THE EFFECT 0F NEURD-MUSCULAR ACTIVITY 0N ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE 0F KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ORVAL M. CONNER 1 9 6 5 iIS LIBRARY Michigan State University $pr This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Effect of Neuro-Mhscular Activity On Achievement and Intelligence of Kindergarten Children. presented by Orval M. Conner has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education mam Major professor Date JUIV 20. 1965 0-169 RQOM USE ONLY A - Art-:fl ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF NEURO-MUSCULAR ACTIVITY ON ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE OF KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN by Orval M. Conner This study grew out of an interest in some of the more recent research related to factors in human develop— ment believed to be influential in bringing about the fuller release of human potential. The design of this study was structured to examine the contribution and relation of gross and fine neuro—muscular activity to improved functioning of kindergarten children as measured by standardized achievement and intelligence tests. No statistically significant differences in intelli- gence and formal school experience existed between the experimental and control groups within the socio-economic levels at the beginning of the study. Statistical evaluation of the differences in gain scores between the experimental and control groups was computed for the Pintner—Cunningham Primary General Ability Test, The MetrOpolitan Readiness Test, and the Kraus—Weber Physical Fitness Test. From these data it was possible to determine the short—term effects of neuro—muscular, perception, and vision organization activities on kindergarten children. ~2~ Orval M. Conner Standardized test measurements were taken on a pre and post treatment basis to determine the effect of the experimental treatment. The difference in gain scores between the experimental and control groups, both on a total group basis and within socio—economic levels, was computed and tested for statistical significance. Computations were made on the following measures: total achievement, reading readiness, number readiness, intelligence, and physical fitness. ACHIEVEMENT: The difference in gain scores between the total experimental and total control groups in total achievement as measured by the F Statistic was found to be statistically significant at the .01 level. Comparable significance was shown for the cross-product of the experimental-control and socio—economic factors. Further analysis within socio-economic levels by means of the T Test revealed significance at the .005 level in favor of the lower socio-economic experimental group, and at the .05 level in favor of the middle socio— economic experimental group. The hypothesis regarding total achievement was supported. Statistical significance was not found in the difference between gain scores of the experimental and control groups on reading readiness. The cross-product of the experimental-control and socio—economic factors was statistically significant. Within the low socio— ~3~ Orval M. Conner economic level the difference in gain scores between the low socioueconomic experimental and control groups was statistically significant at the .005 level in favor of the experimental group. Statistical significance was not found for the difference in gain scores for the middle socio~economic group. The difference in gain scores in number readiness between the total experimental and control groups was statistically significant at the .01 level. Analysis within socio~economic levels indicated experimental group significance at the .0005 level in favor of the lower socio—economic group. Significance was not found for the difference in gain scores within the middle socio—economic group. INTELLIGENCE: The difference in gain scores between the total experimental and control groups was not statis— tically significant, and the interaction product of the experimental-control and socio—economic factors was not statistically significant. Socio-economic level analysis did not show statistical significance for the difference in gain scores within the low socio—economic group, but for the middle socio—economic group significance was reflected at the .005 level for the difference in gain scores between the experimental and control group in favor of the experimental group. The hypothesis regarding gains in intelligence was supported by only the middle ~4~ Orval M. Conner socio—economic group. NEURonMUSCULAR FITNESS: The difference in gain scores between both experimental and control groups was adequate to meet the .05 level and favored the experimental group gains. The hypothesis regarding gains in neuro—muscular fitness was supported. The combined influence of fine and gross neuro- muscular activity has been found to be positive as it influences the achievement and intelligence performance as identified. Differences in gain scores between socio— economic groups appear to be attributable to (1) past experience, (2) program emphasis, and (3) the relevancy of the learning experience to the readiness level of the learner. THE EFFECT OF NEURO—MUSCULAR ACTIVITY ON ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE OF KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN BY A Orval M. Conner A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special acknowledgment is due many persons who have, in varying ways, made contributions that this endeavor might be completed. The writer owes a particular debt of gratitude to his major advisor, Dr. Charles A. Blackman. His encouragement and assistance throughout the study is greatly appreciated. Equal to this was the patience and understanding of my wife, Marlene, and our two daughters, Gwen and Lee Ann. The instruction and counsel of Dr. William K. Durr, Dr. James B. McKee, and Dr. Floyd G. Parker, as members of my guidance committee, is also greatly appreciated. Special acknowledgment is also due Dr. Robert D. Johnson and Dr. Ralph M. Howard for their interest and inter- disciplinary counsel regarding the neuro-muscular and visual components of the study. The writer wishes to express appreciation for the Opportunity to carry out the experimental phase of the program within the Battle Creek Public Schools. For this I am indebted first to Superintendent Harry R. Davidson, and secondly to Mrs. Evelyn Kelley and Mrs. Frona Wallace in whose classrooms the study was carried out. Their cooperation and interest are very much appreciated. Acknowledgment is also due the Bureau of Educational ii Research for the technical assistance provided through— out the study. Particular gratitude is expressed for the counsel and assistance of Mr. Bruce Rogers with the computer analysis, to Mr. David Cox for his assist— ance with statistical material, and to Mr. Ronald Crowell for his general counsel and assistance with design and analysis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I II. III. TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . The Problem . . . . . . . . . Justification for the Study . Definition of Terms . . . . . Population of the Study . . . Design of the Study . . . . . Statement of Hypotheses . . . Curriculum Modifications. . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . Philosophical Perspective . . Perception. . . . . . . . . . Neuro-muscular Fitness. . . . Vision Organization . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF DATA. . . Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . Delimitations . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page ii vi vii 10 ll 12 18 19 23 37 44 50 52 52 54 58 6O IV. PRESENTATION OF DATA . . . . . . Intelligence. . . . . . . . Achievement Pattern . . . . Reading. . . . . . . . Numbers. . . . . . . . Total. . . . . . . . . Percentile Pattern . . Neuro—muscular Fitness. . . Vision Organization . . . . Hypothesis I. . . . . . . . Hypothesis II . . . . . . . Hypothesis III. . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . V. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. APPENDICES. Summary of the Study. . . . Socio-Economic Differences. Comparison with Related Research. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . Discussion. . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Research . . . . . . . . Page 61 62 64 64 67 68 7O 73 75 77 78 79 82 83 86 88 89 89 91 95 100 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Housing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.4 Age, Sex, and Mean Intelligence of the Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.4 Mean Achievement Test Scores . . . . . 69 4.4 Kraus-Weber Results. . . . . . . . . . 72 5.4 Intelligence Measures on Children Noted as Having Particular Vision Organization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 6.4 Summary of Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . 81 vi APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C LIST OF APPENDICES Page Data Collection Form. . . . . . . . . 101 Kraus-Weber Tests . . . . . . . . . . 102 Perception Form Templates . . . . . . 104 Plate 1 - Circle. . . . . . . . . . . 104 Plate 2 — Square. . . . . . . . . . . 105 Plate 3 — Rectangle . . . . . . . . . 106 Plate 4 — Triangle. . . . . . . . . . 107 Plate 5 - Horizontal Diamond. . . . . 108 Plate 6 - Vertical Diamond. . . . . . 109 Plate 7 - Composite Template. . . . . 110 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The fuller development of human potential continues to be one of our basic concerns in education. That man realizes only a fractional portion of his total potential serves as a challenge and concern for all who are engaged in the educational endeavor. The variables which account for this partial development of potential are complex, varied and multiple. This study purports to examine selected variables and their relationship to the intelli- gence and achievement of kindergarten children. By identifying those variables which are thought to exert a significant and positive influence on the development of individual potential it should then be in a position to reconstruct curricular eXperiences so that they will contribute more adequately to the realiza— tion of man's potential. It is believed that there may be critical periods which need to be recognized. This study is restricted to kindergarten children and the variables of neuro-muscular coordination, perception training, and vision organization. A period of five months was selected for measuring the impact of the variables mentioned. During this time the only curricular difference between the experimental -1- -2... and control groups involved planned experience with the specific variables as listed. The Problem Is it possible to alter to a significant degree the chances for greater academic success by providing additional stimulation through the variables listed? Do these variables afford the individual critical experiences in such a way as to modify significantly his behavior as measured by standardized test instruments? Believing that there does exist a significant interrelationship between the various areas of develop- ment -— emotional, physical, intellectual, and social —— and that these areas of development take place to the degree that the cultural environment permits, the problem then becomes one of identifying those kinds of experiences which offer the greatest positive contribution to human development. Once these are identified it would then be possible to apply this knowledge in a prescriptive way to bring about the fuller development of an individual's potential. Such an undertaking will require the inter— disciplinary contributions of the behavioral sciences, and it is hoped that this study will demonstrate the value of an interdisciplinary approach. The variables being considered in this study are those of vision organization, neuro—muscular coordination, and perception. The question is whether or not additional experience in these areas significantly influences the intellectual and academic performance of kindergarten children. Can these variables be said to possess assistive influence that will enable children to function more adequately in relation to their potential? No inference is intended or made relative to changing human potential. Rather the question is one of seeking out those kinds of activities which will make it possible for the individual to use more effectively his already present potential. Justification for the Study The data gathered should provide insight concerning the value