HOT WATER USAGE FOR DAIRY FARM PURPC’SES Thesis for the Dean. 0? M. S. MlCHIGAN STATE COLLEGE Warren‘Roberf Church 1954 “15515 This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Hot Water Usage for Dairy Farm Purposes" presented by Warren R. Church has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for - Engineering WM. ,M Major professor Date Mav 2O'Ll95l4 0-169 HOT WATER USAGE FOR DAIRY FARM PURPOSES BY Warren Robert Church AH ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Gracmate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree or MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Engineering 1994 Approved v“ flak/id; W 5/2 7/ 58’ TH Fit }‘ 77'5"” warren HDDBPU unurcn The study was conducted on 30 control Michigan dairy farms using stall type barns during the smer months of 1953. The size of herd varied from 10 to 90 cows. The prinary objective of the study was to detemine the amount and temperature of water being used in the milk house and to detemine the proper criterion to be used for selecting the proper size heater for any given dairy enterprise. Bacteriological tests were conducted to determine the quality or the washing operation, a tine and motion study to detenine the tine required for each Operation in the milk house, and a study or the-rates of hot water withdrawal in relation to the tine or day. A Data at the ferns were collected at the tine of the evening and morningnilkings and only one day was spent at each farm. The amount and temperature or water used for washing was recorded along with the rates of" withdrawal and tines required for‘washingthe utensils. swab tests were taken after the washing operation as a leans for determining the quality or the washing operation. In the laboratory, selected water heaters of various sizes were tested to determinethe enount of water with- drawal, at a given rate, without temperature drOp and the heat loss through. the walls of the heaters. Heaters of the 6, 12, 20, 30, 50, and BOégallon size were tested. A hot water meter was used to determine the quantity or water withdrawn and kilowatt-hour meters were used to determine 634).?" t) W UUJH— l . . .1 ..r..L1tp¢r.| lit/P939... '5: E: . .. J the heat loss through the walls of the heaters. The electrical meters were attached to the various heaters for a period of two weeks and the size of element required to naintainthe temperature was determined. The data were analyzed statistically to determine the relationship of the variables involved in the usage of hot water. The analysis showed that there was a significant relationship between the anount of water used for washing the utensils and the size of hard but it was found that there was a highly significant relationship betwun the amount of water used for washing theutensils and the number of pieces of equipment washed. when selecting a heater for a given dairy operation the tank capacity as well as the heating element size nustbe considered. A method is presented toldeternine the proper capacity of heater and size of elenent. HO‘l.I WATER USAGE FOR DAIRY FARM PURPOSES By ‘Warren Robert Church A THESIS- Sunnitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Engineering 1951; ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Carl H. Hall, under whose inspirational guidance and constant interest in the project the investigation was conducted. . _ ._ ‘ He is also greatly indebted to Professor Jewell K. Jensen for his kind guidance and valuable aid in checking the preliminary work of the project. . _ 1 Acknowledgement is also due to Dr. Clyde K. Smith for his guidance in setting up the procedure to be, followed for obtaining the bacteriological data and arrangingfor the bacteriology laboratory for conducting the tests. Thanks is also extended to Dr. Smith for the giving of his tine in checking the preliminary work of the project. He also extendshis appreciationto Mr. James Cawood A and his assistants for aiding inflthe procurementl‘of equipment. Thanks are extended to Ronan andKunzl, Inc., Marshall, Michigan and'Hr. George McKelvey for providing the research assistantship for the past year which has made the investi- gation possible. H w . . The writer wishes to thank Mr. Herman Walt, Mr. Dennis McGuire and Mr. T. R. Potts for their efforts in securing the aid of the individual farmer cOOperators who worked on the DEOJOOU. "I The investigator also wishes to thank other individual cooperators for their aid in the investigation and all others who have been connected with the project. TABLE INTRODUCTION . . . . . . REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . OBJECTIVES....... PROCEDURE. . . . . . . . Field Equipment . . . Field Procedure . . . Laboratory Equipment. Laboratory Procedure. OF CONTENTS 0 O PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA. Field Data and Interpretations. . . . Time and.Motion Study e e e e e e e WatOl‘ Usage Study e e e e e e e e e Miscellaneous Observations. . . . . Laboratory Data and Interpretations . Bacteriological Study e e e e e e e Selected Water Heater Study . . . Water Heater Selection. . . . . . . . Practices for Efficient Use SWMOOOOOOOOOOOO CONCEUSIONS. . . . . . . . . SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . APPENDIX I - Data Fonns Used 0 Of Water. for Compiling Data. e e APPENDIX II - 1.1.: of Individual APPENDIX III - Method Used for the Statistical Analysis APPENDIX IV ~‘Method for Calculating Heat Loss . . . . O O O O 0000 Collecting and 00.0.00... 