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METHODOLOGY IN PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC

A Survey of Changes in the Aims and Procedures
of Music Teaching in the Public Schools of the

United States During the Past One Hundred Years.

by
Wenda Virginia £39k

A THESIS
Submitted to the Graduate School of Michigan State College
of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial

fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

Department of Music

July, 1939

IHESIS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

*%***

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. The Beginning of Music Education . . . . . . 3
II. Hethods in Early School Music . . . . . . . . 9
III. The Influence of Luther Whiting Mason . . .13
IV. The Attempt to Solve the Reading Problem . .18
V. The "New Education" in Music. . . . . . . . .24
VI. Widening Horizons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

(a) Elementary Music . . . . . . . . . . . .31

(b) Junior High School Music . . . . . . . .36

(c) Senior High School Music . . . . . . . .44
VIII.Recent Practices and Tendencies . . . . . .55
IX. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

Bibliograpm O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O .66

,FV73rnh
?°. - a a J

J--“:’. *‘ xi)". 1} ’

INTRODUCTION

***

During the century since the introduction of public school
music, the educational system of the United States has grown from
the one room district school, with its emphasis upon routine and for-
mal drill, to a highly complex, many-sided system. The concept of
technique and functions of education has changed as materially as has
the physical make—up of the institution.

The old concept of education maintained that the needs and
capacities of children were alike, that they could be trained by a
uniform procedure, and that definitely selected subject matter could
be so used as to

drill the attention, will, memory, imagin—
ation, feelings, judgment, reasoning.....

and the other powers of the mind, and thus...
stimulate the higher sentiments, and develop
the moral character of the children so taught.
By such means the citizenshipnaim of educa-
tion would be realized. (1)

Facts, information, skills, and specific habits were empha—
sized. Drills were developed for both their knowledge content and
their disciplinary value.

Near the turn of the century there arose, in various quarters,
a new conception of the purpose of education. Emphasis began to shift
from the subject matter to the child; knowledge was regarded not as a
mental discipline, but as a tool which would fit the child for life in

his community and his country. The fUnction of the teacher changed

from that of disciplinarian to that of a guide striving to direct the

 

(l) Cubberley, p. 365.

process of learning. During this important period of development in
education, the school was characterized by the introduction of the
"content" subjects, which were also planned to better fit the child
for usefulness in his everyday life.

In the modern school, the child more than ever, occupies the
center of emphasis, while a Widely varied curriculum, characterized
by "expression" subjects which train the feelings and attitudes, and
by many different types of schools, meets the needs of all children.

The newer philosophy of education has brought about a complete
evolution in text materials as well as in actual classroom practices.
Many techniques have arisen in the new educational system - social-

ized projects, group and individualized recitations, motivation of

effort - all of which have been devised for the development of mental,
moral, physical and social aptitudes. In the modern "child-centered
school", the child is encouraged to discover and express his own in-
terests, urges, and attitudes.

Music, the first expressive subject to be placed in the public
schools, is now recognized by administrators as having a vital place
in the integrated, well-rounded curriculum. It is an important factor
in the development of the emotional life, and in guiding the attitudes,

which determine life patterns.

I. THE BEGINNING OF MUSIC EDUCATION

*****

In the early history of this country there was little musical
culture as it is known today. At the beginning of the nineteenth cen—
tury came a new awakening, with a wideSpread inclination to learn about
and participate in music. Out of this new musical consciousness grew
the singing school which flourished for many years as a social and re-
ligious institution. This movement, which had its origin in the effort
to better church music,(l)was influenced from decade to decade by the
social and political tendencies of the times, until it became the focal
point of the community. It was the only medium of pOpular music education
until music was admitted to the public schools. The teachers of the ear—
ly singing schools who taught the elementary rules of singing and the
rudiments of music, each in his own way, rendered a valuable service,
for they brought music to the people in a simple and practical way, in
which all could participate..