of these curricular experiences for kinder— garten age children. These experiences, as a part of the developmental sequence, should provide for extending and refining those skills already present and the develop— ment of new skills which are within the general matura— tional level of this age child. The hypotheses being tested in this study should give indication of the value of the activities as listed, and if they are found to be of a positive significant value then they offer implications for curriculum improvement. They were selected and represent but a -4- partial scope of what can be referred to as an inter- disciplinary approach to the study of human potential. Surely the inclusion of relevant knowledge from all the behavioral sciences will add increased sophistication to such an endeavor, but it remains for this study to review but a part of the whole. Definition of Terms Certain terms are defined in order to clarify the concepts represented by these terms as they are used in this study. They are as follows: Cephalocaudal refers to the development as occurring in a head to tail sequence. Decrement refers to the process of becoming gradually less; decrease; diminution; loss; waste. Directionality refers to an organism's external awareness of right, left, front, back, etc. Embryogenesis refers to formation or development. _§guilibration refers to the process of bringing into balance; internalizing; integrating. Epistemology_refers to the theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge, especially with reference to its limits and validity. Homolateral refers to the same side, e.g., right leg, right arm which characterizes the creeping movement. Homolateral movement precedes ipsilateral movement. Ipsilateral refers to opposite sides, e.g., right leg, left arm, etc. Physiologically this follows homolateral movement, and can be seen in the proper crawling movement pattern. Laterality has reference to the awareness of left, right, front, etc., within one's body. This precedes directionality and serves as its underpinning. Motility refers to specially distinct motor images. Neuro—muscular refers to the linkage which exists in one's neural-muscular—ligamental system. Perception refers to the process whereby stimuli are internalized, integrated, and evaluated as they relate to the previously existent concepts and understandings of the subject. Proximo-distal refers to development as evolving from the inside or center toward the outer extremities. Punctumeproximum refers to near—point. Sight is the ability of the eye to transduce light rays into an "electrical" (neural) energy that can be transmitted to the brain by the optical nervous system. Veridical indicates accuracy, truthfulness, precision. Vision is the process of interpreting what is seen. It is what the brain does with the information which comes from the eye. Population of the Study This study invOlves four groups of kindergarten children, two from a middle socio—economic area and two from a lower socio-economic area. In both cases the morning groups served as the control groups and the afternoon groups served as the experimental groups. Each teacher worked with both an eXperimental and a control group, thus minimizing the teacher variable. Both teachers are highly regarded for their skill, insight, and effectiveness. These two schools offered contrasting socio— economic class backgrounds. One is considered to typify the lower socio-economic class and the other typifies a middle socio—economic class. The sample totals roughly one hundred and was equally divided between schools. The middle socio—econOmic school neighborhood is comprised primarily of single family dwellings of young families. At the beginning of the study the school enrollment totaled four hundred seventy—one children of whom eighty-three were kindergartners.l The lower socio—economic school neighborhood is comprised prin— cipally of older homes, many of which are now multiple dwellings. The enrollment at this school was four hundred forty-nine of which seventy—two were kinder— gartners.2 There has been the usual rate of transiency in the lower socio—economic area, and a significant number of families lacks one, and in some cases, both parents in the family unit. lPupil Personnel Office Report, Battle Creek Public Schools, Battle Creek, Michigan, dated September 17, 1964. 2Ibid. The area picture as surveyed by the 1960 census reflects that the percentage of rantal property is much higher in the lower socio-economic area which, in turn, reflects a higher mobility pattern for the neighborhood. The lower socio-economic school rental property comprises roughly 51 percent of the total prOperty in the area and, of the total, 23 percent is categorized as dilapi~ dated and/or deteriorating. Rental property accounts for only 6 percent of the property in the middle socio— economic area and, of all the property in this area, 13 percent is listed as deteriorating and/or dilapidated. As would be expected, the larger proportion of higher value homes is to be found in the middle class area. -9- TABLE 1.1 ‘ Housing Data Total Total Total Deter- Total Owner Renter Popu— Hous— iora— Dilap— Occu- Occu- School lation ing ting, idated _pied 4pi§g Lower 4178 1619 295 82 616 834‘ Socio- Economic School Middle 3562 1121 54 17 915 150 Socio- Economic School Average Dollar Value of Homes ‘Non 1.01 or White more Up $7501 $13,001 7 Occu- per wito to to Over School pied room $7500 $13,000 $20,000 $20,000 Lower 104 140 300 834 32 ——— Socio- Economic School Middle 8 82 32 845 239 --— Socio- Economic School _j ‘ U. S. Bureau of the Census. Vol. III, City Blocks. U. S. Census of Housing: Series HC (3), No. 201, U. S. Govern— ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1961. 1960. -10.. Design of the Study Pre and post measures were taken to gain knowledge of the effect of the experimental program. These included the Metropolitan Readiness Test, the Pintner—Cunningham Intelligence Test, Kraus—Weber Physical Fitness Test, and the Perception Forms Achievement Test. The family data gathered reflected the number of siblings, mother's education, father's education, occupation, subject's age, and sex. El and Cl, representing experimental one and con- trol one, and E2 and C2, representing experimental two and control two, indicate the study sample and refer to the lower socio—economic and average socio-economic areas respectively. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the significance of the measures, and this was computed at the .05 level of significance. The diagram presented on page eleven illustrates the dimensions of the analysis as envisioned. The analysis shows the existent variance between (1) socio-economic levels (A), (2) between control and experimental groups (B), and (3) the effects of the cross products of these factors or (A x B). Significance was determined by use of the F. table for the F. values as determined by computer analysis. Where interaction was identified the next procedure -11- involved an analysis of the data within socio—economic groups. The following diagramatic representation reflects the kinds of evaluations which are envisioned: A Average Socio- Below Average Economic Socio-Economic 1. Measure the effect C N N of A B 2. Measure the effect E N N of B 3. Measure the effect of A x B The form shown as Appendix I served to aid in collecting and assembling the data on the subjects of the study. Statement of Hypotheses First, it is hypothesized that there will be a significant difference in the gain scores of the experi— mental and control groups in favor of the experimental groups in the following areas: (1) Reading Readiness; (2) Number Readiness; (3) Total Readiness. Second, it is hypothesized that (1) there will be a significant difference in gain scores of the eXperi— mental and control groups in intelligence, and they will favor the experimental groups. -12- Third, it is hypothesized that the improvement in the neuro-muscular skills will be significantly higher with the experimental than with the control group. Curriculum Modifications The curriculum experiences of the experimental and control groups are to be as much alike as possible with the exception of the experimental variables as identified. The following schedule of activities was developed to be used by the teachers so as to provide for variety and scope in the experimental program. The activities listed were selected after reviewing relevant literature and consulting with specialists in physical education and vision. It is assumed that the selected activities will contribute positively to the physiological development of the children. The neuro-muscular activities were carried on during the regular physical education period in place of the social games and rhythm activities which characterized the control program. These activities were outlined as follows: I. Neuro—muscular Skill Activities A. Even Days 1. Balance Beam 2. Angels in the Snow 3. Stomach Roll II. -13- 4. Rolling Sit-up 5. Bent Knee Sit—up B. Odd Days 1. Feet Lift 2. Sit—up 3. Roll from Back to Hands & Knees 4. Roll from Back to Hands & Feet 5. Toe Touch 6. Creeping & Crawling Vision Organization Vision organization activities were chosen to develop motility and a smooth neuro—muscular response. They were carried on twice a week, Tuesdays and Thursdays, for approximately ten minutes per day. Special emphasis was placed on vision fixation in each of the activities which was carried on during the physical educa— tion period. The classroom activities used were as follows: 1. Horizontal Eye Movements This activity involved the child holding his arms extended to the front of his body with forefingers on each hand raised. The child would then focus on the left forefinger and then sweep smoothly to the right, then back to the left. This was repeated several times -14- with emphasis on smooth sweeping movements and clear focus at each terminal point. Space Perception This activity involved having the subjects hold a pencil or some such object approximately 10 to 12 inches in front of his nose. He was then directed to focus on the end of the pencil and then out to some point across the room, then back to the near point object. This was repeated with emphasis on smooth coordinated movements and clear focus at both near and far point locations. Circular Rotation This activity involved the child standing erect. Without moving the head the eyes followed the circular path of the subject's arm as he moved it in a circular pattern in front of the body. The same activity was carried on with the child balancing on one foot and using the other leg to form the circular pattern. Bimanual Circles This procedure involved children using both hands to form circles in the air or on chalk— board. These movements should be free flowing, smooth, and coordinated. They are varied from clockwise to counterclockwise. III. -15- Bimanual Straight Lines This activity involved the child working on a series of straight line patterns. He used both hands and began at two points, one to the right and the other to the left of his body. From these points he drew lines in to the center at which point they met. This was repeated at successive distances up and down the board so long as they could be reached comfortably by the child. An alternate pattern used involved starting at the same midpoint and drawing out in a straight line which was parallel to the bottom edge of the board. 3 Another pattern involved working from a diagram outline resembling the hour positions on the face of a clock. In this pattern the individual would begin at the mid—point or distant points such as six and twelve and draw in or out depending on the starting point. Perception Training This work was carried on three times a week, Monday, Wednesday and Friday, for approximately ten minutes per period. It usually was a part of the Whiting readiness period, and contrasted to the crayon work experienced by the control group. —16- This skill was developed through the use of commercial geometric form templates.3 The children first traced the form with their index finger in a directed pattern which corresponded with writing strokes. Following this the template was placed on unlined newsprint and a pencil was used to trace the pattern. This was retraced ten times, the template was then removed, retraced again after which the child made another pattern of this size and shape on the same paper without the aid of the pattern or template. The five geometric shapes used included the circle, square, rectangle, triangle, horizontal diamond, and vertical ciamond. These were introduced in this sequence in the frequency deemed acceptable to the teacher in light of the observed progress. Periodic review of previous forms was included throughout the entire sequence. These variables —— neuro-muscular coordination, vision organization, and perception training —- will be analyzed according to the design presented. This should determine whether or not they offer significant assistive influence 3 . Appendix C - The templates were cut from 1/4" cardboard, and were obtained from the Winter Haven Lions Club, P.O. Box 1049, Winter Haven, Florida. -17.... relevant to the fuller development of human potential. If it is found that this influence is statistically sig- nificant, then this information will be of epistemological relevance. If these variables can be effectively imple— mented to the advantage of children as hypothesized and tested then it would seem that such advantages might well be provided as a basic and systematic part of the regular program. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Research and literature related to neuroemuscular coordination, vision organization, and perception as they influence the development of individual potential will be reviewed in this chapter. Within these areas the review seeks to present representative views drawn from an inter— disciplinary base. Since the relationship between human potential and neuro—muscular coordination has received relatively recent attention no comparable studies were found. The major amount of material was drawn eclectically from the behav- ioral sciences. For this study the variables of vision organization, neuro—muscular coordination, and perception were introduced together and no attempt was made to evaluate the independent effect of any one variable in isolation. The fuller development of human potential is of interest to many who work in the behavioral sciences. There is a perceptible and growing acceptance of that point of View which suggests an interdisciplinary approach as answers are sought. Hence, the eclectic choosing from the several relevant disciplines should bring into sharper focus the interrelated dimensions of this problem. From this there may then emerge a new depth of insight and understanding —18- -19- which will make possible a more prescriptive approach to the process of education. Philosophical Perspectives The differences which separate the schools of thought regarding growth and development are ones of degree rather than kind. One school of thought holds closely to the maturation theory. This view can be likened to what has been called the biological clock; and according to this view, development takes place according to some pre—ordained time sequence. The other school of thought, while recog- nizing basic maturational principles, sees development as dynamic and subject to assistive environmental influence. Both schools would claim to offer activities which are assistive to development. The essential point of disagreement centers on what is more relevant for a given period in the child's life. One school would select a less formal and less structured approach. 'The other would seek to provide in a carefully structured setting those sequential eXperiences which are related to skill mastery. This latter school of thought has been gaining increasing prominence. It has long been associated with Piaget, and has recently been brought into focus and summarized by Gloria F. Wolinsky.4 u 4Wolinsky, Gloria F., "Jean Piaget's Theory of Perception", §gience Education, III, (February, 1964). -20- Piaget's major contribution is his addition of fuel to the always smoldering fire of thought that believes that children are more than simply their biological heri- tage. His work extends further than classi— cal developmental theory; for, rather than waiting for this biological heritage to unfold, Piaget's work on perception, as well as most of his observations on cognitive development, leads us to the point where we can begin to examine the assistive aspects that an environment can afford to its children as they proceed through life.. One of Piaget's former students, Eleanor Duckworth , summarized her perceptions of his beliefs. She states that Piaget sees intellectual development as taking place in a developmental sequence and subject to the influence of pedagogical practice. Four factors contribute to this These include nervous maturation, encounters development. with experience, social transmission, and equilibration. With the first three of these factors the individual plays a passive role; but in the fourth, that of equilibration, the individual is actively engaged in the process of internalizing, integrating, and coordinating. It is from this process that intellect is generated, and it is of necessity an active process. When the prOper recognition is afforded these factors then the basic purpose of education, as viewed by Piaget, SIbid., p. 27. 6Duckworth, Eleanor, "Piaget Rediscovered," Journal 9§_Research in Science Teaching, (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York: 1964II II, p. 172. -21- will be achieved. The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done —— men who are creators, inventors, and discoverers. The second goal of education is to form minds which can be critical, can verify and do not accept everything they are- offered.7 Such a goal can best be achieved in an academic climate where differences can be exposed and challenged responsibly and without threat or emotional involvement. Such a perspective offers both hope and challenge to the teacher. It provides hope by freeing the teacher from having to sit back and wait for this maturation or biologi— cal unfolding to occur, and it offers her the challenge to create the appropriate learning environment which will make available those kinds of learning experiences which are believed to be most appropriate. In effect, what Piaget is saying is that the complex of operations which have the characteristic of a Gestalt or 'structure d'ensemble' are not preformed or innate in an individual. They actually evolve out of a history of a person's interactions with the environment . . .8 The acceptance of this philosophy on the process of develOp— ment opens whole new arenas of opportunity to both the home and the school. 71bid., p. 175. 8Wolinsky, o . cit., p. 26. -22- Another equally dynamic theory regarding growth is expressed by Combs.9 His thesis emphasizes the importance of how the individual is presently perceiving things. While he does not discount the relevance of what has happened in the past, he points out that this is some- thing about which we can do very little. However, we can greatly influence the present; and it is to this period, the present, that our efforts can most fruitfully be directed. An additional philosophical perspective needs to be viewed, and as in the case of the preceding ones, it too holds much in common with that expressed by Piaget. Yet there are distinct and unresolved differences. Experience over the past decade points to the fact that our schools may be wasting precious years by postponing the teaching of many important subjects on the ground that they are too difficult.10 The case is considerably broader than one of mere diffi- culty, and this is not offered as necessarily a point of difference with the author. The question is one of what are the experiences which are most relevant and appropriate to the child and when can and should these be presented? 9Combs, Arthur W., "Seeing is Behaving," Educational Leadership, XVI, (October, 1958), pp. 21526. 10 . . Bruner, Jerome S., The Process of Education, (Harvard University Press, Cambridge: 1961), p. 12. -23.. In support of his expressed concern over the factors of time and experience Bruner points out that ...there is evidence to indicate that such rigorous and relevant early training has the effect of making later learning easier. Indeed the experiments on 'learning set' seem to indicate just that —- that one not only learns specifics but in so doing learns how to learn. So important is learning per se that monkeys who have been given exten— sive training on problem solving suffer considerably less loss and recover more quickly after induced brain damage than animals who had not been previously thus educated. But the effect of such early training may be that it has the effect of training out original but deviant ideas. There is no evidence available on the sub— ject, and much is needed. 11 Another dimension of the problem is discussed by Maslow. This involves the individual and his role in the self-actualization process. "The sources of growth and of humanness are essentially within the human person . ."12 Yet the maximal positive effect will only be achieved when there is effected an orchestration between the multiple influences of society, the home, school, and the individual. Perception The literature regarding perception is filled with commentary which appears, while relevant, yet incomplete. llIbid., p. 47-48. Combs, Kelley, Maslow, Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, (Yearbook: ASCD, 1962), p. 46. -24- Nowhere in the literature can we find in concise and adequate form a well-rounded account of what perception is, what its characteristics are, and/or how it relates to other aspects of behavior . . . Most workers in the area of perception have been preoccupied with refining some quanta- tive detail, or investigating some single aspect of behavior, and have not devoted themselves to rounding out a statement of perception. l3 Perception, as used in this study, is that which occurs when an individual enters purposefully into thought and/or motor procesSes which result in experiences fostering internalization and integration of ideas into the visual structure of the subject. This definition draws from several writers, especially from Piaget.l4 He views cognitive development as an embryogenetic process where learning is limited to a single structure and is atomistic. Knowledge comes about in a spontaneous process in which the subject is operational and active. Four main factors serve to eXplain this process of development. These include (1) maturation, (2) eXperi- ence, (3) social transmission, and (4) equilibration. All are structure based, and it is at this juncture where divergence emerges. Can this structural base be developed l3Bartley, S. Howard, Principles of Perception, (Harper and Brothers, New York: 1958), p. 449. 4Piaget, Jean, "Cognitive Development in Children", gpurnal of Research In Science Teaching, (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York: 1964), II, pp. 176—186. -25- in such a way that it possesses a lasting value and rele— vance to the individual? While Piaget eXpresses doubt regarding this point, Bruner and others would agree that the question can be answered in the affirmative. In fact Davis states that . . . the cardinal principle of social psychology would indicate that basic learning can and does appear at any age level, provided that society or the physical environment changes the organi— zation of its basic rewards and punishments for the individual. 15 This would assume that the maturational level of the individual is in keeping with the task requirements. There is within the literature a growing acceptance of the idea that while man may have a genetically inherited potential he falls far short of developing it to any maxi— mal degree. There are multiple and interrelated variables which are suggested as relevant to this problem. These include time and eXperience. These studies suggest the following con— clusions. Early in the life of mammals, including humans, certain critical stimuli must be encountered for normal development and normal adult behavior to occur. If such stimuli are lacking in the environment, or if they are presented to the animal at inappropriate times in his life, non—normal behavior will occur . . . The generalization might be made that, in certain instances, the failure of 'Johnny' to show normal advances in intellectual functions might not be due to any inadequacies of educational 15Davis, Allison, Social Class Influence on Learning, (Harvard University Press, Cambridge: 1948), p. 32. ~26- principles or native endowment. Rather such deficiencies might occur as the result of failure to experience critical stimuli and to make critical responses at appropriate times during early learning and experience. 