9 Project Cooperaters . Page 73 78 81 86 Table II III IV VII VIII IX LIST OF TABLES Average Times and Ranges Observed for Various Washing Operations . . . . . . . . . Time Required for Milking Varying Size Herds with a Varying Number of Milking Units(StallBarn)............. Tine Required for Milking Varying Size Herds with a Varying Number of Milking Units (Loose Housing Barn) . . . . . . . . . Correlation betwoen the Variables Studied Showing the Degree of Sigiificance . . . . . Bacteriological Data Showing the Relative Effect of the Use of A Gernicidal Agent on the Cleanliness of the Equipnent. . . . . Bacteriological Data Showing the Relative Degree of Cleanliness of the Insanitary Equipment When We Gemicidal Agent Was Used. Bacteriological Data Showing the Relative Degree of Cleanliness of the Insanitary Equipment When A Genicidal Agent Was Used . Quantities of Water Withdrawn at the Rate of Four Gallons Per Minute From Various Sizes of Water Heaters Without Temper- ltul‘ODPOp...e..e.........e Actual and Calculated Values of Power Loss Through the Walls of Various Size Heaters. . Page 29 30 32 36 to #3 5h 56 . Hill Figure 10 11 12 13 11L 15 16 17 LIST OF FIGURES Equipment Used for Collecting Data in the Field Including the Hot Water Meter and DataBoard................. Using Field Equipment for Collecting Data ontheFarn................. Taking Swabs of the Dairy Equipment. . . . . . Technique Used for Placing the Swabs in UhOVial'eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Ice Chest Employed for Maintaining Low Temperatures of the Bacteriological SaMples Between the Farm and the Laboratory. The Mechanical Shaking Machine Used in the Bacteriological Tests for Obtaining Representative Samples . . . . . . . . . . . Technique Followed for Placing the Samples inPetriDishes.........‘...... Placing the Melted T.G.E. (Tryptone Glucose Beef Extract) Agar in Petri Dishes . . . . . A Quebec Colony Counter Being Used to Count the Colonies on the Standard Agar. . . . . . Typical Bacteriological Plates Showing Varying Degrees of Contamination . . . . . . Amount and Wash Solution Used in Relation to the Number of Units Washed. . . . . . . . Withdrawal Curve for a Six-gallon Heater . . . Withdrawal Curve for a Twelve-gallon.Heater. . Withdrawal Curve for a Twenty-gallon Heater. . Withdrawal Curve for a Thirty-gallon Heater. . Withdrawal Curve for a Fifty-gallon.Heater . . Withdrawal Curve for an.Eighty-gallon.Heater . Page 15 15 17 17 19 19 23 23 25 us is In 1&9 SO LIST OF FIGURES Continued Figure Page 18 Heat Loss in Watts Per Gallon from Various 3120 HOIEOP' e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 51 19 Element Size to Maintain Temperature for Various 3129 Heaters e e e e e e e e e e e e 52 INTROIIJ CTION For many years the lack of sufficient hot water in the farm dairy has been of much concern to the dairy farmer, water heater manufacturer and dairy sanitarian. It is recognized that a sufficient amount of hot water in the dairy is a prime prerequisite for the production of quality milk. ‘With the preper washing techniques and good.house- keeping practices, it is not difficult to produce a quality product. The preper amount and temperature of hot water on the dairy farm plays a very important part in the washing operation. Hot water’should be available when required and should be close at hand. Today, there appears to be little information which the farmer or dairy sanitarian can use to intelligently select the preper size heater for any given dairy enter- prise. There have been several articles written on the subject but there appears to be little or no scientific data available and.ne concrete method.has been.estahlished for the proper selection of a heater. An increasing number of farms in thernit d States are becoming electrified and as of June 30, 1951, n.529.szo or 8h.2 percent of all the farms in the United States were 1 supplied with electrical power. The farmer is becoming 1. United States De artment of Agriculture, Agri. cultural Statistics, 19 2, p. 830. more conscious of the fact that quality production is of utmost importance in the dairy farm operation. With the enactment of new legislation regulating the production of milk the operator is faced with new problems of producing the quality produce desired. Plenty of hot water available in the dairy is an aid which the farmer can use to produce a quality product. ’By using the preper size electric water heater in the dairy, hot water is made-available at all times and at a location where it maybe used. , . The hot water requirements for dairy farm uses are not only of interest to the farmer but to the dairy sanitarian and water heater manufacturer. . The dairy sanitarian is interested from the public health standpoint and one of his main duties is to see that. the farmer is equipped to produce quality milk. When an unsatisfactory product is being produced oftentimes the dairy sanitarian is consulted with reference to the proper procedure fitobe followed to correct the cendition. When the proper amount and temperature of waterrequired to wash dairy equipment is known the sanitarian can pass on this information to the farmer. The water heater manufacturer-is interested in the proper size heater to manu- facture for the agricultural field. .. When the proper size heater is known for a given dairy farm Operation, this informationmay be used as a guide for future water heater manufacture. REVIEW OF LITERATURE There have been several articles written on the subject of hot water usage for dairy farm purposes but there appears to be disagreement as to the’prOper criteria to use in selecting the proper size water heater. It was suggested by anaemia in 1929 that the size of water heater depends more upon how the milk is handled than upon the number of cows in a given herd. It was also estimated by lttarsden3 that a five-gallon heater would suffice for a 20-25 cow herd. For this estimate the amount and kind of equipment used on the farm was not mentioned. A Roberts“, in his study of residential water heaters indicated that the trend istoward larger two-element ”off. peak” heaters fer dwellings._ The amount of insulation used and its method of installation would have ardecided effect upon the pewer consumption of water heaters. Hienton5 suggested that the efficiency of an‘electric water heater could be increased by as much as 13.9 percent by proper insulation. It was noted by Roberts6 that the chemical 2. Marsden, M. E. Electric water heaters in the dairy. Hoards' Dair an THEE—'7? :769, 1929. e 9 P07 70 . Roberts, E. H. A study of electric water heaters. me En e 1732“, 1936a ‘ 4 5 hienton, T. E. Electric water heaters for farm 0 dairies. Successful Earnipg 39:16 1914.1 6. ROM .r I, Opec e, p. MO, . properties of certain waters should be kept in mind when heating water. It is known that certain mineral compounds are precipitated when water is heated and these minerals will collect on the heating elements as scale deposits and reduce the efficiency of the heating element. The calcium and magnesium salts, namely, calcim carbonate and magnesia chloride, will be. precipitated at 180° F depending on the hardness of the water. It was found by Roberts7 that the most economical temperature for heating water was between ISO-160° F. The temperature to which water may be safely heated without mineral deposition depends upon the amount and kind of water hardness present. Roberts8 stated that in general it was more economical to use heaters with tile thermostatically controlled elements than with one thermo- statically controlled element. The average thermostat setting for water heaters taken from 20 sources including gas and electric heater manufacturers, engineers, and utility companies was 152° F 3; 9° F. , Hienton and Fore9 in 1939 tested 15 pour-in type water heaters to detemine the energy consuptien per gallon per degree rise in unperature and the efficiency of the various heaters. It was suggested that water should be heated to 165° F during the warmer months and the temperature should e Ibid, p. 2 e e Ibid, pe an e . 