation Skill Rating Form and
the Parent Skill Rating Form was also compared to the interview data.

All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using the procedures
recommended by Patton (1990). The student investigator, the faculty advisor, the head soccer
coach, and the assistant soccer coach independently analyzed the data using axial coding. All
four researchers then met to come to a consensus about the lower order and higher order

themes.

50

Table 4

Data Analysis by Research Question

 

 

 

 

Question Data Source Analysis Decision
1- Did Parent Interviews Qualitative Look for parent report of
participants (baseline, post- analysis: themes development of skill in
develop and classroom, post- and subthemes program skills as well as
reﬁne social skills soccer) other social skills
ass a result (if the Look at other general themes
S program. presented
Observer Skill Visual analysis Visual trend of progression
Ratrng Form Comparison of means from
(basehne, post- each phase
classroom, post-
soccer, retention)
2- Did Parent Interviews Qualitative Look for parent report of
participants (post-soccer and analysis: themes skill maintenance in
maintain the retention) and subthemes program skills as well as
social skills other social skills
developed in S3
tmtil 5 weeks post Alexander Skill Visual analysis Visual comparison of
program? Rating Form for numbers
Parents
3- Did Parent Interviews Qualitative Look for parent report of
participants (post-classroom, analysis: themes skill generalization in
generalize the post-soccer, and subthemes. program skills as well as
social skills they retention) other social skills
developed in the
S3 program to Alexander Skill Visual analysis Visual comparison of
home, school and Rating Form for numbers
community Parents
setting?

 

Visual inspection was used to analyze the data gathered on the Observation Skill

Rating Form. The researchers calculated the total number of social skill attempts

recorded for each skill (eye contact, turn taking, contributing relevant information). The

data for each social skill was then sorted into three separate skill levels; (a) functional and

51

proper use of the skill; (b) beginning or emerging skill level; and (c) no attempt at skill.
The researchers were focused on the change of skill level and not in the change of skill
attempts. Therefore, the following formula was used to calculate the percentage of

number of correct attempts x100. This formula

 

correct skill attempts: % correct 'skill =
total number of attempts

was also used to determine the percentage of developing skill attempts and skill attempts
that did not occur.

These percentages were then graphed. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the
intervention, the mean percentage of skill attempts ﬁorn each phase (baseline, post-classroom,
and post—soccer) was calculated, graphed, and visually analyzed. The change in mean
percentage of skill attempts from baseline to post-soccer was also calculated. The Alexander
Adaptation of Skill Rating Form for parents was analyzed using visual comparison. To
determine if the participant had generalized the skill to another setting, the participant’s mean
for skill attempts that occurred during the baseline of the program was compared to the mean
of skill attempts that occurred during post-soccer. The participant’s post-soccer score was also
compared to the score given during the retention phase to determine if the participant had
retained the social skills.

When analyzing the Observation Skill Rating Form, a 5% change in the mean of skill
attempts from one time period to another was considered clinically signiﬁcant. For the Parent
Skill Rating Form, a change of one level was considered clinically signiﬁcant. The data
gathered on the Observation Skill Rating Form and the Parent Skill Rating Form was also

compared to the interview data.

52

The Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form For Parents was analyzed using visual
analysis. In order to determine if the participant had generalized the skill to another setting,
the participant’s score during the baseline of the program was compared to the score that was
reported post-soccer. The participant’s post-soccer score was also compared to the score
given during the retention phase to determine if the participant had retained the social skills.

Personnel
Student Investigator

The Student Investigator, (Melissa Alexander, MS) was responsible for planning
S3, implementing S3, overseeing all personnel related to S3, and disseminating the results
ﬁom S3 . She recruited participants to the study, conducted the qualiﬁcation interviews,
and administered the consent/assent process. She also conducted the retention interview
with the families. During the program, Mrs. Alexander administered the classroom
portion of S3 as well as the parent supplemental portion of S3. Lastly, I was responsible
for the data analyses dissemination of results.

Through my experiences in academics, research, teaching, and practical
experiences Mrs. Alexander have developed the skills necessary to complete this project.
For a detailed explanation of her experiences please refer to her Curriculum Vitae.

Academics. Mrs. Alexander has a BA in psychology, a BS in Health and Sport
Studies, a coaching minor, and a MS in Sport Psychology. She has completed courses
in qualitative and quantitative research methods, as well as classes in research
methodology and research ethics. In the process of attaining my PhD with a focus in
adapted physical activity, Mrs. Alexander has completed numerous classes related to

different aspects of disabilities and physical activity.

53

Research She has previously conducted research studies, including a thesis on how
collegiate participants cope with pain. In research designed to teach life skills (such as
coping skills and making friends) to teenagers with physical disabilities, Mrs.
Alexander co-wrote the intervention, and assisted with the delivery the intervention,
staff training, data collection, data analysis and dissemination of results.
Teaching She has held a variety of teaching roles including teaching art for a summer
day camp, teaching pre-schoolers ages 1 -4, and instructing physical activity and
academic classes at Michigan State University.
W1 Experiences As a certiﬁed Special Olympics coach in both aquatics and
football (soccer), Mrs. Alexander has coached swimming for four years and has
coached a Special Olympics soccer team for the last year. She have served as the head
coach for the MSU Special Olympics swim team at both the local and state level.
Mrs. Alexander has also conducted and assisted coaches certiﬁcation courses for
Special Olympics. At festivals geared towards disability sports, she has taught sport
skills to people with a variety of different disabilities. Working for the Associate
Provost for Undergraduate Education, she has organized conferences held on campus,
administered computerized tests, and analyzed data that was gathered across the
campus. She has also managed teams of undergraduate workers in a variety of
different settings.
Faculty A dvisor
Dr. Gail Dummer, Ph.D., was the faculty advisor and dissertation director for this
research project. Her responsibilities to the Department of Kinesiology included teaching

graduate and undergraduate courses, and serving as director of the Sports Skills Program

54

in which kinesiology students learn to teach and coach persons with disabilities. She was
internationally recognized for her expertise in curriculum and instruction, inclusion, and
disability sports. Her curriculum vita includes over 120 publications, 100 presentations,
and 40 funded projects. Dr. Dummer has mentored several graduate students in externally
funded research, and also contributed her expertise in research methods, statistics, and
responsible conduct of research to this project.

Gerrnane to this project, Dr. Dummer has made extensive contributions to the
Special Olympics program. She is a certiﬁed Special Olympics aquatics coach. In
addition to educating university students to coach a variety of Special Olympics sports,
Dr. Dummer conducts an annual aquatics coach education/certiﬁcation clinic for Special
' Olympics-Michigan, and serves as meet director for the annual Area 8 swimming
competition. She regularly coaches Sports Skills Program swimmers at the Michigan
Special Olympics Summer Games, served as head swimming coach for the Michigan
delegation at the 2006 USA National Special Olympics Games, and will participate as an
assistant swimming coach for the USA team at the 2007 World Special Olympics Games
in Shanghai, China. Please refer to an abridged version of Dr. Dummer’s curriculum vita.
Dissertation Committee

Melissa Alexander’s dissertation committee consisted of four faculty members,
namely Dr. Gail Dummer (see above information), Dr. Esther Onaga, Dr. Karin Pfeiffer,
and Dr. Daniel Gould. Dr. Esther Onaga is a professor in the Department of Family and
Child Ecology. Her role in this project was to provide advice on involving family and
community in the intervention. Through her own research and the experiences she has

had with her son who has autism, she has become very knowledgeable about disability

55

accommodations, interventions and social skills training. Dr. Karin Pfeiffer has a degree
in both sport psychology and exercise physiology. She currently is an assistant professor
in the Department of Kinesiology. Dr. Pfeiffer has developed considerable expertise in
designing and conducting interventions associated with her research on physical activity
programs for children and youth. She contributed her expertise on interventions and
research methodology to this project. Dr. Dan Gould is a professor in the department of
Kinesiology the Director of the Institute for the Study of Youth Sports at Michigan State
University. He contributed his expertise in sport psychology and youth sport to the design
of the intervention.
Other Personnel

MSU is an equal opportunity employer. Therefore, individuals with and without
disabilities were hired for this research study. A description of the personnel’s

qualiﬁcations and responsibilities can be found in Table 5.

56

Table 5

Qualiﬁcations and Responsibilities for Other Personnel

 

 

Personnel Qualiﬁcations Responsibilities
1 Assistant First Aid and CPR certiﬁed Assisted student investigator with all
Instructor Knowledge of people with Prztgst, IntProhggrction, (ﬂgssropm, Soccer,
disabilities and appropriate ant arty es (teac g, C assroom
pedagogical techniques se -up, e c.)
Assisted with the review of
corrnnunication skills to participants
before and after physical activity during
soccer phase
Kept daily journal
2 Soccer First Aid and CPR certiﬁed Assisted with Introduction, Classroom,
Coaches Completed adapted physical and Party Phases
activity course at MSU Taught soccer skills
Completed Special Olympics Encouraged use of social skills during
orientation program soccer practice
Knowledge about soccer and Provided feedback to participants during
coaching soccer
Kept daily journal
2 Observers Knowledge about disability Recorded social skills of participants
and disability sport during soccer using the Observers Skill
Knowledge about social skills Ratrng From
1 Interviewer Interviewing skills Conducted all interviews with parents
Knowledge about disability Adrmm' 'stered Alexander Adaptation of
sport Skill Rating Form for Parents
4 Partners General soccer knowledge Interacted with Special Olympics athletes
Good people skills during all phases
Encouraged and helped direct social skills
during soccer portion of program
Kept daily journal

 

57

Resources

Michigan State University (MS U). MSU has over 45,000 students enrolled in
more than 200 undergraduate and graduate programs of study; making among the 10
largest universities in the United States. It has exceptional library and computer
facilities, providing faculty and students with access to electronic mail, intemet
information, data analysis software, database systems, data backup servers, and research
literature including newspapers, magazines, books, and journals. The MSU Contract and
Grants ofﬁce assisted with the distribution of funds and compliance with ﬁnancial
policies. Amy Rivard, a staff member in the Department of Kinesiology, maintained
ﬁnancial records and budget records.

Special Olympics Area 8 (Michigan). Area 8 consists of two Michigan counties
(Irrgharn and Eaton). There are currently 1,473 athletes registered in Area 8. Thus there is
an ample number of prospective participants for this research.

Facilities and Equipment. Facility needs include a classroom and nearby indoor
soccer gymnasium. Indoor facilities were needed because of Michigan’s winter climate.
Likely facilities include a child development center on the MSU campus or a local
community center. Table 8 provides a list of the equipment needed to complete this
project. All equipment purchased with grant frmds was donated to Michigan Area 8

Special Olympics at the completion of the study.

58

Table 6
Available and Needed Equipment

 

 

Function Available from MSU Need to Purchase from Grant Funds
Classroom Projector Paper
Screen Pens
3-ring binders
Photocopies of Intervention
Classroom facility
Soccer Soccer goals and nets Gym
Soccer balls
Ball bag
Pinnies
Cones
Dry erase board (to display daily
schedule)
T-shirts (to develop team bond)
F irst-aid kits
Data 2 digital tape recorders Storage media
_ Collection Private ofﬁce with locking ﬁle Paper
cabinets Pens
Computers for data storage
Data transcription software
Foot pedal for data transcription
. Party Facility
Food and drink
Certiﬁcates for participants

 

59

Budget

 

 

Table 7.
Proposed Budget for S3
Line Item and Justiﬁcation Cost
Personnel
1 head coach/student worker (36 hrs intervention [45 rrrin x 9 sessions and 304.00
70 min. times 19 sessions] plus 2 hrs training @ $8 per hr)
1 assistant instructor/student worker (6 hrs classroom intervention and 2 hrs 64.00
training @ $8 per hr)
1 assistant coach/student worker (36 hrs intervention [45 min x 9 sessions 304.00
and 70 nrin. times 19 sessions] and 2 hrs training @ $8 per hr)
2 observers/student workers (15 hrs observation [ 90 min. x 10 sessions] 272.00
and2 hrstraining@ $8perhour)
1 Interviewer/student worker (20 hrs interviewing and transcribing and 2 176.00
hrs training @ $8 per hour)
3 partners to receive a gift card to the local mall (3 gift cards @ $100 each) 300.00
Total 1420.00
Photocopies
Instrumentation (approximately 19 pages per participant with 8 participants 7.60
@ $0.05 per page)
Advertisement Flyer (200 copies @ $0.05 per page) 1000
Consent Letter (6 pages per letter with 2 copies per 8 families @ $0.05 per 4.80
page)
Handouts for classroom session (approximately 24 pages per participant 9.60
with 8 participants @ $0.05 per page)
Parent copy of classroom material and home program (approximately 30 1200
pages per parent with 8 parents @ $0.05 per page)
Total 44.00
Office Supplies
Storage media (CD), ﬁle folders, paper, writing utensils, ﬂash drives, etc. 100,00
T-Shirts
15 shirts (I coach, 1 assistant coach, 1 student investigator, 8 participants, 150.00
and 4 partners) @ $10 a shirt

60

Table 7 Continued
Proposed Budget for 53

Sport Equipment (all donated to Area 8 Special Olympics at completion of
project)

8 soccer balls @ $8.50 each plus 6% sales tax (additional balls will be
borrowed ﬁom Michigan State University and the Michigan Chill Soccer
club)

1 ball bag @ $6.99 plus tax

1 dry erase board to post daily schedules @ $15 plus tax

15 pinrries @ 5.50 each plus tax

20 cones @ $0.99 each plus tax

4 latex free ﬁrst aid kits @ $25 each plus tax

Total

Intervention Supplies

8 three-ring binders to hold the participants’ classroom material @ $5.94
each plus 6% sales tax

8 three-ring binders to hold the parents’ activities program @ $5.94 each
plus tax

9 three ring-binder to hold staff training manuals and safety information @
5.94 each plus tax

Certiﬁcate to give to the participants at the End of the Program Party @
$14 a package plus tax

Total

Conference to Disseminate Results
Registration fee for the student investigator at the North American
Federation for Adapted Physical Activity
4 nights stay at a hotel in Indianapolis @ $50 a night (cost of room to be
shared with colleague)
Total

Facility Rental
Location to be determined. At this time a price will be negotiated

Total Budget

61

72.08

7.41
15.90
87.45
20.98

106.00
309.82
50.37
50.37
56.67
14.84

172.25

125.00

200.00

325.00

975.00

$3,496.07

CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW

Social skills are essential for the many interactions that occur through out one’s
life time. They affect an individual at school, work, home, and in the community.
Unfortunately, many people with mental retardation (MR) or a pervasive developmental
disorder (PDD) struggle tremendously with the development of basic social skills. A
young man with autism once described his difficulties with social skills as “getting off of
a plane in a foreign country without knowing the language, cultural gestures or cultural
norms” (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004, p.19). While people with MR or PDD may have
difﬁculties developing the skills, many of them recognize the importance of the skills and
desire social interactions. Adults with MR have reported that they feel social skills are
essential for success in community living (Lovett & Harris, 1987b). And despite public
misconceptions, individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) want to build social
relationships and enjoy contact with their peers (Mesibov, 1984).

The following review of literature will: (a) discuss the social difﬁculties
experienced by people with intellectual disabilities; (b) analyze the consequences of
social skills deﬁciencies; (c) introduce a conceptual model that describes the necessary
components for the development, maintenance, and generalization of social skills; and (d)
discuss past research that supports the conceptual model. For deﬁnitions of mental
retardation, pervasive developmental disabilities, and other terminology presented in this

research study please refer to Appendix M.

62

Social Skills Deﬁciencies of People
with Intellectual Disabilities

There is no universally accepted deﬁnition for the term social skills (Bielecki &
Swender, 2004). However, the term generally refers to “a complex set of skills that
include communication, problem-solving and decision making, assertion, peer and group
interaction, and self-management” (Kolby & Hanley-Maxwell, 2003, p.163). Social skills
are learned behaviors that an individual must observe and/or be taught in a variety of
different environments (Bielecki & Swender, 2004). Without these skills, people cannot
initiate and maintain positive relationships with a variety of people including family
members, teachers, co-workers, peers, and people in the community (Quinn, J annasch-
Pennel, & Rutherford, 1995). These skills also promote independence, increase social
acceptability, and increase quality of life for the individual (Bellack, 1983).

By deﬁnition, people with mental retardation or a pervasive developmental
disorder struggle with appropriate social skills. Countless studies have documented the
social skills difﬁculties experienced by individuals with intellectual disabilities (e.g.,
Coie, 1985; Gresham, 1981; Gresham & Elliott, 1989). The cause of these social
deﬁciencies is diverse and it affects all domains of life.

Mental Retardation

People with mental retardation (MR) have been found to have difﬁculties with
social skills starting as infants. When compared to typically developing children, babies
with MR tend to initiate fewer social interactions and respond less to social invitations
from others (Guralnik & Groom, 1987; Koop, Baker, & Brown, 1992). The age at which

they speak their ﬁrst words also tends to be delayed (Berglund, 2001). Once they do start

63

speaking, their development of expressive language skills continues to develop very
slowly compared to typically developing children (Fabbretti, Pizzuto, Vicari, & Volterr,
1997)

Individuals with MR tend to have difﬁculties developing many social skills that
are needed for successful interactions with others. Many of the skills that they have
difficulties developing, such as joking, talking about the same subject, and asking about
an individual’s personal life are essential for initiating friendships and creating social
networks (Chadsey-Rusch, 1990; Chadsey-Rusch & Gonzales, 1988; Williams, Walker,
Holmes, Todis, & Fabre, 1989). When eleven parents of adolescents with MR were
interviewed, they reported that their children lacked the skills needed to initiate and
maintain ﬁiendships. The parents said their children needed to be speciﬁcally taught: (a)
how to discern the motives of others, (b) how to perform general communication skills,
(c) how to demonstrate empathy, and ((1) how to interpret general social cues (Kolb &
Hanley-Maxwell, 2003).

People with MR particularly struggle with the ability to understand a social
situation from someone else’s perspective. They tend to have a difﬁcult time interpreting
other people’s feelings and realizing what those feelings may represent in the social
environment (Bradley & Meredith, 1991; Moffatt, Hanley-Maxwell, & Donnellan, 1995).
Individuals with MR may have difﬁculties taking another person’s perspective because
they have difﬁculties interpreting more complex emotions. In general, individuals with
MR can decipher more simplistic emotions such as happy and sad; however, they have
difﬁculties when it comes to emotions such as frustration or anxiety (Wilczenski, 1991).

A typically developing child can usually reliably identify emotions portrayed by facial

64

expressions by the time they are two years of age (Cohn et al., 1990, Huebner & Izard,
1988). However, researchers have suggested that compared to people without a
disability, even in adulthood individuals with MR have a much harder time recognizing
emotions from facial expressions (Mauer & Newbrough, 1987, Rojahn, Rabold, &
Schneider, 1995). Rojahan, Rabold, and Schneider (1995) compared people with MR to
a group that was matched based on chronological age and a group that matched based on
maturation age to determine if slow development was the cause for the individual’s
inability to recognize emotions through facial expressions. When compared to both
groups, people with MR demonstrated a signiﬁcantly lower level of ability to recognize
emotions. The amount of experience people with MR had observing emotions in others
did not improve their ability to interpret emotions correctly.

People with mental retardation may also demonstrate a social skill in a socially
unacceptable manner. For example, they may demonstrate a social skill in excess, such
as hugging a stranger and not letting go (Duncan, Matson, Bamburg, Cherry, & Buckley,
1999). They may also demonstrate the appropriate social skill, but the skill is
undeveloped. For example, while attempting to make eye contact in a conversation they
may open their eyes too wide and appear as though they are staring. These undeveloped
skills often lead to peer ridicule and further isolation.

Pervasive Developmental Disabilities

Because persons with autism and Asperger’s syndrome share some of the same
underlying characteristics, professionals often have a difﬁcult time diagnosing the
difference between high ﬁrnctioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Unlike MR, the

medical community has not been able to identify a biological marker or a causation that

65

can differentiate between autism and Asperger’s syndrome (Reed & Collier, 2002). To
compound the issue, when working with people with different PDDs, the same
pedagogical principles are used to teach and accommodate their needs (Wing, 1997).
This has lead to debates about if there is really a need for the different subtypes and if we
are truly able to identify between high functioning autism and Aspergers. Some
researchers (Schopler, 1998; Volkmar & Kim, 2001; Wing, 1997) have even suggested
that there is no difference between the two groups. Because of the difﬁculties associated
with differentiating between autism and Asperger’s syndrome, many researchers combine
both populations for research purposes and refer to the individuals as having autism
spectrum disorder (ASD). Unless otherwise speciﬁed, in this paper ASD will be used to
refer to all individuals with autism or Asperger’s syndrome.

Individuals with ASD tend to have difﬁculties developing all areas of social
skills. They not only receive and process information differently than the general public,
but they also respond to the information in a unique manner (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004).

One area of development that is particularly problematic for people with ASD is
pragrnatics (Gerber, 2003). Pragmatics is “the social use of language as is involved in
sustaining or initiating a conversation” (Baker, 2003, p.17). It focuses on skills such as
making eye contact, using correct tone and volume, having appropriate body language,
being able to respond to comments appropriately, and staying on topic in a conversation.
Because this is an area of difﬁculty for people with ASD they tend to “include irrelevant
details in conversations, interrupt, shift inappropriately to another topic, and overall fail

to develop conversations” (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2000, p.325).

66

Individuals with ASD also have difﬁculties with social interchanges used in
everyday society (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002). For example, in order to sustain a
ﬁiendship, one must have some rudimentary skills including the ability to be a fun
companion, be dependable, assist others when necessary, and express and interchange
feelings (Asher, Parker, & Walker, 1998). However, these are all skills that individuals
with autism struggle to develop (Kasari, Chamberlain, & Bauminger, 2001; Kasari &
Sigrnan, 1996). As a result many people with ASD have a limited number of ﬁiends.

People with ASD often seem to be aloof to other people and to their surroundings.
They tend to avoid making eye contact and may treat humans more like objects than
living beings. They may also interact with objects in an unusual manner which makes
them seem uninterested in their surroundings. In some cases, they may not interact with
surrounding objects at all. In other cases, they will interact with an item in a manner that
is not age appropriate. If a person tries to interfere with the odd play behavior, the
individual with ASD will often experience distress (Kraﬁ, 1983). For example, a
kindergarten aged boy may stack cars and trucks into a pile as if they were blocks.
However, when given blocks, he pushes them around on the ﬂoor as if they were cars or
ignores the blocks all together. When a peer picks up one of the blocks, the boy starts
screaming, and kicks the blocks around the room while ﬂapping his hands.

The largest social difﬁculty, particularly for people with higher functioning ASD,
is related to social-emotional understanding . The social difﬁculty is not because of
social insensitivity or social disinterest (Bacon, Fein, Morris, Waterhouse, & Allen, 1998;
Sigrnan & Ruskin, 1999). In other words, it is not that the people with ASD don’t want to

be social; they just have an extremely difﬁcult time interpreting the social interactions of

67

others. However, according to Chalop and Walsh (1986), the standofﬁsh appearance
demonstrated by people with ASD makes others think that they are uninterested in social
interaction. As a result parents, peers, and teachers are discouraged from attempting to
make social contact with the individual, which in turn results in fewer opportunities to
develop new social skills.

Individuals with ASD also have difﬁculties developing the language skills that are
necessary for social interactions (Liber, Frea, & Symon, 2008). Initiating speech or
generalizing spontaneous speech in a variety of different contexts, including
environments and people, is an area in which people with ASD struggle (Charlop &
Trasowech, 1991). They also tend to have difﬁculties integrating verbal and nonverbal
components of communication (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002).

Unfortunately, some of the gestures and responses of individuals with ASD
ﬁnther increases their level of social rejection. Many of the stereotypical behaviors
associated with ASD, such as hand wringing, self-stimulatory behaviors, and echolalia
make social interactions and communication difﬁcult (Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002).
All of these behaviors lead peers to perceive persons with ASD as odd or
unapproachable. Another issue is people with ASD often have difﬁculties expressing
their opinions in a socially acceptable manner. People with ASD are often in situations
where they feel uncertain because they do not know what they are supposed to do, what
they should expect others to do, or how to react to the behaviors of others (Coyne &
Fullerton, 2004). Their uncertainty and inability to express themselves appropriately to

others often results in inappropriate or aggressive verbalizations towards peers (McGee,

68

Krantz, & McClannahan, 1984). For this reason peers reject and sometimes even fear
people with ASD.
Cause of Social Skill Deﬁciencies

There are a variety of different variables that cause a deﬁciency in social skills.
First and foremost, the general nature of people’s disabilities may inhibit their social
skills development. For example, due to slow development, people with MR may
continue to demonstrate some childhood behaviors longer than is seen in typically
developing children. By the time people with Down syndrome (DS) reach early
childhood, they tend to score two standard deviations below typically developing children
on a cognitive development test (Hauser-Cram, Warﬁeld, Shonkoff, Krauss, Upshur, &
Sayer, 1999). As a result, concepts such as sharing and turn taking may occur later than
is expected for typically developing children. Without these general skills, social
interactions with typically developing peers can be strained. People with MR also tend to
enjoy playing games with people who are much younger than themselves, resulting in a
lack of modeling from age appropriate peers (Thomas, 1996). Because of the odd play
behaviors sometimes demonstrated by people with ASD, they often have difﬁculties
interacting with others.

Other reasons for a lack of social skills could be (a) a lack of general knowledge
regarding appropriate social skills, (b) insufﬁcient or ineffective feedback about the
social skills they demonstrate, (c) a problem perceiving social cues, (d) an absence of
appropriate social cues in the environment, (e) problem behaviors which interfere with
social interactions such as self stimulating behaviors or attention difﬁculties, (1) an

inability to recognize the goals of social interactions, and (g) differing opinions on the

69

goal of social interactions (Coie & Koeppl, 1990; Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Ladd &
Mize, 1983; Oden & Asher, 1977; Renshaw & Asher, 1983).

A lack of practice with other individuals who demonstrate appropriate social
skills may also cause a deﬁciency in social skill. In school, many children with
intellectual disabilities are segregated into special education classrooms where they have
limited interactions with peers who do not have disabilities (Huang & Cuvo, 1997). In
the work setting, people who had MR were much more likely to interact with other
people who also had MR and not with people who were considered typically developed
(Huang and Cuvo, 1997). Both of these situations often result in a lack of positive
modeling of the desired behaviors from other peers.

Decreased social skills could be from the person feeling ﬁ'ustrated and
discouraged. Because of the improper use of social skills, individuals with ID ﬁ'equently
receive negative feedback (e. g., taunting or ridicule) from their peers. As a result, the
individual may not try to interact with others or develop meaningful relationships for fear
of further rejection. Instead they develop avoidance behaviors that lead to an increased
levels of isolation (Gresham, 1986; Kirby, 2002).

Implications of Social Skill Deﬁciencies

Social skills are often referred to as an essential component for life adjustment
(Epstein & Cullinan, 1987; Neel, 1988). Woods and Wetherby (2003) stated that
“communication competence may be the primary factor detemrining the extent to which
individuals with ASD develop relationships with others and participate in daily activities and
routines at school, at home, and in the community" (p. l 80). Without social skills, people

cannot cOmmunicate their needs, establish appropriate relationships with others, and

70

communicate their thoughts. They are at risk of being rejected, experiencing increased
difﬁculties in school, suffering mental health problems, and being under or unemployed
during their adult years (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995, 1998, 2001).

Many individuals with ID experience difﬁculties related to social acceptance from
their peers (Elliott, 1988; Walker, Irvin, Noell, & Singer, 1992; Korinek & Polloway, 1993).
Individuals with mental retardation are more likely to be rejected or neglected by their peers,
especially in the school setting (Chamberlain, Kasair, & Rotherma-Fuller, 2007; Polloway,
Epstairr, Patton, Cullinan, & Luebke, 1986). When compared to their classmates who do not
have disabilities, they tend to have signiﬁcantly fewer ﬁiends. The relationships that are
established tend to be less stable and sustained over a shorter duration of time (Bauminger &
Kasari, 2000; Soresi & Nota, 2000; Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1988). Non-disabled peers often
reject people with mental retardation not because of their academic incompetence, but because
of the inappropriate behaviors they demonstrate when in a social situation (Gottlieb, Semmel,
& Veldman, 1978).

People with ID may also have a skewed perception of their ﬁiendships. When
398 children from inclusive classrooms were asked to list their top three ﬁiends and their
best ﬁiend, the 17 individuals with ASD had fewer reciprocal nominations than students
without ASD. Therefore, while individuals with ASD may have perceived a student
without a disability to be their best friend, the feelings were not mutual. The children
without disabilities also reported that the relationships they had with the students with
ASD were qualitatively different than those that they had with their typically developing

peers” (Chamberlain. Kasari & Rotheram-Fuller, 2007).

71

Difﬁculties with social skills have been cited as one of the primary reasons
students are unsuccessful in their transitions from school to employment and independent
living (Chadsey-Rusch, Rusch, & O’Reilly, 1991; Edgar, 1987; 1988). Strain and Odom
(1986) reported that a deﬁciency in social skills during an individual’s childhood was the
best single predictor of signiﬁcant problems with adjustment during the person’s adult
life. There are also many studies that have identiﬁed a positive correlation between
social/interpersonal skills and work adjustment/tenure (Auty, Goodman, & Foss, 1987;
Brickey, Campbell, & Browning, 1985; Foss & Bostwich, 1981; Greenan, 1983;
Greenspan & Shoultz, 1981; Hill, Hill, Wehman, & Goodall, 1985; Salzber, Likins,
McConaughy, Ligrrugaris, Kraft, & Stowitschek, 1986).

Social skills are especially important when entering the workforce to help
overcome some of the negative perceptions that may be held by supervisors or other
coworkers. Due to many of the negative stereotypes held in society about people with
ID, coworkers tend to create a negative work environment for people with [D before they
are given a chance to develop positive relationships. Examples of these stereotypes
include the belief that people with ID cannot perform basic tasks without constant
supervision or people with ID cannot interact with customers appropriately. Appropriate
social skills help to combat stereotypes and lead to a more successﬁrl employment
experience (Gaylord-Ross et a1, 1986).

The social skills needed to participate in more active and socially inclusive
activities are often not present in individuals with ID (Schleien & Ray, 1997). Therefore,
many individuals with disabilities who lack social skills are not welcome to participate in

integrated school and community leisure programs (Schleien & Ray, 1988). For

72

example, McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan (1984) found that people with autism are
limited in opportunities to participate in recreation activities due to their lack of
assertiveness skills. Their inability to interact socially and express themselves assertively
has led to aggressive verbalization and actions. Especially when speciﬁc social skills are
needed for the speciﬁc activity such as sharing the ball in a team sport, social skills
training is needed to teach the context speciﬁc skills (Schleien, Green, & Heyne, 1993).

Without social skills training, adults with mental retardation tend to become
increasingly isolated from normal adult activities and participate in activities alone within
their home. Furthermore, leisure activities tended to be very sedentary such as watching
television or doing arts and crafts (Johnson, McGrew, Bloomberg, Bruininks, & Lin,
1996; O’Reilly, Lancioni, & Kierans, 2000: Schleien, Meyer, Heyne, & Brandt, 1995;
Thurlow, Bruininks, & Lange, 1989). However the individual’s quality of life can be
signiﬁcantly improved when provided the skills to share interests and activities with
others, and access resources available in the community such as recreation programs
(Rusch, Chadsy-Rusch, & Johnson, 1991).