16 This would suggest that our culture has not actively recognized and placed the proper emphasis on the importance and role of parenthood, and it appears that the conse— quences of this are especially critical during the child's early developmental years. Montessori, in commenting on human development, stresses that "the period of infancy is undoubtedly the richest . . . the waste of this period of life can never be compensated." 17 Perhaps our trial and error approach to parenthood has been more costly than we have realized. Indeed, it may well account for one of the variables which has served to preclude the fuller development of human potential. The early years are cru— cial, and she emphasizes that "to this period, more than any other, it is imperative to give active care."18 The resulting decrement to the child from society's insensitivity to the crucial importance of these early 16Sackett, Gene P., "How Much of Reading is Readily Learned2", 1963 Claremont Reading Conference, Twenty— Seventh Yearbook of the Claremont Reading Conference, Claremont, California: Claremont Graduate School Curriculum Laboratory, 1963, pp. 112—113. l7Montessori, Marie, The Absorbent Mind, (Adyar, Madras 20, India: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1961), p. 3. 18Ibid.,’p. 2. -27- years has bearing on the development of the total being. "It happens that if a child is prevented from using his powers of movement as soon as they are ready, the child's mental development is obstructed."19 Yet it is relatively recently that we have been alerted to the existing linkage between the several developmental areas and stages. This was expressed in a specific sense when Montessori wrote that "no sooner has an organ evolved than it must immedi— ately begin to act in its proper sphere . . . If such experiences be not obtained, the organ fails to develop normally."20 One must conclude that this development takes place only to the extent that the child experiences the proper stimuli. Therefore, by providing for a more adequate childhood, a more "cOmplete" adulthood can be achieved. The effects of early experience are commented on by Penfielel, a neurosurgeon. But there is a large area of cortex under— neath the temples and covering a given part of each of the two temporal lobes that is uncommitted at birth. This uncommitted cortex will in time be used for language and for perception. It will make possible the memory and use of words, as well as the memory and interpretation of experiences. 19Ibid., p. 76. 20Ibid., p. 90. 21 Penfield, Wilder, M. D., "The Uncommitted Cortex," The Atlantic Monthly, July, 1964. -28- As the child begins to understand, electric currents must pass in corre— sponding patterns through this cortex. After each time of passage, it is easier for the later currents to follow the same trail. This tendency toward facili— tation of electric passage results in man's amazingly permanent records of the auditory 22 and visual stream of his conscious life...." The question of what experiences and to what degree for a given stage of development remain to be answered. Yet they are essential, fundamental, and basic questions if imbalance is to be avoided; and perhaps such a condition already exists. "We have gone too far in stressing the psychological needs. A parent will worry about frustrating his or her child lest it develop emotional trouble. But this same parent does not hesitate to inflict upon the child the physical frustration of playpen and stroller, thereby causing physical as well as emotional damage."23 Such is the View of Kraus, and it parallels that eXpressed by Montessori whose many faceted background includes medicine, psychiatry, and education. Kraus reports that "clinical studies over the years have convinced us there is a minimum of muscular strength and flexibility below which the individual must not drop if normal healthful living is to be enjoyed."24 He goes 22Ibid., p. 78. 23Prudden, Bonnie, Is Your Child Really Fitz, (Harper and Brothers, New York: 1956), p. ix. 24Ibid., p. vii. -29- on to report that despite this evidence it is reported that "more than half of our boys and girls -— four out of every seven between the ages of six and sixteen —- are today unable to measure up to the simplest basic stand— ards of muscular strength and flexibility."25 Lackmann26 studied the perceptual-motor development in children retarded in reading ability. While he found a decreasing frequency of difficulty with increasing age he concluded that although perceptual—motor problems cannot claim to eXplain fully the presence of reading disorders the distortions were indeed offered more frequently by the reading disability children than by the normal children. Kephart27, who directs the Achievement Center for Children at Purdue University, attaches great importance to perceptual—motor development. He contends, . . . in a significant percentage of children, accidents occur during the developmental period. The accident may be any one of a large number of events. Its effect is to interfere with the establishment of a stable perceptual— motor world. As a result children come into our school systems lacking the fundamental assumptions which underlie so much of the material which we present... Consistent and efficient motor patterns 25Ibid., p. l. 26Lackmann, Frank M., "Perceptual—Motor Development in Children Retarded in Reading Ability," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXIV, No. V, pp. 427—431. 27Kephart, Newell C., "Perceptual-Motor Aspects of Learning Disabilities," Exceptional Children, Dec., 1964. -30- permit the child to eXplore his environ— ment and systematize his relationships to it. Perceptual data are similarly systematized by comparing them with this motoric system. Through such perceptual- motor matching, the perceptual world of the child and his behavior world come to coincide. It is with this organized system of perceptual input and behavioral output that the child attacks and manipulates symbolic and conceptual material in a veridical fashion. 28 Developmental differences between the sexes have long been recognized. Occasionally one sees the point of View advanced that possibly our female dominated child rearing practices may, at least in part, account for this. Nevertheless these differences are generally accepted as existent, and they continue to be studied. The research in the area of self—esteem and self— concept would indicate support for the belief that by effecting a more positive personal image regarding personal competency the individual is able to utilize more effec— tively his intellectual resources. This would seem to indicate the existence of linkage between the use of intellectual potential and adequacy in such areas as neuro—muscular coordination, etc. In a study of self— esteem as developed through school success and failure it was found by Lowther29 that pupils are strongly 28Ibid., p. 201. 29 . . Lowther, Malcolm A., "Academic Achievement and Self—Esteem," University of Michiggn School of Education Bglletin, XXXV, No. 1, October, 1963, pp. 8—11. -31- influenced by school success and failure. The compounding consequences of insufficient suc— cessful eXperience are sobering, and in a sense they are hereditary in nature. That is to say, they are cumulative and transferable through the process of social transmission and acculturation. One recent study showed a rather interesting and somewhat questionable finding regarding sex differences. An analysis of difference scores indicated a significant decrement in coding perform— ance under high frustration when compared to no frustration conditions only for boys . . . Although the main effect of frustration was not significant for girls, they tended to respond in a direction Opposite to that of boys. Under high frustration conditions, males showed a significantly greater decrement in per- formance than did females, whereas in the no frustration group, performance of girls showed a decrement, while boys improved. 30 Many practices persist because of misunderstood theories and thereby impede progress. Lynn31 lists three. These include (1) the maturation theory of delayed per- ceptual power in infants, (2) the widely-held belief that early cognitive stimulation has undesirable emotional effects on children, and (3) the belief that intelligence 3OSolkoff, Norman, et al, "Effects of Frustration on Perceptual—Motor Performance," Child Development, June, 1964, p. 569. lLynn, R., "Reading Readiness and the Perceptual Abilities of Young Children," Educational Research, (Newnes Educational Publishing Co., Ltd., London: November, 1963) p. 14. -32- is largely determined by inheritance. iCultural factors also affect perception. Riessman emphasizes that in our culture we reward speed; yet this is not characteristic of all cultures. "The teacher should know that pupils may be slow for reasons other than being stupid . . . The assumption that a slow pupil is not bright, I think, functions as a self-fulfilling prophecy."32 The need for a balance and interweaving between the many aspects of development is becoming increasingly recognized. Illustrative of this is the book How to DevelOp Ygur Child's Intelligence.33 In this book the author specifically discusses the importance of neuro—muscular and vision organization activity, and he outlines basic motor patterns which are designed to effect this coordina— tion. The importance of this is basic for it has been said, "Thoughts which do not get into the muscles never fully possess the mind."34 The laboratory research of psychologists has led to many insights which offer implications for the fuller understanding of man. We cannot assume that because a 2Riessman, Frank, The Culturally Deprived Child, (Harper, New York, 1962). 33Getman G N , O. D., How to Develop Your Chéég;s , O O . lfltelligence, (Luverne, Minnesota, by the author, 1 34Ibid., p. 39. -33_ certain thing happens consistently with a particular animal form that this has relevance to man, but by the same reasoning it cannot be assumed with certainty that there is no such existent relationship. The child is father to the man in a manner that may be irreversibly one—directional, for to make up for a bland impoverishment of eXperience early in life may be too great an obstacle for most organisms. Indeed, recent work indicates that for at least one species, the utilitarian rat, too much gray homo— geneity in infancy may produce chemical changes in the brain that seem to be associated with dullness. One wonders, then, about the issue of appropriate exercise of the mind early in life as a condition for fullness later. 35 Can it be that the inability of man to develop more fully his innate potential is in part attributable to the variable of color? Possibly the perceptual development of children has been unconsciously impeded by teachers. This could result from their failing to provide Opportunity for the child to use the skills which he has already gained. Montessori, in commenting on human deveIOpment, summarizes by stating, "this philOSOphy teaches us never to give more help than is absolutely necessary."36 She goes on to stress the importance of the teacher creating a learning environment which is emotionally and intellectually stimulating. From her perspective as an educator and psychiatrist she suggests Bruner, Jerome 3., On Knowing, (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge: 1962), p. 7. 3 . . 6Montessori, op. Cit., p. 154. -34- that when we persist in giving more help than is needed we undermine the development of self-confidence and the emotional maturity of the child. The consequences of adult imposition on the child when he is striving to gain independence and self-actuali— zation tends to weaken rather than strengthen the child's perception of himself. "Psychologists in these days are convinced that help of this kind, interrupting, as it does, the child's self—chosen activity, is one of the most harmful forms of repressive action we can take. The nervous troubles of many (difficult) children can be traced back to this kind of interference."37 What is the relatedness of readiness to perception? Is our understanding of this concept in keeping with the literature and research? In commenting on readiness Bruner writes that " . . . readiness . . . is a function not so much of maturation as it is of our intentions and our skill at translating ideas into the language and concepts of the age level we are teaching."38 This would suggest at least two dimensions to the problem of perception. The first involves the mind—set Of the individual teacher who is in the position to design 37l§£§°2 p. 159. 