9. :Hienton, T. E. and Fore, J. M. Experiments with electric water heaters for dairy farms. ng. 5gp. gpp. ta. Bull. “.732, 1939. "'"" '0 be increased to 1'70o F during the colder months to preperly wash dairy utensils. It was suggested by Schaenzerlo that 180° F was the best temperature for washing dairy equipment but that boiling water was preferred. It was found that the time required to heat water depended upon the amount of water heated, wattage of the elements, insulation of the heater, and the final temperature. Where the heaters were uninsulated the high wattage elements were more efficient than the lower wattage elements. The three to fifteen gallon sizes were found to be practical for use on Indiana farms selling bulk milk. A more definite figure was recommended, namely, seven to ten gallons of hot water per ton cows when the herd was 20 cows or larger. Forel'1 in 1911.0 stated that there were three general types of heaters for the small dairy farm, namely, the port- able incrsion type, open tank with built-in heater, and the "in“ and ”out" 'heater. The latter type is more commonly called the pour-in type heater. The portable inmersien type heater may be used at any location desired where a 115ovolt source is available. The element size ranged from 500 to 1300 watts. Excessive rusting resulted where the inersion type heaters were used. The immersion heater consists of a resistance element enclosed by a pretective shield and attached to a power source. The resistance element assembly 10. Schaenzer, J. P. Rural Electrification, lith ed. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing 50., I953, p. 255. 11. Fore, J. M. Water heaters for the small dairy. Electricigy pp pp: Farm 13(5):ll|., 19140. is placed directly into the water. 12 that a liO-gallon size water It was found by Scott heater was large enough for a SO-ccw milking herd if the milk was sold wholesale but this same size heater would only care for a 15-cow herd when the milk was sold retail. The findings by Scott substantiate the reference by Marsden that the heater size should be selected according to the method of handling the milk as indicated earlier in the review of literature. It was reported that a high percentage of the tank capacity may be withdrawn at the thermostat setting. Scott13 indicated that 35 gallons of near-boiling water could be withdrawn from a tic-gallon heater. 1“ on 50 An experiment was conducted by J. B. Stere Western Pennsylvania wholesale dairy farms. The farmers participating in the experiment had herds ranging in size from eight to AS cows and water heaters ranging in size from 10 to 80 gallons. The datawere collected during the spring and su—er months. Store reported that the hot water needs for the fans could be grouped into three main groups 3 namely, regular, periodic, and miscellaneous uses. Of the SO farms tested, only four farmers admitted having heaters of sufficient size. Many of the farmers found that it was possible to get along during the spring and summer months 12. Scott, J. C. Premiums from hot water. Electricig 35 the Pam 10(5):1o, 1937. —IBe 151d, Po 1°e 114.. Store, J. B. How big a dairy water heater? Electricitz pp 212 Farm 21(2):8, 1915.8. Pr. with their present heaters but the amount of water was insufficient during the winter months. The daily hot water needs consisted of watering the calves, washing udders, and washing the milking machines and utensils. Each calf required one-half gallon of 150° F water per watering. Hand washing required one gallon of 150° F water per person per washing. The milking units required two gallons of 150° F water in conjunction with a germicidal agent to sanitize the milkers prior to milking. The water used for watering the calves, hand washing and utensil washing was tempered with cooler water to the desired temperature. The machine sanitizing solution was later used to wash the udders. Two gallons of water was recommended for every five cows. It was found that the average temper- ature of the wash solution was 1350 F, during the washing interval. Five gallons of 150° F water was used to wash the milking units and other utensils after the milking operation. The periodic water needs inoluded the veterinarian, inseminator technician, and the milk tester. The veterin- arian, technician, and milk tester each required a minimum of 2* gallons of 150° F water per visit. When the water heater size was being determined allowance was made for only 2% gallons of 150° F water as in the majority of cases all three specialists would not be at the farm at any one time. In general, it was found that the miscellaneous needs did not change the size of water heater required. There were two types of heaters employed by the farmers; namely, the pressure and non-pressure types. The non- pressure type was the most common and ranged in size from 10 to 20 gallons. The advantages of the non-pressure heaters were: easy installation, use with a 115-volt circuit, no pressure, and freedom from freezing. The disadvantages of the non-pressure system were slow flow of water, temperature quickly reduced when the draw-off was intermittent, and slow in reheating. Additional disadvantages cited were that the thermostat was sensitive, hot water available at only one location, power supply may be easily interrupted, and the heater may become contaminated by using dirty utensils to fill the heater. The pressure type heaters were usually connected for off.peak operation when 15 gallons or more of hot