Parents and signiﬁcant others of people with ID have called for social skills training
programs because they recognize the social skills deﬁciencies (Sheridan et al., 1996). When
signiﬁcant others of adults with MR were interviewed, they reported the skills most needed to
be successful in community living were vocational, social, and personal skills (Lovett &
Harris, 1987a). In the school setting, many individual education plans (IEP) focus on the need
for appropriate social skills (Epstein, Polloway, Patton, & Foley, 1989). In fact, IEP goals for

students with disabilities are most frequently related to language, speech and communication.

73

These goals make up around 25% of all IEP objectives for people with disabilities in the
school setting (Campbell, Stremel-Campbell, & Rogers-Warren, 1985).
Conceptual Model for the Development of Social Skills

The researcher was not able to ﬁnd a theoretical model that addresses the
development, maintenance, and generalization of social skills by persons with ID. Therefore,
she developed a conceptual model called the Alexander Model for the Development,
Maintenance, and Generalization of Social Skills (Figure 4).
Alexander 's Model

In order for people with ID to develop, maintain, and generalize social skills, they
must be provided with direct instruction and effective practice. Participants must receive
direct instruction that includes: (a) functional skill curriculum, (b) effective pedagogy, (c)
qualiﬁed teachers, and (d) appropriate instructional settings. Concurrent with direct
instruction, participants must participate in effective practice that consists of: (a) appropriate
activity, (b) multiple, natural settings; (c) adequate practice opportunities; (d) multiple, skilled
instructors; and (e) family involvement and support. The combination of direct instruction
and effective practice will lead to the development and generalization of social skills. While
both direct instruction and effective practice are essential for skill development, direct
instruction has an effect on effective practice. Basic knowledge of the skill, including what
the appropriate social skill is and how to demonstrate it is needed before one can practice the
skill. Though direct instruction has some impact on the maintenance of people’s social skills,

the primary factor that is needed to maintain social skills is effective practice.

74

While the Alexander model is an original model, other theoretical positions were
inﬂuential in its creation. The work of Bronfenbrenner (1979a, 1979b), Bandura (1969, 1977,

1986), and Sargent (1998) were all inﬂuential in the development of the Alexander model.

 

Direct Instruction
Functional skills curriculum
0 Relevant social skills
0 Developmentally appropriate skills
0 Appropriate number of skills

 

 

Effective pedagogy
0 Instructional strategies
0 Feedback and reinforcement
0 Presentation modalities
0 Disability appropriate
Qualiﬁed teachers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appropriate setting
Maintenance of ' Development of Generalization
Social Skills I Social Skills of Social Skills
Effective Practice
Appropriate activity

 

Multiple, natural settings
Adequate practice opportunities
Multiple, skilled instructors
Family involvement and support

 

 

 

Figure 4.
Alexander model of the development, maintenance, and generalization of social skills
Bronfenbrenner ’3 Properties of Human Development and Model

In 1979, Bronfenbrenner stated that there are “four properties of ecological
environment that foster processes of human development” (p. 845). These four propositions

were created from extensive research conducted by Bronfenbrenner (1979b) as well as other

75

researchers and educators. They have become the basis for much of the human ecology
literature as well as research.
Bronfenbrenner’s ﬁrst two propositions are necessary conditions that must be present
for development to occur. Proposition 1 states that,
“. . .A primary developmental context is one in which the child can observe
and engage in ongoing patterns of progressively more complex activity jointly
with or under the direct guidance of persons who possess knowledge and skill
not yet acquired by the child and with whom the child has developed a
positive emotional relationship.” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979b, p.845 ).
In summary, children must be provided with a safe environment that they
trust in order for skill development to occur. Within this enviromnent children must
receive direct instruction, observe modeling of the appropriate behavior, and be given
an opportunity to practice the skill further. The situation must be adaptable to allow
for more complex activities as children continues to develop. Proposition 2 states,
“. . .A secondary developmental context in one in which the child is
given opportunity, resources, and encouragement to engage in the
activities he or she has learned primary developmental contexts, but now
without the active involvement or direct guidance of another person
possessing knowledge and skill beyond the levels acquired by the child.”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979b, p. 845).
The second proposition is referring to an environment that facilitates practice of the

newly developed skills. During the practice time, children should not receive direct instruction

76

or feedback on their skill performance. However children should be provided with the needed
resources and encouragement to create a positive experience.

The ﬁrst two propositions are codependent. People cannot practice skills as suggested
in Proposition 2 without having learned the skills as is stated in Proposition 1. However,
without the ability to practice newly acquired skills in an environment that fosters
development, the skills will not mature. While Propositions 1 and 2 cannot occur at the same
time, they can occur in the same context or in two different contexts such as school and home.

Proposition 3 establishes the effect that a third party has on the learning environment.
It states “the developmental potential of a setting depends on the extent to which third parties
present in the setting support to undermine the activities of those actually engaged in
interaction with the child.” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979b, p.847). In this situation, third parties
refers to people with whom children interact, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins,
ﬁiends, teachers, and neighbors. Therefore Bronfenbrenner is focusing on the impact that
other people have on the development of children.

The last proposition establishes the connection between the potential of the
environment and the other contexts in which a child is reared. It states

“the developmental potential of a child-rearing setting is increased as a

function of the number of supportive links between that setting and other

contexts involving the child or persons responsible for his or her care. Such

interconnections may take the form of shared activities, two—way

communication, and information provided in each setting about the others”

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p.848).

77

Proposition 4 is not only focused on the environments potential but also the link

between the environment and the other 3 propositions.

In 1979a, Bronfenbrenner introduced the Ecological Systems Theory (Figure 2).

Just like his propositions, this model revolves around the theory that children are directly

and indirectly inﬂuenced by a variety of different systems found in society. The model

suggests that children are affected by four different levels. There is the

F igure5.

 
 

MACROSYSTEM

 
 
   
 
 

Cultural
Values

EXOSYSTEM

    
  

 
 
  
 

 

Dominant
Beliefs

 

MESOSYTEM

 
 
 

Neighborhoo

  
 
   

 
  

MICROSYSTEM

 

Extended
Family
Members

 
   
   
 

Afterschool
Program

 
 
 

Community
Institutions

 
   
 
 
 

  

Health and Social
Service Agencies

  
 

Attitudes and Ideologies

 
 

Ecological system theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979)

microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The model itself

looks like a dart board. The circle in the very middle, or the bull’s eye, represents the

78

child. The ring closest to the bull’s eye represents the microsystem, followed by the next
ring which represents the mesosystem, etc. The outer most ring of the dartboard
represents the macrosystem.

The levels of the model are interrelated. Therefore, each system affects the other
directly or indirectly. The child is placed within the middle of this model in order to
represent how the child is encompassed by the subsystems and is therefore always
affected by all of the ecological levels. Bronfenbrenner also suggests that the inﬂuence is
by no means unidirectional. The macrosystem can indirectly affect a child just like a
child can indirectly affect a macrosystem.

The microsystem consists of variables that come directly in contact with the child
and have a direct inﬂuence on the child. Some of these variables are family, school,
afterschool programs, daycare, and peers. It is through interactions with these variables
that the child learns social skills, develops academic skills, is nurtured, and receives other
areas of information needed to succeed and survive in life.

The mesosytem contains settings in which the microsystem’s interactions take
place. It consists of locations such as the home, school, community institutions, peer
groups, and the neighborhood. The interactions that occur within the microsystem to
create the macrosystem can be between two individuals or they can be between actual
microsystem components. An example of how two individuals within the microsystem
create an interaction that is represented by the mesosystem occurs when a mother and a
father make a decision about whether or not to send their 3 year old child with a disability

to a public child care facility or a specialized child care facility. The interaction between

79

the parents (microsystem) creates an impact on the chosen school (mesosystem). The
chosen school and teachers within the school then inﬂuence the child.

The third level of the model, the exosystem, consists of structures that do not
affect the child directly, but instead affect people and environments in the child’s
rrricrosystem. Some of the different structures found in the exosystem are the parental
workplace, extended family members, and health and social service agencies. While
these variables do not come in direct contact with the child, they inﬂuence people who do
have direct contact with the child which results in an inﬂuence on the child. For
example, a parent’s work schedule may not directly affect the child. However, if the
mother is the primary caregiver of the child and a sudden change in her work schedule
results in her working evenings, the child may have limited interactions with the mother.
The change in the work schedule will mean that someone else will become the primary
caregiver and the child will be inﬂuenced by someone other than the mother.

The last ring in the model, called the macrosystem, consists of factors that are not
as tangible as the other layers. The macrosystem consists of dominant beliefs, attitudes
and ideologies, and cultural values. It revolves around what society believes in and what
society supports. For example, if society is supportive of incorporating people with
disabilities into the community (macrosystem), a person with a disability is much more
likely to be welcomed into a community sports program (mesosystem)

Sargent '5 Conceptual Framework of Social Competence

Another inﬂuential model was Sargent’s (1998) Conceptual Framework of Social

Competence (Figure 3). Sargent believes that social competence consists of countless

variables that are continuously interacting and overlapping. He created the conceptual

80

framework to assist in understanding problems associated with social development. In this
model one starts with inputs, moves to the processes level, and then concludes with the
outcomes.

Sargent deﬁned cultural determinants as "values and social standards by which
individuals live” (1998, p.3). These variables vary according to the individual’s context.
Factors such as community size, ethnic diversity, religious preferences, geographical location,
and traditions all contribute to what is considered socially acceptable behavior. When people
go against the cultural determinants, they are often rejected by the community. Therefore, it is

essential that one have a strong understanding of cultural boundaries.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inputs Cultural Determinants
Social Affect
Processes Social Skills

Social Intelligence

 

 

 

 

 

 

Outcomes Desired Outcomes

 

 

 

Figure 6.
Sargent’s conceptual framework of social competence

After cultural determinants have been identiﬁed, the three process components of the
model must be addressed. Social affect, social skills, and social cognition “warrant attention
from professional educators; failure to address all areas represents only a partial attempt to
achieve the desired outcomes” (Sargent, 1998, p.4). Social affect is how the person appears to

others in society. It refers to how society interprets people based upon general persona. Some

81

of the variables that would fall under social affect are enthusiasm, conﬁdence, independence,
personal hygiene, and sense of humor. While affect is important, focus must also be placed on
the development of social skills in order for people to be socially competent.

Social skills are deﬁned by Sargent as “the behaviors which represent the most
obvious aspect of social competence” (p. 4). There are hundreds of social skills needed for an
individual to be socially competent. These skills can fall into four general categories: (a)
interaction initiative, such as initiating a conversation) (b) interaction responses, such as
responding to criticism; (c) personal social behaviors; such as dealing with ﬁ'ustration, and ((1)
setting speciﬁc skills and behaviors for environments such as school, work, or the community.
In order to teach these skills, one can use a variety of techniques such as the ones discussed
later in this review of literature. However, no matter what techniques are applied, one must
also make sure that social cognition is also being developed.

The term social cognitions refer to an individual’s ability to understand, interpret, and
respond appropriately to a variety of social contexts and personal interactions (Greenspan,
1979). According to Sargent, social cognitions are the greatest challenge for people with
mental retardation. When a disability is not present, many people develop social cognitions
through natural interactions and observations. However, individuals with ID do not tend to
develop these skills naturally and often need to receive direct instruction. Forttmately, the
direct instruction is often accepted because of the positive outcomes that occur when people
demonstrate social competence. Some of the beneﬁts an individual could gain from social
competence are self-esteem, social independence, and acceptance in the community and by

peers.

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Influence of Bronfenbrenner ’s and Sargent ’3 Conceptual Models

Bronfenbrenner’s focus on the interconnections between people, contexts, and the
child was very inﬂuential in the creation of the Alexander model. Teaching the social skills
directly in a structtned environment relies on the use of the microsystem. Through the use of
the child’s microsystem, researchers would in turn affect the actual child. The effective
practice seen in the proposed Alexander model takes advantage of the rrricrosystem as well as
the mesosystem (e. g., home, neighborhood, community) and exosystem (e. g. extended family,
health and social service agencies). The use of the inter-related environments provides a
greater likelihood that the child will not only generalize the skills to a variety of environments
but will also maintain the skills over a period of time. The application of qualiﬁed teachers
along with the need for appropriate settings, were also a direct result from Bronfenbrenner’s
model and his propositions.

Sargent’s focus on developing all aspects of personal social skills also inﬂuenced the
creation of the Alexander model. One area of speciﬁc importance was the focus on social
affect. According to Sargent, people must be conﬁdent that they can perform the social skill
effectively. In order to help foster this conﬁdence, the Alexander Model has incorporated the
use of positive reinforcement when providing direct instruction. This reinforcement would
encourage people to continue demonstrating the skills while also improving self conﬁdence.
The increases in self conﬁdence will have a corollary positive inﬂuence on social affect. The
use of effective practice is meant to increase self conﬁdence as well as skill development. By
practicing a skill in a variety of positive, natural environments, people are given the chance to
successfully demonstrate the skill. This successful demonstration should in turn lead to an

increase in self conﬁdence.

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Social cognition from Sargent’s model affected the design of both the direct
instruction and effective practice components of the Alexander model. In accordance with
Sargent’s suggestion that instruction is needed to teach social skills, the Alexander model
relies on direct instruction . At the same time, in order for people to experience social
interactions that would provide a plethora of different social cues, the Alexander model
proposes the use of multiple, natural settings. This allows people varied opportunites to
practice the social skills for which they have recently received instruction.

Research Supporting Direct Instruction
Component of Alexander Model

The previously discussed models were not the only inﬂuential variables in the creation
of the Alexander Model for the Development, Maintenance and Generalization of Social
Skills. The following review of literature will discuss past research and pedagogical principles
that inﬂuenced and support the creation of the model as well as elaborate on the different sub-
categories. Each subcategory under direct instruction (e.g., ﬁmctional skills curriculum) and
effective practice (e.g., appropriate activity) will be discussed in ﬁrrther detail.

Functional Skills Curriculum

Relevant social skills. Social skills taught to people with ID must be relevant for daily
living in order to improve the individual’s social interactions in society. Many of the skill
deﬁcits demonstrated by people with ID are issues with pragrnatics, such as making eye
contact, using correct tone and volume, having appropriate body language, being able to
respond to a comment appropriately, and staying on topic in a conversation. As pragrnatics
usually have a more ﬁrnctional effect on other people (Sailor et al., 1980), educators have

started to focus on teaching proper pragrnatics instead of focusing on proper syntax (how the

84

thought is communicated through the use of proper grammar) (Haring, Roger, Lee, Breen, &
Gaylord-Ross, 1986). Therefore, instead of focusing on syntax, emphasis should be placed on
the development of basic conversation skills that will increase social engagement such as
greetings, tum taking, making eye contact, and asking and responding to questions (e. g., Carr
& Kologinsky, 1983; Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Lancioni, 1982; Iciffer & Lewis, 1984;
Reichle, Rogers, & Barrett, 1984).

The speciﬁc social skills taught to people with ID are decided upon by the educator
though they should based on the needs of the participants. Researchers suggest focusing on
social skills that are needed to make immediate social interactions and that will enhance the
chance of being successﬁrlly integrated into the community (Morgan & Jensen, 1988;
Polloway & Smith, 1983; Sargent, 1989). The context in which skills will be used should also
be taken into consideration (Huang & Cuvo, 1997). For example, after surveying 56 work
supervisors, Rusch and Mitlraug (1980) devised a list of important social skills necessary for
job performance. Some of the skills identiﬁed in their study, such as responding to safety
signals appropriately, were work speciﬁc. However, many other skills identiﬁed by Rusch
and Mithaug, as well as other researchers including Foss and Peterson (1981), were skills that
could be applied in a variety of domains. For example, requesting assistance when needed is
not only important at work but can also be used when at a store or a bus stop.

Some researchers argue that therapists and teachers do not place enough emphasis on
choosing appropriate skills or deﬁning the criteria that constitute a proper skill demonstration.
Teachers or therapists usually choose social skills that they personally believe are the most
valuable and needed skills. The teachers or therapists then create a level of performance that

they believe is appropriate (Hansen, Watson-Perczel, & Christopher, 1989). However, some

85

people argue that we should strive to teach skills that have been agreed upon as socially valid
behaviors and use universally agreed upon criterion levels to judge skill improvement
(Christopher, Nangle, & Hansen, 1993). Social skills would be chosen based on societal
desire and preference, giving consideration to the individual’s social skills deﬁciencies. To
make a list of skills deﬁciencies and to deﬁne which skills individuals with ID need to be
socially successful, researchers have compared individuals who have disabilities to matched
peers who were considered typically developed and who demonstrated appropriate skills
(Hansen, St. Lawrence, & Chrisoff, 1989; Tisdelle & St. Lawrence, 1988). Researchers have
also surveyed teachers and peers on skills that were considered socially desirable (Elder at al,
1979; Plierris et al, 1987). However, there is still little agreement on exactly which skills
should be taught in social skills curriculum.

Developmentally appropriate skills. It is essential that participants understand the
purpose of the skills being taught (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1993). If skills are not relevant to
the participants, they are unlikely to learn the skill due to lack of motivation. In his social
learning theory, Bandura (1986) states that an appropriate level of motivation must be present
for people to replicate a behavior that they have observed. Students with MR, like any
students, tend to learn better when they are motivated to do so (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981).
For example, O’Reilly, Lansioni, and Kierans (2000) taught four adults with mental
retardation the proper social skills that would be needed for them to visit a local bar on a
weekly basis. Obviously these skills would not be appropriate for an adolescent, and the
chance of the adolescent being motivated to learn these skills would be very low. However,
for the adults in this study, the skills were important and valued. Participants reported “. .. that

the social skills allowed them to be more at ease when they visited the bar” (p. 257) and that

86

“they were happy to interact with the bar staff and other patrons” (p. 25 7). Partly due to their
motivation to learn the skills, the participants not only developed the appropriate social skills,
but maintained the skills 36 months after the completion of the study. When taken to two
different bars, they were able to generalize the social skills to the new environments.

Adolescence is an important time to focus on social interactions. In a large meta-
analysis of social skills training studies, Schneider and Bryne (1985) found that preschoolers
and adolescents beneﬁted more from social skill interventions than students in elementary
school. Some researchers have also suggested that as adolescents grow older, they have a
signiﬁcant increase in desire to have positive social interactions (Kanner et al., 1972; Rutter,
1970; Schopler & Mesibov, 1983).

Compared to their childhood, adolescent’s social interactions and relationships with
peers become more intricate and adultlike. At the same time, adolescents tend to spend less
time with their parents and more time with their peers and individuals of the opposite sex
(Bemdt, 1982; Czikszentrnihalyi & Larson, 1984; Peterson & Hamburg, 1986). The increase
in social interactions results in adolescents’ social skills being tested and reﬁned through the
positive and negative responses of their peers (Schloss, 1984). Adolescents also need social
skills to interact with their peers, in order to create a sense of belonging in a group other than
one’s family. Peer interactions lead to the development of more mature social skills, and
emotional and behavioral adjustments (Csikszentrnihalyi & Larson, 1984). Because of the
increased in complexity and number of social interactions experienced by adolescents, social
skills training programs can signiﬁcantly inﬂuence the positive development of behaviors

during this growth period (Taylor & Larson, 1999).

87

Appropriate number of skills. Programs that focus on the development of a small,
select number of skills are more effective than those that teach numerous skills at once. Many
published social skills interventions focus on a large selection of skills. However, when
working with students such as individuals with ID who have difﬁculties with abstract social
skills, focus should be placed on a few concrete skills with repeated practice. Therefore, the
number of skills taught should be an appropriately matched to the amount of available
instruction time and level of disability (Baker, 2003; Karnps, et al., 1992; Sasso, Melloy, &
Kavale, 1990).

Eﬂective Pedagogy

Instructional strategies. In order to accommodate different learning styles and to
communicate the material effectively, many interventions combine different pedagogical
approaches into one package (Huang & Cuvo, 1997). These packages are often referred to as
social skills training packages (SST) (Andrasik & Matson, 1985; Chadsey-Rusch, 1986;
Marchetti & Campbell, 1990). Unlike programs that only rely on one technique, such as
direct instruction, SSTs combine a variety of techniques in order to improve participants’
learning. While there is no speciﬁc set of pedagogical principles that must be used in these
packages, researchers commonly combine of direct instruction, modeling, role playing, and
social feedback to create a SST (Huang & Cuvo, 1997).

It is unclear if SST packages effectively increased participants’ ability to perform the
targeted social skills. When using an SST program, adults with MR demonstrated a signiﬁcant
improvement in their behaviors during informal conversation hours and their ability to role
play. The staff rating of the participants social skills also increased. A comparison group that

received traditional psychotherapy only improved their abilities to role play (Matson &

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Senators, 1981). Other researchers have had similar success with SST packages (Bomstein,
Bach, McFall, Friman, & Lyons, 1980). However, some studies that have relied on SST
packages have not resulted in participants sustaining or generalizing social skills (Huang &
Cuvo, 1997). This difﬁculty sustaining and generalizing the skill could be due to the
combination of pedagogical techniques that are used in most SSTs. Other variables, such as
the lack of opportunities provided to practice the skills in natural settings, may have also
hindered skill acquisition.

Teaching social skills includes many of the same techniques used in the classroom to
teach academic concepts. Educators in both settings rely on the use of modeling correct
behaviors, having the student irrritate desired behaviors, providing feedback to the student
when needed, and creating opportunities to practice skills in a safe environment (Cartledge &
Milburn, 1986). Other methods used by researchers to teach social sldlls to individuals with
ID include behavioral rehearsal (Bates, 1980; Filipczak, Archer, & Friedman, 1980), direct
instruction (Blew, Schwartz, Luce, 1985; Matson & Andrasik, 1982; Oznoff& Miller, 1995),
pivotal response training (Haring, Roger, Lee, Breen, Gaylord-Ross 1986; Koegel, Koegel, &
Sclrreibmen, 1993), social scripts (Loveland & Tunali, 1991; Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001;
Zanoli, Daggett, & Adams, 1996), time delay procedures (Charlop & Trasowech, 1991;
Charlop & Walsh, 1986; Leung, 1994; Taylor & Harris, 1995) and peer mediation/peer
modeling (Blew, Schwartz, & Luce, 1985; Egel, Richman, & Koegel, 1981; Goldstein,
Kaczmarek, Pennington, & Schafer, 1992; Karnps, Leonard, Vernon, Dugarr, Delquadri,
Gershon, Wade, & Folk, 1992; O’Reilly & Glymr, 1995). It is outside the scope of this
literature review to discuss all of the pedagogical principles that researchers have used in an

attempt to teach social skills. Therefore, only the techniques used in this study will be

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discussed. The approaches that will be discussed include direct instruction, process training,
coaching, and modeling.

Studies have found direct instruction to be an effective way of teaching
communication skills as well as social skills, though the skills did not always generalize to
other situations without ﬁrrther instruction (Blew, Schwartz, Luce, 1985; Coe, Matson, Fee,
Marrikam, & Linarello, 1990; Matson & Andrasik, 1982; Oznoff & Miller, 1995, Stainback &
Stainback, 1987). Direct instruction is when the individual is speciﬁcally told how to perform
a skill. As has already been discussed, individuals with ID may have difﬁculties imitating
their peers and may not develop social skills naturally (Gresham, 1984). Therefore, they may
need to be provided with information on how to speciﬁcally perform the task before being
asked to demonstrate it. The information is usually presented to the individual through spoken
language. An instructor gives a detailed description of the skills and then explains when
and/or how to produce the skills (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).

Coaching is a speciﬁc type of direct instruction. People work directly with a coach to
improve their skills. “First, the child is presented with rules for, or standards of, behavior.
Second, the selected social skills are rehearsed with the coach. Third the coach provides
speciﬁc feedback during the behavior rehearsal and offers suggestions for ﬁrture performance”
(Elliott & Gresham, 1993, p. 304). While this approach is classiﬁed as verbal instruction, it
also relies on the use of modeling and reinforcement. The coach often models the conect
behaviors and rewards the child with positive reinforcement when the skill is demonstrated
correctly (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).

Coaching has been successful in the development of social skills in students with ID

(Ladd, 1981; Oden & Asher, 1977 ). Bierrnan and Furman (1984) worked with

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preadolescents who were disliked by peers and considered inadequate in social skills. Half of
the participants received coaching and half received peer involvement under supervision.
While the peer involvement led to a temporary increase in classroom sociometric status, it did
not result in an increase of social skills. The individuals who received the coaching not only
increased their level of performance dramatically in both dyadic and group conversations, but
they also sustained the skills six weeks after the completion of the treatment. In a study
comparing modeling and coaching, Gresham and Nagle (1980) found that third and fourth
graders developed social skills ﬁom both teaching strategies. However, the individuals who
received modeling combined with coaching developed more skills in social initiations and
experienced fewer negative social interactions with peers than those that only received
modeling.

Process training, also referred to as the social problem solving approach, is a four step
approach that can be applied to any social interaction. Instead of teaching a speciﬁc response
or action for each situation, which often leads to very poor generalization, people are taught to
work through a situation using a progressive step model that can be generalized to most social
interactions (McFall, 1982). Participants develop a general understanding of the social rules
for the culture and how to appropriately act in those situations (Huang & Cuvo, 1997).
Process training also requires people to be “active participants in their learning by requiring
them to think about and understand general rules” (Huang & Cuvo, 1997, p. 29). As a result,
this process empowers people to become more independent and successﬁrl in their everyday
lives (Browning & Nave, 1993).

While the steps may vary depending on the program, the speciﬁc steps for process

training are usually: “(a) discriminating salient social stimuli (decoding); (b) identifying

9l

alternative social behaviors and identifying the most appropriate social behavior for the social
situation (deciding); (c) performing the social behavior (performing); and (d) evaluating the
effectiveness of the social behavior once it has been performed (evaluation)” (O’Reilly,
Lancioni, & Kierans, 2000, p.251). A simplistic example of this approach would be: (a) a
stranger walks up to Sue and srrriles at her; (b) Sue could run away, give him a hug, give him a
“hi ﬁve”, or say hi and introduce herself; (c) Sue chooses to say hi and introduce herself; (d)
Sue then watches the facial expressions of the stranger and listens to the stranger’s response to
determine if the stranger responded to her positively. This process would then be repeated.
While the stages in this process may seem complex, they are performed by individuals in the
general public everyday. When people have developed their social skills, they process this
information naturally and within an extremely short period of time. The goal of process
training is to get people with ID to the point where they can also apply the skill naturally
without having to think through each step (O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995).

Because process training can be applied to any social enviromnent and does not rely
on speciﬁc social cues, it tends to facilitate a high level of maintenance, transferability, and
generalization (Browning & Nave, 1993; Collet-Klingenberg & Chadsey—Rusch, 1991;
O’Reilly & Chadey-Rusch, 1992; O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995; O’Reilly, Lancioni, & Kieran,
2000; Park & Gaylord-Ross, 1989; Rosenthal-Malek & Yoshida, 1994). Two students with
MR were taught how to initiate and respond appropriately to a teacher’s questions. They
transferred skills from the training setting into the classroom setting and maintained the skills
when tested four weeks later (O’Reilly & Glynn, 1995). In another study by O’Reilly,
Lancioni, and Kierans (2000), four adults with moderate levels of MR were taught skills

needed‘to be social in a local bar using the problem solving approach. The participants

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developed the needed social skills and maintained these skills up to three years after the
training was complete.

When compared to other strategies such as modeling or behavioral rehearsal, social
problem solving was found to bemore effective when teaching people how to resolve difﬁcult
social interactions (Foss, Auty, & Irvin, 1989). It has also been found to be a more effective
strategy when compared to typical SST packages that incorporate direct instruction and
modeling. When three people with MR were taught social skills using a SST package, they
did not maintain the skills or generalize the skills to other settings. When taught using process
training, the participants not only demonstrated a more substantial increase in ability but also
maintained the skills and generalized them to a natural work setting (Park & Gaylord, 1989).

The social skills problem solving. approach can also be taught through the use of
interactive videos. Browning and Nave (1993) used an interactive video to teach students
with mild MR and learning disabilities. At the completion of the program, the participants
showed a statistically signiﬁcant improvement in their social skills. Teachers and participants
reported they enjoyed the program and felt it was beneﬁcial.

While process training has been found to be very successﬁrl, there is evidence that
some individuals who are cognitively lower functioning may not beneﬁt ﬁorn this approach
because of its complexity. When using a process training method, Collet-Klingenberg and
Chadsey-Rusch (1991) found that while two participants with higher functioning MR showed
a signiﬁcant increase in skill, another individual with a lower level of ﬁrnctioning consistently
performed poorly and was never able to develop the skill.

Modeling is one of the most commonly used strategies to teach social skills. It has

long been recognized by social leaming theorists as an effective method to teach social skills

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to people with and without disabilities (Foss, Auty, & Irvin, 1989). Parents and teachers ﬁnd
the technique appealing because it is non-invasive (Elliott, 1988 ).

Before using modeling, it is important to determine the cause of the social skill
deﬁciency as modeling is an appropriate strategy to assist people who have difﬁculties
acquiring a skill, but may not assist people who have a problem that is interfering with the
skill performance. In some cases, individuals may have a deﬁciency because they have not
acquired the skill. For example, a child with autism may not have learned how to make eye
contact. In this case, modeling is an appropriate teaching strategy because modeling
demonstrates how to perform the skill properly. Other individuals may have developed the
social skill but have a problem that interferes with the skill delivery. A young man with
severe ADI-ID may know how to make eye contact, but is so distracted by the children moving
around in the background that he fails to make eye contact with the person he is addressing.
Modeling is not beneﬁcial for people who have an interfering problem because modeling does
not teach people how to cope or resolve the problem (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).

There are two diﬁermt types of modeling, live and symbolic. In live modeling,
participants observe an individual in a natural setting such as a classroom or in a more
controlled environment such as a laboratory. The model is a live person who demonstrates the
appropriate skill. With symbolic modeling, participants watch a video clip of an individual
modeling the appropriate social skills (Gresham, 1981).

Both live and symbolic modeling follow similar procedures. A skilled coach
demonstrates the appropriate actions and then the observer is asked to replicate the skill
(Baker, 2003; Foss, Auty, & Irvin, 1989). A four step approach is often applied: (a) tell

students they are going to perform the skill following the demonstration; (b) tell students what

94

they should focus on in the demonstration; (c) say each step as you demonstrate the skill; and
(d) help students remember the steps before they attempt the skill themselves (Y elon, 1996).
These four stages are essential for the individual to acquire the skill.

According to modeling theory (Bandura, 1969, 1977) certain variables must be in
place for people to beneﬁt ﬁorn modeling. Individuals must: (a) attend to the relevant
stimulus; (b) retain the information presented through the modeling; (0) have the ability to
reproduce the skill; and (d) be motivated to perform the observed behavior. Observers not
only need to pay attention to relevant stimulus but they must also realize the purpose of the
demonstration (Goldstein, Spraﬂdn, Gershaw, & Klein, 1980; Yelon, 1996). Because
individuals with ID may have increased difﬁculties recognizing what part of the
demonstration they should focus on, they may need extra direction in this area. Bandura
(1969, 1977) suggests the use of narration when watching a model to help observers focus
their attention on the relevant information and to also give the speciﬁc behaviors a verbal
label.

Modeling has several beneﬁts when teaching people with ID. One beneﬁt is that it has
been successfully used to teach people with all level of MR, including those with severe MR
(Huang & Cuvo, 1997). The second beneﬁt is that is can be taught on a one-on-one basis or it
can be used to teach a large group of people. Therefore, a therapist or teacher could use time
more efﬁciently by teaching an entire class of students at one time (Elliott & Gresham, 1993;
Huang & Cuvo, 1997). Modeling is also beneﬁcial because it can easily be built into existing
programs. For example, it can easily be incorporated into a classroom without changing the
classroom curriculum. This not only decreases the amount of time necessary for a successﬁrl

implementation, but it also increases the possibility of generalization (Elliott & Gresham,

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1993). The last beneﬁt of modeling is that it provides participants with a visual image of the
correct performance and sequencing of a skill. While this information can be communicated
verbally, a visual presentation it is much more effective (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).