8 . . Bruner, On Know1nq, op. Cit., p. 108. -35- and to some considerable degree control the curricular eXperiences which will be afforded the child. The second is one of communication or language, and this should be considered as inclusive of both verbal and nonverbal language. One of the conclusions which emerged as an outgrowth of the 1959 Woods Hole Conference of the National Academy of Science on curriculum in science has specific bearing on the relationship between perception and readiness. "We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. It is a bold hy— pothesis and an essential one in thinking about the nature of curriculum. No evidence exists to contradict it; considerable evidence is being amassed to support it."39 If this statement is accepted then the question which emerges is one of what are the most appropriate learning experiences for a given stage of development. Although one may not be able to answer the question in total, considerable evidence does exist and is too often ignored. For example consider the previously cited work of Penfield4O where he speaks regarding language development and the crucial importance of early exposure for natural mastery. 9Bruner, The Process of Education, gp. cit., p. 33. 4 002. cit., p. 22. -36— Yet the preponderance of foreign language instruction is programmed far after these years of maximal perceptual receptivity. This raises the question of the consequences of limitation of Opportunity. There is amassed evidence regarding this variable, and it is of such a nature as to command serious attention. The data covers both laboratory experimentation with animals and literature relating to educational deprivation among humans. In the case of laboratory experimentation the work dealt with sensory deprivation, and the subjects were mostly dogs. "Raising a dog in a highly impoverished environment, where there is little variety and no challenge to problem solving, produces a seemingly irreversible stupidity in the adult animal."41 The implications from this would lend support to the growing concern that the early eXposure be such as to provide the child with a rich perceptual base. In the case of the educationally deprived this may make necessary the establishment of formal settings wherein and through which these experiences can be provided if perceptual deprivation is to be avoided. When such eXperience is provided, demonstrable gains in favor of this kind of program can be shown. A research— 41Bruner, On Knowigg, gp. cit., p. 142. -37.. demonstration eXperiment in nursery education described by Silberman42 stresses the importance of getting across the notion that every object has a name, sometimes many names. A teacher may use puppets or other replicas of people, animals, and objects to illustrate the story she is reading to drive home the relation between people and things. To help develop a sense of self, the room contains a great many mirrors; many children have never seen themselves in one. The author concludes that "schools which wait until kindergarten or first grade will need to employ many, many more resources to do what they might do with comparative ease for children at age three or four."43 Bruner summarizes the case with the conclusion that "early sensory and intellectual deprivation prevents the kind of intellectual and emotional unfolding that nourishes early learning and makes later learning possible."44 Neuro—Muscular Fitness Recognition of the linkage between the various areas of development has existed for some time, and substan- tiating data continues to be amassed. Gesell noted that 42. . ' . Silberman, Charles E., "Give Slum Children a Chance", Harpers, May, 1964. 43 Ibid., pp. 27-42. 4Bruner, On Knowing, op. cit., p. 144. ~38— . . . experimental biology and experi— mental medicine are gradually placing the phenomena of growth on a firm basis of fact, and at the same time they are dissolving the ancient distinction between mind and body by bringing the functional and structural aspects of growth into integrated relation. Growth is a unifying concept. 45 Sensing the pervasive influence of this concept, Gesell states . . . but one cannot make a frontal attack upon the psychology of personality; because personality is really the sum and result of all possible forms of behavior. So one must approach the subject from several angles . . . . Naturally, we begin with the child's motor characteristics, because the very core of his physical and practical self is muscular. 46 Other writers, sensing this importance, have ascribed substantial weight to the importance of the child develOping proper and adequate motor patterns. These patterns are basic and follow a common developmental sequence. Many of the cases with which some of the writers deal have experienced some form of developmental anomalie re- sulting in inadequate neurological organization. Some of them speak of remedial therapy and of its benefit to specific areas such as reading. Others point out that 4SGesell, Arnold, Infancy and Human Growth, (MacMillan New York: 1928), p. vii. 46Gesell, Arnold, and Ilg, Frances L., The Child From Five to Ten, (Harper and Brothers, New York: 1946), p.224. 3 -39.. actually this is much too restrictive, and that the benefit is much more pervasive in scope. The approach used has many common features, and "because of the myriad of nerve connections the muscular system is really a neuro—muscular system."47 Curricular experiences should be in keeping with neuro-muscular development of the child. Many have commonly verbalized the cephalocaudal, proximo—distal, gross-fine, homo—lateral ipsilateral principles of develop— ment, but we need to ask whether or not our program actually makes adequate provision for this kind of development. Again, Gesell reminds us that "nature cannot wait until birth of the child to lay down the primary networks for the coordination of the neuro-muscular system . . . Even the unborn body is capable of making movements and of striking attitudes. Some of these movements involve gross muscles, many involve the fine."48 The importance of recognizing and providing oppor— tunities where these muscles can be used has previously been cited through the work of Montessori. The basic premise of the neuro—psychological approach . . . is that if man does not follow this schema he exhibits problems of mobility and communication. To overcome 47Ibid., p. 225. 48Ibid., p. 225. -40- such problems one evaluates the subject via the neurological schema . . . Those areas of neurological organization which have not been completed or are absent are overcome by passively imposing them upon the nervous system of those with problems of mobility and are taught to those with problems of speech or reading. When neurological organization is complete the problem is overcome. 49 It should be noted that this approach, bold as it is, suggests that by proper diagnosis we can identify existent developmental voids or inadequacies, and then proceed to develop a program which.will "fill in" these deficiencies in the individual's neurological organization. "If one is not afforded the Opportunity to develop this total neurological organization, he cannot become totally human, and as a result, cannot communicate at the level at which he might have been able to had his neurological organiza— tion been complete."50 This is basically the same position which characterizes the work carried on by Dr. Kephart at Purdue University. He advocates the develOpment of an adequate perceptual base, which is dependent on sound neurological organization. "Form perception develops out of the more fundamental motor skills including posture, laterality, and directionality. 9Delacato, Carl H., The Diagnosis and Treatment of Speech and ReadingyProblems, (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1963), p. 7. SODelacato, Carl H., "The Ontogeny of Reading Problems", 1963 Claremont Reading Confereace, Conference, 27th Year— book, Claremont Graduate School Curriculum Laboratory, Claremont, California, 1963, p. 124. rs. — . LL -41- These motor skills can be easily and quickly taught."51 In another study Kephart52 and Kagerer evaluated the posture of a group of first grade children, and then compared their ratings, very rigid to very flexible, with the children's school achievement. They found that those with rigid posture were academically at the bottom of the class while those who were rated as having loose, comfort— able posture were at the top. Rhythmic training and motor activity are an integral part of the Winter Haven, Florida program 53 which fosters perceptual development. Special template forms have been developed to aid in developing basic form perception, and a perception form test has been standardized to measure perceptual difficulty. One of the particularly interesting features of this project has been its interdisciplinary staff, and the evolutionary development and interest it has sustained. Specialists from architecture, engineering, education, medicine, psychology, and vision comprise the team. In a recent study of motor achievement of some forty— three underachieving boys who came from middle and Upper lKephart, Newell C., Success Through Play, (Harper and Brothers, New York: 1960), p. 49. SZIbid., p. 33. 53Rice, Arthur H., "Rhythmic Training and Body Balancing", The Nation's Schools, February, 1962. -42- class families, the following findings were reported. Age was an important differential in describing the motor characteristics of the Clinic School boys. The Clinic School boys cannot be characterized as deficient in motor skills, but a sub— stantial number in the younger age group have serious remedial needs in terms of motor performance. If generalized failure is a central problem in children with learning disorders, one—half of the younger boys seem destined to compound and support their learning disorders, by problems which they have in terms of physical performance. 54 The existent evidence which relates to the development of self—concept would clearly support the belief that linkage does exist between these various areas of function. Few would argue that motor deficiency cannot be identified and that programs cannot be designed to bring about improvement in performance. Many are not convinced concerning the linkage between this kind of neuro—muscular organization and improvement in other areas outside of those of self—concept and self—esteem. Does a linkage exist between neuro—muscular organization and other areas of performance aside from self-concept and self—esteem, or is this only myth? This neuro—muscular approach is not offered as a panacea for all educational ills, but its proponents suggest that it has far greater value than is commonly S4Keogh,.Jack, et al., "Motor Achievement of Under- achieving Boys," Journal of Educational Research, LVII, No. 7, March, 1964, p. 342. -43- recognized. The major features of this approach can be found in some form in the work being carried on at the Gesell Institute of Child Growth and Development, at Winter Haven, Florida under Dr. Harmon, at Purdue University under Dr. Kephart, and at the Institute of Language Dis— ability in Philadelphia under Dr. Delacato. From each center one gets impressive reports of great progress resulting from this approach. In reviewing the literature regarding these projects one finds a surprisingly parallel approach being followed. A recent study, which is yet to be published, was made by Ball and Edgar in California regarding the benefit of sensory—motor training for kindergarten children. This matter holds both therapeutic and theoretical interest. Their findings are summarized below and are based on a study involving control, experimental, and placebo groups. Kindergarten children were given three and one—half months of intensive sensory- motor training following Kephart's pro— cedure. At the end of training, their gains on nOn-practiced measures of generalization exceeded those of the control group that received individualized attention but no training and a second control group that received neither training nor attention. 55 SSBall, Thomas S. and Edgar, Clara Lee, "The Effective— ness of Sensory—Motor Training in Promoting Generalized Body Image Development", Research Report, (Supported by Research Grant No. 62-14-36 from the California State Department of Mental Hygiene), Pacific State Hospital, Pomona, California. -44- The research team goes on to recommend that the competing, and sometimes contradictory, approaches in this area need to be evaluated. Some of the approaches reflect a considerably more sophisticated procedure than others. These should be evaluated, but separate research would hardly seem warranted in all cases. The importance and value of good neurological organiza— tion has been recognized by some of the world's most profound thinkers. For example, Socrates stressed that poor health can contribute to grave mistakes in thinking. Comenius noted, 'Intellectual progress is conditioned at every step by bodily vigor. To attain the best results, physical exercise must accompany and con— dition mental training.