water were used per day. The ”off-peak" heater control is a mechanism employed to control the operation of the lower element. The lower element is allowed to operate only when the power demand is below a limit as established by the local power supplier. The advantages noted for the pressure type system were the rapid flow of water, minimum dr0p in water temperature, hot water can be delivered to many locations, and the energy consImAption is lower if l5 gallons or more of hot water are used per day. The disadvantages of the pressure type system were that extra plumbing was required and the ‘water lines must be protected from the freezing weather. Stare15 suggested.that the amount and temperature of hot water used for each Operation and the time of day it was needed should be determined to intelligently select the prOper size dairy water heater for any given dairy farm enterprise. To take care of peak demands it was suggested that the heater should hold one-fourth more water than the maximum water needed in any given single hour and that the size of elements be governed by the frequency of use. A heater of the "Off-peak" type should be large enough to hold the total daily needs for hot water. Forty-one wholesale dairies were studied, in Pennsyl- vania, tO determine the prOper size of water heaters for 16 Farms with 50-gallon or larger "Off- dairy farm purposes. peak" water heaters were studied. It was stated that a 50-gallon heater was required for a.herd up to 25 cows, a 66-gallon heater for a herd Of from 26-35 cows, and an 80- gallon heater for a herd Of 36-50 cows. Heaters are principally of the pressure and non-pressure types and generally only pressure heaters of a certain size, as determined by the power supplier, may be Operated by an ”offspeak” control and thus receive a reduced electrical rate for the energy used. “When the heaters are connected for ”off- peak" Operation the lower element is on the clock and the upper element is connected to the power at all times. It has been prOposed by the National Electrical Manufacturers 15. Ibid, p. 12. 16. A revised report on special studies and research. Edison Electric Institute, Jan. 19h? - December, 1950, p. 10. 10 Association17 that the upper element size be limited to 30 watts per gallon of tank capacity and the lower element size be limited to 20 watts per gallon Of tank capacity. It 1. recommendedla that the lower element be set eight degrees higher than the upper element to enable the lower element to do most Of the heating. The late model water heaters of the pressure type are well insulated and are usually equipped with a "goose neck” heat trap located near the tOp of the heater. The heat trap is designed to prevent circulation Of the hot water through the pipes and thus reduce heat loss due to radiation. It is common practice to make the heating element sheath of an alloy that has a larger coefficient Of thermal expansion than the lime that may become deposited on the elements due to hardness of the water. The expansion and contraction of the heater element sheath aids in the removal of lime deposits by cracking the lime deposits and.causing them to peel from the element. It has been found that the heaters with the elements on the outside Of the tank have less trouble with liming. 17. Pfingsten, A. H. Off peak water heaters and radi- ators in.milk houses. Farm Electrification 3(1):38, l9h9. 18. Ibid, p. 38. OBJECTIVES One of the main objectives of this study was to deter- mine the smount and temperature of water being used on dairy farms to wash the dairy utensils and care for other needs. Another objective was to detennine the criterion to be used for detenining the amount Of water and size of heater to be used for any given dairy enterprise. Bacteriological studies were to be conducted on the equipment after the washing Operation to determine the quality of the washing Operation. A time and motion study was conducted in conjunction with the study to determine standard times for various Operations in the milk house. A method was to be designed for the prOper selection of a water heater size and heater element size according to the data collected in the. study. Suggestions were also presented for the efficient use of hot water on the farm. PROCEDURE Field Equipment The equipment used in the field included the bacterio- logical equipment, hot water meter, Fahrenheit thermometers, step watch, and a clip board. The hot water meter used for the study was a Badger model 80-1, 5/8 x 3/14" bronze meter. The meter had a maximum Operating capacity of 26 gallons per minute. The meter was not Operated at near capacity as the maximum flow recorded during the tests was 6.6? gallons per minute. The entrance pipe to the meter was 5/8" but connections were employed for use with 3/1.." pipe. The meter was mounted on a frame so that it could be attached to the wash vats while in use. Flexible rubber hoses were used for meter connections at the farm. A ~h° to 230° F thermometer was connected in series with the meter to record the temperature of the water withdrawn. The thermometer was placed in the line between the faucet and the meter. The thermometer bulb was in direct contact with the water during withdrawal for quick, accurate readings. The clip board and step watch were mounted on a 1/11." plywood panel for taking and recording the data. The clip board and step watch panel was designed for ease in taking data. Refer to Fig. l for clip board and meter panel assembly. Five-ounce capped bottles were used to secure the water samples. 