Using a videotape of derived behaviors allows greater control over the demonstration.
Researchers have taught a variety of skills to adults with mental retardation using video
models (Gresham, 1981; Kelly, Wildmarr, & Berler, 1980; Morgan & Salzberg, 1992). From
a research perspective, experimental control is improved because participants are seeing a
consistent image (Elliott & Gresham, 1993). From a practical standpoint, accessibility of
training is improved given that videos can be used in numerous environments including school
and home (Walther & Beare, 1991). Videos also can be used when a practioner is not able to
give a correct demonstration of the desired skill. Lastly, a videotape allows researchers or
practitioners to edit the recording, resulting in an ideal replication of the skill. This helps
control for human error.

Modeling has been found to be more successﬁrl when one uses high prestige models,
multiple models, and other methodology to compliment the modeling. Models who are
respected by the observer are more likely to be inﬂuential (Bandura, 1969, 1977). Researchers
have found models are considered more prestigious than others when they are competent and
typically developing (Beck & Glidden, 1979; Peterson, Peterson, & Scriven, 1977). The use
of multiple models has a variety of beneﬁts that increase the likelihood of the desired
behaviors. With numerous models, there is an increased chance that the observer will choose
to imitate at least one of the people modeling the correct behavior. Multiple models also
increases the length of exposure observers have to the behavior because of the numerous skill

demonstrations. Lastly, when people are exposed to a variety of different models, they are

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more likely to generalize the skill observed to different settings (Bandura, 1977). However,
for modeling to be successﬁrl, it must also be accompanied by other methods that provide
people with information on speciﬁcally how to perform the appropriate behavior and why they
should perform the behavior (Goldstein et al., 1980). For this reason modeling is often paired
with one or two other teaching strategies such as direct instruction.

Feedback and reinforcement. Feedback to participants should be developmentally
appropriate, immediate, and speciﬁc. F wdback that is developmentally appropriate uses
terminology that is understood by participants. If participants have to think about what a word
means or the reference for an unfamiliar expression, they become distracted and their learning
is deterred. Feedback should be provided immediately after the skill is completed so that
learners can relate the feedback to that speciﬁc skill attempt. Ifthe feedback cannot be given
immediately, the purpose of the feedback should then be to improve ﬁrture performances.
Whether feedback is given immediately or after a period of time, participants must be given
the opportunity to retry the skill in order to apply the newly acquired information (Rink,
2002).

Feedback should be informative, expressing exactly what was good and bad about the
performance. When ﬁrst developing a social skill, feedback should focus on the intent of the
skill and not on small details. This helps to increase motivation and self conﬁdence. As
people progress in skill level, more focus is placed on the smaller details (Rink, 2002).
Reinforcements should also be used to “help deﬁne the behavior and make clear the
expectations” (p.148).

“A fundamental principle of operant learning is that behavior is a function of its

consequenCe” (Elliott & Gresham, 1993, p. 295). Therefore, if people with disabilities are not

97

receiving feedback and reinforcement for performing a social skill correctly, they are less
likely to perform the social skill in the future. As noted previously in this paper, many
individuals with disabilities do not receive positive reinforcement ﬁorn peers when they are
having social interactions. In fact, many people receive negative feedback when they are
teased or ignored by their typically developing peers (Chamberlain, Kasair, & Rotherma-
Fuller, 2007; Polloway, Epstain, Patton, Cullinan, & Luebke, 1986). Therefore, it is essential
that a large amount of positive feedback be given to participants especially during the
beginning stages of skill development. This positive feedback is necessary to help combat
negative feedback that participants may have received in the past. The positive reinforcement
also helps to increase self conﬁdence and self efﬁcacy (Weinberg and Gould, 1999).

Positive reinforcement has also been found to increase level of performance. When a
teacher provided social reinforcement to a socially isolated four year old girl, the girl showed a
sixfold increase of social interactions when compared to the baseline data (Allen, Hart, Buell,
Harris, & Wolf, 1964). Other studies have shown the importance of reinforcement to help
extinguish unwanted skills. In two similar studies, a classroom of individuals with mental
retardation and a classroom with students who had emotional disabilities received positive
reinforcement if they could make it an entire class period with only a small number of
disturbances. Both studies found the use of reinforcement was successﬁrl in decreasing the
amount of unwanted talking during class (Dietz & Repp, 1973; Zwald & Gresham, 1982).

Presentation modalities. A variety of presentation strategies including instructional
media, lectures, active learning, and demonstrations should be used to accommodate different

styles of learning. Instructional media can include PowerPoint presentations, movies, pictures,

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and audio recordings. The variety of modalities has the potential to increase both learning and
motivation (Sargent, 1989).

Disability appropriate. When working with individuals with ID, consideration should
be given to language choice as well as developmentally appropriate material. Individuals with
ID, generally do not have the same level of vocabulary as their typically developing peers.
Using simple language with only a few key terms, pictorial cues, and minimal reading and
writing activities, increases people’s understanding while not detracting ﬁom the information
being presented (Korinek & Polloway, 1993). Instructors should use short utterances that do
not include unnecessary words to informs the learner what to do but. Emphasis should not be
placed on what not to do. For example, one should say “look at Johnny when you are talking
to him” instead of “don’t look at the ﬂoor” (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004). The use of visual
supports that enhance understanding are also encouraged to increase understanding and
learning of people with ASD. The images should remain simplistic and each image can only
represent one thought. Images with busy backgrounds or containing numerous objects often
lead to confusion (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004).

Qualified Teachers

As with any teaching environment, teachers need to be knowledgeable about the
material that they are presenting, the learning styles of the participants, and the needs
associated with the disability population they are teaching (Rink, 2002).

The teacher: participant ratio must also be taken into consideration when teaching
social skills to people with ID. Even in general education lower teacher: student ratios
decrease the amount of time needed to develop a skill (Kelly & Melograno, 2004). A low

teacher: strident ratio also assists with attention levels. When working in a group setting, it is

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often difﬁcult to keep participants actively engaged in the material (Hansen, St. Lawrence, &
Christoff, 1989). When working with individuals with ID, attention becomes increasing
difﬁcult because people with ID tend to have a shorter attention span than the general public
(Sherrill, 2004).
Appropriate Setting

Compared to a single-trainer model, the use of a group setting has led to a more
positive development of social skills, particularly when teaching skills to adolescents
(Bierman & Furman, 1984; Hansen, St. Lawrence, & Chrisoff, 1989, Kirklan, Thelen, &
Miller, 1982). Interventions for people with disabilities based on a single-trainer model have
had lirrrited success (Koegel & Rincover, 1974; Strain, Kerr, & Ragland, 1979). The single-
trainer model is not only tmsuccessﬁrl, but it also requires a great deal of teacher time, making
it difﬁcult or unrealistic to implement in many classroom settings (Brown & Odorrr, 1995).
The more current approaches that use two-trainer interactions or groups of people with and
without disabilities interacting, have been found to be much more successful in teaching skills
such as expressive language, contextually appropriate behaviors, and play skills (Ihri g &
Wolchik, 1988; Pepperberg & Sherman, 2000; Pierce & Schreibman, 1997). When teaching
social skills, the use of a group allows for a larger number of social contacts that are more
diverse than those that would occur when conducting a single-trainer model. The group
setting also allows for more opportunities to observe modeling of desired skill ﬁorn others
(Bierman & Furman, 1984; Hansen, St. Lawrence, & Christoff 1989). Lastly, because the
group setting teaches more than one person at a time, it is very time and cost effective

(Christopher et a1, 1993).

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There has been great controversy over which environment, inclusive or
segregated, promotes better social skills for individuals with disabilities. One belief is
that individuals with disabilities are more likely to develop appropriate social skills when
they are placed in an integrated environment. Individuals without disabilitieswill raise
behavioral expectations and will act as age-appropriate role models for the people with
disabilities (Chamberlain, 2007). When people with disabilities are segregated in the
special education classroom, they are denied valuable interactions with typically
developing peers. This lack of social interaction can hinder the level of social
development experienced by a person with MR (Gaylord, Stremel-Campbell, & Storey,
1986)

However, research has failed to support the theory that inclusion is necessary for
social development. In the 1970s, many researchers found that students with ID who
were integrated for instruction had very little interaction with the typically developing
children (Allen, Benning, & Drummond, 1972; Bruininks, 1978; Bryan, 1974; Kames,
Teska, & Hodgins, 1970; Morgam, 1977; Ray, 1974). These research ﬁndings continued
into the 19905 (MacMillan, Gresham, & Fomes, 1996; Ochs, Kremer-Sadlik, Solomon, &
Gainer Sirota, 2001; Sale & Carey, 1995). Krauss, Seltzer, and Goodman (1992) found
that students with ID experienced as much difﬁculty making friends in an integrated
classroom as they did in a segregated classroom. Luftig (1988) found that individuals
with ID who were integrated into a normal classroom demonstrated much higher levels of
isolation and loneliness compared to their peers without ID. There have been similar

reports for children with high functioning autism (Bauminger & Kasair, 2000)

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Children with ID must be taught appropriate social skills in order to be
successfully transitioned into mainstrearned program. Individuals with ID do not
naturally acquire social skills without receiving speciﬁc instruction (Gresham, 1981,
1984). “Mainstreaming does not ensure that handicapped children [sic] will model the
social behaviors of their peers nor does it guarantee social interaction or social
acceptance of these integrated handicapped students” (Laushey, 1981, p. 140). Instead
mainstreaming can result in a situation where they children become more isolated and
interact less with the people around them (Laushey, 1981). Therefore, children with ID
should receive instructions on appropriate social skills before they are integrated into a
mainstream environment.

Some skill instruction can continue to occur in an inclusive setting if modiﬁcations are
made to the environment. To elicit social skill development, the environment should provide
a high number of opportunities for positive social interactions. The environment should
ensure that positive social behaviors receive positive reinforcement, while negative behaviors
are discouraged or ignored. There should also be appropriate modeling of the desired social
skills and feedback given to the targeted individual. (Elliott & Gresham, 1993). PeOple with
ID have developed social skills in an inclusive setting when there are opportunities to have
positive social interactions and social training experiences (Hanington—Licker, 1997).

The physical environments where the skills are being taught also need to be
considered. Small sensory occurrences such as a ﬂickering light, the chatter of people in a
hallway, or sitting in very close proximity to others can be distracting to people with ID
disabilities, especially those with ASD (Coyne & Fullerton, 2004). It is essential that the

enviromnent rrrinirrrizes distractions and comfortable for all participants.

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Support for the Effective Practice Component of the Alexander Model
Appropriate Activity

The sport setting is an ideal environment for teaching social skills because of the
social relationships that are often established amongst teammates. Environments such as
the gymnasium, pool, and playground are associated with a plethora of naturally
occurring social interactions (O’Connor, French, & Henderson, 2000). When adolescents
are involved in a peer group, they develop a sense of belonging while also developing
emotional and behavioral skills that are needed for daily living (Csikzentrnihalyi &
Larson, 1982). A natural setting such as sports does not force participants to be social,
but allows them to choose when they would like to interact with others. The positive peer
interactions that occur in sports are an important venue to develop social skills such as
appropriate assertiveness, altruistic behaviors, and moral reasoning. The peer
interactions also help to develop the reciprocal give and take interactions that occur
within a ﬁiendship (Hartup, 1978).

People with ID and their parents value sports because of the social opportunities they
provide. Castaneda and Sherrill (1999) followed a Challenger baseball team throughout a
season. During the researchers observed the practices and games and also interviewed 16
people with disabilities, their families, and the coach. When the parents were asked which
component of the program they valued the most, the answer was not the physical activity, but
the social interactions their children received. As one father said, “. . .The little ﬁiendships that
occur are the most important thing of all because they have to struggle so much for ﬁiends.”
(p. 385). One of the most commonly reported reason for Special Olympics participation is the

opportunity it provided to socialize with other people and make ﬁiends (Farrell, Crocker,

103

McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004; Shapiro, 2003; Siperstein, Harada, Parker, Hardman, &
McGuire, n.d.). In Shapiro (2003), the Special Olympics athletes described the optimal
environment as one in which coaches allow time to have ftm and interact with their ﬁiends.
All of these studies emphasize the potential physical activity has to initiate social contacts and
relationships.

Physical education and sports have also been cited as ideal natural environments
to practice newly developed social skills (Groft & Block, 2003). Delprato (2001) found
that an intervention that included play or everyday activities was more successful in
teaching language to children with autism compared to interventions that were more
discrete-trial based. Researchers have found that game experiences help people with
disabilities to become more capable of socially interacting (Collard, 1981; J ansma, 1982;
Schleien, 1983; Wehman & Schleien, 1981). Self-conﬁdence, social competence, self-
image, and the ability to develop and maintain ﬁiendships have occurred during Special
Olympics program (Castagno, 2001; Riggen & Ulrich, 1993; Wright & Cowden, 1986).
Because of positive grth in social skills associated with physical activity, physical
educators are encouraged to teach students to make eye contact during gym class (Reid,
O’Connor, & Lloyd (2003).

Another beneﬁt of the physical activity setting is that it is easy to establish a routine
into the practice session. Routine has been found to help decrease levels of anxiety in
individuals with ASD. It provides the structure, familiarity, and predictability that are needed

for many individuals with ASD to function (Reid & O’Connor, 2003).

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Multiple Natural Settings

Programs that occur in a natural environment are more suitable for teaching social
skills because they lead to skill generalization (Christopher, Nangle, & Hansen, 1993; Kohler,
Anthony, Steighner, & Hoyson, 2001; McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1984). Naturalistic
teaching, when the individual learns through guidance in natural interactions and experiences,
has increased participants maintenance and transfer of skills to other settings (Barnett, Carey,
& Hall, 1993; McClean & Cripe, 1997). Naturalistic teaching has also helped people with ID
become more socially independent. “By teaching children in the context in which the
language and skills will be used, they are able to learn the functional and social uses of the
target phrases and skills ﬁom the initial lesson” (Liber, Frea, Symon, 2008, 313).

Many interventions in the past have focused on having a child taught in a non natural
setting where an adult and child have direct interactions. The studies had one adult provide
verbal and physical prompts, directions, and praise in order to teach social skills to young
children with autism (Kohler &Strain, 1990; Strain & Odom, 1986). With this approach, an
adult sits with the child and provides a speciﬁc prompt. When the child responds
appropriately, the adult gives praise verbally or through a token system. Ifneeded, the adult
gives directions on how to improve the response. Unfortunately, this particular approach does
not promote generalization or maintenance of the skill (Brown & Odom, 1995). The adult is
only providing a limited number of social cues, which means that proper social behaviors will
usually only occur when identical social cues are present (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).
Naturalistic teaching results in the children learning a variety of cues. As a result the children
do not rely on a speciﬁc prompt to demonstrate the skill. This tends to result in generalization

of the skill to a variety of different situations.

105

Researchers can also use stimuli and conversation points that would occur in natural
environments when teaching social skills with direct instruction. When using direct
instruction in conjunction with natural conversations, it is important to incorporate social cues
that are demonstrated by peers without disabilities. For example, when having participants
practice having a conversation, you would use a topic that is of interest to the participants
while also using terminology that is appropriate. Teaching participants to use words like rad,
groovy, and swinging would not be appropriate for current children. This particular approach
has been found to help participants to generalize the skills to other contexts (Haring, Roger,
Lee, Breen, & Gaylord-Ross, 1986).

When using a natural environment, it is essential that participants do not fear
consequences associated with making a mistake in a more real-life situation (Baker, 2003).
During a structured program, such as a Special Olympics program, participants can practice
their social skills through the use of fun activities and games while not having to worry about
being ridiculed if a skill is done incorrectly. Participants then associate the social skills with a
fun and positive experience. Feelings of success lead to a higher level of self-conﬁdence,
encouraging the participant to continue practicing and developing the skills. Such programs
that have created positive peer interactions with social skills training have been found to be
successful in establishing the individual’s social abilities (e.g., Harrington-Lucker, 1997).

It is recommended that social skills interventions only be found valid if the researchers
or clinicians can show that individuals who received the intervention demonstrate the social
skills in natural environments (Berler, Gross, & Drabman, 1982). A natural environment
facilitates the use of skill without prompting or direct instruction. As a result, the successful

execution of social skills in a natural setting is the ultimate test of skill acquisition.

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Observations taken in a natural environment also allow one to pinpoint exactly what aspects of
the intervention were successful and what components of the skills have or have not been
developed (Korinek & Polloway, 1993).

Adequate Practice Opportunities

In order to master and maintain new skills, individuals with ID should be provided
extended amount of structured practice time (Korinek & Polloway, 1993). In a study with
eight adults who have MR, the authors concluded that longer periods of social skills training
accompanied by a fading out of the treatment may be necessary to maintain a change in social
skills (Matson & Andrasik, 1982). One of the reasons that many social skill interventions
have failed is because they do not allow an ample amount of time to practice the newly
acquired skills (Oden & Asher, 1977). When practice time is not allotted, the result is “a
socially awkward behavioral sequence that comes across as superﬁcial or rote rather than
genuine or convincing” (Elliott & Gresham, 1993).

Unfortunately, individuals with ID often have limited social opportunities in which
they are able to practice their social skills. A lack of social skills paired with decreased social
opportunities may result in people consistently failing at their social attempts. Eventually
constant failures lead to isolation where the individual does not want to try to interact with
others or develop meaningful relationships for fear of rejection (Kirby, 2002). In order to
combat this problem, a signiﬁcant amount of time should be given to practice social skills.

The amount of time that participants have to practice their skills within the natural
setting may affect the level of skill development more than the actual intervention. When
comparing different social skills teaching strategies, Foss, Auty, and Irvin (1989) formd that

all strategies were effective to some extent though the amount of time spent providing direct

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irrstruciton had a negative effect on the students’ performance. Activities that allowed for less
teaching time and more practice and development of skills in a natural setting were found to
be more successful. Therefore, it is not the amount of instructional time that results in the
development of skills, but the amount of time the individual is able to practice the skill in a
natural setting.

Multiple, Skilled Instructors

An intervention can have multiple instructors within one environment (e. g., having
typically developing peers and coaches) or interventions can take advantage of people in
different environments such as teachers at school, coaches of Special Olympics programs, and
parents at home. One example of using multiple instructors within one environment is the
Uniﬁed Sports model presented by Special Olympics. It is an integration approach where
individuals without disabilities are invited to participate in the Special Olympics prograrrr
(Uniﬁed Special Olympics Fact Sheet, 1991). The people without disabilities, referred to as
partners, interact with the Special Olympics participants. The program is designed to
encourage greater independence of the individuals with disabilities while also encouraging
social interactions (Riggen & Ulrich, 1993). By including the partners into the program, the
Special Olympic participants receive instruction ﬁom coaches as well as partners.

The use of peers as teachers has been found to be a successful pedagogical principle
(Hendrickson, Strain, Tremblay & Shores, 1982; Sisson, Babeo, & Van Hasselt, 1988; Sisson,
Van Hasselt, Hersen, & Strain, 1985). Using peers as a mode of improving social skills
allows the individual to have social interactions in a natural environment and context (Hansen,
Watson-Perczel, & Christopher, 1989; Huang & Cuvo, 1997). Peers “increase the youth’s

opportunity to contact the natural reinforcing contingencies that help maintain positive social

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behavior, while directly addressing the negative attitudes and responses of the peer group that
help to maintain the withdrawal of social behavior” (Christopher, Nangle, & Hansen, 1993, p.
328). Peers as teachers are also more cost effective than professionals. When participants are
receiving social skills training ﬁom peers, they receive needed social skills instruction without
having to pay for the one- on-one time provided by a professional. While social skills training
with a professional may still be needed, the amount of time required is decreased (Christopher,
Nangle, & Hansen, 1993; Elliot & Gresham, 1993).

When a peer helps with the development of a skill, it is often referred to as a peer-
mediated approach. There are three different peer-mediated approaches that that have been
commonly used in prior research studies or education (Laushey & Heﬂirr, 2000). The ﬁrst
type of peer involvement places children with disabilities into a classroom with peers who do
not have disabilities. This approach is sometimes referred to as the proximity approach
(Odom & Strain, 1984; Roeyers, 1996). In this approach peers do not receive training on how
to help teach social skills. The people with disabilities are expected to improve their social
skills based on their observation of socially competent peers (Roeyers, 1996). In the second
approach, peers are taught to prompt people with disabilities in order to get a desired response.
When the desired response is received, peers provide positive reinforcement (Odom & Strain,
1984; Roeyers, 1996). The last approach trains peers how to make appropriate social
initiations with people who have disabilities. The peers are usually asked to focus on one
student in particular and are instructed to prompt the social interactions with that targeted
student (Odom & Strain, 1984; Roeyers, 1996; Strain, 1977; Strain & Tirnm, 1974; Strain,

Shores, & Tim, 1977).

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Each of the three peer-mediated approaches have different results. As has been noted
earlier in this review of literature, the proximity approach often results in social isolation.
However the second and the third approaches also have a ﬂaw. While the two approaches are
excellent for teaching speciﬁc skills for a speciﬁc environment (Roeyers, 1996), these
approaches rarely result in generalization of social skills to other environments (Odom &
Strain, 1984, Roeyers, 1996; Sisson, Van Hasselt, Hersen, & Strain, 1985). Because people
with disabilities are only interacting with one peer in one environment they become
accustomed to speciﬁc social cues. When the peer is not there to provide the speciﬁc social
cue, the skill is lost (Laushey & Heﬂin, 2000).

In order to increase generalization of social skills, Laushey and Heﬂin (2000)
conducted a research study where children with autism and non-disabled peers were educated
simultaneously. Using kindergarteners in an inclusive classroom, the researchers taught social
skills to the entire class. From the results, the researchers concluded that “the speciﬁc training
and supportive structure results in higher percentages of age-appropriate social interactions
between children with autism and their typical peers” (p. 191). Students with autism were
able to generalize the social skills with all of their peers. Another advantage to this approach
was that all of the students were involved in the development of social skills, and one speciﬁc
child was not burdened with the responsibility of always being the partner to the child with
autism. A similar study was done in the work setting, where typically developed adults
interacted with people who had autism and severe handicaps [sic]. Through these interactions,
the participants developed appropriate social skills to be applied during their break time.
Participants also generalized these behaviors to all coworkers who were involved in the study

(Breen, Haring, Pitts-Conway, & Gaylord-Ross, 1985).

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Social skills and play skills can be taught to children with ASD using typically
developing children in the peer-mediated approach (DiSalvo & Oswald, 2002; Garﬁnkle &
Schwartz, 2002; Goldstein, Kaczrnarek, Pennington, & Shafer, 1992; Kampes et a1, 2002,
Laushey & Heﬂin, 2000, Morrison, Karnps, Garcia & Parker, 2001; Pierce & Schreibman,
1995, 1997; Strain & Fox, 1981; Strain & Kohler, 1998). However, individuals with
disabilities should not be excluded from serving as peer models. Liber, Frea, and Symon
(2008) used peers with a variety of disabilities to serve as play partners for children enrolled in
the research study. The goal of the study was to teach a play sequence to three participants
with autism. Participants not only learned the play sequence, but they also applied the social
and imaginative play skills to another environment with different materials and a different
play partner. These ﬁndings suggest that people with disabilities as well as typically
developing peers can be used in peer-mediation.

Family Involvement and Support

It has been suggested that parents are a crucial component in the educational success
of their children (Pryor, 1995). Pool (1997) suggests that parental involvement would be a
tremendous beneﬁt to any social or emotional development program that is held within the
school system. Governmental agencies have also called for parental involvement in
intervention and educational programs. The Goals 2000 Educate America Act encourages
educators to get parents involved in the social and emotional development of their children
(Love, 1996). Public Law 99-457 acknowledges that parents and the home environment must
be strongly considered when planning an intervention or educational program. According to
the law, families are essential members of the team that creates the child’s Individual Family

Service Plan (IFSP) and the Individual Education Plan (IEP) ( US. Public Law 99-457, 1986).

ll]

Until parents provide input and accept the IF SP and IEP, the plans carmot be implemented for
the child (F iorini, Stanton, & Reid, 1996)

Parents serving as teachers in the home environment help the child to acquire,
maintain, and generalize social skills (Baker, 1989; Graziano & Diarnent, 1992; Hager &
Vaughn, 1995; Schaefer & Briesmeister, 1989, Schloss, 1984; Sugai & Lewis, 1996;
Tiedemann, Georgia, & Johnston, 1992; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1990). When
looking at all successful interventions, regardless of the model or pedagogical approach, one
of the common variables is the use of trained parents to incorporate the program at home
(Moroz, 1989).

Having parents work with children at home has the potential to increase the number of
instructional hours received by the children, while avoiding the large expenses associated with
extensive one-on-one therapy or instruction (Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998). Home instruction
can occur seven days a week and can be done ntunerous times throughout the day, increasing
the participant’s exposure to the material. The increase in exposrne time is essential since it is
often beyond the family’s ﬁnancial means to provide their child with a daily treatment
program and a large amount of private therapy sessions (Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998).
Involving signiﬁcant others, including teachers and parents, in social skills interventions
creates a situation where participants are bombarded by the information in all environments.
This leads to a more successful performance of social skills (Soresi & Nota, 2000).

Another advantage of including parents is that they are able to provide meaningful
reinforcement that may not be available to a practitioner. While information and feedback can
be given to the participants during the program, the reinforcers that are provided at home tend

to be much more powerﬁrl (Goldstein & Lanyon, 1971). For example, a parent can reward a

112

child for interacting appropriately with peers by allowing them to play video games for an
extended period of time. Parents are also able to provide the feedback and reinforcement
immediately, in the appropriate environment since they are with their child throughout the day
(Sheridan, Dee, Morgan, McCornick, & Walker, 1996). When a people with disabilities are
in a position where a skill may be forgotten, such as a novel environment, parents can remind
their child of the essential social skills (Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998).

Teaching parents how help their children provides the parents with the tools to
successfully enforce proper social skills and give redirection for poor social skills (Jones &
Stoodley, 1999). Many of the commonly used pedagogical principles, such as modeling,
coaching, and reinforcement, can be applied within the existing structure of the home
environment. This allows parents to incorporate social training into the natural interactions of
the family (Elliot & Gresham, 1993). Lastly, having the parents serve as another teacher
allows the child to practice the skills in another natural setting while also receiving necessary
direction. As discussed earlier, a natural setting is necessary for skill development and
generalization of the skill. Because parents are teaching the child throughout the day, they are
able to encourage the use of appropriate social skills whenever an appropriate situation arises
and not just within a planned period of time. Parents are able to provide more opporttmities
for their child to practice the social skills in natural settings that are meaningful as well as
ftmctional with toys, household objects, and familiar materials. With family members,
children are able to practice their social skills in contexts that are ﬁequent, functional, and
culturally appropriate. All of these variables increase the development and generalization of

social skills (Woods & Wetherby, 2003)

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Because of the numerous beneﬁts associated with incorporating parents, many social
skills interventions rely on the use of parental involvement to complement in-school
interventions that are provided by a teacher or therapist. One of the most well known
programs is the TEACCH model (Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related
Communication-Handicapped Children) {http://wwwteacchcom) for children with ASD. “A
cornerstone of the TEACCH intervention model is home programming, in which parents are
taught to serve as their child’s ‘co-therapist’, implementing treatment in the home setting”
(Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998). This program, based at the University of North Carolina, was
ﬁrst introduced in 1966 and is still active today (Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998). Numerous
studies have looked at the success of this approach. Children enrolled in a TEACCH program
have signiﬁcantly increased their appropriate behaviors. Parents of the children enrolled in
TEACCH signiﬁcantly increased their ability to teach their child (Marcus, Lansing, Andrews,
& Schopler, 1978; Short, 1984). Ozonoff and Cathcart (1998) conducted an intervention that
was modeled after the TEACCH program with 22 young children with autism, many of which
were also diagnosed with mental retardation. The treatment group ‘inade an average of 9.6
months of developmental gain” (p. 30) over a 4 month period. This is a tremendous
development of skill, especially when one considers the fact that the participants were
diagnosed with MR and ASD.

When a child has difﬁculties developing social skills, parents may require instruction
on how to provide their child with the appropriate and primary social skills training (Budd,
1985). Parents may need instructions on how to help their child develop and how to provide
different opportunities to practice social skills. It is not uncommon for parents to be so eager to

help their child develop social skills that they bombard their child with questions while not

114

allowing the child a chance to initiate a conversation or ask a question. In order to prevent
parents ﬁom putting their child in a passive role, parents should be given suggestions and
guidance about what they should expect and how to incorporate social skills training into their
own lives (Gerber, 2003).

Parents are very interested in helping their children develop skills at home. After
surveying a random sample of 400 parents who had children in special education services,
Lynch and Stein (1982) found that almost 70% of parents would be willing to work on their
child’s educational goals at home. Sixty percent of the parents were willing to work directly
with the teachers to help develop the skills outlined in their child’s individualized education
plan (IEP). Knowing that parents are willing to assist with their child’s development is only
further encouragement researchers and practitioners to incorporate them into home programs.

Parents have also been found to beneﬁt physically and emotionally when they assist in
their child’s development. When using a parent training format, parents have been found to
have an increased level of positive affect (Schreibman, Kaneko, & Koegel, 1991). Koegel,
Birnbela, and Schreibman found that parents of children with autism and related disorders
“appeared to be happier, more interested, exhibiting lower levels of stress and engaged in a
more pleasant type of communication interaction with their child...” (p. 356) when they were
taught how to teach and reinforce social skills in a natural environment. Others have found
that when the parents work with their children at home through a structured program, the
parents’ self conﬁdence increases, their competency to interact with their child increases, and

the families’ general quality of life improves (Gallagher, 1990; Tumbull & Ruef, 1996).

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Conclusion

Individuals with ID struggle with the development of social skills in all facets of life;
school, work, and leisure. The Alexander Model for the Development, Maintenance and
Generalization of Social Skills outlines the essential variables for an intervention program for
people with ID. The model is supported by research and is based on ﬁrmly supported
theoretical models ﬁom Bronfenbrenner, Sargent, and Bandura Based on past research one
can concluded that successful social skills programs should provide direct instruction and
effective practice as is outlined above. With training the frustration and distress associated
with poor social skills is something that can be decreased. People with ID simply need to the

tools to successfully interact in society and create essential social relationships.

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CHAPTER 3:
SOCIAL SKILLS AND SPORTS (S3) PROGRAM: DEVELOPING THE SOCIAL
SKILLS OF YOUNG ADULT SPECIAL OLYMPICS ATHLETES

Title: Social Skills and Sports (83) Program: Developing the Social Skills of Young Adult

Special Olympics Athletes

Authors: Melissa G. F. Alexander & Gail M. Dummer, Michigan State University

Running Head: Teaching Social Skills through Sports

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Rationale for Manuscript 1:
Social Skills and Sports (S3) Program: Developing the Social Skills of
Young Adult Special Olympics Athletes
The manuscript entitled Social Skills and Sports (5") Program: Developing the
Social Skills of Young Adult Special Olympics Athletes is to be submitted to Education
and Training in Developmental Disabilities (E T DD). The purpose of the article is to
address the three research questions of this study: (a) did participants develop social skills
as a result of S3; (b) did participants generalize the social skills they developed in S3 to
other environments; and (0) did participants maintain the social Skills developed in S3
ﬁve weeks after the completion of the program? ETDD was chosen because it is a
respected journal within the ﬁeld, and articles that have been published in the past discuss
pedagogical principles that can be used to educate people with developmental disabilities.
Since this research study analyzed if participants could learn social skills if a combination
of pedagogical principles were applied in a classroom and sport setting, it seems to be an
appropriate ﬁt. The population that reads ETDD includes fellow researchers and special
education teachers who are looking to improve the learning experiences of people with
ID. The ﬁndings of this research study provide important information to both teachers
and researchers and are directly related to the joumal’s purpose.
The journal requires that manuscripts are prepared based on the guidelines set in
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. See Appendix L for
the detailed submission guidelines. For the submission guidelines provided by ETDD,

please refer to Appendix N.