‘ Rousseau observed that 'an enfeebled body enervates the mind' and included a rich program of physical activities for Emile." 56 Vision Organization Vision, in the sense used here, involves the process of interpreting what is seen. It is what the brain does with the information which comes from the eye. Hence sight, which is the ability to transduce light rays into the electrical energy which can then be conducted to the brain, is a component of the visual process. 56Bucher, Charles A., "Health, Physical Education, and Academic Achievement," N.E.A. Journal, May, 1965, p. 38. -45- AmesS7 pioneered in the study Of vision and perception. He says . . . the visual impression is a sensation, and is derived from past experiences, i.e., it is the significance of past eXperience. From one aspect, past experience is more truly the source of visual expression than the object. It would be nearer the truth to consider the significance of past eXperi— ence as the source of impression and the immediate situation as the catalytic agent which is responsible for the particular significance sensually experienced. 58 Bartley, in his discussion of Psychology and the Healing Arts, states "Professional Optometry has come to conceive its work as one of providing visual skill to young and old. The focus of attention in this profession has left the eye and reaches the whole person as he operates in a space world."59 In effect their concern is now one of vision rather than just sight. The prescribing of eye glasses is but one component in the vision analysis. "Professions providing this comprehensive care train visual skills in their patients, for they realize that vision is a learned achievement."6O 7Cantril, Hadley, The Morning Papers of Adelbert Ages, Jr., (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick: 1960). 581bid., p. 3. 59Bartley, Op. cit., p. 457. 6OIbid. C. We. -r -46— A recent study conducted at the Medical School of the University of California by Dayton and Jones of the Pediatrics Department, indicates that the eyesight of new— born babies is much better developed than previously thought. Their study indicated that . . . instead of having poor vision, babies can actually see most objects quite distinctly and are able to use the two eyes together to a remarkable extent. . . . These former concepts held that the use of the eyes together (binocular vision) and the ability to see small objects were not present in the first six weeks of life . . . There is no need to delay therapy for conditions such as cross-eyes (strobismus) until the child is several years old, Dr. Dayton said. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment will speed correction and prevent the harmful effects Of Vision disorganization in the young. 61 Eames, Ophthalmologist and Professor of Education at Boston University, offers data which is significant for those who are concerned with providing developmentally appropriate experiences for children. News, 61 "Babies Eyes Not So Bad After All", (Battle Creek, Michigan: December 8, Recently there has appeared among educa— tors a theory that children enter school before their eyes are mature enough to cope with the demands made on them by the curriculum. This is important if true. Since the major first grade subject is reading, which requires . sustained accommodative effort, the liter- ature was consulted with respect to this function at early school ages. No data were found below the eight year level. Enquirer and 1964), p.6. -47- Children enter school below this and their accommodative ability is of consequent interest. Have they enough accommodation to do the work easily or are they overtaxed? 62 After studying some 899 children Eames concluded: NO five-year—old children in any cate— gory and no suburban children at any age fell below the minimum deemed necessary for sustained effort bookwork. Urban, (and consequently composite groups) presented a gradually increasing frequency with increasing age from five through seven years. This ranged from four percent among six-year—old urban girls to seven percent at the age of seven years. So far as accommodation, as evidenced by punctum proximum, is concerned this study does not support the recent educational contentions that reading and book work impose too great a task for the relatively immature eyes of school entrants and that such work should be deferred. 63 What are the resultant consequences on the emotional development and self—concept of children when they are deprived of eXperiences for which they are ready? If they are not "ready" then can we influence in a positive way the development of a state of readiness? In reviewing Olson's views one senses that his use of the term vision is more closely parallel to the term sight as earlier defined. He states that the literature 62Eames, Thomas H., "Accommodation in School Children" American Journal of Ophthalmology, LI, No. 6, June, 1961, pp. 1255-1257. 631bid. —48— on visual factors in reading is a welter of conflicting findings and claims. Perhaps this difference in meaning associated with the term vision accounts for part Of this confusion. He does state "it seems clear that eye move- ments are perfected by some combination of maturation and learning."64 The problem then is one of identifying what learning experiences are apprOpriate and positively sig— nificant in influencing healthy development. Vision, in the sense used here, has multiple dimen- sions. One of these, accommodation, has already been re- viewed. Another is reported on by Gibson and Walk and is based on their research which was carried on at Cornell University. They concluded, after studying several forms of animal life including humans, "we are ready to venture the rather broad conclusion that a seeing animal will be able to discriminate depth when its locomotion is adequate, even when locomotion begins at birth."65 This would seem to infer a possible linkage between neuro-muscular organi— zation and the visual process. Apell, Director Of Vision Department at Gesell Institute of Child Development, states that "the vast majority of young children, even though they are healthy, happy, and 64olson, Willard C., Child Development, (Heath, Boston: 1949), p. 137. . 65Gibson, EleanOr J. and Walk, Richard D., "The Visual Cliff," Scientific American, April, 1960, p. 71. -49- normal, could get a great deal more out of their initial school eXperience if their basic skills were better developed."66 Hence, while these procedures are especially vital to the needs of neurologically disorganized children they also benefit normal children to a significant degree. "Optometrists and psychologists tested 2200 children in grades three through twelve, and they found that four out of every ten have visual skills below the level required to do good school work."67 They go on to point out the direct relationship between good vision and school achievement. Lowder68 studied every child in the first three grades in Winter Haven, Florida. The total sample was 1510 sub- jects, and he concluded that the Perception Form Achievement Test provides results which are more closely associated with academic achievement than is the standard intelligence test. In addition it should be noted that the test serves diagnostically to identify cases of perceptual weakness, and through training these can be corrected. In addition to the literature and research reports concerning visual organization, perception and neuro— muscular coordination inquiry was directed to the Gesell 66Radler and Kephart, Success Through Play, Op.cit., p. xv. 67Ibid., p. 13. 68 Lowder, Robert Glenn, Perceptual Ability and School fighievementhissertation Study, Purdue University, 1956. -50- Institute of Child Development concerning this type of activity and their Opinion regarding it. Their reply follows: We in the visual department do use gross motor activities in our therapy. The purpose of these is to build better visual posture-body matching. Our goal is to get better visual performance in terms of the individual being able to better understand what he sees and be able to act more effectively with less effort in a shorter time: 1. Being able to see the greatest number of possibilities in any situation and thus arriving at a higher prediction of probability. 2. To make an act in accordance with the predictability with the least amount of effort in the shortest time. When we assume one of the greater values of vision is to direct actions, and thus direct our therapy in accordance with the previous total directions, there comes a time in therapy, when general motor activity does become involved to a high degree. 69 Summary The literature offers support for the use of these activities which are designed to bring about improved neuro—muscular, perceptual, and visual organization. The activities are already being used by individuals over a 69Streff, John W., O.D., Director of Visual Research, Gesell Institute of Child Development. (Letter in the writer's file). -51- wide geographic area; yet their dissemination and accept— ance within the professional ranks remains to be accomplished. One of the strengths of this approach probably comes from its having evolved from an inter-disciplinary base of concern and interest. These activities are not Offered as a cure—all; yet the literature suggests that even most normal children would function more effectively if they were to be afforded more of this type of experience. The approaches reviewed are strikingly similar and are designed to promote neurological organization. Philo— sophically they present a dynamic and developmental approach to growth and development. The child is viewed as a wholistic entity, and his many stages of development are evaluated. Through an individual program of activities, improved linkage is established within and between the systems of the child. The reports are encouraging, and offer new insight into the development of human potential. Indeed, this may come to be recognized as one of the greatest contributions to the field of epistemology. It serves to focus new light on what can be done. While this approach claims to hold value and relevance for all youth it should also help us to better individualize our program to meet the needs of the individual. It takes us beyond the maturation or wait and see approach. This Offers a specific and individualized approach which affects the development of the individual. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF DATA The review of literature in Chapter II supports the belief that a linkage does exist between the areas of achievement, intelligence, neurO-muscular fitness, vision, and perception. In this chapter the sample will be described and the instrumentation will be specified in accordance with the design of the study as proposed in Chapter I. The hypotheses will then be related to the test findings, and the discussion of administrative pro— cedures will be followed by delimitations and a summary. Sample The subjects for the study were drawn from two schools, one in an average sociO-economic area and the other in a lower socio-economic area. Two teachers and four class— room groups made up the composite sample. Each teacher had both an experimental and a control group. Both teachers had experienced excellent success with the regular school program. Because of the population mobility pattern which had been characteristic in the lower socio-economic school it was decided that the period for data collection and -52- -53- experimentation should run from November through March. It was believed that this period of five months would be adequate to gain a sensing on the impact of this program. Also, this period would probably be characterized by a lower rate of mobility than either the earlier or later parts of the school year. The initial enrollment in these four kindergarten sessions totaled one hundred and sixteen children. At the conclusion of the study one class group had dropped to a total of twenty—two of the original beginning sample which totaled approximately thirty children. At this point the study was over, and the other class groups were then reduced to an equal number of twenty-two children by using the Table of Random Numbers. The data were then assembled on the total sample of eighty-eight children. No special shifting of children was possible because of the administrative problems this would involve. At the outset of the study it was the opinion of both teachers that their morning groups of children were "sharper" than the afternoon groups. In view of this the morning groups were chosen to serve as the control groups and the after— noon groups were selected as the experimental groups. If an unidentified advantage did exist then this would be in favor of the control groups. The subjects in the control and experimental groups were assigned randomly at the time Of their enrollment, -54- and there is no reason to believe that they were not representative of the general pOpulation in their school areas. The sex diStribution included forty—one boys and forty-seven girls. In the experimental group there were nineteen boys and twenty—five girls, and in the control group the distribution was twenty-two boys and twenty—two girls. Instrumentation Three pre and post test measurements were taken on the subjects in the study. These measures included tests for physical fitness, achievement, and intelligence. The pretesting was accomplished during the month of October and the posttesting was done during the first weeks of April. Individual measures were taken on all students with the following tests (1) Kraus-Weber Physical Fitness Test, (2) MetrOpolitan Readiness Test, and (3) the Pintner—Cunningham Intelligence Test. Following the five month period the same measures were again taken using parallel forms of the Metropolitan Readiness Test and the Pintner—Cunningham Intelligence Test. M§tr0politan Readiness Test First grade norms were used in the scoring of the MetrOpolitan Readiness Test because Of the increased ceiling which this provided. -55- While the MetrOpolitan Readiness Test itself is relatively old it is widely used by many school systems. The new standardization Of this instrument was not avail— able until the spring of 1965; therefore this could not be used. Despite the age of the test it is generally considered as possessing "a general high level of excellence and careful workmanship both with respect to item construction and statistical analysis. From the technical point of view the MetrOpolitan Readiness Tests are among the superior readiness tests now available."70 Pintner—Cunningham Intelligence Tests Parallel forms of the intelligence test were used for the pre and post measures, and scores were computed by the deviation method as recommended in the manual. Analysis of these data indicate comparability of the eXperimental and control groups on the variable of intelli- gence. Kraus-Weber Physical Fitness Tests The Kraus—Weber physical fitness test provided informa~ tion regarding the neuro—muscular flexibility Of the subjects. Pre and post measures were taken. The test itself indicates only a general category Of failure or 7OGardner, Eric F., "Metropolitan Readiness Test Evaluation," The Fourth Mental Measurements Yearbook, (Oscar K. Buros, Editor) Gryphon Press, Highland Park, New Jersey, 1953, p. 571. -55- passing, and an individual is considered to have failed if he fails any one of the six components of the test. Individual records were kept indicating the specific test items failed by the subjects. Comparative analysis of these data was made. Statistical Evaluation Analysis of variance was computed on the difference in gain scores of intelligence, reading readiness, number readiness and total readiness. This yielded an F score which could then be checked for significance at the .05 level. Analysis of differences in gain scores within the socio- economic levels was made on intelligence, reading, number and total achievement using the T Test as outlined by Helen M. Walker71 and Joseph Lev. The significance of the Kraus—Weber results was subjected to statistical evaluation by using the non- parametric Mann-Whitney U test as outlined by Siegel.72 Statistical Hypotheses The alternates of the hypotheses as stated in Chapter I 71Walker, Helen M., and Lev. Joseph, Statistical lgference, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York: 1953, p.156. 72Siegel, Sidney, Nonpgrametric Statistics, McGraw- Hill, Inc., New York, 1956. -57_ would be that there should be no difference in gain scores which would be significant between the experimental and control groups on the measures of intelligence, physical fitness, and achievement. Assuming the significance of the treatment to be positive, the hypotheses were stated to favor the gains made by the eXperimental groups. Symbolically this would be represented as follows: Beginning of the Study: HO: C = Legend: C = E = E Control Group Mean Experimental Group Mean Termination of the Study: C ( E cl( E1 c2< E2 Legend: C = Control Group Mean Gain E = Experimental Group Mean Gain Cl: Lower SociO—Economic Control Group El: Lower SociO—Economic Experimental Group C2: Middle SociO—Economic Control Group E2: Middle Socio-Economic Experimental Group —58— Delimitations The time dimension chosen for the study was five months. Although this period is relatively short it was believed that the essential value readings could be Obtained in this length of time. Ideally, this kind of study should be programmed over a several year span. However, assuming that the teacher recognizes and provides for individual differences, it seems reasonable to assume that any initial gains should be maintained and extended. A longer period of time would require a considerably larger sample because of mobility. It is recognized that the final sample of eighty—eight subjects is somewhat limited in size.‘ Nevertheless, it might be argued that on an experimental study one must introduce change in amounts that can and will be accepted. If significance is found, then the study can be expanded with the benefit of the earlier experience. Reference has been made to the fact that the Metro— politan and the Pintner Tests are relatively old, but because of the time table for the study the new revision Of the MetrOpolitan Test was not available. Both of these tests are group tests, and had money and personnel been available, the sophistication Of the study would have been enhanced if trained psychometrists could have been employed to administer individual tests. Since this was neither practical nor possible, group measures were used in accordance -59- with the directions accompanying the tests. As was pre- viously mentioned, the Metropolitan tests were scored against the first grade norms. The teachers carried on the experimental treatment with a minimal background of understanding concerning the philosophy underlying the program. This was partially met through in—service sessions, but much more time and exposure is required if real understanding and internali— zation is to result. Despite this, these teachers carried on exceptionally well and it is believed that basic sensings can be made from the study as conducted. If significance is found it should be interpreted as all the more powerful because of this factor. No attempt has been made to evaluate the relative weight of any one variable. Rather, and in keeping with the design, the study seeks to evaluate the collective influence of the total treatment. It is recognized that there are multiple variables which have bearing on any methods study, and it is quite possible that in the field of education there are existent variables which are yet to be identified. For example, 73 the importance of self-concept, as pointed out by Brookover , and its influence on achievement can hardly be ignored. Brookover cites a specific case dealing with mathematics; 73Brookover, W. B., Sociology of Education, (American Book Company, New York: 1964). -60- the same applies to other areas as well. Comparable results were reported by Wilste74 in a study of a middle- sized Mid—western community where the reading scores of a school system's secondary student body were improved through a similar approach. Summary Statistical evaluation of the differences in gains scores between the experimental and control groups indicate the significance of the treatment. By further socio— economic group comparison the locus of this significance can be fixed. This will apply to the comparisons made on intelligence, physical fitness, and achievement. 7 . . . . 4Wilste, Earle W., Administration and Evaluation of Reading Program of a Small High School, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1942. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF DATA In this chapter the data regarding intelligence, achievement, and neurO-muscular coordination will be presented. The difference between pretest and posttest results will be reflected as gain scores. The difference between gain scores of the experimental and control groups were tested for statistical significance, and this is considered attained when the .05 level has been satisfied. This level was used in determining significance for both the F, T, and U test statistics. The individual gain scores in intelligence are reported on four children of one experimental group who were iden- tified as having specific vision organization difficulty. These resultant changes were not analyzed for statistical significance, but are presented because of their relevance to the central concern regarding the fuller release of human potential. Previously stated hypotheses were analyzed against the data gathered. These are analyzed for over—all signifi— cance and also by separate sociO—economic levels. —61— —62- Intelligence The control and experimental groups in both schools were matched on the basis of intelligence. No significant differences existed between the control and experimental groups within the schools with respect to this variable, and all individuals were just beginning their formal school experience. In each case the teacher worked with both an eXperimental and a control group. The pre and post intelligence measures are reflected in Table 2.4 together with the sex distribution and chronological age means. The standard deviation is reflected for the pretreatment intelligence test scores. TABLE 2.4 AGE, SEX, AND MEAN INTELLIGENCE OF THE SAMPLE N = 88 Sex Age in Standard Intelligence Group M F Months Mean Deviation Score Mean Pre Post c1 12 10 65.0 10.01 103 111 N = 22 El 8 14 65.12 9.46 101 109 N = 22 c2 10 12 65.05 10.42 111 123 N = 22 E2 11 11 65.19 10.58 112 131 N = 22 -53- In analyzing the data in Table 2.4 it is noted that in the sample of subjects the sex ratio was 41 boys to 47 girls. The mean pretest intelligence test scores for the Cl* group was 102 and for the B1 group it was 101. This would indicate a slight advantage for the control group. In reviewing the posttest scores the mean intel— ligence score for the C1 group was 111 and for the E1 group it was 109. Hence both groups made a comparable mean gain of 8 points, and therefore the difference between gain scores Of the two groups was not statistically significant. For the E2 and C2 groups the mean pretest intelligence score was 111 for the C2 group and 112 for the E2 group. In the posttest results it is noted that the C2 mean score was 123 which represents a net gain of 12 points. The E2 mean score was 131 which represents a net gain of 19 points. The difference between the gain scores of eXperi- mental and control groups was found to be statistically Significant at the .005 level. The F Statistic analysis indicates the existence of significant differences between the middle and lower socio— economic groups. The differences between the experimental ' Hereafter C1 will be used to refer to Control Group One, C to Control Group Two, E1 to Experimental Group One, and E2 to Experimental Group Two. Cl and El represent the lower socio—economic group, and C and E represent the middle socio—economic group. -64- and control groups were not statistically significant, and the interaction product of the intelligence and socio— economic factors was not significant. Achievement Pattern Reading Readiness Achievement —— In this area of measured achievement, as reflected by the Metropolitan Readiness Test in which case first grade norms were used, it is noted that the Cl group's initial mean reading readiness score was 37 and that the El group's score was 32. Both of these would be classified as low normal or in the "D"75 range. The initial mean score here is five points higher for the control group than for the experimental group. The C2 initial