13 Field Procedure A study was conducted on 30 stall type Michigan dairy famms during the summer'months to determine the amount and temperature of water used for a given dairy enterprise. The tests were conducted by observing the milking procedure and recording the amount and temperature of the water used for the herds ranging in size from.10 to 90 cows. The farms to be visited were selected at random within about a 20-mile radius of the campus. The seeperators were contacted per» - zonally prior to conducting the tests so that the objectives of the study could be outlined and to enable the Operators to feel at case about the study. The OOOperators were selected by the aid of the local farm service advisors for the various power suppliers in the area studied. The data were obtained over a period of one day on each farm at the time of the evening and.morning milkings. ‘Uith the aid of a time andhmotion.study the times required for each washing Operation in the dairy were recorded to the nearest 0.05 minute. The data collected in the time and motion study included the number and pieces of equipment washed and other*miscellaneous uses of water. The thme and motion study covered the period from the time the farmer first entered the milk houe until the time he left. Only the Operations conducted in the milk house were broken down into individual Operations. The time study also served to 1’4- determine the rate of withdrawal and time Of withdrawal relative to the start of the milking Operation. Standard times were established for the various milkrocm Operations from the time and motion data. The hot water meter was connected to the water heaters as shown in Fig. 2. As the water was withdrawn through the meter the temperature, quantity and rate of withdrawal were determined. The meter read to the nearest one gallon and readings were interpolated to the nearest one-fourth gallon. At each farm prepared data sheets were compiled. Sample data forms used appear in Appendix I. Two data fans were filled out at the farm at the time of the visit and the remaining forms were filled out when the data was analyzed. The amount and temperature of the water used for the washing Operation were determined along with the amount and kind of washing compound. Care was taken to determine if a sanitizer- detergent combination was used or if just a synthetic deter- gent was used. The duration for washing and rinsing each utensil was Observed at each farm visited. After the utensils were washed and placed upon the racks to dry swabs were taken on each individual piece of equipment until about 15 swabs had been taken. Fifteen swabs of various pieces Of equipment gave a good indication of the washing Operation. The swabs were taken according to standard procedure19 19. American Public Health Association. Standard gethodsfor the Examination 9; Dairy Products, 55 e3” 1914.8, 1). e 1S \ Fig. 1 Equipment used for collecting data in the field including the hot water meter and data board. Fig. 2 Using field equipment for collecting data on the farm. 16 as outlined by the American Public Health Association. The swabs consisted of non-absorbent cotton, firmly twisted to about 3/16” in diameter by 3/)...“ long on wooden applicators. A buffered distilled water solution was provided for the swabs after the sample. had been taken. The buffered dis- tilled water solution was prepared by the college Bacteri- ology Department and was used as ordered. The buffer solution was placed in test tubes in 10-ml portions and steppered with tightly wound cotton plugs. The swabs were kept prior to the test in separate vials which were steppered with tightly packed cotton. When the tests were conducted the sterile swabs were removed from the individual vials and dipped into a vial of the buffer solution. The excess solution was removed from the swab by squeezing it out against the side Of the vial. A four-square-inch area was covered by the swab (Fig. 3). The swabs were taken in locations that were suspected to be the least sanitary such as the neck of strainers and the side-wall junctions of pails. The areas were covered four times and the swabs were rotated during the Operation to enable uniform sapling. After the swabbing Operation the swab was placed in the vial of buffer solution from which it was moistened and the appli- cator was broken in half to keep the vial from becoming eon- taminated by the technician's hands (See Fig. ‘4). The swabs were than placed in a refrigerated chest to cool the specimens until they were tested. Fig. 5 shows the refrigerated chest 17 Fig. 3 Taking swabs of the dairy equipment. Fig. h Technique used for placing the swabs in the vials. 18 including the swabs and the ice which was used for refrig- eration. A sample of the water supply was secured at the fan: and taken to the laboratory for testing. The sample was secured from the cold water supply. It was felt that the hardness of the water would have a definite influence upon the quality of the washing Operation. Laboratory Equipment The equipment used in the agricultural engineering laboratory included five selected water heaters of varying size, watt-hour meters, hot water meters and thermometers. The electric water heaters were selected at random and included 6, 12, 20, 30, 50 and BO-gallon size heaters. Fifteen ampere, 220-volt, three wire, watt-hour meters were used in conjunction with the heaters to determine heat loss. The same hot water meter was used in the laboratory as was used in the field. The bacteriological equipment was used in the bacteri- ology laboratory and consisted of equipment and reagents required for conducting the swab tests and the equipment and reagents for conducting the water hardness test. A shaking machine was used to Obtain a uniform bacteriological sample for plating. Fig. 6 shows the mechanical shaking machine in Operation. Petri dishes, 2.2 ml transfer pipettes, TGE 19 Fig. 5 Ice chest employed for maintaining low temperatures of the bacteriological samples between the farm and the laboratory. Fig. 6 The mechanical shaking machine used in the bacteriological tests for obtaining representative samples. 20 (Iryptone Glucose Beef Extract) agar, and sterile skim milk were furnished by the Bacteriology Department. 