118

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to determine if young adult Special Olympics
participants could develop, generalize, and maintain target social skills (eye contact,
contributing relevant information, and turn taking) as a result of a 14-week Social Skills and
Sports (S3) program that combined classroom instruction with soccer activities. Qualitative
and quantitative data were collected through direct observation, parent interviews, and parent
rating forms. Visual analysis and qualitative methodology were applied to analyze the ﬁve
case studies. All of the participants increased their ability to demonstrate at least one of the
targeted skills, generalized the skill(s) to other settings, and maintained the skill(s) ﬁve weeks
after completing the intervention. Participants also developed social skills that were not

targeted in S3.

119

Individuals with mental retardation (MR) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
often have difﬁculties developing social Skills that are needed for successful interactions
with others. Many of the skills in which they are deﬁcient, such as joking, talking about
a common subject, expressing and interchanging emotions, and asking about another
person’s interests are essential for initiating ﬁiendships and creating social networks
(Asher, Parker, & Walker, 1998; Chadsey-Rusch, 1990; Chadsey-Rusch & Gonzales,
1988; Gerber, 2003). People with MR and ASD also tend to have a difﬁcult time
interpreting other people’s feelings and realizing what those feelings may represent in
social environments (Bradley & Meredith, 1991; Moffatt, Hanley—Maxwell, &
Donnellan, 1995; Sigrnan & Ruskin, 1999).

Without social skills, people are at risk of being rejected, experiencing increased
difﬁculties in school, and being under or unemployed during their adult years (Elksnin &
Elksnin, 1995, 1998, 2001). Compared to people without disabilities, individuals with MR are
more likely to be rejected or neglected by their peers (Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotheram-
Fuller, 2007; Polloway, Epstein, Patton, Cullinan, & Luebke, 1986). The relationships people
with MR and ASD do have with peers tend to be less stable, sustained over a shorter duration
of time, and qualitatively different in nature (Baurrringer & Kasari, 2000; Chamberlain. Kasari
& Rotheram-Fuller, 2007; Soresi & Nota, 2000; Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1988). Difﬁculties with
social skills have also been cited as one of the primary reasons students with disabilities are
unsuccessﬁrl in their transition ﬁom school to employment and independent living (Chadsey-
Rusch, Rusch, & O’Reilly, 1991; Edgar, 1987; 1988). A deﬁciency in social skills during an
individual’s childhood is the best single predictor of signiﬁcant problems transitioning into

adulthood (Strain & Odom, 1986).

120

Social skills are an essential component for life adjustment (Epstein & Cullinan,
1987; Neel, 1988). They are necessary for the initiation and maintenance of social
relationships with people in society, including family members, peers, teachers, and co-
workers. Social skills also allow people to participate in daily routines (Quinn, Jannasch-
Pennel, & Rutherford, 1995; Woods & Wetherby, 2003). They promote independence,
increase social acceptability, and improve the person’s quality of life (Bellack, 1983).
Unfortunately, people with MR and ASD often have difﬁculties developing social skills
naturally, and therefore need to be provided with direct social skills instruction (Gresham,
1984)

The team sport setting is an ideal environment to teach social skills because of
relationships that are often established amongst teammates. Castaneda and Sherrill (1999)
reported that parents of children on a Challenger baseball team valued social interactions with
other teammates more than the physical activity their children received while playing baseball.
For Special Olympic athletes, one of the most commonly reported reasons for participating in
Special Olympics was to socialize with others and make ﬁiends (Farrell, Crocker,
McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004; Shapiro, 2003; Siperstein, Harada, Parker, Hardman, &
McGuire, n.d.).

With people who have disabilities struggling to develop social skills and their lack of
social skills affecting different domains in their life, a social Skills intervention could help to
improve the participants’ quality of life. Participants would be able to develop social skills
that are necessary for interactions within the school, work, and community settings. With

sports providing an enjoyable environment that also leads to many social interactions, an

121

intervention that occurs in a Special Olympics setting would address participants’ social Skills
deﬁciencies in a fun and productive fashion.

The purpose of the study was to determine if participants could: (a) develop and reﬁne
the target social Skills as a result of a l4—week social skills intervention; (b) generalize the
social skills when interacting with family members, ﬁiends, people in the community that they
know, and strangers; and (c) maintain the social skills ﬁve weeks after the completion of the
program. The Social Skills and Sports Program (S3) intervention was created speciﬁcally for
this study. It was designed to teach social skills in a classroom and soccer setting to
adolescents who qualify for Special Olympics. Participants received instruction on
contributing relevant information to a conversation, turn taking in a conversation, and making
appropriate eye contact.

Social Skills and Sports Program

The Social Skills and Sports Program (S3) was a 14-week program that met for 90
minutes twice a week in a local indoor soccer facility and conference room. There were six
phases of the program; introduction, baseline, classroom, soccer, party, and baseline/retention
(Figure 1).

Introduction phase. During Session 1, participants were introduced to the staff and
other participants, participated in team-building activities, and played in soccer activities.
There was no social skill instruction given during this phase.

Baseline phase. Sessions 2-5 were used to determine the participants’ current level of
social skills using The Observer Skill Rating Form. Participants were engaged in soccer drills
and activities, but the staff did not encourage or reward them for socializing with each other,

nor did they provide speciﬁc instructions on the target social skills.

122

Classroom phase. Many researchers have suggested that individuals with disabilities
must receive social skills training before being asked to demonstrate the targeted skills in
mainstrearned settings (Gresham, 1981, 1984; Laushey, 1981). Therefore, the purpose of
Sessions 6-13 was to provide participants with direct instruction on the social skills before
giving them the opportunity to practice the skills in a soccer environment. Each session
consisted of 45 minutes of classroom activities where participants discussed social skills and
played games, and 45 minutes of soccer where participants practiced social skills while
participating in soccer activities.

The general outline of each classroom period consisted of a brief welcome, a review of
the information presented in the previous session, a short presentation of new information, a
series of activities to practice the new skill, and a summary/review of the information
presented. For each lesson, a PowerPoint presentation that used both pictures and words was
created to accommodate different abilities and learning styles. During Sessions 6-8 the
classroom instruction focused speciﬁcally on contributing relevant information to the
conversation. Sessions 9-10 focused on taking turns, and Sessions 11-12 focused on making
eye contact. Session 13 was a review session of the material presented in Sessions 6-12. As
instruction progressed, participants were reminded to incorporate previously learned skills. For
example, during Session 9 participants were reminded that while they are taking turns they
should also contribute relevant information.

The intervention, written by Melissa Alexander, applied a combination of strategies
including direct instruction (Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Gresham, 1984), modeling (Baker,
2003; Foss, Auty, & Irvin, 1989), and process training (Huang & Cuvo, 1997; O’Reilly,

Lancioni, ~& Kierans, 2000). In order to accommodate the cognitive level of the participants,

123

process training was taught in a simplistic form. Participants were taught to: (a) look at the
person you wanted to talk to, (b) listen to what the person was saying, (c) think about what
you should say in response, ((1) talk to the person, and (e) repeat the steps.

The classroom portion of the program was taught by the primary investigator and head
coach. An assistant coach sat with the participants helping to keep them focused on the
material being discussed. While researchers have suggested that individuals with intellectual
disabilities need speciﬁc social skills training in order to develop social skills (Gresham, 1981,
1984), it has also been suggested that positive social interactions with peers who have
developed social skills are needed if the skills are to be generalized to other setting
(Harrington-Licker, 1997; Hendrickson, Strain, Tremblay & Shores, 1982; Sisson, Babeo, &
Van Hasselt, 1988; Sisson, Van Hasselt, Hersen, & Strain, 1985). Therefore, four high school
aged soccer players who did not have a disability intermingled with the participants in a
manner similar to the partners in Special Olympics Uniﬁed Sports Programs (Joseph P.
Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.). The partners served as buddies for the participants during both
classroom and soccer activities, interacted with the participants as team members, helped
redirect the participants’ attention when needed, provided positive reinforcement and direct
instruction to the participants, and modeled appropriate social skills.

Soccer phase. Soccer was chosen because it provided participants with a ﬁrn,
natural environment to practice and develop social skills. Practicing newly acquired
skills in a natural environment leads to a greater level of skill development,
generalization, and maintenance (Barnett, Carey, & Hall, 1993; Christopher, Nangle, &
Hansen, 1993; Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, & Hoyson, 2001; McClean & Cripe, 1997;

McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1984). Physical education and sports have been cited

124

as ideal natural environments to practice newly developed social skills (Groft & Block,
2006). And in some instances, game experiences have help people with disabilities to
become more capable of interacting (Collard, 1981; Jansma, 1982; Schleien, 1983;
Wehman & Schleien, 1981).

During the soccer phase (Sessions 13-27), participants were given the opportunity to
practice and develop the skills they learned during the classroom portion of S3 through natural
interactions and planned activities. Participants were instructed on soccer skills for a total of
74 minutes each session. Throughout the soccer practice, structured activities fostered natural
social interaction. For instance, while stretching, participants were encouraged to discuss
activities they did over the weekend. Some drills were speciﬁcally formatted to allow
participants to practice soccer skills while also conversing with a partner. For example,
participants were given a bingo sheet that had pictures replacing the numbers. Participants
dribbled their ball to a coach or partner and initiated a conversation about the images on their
board. The ﬁrst person to discuss ﬁve squares in a row won.

During the 8-minute review sessions that occurred before and after soccer, participants
were reminded of the social skills they learned in the classroom, reviewed the steps of the
process training model, received verbal positive reinforcement for proper demonstration of the
skill, and received direct instruction as needed.

The head coach and assistant coach were responsible for delivering the soccer portion
of the intervention. The high school aged partners intermingled with the participants, creating
spontaneous social interactions throughout the practice. Partners also helped to initiate
conversations when needed, provided positive reinforcement when they observed appropriate

social interactions, and provided direct instruction as needed. The primary investigator

125

provided instruction during the two 8-minute social skills review sessions and would provide
positive reinforcement to intermittently through out the soccer practice.

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. When parents serve as teachers, the child
receives more instructional time and is able to practice the skill in different environments
(Ozonoff & Cathcart, 1998). This pedagogical technique facilitates the development,
maintenance, and generalization of skills (Baker, 1989; Graziano & Diarnent, 1992; Hager &
Vaughn, 1995; Schaefer & Briesmeister, 1989; Sugai & Lewis, 1996; Tiedemann, Georgia, &
Johnston, 1992; Webster-Shanon & Hammond, 1990). Therefore, on the ﬁrst day of the
classroom sessions, parents received the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. This packet
contained information about the social skills being discussed; information about how to
practice and encourage the use of social skill in the home; activities for parents to do at home
to continue practicing the social skills; and handouts of the PowerPoint presentations used in
the classroom.

The activities listed in the packet were intended to be incorporated in the family’s
daily life. Most of the activities were games that could be done while driving in the car, eating
a meal together, or doing chores. Many of the activities are common childhood games that
have been manipulated to teach the speciﬁc social skills. Parents were asked to do the
activities with the participants for at least 15 minutes 4 times a week. They were also asked to
reward their child when he/she correctly demonstrated the target behaviors or provide direct
instruction when the behaviors were not performed correctly.

During the classroom phase of the program, the student investigator met with the

parents for the last 15 minutes of each session (while the participants were playing soccer) to

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discuss the packet and related activities. During the soccer phase, parents were contacted
biweekly by phone to remind them to practice social skills with their children.

Party phase. The party phase (Session 28) was a time to recognize participants for
their accomplishments while also creating a sense of closure. Occurring on the last day of the
program, participants scrimmaged against their families, and then participated in an award
ceremony and pizza party.

Method
Design

This study consisted of multiple replications of a single-subj ect research design,
speciﬁcally an A (baseline) - B (classroom) - C (soccer) - A (baseline/retention) quasi-
experimental repeated measures design. Because inter- and intra-participant variability is a
major challenge when conducting research among people with intellectual disability (Batshaw
& Shapiro, 2002; Towbin, Mauk, & Batshaw, 2002), participants served as their own control.
Data were analyzed individually, resulting in 5 replications of a case study.

The classroom instruction, soccer activities, and family supplemental practice of social
skills were designed to be inter-related. Therefore the effect of each component on the
participant’s learning was not analyzed separately. Instead the S3 program was analyzed as a
whole, examining levels of change at different time intervals in the program. The independent
variable was the S3 program. The dependent variables were the targeted social skills, namely
making eye contact, staying on topic, and taking turns during conversations.

Participants
To qualify for the program, participants were required to: (a) have a

mild/moderate intellectual disability (such as mental retardation and autism) as the

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primary disability; (b) be verbal; (c) be between the ages of 13 and 25 years; (d) have
current Special Olympics Application for Participation and Medical Update forms; (e)
have deﬁciencies in social skills before entering the program; and (t) have parent consent
and participant assent. Potential participants who had atlantoaxial instability were not
eligible to participate because of the potential for injury in the soccer component of the
intervention.

Participants within a 45 minute drive of the soccer facility were recruited through
the distribution of ﬂyers to local schools, disability support groups, and the local Special
Olympics ofﬁce. Although approximately 750 ﬂyers were disseminated, only 12 families
responded, and only ﬁve families were accepted into the study group after consideration
of the selection criteria. Reasons for non-response is unknown, but it seems likely that
some families found the commitment to S3 impractical given other family commitments.
A preliminary interview was arranged with interested families to determine if the
participants met the program eligibility criteria and to complete the consent form and
demographic proﬁle. Potential participants were asked a series of questions (e.g., what
did you have for lunch today) and observed within the home for approximately 10
minutes. If the potential participant satisﬁed the inclusion criteria, the parent was asked to
complete the consent form and the demographic proﬁle. With the parent serving as a
witness, the person with a disability was asked to complete the assent form.

Attendance was taken at every session to ensure that participants were being
exposed to the classroom material and receiving sufﬁcient time to practice the skills
during the soccer sessions. To be included in the sample population, participants had to

be present for at least 75% of the baseline and classroom phases and 80% of the entire

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program. Jeff was present for 100% of the sessions, John and Billy were present for 96%
of the sessions, Jackie was present for 93% of the session, and Tony was present for 89%
of the session. All absences were explained by illnesses that also caused them to be
absent from school on the day of the session.

Instrumentation and Data Analysis

Qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed in order to determine if
participants developed, generalized, and maintained the social skills. In order to
minimize the expectancy effect on the part of the primary researcher, all data were
analyzed by at least three people. The data gathered with the different instrumentation
were also analyzed as a whole. Therefore, conclusions on skill improvement were not
considered signiﬁcant unless skill improvement was seen in at least two of the three
instruments.

Demographic profile. Parents were asked to report participant age, sex, disability,
extent of participation in extra cum'cular/sports activities, and experiences with social
skills training in the past. Parents also provided information about their age, experiences
teaching social skills to their children, and highest level of education.

Interviews with parents. Parents were interviewed before the program started (pre-
baseline), at the completion of classroom phase (post-classroom), at the completion of the
soccer phase (post-soccer), and ﬁve weeks after the intervention was completed (post-
retention). During the interviews, parents were asked to reﬂect on the child’s social
interactions with family members, people they know in the community, people in school, and
strangers. The term community members refer to people who are not family members or

ﬁiends, but are known by the participant. Examples of community members include religious

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leaders, teachers, family acquaintances, and bus drivers. Parents were also asked to discuss
their thoughts on the useﬁrlness of the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet in teaching
social skills to their children. Other questions focused on parents’ and participants’ overall
opinions of the program.

All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using the procedures
recommended by Patton (1990). Four researchers independently analyzed the data using
axial coding. Subsequent discussion led to a consensus about the higher order and lower
order themes in the data, with consensus deﬁned as agreement amongst at least three of
the four researchers.

Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form. The Alexander adaptation of Baker’s Skill
Rating Form (2003) was completed by the parents before each interview (baseline, post-
classroom, post—soccer, and retention). Parents were asked to rate the participant’s use of eye
contact, contributing relevant information and turn taking on a scale of 1-5 where #1
represents that the “participant almost never demonstrates the skill” and a score of #5
indicates “participant almost always demonstrates the skill”. Parents were told to record a “not
applicable” if they did not know how to rate their child’s skill level in that domain. Parents
were also invited to make open-ended comments about the participant’s acquisition of social
skills.

The Alexander Adaptation of Skill Rating Form for parents was analyzed using
visual comparison. To determine if the participant had generalized the skill to another
setting, the participant’s reported score for skill attempts that occurred during the baseline
of the program was compared to the reported score of skill attempts that occurred during

post-soccer. The participant’s post-soccer score was also compared to the score given

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during the retention phase to determine if the participant had retained the social skills. A
change of one level was considered clinically signiﬁcant because it represented a change
in social skills that affected the person’s interactions with others and could improve the
person’s quality of life.

Observation Skill Rating Form. The Observation Skill Rating Form was used to judge
the participants’ social interactions while playing soccer. Each observation period was 70
minutes long. The participants were observed for the four days of baseline, two days post-
classroom, and two days post-soccer. Every time a participant had a social interaction,
observers recorded the occurrence, persons involved in the intervention, and the quality of the
targeted social skills behaviors. The quality of each demonstrated behavior was based on a 3-
point scale consisting of zero, minus, and plus signs. A zero sign indicated that the participant
did not attempt the appropriate behavior or that the correct behavior was unrecognizable. A
minus sign signiﬁed that the skill attempt represented a beginning level or emerging level of
skill proﬁciency. A plus sign signiﬁed that the participant demonstrated a ﬁrnctional and
proper use of the skill. A notes column was used to record speciﬁc comments about skill
acquisition and demonstration.

There were two observers. Each observer was responsible for observing two
participants simultaneously. In order to ensure inter-observer agreement, the observers
participated in a training period before the start of the program where they observed a video
replication of the program. Observers had to be in agreement 85% of the time with each other
and the primary investigator. Inter-observer agreement was calculated as the number of
agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements multiplied by 100

(Kazdin,-1982). Inter-observer agreement during training was calculated at 87%.

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The Observation Skill Rating Form could only practically be conducted with a
small number of participants. Therefore, only four of the ﬁve participants were observed.
The four participants who were observed were selected based on their disability and level
of social skill demonstrated at the onset of the program. The four males were chosen
because they encompassed the Down syndrome and autism disability labels and
demonstrated the lowest level of social skills at the onset of the program.

Participants were observed for 70 minutes to allow for a detailed description of
the participants’ behaviors. Given the 70 minute period, the observers were able to see
the social interactions throughout the practice and not at one speciﬁc interval. This
helped to control for interfering problem behaviors that may have occurred for a short
interval. For example, if a participant had a ﬁght with his mother on the way to the
program, he might not be very social during the ﬁrst ﬁve minutes. However, as practice
continues his social skill demonstration could dramatically change. The extended
observation period also helped to control for the variation of each session. While each
soccer session followed a similar schedule, the opportunities for social interaction did not
always occur at the same time. Different activities provided different social
opportunities. Therefore, the observers watched for the entire 70 minutes to ensure that
their observations were not limited by a speciﬁc activity where participants might not
have the opportunity to socially interact with others.

Visual inspection was used to analyze the data gathered on the Observation Skill
Rating Form. The researchers calculated the total number of social skill attempts
recorded for each skill (eye contact, tum taking, contributing relevant information). The

data for each social skill was then sorted into three separate skill levels: (a) functional and

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proper use of the skill; (b) beginning or emerging skill level; and (c) no attempt at skill.
The researchers were focused on the change of skill level and not in the change of skill
attempts. Therefore, the following formula was used to calculate the percentage of

"“Mbe” of correct attempts x100. This formula

 

correct skill attempts: % correct skill =
total number of attempts

was also used to determine the percentage of developing skill attempts and skill attempts
that did not occur. These percentages were then graphed. In order to evaluate the
effectiveness of the intervention, the mean percentage of skill attempts from each phase
(baseline, post-classroom, and post-soccer) was calculated, graphed, and visually
analyzed. The change in mean percentage of skill attempts from baseline to post-soccer
was also calculated. When analyzing the Observation Skill Rating Form, a 5% change in
the mean remember skill attempts from one time period to another was considered
clinically signiﬁcant. The researchers chose 5% based on the rational that a 5% increase
in behavior would lead to more positive social interactions. An increase of less than 5%
could be due to observation bias and error. The decision was also made based on recent
visual analysis literature (Kazdin,l982).
Results

Tony

Tony is a 14 year old boy with Down syndrome. Though Tony is verbal, his
speech is very difﬁcult to understand. His utterances usually consist of 1 to 2 words, and
he relies a great deal on hand gestures to communicate. Tony performs most activities of
daily living independently and understands verbal instructions very well. He enjoys
Harry Potter and often helps his father with landscaping. At the start of the program, he

demonstrated some inappropriate social interactions such as tickling people in the

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community and hugging strangers. He also tended to shy away from social interactions.
Before participating in S3, Tony had not participated in any after school or sports
programs, though he played basketball with his father. Tony lives with his father,
stepmother, and two signiﬁcantly younger siblings. His stepmother, Laura is his primary
caregiver. She is 38 years old, has a high school degree, and works out of the home as a
project manager. Due to illness, Tony was only observed three times for baseline data
collection.

Tony demonstrated a signiﬁcant improvement in all three target skills (Figure 2).
From baseline to post-soccer, Tony increased his ability to correctly demonstrate turn
taking by 18.2% and increased his demonstration of undeveloped turn taking by 22.1%
(Table 9). He decreased the percentage of time he did not attempt to take his turn by
14.5%. Tony also generalized his ability to take turns. On the Parent Skill Rating Form,
his mother reported a one level increase when interacting with family, community
members, and strangers (Table 13). When interacting with family, Tony went from
“sometimes” taking his turn to “often taking his turn” and when interacting with
community members, he went from “often” taking his tum to “ahnost always” taking his
turn. Five weeks after the completion of the program, Tony maintained his improvement
in his turn taking skills.

Tony also showed a clinically signiﬁcant increase in his ability to make eye
contact. Based on the observation data he improved his ability to demonstrate eye contact
correctly by 7%, though he increased the percentage of attempts that he did not make eye
contact by 5.3%. However, Tony did not generalize or maintain the ability to make eye

contact. Tony’s mother reported that his ability to maintain eye contact while in a

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conversation decreased when interacting with friends, people in the community, and
strangers. When comparing his baseline score to his post-soccer score, Tony showed a
one level decrease going from “often” making eye contact to “sometimes” making eye
contact. The decrease in eye contact performance was not reported during the retention
phase. Tony’s mother reported that he had returned to this baseline skill level of making
eye contact “often”.

However, Tony did generalize and retain the ability to stand at an appropriate
distance when conversing. Standing at an appropriate distance was a skill that was
incorporated into the making eye contact lessons. Laura reported that when interacting
with ﬁiends and family, Tony went from “almost never” standing at the appropriate
distance to “almost always” standing at an appropriate distance. When interacting with
people in the community Tony went from “seldom” standing the appropriate distance to
“almost always” standing the appropriate distance. Five weeks after the completion of
the program, Tony had maintained his ability to stand at an appropriate distance in all
domains.

Tony also improved, generalized, and maintained his ability to contribute relevant
information to the conversation. His ability to contribute relevant information correctly
during the program increased by 12.6%, and the percentage of times that he did not
contribute relevant information decreased by 16.4%. Based on the one level increase
reported on the Parent Skill Rating Form, Tony generalized his ability to contribute
relevant information when talking with family and ﬁiends. At baseline Tony
“sometimes” stayed on topic in a conversation, but at the post-soccer phase he was

“often” staying on topic. While Tony maintained his ability to stay on topic with friends,

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ﬁve weeks after the completion of the program Tony had returned to his initial skill level
when interacting with family members.

By the completion of the program Tony had improved his ability to maintain
conversations with others. When interacting with people in the community he
demonstrated a two level increase on the parent rating form and a three level increase
when interacting with strangers. In the post-classroom and post-soccer interview Laura
mentioned that “he has been socially interacting with his siblings without having to be
prompted by us. Such as, you know saying good morning, responding to Andrea
[younger sister] when she talks to him, and just initiating play with the baby a lot more”
(post-soccer). Laura reported that this increase in social interactions was retained. In
fact, his mother reported, “we’re still seeing an increase in him helping with them [his
siblings] and playing with them. If he sees that they need something, he’ll take it upon
himself to go get it for them, which he never, he never used to do that” (retention).

At the retention phase Tony had also decreased frequency of hugging strangers.
Tony’s mother stated, “If I’m outside talking to a customer, he’ll come out and say hi,
and put his hand out, and shake his hand. It used to be he’d run out there and just hug
them all, but he’s backed off from that” (retention).

In summary, Tony developed each of the target social skills, generalized the target
skills to different domains, and maintained most of his skill development. He also
improved his ability to maintain a conversation and greet people appropriately.

Jeff
Jeff is a 15 year old boy with autism. Though Jeff is verbal, he often

demonstrates echolalia. He also tends to use self-stimulating behaviors when he is

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excited or frustrated. He is a competitive young man who enjoys playing video games
and watching Star Wars. At the beginning of the program, Jeff had a difficult time
making eye contact with others, listening to conversations that were occurring around
him, and waiting his turn to speak in a conversation. He had a tendency to hug strangers
and attractive young women. Jeff had participated in Special Olympics swimming and
bowling before participating in S3. He was also active in his church. Jeff lives with his
mother, Kathy, though he occasionally spends time with his father on the weekends.
While Jeff has numerous caregivers including an aide, his grandmother, and his speech
pathologist, his mother is the primary caregiver. Kathy is 47 years old, has completed her
associates degree, and works as a nuclear medicine technologist.

J eff’s mother reported a large amount of “not applicable” responds on the Parent
Skill Rating Form (Table 6). She also changed the rating scale recording nmnbers by
reporting numbers such as 2.5 and 3.5 rather than whole numbers. Because of the large
quantity of “not applicable” and the misuse of the scale on responses to the Parent Skill
Rating Form could not be interpreted. It is unclear why Kathy did not complete the
Parent Skill Rating Form as requested. She appeared to be the most dedicated parent to
the program, providing weekly letters to the primary investigator where she would
elaborate on J of s progress. She also provided detailed information within the
interviews and would talk with the primary investigator at least once a week to see how
Jeff was doing in the classroom and soccer portion of the program.

Jeff’s largest improvement in skill development was his ability to contribute
relevant information (Figure 2). From baseline to post-soccer, Jeff showed a 12.7%

change in his ability to correctly contribute relevant information to a conversation (Table

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10). The percentage of times that Jeff demonstrated undeveloped attempts at contributing
relevant information decreased by 17.1%. Jeff generalized his ability to contributing
relevant information in a variety of domains. During her post-classroom interview, Kathy
talked about how Jeff was now going up to strangers that looked interesting to him and
starting a conversation with them based on their appearance. She gave an example of
how a man looked liked Santa Claus, and so Jeff walked up to him and started talking
about Santa Claus. Kathy also noted that he is not only initiating more conversations, but
also focusing on one topic in conversations. For example, “like if he wants to talk about,
you know, the bad guys in a Star Wars either game or movie. . .he’ll relate that to other
bad guys in a movie” (post-soccer). J cf 5 teachers had told his mother that he is making
more appropriate on-topic comments in school as well. Five weeks after the completion
of the program, J eff’ s mom reported that he had retained his ability to contribute relevant
information.

Jeff also increased his abilities to make eye contact. He increased his ability to
correctly make eye contact by 7.5%. While his percentage of undeveloped skill attempts
in eye contact decreased, the percentage of attempts that Jeff did not make eye contact
increased by the completion of the program. Kathy reported in her interviews that Jeff
was improving the amount of times he made eye contact at home. During the retention
interview she reported that Jeff had not only retained the skill, but was continuing to
improve on his performance. She stated, “You know what, I think he's actually increased
because even his speech pathologist, said the thing he's noticed is that J eff’s eye contact
has increased. So that's the biggest thing that he's seen is an increase in eye contact”

(retention).

138

 

Within the program, Jeff also showed an increase in his ability to take turns in a
conversation. He increased his correct turn taking by 6.9% and decreased the number of
undeveIOped skill attempts by 16.1%. However, Jeff also increased the number of times
that he did not take his turn by 9.3%. Unfortunately, Kathy did not comment on turn
taking during the interviews, so it is unknown if he generalized or retained the skill.

Kathy also reported that he showed improvements in social skills that were not
targeted in the program. At the time of the post-classroom and post-soccer interviews,
Jeff was greeting people in the community and strangers in an appropriate manner. His
mother stated, “even tonight at catechism he went all the way around the room and
greeted everyone, gave a handshake to everyone” (post-classroom). Kathy also reported
that he had become more verbal at home and in school. She stated, “his utterance length
is getting a little bit longer, he’s using more language to get requests as opposed to kind
of more physically directing you to where he wants to be” (post-classroom). Lastly, she
reported that at home he has started to “chain concepts together and then tell me those
things, so that is like a huge change!” (post-soccer). She reported that he would combine
two or three concepts together and then report them to her as a statement. During the
retention interview Kathy reported that he had retained all of these non-targeted social
skills.

In summary, Jeff improved on all three target skills. Jeff generalized and
maintained contributing relevant information and eye contact to different domains. It is
unknown if he generalized and maintained turn taking. He also developed, generalized,

and maintained positive social skills that were not targeted in this program.

139

Billy

Billy is an 18 year old male with Down syndrome. While Billy likes to discuss
wrestling and children’s television shows such as Drake and Josh and Sponge Bob
Square Pants, he tends to avoid social interactions with people. When at home, Billy
primarily stays in his room where he watches television or listens to music. At the start
of the program, Billy did not make eye contact while conversing with others. He would
angle his body away from the person he was talking to and look directly at the ground.
He did not contribute information to the conversation unless he received a direct prompt.
A prompt would usually result in a one to two word response that Billy would mumble
while looking at the ground. Before participating in S3, Billy had participated in bowling
and basketball through his school. He lives with his mother, Sandy, who is 50 years old.
His siblings, nieces, and nephews are often at his home. His mother has not completed
high school and reports her occupation as a “caregiver”.

Billy showed a clinically signiﬁcant increase in his ability to take turns (Figure 2).
His ability to correctly take turns during a conversation increased 8.1% while his
demonstration of undeveloped turn taking attempts decreased 11.4% (Table 11). His
mother reported on the Parent Skill Rating Form that his ability to take turns when
interacting in all domains increased two levels (Table 7). Billy went from “almost never”
taking turns to “sometimes” taking turns. Five weeks after the completion of the
program, his mother reported that he not only retained his ability to take turns, but had
shown further improvement. Billy went from “sometimes” taking turns at the completion

of the program to “almost always” taking turns in all domains.

140

At the completion of the program, Sandy reported that while he was taking turns,
he also had started talking too long when interacting with people in the community and
strangers. He went from “sometimes” talking too long to “often” talking too long. At
retention, she reported that he was continuing to show an increase in rambling when
talking to people in the community and strangers. However, when interacting with
family and ﬁiends, she reported that ﬁve weeks after the completion of the program
Billy’s tum taking was one level lower than when he initially started the program.