mean group score was 48, and the corresponding 32 group score was 50. These scores would both be classified as in the "C" or average achievement range. Posttest results indicate a mean score of 48 for the C1 group. This represents a net mean gain of 11 points. For the B1 group the mean posttest score was also 48, and this represented a net mean gain of 16 points for the El group. This yielded a mean net gain of 16 points for the El group as compared to the 11 point gain for the C1 group, and it is noted that the El group's initial mean score was 5 points lower than that of the C1 group. When 75MetrOpplitan Readiness Tests, Form B., Directions fipr Administering and Keygfor Scoring, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1949, p. 25. -55- the difference between the gains of the experimental group and the control group was tested the gain was found to be statistically significant at the .005 level of significance in favor of the experimental group. The C2 initial mean score was 48 and the posttest score was 57 which represented a net gain of 9 points. In the case of the B2 group the initial mean score was 50 and the posttest score was 58. This represented a mean net gain of 8 points for the B2 group. Thus there was no statistical significance found in the difference between the gain scores of these two groups. The F Statistical significance indicates decided socio—economic differences, and this would be expected. The total experimental—control group differences were not found to be significant. When analysis is made of the differences in gain scores between the eXperimental and control groups the results by socio—economic levels indicate a high significance found in favor of the low socio—economic experimental group over the low socio—economic control group, but significance is not present in the differences between the middle socio—economic eXperimental and control groups. In fact the mean gain of the middle sociO—economic experimental group was slightly less than the gain of this control group. Yet the total experimental—control group F Statistic was almost great enough to indicate total experimental group significance over the control group. —66— This was the direct result of the power of the low socio- economic eXperimental group's gain score. When the interaction product of the socio—economic and experimental—control factors was analyzed this was found to be statistically significant at the .05 level. Number Achievement -— A mean net score of 6 points repre- sents the Cl group's initial number score, and in the posttest measure this rose to 12. This represented a net gain of 6 points. For the El group the initial score was 5, one point less than the C1 group. On the posttest measure the El group's mean score rose to 17 points which represented a net mean gain Of 12 points as compared to 6 points for the control group. The difference between gain scores was found to be highly significant and to the favor of the B1 group at the .0005 level of significance. In the case of the C2 group the mean net score at the initial testing was 11, and this rose to 19 on the post— test measure. Hence a net mean gain of 8 points was achieved. With the E2 group the initial measure reflected a mean net score of 11 and a posttest score of 19. Hence, there was no measured difference in either the initial or post— test gain scores between the C2 and E2 groups. The greatest net mean gain in achievement was reflected in the area of number readiness with the El group. SociO—economic differences were not found to be _57- statistically significant in the area of number readiness; yet they were found in the areas of reading, intelligence and total readiness. Strong statistical significance was found in favor of the difference in the experimental group gains over those of the control group. This was also true of the interaction product of the socio-economic and experimental—control factors. Statistical significance was found to be attributable to the gain scores made by the low socio—economic group. Total Achievement -— The total score is composed of the reading score, the numbers score, and the score from a geometric form copying task.‘ The total mean score for the C1 group on the pretest was 46, and on the posttest the score was 66 which represents a net mean increase of 20 points. In the case Of the B1 group the mean initial score was 39, and it should be noted that this is 7 points under the initial mean score for the C1 group. The posttest score for the El group was 73 which represents a mean net gain of 34 points. This would indicate that even though the El group's initial score was lower than that of the C1 group they exceeded this group in total achievement by 14 points. The difference in the gain scores between these groups was found to be statistically significant at the .005 level. -68- The initial mean total score for the C2 group was 63, and their posttest mean score was 84. This represents a mean net gain of 21 points. For the B2 group the initial mean total score was 65 and the posttest mean score was 87. This yielded a net mean gain of 22 points which exceeded that of the C2 group, but the difference between the gain scores was not statistically significant. In the area of total achievement the previously existent differences between socio—economic levels was found to be significant at the .01 level. The gains of the experimental group over those of the control group were found to be statistically significant, and the cross product of the socio—economic and experimental—control factors were likewise statistically significant. Percentile Pattern The total picture of achievement is summarized by . l the percentile scores of the various groups. C '5 mean initial percentile score was 16 and the posttest score was 48. This represented a mean percentile increase of 32 points. El's initial mean percentile score was 11, l and this was 5 points lower than that Of the C group. Their posttest score was 57, and this represented a net mean gain of 46 points. In the case Of the C2 group the initial mean percentile -69- score was 39 and the posttest score was 80 which represents a net mean gain of 41 points. For the E2 group the initial mean percentile score was also 39, and the posttest score was 84 which represented a net mean gain of 45 points. In both cases the eXperimental groups excelled the control groups, and in the case of the Cl and El groups this was by a substantial amount. These data are reflected in Table 3.4. TABLE 3.4 MEAN ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES N - 88 . I r Reading Number Total Percentile . Group Score Gain Score Gain Score Gain Score Gain 1 Pre 37 6 46 16 C - Post 48 ll 12 6 66 20 48 32 1 Pre 32 ’ 5 39 11 E Post 48 l6 17 12 73 34 57 46 2 Pre 48 ll 63 39 C Post 57 9 l9 8 84 21 80 41 2 Pre 50 ll 65 39 E Post 58 8 l9 8 87 22 84 45 -70- Neuro—Muscular Fitness Group Test Data -— Pretest and posttest Kraus-Weber measures were taken on all individuals in the groups. The test itself is composed of six parts as shown in Appendix B. Although an individual is considered to have failed the test if he fails any one of the six test items, a further analysis of the results can be made by analyzing the specific items missed. Such an analysis will be made after first looking at the gross results. Thirteen subjects in the C1 group failed the Kraus—Weber test on the pretest check. Nine of these individuals failed this same test on the posttest measure, and this represented a reduction of four subjects over the pretest reading. In theEl group 17 subjects failed the pretest, and this was reduced to 3 on the posttest measure. Hence, in the B1 group, the reduction amounted to a net improve- ment of 14 as contrasted to 4 for the C1 group. Results of this initial testing in the C2 group Showed 8 subjects as failing the test, and on the posttest - 0 f measure this number had increased to 13, an increase 0 2 5 subjects over the pretest measure. In the B group the initial number who failed the test was 11, and at the posttest session this number was found to have decreased to 9, yielding a net reduction of 2 over the pretest measure. -71- In both cases the pattern of the eXperimental groups showed greater improvement and growth than did that of the control groups. The most marked improvement is noted in the Cl and El groups. In analyzing the groups on the basis of the gross number of test items failed it is found that the C1 group failed a total of 21 tasks on the pretest and a total of 13 tasks on the posttest measure. The El group failed a total of 26 tasks on the pretest and a total of 4 on the posttest measure. In the case of the C2 group they failed a total of 12 tasks on the pretest measure and a total of 17 tasks on the posttest measure. The B2 group failed a total of 25 pretest tasks, and this number was reduced to 12 on the posttest measure. The frequency distribution for each test item for all groups is reflected in Table 4.4, and it points out the higher level of growth achieved by the experimental group when compared to the control group. -72- TABLE 4.4 KRAUS—WEBER FAILURES N = 88 TEST ITEM NUMBER Total Number of Items Individuals #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 Failed Who Failed 1 Pre 2 9 3 0 3 4 21 13 C Post 4 7 . 0 l 0 1 l3 9 Pre 5 12 0 l 6 .2 .26 17 El Post 2 2 0 0 0 O 4 3 Pre 4 6 l 0 0 .l -12 8 C2 Post 3 8 0 1 3 2 l7 13 Pre 8 10 1 2 0 4 25 11 E2 Post 3 8 0 0 0 l 12 9 Sum of . eadh 31 62 5 5 12 15 130 Statistical Evaluation -— Since it was desirable that no assumptions be made regarding the normality of the distri— bution of scores in the population and also considering that the data were of an ordinal type, a nonparametric test was chosen to evaluate the data. powerful nonparametric tests, One of the most which is a useful alternative 76 to the parametric T test, is the Mann-Whitney U test. This test involves basically a rank ordering of the scores 76Siegel, Op. cit. -73- and in this case the rank order of differences between pre and post measures. The rationale is that if the two samples did not differ and were from the same or identical population then one would expect each group to have approximately the same frequency of scores in test achievement. If the popula— tions do differ then the sum of the ranks of one group should be greater than the sum of the ranks of the other. (In this case the hypothesis would predict that the sum of the ranks of controls would be greater than the sum of the ranks of experimental groups, since the fewer the tests missed the lower the assigned rank.) In the low socio—economic group the computation of the Mann—Whitney test resulted in a Z of 1.81 (P = .0359). For the middle socio-economic group the computation of the .0022). Mann-Whitney test resulted in a Z _ 2.852 (P = Both these probabilities satisfy for the preset .05 level of significance. Vision Organization Vision organization work was carried on prinCipally on a total group basis, and no pre or post measures were taken to gain data regarding the impact of the activities as previously outlined. The value of this type of activity is supported in the literature; and vision, in the sense as here defined, is subject to environmental influence. -74- In one of the schools concern arose over some observed vision organization problems. A vision specialist was called in to observe and consult with the teacher. The activities as previously outlined were continued, and he was able to assist the teacher in the area of skill and technique. The individual cases were followed; one was a boy and three were girls. Their pre and post intel- ligence measures would indicate that in their cases some— thing significant happened, but the study was not designed to provide control over enough variables to permit or warrant specific conclusions relative to the gains which these children showed. Their mean intelligence score gain was 24 points as contrasted to a gain of 18 points for the other children in their group. These data are reflected in Table 5.4. TABLE 5.4 INTELLIGENCE MEASURES ON CHILDREN NOTED AS HAVING PARTICULAR VISION ORGANIZATION PROBLEMS Subject Sex Pretreatment Posttreatment Change Intelligence Intelligence A M 98 127 29 B F 91 124 33 C F 98 122 24 D F 104 114 10 -75- Hypotheses Hypothesis I Hypothesis I stated that there would be a demonstrable gain in favor of the experimental groups in the following areas: (1) Reading Readiness, (2) Number Readiness, and (3) Total Readiness. Symbolically this was represented as follows regarding the differences in gain scores in achievement. HO = C(E, Ho = C1