1 37° 0 incubator and colony counter were also provided by the Bacteriology Department. Equipment for the water hardness test was furnished by the school and the reagents used were prepared from stock chemicals. The TGE agar was made according to specifications as outlined by the American Public Health Association.20 Laboratory Procedure The selected water heaters were designed for use on a 220-volt system and were equipped with varying size elenents depending upon the size of the heater. The 6, 12, and 20. gallon heaters were "Hi-Put“ heaters furnished by the sponsor of the project and the SO and BO-gallon heaters were "Cauep‘I heaters furnished by the college. The BO-gallon heater was secured from one or the coOperators of the project. The various units were attached to a ZZO-volt system and the thermostats were adjusted to deliver water at approximately 155° 1". When the heaters were up to temperature, the hot water was withdrawn at varying rates ranging from two to six gallons per minute to determine the amounts that could be withdrawn at various rates without tenperature drap. Only one rate of withdrawal was used on the 30, 50, and BO-gallon heaters as these units were located some distance from the 20. Ibid, p. 93. laboratory. The rate selected for the 30, 50, and 80-gallon heaters was the average rate used by the farmers with pressure type heaters. a dictaphone was used to record the temperature of the water as it was being withdrawn at the various rates from the heaters tested in the laboratory. Temperature readings were recorded verbally on the dicta- phone at intervals as determined by a step watch. It was felt that readings should be taken at 0.05 minute intervals to get satisfactory curves showing water withdrawal relative to temperature drOp. i‘he dictaphone was used only on the 6, 12, and 20-gallon sise heaters as they were conveniently located in the laboratory and in many cases a greater temper- ature change resulted per unit tine with the smaller heaters than with the larger heaters. Ii‘he temperature was recorded at 0.10 minute intervals with the 30, 50, and 80-gallon heaters. Graphs were made of the temperature drop versus the quantity or withdrawal for the various heaters and for the various rates or withdrawal to demonstrate the perform- ance of the various heaters. The lS-ampere, 220-volt, three wire watt-hour meters were attached to the various size heaters and allowed to remain for a two-week period. The heater thermostats were set at 155° 1". The meters measured the heat loss through the walls of the heaters for the two-week period. llo water was withdrawn from the units during this time. After the 22 two-week period the heat loss was determined in kilowatt- hours and recorded as watts of heat loss per 100° F differ- ential. The heat loss was also computed for the various sised heaters by observing the kind and thickness of insul- ation, surface area, and temperature differential. The actual values were la ter compared with calculated values. A 30-gallon heater was not available in the laboratory and the heat loss for this heater was interpolated. The laboratory work for the bacteriological study was conducted in the Bacteriology laboratory. All of the equip- ment was furnished by the Bacteriology Department. When the refrigerated samples were brought in from the field they were placed on a mechanical shaking machine and shaken for 30 minutes prior to sampling. The object of this shaking pro- cedure was to remove the bacteria from the cotton swab out into the solution. A more representative lfliple could be obtained once the bacteria were in solution. Three plates were made of each sample by taking varying amounts of the sample and placing them in sterile Petri dishes. Two milli- liter, one milliliter, and one-tenth milliliter portions were plated from each sample as shown in Fig. 7. The standard TOE agar was melted, cooled to body temperature and placed ' in each Petri dish. (Refer to Fig. 8). Three milliliters of sterile skim milk were added to each 250 milliliters of agar prior to plating. The IGE agar served as a culture media 23 Fig. 7 Technique followed for placing the samples in Petri dishes. Fig. 8 Placing the melted T. G. E. (Tryptone Glucose Beef Extract) agar in Petri dishes. The T. G. E. agar is the culture medium. for the bacteria. The individual plates were incubated at 37° C for hB hours prior to counting. The individual colonies were counted on a "Quebec Colony Counter" and each colony was counted as one bacterium. Fig. 9 shows a Quebec Colony Counter being used. The bacteria, as determined from the plates, were recorded as the number of bacteria per square inch of utensil surface area. Only the plates containing between 30 and 300 colonies were used for recording the cons tamination. All plates with colonies that were too numerous to count were considered as 500 colonies per plate and were recorded from the highest dilution having plates too numerous to count. The two-milliliter plate counts were multiplied by 1.25 to determine the bacteria count per square inch of Fig. 9 A Quebec Colony Counter being used to count the colonies on the standard agar. 25 utensil surface area. The one-milliliter plate counts were multiplied by 2.5 to determine the bacteria count per square inch and the one-tenth milliliter plate counts were multi- plied by 25 to determine the bacteria counts per square inch of surface area. Fig. 10 shows typical plates with varying numbers of colonies present. The water hardness was determined by the standard Ver- senate method.21 The Versenate Method for the determination Fig. 10' Typical bacteriological plates showing varying degrees of contamination. Plate "A" is a sterile plate. Plate "B” is a plate that would be considered satisfac- tory for this study. Plate ”C” is a plate too numerous to count and would be con- sidered unsatisfactory. Plates with more than 300 colonies were considered too numerous to count. 21. Anonymous. The Versenes. Tech. Bull. No. 2. Framingham, Mass: BerswerEE Chemical Company, Sec. III, p. 5. 26 to the total hardness of water is superior to the soap titration method in accuracy and speed. Versene was used as the titrating agent as it reacts with calcium and mag- nesium to form complex ions. The calcium and magnesium are rendered inactive and the solution is kept perfectly clear. The endpoint of the titration was detected by the use of an indicaterwwhich changed in color from a wine red to a blue when the last of the calcium and.magnesium was tied up. A buffer solution was added at the beginning of each titration to maintain the preper pH. The Versenate Method is accurate to 2 ppm and can.be used over a wide range of water hardness. The Versene solution was standardized by using analytical standard calcium carbonate made up into a calcium chloride solution. The reagents were obtained from stock materials and pre- pared according te standard procedure. The buffer solution was prepared by dissolving 13.5 grams of pure ammonium chlor- ide in 11h.milliliters of concentrated pure ammonium hydroxide. The mixture was then diluted to 200 milliliters. The indi- cator solution was prepared.previously. The standard calcium chloride solution was prepared by dissolving 1.0 gram of pure