Billy also showed an improvement on his ability to contribute relevant
information correctly, though some of the ﬁndings were not clinically signiﬁcant. He
increased the percentage of times he contributed relevant information correctly during the
program by 3.3% and decreased the percentage of times he did not contribute relevant
information by 2.0%. However, Sandy reported a clinically signiﬁcant change in his
ability to demonstrate the skills in other domains. He went from “almost never”
introducing a topic of interest to “sometimes” introducing a topic of interest when
interacting with family, friends, community members, and strangers. When looking at
how often he stayed on topic, he showed a three level increase in all domains. Billy went
from “almost never” staying on topic to “often staying on topic”.

There are conﬂicting data on whether or not he retained his ability to contribute
relevant information ﬁve weeks after the completion of the study. Sandy reported that he
was still introducing topics of interest “sometimes”. However, when interacting with
family and friends he decreased one level, going from “often staying on topic” to
“sometimes” staying on topic. When interacting with people in the community and

strangers he went from “often stays on topic” to “seldom” stays on topic. Even though

141

there was a decrease in his ability to stay on topic in all domains, Billy’s retention
performance level was still higher than when it was measured at baseline. Before the
start of the program Billy “almost never” stayed on topic.

Within the program, Billy decreased in his ability to make eye contact correctly
by 9.8%. When comparing baseline to post-soccer data, the percentage of times that
Billy did not make eye contact increased by 24.3%. However, Sandy reported an
increase of skill level. Billy’s ability to maintain eye contact while conversing with
family members and friends increased 2 levels going from “sometimes uses” to “almost
always uses”. Sandy elaborated on his ability to make eye contact in one of her
interviews. She stated, “. . .norrnally he doesn’t really look at people when he talks to
them. But he is bringing that more into things” (Sandy). His mother also reported that
Billy had a one level increase in his ability to maintain an appropriate distance when
interacting with family and ﬁiends, and a two level increase when interacting with
strangers. While Billy maintained his ability to maintain an appropriate distance, on the
Parent Skill Rating form his mother reported that he returned to his baseline level of eye
contact.

Sandy also noted an increase in his ability to maintain a conversation, particularly
with people in the community and strangers. When interacting with family and friends
Billy went from “sometimes” maintaining a conversation to “often” maintaining a
conversation. With people in the community and strangers he went from “almost never”
maintaining a conversation to “often” maintaining a conversation. Sandy commented on
his contributions to conversations during her interviews as well. She stated, “he’s more

interactive with pe0ple” (post-classroom), “. . .instead of sitting back and just watching,

142

he actually will get up and start participating more” (post-soccer). Billy was also
maintaining a conversation when he was in the community. “Sometimes when we are out
and about, he’ll just be in the background, quiet and just fooling around. But now he
actually interacts and joins in on the conversation more” (post-soccer). During the
retention interview, Sandy mentioned how Billy was still maintaining conversations. She
said, “He has improved on his conversations, because before he would half ass [sic] talk
about something, now he actually wants to get in to more deep of a conversation about it”
(retention).

In summary, Billy improved in all skills, though the observation data only
supports a clinically signiﬁcant improvement in turn taking. He retained his ability to
take turns in a conversation, but did not retain his ability to contribute relevant
information. It is unclear how much of his ability to maintain eye contact was retained.
Billy also developed and maintained his ability to maintain a conversation in all domains.
John

John is a 24 year old man with Down syndrome and attention deﬁcit hyperactivity
disorder. John is a very talkative young man. He is comfortable approaching people in
the community as well as strangers. He enjoys talking about wrestling, Jackie Chan, and
food. Before the start of the program, John tended to dominate a conversation while also
contributing irrelevant information. He also made sexually offensive comments toward
young women. Before enrolling in S3, John had participated in a variety of Special
Olympic sports including poly hockey, basketball, and bowling. While he had never
participated in a social skills training program, he was currently participating in a school

job training program where instructors discussed how to answer interview questions.

143

John lives with his step mother Martha. John’s grandmother and brother (who also has
an intellectual disability) are sometimes in the home, though they do not permanently
reside with John and Martha. John’s nephew and older sister also interact with John on a
daily basis. Martha is 50 years old, has completed her associates degree, and reported her
occupation as a caregiver.

Based on the observation data, John did not show a clinically signiﬁcant increase
in any of the targeted skill levels (Figure 2). In fact, the percentage of times that he
correctly demonstrated the targeted skills decreased. While the observation data did not
show that John developed his social skills, his mother reported in her post-soccer
interview that, “Deﬁnitely the activities... that he's participating in at class [have helped
him learn]. . ..” (Martha, post-soccer). Through her interviews and Parent Skill Rating
Form she also reported that he showed an increase in his ability to perform the targeted
skills in different domains.

John’s ability to take turns correctly during the program decreased 4.3% (Table
12). The percentage of times he demonstrated an undeveloped level of turn taking only
increased by 1.4%. However, John’s mother reported an increase in his ability to take
turns while interacting with family, friends, and community members (Table 16). His
ability to take turn when interacting with family and ﬁiends went from “seldom” to
“often” and his ability to take turns with community members went from “sometimes” to
“often”. John also showed a decrease in the amount of times that he demonstrated the
undesirable behavior of dominated conversations when interacting with family, ﬁiends,
people in the community, and stranger. He went from “almost always” talking too long

to “sometimes” talking too long. John’s mother reported that ﬁve weeks after the

144

completion of the program, he had retained his ability to take turns. While she reported a
one level increase in the undesirable behavior of dominating conversations, she
commented in the interviews that “he says, ‘I'm rambling’ he's aware that he sometimes
talks nonsense and he'll say I know I am rambling and I need to work on that. He's
aware. . .”. Therefore, while he was not always applying the skill, at retention he was still
recognizing when John was dominating the conversation.

Based on the observation data, John decreased his ability to correctly make eye
contact correctly by 3.7%. However, in the post-soccer interview, John’s mom noted that
“he has said, ‘I need to look at you.’ And he’s aware of our bubble space [maintaining
appropriate distance], and he’s just made a couple of comments to me where he’s aware
of what he’s leaming, which is very new for John. . .There’s an awareness of now of eye
contact, volume of his voice, topics, and he talks about it” (post-soccer). On the parent
rating form, John’s mother reported that his ability to demonstrate appropriate eye
contact in all domains decreased from baseline to post-soccer by one level. He went from
“often” making eye contact to “sometimes” making eye contact. At the same time, his
ability to maintain appropriate distance with family, friends, and strangers increased from
“often” to “almost always”.

On the Parent Skill Rating Form, John’s mother reported that ﬁve weeks after the
program was complete, John was making eye contact as frequently as he did at baseline.
However, in her interview John’s mom stated that “He's very good about that [making
eye contact], he's conscious of it and he thinks of it and he also does it. John’s mother
also reported that his demonstration of appropriate distance with family, ﬁiends, and

community members decreased from “almost always” to “often”.

145

John’s ability to contribute relevant information while in the program decreased
2.0%. However his mother said at home John was “more aware of conversations, and the
importance of staying on topic. . .” (post—classroom). She stated that he was coming “back
with stories from school about what’s been going on, people that he’s talking to. He
seems to have more information than he used to have, at least he’s sharing about it with
me” (post-classroom). On the Parent Skill Rating Form, John’s mother reported an
increase in his ability to contribute relevant information. During conversation with
family, ﬁiends, community members, and strangers he went ﬁ'om “seldom” staying on
topic to “often” staying on topic. His ability to introduce topics that are of interest to
others when conversing with family members and people in the community went from
“almost never” to “sometime”. Five weeks after the completion of the program, John’s
mother commented on how “Lately he is more conscious of the topics he is talking about.
Which means he is giving it thought which I am glad because that is something he didn't
often do is to think about if it is an appropriate topic... He's actually making thoughts and
adding to the conversation.” On the Parent Skill Rating Form she reported that he was
continuing to improve in his abilities to introduce topics of interest in all domains.
Therefore, when compared to the baseline data, John had increased his ability to
contribute information of interest to others by three levels when interacting with family
and people in the community and one level when interacting with ﬁiends. However, at
the retention phase his ability to stay on topic decreased from “often” to “sometimes.”

Lastly, John’s mother reported that at the completion of the program, John was
acting more appropriately when in the community, “he’s doing less inappropriate

conversations, like wolf whistle and hoots at girls” (post-soccer). He retained this ability

146

ﬁve weeks after the completion of the program. She stated, “he still needs reminders, but
he's aware of it, and I think that that is growth” (retention).

One possible explanation for the decrease in John’s observation scores could be
due to behavior issues. As John became more comfortable with the environment and
staff, he started demonstrating an increase of inappropriate behaviors. He had difﬁculties
following instructions and staying on task. He would often instigate Billy to fool around
with him, resulting in inappropriate and rude behaviors from both participants. The
observers made numerous notes about the inappropriate behaviors the two boys
demonstrated, and how John in particular was struggling to remain focused. These
maladaptive behaviors most likely affected his observation scores.

In summary, it is difﬁcult to determine the extent of development that John
experienced. It appears that he improved his ability to may eye contact, take turns, and
contribute relevant information. John’s ability to contribute relevant information and to
take turns was developed and was generalized to other domains. However, while John
has aware of making eye contact, he was not applying the skill consistently in any
domains. By the completion of the program, John had also decreased some of his
inappropriate behaviors towards young women.

Jackie

Jackie is a 16 year old young woman with an emotional impairment and a
learning disability. She is a very social young woman who enjoys interacting with peers.
In general, she is a pessimist who seeks social attention by telling people stories in order
to create pity. She is enthralled with Hannah Montana and Tinker Bell. Before the start

of the program, Jackie tended to dominate conversations and had a difﬁcult time taking

147

turns. She also would interrupt conversations with irrelevant information. Before S3,
Jackie participated in Special Olympics bowling and swirruning, as well as after school
clubs such as choir. Jackie lives with her mother, step father, and younger brother. Her
mother, Amanda, is her primary caregiver. Amanda is 44 years old, has completed high
school, and works as a technician.

Observation data were not collected on Jackie. Therefore, observations about
Jackie’s development of social skills are based only on her Parent Skill Rating form and
parent interviews. People must ﬁrst learn a skill before they can generalize it to another
environment. Therefore, if J ackie’s mother reported that she is generalizing the skill, it
can be assumed that she learned the skill.

Jackie showed an improvement on her ability to take turns. Jackie’s mother
commented on the change in turn taking that she had observed in the community. She
gave the example, “we ran into some friends at the grocery store, and instead of her
trying to take over the conversation, she waited her turn when they talked to her...”
(Amanda, post-soccer). She also commented that Jackie had become more patient
waiting her turn at home. She stated, “she’s not as impatient as she used to be, she used
to be really impatient. . .and now she knows she has to wait her turn” (Amanda, post-
classroom). These comments were supported by the reported frequency that Jackie talks
too long in a conversation. On the Parent Skill Rating Form, Jackie decreased the
amount of times she talks too long from “often” to “sometimes” (Table 17). However,
Jackie’s mother also reported on the Parent Skill Rating Form, that from baseline to post-
soccer, Jackie decreased her ability to take turns from “often” to “sometimes”. At

retention, Jackie had retained her decrease in dominating conversations. Her mother

148

reported that “she has retained it [turn taking]... like when we have company, and they're
talking, she has her stories to tell. And she sits there and ﬁdgets because she wants to get
it out, but she waits” (retention).

Jackie did not show an improvement in her ability to make eye contact. However
her ability to maintain an appropriate distance when talking with family, ﬁiends, and
people in the community did increase one level. She went from “sometimes” maintaining
appropriate distance to “often” maintaining appropriate distance. Jackie retained her
ability to maintain an appropriate distance ﬁve weeks after the completion of the
program.

From baseline to post-soccer, Jackie’s ability to contribute relevant information to
a conversation did not change in any domains. During retention her mother reported that
Jackie had not changed her ability to stay on topic, but she had increased her ability to
introduce topics that were of interest to others. Jackie went ﬁ'om “sometimes”
introducing topics of interest to “often” introducing topics of interest.

In summary, Jackie did not show a signiﬁcant development in making eye contact
or contributing relevant information. Her mother reported that she had improved on her
ability to take turns, though the information presented on the Parent Skill Rating Form
sometimes conﬂicted with the information presented in the interviews.

Discussion

The results of this study suggest that Tony, Jeff, John, and Billy developed social
skills as a result of S3. By the completion of the program, the four male participants
showed clinically signiﬁcant increases in the targeted social skills. These participants

also generalized and maintained the social skills they developed in the program. Though

149

observation data did not always show clinically signiﬁcant levels of improvement, parent
interviews and reports from the Parent Rating Form suggested positive changes in
performance. In order for participants to have generalized a positive change in
performance, they had to initially learn the social skills. If participants had not learned to
the skill parents would not have seen a change in skill performance. As the participants
were not actively involved in other social skills programs or new therapeutic programs
during the time period of this study, it can be concluded that S3 inﬂuenced the
development of these skills.

It appears that Jackie improved her ability to take turns. However, based on the
lack of observation data and conﬂicting data that was presented by her mother, it is
difﬁcult to make strong conclusions. While Jackie’s mother did report in her interviews
that Jackie had improved on her turn taking skills in the community as well as at home,
her interview data was not always supported by the reports in the Parent Skill Rating
form. The data were also conﬂicting regarding whether or not Jackie retained the ability
to take turns. Jackie did not generalize eye contact or relevant information to other
domains though it is unknown if she ever learned the skill. The lack of data collected for
Jackie is a limitation of the study related to an insufﬁcient number of staff. Ideally, a 1:1
ratio of participants to observers should have occurred.

One possible explanation for Jackie and John showing smaller increases in all
targeted skills could be due to a ceiling effect. John and Jackie correctly demonstrated the
targeted social skills much more consistently at baseline than Tony, Jeff, and Billy.
Therefore, their room for improvement as a result of the program was much smaller than

Tony, Jeff, and Billy. The Parent Skill Rating from probably was not sensitive enough to

150

detect changes in the skill levels, given the narrow Likert scale. However, while the
rating forms didn’t always show a change for John and Jackie, both of their mothers
reported that they observed a signiﬁcant change in their children’s behaviors. Given that
the change was difﬁcult to detect using the Parent Skill Rating Form, and a clinical
signiﬁcance is one which affects the individual’s daily life, the parental reports for Jackie
and John may be the best representation of skill development and generalization. If the
skill change is affecting their daily lives in a positive way, then the goal of the program
was met.

On the Parent Skill Rating Form Jackie, Jeff, John, and Tony either decreased in
their ability to make eye contact or did not show any change. However, the observation
data and the interviews suggest a positive increase in eye contact. This may be due to a
limitation of the Parent Skill Rating Form. Throughout the program, parents became
more aware of the amount of eye contact that their child made while socially conversing.
As parents became more aware of the skill, they may also have become more critical of
the skill execution, resulting in a lower score. Whether or not parents’ critical natures
affected other areas of the survey is unknown. As evaluation is an important component
of a successful program, future researchers should focus on creating a more effective
survey that parents could use to report their child’s social skills performance in different
domains. This survey could be used by researchers and practitioners to determine a
baseline level of skill and the amount of social skill development that occurs through-out
a program.

Parents reported development of social skills that were not speciﬁcally taught in

the S3 curriculum. Modeling (Baker, 2003; Foss, Auty, & Irvin, 1989), direct instruction

151

 

   

(Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Gresham, 1984), and positive reinforcement (Dietz & Repp,
1973; Zwald & Gresham, 1982) are all effective pedagogical principles that most likely
fostered participants’ grth of these non-targeted skills. Partners and coaches were
careful to model appropriate social skills throughout the program. As a result,
participants incidentally learned how to correctly perform the socials skills. Participants
also witnessed positive beneﬁts that naturally occur with proper skill execution, creating
motivation to attempt the skill themselves. When participants demonstrated any positive
social skills in the program, such as greeting people when they arrived, they received
positive reinforcement. If participants demonstrated a negative behavior, such as wolf
whistling, they were redirected with direct instruction on an appropriate behavior.

The success of S3 may be in part to the skilled staff involved in the program.
Coaches, partners, and the classroom instructor were all trained in teaching social skills
to people with disabilities. They had all coached sports for people with disabilities before
the start of S3 and were familiar with the pedagogical principles applied throughout the
program. The staff’s ﬁiendliness may have also affected the participants’ receptiveness
to instruction and redirection. In order for the program to be successful, participants had
to feel comfortable enough to try social skills without fear of ridicule. The skilled staff
created a safe environment almost immediately. If staff members are not able to create
this atmosphere, a similar program may not be as successful.

A limitation of the study is that parents may have expected their children to
improve their social skills, resulting in a potentially biased report of skill development.
Parents enrolled their children in the program with the intention to improve the targeted

skills. As the program progressed, parents may have reported an improvement in their

152

child’s social skill because they subconsciously expected the change to occur. However,
during the interviews parents gave speciﬁc examples of skill improvement that they had
observed in different settings suggesting that a development of skill occurred. Future
studies may consider interviewing other people involved in the participants’ lives, such as
teachers, to corroborate the parent’s reports.

A possible concern of the observation data was the Hawthorne effect.
Interestingly, participants did not appear to notice when the observers were present.
While participants were sometimes distracted by the video camera that taped the sessions,
they did not attempt to interact with the observers, did not ask questions about the
observers, and did not watch the observers. The staff also noted in their ﬁeldnotes that
they did not see a change in the participants’ behaviors during the observation period.
Because the facility where the intervention took place had a large amount of people
coming and going at all times, it is likely that the participants did not notice the
observers.

This study contributes to the current body of literature in several ways. First, the
ﬁndings suggest that social skills can be taught in an interactive environment where
participants are having fun. Sports appear to be an excellent venue to help participants
develop social skills that they can generalize to other settings. Because sports are a
natural setting that do not force the participants to be social, but allows them to choose
when they would like to interact with others, sports environments promote skill
generalization and maintenance. Secondly, social skills programs can focus on a
population that has a variety of disabilities. Many curricula focus on teaching social

skills to one speciﬁc population such as people with autism spectrum disorders (Baker,

153

2003). However, this study demonstrates a program in which people with a variety of
disabilities can all be taught social skills at the same time. This broad application
increases the practically of a social skills sport interventions, as most Special Olympic
programs, classrooms, and after school activities include people with a variety of
disabilities.

While it is impossible to determine exactly which components of the S3 program
led to the participants’ skill development of skill, it can be concluded that the
combination of direct instruction and extensive practice in a variety of natural setting
does lead to skill development, generalization and maintenance. This supports the
ﬁndings of past research suggesting the need for both direct instruction (Gresham, 1981,
1984; Laushey, 1981) and practice in a natural environment (Barnett, Carey, & Hall,
1993; Christopher, Nangle, & Hansen, 1993; Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, & Hoyson,
2001; McClean & Cripe, 1997; McGee, Krantz, & McClannahan, 1984)). However, the
effectiveness of the different components of S3, namely classroom instruction, soccer
practice, and parental teaching, need to be examined individually in future studies.

Further research is necessary to determine if other social skills can be taught in a
program similar to S3. It is unknown if programs similar to S3 would be successful when
working with a larger group of participants; people with a higher level of disability, such
as people who are labeled as moderate to severe; and people who have multiple
disabilities, such as cerebral palsy and mental retardation. While this intervention could
be applied in a Special Olympics program that meets for an extended period of time,
researchers should consider incorporating this program into other venues such as physical

education classes, after school programs, or camps.

154

In summary, when young adults who qualify for Special Olympics were taught
using the S3 curriculum, they developed and maintained the targeted social skills.
Participants also developed other rudimentary social skills that were not directly
addressed in the program. Lastly, participants generalized the social skills that they
developed in S3 to the home, school, and community. Further research is needed to
determine if these ﬁndings can be replicated with other social skills, different disability

populations, and in different venues.

155

 

 

Introduction Phase
Session 1

45 minutes team building activities
45 minutes soccer practice
No intervention

 

 

 

<7

 

 

A
Baseline Phase
Sessions 2-5

Observation of social skills during 90 minutes
of soccer practice
No intervention

 

ll

 

 

B
Classroom Phase
Sessions 6-13

45 minutes classroom instruction in social skills
45 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

Ll

 

 

C
Soccer Phase
Sessions 14-27

8 minutes review of social skills
74 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
8 minutes review of social skills

 

ll

 

 

 

 

 

Party Phase 90 minutes party and informal soccer scrimmage
Session 28 No intervention

A No activities
Baseline/Retention No intervention

No sessions

15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

Figure 7. Phases of the S3 program

156

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tony
100 Baseline Post-Class Post-Soccer
90
8° 94
60 "—_‘ —0— Eye Contact

-O—Tum Taking
+ relevant Information

 

 

% of Acceptable Skill Attempts
3 8

3 4 5 14 15 26 27

Sessions

 

Jeff

100 Baseline Post-class Post-soccer

60 V —o— EyeﬁContact
j—o—Tum Taking
4o . f+Reievant Information}

% of Acceptable Skill Attempts
8

 

 

2 3 4 5 14 15 26 27

Sessions

 

Figure 8. Percentage of acceptable skill attempts demonstrated for eye contact, turn
taking, and relevant information

157

Billy

100 . Baseline Post-Class Post-Soccer

; +1.5” h Eye Contact

_o_Tum Taking
L + Relevant Information ‘ :

 

% of Acceptable Skill Attempts
8

 

 

 

 

2 3 4 5 14 15 26 27
Sessions
John
Baseline ”Post-class Post-soccer

/.

 

 

 

% of Acceptable Skill Attempts

 

i—o— Eye Contact
j-O-Tum Taking
,, ?:§a'evant'nforma_ﬁ9n
2 3 4 5 14 15 26 27
Sessions

 

 

Figure 8 Continued. Percentage of acceptable skill attempts demonstrated for eye
contact, turn taking, and relevant information

158

 

Table 9
Tony 's Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills

 

Data Collection Interval for Social Skill Mean Percentage of Skill Attempts

Acceptable Undeveloped Did Not

 

Attempt

Turn Taking

Baseline 59.8 15.1 25.1

Post-Classroom 68.4 5.3 26.4

Post-Soccer 78.0 37.2 10.6

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +18.2* +22.1* -l4.5*
Relevant Information

Baseline 49.9 14.9 35.1

Post-Classroom 44. 7 18.4 36. 8

Post-Soccer 62.5 18.7 18.7

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +12.6* +3.8 -l6.4*
Eye Contact

Baseline 77.1 22.2 0.8

Post-Classroom 77.3 1 3 .7 9. 1

Post-Soccer 84.1 10.0 6. 1

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +7.0* -12.2* +5.3*

 

Note. " represents a clinically signiﬁcant change

159

Table 10

Jeff 's Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills

 

Data Collection Interval for Social Skill

Mean Percentage of Skill Attempts

 

Acceptable Undeveloped Did Not
Attempt
Turn Taking
Baseline 47.4 19.3 33.3
Post-Classroom 60.1 19.6 20.4
Post-Soccer 54.3 3.2 42.6
Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +6.9* ~16. 1* +9.3"‘
Relevant Information
Baseline 39.6 27.6 10.5
Post-Classroom 67.7 1 1.6 20.6
Post-Soccer 52.3 10.5 37.2
Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +12.7* -17.1* -26.7
Eye Contact
Baseline 53.2 28.9 17.8
Post-Classroom 76.0 11.0 13.1
Post-Soccer 60.7 15.3 17.9
Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +7.5* -13.6* +0.01

 

Note. " represents a clinically signiﬁcant change

160

Table 11
Billy 's Mean Observation Scores for the Performance of Targeted Skills

 

Data Collection Interval for Social Skill Mean Percentage of Skill Attempts

Acceptable Undeveloped Did Not

 

Attempt

Turn Taking

Baseline 72.1 20.7 7.3

Post-Classroom 59.2 19.5 21 .4

Post-Soccer 80.2 9.3 10.5

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +8.1 * -11.4* +3.2
Relevant Information

Baseline 60.9 23.6 15.4

Post-Classroom 49.6 25.3 25.6

Post-Soccer 64.2 22.5 13.4

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change +3.3 -1.1 -2.0
Eye Contact

Baseline 53.5 37.7 8.9

Post-Classroom 57.2 24.9 18.0

Post-Soccer 43.7 23.2 8.9

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change -9.8* -14.5* +24.3*

 

Note. * represents a clinically signiﬁcant change

161

Table 12
John 's Mean Observation Data for the Performance of T argted Skills
Data Collection Interval for Social Skill Mean Percentage of Skill Attempts

Acceptable Undeveloped Did Not

 

Attempt

Turn Taking

Baseline 90.0 5.9 4.2

Post-Classroom 80.0 14.2 5.9

Post-Soccer 84.3 7.3 8.5

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change -5.7* +1.4 +4.3
Relevant Information

Baseline 80.8 15.3 3.9

Post-Classroom 62.9 26.9 10.3

Post-Soccer 78.8 14.8 6.5

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change -2.0 -O.5 +2.6
Eye Contact

Baseline 93.2 6.3 0.6

Post-Classroom 87.6 8.4 4.6

Post-Soccer 89.5 6.2 4.4

Baseline to Post-Soccer Change -3.7 -0.1 +3.8

 

Note. * represents a clinically signiﬁcant change

162

Table 13
Data Reported on Tony’s Parent Skill Rating Form

 

Survey Question

Turn Taking

Takes turns while talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Talks too long (rambles on about a topic) when talking witha
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers

Relevant Information

Stays on topic while in conversation
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Introduces topics that are of interest to others when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Eye Contact
Maintains eye contact during a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Maintains appropriate physical distance when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Non-target Skill
Maintains a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Base

AAA!»

n/a
n/a
n/a

&bww

n/a
n/a
n/a

WNW-d Ali-huh

NNUJN

Post-
class

A-BUUJ wwwu WWW!» #550) wwww b-h-Jih

WWW

Post-
soccer

mmbb

Ahbb

000-1035

VIM-5'5

43.5.5.1»

Retain

(limb-h

Achchb

Abhh

mmhb

WWW

Note. 1= almost never uses the skill; 2= seldom uses the skill; 3= sometimes uses the skill; 4= often uses
the skill; 5= almost always uses the skill; n/a= parent could not rate skill

8 - . .
Describes a negative behavror so score should decrease

163

Table 14
Data Reported on J effs Parent Skill Rating Form

 

 

 

 

 

Survey Question Base Post- Post— Retain
class soccer
Turn Taking
Takes turns while talking with
a) family n/a 2.5 4 3
b) friends n/a 2.5 4 3
c) people in the community they know n/a 2.5 n/a 2.5
d) strangers n/a n/a n/a n/a
Talks too long (rambles on about a topic) when talking with3
a) family 3 n/a 1.5 l
b) friends 3 n/a 1.5 l
c) people in the corrrrnunity they know n/a n/a n/a 1
d) strange_r§ n/a n/a n/a n/a
Relevant Information
Stays on topic while in conversation
a) family n/a 3 3 3
b) friends n/a 3 3 3
c) people in the community they know n/a 2.5 n/a 3
d) strangers n/a n/a n/a n/a
Introduces topics that are of interest to others when talking with
a) family 3 3.5 l 3.5
b) ﬁ'iends n/a 3.5 1 3
c) people in the community they know n/a 2.5 n/a n/a
(1) strangers n/a n/a 1 n/a
Eye Contact
Maintains eye contact during a conversation with
a) family 3.5 3 4 4
b) ﬁiends 3 3 3.5 3.5
c) people in the community they know 2.5 3 3.5 3.5
d) strangers n/a n/a 3 3
Maintains appropriate physical distance when talking with
a) family 5 4 4 4
b) ﬁiends 5 3 4 4
c) people in the community they know 5 3.5 4 4
d) wagers 5 n/a 4 3.5
Non-target Skill
Maintains a conversation with
a) family 3 3 3 3
b) friends 2 3 3 2.5
c) people in the community they know 2 2 n/a 2.5
d) strangers n/a n/a n/a n/a

 

Note. 1= almost never uses the skill; 2= seldom uses the skill; 3= sometimes uses the skill; 4= often uses

the skill; 5= almost always uses the skill; n/a= parent could not rate skill

a - . .
Descrrbes a negative behavror so score should decrease

164

Table 15
Data Reported on Billy’s Parent Skill Rating Form

 

Survey Question

Turn Taking

Takes turns while talking with
a) family
1)) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Talks too long (rambles on about a topic) when talking witha
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) straﬁers

Relevant Information

Stays on topic while in conversation
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers

Introduces topics that are of interest to others when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Eye Contact
Maintains eye contact during a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers
Maintains appropriate physical distance when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) 5%“

Non-target Skill
Maintains a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers

Base

u—nr—ns—nu—o NNMM r—sn—nr—nu—t

NNWW

3
3
1
1

Post-
class

NNWW wwww MWMU’r Whale-1N

NNNN

MbWN

wwha

Post-
soccer

&A-BA nut/1m wwww «bk-bk wwum wwww

AAA-h

Retain

&hhb NNUJDJ wuww NNbeJ Ali-BA haw-bk

[0th

Note. 1= almost never uses the skill; 2= seldom uses the skill; 3= sometimes uses the skill; 4= often uses

the skill; 5= almost always uses the skill; n/a= parent could not rate skill

a . . .
Describes a negative behavror so score should decrease

165

Table 16
Data Reported on John’s9 Parent Skill Rating Form

 

Survey Question

Turn Taking
Takes turns while talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Talks too long (rambles on about a topic) when talking witha
a) family
b) ﬁiends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Relevant Information
Stays on topic while in conversation
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Introduces topics that are of interest to others when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers
Eye Contact
Maintains eye contact during a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Maintains appropriate physical distance when talking with
a) farrrily
b) ﬁiends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers
Non-target Skill
Maintains a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Base

WNN

MLhkhU't g

gu—w— NNNN

&h-Ds-h

WM-h-h

b-bUrUr

Post-
class

Urmerr wwww Abhh ##4## &UJJi-h

UrUer-h

hUtU't-h

Post-
soccer

&MMM wwww wwww #A-h-h wwww ##4##

UMMM

Retain

Acb-h-h ##1## ##kb wwww AA-b-h Jib-Bk

MMMM

Note. 1= almost never uses the skill; 2= seldom uses the skill; 3= sometimes uses the skill; 4= often uses

the skill; 5= almost always uses the skill; n/a= parent could not rate skill

3Describes a negative behavior so score should decrease

166

Table 17
Data Reported on Jackie 's Parent Skill Rating Form

 

Survey Question

Turn Taking

Takes tums while talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Talks too long (rambles on about a topic) when talking with8
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

Relevant Information

Stays on topic while in conversation
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers

Introduces topics that are of interest to others when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) stranggrs

Eye Contact
Maintains eye contact during a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers
Maintains appropriate physical distance when talking with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
(1) strangers

Non-target Skill
Maintains a conversation with
a) family
b) friends
c) people in the community they know
d) strangers

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Note. 1= almost never uses the skill; 2= seldom uses the skill; 3= sometimes uses the skill; 4= often uses

the skill; 5= almost always uses the skill; n/a= parent could not rate skill

a . . .
Describes a negative behavror so score should decrease

167

CHAPTER 4:
TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS THROUGH SPORTS AND HOME PRACTICE: IS
INSTRUCTION PRACTICAL, VALUED, AND ENJOYED

BY ATHLETES AND PARENTS?

Title: Teaching Social Skills through Sports and Home Practice: Is Instruction Practical,

Valued, and Enjoyed by Athletes and Parents?

Authors: Melissa G. F. Alexander & Gail M. Dummer, Michigan State University

Running Head: Teaching social skills though sports and home

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Rationale for Manuscript 2:
Teaching Social Skills through Sports and Home Practice: Is Instruction Practical,
Valued, and Enjoyed by Athletes and Parents?