These men, many of whom were self—taught, were the precursors
of the group of better-trained individuals who, inspired by Lowell Mason,
led the singing school to its height, and initiated the public school
music movement which eventually caused the decline and disappearance of
these singing schools.

Lowell Mason and his followers wisely established their work
upon the American conception of music as a part of the home, church,

and community, rather than upon the European conception of the develop-

 

(l) Bug—e, pp. 9-10.

4.

ment of the gifted individual. This is essentially the basis of pop-
(1)

ular music education as well as of education in general.
The founders of public school music appeared at a time when
the United States was entering upon definite musical progress. Opera

(2)

had been heard for some time in a number of cities; an orchestra in

(3)
Boston under the leadership of Gottlieb Graupner, and the Boston

Handel and Haydn Society(4)were presenting works of merit. European
artists frequently toured the country, and many of them settled in
America as teachers.(5)

Music as a school subject was not exclusively the idea of any
individual or group. It received a definite impetus in America in
1829, when William Woodbridge returned from Europe where he had inves-
tigated music—teaching as it was being practiced in Europe, particular-

ly in Switzerland. Woodbridge became interested in the work of Johann

Georg Nggeli, who was then applying the Pestalozzian methods to the

teaching of music in Switzerland. Upon his return to America, Wood-
bridge brought many text—books and other materials, some of which he

translated into English.

 

11) Francis M. Dickey calls attention to the fact that this interest
in popular music study was not peculiar to the United States at
that time, but was part of a great movement which had already
affected the most important countries of Europe.

(M.T.N.A. Proceedings, 1913, p. 188)

 

(2) New Orleans, Philadelphia, New York.
(3) Founded 1881.

(4) Founded 1815, it is the oldest living musical organization in
the United States.

(5) Cf. "Chronological Register", pp. 16-29,
American Supplement to Grove's Dictionary.

5.

In the same year, Woodbridge lectured in Boston on "Vocal
1
Music as a Branch of Common Education".( ) The lecture was illustra-
ted by choruses of children under the direction of Lowell Mason,
who had become interested primarily through his desire to secure boy-
altos for his church choir.
Woodbridge began the first practical experiment of music in
the schools at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1830, but there is no record
of the results. He succeeded in persuading Lowell Mason to investigate
the Pestalozzian idea. Mason was finally convinced of the value of
these principles in the carrying out of his own plans for incorporating
music instruction in public schools. He later included them in his
Manual of Instruction. In this Manual, published in 1834, Mason stated
the principles as follows:
(1) To teach sounds before signs - to
make the child sing before he learns the written
notes or their names.
(2) To lead him to observe, by hearing and
imitating sounds, their resemblances and differ—
ences, their agreeable and disagreeable effect,
instead of explaining these things to him -
in short, to make him active instead of passive
in learning.
(3) In teaching but one thing at a time,
rhythm, melody, expression are taught and prac-

ticed separately before the child is called to
the difficult task of attending to all at once.

 

(1) William S. Monroe Speaks of Woodbridge as the pioneer in the move-
ment which ultimately led to the introduction of vocal music into
the schools of America.

(Historygof the Pestalozzian Movement
gpgthe United States, p. 144)

(4) In making them practice each
step of these divisions until they are
master of it, before passing to the next.
(5) The giving of the principles and
theory after practice, and as an induction
from it.
(6) The analyzing and practicing the
elements of articulate sound in order to apply
them to music.
(7) Another peculiarity, which is not,
however, essential to the system, is that the
names of the notes correspond to those employed
in instrumental music, and are derived from the
letters with variations for sharps and f1ats.(l)
Public school music was even then being considered in several
places, and needed only a successful demonstration of its value to
cause it to Spread rapidly. The demonstration, as well as the cap-
able leadership necessary for such a project, was provided by Lowell
Mason and his associates at the Boston Academy of Music.(2)
In the Academy, which became the center of his activity, Mason
conducted large singing classes, including children's groups in the
manner of the singing school. During the first year alone, fifteen
hundred adults and children were given instruction. Mason believed
thoroughly in the singing school as the foundation of popular music
education, and in the education of youth as the most effective way to
build a general music culture.