calcium carbonate in a little dilute hydrochloric acid. The solution was diluted to exactly one liter and stored in a steppered bottle. One milliliter was equivalent to 1.0 milligram of calcium carbonate. The standard Versenate solution was prepared by dissolving h.0 grams of disedium- 27 dihydregen versenate dihydrate in about 750 milliliters of distilled water. One-tenth of a gram of magnesium chloride (HgClZ‘ofizo) was added to the versenate solution. To stand. ardise the versenate solution 25.0 milliliters of the standard calcium chloride solution was added to 10.0 milli- liters of buffer solution plus three drops of indicator for endpoint detection and titrated against the prepared versenate solution. The above solution was titrated with the standard versenate solution to the color change. The versenate solution was later diluted so that one milliliter of versenate was equivalent to one milligram of calcium carbonate. . . The procedure followed in testing a given sample was to pipette 50.0 milliliters of the water suple into a 250- milliliter flask and add 10.0 milliliters of the buffer solution and three drops of the indicator prior to titration. The sample was then titrated with the standard Versenate' solution to the color change from wine red to blue. The total hardness (calcium and magnesium) was determined as ppm of calcium carbonate by multiplying the volume of versenate required in milliliters, by 20. Parts per million of hardness was divided by 17.1 -:to obtain grams of hardness per 11.8. gallon. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA Field Data and Interpretations Lime and Motion Study The data collected in the time and motion study included the time required. for conducting various operations in the milk house as well .as the number of pieces of equipment washed and other miscellaneous uses of water. The time and motion study was conducted only on the operations in the milk house and was not concerned with the actual milking operation. After the study was completed standard times were determined as shown in Table I. The time required for the milking operation varied directly with the number of cows being milked and inversely with the number of milking units used. The milking operation on the farms observed required an average of 8.8 minutes per cow per milking. - Times required for milking varying size herds with varying numbers of milking units as shown in Table II. The study was conducted only in stall-type barns and since loose-housing type barns are becoming increasingly popular it is well to include data for loose-housing barns relative to milking times. Cargill22 found that it required 22. Cargill, B. 1'. Method engineering analysis—of loose housing dairy barns. Unpublished manuscript for 14.3., Michigan State College, p. 1.3. 29 TABLE I AVERAGE TIMES AND RANGES OBSERVED FOR VARIOUS WASHING OPERATIONS v‘ °P°rat1°n $333.3” T321135??? Disassemble milker 0.50 0.15 - 1.25 Assemble milker 0.50 0.10 - 0.95 Wash.machine gaskets (two) 0.25 0.10 - 0.50 Wash inflation cups (four) 0.50 0.20 - 1.05 Hash three feet milker hose 0.20 0.10 - 0.60 wash milker p.11 0.80 0.20 - 2.1;5 Rinse milker pail 0.20 0.05 - 0.50 'Wash.milker head 0.60 0.10 - 2.50 Rinse milker head 0.20 0.05 - 0.}...5 Wash milker inflatiens (four) 0.90 0.20 - 2.50 Rinse milker inflatiens (four) 0.25 0.05 - 0.65 Disassemble strainer 0.1.0 0.20 - 0.90 Assemble strainer 0.110 0.20 - 0.60 wash strainer 0.60 0.15 - 1.11.5 Rinse strainer 0.20 0.10 - 0.60 ‘Vash l2-quart pail 0.30 0.20 - 1.05 Rinse 12-quart pail 0.20 0.10 - 0.30. Hash lip-quart pail 0.50 0.25 - 1.20 Rinse lip-quart pail 0.20 0.05 - 0.55 wash l6-quart pail 0.60 0.30 - 1.20 Rinse 16-quart pail 0.20 0.10 - 0.30 wash and rinse strip cup 0.1.0 0.30 - 0.60 30 TABLE II TIME REQUIRED FOR MILKING VARYING SIZE HERDS WITH A VARYING NUMBER OF MILKING UNITS (STALL BARN) Size of herd Time in minutes_per number of—single units (.0038) One Two Three Four 5 uh.o 10 88.0 hh.0 15 132.0 66.0 hh.0 20 88.0 53.6 hh.0 25 110.0 73.1. 55.0 30 132.0 88.0 66.0 35 102.8 77.0 to 117.2 88.0 #5 132.0 99.0 50 110.0 55 121.0 60 132.0 31 6.7 minutes for milking per cow per milking when a loose- housing type of barn was employedand these results are shown in Table III. The rates of water withdrawal and the times of withdrawal relative to the time of day were determined from the time and motion study. The average rate of withdrawal from the pressure type heaters was 3.92 gallons per minute and the , average rate of withdrawal from the pour-in type heaters was 2.69 gallons per minute. The rate. of withdrawal and the relative time of withdrawal is important from the stand- point of water heater selection. When a heater is operated on a time-clock mechanism the size of heater required may vary somewhat depending upon "off-peak” hours as established by the local power supplier. Hater Usage Stu_dz The amount of water used for washing the dairy utensils varied widely. In some cases, as much as two to two and one- half times as much water was used for a given herd as com- pared with another herd ef comparable size. The wash water temperatures did not vary widely and the mean temperature was approximately 120° F. It was observed that a water temperature much above 120° F was harmful to body tissue and that water at a temperature of 120° P, which was the cornea practice, was more comfortable for washing. When the temperature increased much above 120° F the hand became 32 TABLE III TIME REQUIRED FOR MILKING VARYING SIZE HERBS WITH A VARYING NUMBER OF MILKING UNITS (LOOSE HOUSING BARN) Size of herd Time in minutes per number of single units (GOV!) TIE We Three # W 5 33.5 10 67.0 33.5 15 100.5 50.5 33.5 20 13t.0 67.0 hh.7 33.5 25 83.8 55.9 h1.9 30 100.5 ‘67.0 50.3 35 117.2 78.2 58.6 to 13h.0 89.h 67.0 15- 100.5 75.h 50 111.6 83.7 55 122.9 92.1 60 131.0 100.5 65 108.9 70 117.2 75 125.7 80 131.0 33 irritated. This finding closely agrees with the recommenda- tion of Mallmann23 who recommends a wash temperature of 115° to 120° F. Soil is more easily removed and cleaners act much better in warm water than in cold water. Cold water will not remove fats and oils and in no instance should cold water washing be tolerated. The data collected on the 30 farms were analysed statistically to determine the correlation between the amount of water used and the several factors involved. These data show that there was a significant relationship between the amount of water used and the size of hard, but also that there was a closer relationship between the amount of water used and the pieces of equipment washed. The amount of water used was determined on the basis of the number of units washed. The units were determined by relative surface area of the utensil according to the following schedule : 1 single milker unit 1.00 unit 1 strainer 0.25 unit 1 pail (16-111 qt.) 0.25 unit 1 pail (12-10 qt.) 0.20 unit 1 strip cup 0.05 unit The amount of wash solution used is related to the number of units washed, as shown in Fig. 11. The statistical analysis 23. Mallmann, W. L. Notes on dairy cleaners and clean: 31% digs eduipment. M. 553. Exp. gag. m, 2.3.1120 27(1): 9 34 J KEY: _ I SINGLE UNIT = I UNIT ‘ l STRAINER =l/4 UNIT l4-~ I(I6-I4 QT- P'AIL) =I/4 UNIT 4 l(|2-|O QT-PAIL) =l/5 UNIT “ ISTRIP CUP =I/20UNIT I2— “; -1 . -I I) 990-. 