The manuscript entitled is to be submitted to Palaestra. The purpose of this
article is to discuss (a) if parents valued the Social Skills and Sports (S3) Program, (b) if
participants enjoyed S3, (c) if it is practical to incorporate social skills practice at home. .

Palaestra ’s main focus is on physical activity and sports for people with
disabilities. However, the journal has a history of publishing articles that discuss parental
involvement in the education of people with autism and other developmental disorder.
Past articles have also focused attention on a variety of different techniques and
pedagogical principles that can be used in the physical education setting. The journal is
read by a wide range of people including physical educators, special education teachers,
researchers, and clinicians.

Palaestra uses the guidelines set by the American Psychological Association.
They prefer manuscripts to be 12- 15 pages with abstracts that are around 100 words in

length. For an elaboration of submission guidelines, please refer to Appendix 0.

169

Abstract

The Social Skills and Sports (S3) program was created to teach social skills to
adolescents, namely turn taking, contributing relevant information and eye contact through
participation in a modiﬁed Special Olympics program and practice at home. This article will
discuss if parents valued the program, if athletes enjoyed the program, and if it was practical to
incorporate social skills practice into the family’s daily living. Five parents of the athletes
enrolled in s3 were interviewed. Parents reported that they valued the chosen social skills.
They also valued activities and instructional material presented for at home practice. While
participants enjoyed the soccer and social interactions, some participants did not enjoy
practicing at home with their mothers. Three of the ﬁve families found that they could

successfully incorporate the practice of social skills into their activities of daily living.

170

Special Olympics literature proclaims that “children and adults with ID [intellectual
disabilities] who participate in Special Olympics develop improved physical ﬁtness and motor
skills, greater self-conﬁdence and a more positive self-image. They grow mentally, socially
and spiritually...” (Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.). However, while research has
demonstrated: (a) physical and health beneﬁts associated with a Special Olympics program
(Siperstein, Harada, Parker, Hardman, & McGuire, n.d.); (b) the importance of Special
Olympics as a social network for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Farrell, Crocker,
McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004 ); and (c) positive values expressed by parents towards
Special Olympics as a tool in developing their child’s social skills (Siperstein, Harada, Parker,
Hardman, McGuire, n.d.), there are limited data on whether social skills actually are
deve10ped within the context of a sports program such as Special Olympics.

The few studies that have examined social skills development within a Special
Olympics setting have found that participants demonstrated improved skills including
self-conﬁdence, social competence, self-image, and developed and maintained
friendships incidental to their participation (Castagno, 2001; Riggen & Ulrich, 1993).
Results of studies in which athletes were asked about their participant motives have
revealed that one of the most commonly reported reasons for participating in Special
Olympics is to socialize with other people and make ﬁiends (Farrell, Crocker,
McDonough, & Sedgwick, 2004; Shapiro, 2003; Siperstein, Harada, Parker, Hardman, &
McGuire, n.d.). In the Shapiro (2003) study, Special Olympics athletes reported that the
optimal environment occurs when coaches provide time for athletes to have fun and

interact with their friends.

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Given that the Special Olympics environment fosters positive social interactions and
that Special Olympics participants value such interactions, Special Olympics appears to be an
ideal environment in which to implement a social skills intervention. A Special Olympics
program could provide athletes with a natural, fun, safe environment needed to develop and
practice the skills. However, existing research relies primarily upon anecdotal reports from
parents and Special Olympics athletes. There is very little empirical data supporting the
contention that Special Olympics participation causes the development of social skills.
Notably, there was no found literature exploring the use of social skills interventions within a
Special Olympics setting.

Therefore, the purpose of this research study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a
social skills intervention that was incorporated into a Special Olympics environment. The
goal of the intervention was to help Special Olympics athletes develop, generalize, and
maintain the ability to take turns, contribute relevant information, and make eye contact
during a conversation. The intervention, titled the Social Skills and Sports (S3) Program
was a 14-week intervention that met for 90-minute sessions twice a week. S3 was
designed to be incorporated into a Special Olympics soccer program and was speciﬁcally
created for this study. It relies on the use of direct instruction of social skills in a
classroom setting, followed by social skills practice within a soccer environment.
Throughout the intervention, participants continued to practice the social skills at home
with help ﬁom their parents. Parents were encouraged to practice the social skills with
their child for at least 60 minutes each week. Parents were provided with instructions and
activities to help them incorporate the social skills practice into family activities of daily

living.

172

The researchers found that young adults with intellectual disabilities successfully
developed, generalized, and maintained the targeted social skills as a result of S3
(ﬁndings are reported in Chapter 3). However, while it is essential to determine whether
or not participants beneﬁt in these ways from S3, it is also important to know whether the
intervention was valued by parents, whether parents thought that athletes enjoy the
program, and whether the home activities were practical to implement. The S3 program is
unlikely to be used and to beneﬁt Special Olympics athletes without afﬁrmative answers
to these questions. The purpose of this study is to explore such parent perceptions about
the S3 program.

Method
Participants

Participants consisted of ﬁve mothers/stepmothers of people with disabilities who
resided in a Midwestern city (Table 18). Three mothers were single and two were
remarried within the last four years. All of the mothers served as primary caregivers for
the person with a disability. The ﬁve mothers/step-mothers were between the ages of 38
and 50 years with a mean age of 45.8 (SD= 5.03). Their level of education ranged from
“did not complete high school” to “completed an associates degree”. None of the
mothers had received previous training on how to teach social skills to their children.

The athletes with disabilities consisted of one female and four males between the
ages of 14 and 24 with a mean age of 17.4 (SD= 2.57). Given the Special Olympics
context of this study, they will be referred to as athletes. The disabilities represented by
the athletes were autism, intellectual disability, Down syndrome, severe learning

disability, attention deﬁcit and hyperactivity disorder, and emotional impairment (some

173

athletes were diagnosed with more than one disability). The diagnoses were self-reported
by the mothers during an initial meeting with the family. However, parents also provided
medical documentation required by Special Olympics stating the athletes had a cognitive

disability. All of the athletes were verbal and had a mild to moderate level of intellectual

disability.

Throughout the entire program, four young adults who did not have a disability
served as partners to the athletes. They intermingled with the athletes ala the Special
Olympics Uniﬁed Sports Programs (Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.). There
were one male and three female partners, who were all 15 years of age. The partners
were all current members of a soccer club in the Mid-Michigan area, and they had
assisted with a local Special Olympics Soccer team during the previous year.

Social Skills and Sports (5") Program

The Social Skills and Sports Program (S3) was a 14-week program that met for 90
minutes twice a week in a local indoor soccer facility and conference room. S3 was
designed to teach social skills to adolescents and young adults who qualify for Special
Olympics. Athletes received instruction on contributing relevant information to a
conversation, turn taking in a conversation, and making appropriate eye contact. There
were three essential components to the program: classroom instruction, soccer, and parent
teaching (Figure 9).

Classroom. The purpose of the classroom phase was to provide athletes with direct
instruction on the social skills before giving them the opportunity to practice the skills in a
soccer environment. The classroom phase consisted of 8 sessions conducted during the ﬁrst

four weeks of the program. Each session consisted of 45 minutes of classroom activities

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where athletes discussed social skills and played games, and 45 minutes of soccer where
athletes practiced social skills while participating in soccer activities. While each session
varied, the general outline of each classroom period consisted of a brief welcome, a review of
the information presented in the previous session, a short presentation of new information, a
series of activities to practice the new skill, and a summary/review of the information
presented.

Soccer. During the soccer phase athletes were given the opportunity to practice and
develop their newly leamed skills through natural interactions and planned activities. The
soccer phase lasted 8 weeks for a total of 16 sessions. Throughout the soccer practice,
structured activities fostered social interaction. For example, while stretching, athletes were
encouraged to discuss what they did over the weekend. Some drills were speciﬁcally
formatted to allow athletes to practice soccer skills while also conversing with a partner. In
one activity, athletes were given a bingo sheet that had pictures replacing the number.
Athletes dribbled their ball to a coach or partner and initiated a conversation about the images
on their board. The ﬁrst person to discuss ﬁve squares in a row won.

Athletes were instructed on soccer skills for a total of 74 minutes each session. The
remaining 16 rrrinutes was divided into two 8 nrinute review sessions. A review session was
held at the beginning and end of each soccer practice. During the review, athletes were
reminded of the social skills they leamed in the classroom, received verbal positive
reinforcement for proper demonstration of the skill, and received direct instruction as needed.

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. On the ﬁrst day of the intervention,
parents received the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. This packet provided a

detailed outline of the program including lesson plans for the 8 classroom sessions, a

175

description of each of the social skills, instructions on how to teach social skills at home,
and a list of different activities that could be done at home to help athletes practice the
social skills in home and community environments. The activities described in the packet
were designed to be incorporatedin the family’s daily lives and were not meant to
interfere with their normal routine.

The activities listed in the packet were intended to be incorporated in the family’s
daily life. Parents were asked to do the activities with the participants for at least 15
minutes 4 times a week., resulting in at least 60 minutes of practice time each week.

They were asked to practice the skills for the 12 week period of the intervention. Along
with practice time, parents were asked to reward their athlete when he/she correctly
demonstrated the target behaviors or provide direct instruction when the behaviors were
not performed correctly.

During the four weeks of the classroom, the student investigator met with the
parents for the last ﬁfteen minutes of each session while the participants were playing
soccer. In the meetings they discussed how to teach the skills to the athletes, how to use
the parent activities, and how to complete a Tracking Your Progress form. Parents were
also encouraged to discuss which activities were working well, any ﬁustrations they may
be having, or ask questions about unclear information. During the soccer phase, parents
were contacted bi-weekly by phone to remind them to practice social skills with their

children.

176

Instrumentation.

Attendance. Attendance was taken at every session to ensure that athletes were being
exposed to the instructional material and receiving sufﬁcient time to practice the skills during
the soccer sessions.

Tracking Your Progress Forms. Parents were asked to record the time they spent
practicing social skills with their child. A Tracking Your Progress form for each week
was provided to the parents in the Parent '3 Supplemental Activities Packet. Each week
the parents recorded what activity had been done over the past week, how much time was
spent on the activities, and the outcome of the activities (e. g., the child liked the activity
but struggled to make eye contact). They were also asked to record any modiﬁcations
that they made to the activity. Parents were required to submit their completed forms the
following week. If they did not submit their form, they received a reminder phone call.
The interviewer also asked for any delinquent forms when she went to the participant’s
home for an interview.

The average amount of practice time per week was calculated based on the families’
Tracking Your Progress forms. A mean practice time for 3 of the 5 athletes was also
calculated. Two of the families did not report their time consistently, making it impossible to
calculate their mean practice time per week.

Parent interviews. Parents were interviewed before the program started, at the
completion of classroom phase, at the completion of the soccer phase, and ﬁve weeks after the
intervention was completed. During the interviews, parents were asked to reﬂect on the

usefulness of the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet in teaching social skills to their

177

children. Parents were also asked some questions regarding their overall opinion of the
program and what they perceived their child did and did not like about the program.

All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using the procedures
recommended by Patton (1990). Four researchers independently analyzed the data using
axial coding. Subsequent discussion led to a consensus about the higher order and lower
order themes in the data with consensus deﬁned as agreement amongst at least three of
the four researchers.

Staﬁ” journals. After every session partners, both coaches and the primary investigator
completed a one to two page journal entry that summarized any observations about athletes’
demonstration of social skills during the session The staff discussed the quality of social
interactions with the athletes. Staff also reported observations they made during the program
such as a positive change towards the goal behavior, a decrease in the goal behavior,
ﬁustration demonstrated by the participant when trying to perform a goal behavior, or an
unusual approach at a goal behavior. Lastly, staff members were asked to record other
droughts about the S3 program. The journals were sent to an email account speciﬁcally created
for this project within 48 hours of the session completion.

J oumals were reviewed by the primary investigator within 24 hours of receipt. She
reviewed each journal entry to ensure the integrity of the data-collection process and the
ﬁdelity of the S3 intervention, as well as to address any problems or concerns expressed by the
staff. Comments made by the staff within the journals were also used to corroborate

statements made by the parents in their interviews.

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Results
Was 5" Valued by Parents?

Parental support of child 's participation. The strong attendance rate of the
athletes demonstrates the extent to which parents valued the program. Athletes were
required to attend at least 75% of the classroom sessions and 80% of all sessions in the
program. Jeff was present for 100% of the program, John and Billy were present for 96%
of the program, Jackie was present for 93% of the program, and Tony was present for
89% of the program. Every absence was explained by an illness that also caused the
athlete to be absent from school. If parents did not value the program, it is unlikely that
they would not have brought their children on a regular basis.

Selection of social skills. During interviews all ﬁve parents reported that the
selected social skills, contributing relevant information, making eye contact, and turn
taking, were social skills needed by their children. When asked which other social skills
should be incorporated into future programs, the parents did not provide any suggestions.
It should be noted that parents most likely enrolled their children in S3 because they
believed their child lacked the target social skills. Therefore, the parents’ opinions about
the skills being an appropriate ﬁt for their child may be biased.

Sport context. Parents valued the soccer activities associated with S3 because the
sports experience provided athletes with much needed physical activity and allowed them
to experience a team atmosphere. Jeff’s mother felt that physical activity was an added
bonus to the program. She stated, “the physical activity is really, really good for him,
there were just a lot of pluses to it. . .you know this is interaction that has a structured

component to it and a little bit of unstructured component to it, so I think it’s a win-win”

179

(post-soccer). John’s mother also valued the physical activity. She commented on how
John “needs to be busy, with something that’s physical activity” (post-classroom).
Tony’s mother appreciated that Tony was learning how to be part of a team. She stated,
“I think it was kind of a good ﬁt for him to be on a team and have that kind of, to learn to
be on a team, because he has never been in a structured activity like that before with other
people” (post-soccer).

Integrated setting. Parents felt that including non-disabled partners in the
classroom and soccer activities, ala the Special Olympics Uniﬁed Sports program, was a
valuable contribution to S3. Tony’s mom noted that “he’s always reacted really well to
typical peers, especially older typical peers” (post-soccer). John’s mother observed that,
“. . .the people involved, bringing other people without disabilities ﬁ'om the community, it
was just excellent; I drink the idea is super!” (post-soccer). The integrated setting
provided beneﬁts for everyone involved. The teenaged partners without disabilities
experienced different sporting interactions, became educated about diversity, and
participated in community service which is often required by schools. Special Olympic
athletes had opportunities to interact with a variety of people, observe appropriate social
skills modeled by non-disabled peers, and practiced their social skills with peers who
already had reﬁned their social skills.

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. All ﬁve parents reported they valued the
Parent Supplemental Activities Packet, in part because they learned new ways to teach
social skills to their child. Four of the ﬁve parents reported the material in the packet
provided them guidance on speciﬁcally what they should do to help their child develop.

Amanda discussed how the packet helped her to understand her daughter and how to help

180

her daughter develop her skills. She stated, . .the packet helped me out a lot to
understand more about her, and her needs. . .It is not like they give us an instruction book
to help someone who has special needs” (post-classroom). The packet gave Martha,
Laura, and Sandy some direction on how to teach the skills; “you know just giving us
some clues as to what you know kind of the next step of what we should work on and
ways we can do it” (Laura, post-classroom).

Martha, Amanda, Sandy, and Kathy also discussed how the packet gave them new
ideas of activities for practicing social skills. These mothers appreciated the fact that
there were a variety of activities to choose from, and that the activities were easy to
understand. Sandy discussed how “it does give a lot of ideas, I like it because of that
fact. . .things to do, ways for me and him to interact...” (post-classroom). Martha
commented on how she was sometimes “stumped” and she used the packet to get an idea
of a new approach. Kathy used the packet to give J eff’s other caregivers ideas about how
to incorporate social skills activities into his daily life.

Parents valued the packet so much that they all planned to continue using it after
the completion of the pro gram. When asked why she planned to continue using the
packet, Kathy said “because those are the skills that he needs to continue on, and we’ve
already seen some gain in his skills, it’d be silly not to do that” (post-classroom). Even
though Sandy was not consistently using the packet during the S3 program, she said she
planned to use it after the program was complete. When Sandy was asked why she
planned to use the packet she responded, “it gives me ideas... it will help him out” (post-

soccer).

181

Both Martha and Laura questioned whether the Parent Supplemental Activities
Packet was actually helping their sons learn, but they still planned on continued use after
the completion of the program. When Martha was asked for an explanation she said,

“Because they are great activities. . .the list of engaging others to

communicate with John, in particular the one where everybody in the

family gets a word and puts it on them, then you gotta ﬁgure out what

word is on you by questions asked, that's just a great activity. And we're

trying to pick a family night where we're actually doing an activity that

will get John talking about other things things that we would like him

to talk about” (post-soccer).

Did Athletes Enjoy S3 ?

Although the athletes were not interviewed, parents were asked about their child’s
enjoyment of the program. The following information is based on parent reports and staff
observations.

Classroom and soccer components of program. All parents reported that their children
really enjoyed and looked forward to attending the program. Martha reported that, “John is
enthused to go, he looks forward to it. It isn’t anything he needs to be reminded of. He would
get himself there if he could. Like if it was in the community he would walk to it. He would
be willing to get there” (post-soccer). She also stated, “he looks forward to doing it, he’s
proud of being in it, he has said these things to me” (post-soccer). Tony’s mother talked about
how happy and excited Tony becomes when he is told he has soccer. She also stated, ‘When
he goes to school on Monday mornings and Wednesday momings, he tells them that he’s got

soccer ... he’s just been a lot more happy and positive since being involved” (post-soccer).

182

Kathy reported that Jeff enjoyed S3 so much that “its gonna be really tough for him not to have
that when it comes to an end. I think ...there’s gonna be a period of mourning because he
really, really, likes it a lot” (post-classroom). Jackie’s mother expressed that “she loves it! It
could go year round and she’d be there!” (post-soccer). Billy’s mother noted “everyday he
comes home he asks if he’s going to soccer, he just loves going!” (post-soccer).

According to parents, athletes looked forward to the social interactions that
occurred during the program. Billy’s mom reported that at home he often spoke about
John and the male coach. Amanda felt that one of the reasons that Jackie enjoyed the
program so much was because “she’s made new friends that accept her for who she is”
(post-classroom). Amanda also talked about how Jackie really liked the time that was set
aside at the beginning of each session to share with the team something that happened
during the day. While Jeff did not talk to his mother about anyone in particular, his mom
reported that he liked “being with everyone” (post-soccer). J eff” s enthusiasm to interact
with everyone was also observed during the program. Before the start of soccer, the
observers noted that Jeff made an effort to individually say “hello” to every person on the
team when he ﬁrst arrived at practice. The observers also noted that John, Billy, and Jeff
inqulred about missing teammates and/or partners. Lastly, the researcher and coaches
noted in their journals that John, Billy, and Jackie almost always brought an item that
they were eager to show to the group during snack time.

Parent Supplemental Activities Packet. While athletes enjoyed the soccer
activities, they did not always enjoy practicing the social skills at home. Some of the
athletes did not want to practice the social skills with their parents. Sandy had an

exceptionally hard time getting her son to interact with her. Sandy said that . .trying to

183

get him to interact with me is like butting up against a wall. . .he’ll sit in the living room
with me and watch TV and I’ll ask him questions about the show. And 75% of the time
he’ll just ignore me...” (post-classroom). Other parents expressed similar problems
during the parent meetings held during the ﬁrst four weeks of S3. Amanda and Martha
both reported that their child did not want to do the activities with them. However, all of
the parents found that their child would do the activity with someone else. Sandy
revealed that, “I’ve got the older two girls [Billy’s nieces] kinda working with him a little
bit. I told them, I said we’ll look through the book and see if there’s something in there
you wanna do with him” (post-classroom). Laura also found that her son was more apt to
participate as time progressed, stating that, “he seems to be more willing to engage in
activities...it [the game] took a little prompting to get him to do it, but he enjoyed it once
we started...” (post-classroom).

Martha and Sandy reported that their children did not seem to like doing the
activities in the packet. For Billy in particular, a lot of the disinterest stemmed from not
wanting to interact with his mother. When Sandy was asked what Billy disliked about
the packet she stated, “just that he has to spend one-on-one time with me doing it” (post-
classroom). However, she went on to say that “He don’t like doing it. To him it’s like
homework I think. He’s just, ‘no"’ (post-classroom). Martha stated that “he [John]
doesn’t seem interested with it. He’s not interested in the written stuff, he’s interested in
the activity of soccer” (post-soccer). Martha suggested that if John was more involved
with the actual packet, he might become more interested. She stated, “I think if it was in
a pictionary form, something that he could actually contribute to, he might do that. Like

even if it was stickers, or Velcro, or something that he could do” (post—classroom).

184

Kathy also suggested incorporating some more visual aids, particularly for participants
who are more visual learners.
Were the S“ Home Activities Practical to Implement?

Because parents were responsible for practicing social skills with their
child at home and in the community, it was important to look at the home
activities separate from the classroom and soccer components of the S3 program.

User-friendliness of packet. All of the parents reported that the packet was clearly
written and easy to understand. John’s mom mentioned that “in the beginning I have a
little trouble understanding what was expected of me. . .” (post-soccer). However, “ as I
glanced over it and read a few parts to John, and told him this is what we were doing and
that went with it, it made sense” (post-classroom). Sandy offered a similar opinion,
stating that, “it’s a really good packet, you guys really did a good job with that, putting
that together’ ’ (post-soccer). When other parents were asked if the packet was unclear,
they gave brief answers such as “nope” (Amanda, post-classroom) or “I don’t believe so,
no” (Laura, post-classroom). Martha did provide a suggestion to further improve the
parent’s understanding of the packet. She suggested “making it a check-off, a few
checklists that would be easier for parents to actually do... because in the beginning it
was hard for me to understand this is what’s expected , if I do this, they’ll get the
information that they need” (post-soccer).

Incorporate into activities of daily living? Four of the ﬁve families integrated the
practice of social skills into family activities of daily living as requested. These four
families not only integrated the activities into their daily lives, but also reported that they

preferred practicing the skills in this manner. As Martha said, “we did practice having

185

conversations, in our normal conversations say at dinner or any place that we are
going...” (post-soccer). Laura reported that “we’ve incorporated some of the activities
into kind of our daily things, or when we’re doing unstructured activities, we tried to
incorporate some of it. . .” (post-soccer). Kathy incorporated the activities into her daily
life out of necessity, stating that “. . .I don’t get a lot of time to do structured time lately
over the last three weeks. Most of it has been on the ﬂy, like if we’re in the grocery store
or driving to go somewhere, or if it just kind of incidentally, so it’s been more
unstructured that we’ve kind of used those things ...” (post-soccer).

While parents were encouraged to use the activities in the community as well as at
home, some of the families reported that they did not have many opportunities for
community practice. When Sandy was asked if she noticed a change in Billy’s behavior
while out in the community she stated, “not really, we haven’t really been that many
places” (post-soccer). In her post-soccer interview, Amanda talked about how Jackie was
showing great progress when it came to taking turns with people in the community.
However, in the post-classroom interview she stated, “. . .we don’t socialize much in the
community except for school and home” (post-classroom). She reiterated this point
during the interview that occurred ﬁve weeks after the completion of the program. While
John had a lot of opportunity to interact with people in the community, Martha said she
was not with John on those occasions. Therefore she was not able to receive feedback
from other people to determine if his skills were developing. She also wasn’t in a position
to correct John if he was doing the skill incorrectly, or provide him with positive

reinforcement for doing the skill correctly.

186

Amount of time devoted to the practice of social skills. Parents were asked to practice
social skills with their children for 60 minutes each week for the duration of the S3 program.
Only three parents provided usable data about nrinutes of practice, and those parents
implemented the parent packet activities for an average of 128.56 nrinutes per week,
approximately double the requested time. It is unclear if the other two families completed the
amount of requested practice time. They did not return their data sheets consistently (Martha
and Sandy each returned only 4 Tracking Your Progress Forms), so their practice time could
not be calculated. During the ﬁrst two weeks of the program, Sandy reported practicing social
skills with Nicky for 105 minutes and 65 minutes respectively, but on weeks three and four
she reported only 20 and 45 minutes respectively. Sandy also reported in her interviews that
she was having difﬁculties remembering to practice the activities. “I am a creature of habit;
I’m not used to doing it. I always look at it and think man I gotta do that, but it doesn’t go any
ﬁrrther” (post-soccer). Martha’s four Tracking Your Progress forms (for non-consecutive
weeks) showed 5 minutes, 40 minutes, 8 minutes, and 15 rrrinutes of practice time. However,
in her interviews, Martha reported that she was practicing the skills with John at home. She
stated, “I can honestly say I’ve used it [the packet] weekly. . .once weekly... I try to do one
[speciﬁc task out of the binder] a week is what I try to do, and focus on that one...” (post-
soccer). In this statement, she reports that while she is doing the activities she is not practicing
the skill at the requested frequency.

While three of the parents exceeded the amount of practice time required, they
nonetheless reported difﬁculties incorporating the practice time into their lives. All ﬁve
parents said numerous times during the interviews that the time commitment was a

struggle for them, especially during the last few weeks of the program at the end of the

187

school year. Amanda said, “it is just ﬁtting it in time wise with all that’s been going on”
(post-soccer). Kathy stated, “there’s nothing wrong at all with the parent packet, it’s just
unfortunate for me that I’ve hit a stretch that’s been extremely busy. . .my schedule has
just been nuts, so it’s kinda hard to have structured time” (post-soccer).

Recording practice times. Even when families found time to do the social skills
practice with their children, they sometimes neglected to record the practice time using
the Tracking Your Progress Form. Kathy mentioned that she had a hard time tracking all
of the practice time and recording the speciﬁc activities because so much of it was done
“kind of on the ﬂy, maybe not for the set length of time, but there’s a lot of things that
you do incidentally throughout your day” (post-classroom). Martha and Laura
corroborated Kathy’s observation, stating that they did a lot of practice that was not a
speciﬁc activity but was just incorporated into their daily lifestyle, making it hard to
record practice time.

In general, all of the families struggled with the Tracking Your Progress Form.
Typical difﬁculties included struggling to keep the data sheets up -to-date and forgetting to
submit the information. Martha and Sandy both talked about forgetting to complete and retum
the forms. Martha tried to improve her ability to record the practice time by picking one
activity to do all week. She indicated, “So that’s why I picked one activity and tried to do it a
couple of times- to get practice with it for one thing, and to be able to record that we did that
practice. . .but it still didn’t help me. . . getting the data back to Lissa [investigator]” (post-
soccer). Amanda and Laura reported that they struggled to ﬁnd the time to complete the
sheets. Laura talked about how “it’s kinda been a struggle for us with keeping up on doing the

log...” (post-soccer). Amanda explained that “I don’t have time to ﬁll it out. . .1 usually write

188

down and try to keep track of everything on notes then I write down everything at the end of
the week. . .” (post-classroom).

It is important to note the Tracking Your Progress Form was used to conﬁrm that
parents were completing the home practice in order to determine program ﬁdelity.
However, two parents reported that recording the practice time helped to ensure that
athletes were receiving social skills instruction. For Kathy and Laura the packet helped to
remind them to work on the social skills with their sons. Laura liked how she was forced
to track the activities that she was doing with her son because she was able to see
progress and determine how much time they were really spending on the skill
development. She felt it helped her to remember to practice the skills, “. .. for us it kind
of puts a focus on what we needed to work on with him, you know just to make him
initiate a little bit more and interact more” (post-soccer). Kathy felt the packet made her
focus on setting time aside to practice the skills, claiming that “the activities have been
good for kind of keeping you on top of working on speciﬁc things, maybe a little more
frequently than you know what you do day to day. . .because you set aside a more speciﬁc
time to work on a skill” (post-classroom).

Discussion
Parents valued the 83 program, selected social skills, home activities, and involvement of
partners who do not have disabilities. Based upon the information provided by parents, it
can be concluded that athletes enjoyed participating in the classroom and soccer
components of the program, and also enjoyed social interactions with the non-disabled

partners and program staff. Lastly, it was practical to incorporate social skills practice in

189

home and community environments, though the some athletes did not appreciate their
parents as teachers and did not always enjoy the activities.

The fact that the athletes enjoyed the sports and social activities provided in the
soccer environment support the ﬁndings of Farrell, Crocker, McDonough, and Sedgwick,
(2004) and Shapiro (2003) that people with intellectual disabilities value the social
interactions that occur within the Special Olympics setting. It is interesting to note that
Jeff valued social interactions with teammates given his autism diagnosis. J eff’s
behaviors support the possibility that people with autism spectrum disorder are interested
in social interactions despite their seemingly standofﬁsh behaviors (Bacon, Fein, Morris,
Waterhouse, & Allen, 1998; Sigrnan & Ruskin, 1999). However, this conclusion should
be made cautiously as only one participant in this study had autism.

Families that presented social skills practice as homework or something that was
mandatory appeared to encounter more resistance from athletes than those families that
presented the material as a ﬁm game or incorporated it into their daily routine.
Practitioners should encourage parents to make the activities ﬁrn, and to incorporate the
activities into daily routines without making a point that they are practicing social skills.
Not only will this encourage participation, but it will also foster natural practice that is
needed for generalization of the skill.

Parents may need to incorporate other people into home social skills practice
when their child does not enjoy interacting with his or her parents. While many
practioners have suggested that teaching social skills in the home can lead to skill
development, maintenance, and generalization (Baker, 1989; Graziano & Diarnent, 1992;

Hager & Vaughn, 1995; Schaefer & Briesmeister, 1989, Sugai & Lewis, 1996), practice

190

at home may not be feasible for all families. Due to the age of the athletes in this study, it
is not surprising parents struggled to elicit social interactions with their children
(Czikszentmihalyi, & Larson, 1984). Therefore, other alternatives, such as social skills
practice with siblings, extended family members, and community members should be
suggested to families. Another way to increase the athletes’ enjoyment is to encourage
them to record their own progress and practice time. A simple chart with a sticker book
could be provided to the athletes for each week. Providing social skills activities book
for athletes is another possible way of encouraging them to become more involved in
their own learning. The activities book needs to be presented in a fun manner and cannot
be perceived by the athlete as homework. If it is presented as homework, participants
may resist participation.

Parents in this study valued instruction and ideas about how to teach their
children. Parents stated that the packet provided needed information to understand and
communicate with their children. Even though parents have been interacting with their
children for many years, they may not be aware of the most effective pedagogical
strategies. As researchers and practitioners, we cannot assume parents know how to
teach and interact with their children. Therefore, as has been previously suggested by
Budd (1985), information about disability-speciﬁc teaching strategies must be provided
to parents when they are asked to teach their children at home.

While all parents reported that they valued the home activities, only three of the
ﬁve parents used the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet on a regular basis, suggesting
that parent values are not a sufﬁcient condition to motivate efforts to teach new skills to

their children. Intervening variables such as family dynamics could negatively affect

191

parent behaviors in this regard. For example, Martha and Sandy are both single mothers
who did not have other caregivers for their sons. While both mothers reported their
occupation as “caregivers”, they have large time commitments taking care of extended
family members and do not have an extensive social network to assist with their child’s
skill development. Martha has another son with multiple disabilities who needs extensive
care. She also provides care for her mother and grandchildren. Sandy takes care of her
grandchildren as well as other children in the community. The time commitments
required to care for other individuals puts a strain on the time available for these mothers
to interact with their own sons. While Kathy is also a single-mother, she has numerous
people who assist with J eff’s care, including Jeff’s grandmother and father, a hired aide,
and a speech therapist. When there was more than one person to help with the practice of
social skills, families were able to accomplish the recommended practice time. However,
when the support was not there, families struggled to complete the activities. Practioners
should therefore consider family dynamics when asking parents to practice social skills at
home.