Boston was one of the places where there was pOpular agitation

and legislation in favor of music in the public schools, but up to

 

II) American Supplement to Grove's Dictionagy, p. 333.

(2) Birge, P0 37

September, 1837, the board of education had failed to admit music
to the curriculum. At that time, Mason volunteered his services, and
offered to furnish his own equipment for a year's experiment in the
schools of Boston. The offer was accepted. At the end of the year,
such a successful demonstration was given, that music was adOpted as
a branch of common education on August 26, 1838.

To the members of the Boston Academy, such as George J. Webb,
Samuel A. Eliot, William C. Woodbridge, and Lowell Mason must be given
credit, not only for the introduction of music into the Boston schools,
but for training and inSpiring other teachers, whose leadership in turn
influenced the spread of popular music education. At the same time,
correspondence was carried on continuously with educators in other states,
in an effort to create interest in school music.

At this time, all music instruction was limited to the inter-
mediate and grammar grades. Cincinnati had the distinction of being
the first city to introduce music into the primary grades in 1857. In
1869, it was first included in a Boston high school, and by 1872, thir—
tyetwo years after its first adoption, music was being taught in all the
secondary schools of that city.

From Boston, interest spread to other cities and states. It
is interesting to note the widely scattered location of the cities which
took this step very early:

Buffalo, 1843; Pittsburgh, 1844; Cincinnati, 1846; Chicago,

1
1848; Cleveland, 1851; SanFrancisco, 1851; St. Louis, 1852.( )

 

(1) M.T.N.A. Proceedirfi, 1913, p. 203.

Public school music prior to 1861 was confined largely to
centers where the schools were managed by a school board, rather than
in those schools where such matters were decided by the voters in the
district. As late as 1886, General John Eaton, United States Commis—
sioner of Education reported that less than 250 schools in the country
were teaching music as a regular subjectsl)

In the period following the Civil War, school-music received
a definite impetus from the general development in all fields of music:
There was wideSpread choral activity; several symphony orchestras -
the Boston Symphony, the Theodore Thomas Orchestra, and the Symphony
Society of New York - had arisen; and several music schools, such as the
New England Conservatory and the Cincinnati Conservatory were founded.

During the introductory period of school music, teachers often
served gratuitously in order to demonstrate to school authorities the
value of music in the curriculum. It was largely through the efforts
of such leaders, that school music gained prestige and spread so rap.
idly.

Prior to 1865, there was no school-music profession. The
authorized singing teacher taught half-hour music periods weekly or
fortnightly. The evolution of the grade teacher who taught her own

music, guided by the supervisor came much later.

 

(D Birge, p. 86.

II. METHODS IN EARLY SCHOOL MUSIC

*****

Since the very beginning of music in public education, sing-
ing has been considered the basis of that work. At first singing was
used in the schoolroom mainly for recreational purposes, and for en—
tertainment on public occasions. The methods of teaching music dif—
fered little from those of the singing school, for the teachers and
materials as well as the methods came directly from that institution.

The music theory used in the early tune books of the eight-
eenth century was taken directly from the music books written in

England. The earliest singing syllables used were mi-fa—so—la

 

written first as a letter notation (M.F.S.L.), instead of notes on the
staff. The first singing book in America, which used printed music
on the staff was published in 1721 by J. Franklin, a brother of Ben—
jamin Franklingl)
The earliest attempt to introduce the European system of the
seven scale syllables was made in 1796. This practice displaced the
difficult and confusing system then in use, with one which was much
simpler and more practicable. The knowledge aim of education was
still the same in music as in other subjects, and music was consider—
ed a mental discipline, not excelled by any other study.
Unison singing was at first the main activity, but when

pupils became proficient in this, teachers attempted to teach part-

singing by imitation. This slow and unsatisfactory plan proved the

 

(1) Birge, p. 8 (Quoted from Notes on Music in Old Boston, Fisher).