1 t- _, < E] —d .—1 28 3 J g 1 <1 .J 3 6 .I u. o —-I g —I 3 4" J 4 4 —I 0 — 2—4 __I .J I j I I I I I I r I I I I I Ffi l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NUMBER OF UNITS TO BE WASHED FIGJIAMOUNT OF WASH SOLUTION USED IN RELATION TO THE NUMBER OF UNITS WASHED. 35 was not concerned only with the amount of water used for washing relative to the amount of equipment washed but included other dependent and independent variables involved in the study as shown in Table IV. Washing the udders prior to milking was practiced on 87 percent of the farms. For the purpose an average of 0.17 gal. of 110° F wash solution was used per cow per milking. It is recommended that a germicidal chemical machine rinse be used between cows during the milking cper- ation to aid in the control of disease.2h' A germicidal rinse for teat cups was used on no percent of the farms. It was found on the average that 0.19 gal. of 110° 1" water per cow per milking was used for the machine teat cup rinse. The smallest size herd studied that used a machine rinse was 11 cows. It should be noted that the quantities mentioned above are average figures and the minimum quantity of udder wash and machine rinse used was one pail of each solution per milking. 0f the 30 farms visited, 30 percent of the fans used short-tube milkers. It was found that the farms with short-tube milkers used an average of 3.8 gal. of 120° I water per unit of equipment washed, whereas the remaining farms averaged 2.8 gal. of 120° F water per unit washed. However, statistically no significant relationship was found betwaen the amount of water used for the short-tube and the 2h. Jensen, J. 1!. Practical sanitation in caring for : fiélging machines. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 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Miscellaneous Observations Pressure-type heaters were used on 80 percent of the farms with the water being piped under pressure to a double sink wash vat. Pour-in type heaters were used on the remaining 20 percent of the farms visited. The majority of the heaters were located near the wash vats -- 83 percent within 5 feet, 10 percent from 5 to 10 feet, and 7 percent at least 10 feet from the vats. About 95 percent of the farms with pressure type heaters had a mixer faucet located at the wash vat. The usual procedure was to wash the utensils in one side of the vat to remove the soil particles and to sanitize them in the other side of the vat. The average water heater temperature was 155° F. The average size of herd was 32 cows and 63.11. percent of the famers visited were using 30-gallon heaters or larger. Laboratory Data and Interpretations Bacteriological Study The bacteriological studied indicated that there was a definite advantage in using a germicidal agent in conjunction with the washing operation. This finding was in agreement with other studies.25 it the farm, swabs were taken of the 25. Hallmann, W. L. Notes on the sanitization of dai equipment- Mich. Agr. a. Sta. Quart. Bull. 27(1):112, 17m. 38 metal parts of the milking equipment. In every case a synthetic detergent was employed, but only 14.0 percent of the farms studied used a germicidal agent in the wash solution. lo bacteriological standard for sanitary equipment was found in the literature therefore the standard of 100 colonies per square inch of utensil surface, as used in the tests, was determined from other bacteriological standards as established for other conditions. The American Public Health Association26 recommends that 100 colonies per eight square inches of utensil surface be the maximms allowable tolerance in dairy manufacturing plants. The 0.3. Public Health Service,” however, recommends that counts less than 100 colonies per four square inches be considered sanitary for eating and drinking establishments. It was found by computation that the counts per milliliter were not signifi- cantly large when a standard of 100 colonies per square inch of surface area was used to determine the quality of the washing operation. The standard of 100 colonies per square inch was considered to be satisfactory when the conditions under which the swabs were taken, the accuracy of the swab contact method itself, and other existing standards were taken into consideration. The swabs were taken after the equipment had drained and partially dried. Swabs taken later 26. American Public Health Association, op cit., p. 52. 27. 11.3. Public Health Service. Ordinance and code regulating eating and drinking establishments. Public Health 801‘7100 Publ. 37: Fe 31-h l9h3e /“ 39 would produce lower counts due to the drying effect of the bacterial cells, as many of the bacteria would be killed due to this dehydrating effect. The swabs were taken at,a time when the counts were most likely to be the highest. For example, the contamination on a lh-quart pail was com- puted as two colonies per milliliter using the standard of 100 colonies per four square inches and four colonies per milliliter using the standard of 100 colonies per square inch of utensil surface. Other utensils would be in pro- portion to the llI-quart pail depending upon the surface area. Four colonies per milliliter-were not considered significantly large for this study; therefore, bacteria counts of 100 colonies per square inch of utensil surface were considered sanitary. 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