Even though the purpose of the Tracking Your Progress Form was to determine
the ﬁdelity of practice at home, it may also serve an important role for parent motivation
and goal attainment. Parents reported that the form reminded them to practice the skills
and provided them feedback on their time commitment. By setting goals and tracking
their progress parents reported that their motivation and time commitment to the practice
increased. This ﬁnding is not surprising given the literature regarding the positive effects
of goal setting (Vealey, 2005). Therefore, future home programs should contain a

method for parents to record their progress. However, further research is needed to

192

determine the most convenient way for parents to record the information as the parents in
this study found the system difﬁcult and time consuming.

In an ideal world, researchers could obtain accurate measures of the quality of
parent interactions with their children, as well as the actual amount of practice time. In
this study, there was no way to verify if parents were accurately reporting practice time; it
was assumed that families were honest in their reports. However, it is possible that
parents could have over-reported time for reasons of social desirability or perhaps under-
estimated practice time due to the possible spontaneous nature of practice. Quality of
practice time cannot be judged due to the fact that parents were asked only to report
amount of time spent practicing the social skills. Additional data about the extent to
which parents provided speciﬁc feedback about social skills attempts and praise for
correctly performed skills would have been helpful. Similarly, it would be useful to know
whether parents provided a good example of social skills for their children to emulate.

In summary, implementing a social skills program into a sports setting and
practicing the skills at home is practical. Athletes enjoyed the social skills program and
parents valued the information that both their child and they received.

Along with these recommendations, future studies should consider gathering the
participant’s perspectives about their parents serving as teachers. The data reported on
the Tracking Your Progress Form and in the interviews are hearsay from the parents.
Further research is also needed to determine the perspectives of different populations.
The families that participated in this study came from a lower level of social economic
status and the parents had limited levels of education. Three of the ﬁve families were

also single mothers. Having only one parent to provide social instruction and social

193

interaction can be very different then the dynamics of a two parent home. The lack of

education and ﬁnancial means may have also created a unique perspective.

194

Table 18
Description oiAthletes and Parents in .5"

 

 

Athlete Athlete Athletes’ Parent Parent Parent S
. . . Education
Name Age Disability Name Age
Level
Tony 14 Down syndrome Laura 38 Completed high
school
Jackie 16 Emotional impairment Amanda 44 Completed high
and learning disability school
Jeff 15 Autism and intellectual Kathy 47 Associates
disability degree
Billy 18 Down syndrome Sandy 50 Did not
complete high
school
John 24 Down syndrome and Martha 50 Associates
ADHD degree

 

195

Table 19

Total Number of Minutes Reported Each Week on the Tracking Your Progress Form

 

 

Number of Minutes Reported Average
on Tracking Your Progress Form # of
Minutes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11‘

Amanda 150 165 165 90 120 120 120 120 120 120 NR 129.0
Laura 85 NR 85 180 120 90 120 180 105 NR NR 120.6
Kathy 150 NR 170 85 60 185 150 155 145 125 25 136.1
Sandy l 05 65 20 45 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ---
Martha 5 40 8 NR NR NR 15 NR NR NR NR ---

 

Note. NR= no report submitted
I'Week 11 only included Monday and Tuesday and was therefore not calculated in the average number of

minutes per week

196

 

Social Skills Instruction by
Program Personnel

 

Classroom Phase

Taught social skills in classroom and
practiced skilled with structured
activities
0 Incorporated direct instruction,
modeling, and process training
0 45 min x 2 days/wk x 4 wks

Practiced newly learned skills while
participating in soccer activities
0 Instruction of target social
skills infused in soccer drills
0 Opportunities provided to
engage in spontaneous social
interactions
0 45 min x 2 days/wk x 4 wks

  

 

 

Soccer Phase
Review and discussion of targeted
social skills
0 Athletes receive feedback on
target skill performance and
review skills
0 16 min x 2 days/wk x 8 wks

Soccer instruction with social skill
practice
0 Select drills incorporated to
practice social skills while
performing soccer activities
0 Opportunities provided to
engage in spontaneous social
interactions
0 75 min x 2 days/wk x 8 wks

 

 

Social Skills Instruction by
Parents

 

 

Parental Practice
Parents the targeted social skills
with their child

0 Same target skills

0 Incorporated practice into
activities of daily living

0 Parents also gave positive
reinforcement and
redirection of target skills

0 For at least 15 min x 4
days/wk x 12 wks

 

 

I1

 

 

Figure 9. Components of the S3 program

197

 

CHAPTER 5
PERSONAL REFLECTION

My personal goal for this project was to create an intervention that Special
Olympics coaches could incorporate into their current programs to develop their athlete’s
social skills. While there is an extensive amount of further research that needs to be done
before this program can be distributed to coaches, this particular study has provided
evidence to suggest that my dream will eventually become a reality.

After reading the book Disability is Natural (Snow, 2001) and speaking with
parents who have children with disabilities, it became very clear to me that parents do not
always value interventions that have been developed to help their children. It is not that
parents did not want their children to improve the basic skills that are needed for
everyday life; parents simply had a problem with the format of the interventions. Many
of the current interventions require children to attend a program two or more times a
week and participate in activities that resemble school work. Parents were concerned that
their children are never provided any time to really be kids and enjoy themselves.
Between physical therapy, speech therapy, and other such programs, children with
disabilities have little time to play. During the therapeutic activities, children are often
doing activities they dislike and are not interacting with many people their own age.
Instead of playing with peers and people in the community, children are often interacting
one-on-one with an adult. Having had personal experience with this situation, I
understand the ﬁustration and concern parents are expressing.

To me, teaching social skills within a sports setting seemed like a logical solution
to the problem. Children can participate in activities that they enjoy while still

developing their needed social skills. They can interact with peers of their own age and

198

experience an after-school program that is fun and motivating. In order to create an
atmosphere that is similar to a real life situation, the program can incorporate people with
and without disabilities and can be open to people with a variety of developmental
disabilities. As Special Olympics currently provides support to the population on which I
want to focus, it made sense to create an intervention that can be incorporated into their
program.

Having completed this research study, I have found that an intervention similar to
S3 is plausible and can increase people’s social skills. I believe my goal to create a ﬁrn
environment was also achieved. Participants did not feel as though they were being
dragged to another school or therapy based activity. Instead, they looked forward to
conring to the program. And yet most of the participants were still able to develop their
social skills.
Conclusions about Study

From this experience, I have developed new knowledge that will inﬂuence my
ﬁrture research. While the facility that I chose provided many beneﬁts, transportation to
the program was an issue. I purposely selected one of the nicest soccer facilities in the
area. I chose it because I wanted to show the participants that I was serious about their
soccer skill development, valued them as people, and believed they deserved a nice
facility in which to practice. Past studies such as Castenado and Shenill (1999) have
suggested that participants and their families value a program when it occurs on a
respectable facility. While parents appreciated the facility, transportation was a problem.
The facility is on the outskirts of town. Because of the location, the local public

transportation system did not service the facility. Being in an area that is going through a

199

ﬁnancially difﬁcult time, I was limited in who could participate in the program. I quickly
discovered that although families were interested in participating, some did not have a car
to transport their child to the program. Other families that lived in a more afﬂuent area
were farther away and could not get out of work in time to get their child to the program.
In ﬁrture studies, when I am choosing a venue, I plan to consider all variables including
public transportation to the venue, quality of the venue, and general location of the venue.
As with many studies that include people with disabilities, I had a very difﬁcult
time recruiting participants. I initially proposed that I would include eight participants in
this study. However even after I saturated the community with advertisements, I was
only able to recruit ﬁve people. Part of the recruiting issue was due to transportation. I
believe another issue was the time commitment required by the families. I do not believe
this program will be successﬁrl unless it occurs two times a week for an extended period
of time. However, if the program was incorporated into a Special Olympics program that
occurred at the school, I think families wouldn’t be as concerned with the time
commitment because they wouldn’t have to worry about transportation. If the program
was at the school, parents wouldn’t have to worry about taking time to drive their child to
the program or waiting around until it was time to go home. Parents would simply have
to pick their child up at the end of each session. It may even be possible for the school
transportation system to take the participants home. Obviously, having the program at
the school would not only decrease concerns about time commitment but would also
decrease transportation issues. Lastly, I believe parents would be more trusting of a

program that is associated with a school. While I am qualiﬁed to run a Special Olympics

200

soccer program, it has been my experience that parents are often very tentative about
having their children work with a stranger.

Another reason I struggled to recruit participants was because I knew many of the
people who tried to enroll in the program. People who had worked with me in previous
programs were not eligible to participate in S3 . Having worked with three disability
programs in the community, the number of people eligible to enroll was signiﬁcantly
decreased. While it was humbling to realize how many people I have interacted with
during my time at Michigan State, it was also frustrating to not be able to meet my
proposed sample size. In hindsight, I do not believe knowing the participants would have
affected the research study. Coaches and partners had signiﬁcantly more interactions
with the participants than I did. Because of the limited interaction time I had with the
participants, it is unlikely my previous knowledge of individuals would have affect their
learning. I also made it a point to get to know all of the participants as individuals. I was
familiar with the participants’ family dynamics, interests, and hobbies by the third week
of the program. During the time that I was getting to know the participants, we were not
providing any instruction. Therefore, even if I had known a participant at the start of the
program, all participants would have been treated equally by the time I was teaching the
social skills cuniculum.

It is important to note that the people who participated in my study do not
necessarily represent the norm. Their parents had lower levels of education, were single
mothers or recently remarried, had limited ﬁnancial resources, and had not received any
education on how to help their child Ieam new skills. If I had known the parents’ level of

education and marital status before creating the Parent Supplemental Activities Packet, I

201

may have devised it a little differently. Even though I wrote the packet at a 5th grade
reading level, some of the terms I used may have been foreign to parents who had never
learned about their child’s disability. I strongly believe that no one knows children better
than their parents. However, with this speciﬁc group of parents, it may have been helpful
to include some basic information about how people with ID typically learn. I would
have also included information about different learning styles. Lastly, I probably should
have also included more activities that could be done with a single parent.

Future Research Studies

Based on the ﬁndings of this study there are a variety of future studies that I want to

pursue.

1. Further research is needed to examine the Alexander conceptual model. This
current study examines the model as whole and does not provide empirical
evidence for the different components of the model.

2. I would also like to determine the effectiveness of the Parent Supplemental
Activities Packet. This research study looked at the 83 package as a whole.
Further studies are needed to determine if participants learned because of the
classroom and soccer material alone, the Parent Supplemental Activities packet
alone, or the combination of the classroom, soccer, and Parent Supplemental
Activities Packet.

3. Testing the effectiveness of S3 in other sport settings is also necessary. While
soccer was an effective sport to teach the material, other team sports such as
basketball, and ﬂoor hockey should be tried. A Special Olympics gymnastics

program may also be appropriate.

202

4. Further research is needed to test the effectiveness of the program when teaching
people with limited verbal abilities, physical and cognitive disabilities, and people
with more severe disabilities.

5. The effectiveness of the program in a truly inclusive enviromnent may also be
considered. While there were partners included in S3, it was not a truly inclusive
program.

6. If the program is to be distributed to coaches, materials need to be created that
would inform the coaches how to present S3. Special Olympics’ coaches come
from a variety of different backgrounds. While some of the coaches have a
background in special education, other coaches are volunteers who do not have
knowledge regarding disability and pedagogical principles. Therefore the
material created would have to address a diverse population. Research would be

needed to determine that the coaching material is effective for all coaches.

203

APPENDIX A:
SAMPLE CLASSROOM LESSON PLANS

204

Contributing Relevant Information
Finding Similar Interests

Goal of Sessiom

For athletes to become more in tuned to the people they are addressing and what the
people’s interests are. To develop skills to make a meaningful connection with the
person.

Discussion Points (15 min):

0 Sometimes it can be hard to start a conversation with someone you don’t know
because you don’t know what they like to talk about.

0 People can give us lots of hints about what they like. Sometimes there is a picture
on their shirt that tells us what they are interested in. For example, if someone is
wearing a MSU basketball shirt we can guess they like the MSU basketball team.
We can also ﬁgure it out based on things that they are carrying, doing, or even
talking about.

Activities to Practice in Session (30 min):

0 Modeling example: Have the instructor and the assistant instructor model how to
observe someone and ask questions.

a “What is she interested in? ” Have a person come in with something to start a
conversation off of (a basketball, a cd player, etc.)

o “I Spy person has lots of things on/with them. Go around in a group and have
them point out something different (“I spy an MP3 player”) and then have them
ask a relevant question (“What do you like to listen to?”).

0 Freeze Tag: Participants pick 2-3 items out of a box of random items.
Participants then play freeze tag with each other (limit it to fast walk for safety).
When one participant tags the other, he/she can only become unfrozen when
he/she asks a relevant question based on the item.

Parent Activities:

0 Model how you can observe someone in your family and ask a question. Make
sure that you point out what exactly you are doing. (For example: Point out to
your child how you can observe what dad is eating and then ask a question. Then
demonstrate it. “Dad, I noticed you are having a snack. Are apples your favorite
fruit?”)

0 Ask your child if they met anyone in the program. What did they like to do or
what was interesting about them?

0 Playing “I spy” when driving in the car or walking around a store. Point out an
object that you see and then talk about it or ask a question about it. For example,
“I see a dog over there. I like dogs. Do you think that dog likes to play with a
ball like our dog Sally?

When sitting at the table for a meal, talk with your child and remind them to contribute
relevant information. You can focus on likes/dislikes of people to help understand the
concept. For example, “what is your favorite food? “Katie really likes apple pie.”

205

APPENDIX B:
SAMPLE SOCCER LESSON PLAN

206

Sample Soccer Lesson Plans

Session 1 1

Warm up and stretch (5 min)

Pass in circle and move — follow pass (5 min). Have participants talk to each other while
passing the ball.

Talk about goalies (2 min)

Work on catching — in air and stationary (5 min). Have participants pair up. While
practicing catching, talk about suggested topic. Partners would not throw the ball until
the participant makes eye contact.

Goalie throwing (5 min)

Water Break (3 min)

Punting into goal (5 min)

Shooting drill with goalie (10 min)

Cool down (5 min)

207

APPENDIX C:
SAMPLE OF PARENT PACKET

208

Home Activities

The following lists of activities are suggestions for ways you can practice the social skills at
home. The activities have been divided by the skills that they focus on. However, many of
the activities will help develop all three of the social skills at the same time.

In the beginning, you want to make sure you do the activities that are lined up with the
classroom sessions. Otherwise you will be discussing a skill that we have not yet reviewed.
For example, if it is only February 17th, you should not be doing an activity from the eye
contact page. I have put dates at the top of the activities pages to tell you when you can
start using the activities. Once we have introduced all of the topics in the classroom, you

can work on all three skills.

How Does this Work?

Helpful Hints

Look through the different activities I have listed. Keep in mind they
are not etched in stone. You may need to modify them a little bit to
meet your family’s needs.

Pick the activities that work best for your family and that you think
your child would enjoy doing. Doing an activity that is not enjoyed
by your child makes practice painful for you as well as your child.
The goal of the program is to practice the skills in a fun way, so you
want to ﬁnd the ones your child enjoys.

Introduce the game to your child and practice the skill. Some of the
activities he / she will love and you can repeat them. Others you may
decide aren’t for you and your family. Some activities may take two

or three tries before your child understands them or enjoys them.

Each time you do an activity record it on the sheet provided at the
end of this book. Remember you should be practicing at least 4
times a week Your practice time may be 15 minutes or a half an
hour each time. If your child has a hard time focusing and does
better with short intervals, it may be better to practice for 8 short
periods (7 minutes) instead of 4 longer periods (15 minutes). You
know your child best, so do whichever you think is more appropriate
for your child.

0 As you know praise can make a world of difference! Make sure you provide
your child with praise when he/ she demonstrates the skills correctly, even if

it isn’t when you are doing an activity.

0 Encourage everyone in your child’s life to get involved. Siblings, care givers,
and extended family can all contribute.

209

0 Remember to do activities from all three skills. If your child struggles in one
area more than another, you will probably want to practice that skill more
than others. However, you should still practice all three.

0 Demonstrations are one of the best ways to teach skills! Make sure you
demonstrate the skills correctly. Your child may not realize you are
demonstrating the skill or may not know what to focus on, so make sure you
point out what you are doing correctly. For example, “when I talk to your
dad I try to look at him so he knows I am listening.”

0 Remind your child to apply the skills from the program while out in the
community. For example, if you are going to a restaurant, remind your child
to look at the waiter when ordering food. You may want to agree on a
system that allows you to give your child feedback discreetly while in the
community. For example, if he/ she does the skill correctly, you will give
them a small thumbs-up.

Sample Activigy for Contributing Relevant Information

Create a 5 1'19; 3109. Pick a topic for your story. You contribute a sentence then let your child
contribute a sentence. If there are other people with you they can jump in. Keep going
around till you have made a silly story. You can do it in the car, while doing dishes, etc.
Another way to make it fun is to record it and then play it back. If your child likes to draw,
write it down and then he / she can draw illustrations.

Sample Activigy for Eye Qontagt

Pump: Pam: When your child isn’t looking, make a funny or sad face. Then remind them to
look up. When he / she see you, remind them it is important to watch you so you don’t feel
sad.

Sample Activigy for Turn Taking

Karaoke. When listening to music, you can take turns being different people in the song.
You can also take turns singing different verses. You can make it even more fun by dancing
around to the music. To help emphasize the turn taking you can also use a pretend
microphone (use a brush, large spoon, etc.).

210

APPENDIX D:
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE

211

Demographic Proﬁle

Participant Information

Name

 

Names of Parents/Caregivers

Gender: [ ] Male

[ ] Female Age

 

 

 

 

Address City/State/Zip
Email Address Daytime Phone
Evening Phone Cell phone

 

 

 

Disability Information. Check every disability that applies to your child. For each disability

you check, indicate whether the condition is mild, moderate, or severe in your opinion.

Intellectual disability

[

such as mental retardation or Down syndrome

Severe learning disability
Autism spectrum disorder
Behavior disorder
Physical disability

F—If—IF-‘IH

such as cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy

Health condition
Vision loss
Hearing loss
Seizure disorder
Other:

Describe:

afar-“Hm

] Mild

] Mild
1 Mild
] Mild
1 Mild

1 Mild
] Mild
] Mild
] Mild
] Mild

I

HHHH

HHHHH

] Moderate

] Moderate
] Moderate
] Moderate
] Moderate

] Moderate
] Moderate
] Moderate
] Moderate
] Moderate

[

HF-IHl—I

l—IHHHf—‘I

] Severe

] Severe
] Severe
] Severe

] Severe

] Severe
] Severe
] Severe
] Severe

] Severe

 

 

Physical Activity and Sports. During the last 6 months has your child participated in physical

activities or sports? (check all that apply)

Activity/sport

School physical education

 

Activity/sport

 

Activity/sport

 

Activity/sport

 

Activity/ sport

 

Where?
Where?
Where?
Where?
Where?

212

Community physical activity or sports program (if yes, please describe brieﬂy)

 

 

 

 

 

_ Play at home or in the neighborhood (if yes, please describe brieﬂy)

 

 

__ Other (please explain)

 

Extra Curricular Activities During the last 6 months has your child participated in any

organizations or clubs? (check all that apply)
_ School club or similar aﬁer-school activity
Religious organization
Boy scouts, girl scouts, or similar organization
Drama club

_ Other (Please Describe)

 

Social Skills Background

a) Has your child ever received instruction in social skills such as a class
that [ ] Yes
taught them how to start a conversation?

b) If yes, please answer the following questions.

How long was the program?

I ]N0

Days

 

Who sponsored the program?

 

How old was your child when she or he participated?

Years

 

What did children do in this program?

Coaching Tips

Please provide us with any tips that we can use to make this an enjoyable experience for your
adolescent. For example, what is a good way to give positive reinforcement (high ﬁves, verbal

praise, etc.)?

What is your adolescent interested in?

What motivates your adolescent?

213

Is there anything we should avoid doing?

Parent/Primary Caregiver Information

Name Gender:[ ]Male [ ]Female Age

 

Relationship to participant:

 

a) What is the highest level of education you have obtained?
_ Did not complete high school _ Bachelors Degree
_ Completed high school _ Masters or PhD
__ Associates degree

b) What is your current occupation?

 

c) Have you ever been trained to teach social skills to your child? (please circle one)
YES NO

If Yes, please explain:

 

214

APPENDIX E:
SPECIAL OLYMPICS FORMS

2l5

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216

SPECIAL OLYMPICS MICHIGAN - AREA 8
ATHLETE MEDICAL UPDATE INFORMATION

PLEASE PRINT ALL INFORMATION
DATE

 

ATHLETE NAME

 

ATHLETE BIRTHDATE HOME PHONE #

 

PHYSICIAN NAME AND PHONE #

 

INSURANCE COMPANY NAME AND POLICY #

 

In case of an emergency Area 8 can contact and/or release this
athlete to the people listed below. Please list In the order you
would like contact to be made.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 NAME PHONE# RELATIONSHIP
2 NAME PHONE #

RELATIONSHIP

3 NAME PHONE # RELATIONSHIP

 

 

 

LIST ALL MEDICATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN PRESCRIBED FOR

 

THIS ATHLETE
USE ADDITIONAL PAGE IF NEEDED
MEDICATION wm,
NAME & (# oiiiiiﬁm TIME TIME TIME moo
STRENGTH Y ’ N

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

217

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* CAN THIS ATHLETE RECEIVE TYLENOL, MOTRIN, ASPIRIN

OR IBUPROPHIN?
YES NO PLEASE CIRCLE WHICH YOU

PREFER.

* LIST ANY MEDICATIONS THAT SHOULD BE TAKEN WITH
MEALS

* LIST ANY ALLERGIES TO MEDICATIONS, BEE STINGS,
FOOD, ETC

* PLEASE LIST ANY ADDITIONAL INFORMATION THAT YOU
FEEL WOULD BE HELPFUL, USE A ADDITIONAL PAGE IF
NEEDED

218

 

APPENDIX: F:
PARENT INTERVIEWS

219

PARENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Interview 1- Baseline '

1. How would you describe (insert participant 's name) social skills
in general?

 

2. Do you think (insert participant '3 name) demonstrates appropriate social
skills at home.
a) If no, what is inappropriate or lacking?
b) If yes, are there any social skills they are lacking at home?

3. Do you think (insert participant 's name) demonstrates appropriate
social skills in the community?
a) If no, what is inappropriate or lacking?
b) If yes, are there any social skills they are lacking in the community?

4. Do you think (insert participant ’s name) demonstrates appropriate
social skills with strangers?
a) If no, what is inappropriate or lacking?
b) If yes, are there any social skills they are lacking when interacting with
strangers

Interview 2: Post-Classroom
1. Since (insert participant ’s name) started the program, have you
noticed a changes or been told of any changes in (insert
participant '3 name) social skills
a) At home? If yes, what?
b) At school? If yes, what?
c) In the community with people he/she knows? If yes, what?

(1) With strangers? If yes, what?

2. When (insert participant '3 name) comes home from the program,
what does he/she talk about?

 

 

3. How do you think (insert participant '5 name) feels about the
program? (Probe: do you think he/she likes the program or dislikes the
program?)

220

4. The next few questions are going to be about the parent activity packet.

a) How oﬁen would you say you use it?
b) What if anything have you liked about it?

c) What if anything has (insert participant 's name) likes
about it?

 

d) What if anything have you disliked about it?

e) What if anything has (insert participant '5 name)
disliked about it?

I) Has anything been unclear with it?

g) Do you think it is helping (insert participant ’s name) to
learn the material? Why? (Probe: what makes you think yes or no?)

h) What, if anything, has been a struggle for you when using the parent
packet?

Interview 3: Post-Soccer

1.

Since the last time we talked, have you noticed a changes or been told of any
changes in (insert participant 's name) social skills
a. At home? If yes, what?

 

b. At school? If yes, what?
c. In the community with people he/she knows? If yes, what?
d. With strangers? If yes, what?

Was there any part of the program that (insert participant ’3 name)
said he/she liked about the program? What?

Was there anything (insert participant '5 name) didn’t like
about the program?

 

How did you feel about this being an inclusive setting?

The following questions are about the parent activity packet. How oﬁen would
you say you use it?

Do you think it is helping (insert participant '3 name) to learn the
material? Why? (Probe: what makes you think yes or no)

221

7. Last time you said you liked (insert answer from previous
time). Is there anything else that you like about it?

8. Last time you said you didn’t like (insert answer from
previous time). Have you found there is something else you didn’t like about it?

9. Last time you said you were having a difficult time with (insert
answer from previous time). Have you found there is something else that has
been a struggle for you when using the parent packet?

10. Any suggestions on how to improve the parent packet?

11. Do you plan on continuing to use it? Why or why not?

12. If a program similar to this one was to come up again do you think would enroll
in it? Please explain.

13. Are there any other skills you would like to see taught in this type of setting?

14. What suggestions do you have to improve the overall program? The soccer
portion? the classroom portion?

 

Retention
1. Last time we talked you said that (insert participant ’s name) had
developed (insert skills from above) skills? Do you think he/she

 

has decreased in the use of these skills, increased in the use of these skills, or stayed
the same? Please explain.

If participant had not improved in any skills, ask: Have you seen a change in any of

(insert participant ’s name) social skills? Do you think he/she has
decreased in the use of these skills, increased in the use of these skills, or stayed the
same? Please explain.

Since the end of the program, have you noticed any other changes or been told of any
other changes in (insert participant '3 name) social skills
a. At home? If yes, what?

 

b. At school? If yes, what?

In the community with people he/she knows? If yes, what?

.0

9'

With strangers? If yes, what?

222

3. Are you still using the parent activities packet?

IF YES
21)

b)

C)

d)

f)

3)

IF NO
a)

b)

How oﬁen would you say you use it?

Do you think it is helping (insert participant ’s name) to learn
the material? Please explain.

Last time you said you liked (insert answer from
before). Is there anything else that you like about it?

Last time you said you didn’t like (insert answer from
before). Have you found there is something else you didn’t like about it?

Last time you said you were having a difﬁcult time with
(insert answer from previous time). Have you found there is something
else that has been a struggle for you when using the parent packet?

 

Any suggestions on how to improve the parent packet?

Do you plan on continuing to use it?

Last time we talked you said you were using it, what made you stop using
it?

Do you have any suggestions on ways to improve it so you would use it?

223

APPENDIX G:
ALEXANDER ADAPTATION OF SKILL RATING FORM FOR PARENTS

Modiﬁed from Baker (2003)

224

Alexander’s Adaptation of Skill Rating Form

Athlete Name: Date:

Parent Name:

 

Directions: Based on your observations in various situations, rate each child’s use of the
following skills according to the following scale:

1= the athlete almost never uses the skill 4: the athlete often uses the skill
2= the athlete seldom uses the skill 5= the athlete almost always

uses the skill
3= the athlete sometimes uses the skill

Please provide any comments about how the athlete demonstrates the skill. For example,
if the athlete almost always demonstrates the skill around teachers but not around other
people he/she knows in the community, please note that in the comments section.

 

  

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1.Maintains appropriate physical distance
when talking with
a) Family members

 

 

b) Friends

 

 

c) People in community they know
(1) Strangers

 

 

 

2.Uses appropriate tone of voice with
a) Family members
b) Friends
c) People in community they know
d) Strangers

 

 

 

 

 

3.Uses appropriate volume when speaking
to
a) Family members

b) Friends
c) People in community they know
(I) Strangers

 

 

 

 

 

4.Uses appropriate greeting with
a) Family members

b) Friends
c) People in community they know
d) Strangers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

225

1= the athlete almost never uses the skill

2= the athlete seldom uses the skill
uses the skill

3= the athlete sometimes uses the skill

4= the athlete often uses the skill
5= the athlete almost always

 

Skill

Rating

Cement

 

5.Stays on topic while in conversation with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

6.Maintains a conversation with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

7.Takes turns while talking with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they lmow

 

d) Strangers

 

 

8.Appropriately initiates a conversation
with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they lmow

 

d) Strangers

 

 

9.Joins a conversation appropriately (e.g.
discusses same topic, says excuse me)
with

a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

10. Ends a conversation appropriately (e.g.
says something before just walking
away) when talking with

a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

 

ll. Introduces one’s self to
a) Strangers

 

 

 

226

 

l= the athlete almost never uses the skill 4= the athlete often uses the skill
2: the athlete seldom uses the skill 5= the athlete almost always
uses the skill

3= the athlete sometimes uses the skill

 

Skill Rating Comment

 

12. Introduces topics that are of interest to
others when talking with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they lmow

 

d) Strangers

 

 

13. Gives background information about
what they are talking about when
talking with

a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

14. Shifts topics appropriately when
talking with
a) Familymembers

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

15. Talks too long (rambles on about a
topic) when talking with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

16. During unstructured play, interacts
with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

17. During structured play, interacts with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

 

 

 

d) Strangers

 

227

 

1= the athlete almost never uses the skill

2: the athlete seldom uses the skill

uses the skill

3= the athlete sometimes uses the skill

4= the athlete often uses the skill
5= the athlete almost always

 

Skill

Rating

Comment

 

18. Asks questions to gain informatio
about '
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

19. Initiates one on one social interaction
with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

20. Maintains eye contact during a
conversation with
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

21. Responds to a greeting from a
a) Family member

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they know

 

d) Strangers

 

 

22. Responds to invitations to join other

people’s activity
a) Family members

 

b) Friends

 

c) People in community they lmow

 

 

d) Strangers

 

 

 

228

 

APPENDIX H:
OBSERVATION SKILL RATING FORM

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230

APPENDIX I:
TRACKING YOUR PROGRESS FORM

231

Tracking Your Practice: February l7"‘- 23rd

Participant’s name:

 

Activity Amount of Time How Did It Go? '

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

232

 

APPENDIX J:
COACH, INSTRUCTOR, AND PARTNER JOURNAL

233

COACH JOURNAL

Name:_
Role:
Date:

 

 

 

I. Did you modify/change the coaching plan ? Please explain.

2. Please discuss any notable interaction betrveen athletes or between you and an
athlete (positive change towards the goal behavior, a decrease in the goal behavior,
frustration demonstrated by the athlete when trying to perform a goal behavior, or
an unusual approach at a goal behavior)?

3. Do you know of any information that would wcplain an athlete ’s “of day ”?(makes
sure to specify the athlete)

4. Please comment on the coaching plan (things that worked really well/things to

change in future).

5. Other comments

234

INSTRUCTOR JOURNAL

Name:

 

Date:

 

I. Did you modify/change the classroom plan? Please explain.

2. Please discuss any notable interaction between athletes or between you and an
athlete (positive change towards the goal behavior, a decrease in the goal
behavior, frustration demonstrated by the athlete when trying to perform a goal
behavior, or an unusual approach at a goal behavior)?

3. Do you know of any information that would explain an athlete’s “off
day ”?(makes sure to specify the athlete)

4. Please comment on the classroom plan (things that worked really well/things to

change in future).

5. Other comments

235

PARTNER JOURNAL

Name:

 

Date:

 

I. Who did you work with today?

2. Please discuss any notable interaction between athletes or between you and an
athlete (positive change towards the goal behavior, a decrease in the goal behavior,
frustration demonstrated by the athlete when trying to perform a goal behavior, or
an unusual approach at a goal behavior)?

3. Do you know of an y information that would explain an athlete’s “off day ”? (make
sure to specify the athlete)

4. Other comments?

236

APPENDIX K:
GENERAL MANUAL TABLE OF CONTENTS

237

TABLE OF CONTENTS

What is s3 ..................................................................................................... 3
Schedule ....................................................................................................... 5
Overview of Staff ......................................................................................... 7
Protecting Participants ................................................................................. 8
Interacting with Athletes .............................................................................. 9
Getting Paid ............................................................................................... 10
Contacts ...................................................................................................... 12

238

APPENDIX L:
CONSENT FORM

239

Social Skills and Sports (5") Program: Developing the Social Skills of Young
Adult Special Olympians

Consent Form for Participation in the Study

My name is Melissa Alexander. I am a doctoral student in adapted physical activity
and sport psychology under the supervision of Dr. Gail Dummer at Michigan State
University. I am writing to request permission for you and your Special Olympian to
participate in my dissertation research project called the Sports and Social Skills (S3)
Program. During this program, participants will participate in a 14 week program that
meets for 90 minutes sessions twice a week. The participants will work on social skills
and play soccer. The speciﬁc social skills are how to contribute relevant information to a
conversation, how to take turns in a conversation, and how to make eye contact while
having a conversation. During soccer they will learn about dribbling, passing, and
shooting.

What is the purpose of the study?
The purpose of this study is to see if the participants will develop and reﬁne their social

skills through their participation in this program.

Requirements to participate in this study?

0 Age 13 to 25

o Mild/moderate intellectual disability. If the person has a secondary disability
he/she is still welcome to participate unless the disability interferes with
participation in soccer or interacting verbally with others
Must be verbal.
All paperwork required by Special Olympics Michigan, including the Application
for Participation (requires medical exam) and Athlete Code of Conduct:
Must have transportation to the program
Must have supportive shoes and shin guards

Who Cannot Participate?

0 People with atlantioaxial instability (AAI) due to safety concerns.

a People who have participated in Michigan State’s Sports Skills Program, the
Sports and Life Skills Program, or the Michigan Chill’s Special Olympics Soccer
Team

0 People who use sign language, picture boards or assistive devices for
communication

a People who cannot attend at least 80% of the entire program.

What is s’
S3 is a 14 week program designed to teach social skills to people with intellectual

disabilities. The program is an enjoyable atmosphere where the participants are involved
in games and activities to help learn and develop social skills. Soccer will also be used to
allow the participants to practice their skills in a natural setting. Lastly, there is a parental
component of the program where parents are given the information that is covered in the
program and asked to apply it at home through some fun games and activities that can be
incorporated into your daily lives.

240

The program for the children has four phases, baseline, classroom, soccer, and retention
which are pictured in the chart below.

Phases of S3:

 

 

Introduction Phase
Session 1

45 minutes team building activities
45 minutes soccer practice
No intervention

 

 

i,

 

 

A
Baseline Phase
Sessions 2-5

Observation of social skills during 90 minutes
of soccer practice
No intervention

 

i/L

 

 

B
Classroom Phase
Sessions 6-13

45 minutes classroom instruction in social skills
45 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

~L/L

 

 

C
Soccer Phase
Sessions l4-27

8 minutes review of social skills
74 minutes soccer instruction and social skills practice
8 minutes review of social skills

f—‘W

 

 

 

 

 

-L}

 

 

 

 

 

Party Phase 90 minutes party and informal soccer scrimmage
Session 28 No intervention

A No activities
Baseline/Retention No intervention

No sessions

15 minutes parent session (during soccer practice time)

 

 

 

Figure 3. Phases of the S3 Program

A comprehensive description of these phases can be found in the appendix at the end of
this document.

241

At 3 different intervals in the program, participants will be observed while they are
playing soccer. Two observers will record the participants’ social interactions with the
coaches, other participants, and buddies. When the participants are being observed, the
program will also be videotaped.

Because this is a learning experience, we ask that participants attend at least 21 sessions.
As the classroom portion is a vital component of this program, it is important that the
participants attend 10 sessions during the ﬁrst 6 weeks.

The particQation of the Parentﬁrimgv Caregiver includes completion of the following:

I) A Demographic Proﬁle- A series of questions related to the adolescent's age, sex,
school, participation in extracurricular activities, and participation in physical
education classes. (completion time is about 5 minutes)

2) Special Olympics Application for Participation or Special Olympics Medical
Update F orm- A form provided by Michigan Special Olympics (requires medical
exam). This form only needs to be completed if a current form is not on ﬁle with the
Area 8 ofﬁce. (completion time is about 10 minutes plus time to receive a doctor’s
signature)

3) Release of Special Olympics Application for Participations- Allows Melissa
Alexander to have access to your participant’s medical form so that she may have it
in case of a medical emergency. (completion time is 2 minutes)

4) Modiﬁed Skill Rating F arm for Parents- The survey asks you to rate speciﬁc social
skills that are demonstrated by your adolescents in different social settings. You will
complete the survey four different times throughout the program. (completion time
is about 10 minutes)

5) Four Interviews. We will arrange a convenient time to come to your home (or
another place you choose) to ask some questions about your adolescent’s current level
of social skills. The 4 interviews will be done: before the program, 6 weeks into the
program, at the end of the program, and 6 weeks after the program is completed.

Each interview should last about 30 minutes and they will be audio tape recorded.

You will receive a packet at the beginning of the program that provides a summary of the
different lessons that will be presented to your adolescent. There will also be a list of
different activities that you can do to help develop the social skills with your adolescent
at home. These activities can be incorporated into your daily lives and will not take a
large amount of time. An example of an activity is playing a word game in the car. You
will be asked to incorporate the activities into your daily activities at least 5 times a week.

242

In order to discuss the material in the packets, you will be asked to attend the last 15
minutes of the S3 program for sessions 6-14. You will also be asked to keep a journal of
your use of the activities. The journal will ask you to record how long you practiced the
activity, when you practiced it, and how successful the practice was.

Who will be working with my adolescent?

There will be one head coach, one assistant coach, one head instructor (myself,
Melissa Alexander), and one assistant instructor. We hope to have 8 participants so there
will be one staff member for every two participants. All Staff will be certiﬁed in First
Aid and CPR and will have completed the Special Olympics General Orientation and
Protective Behavior courses. Coaches have previous experience coaching soccer as well
as interacting with people with disabilities. I have previous experience teaching and
coaching sports to persons with disabilities and am certiﬁed as a Special Olympics
Soccer Coach.

There will also be 3-4 people between the ages of 13 and 25 who do not have
disabilities playing on the team with your participant. These people will serve as partners
for your participant and will help demonstrate appropriate social skills.

How could my adolescent and I beneﬁt by participating in the study?

It is the hope of the researchers that participants will learn and develop better social skills
and have a ﬁm experience with soccer. Each participant will receive a team jersey at the
beginning of the program. Participates will also be- given a small healthy snack at each
session. At the completion of the program, participants will be provided with a
certiﬁcate. You will be provided a copy of the classroom portion of the S3 as well as the
Parent Activities Program to continue to use with your adolescent. Each family that
participates in this study will also receive a report of the results upon request.

How will other people benefitﬁ'om this study?

The future goal of this line of research is to create a series of programs that Special
Olympics coaches can incorporate into their practices to help the participants develop
different life skills. The information gained in this study may help guide future research
as well as contribute to the literature on effective ways to teach social skills to people
who qualify for Special Olympics.

Are there any risks to adolescents or parents who participate in the study?

The only potential risks from participation in this study are a breach of
conﬁdentiality, or minor physical injuries from playing soccer. The investigators are
taking the following precautions to minimize these risks.

0 We will store information that identiﬁes you and your child in a locked cabinet in
a locked ofﬁce and keep the identity of you and your child separate from other
study documents We will protect the conﬁdentiality of all information to the
maximum extent of the law and not reveal information that identiﬁes you or your
child without your permission, unless required to do so by law. In order to protect
your child’s medical privacy, only Melissa Alexander and Dr. Gail Dummer will
have access to the Special Olympics Application for Participation. Coaches will

243

be provided only with a summary of the participants’ medical information that
includes only the “need to know” information (e. g. allergies).

0 Risk of such injuries from soccer will be minimized by: (a) matching the
participant’s ability to perform with the activity and careful supervision by
qualiﬁed personnel.

Does it cost anything to participate in the study?

The program is free; however, parents will be responsible for transporting their
adolescents to and from the program. All participants must also wear supportive shoes
and shin guards. If purchasing shin guards presents a ﬁnancial hardship, please talk with
Melissa Alexander.

Is participation voluntary?

Participation in this study is completely voluntary. If a participant is not comfortable
or does not want to continue a session, we will stop the session for the day, or your
participant can cease participation altogether. There are no penalties for choosing not to
participate in the study or ceasing participation during the project.

Who should parents contact if they have questions, now or in the future?

If you have questions about the research study, please contact Melissa Alexander or Dr.
Gail Dummer. If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study
participant, or are dissatisﬁed at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact
— anonymously, if you wish — Peter Vasilenko, Ph.D., Director of Human Research
Protection Program (IRB).

Melissa Alexander Gail M. Dummer, Ph.D. Peter Vasilenko, Ph.D.
Department of Kinesiology Department of Kinesiology [RB

39 IM Sports Circle 138 IM Sports Circle 202 Olds Hall

Michigan State University Michigan State University Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824 East Lansing, MI 48824 East Lansing, MI 48824
Cell: (517) 285-3397 Work: (517) 355-4744 Work: (517) 355-2180
Fax: (517) 353-2944 Fax: (517) 353-2944 Fax: (517) 432-4503
socialskillsandsports@gr_nail.comdummer@msu.edu irb@msu.edu

244

Parent/Caregiver Consent Form
Social Skills and Sports (83) Program: Developing the Social Skills of Young
Adult Special Olympians

Your signature below indicates your voluntary agreement to allow your adolescent to
participate in the study named above, as well as your agreement to participate in the
parent activities. '

 

 

Your Printed Name Your Signature

 

 

Date Your Adolescent’s Name

 

Your signature below indicates your voluntary agreement to allow Melissa Alexander to
receive a copy of your adolescent’s Athlete Application to Participate and Medical
Update Form from Special Olympics.

 

 

Your Printed Name Your Signature

 

 

Date Your Adolescent’s Name

245

Participant Consent Form
Social Skills and Sports (5") Program: Developing the Social Skills of Young
Adult Special Olympians

This form is to be completed by the participant if the participant is over the age of
18 and is his or her own legal guardian.

Your signature below indicates your voluntary agreement to participate in the study
named above.

 

 

Your Printed Name Your Signature

 

 

Date Date of Birth

 

Your signature below indicates your voluntary agreement to allow Melissa Alexander to
receive a copy of your Athlete Application to Participate and Medical Update Form from
Special Olympics.

 

 

Your Printed Name Your Signature

 

 

Date Date of Birth

246

Participant Assent Form
Social Skills and Sports (5") Program: Developing the Social Skills of Young
Adult Special Olympians

This form is to be completed by the participants if they are under the age of 18 or if they
have a legal guardian.

Hi! My name is Melissa Alexander. I am a graduate student at Michigan State University. I am
here to invite you to come play soccer and learn about how to talk with other people. First I will
tell you about this program and show you a short video of what the program will be like. Then,
you can tell me if you want to try it or not.

Participant will then receive a brief summary of the program. They will also be shown a video
clip of a staged classroom interaction and soccer interaction as would occur in the program.

Do you have any questions?
YES NO

0, y: /-i
l. .\ i" Q» 0?
vﬁé in:

Would you like to come play soccer and learn about how to make more friends?
YES NO

3? (w
ea; is!

If answered yes and able: sign name below

 

 

Your Printed Name Your Signature

 

Date

If participant cannot provide written assent, they must provide verbal assent. Both the
interviewer and the parent/legal guardian must witness the assent.

Witness to the participant’s assent:

 

 

 

 

 

 

Parent/legal guardian Signature Melissa Alexander’s Signature
Print Name Print Name
Date Date

247

Appendix A

Introduction (Session 1): During the very ﬁrst session participants will spend 45
minutes being introduced to the staff and the facility. They will develop a set of team
rules and also create a team name. The function of this day is to get to know each other
ad become comfortable in the new environment. The remaining 45 minutes, the
participants will participate in soccer activities.

Bagﬂine (Sessionsj- 5): Participants will be observed interacting with other people
in the program to establish their current level of social skills. The majority of the time
will be spent playing soccer. Some of the time will also be dedicated to reminding
people about rules and other teammate’s names.

Classroom (Sessions 6-13LThe classroom sessions is divided into two parts. The
ﬁrst 45 minutes of each session, participants will receive social skills’ training that
includes a variety of activities to learn about how to contribute relevant information to a
conversation, how to take turns in a conversation, and how to make eye contact while
having a conversation. For the remaining 45 minutes, participants will be involved in a
soccer practice during which participant will be encouraged to use the social skills taught
earlier in the day. Each soccer portion will consist of 5 minutes warm-up, 20 minutes
skill development, 15 minutes modiﬁed game play, and 5 minutes cool-down. Coaching
plans are based upon drills developed for persons with disabilities by Davis (2002).

Soccer (SessicAs 14-27): For the ﬁrst 8 minutes of practice, participants will be
reminded about the social skills material that was discussed in previous weeks. The last 8
minutes of practice will be used to reinforce participants’ proper use of social skills and
to remind them of other skills to use in the future. The remaining 74 minutes will be used
for soccer practice. The soccer practice will be run in the same format was it was during
the classroom sessions. Participants will develop soccer skills while also doing activities
to practice their social skills.

Lam! (Session 28): As a token of appreciation and as a way to provide closure, we
will have an End of the Season Party on the last day of the program. During this time the
parents will be invited to play a soccer game against the participants as well as attend a
ceremony where certiﬁcates are given to the participants. There will be food and
beverage provided.

Retention (6 weeks after the program is complete): We will arrange to interview the
parent/primary caregiver of the participant to determine if the social skills learned in the
program are still be demonstrated by the participant. More information about the
interviews can be found under “what will my participant and I do in this study”.

248

APPENDIX M:
DEFINITIONS

249

Deﬁnitions

Special Olympics

Special Olympics is an international, non-proﬁt organization that provides
sporting opportunities to people with intellectual disabilities. In order to participate in
Special Olympics, one must

“be at least 8 years old and identiﬁed by an agency or professional as

having one of the following conditions: intellectual disability; a cognitive

delay as determined by standardized measures such as intelligence

quotient or other generally accepted measures; or a closely related

developmental disability, i.e. ﬁmctional limitations in both general

learning and adaptive skills” (Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.).

People can participate in the program free of charge and are not discriminated
against based on race, gender, or severity of disability. There is no maximum age for
participation. Therefore, adults who meet the disability requirement are strongly
encouraged to participate. People who has multiple disabilities, including physical
disabilities, are welcome to participate in Special Olympics programs given that they
meet the above criteria (Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, n.d.).
Disability

While there are a plethora of deﬁnitions for the term disability, for the purpose of
this paper all disabilities are deﬁned according to criteria from the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR)

(2000). This diagnostic manual was chosen because it is supported by the American

250

Psychiatric Association (APA), is used by most clinical psychologists in the United
States for diagnostic purposes, and is commonly used by researchers to deﬁne disability.
Intellectual Disabilities

For the purpose of this research study, the term intellectual disabilities (ID) refers
to individuals who have been diagnosed with mental retardation (including all sub-
categories such as Down’s syndrome) or a pervasive developmental disorder.

Mental Retardation

According to the DSM-IV-TR (2000), one must have three distinct characteristics
to be labeled as mentally retarded. The individual must have signiﬁcantly below average
intellectual functioning abilities, namely an intelligence quotient (IQ) score that is two or
more standard deviations below average. Along with the lower IQ score, the individual
must also have “signiﬁcant limitations in adaptive functioning in at least two of the
, following areas: communication, self-care, home living, social/interpersonal skills, use of
community resources, self-direction, functional academic skills, work, leisure, health and
safety (APA, 2000, p.41).” Lastly, the individual must demonstrate below average
intelligence and difﬁculties in adaptive ﬁmctioning before he or she reaches the age of 18
(APA, 2000).

There are four levels of metal retardation (MR); mild, moderate, severe, and
profound. For the purpose of this study, only individuals with mild to moderate MR will
be discussed. People with severe and profound MR have IQ scores that are lower than
40, and have little to no verbal communication skills (APA, 2000). This level of

disability would make learning difﬁcult within the environment utilized in this study.

251

Approximately 85% of people with MR have a mild level of disability. Because
individuals with mild mental retardation have IQ scores that range between 2 and 3
standard deviations below average, they tend to have fewer difﬁculties living independent
lives compared to individuals with moderate MR. During the preschool years, individuals
with mild MR will develop the same social and communication skills that are seen in
typically developing children. It is not until they reach adolescence or adulthood that
they may struggle with social skills as well as general coping skills in stressful
environments (APA, 2000). These individuals are fairly self sufﬁcient and with general
support can live independently, work, marry, and support children (Durstine & Moore,
2003)

Moderate mental retardation is characterized by an IQ scores that are 3 to 4
standard deviations below average, resulting in increased difﬁculties with social skills as
well as activities of daily living. It is diagnosed in about 10% of individuals with mental
retardation (APA, 2000). Individuals with this level of mental retardation tend to have
“maladaptive behaviors including problems with speech, social interaction, and a higher
incidence of psychiatric disorders” (Durstine & Moore, 2003, p.304). While individuals
with moderate MR will acquire some communication skills when they are young, they
tend to have difﬁculties developing social skills. Forming peer relationships oﬁen tends
to be difﬁcult due to “their difﬁculties in recognizing social conventions” (APA, 2000,
p.43). Because of their difﬁculties, individuals at this level beneﬁt from having
vocational and social skills training in order to adapt to society (APA, 2000).

Down syndrome. Down syndrome (DS) is a sub category of mental retardation,

and is the most common form of MR caused by a chromosomal malformation (Durstine

252

and Moore, 2003). It is “marked by mild to moderate mental retardation and physical
characteristics” (Venes & Thomas, 2001, p.607).

There are actually three different types of Down syndrome: (a) trisomy 21, (b)
translocation, and (c) mosaicism. About 95% of persons DS have a trimosomy 21
etiology. It occurs when chromosome pair 21 fails to separate properly before or during
fertilization. This anomaly results in the individual having three chromosomes at the 21St
cite instead of the usual two, meaning the cells have 47 chromosomes instead of 46.
Translocation DS also has an error with the 21St chromosome. However, in this case a
portion of the 21St chromosome transfers to another chromosome where they become
fused together. The portion of the 21St chromosome usually ﬁrses itself to the 14’”, 15th or
22"d chromosome. While the chromosome count remains normal for the individual with
translocation DS, the extra material on one of the chromosomes creates problems in the
person’s development (Sherrill, 2004). It is estimated that 4% to 6 % of the DS
population has translocation DS. The remaining 1% to 4 % of the DS population have
mosaic Down Syndrome (Pennington & Bennetto, 1998). Mosaic DS occurs when only
some of the person’s cells are trisomic (containing three chromosomes) while other cells
are normal. In mosaic DS there are many different combinations of cells that can be
affected. Therefore, a person with mosaic DS can have a spectrum of functioning
abilities. People can have a relatively normal level of functioning abilities and physical
appearance, they can have the stereotypical DS characteristics, or they can fall
somewhere in between the two extremes (Sherrill, 2004).

Because DS occurs very close to conception, it affects the grth and

development of all of the body including the organs. Therefore, the individual is affected

253

physically as well as cognitively (Shenill, 2004). Along with a cognitive disability, DS
“is often associated with several physical characteristics such as small stature, short limbs
and digits, digital malformations, small nasal and oral cavities (leading to mouth
breathing and tongue protrusion), almond shaped and slanted eyes,. . . joint laxity, and
pulmonary hypoplasia” (Durstine and Moore, 2003, p.304).
Pervasive Developmental Disorders

There are ﬁve disabilities characterized as Pervasive Developmental Disorders
(PDD): (a) autism; (b) Rett’s disorder; (c) childhood disintegrative disorder; (d)
Aspergers’s disorder; and (e) pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise speciﬁed.
While these ﬁve disorders each have unique characteristics, they also have similarities
that allow them to be grouped together as PDDs. In order to be characterized as having a
PDD, one must demonstrate “a severe and pervasive impairment in (a) reciprocal social
interaction, (b) communication, and (c) stereotyped behavior, interests and activities”
(APA, 2000, p.69). Because these skills are all age dependent, the skills a psychologist
observes are chosen based on the child’s age and level of development. During the
diagnostic procedures, the observer looks for an absence of the skill or an unusual
demonstration of the skill compared to a typically developing individual (Mesibov,
Adams, & Klinger, 1997).

The following paragraphs give a more detailed overview of autism, Asperger’s
disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise speciﬁed. Due to the fact
that Rett’s Disorder and Childhood Disintegrative Disorder are usually associated with

severe or profound mental retardation, they are not discussed further in this paper.

254

Autism. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)

(2000) deﬁnes autism as having:

“Qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of
the following: (a) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal
behaviors, such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and
gestures to regulate social interaction, (b) failure to develop peer relationships
appropriate to developmental level, (c) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share
enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e. g., by a lack of
showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest), ((1) lack of social or
emotional reciprocity” (APA, 2000, p.75).

“Qualitative impairment in communication as manifested by at least one of
the following: (a) delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken
language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative
modes of communication such as gesture or mime); (b) in individuals with
adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a
conversation with others; (c) stereotyped and repetitive use of language or
idiosyncratic language; or ((1) lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play
or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level” (APA, 2000,
p.75).

“Restrictive repetitive, stereotypical behavior, interests, and activities, as
manifested by at least one of the following: (a) encompassing preoccupation
with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is

abnormal either in intensity or focus; (b) apparently inﬂexible adherence to

255

speciﬁc, nonfunctional routines or rituals; (c) stereotyped and repetitive motor

mannerisms (e. g., hand or ﬁnger ﬂapping or twisting or complex whole-body

movements); (d) persistent preoccupation with parts of objects” (APA, 2000,

p. 75).

A child must demonstrate at least six of the previously listed characteristics to
be diagnosed as autistic. These traits must come from all three of the main categories
with the largest emphasis placed on social impairment. Therefore, a child must have
at least two traits from the social interaction category, one from the communication
category, and one from the behavioral category. There are other requirements that
must also be met for a child to be diagnosed as autistic. First, Rett’s Disorder or
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder cannot better describe the disturbances. Secondly,
there must be a delay or abnormal functioning observed in the child in at least one of
the following three areas before the age of three: (a) social interaction; (b) language
used for social communication; and (c) symbolic or imaginative play (APA, 2000).

While a child must demonstrate certain criteria to be diagnosed as autistic, the
severity of the disorder between each child varies dramatically. Because individuals
with autism have a large continuum of abilities, it is often referred to as a spectrum
disorder. An individual labeled as autistic is placed somewhere on the spectrum
falling in or between the categories of low-functioning autism and hi gh-functioning
autism (Berkeley, Zittel, Pitney, & Nichols, 2001).

Researchers have shown that at least 75% of children with autism, male or
female, show signs of mental retardation (Pennington & Bennetto, 1998). Batshaw

and Perret (1992) estimated that 70% of people with autism have mental retardation

256

with 35% having mild MR, 15% having moderate MR, and 20% having severe or
profound MR. Approximately 25% of individuals with autism have what is
considered a normal intelligence, while approximately 5% of the autism population
has an IQ above 100.

It is important to note that there is a very small number of children with
autism who demonstrate amazing savant abilities (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2000).
When an individual is high functioning in one particular area while most other areas
are lower ﬁrnctioning, they are said to have islets of ability or splinter skills. Some
examples of splinter skills are exceptional rote memory, an exceptional ability to
solve jigsaw puzzles, or the ability to calculate large numbers in a short period.
While these skills are impressive, they are often not helpful in the individual’s daily
life and cannot be used to help cope with general stressors (Batshaw & Perret, 1992).

Asperger ’s Syndrome. Asperger’s Syndrome is deﬁned as:

o “Qualitative impairment in (a) the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as
eye-to-eye contact, facial expression, body posture and gestures to regulate social
interaction, (b) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental
level, (c) lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or
achievements with other people (e. g. by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing
out objects of interest to other people), ((1) lack of social or emotional reciprocity.

o “Restrictive repetitive, stereotypical patterns of behavior, interests and activities
as manifested by at least one of the following (a) encompassing preoccupation
with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal

either in intensity or focus, (b) apparently inﬂexible adherence to speciﬁc,

257

nonfunctional routines or rituals, (c) stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms

(e. g., hand or ﬁnger ﬂapping or twisting or complex whole-body movements), ((1)

persistent preoccupation with parts of objects” (APA, 2000, p. 84).

An individual must demonstrate two of the behaviors from the social interactions
category and at least one behavior from the second category. These behaviors must not
only be present, but cause signiﬁcant problems in the individual’s social life, occupation,
or other important areas of function. However, the individual cannot demonstrate any
signiﬁcant delays in general language or cognitive development. They must demonstrate
age appropriate behaviors with their self-help skills, their adaptive behaviors, and their
curiosity regarding the enviromnent. Lastly, the child’s behaviors cannot be better
deﬁned by another PDD or schizophrenia (APA, 2000).

Individuals with Asperger’s syndrome (AS) tend to be higher ﬁrnctioning
individuals with other PPDs. However, they tend to demonstrate unusual social
behaviors and be unaware of social norms. They often have an obsession with one or two
different subjects (e. g., cars, bus timetables, pets). At the same time, individuals with AS
often have an extensive vocabulary and are able to read and write at a young age. While
people with AS have difﬁculties applying social norms, there are some individuals who
ﬁrnction and learn well in a regular educational setting. They are able to develop
meaningful ﬁiendships, attend college, marry, and have children (Reid & Collier, 2002).

Pervasive Developmental Disorders Not Otherwise Specified. People who do not
meet the exact criteria for the other four PPDs but demonstrate behaviors similar to a
PPD are labeled Pervasive Developmental Disorder- Not Otherwise Speciﬁed (PDD-

NOS). The individual must demonstrate “severe and pervasive impairment in the

258

development of reciprocal social interaction associated with impairment in either verbal
or nonverbal communication skills or with the presence of stereotyped behaviors,
interests, and activities...” (APA, 2000, p.84). However, the individual cannot
demonstrate characteristics that would qualify as “a speciﬁc Pervasive Developmental
Disorder, Schizophrenia, Schizotypal Personality Disorder, or Avoidant Personality
Disorder” (APA, 200, p.84). For example, an individual may only demonstrates one of
the deﬁning characteristics from the social interaction category instead of the two that is

needed for an autism diagnosis.

259

APPENDIX N:
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES FOR
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMETNA DISABILITIES (ETDD)

260

 

 

Education and Trainin in Developmental
Disabi rties

Editorial Policy

Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities focuses on the education and
welfare of persons with developmental disabilities. ETDD invites research and
expository manuscripts and critical review of the literature. Major emphasis is on
identiﬁcation and assessment, educational programming, characteristics, training
of instructional personnel, habilitation, prevention, community understanding and
provisions, and legislation.

Each manuscript is evaluated anonymously by three reviewers. Criteria for ac—
ceptance include the following: relevance, reader interest, quality, applicability,
contribution to the ﬁeld, and economy and smoothness of expression. The review
process requires two to four months.

VreWpoints-expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily conform to
positions of the editors or of the ofﬁcers of the Division.

Submission of Manuscripts

1. Manuscript submission is a representation that the manuscript is the author’s
own work, has not been published, and is not currently under consideration for
publication elsewhere.

2. Manuscripts must be prepared according to the recommendations in the Pub-
lication Manual of the American Psychological Assodation (Fifth Edition, 2001).
Standard typewriter type, laser, or high density dot printing are acceptable.

3. Each manuscript must have a cover sheet giving the names and afﬁliations of all
authors and the address of the principal author.

4. Graphs and ﬁgures should be originals or sharp, high quality photographic
prints suitable, if necessary, for a 50% reduction in size.

5. Five copies of the manuscript along with a transmittal letter should be sent to the
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special Education Program, Box 872011, Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011.

6. Upon receipt, each manuscript will be screened by the editor. Appropriate
manuscripts will then be sent to consuln'ng editors. Principal authors will receive
notiﬁcation of receipt of manuscript.

7. The Editor reserves the right to make minor editorial changes which do not
materially affect the meaning of the text.

8. Manuscripts are the property of ETDD for a minimum period of six months. All
articles accepted for publication are copyrighted in the name of the Division on
Developmental Disabilities.

 

261

 

 

APPENDIX O:
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES FOR PALAESTRA

262

Information for Authors

PALAESTRA, a refereed quarterly (fall, winter,
spring, summer) professional journal, deals with all
aspects of sport, physical education, recreation, and
related activity areas involving participants with
disabilities. Information for short ﬁllers and use in
departments is encouraged. Submit dates and other
details about conferences, seminars, and other
training and in—service programs for inclusion in
PALAESTRA Calendar.

Focus of PALAESTRA is broad, including practical
applications for teaching, coaching, and leading;
implications and applications of scientiﬁc research
for training and teaching; administration, supervision,
and management; professional preparation and in-
service education, innovative ideas and practices;
assessment and classiﬁcations; relationships of basic
sciences to methods and activities for individuals
with disabilities; sports medicine and athletic training 1
applied to individuals with disabilities; equipment
and supplies used in these programs; professional
issues and trends.

A double-blind review process is followed
rigorously. Manuscripts are reviewed by members of
the editorial board and/or other professional
specialists representing all topical areas dealt with in
PALAESTRA. Manuscripts are accepted for review
and consideration on the condition they have not
been published previously, submitted simultaneously,
or accepted for publication elsewhere.
PALAESTRA will consider manuscripts rejected by
other journals. There are no page or illustration
charges.

Terminology

Terminology throughout PALAESTRA conforms to
current accepted usage. Focus is on people, not
disabilities (i.e., students who are blind; athletes with
spinal cord injuries; participants who have
intellectual disabilities; persons who use wheelchairs
for mobility are wheelchair users, not "wheelchair
bound," etc.). Reference is to individuals with
disabilities, not handicaps, handicapping conditions,
or impairments. Authors should apply this policy in
their manuscripts.

Guidelines

263

Follow American Psychological Association
(APA) style of documentation within the
text and for references.

Include sections with each manuscript (each ’
starting on a separate page) for (a) title page,

(b) abstract, (c) text,

(d) acknowledgements, (e) selected
references, (0 photo-
graphs/drawings/tables/graphs, (g)
legends/cutline informa- tion for
photographs and other illustrations, and (h)
a brief biographical sketch for inclusion
with published article. Number pages
consecutively in the upper right hand comer
of each page, beginning with the title page.
Include a cover sheet with author name(s),
academic or

professional title(s), complete mailing
address(es), and

e-rnail contact information. Do not have
names or related information on any
manuscript pages that will be sent out for
review.

Submit illustrations - photographs,
drawings, tables, and/or graphs - to give
greater impact to content and its
presentation. Photographs/Drawings - color
slides, color prints, or black and white prints
(5 " x 7" preferred) of good quality can be
considered; digital photo illustrations may
be sent on a computer disk (CD) in graphic
formats, with resolution being a minimum
of 300 dpi-600 dpi or higher. (Please, no
ﬂoppy disks.) Drawings should be in India
ink on white background; include a properly
identiﬁed cut line (caption) for each
illustration; if photographs of persons are
used, either subjects must not be
identiﬁable, or their pictures must be
accompanied by written permission for
use. Tables/Graphs - number in sequence,
cite by number in the text, and include
legends for each; double space and place
each on a separate sheet; make every effort
to send tables and graphs in camera-ready
form, so each can be processed directly. If

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X-rays are to be used as illustrations, submit ;

actual X-ray ﬁlms (not photographic
copies). Illustrative materials become the

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