10.

necessity of learning to read music in order to sing harmony.

Almost from the very introduction of music into the curric-
ulum of the public schools, there has been a division among teachers
as to which should be emphasized most, the song or the technique.
Most of the differences of opinion in the methods of teaching music
have arisen from attempts to find the best way to teach children
to sing music by sight.

When Lowell Mason incorporated the Pestalozzian principles

 

in his Manual of Instruction (1834), he formulated for the first time
in the United States the modern principle of teaching music, and al—
though these principles were largely disregarded or forgotten in
later years, it will be seen that the modern so—called "observation"
method is built upon the first, second, and fifth rules of the Mggr
Ell)

Realizing that the most direct way to teach children was
through the senses and faculties rather than through reasoning, Mason
taught by means of a series of concrete musical facts or phenomena.
Every fact was first presented by rote, before it was expressed in
symbols. The thing came before the sign, and the child learned to
do by doing.

Mason's theory,that,by following the Pestalozzian method,

every child not actually incapacitated could learn to sing and read

notes,met with a great deal of incredulity. It was believed by the

 

Tl) Cf. pp. 5 and 6 above.

ll.

majority of persons, particularly professional musicians, that the
musical ear'vmm;innate,and could not be developed unless it was def—
initely present. Mason attempted to demonstrate the falsity of the
belief. He taught that the major scale, taken as a whole, served as
a tune which could be easily learned, and which furnished a standard
of measurement of the relation of scale tones to each other. By
daily practice, these scale relations became familiar and furnished
a definite conception, because of the fixed relationships of the
scale tones. The seven snga syllables were employed, g9_always
representing the key note or tonic.

Those individuals who were pupils or associates of Mason,
based their work upon the same principles, varying among themselves
only in the diversity of their application, and in the exercises and
songs which they used. The teachensof that time had to develop their
own devices and techniques for presenting the subject, as well as fur-
nish materials.

It is interesting to note the resourcefulness and initiative
used by these individuals in working out their methods. Benjamin
Jepson, the first music teacher in New Haven, Connecticut, constructed
a huge music chart of approximately 1200 feet of canvas, on a portable
frame, rolled off by a crank, which he tranSported from school to
school. On this chart, he placed Exercises for imitation to be prac-

1
ticed by syllable and by w01d, teacher and pupil alternatings )

(l) Birge, pp- 93-94.

12.

When the chart was worn out, Jepson prepared and published at his
own expense, what appears to have been the first book in the United
States known as a Music Reader.

George Loomis of Indianapolis, an outstanding teacher of the
decade following the Civil War, wrote and published his own methods

in a series of books called the Loomis Progressive Music Lessons.

 

In these books, published about 1866, the tones of the scale were
developed by Very careful steps. Beginning with a one line staff,
the method added a second line, after the tones on one line were
learned. Then a third line was added. After extensive study and
practice, the class was allowed to sing from all five lines. The
same device is to be found in Festival Chimes, edited by S. Wesley
Martin, and published in 1861 in Chicago. Doubtless, it was in
rather general use, and not original with Loomis. Later, the Egggf
tical Music Reader by W. L. Smith (1880), Deputy State Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction in Michigan, outlines this device thor-
oughly.(l)
Teaching now began to rise to the level of a profession.
The principles of Pestalozzi dominated instruction, and books were
revised again and again to comply with these ideals. In the general
field of education, well trained teachers were being demanded; the
supervisory idea broadened from the executive office of Superintend-
ent of Schools to include departments and subjects. In 1857 the Na-

tional Educational Association was organized to aid in carrying out the

new trends in Education.

 

(1) Smith: p.11

13.

III. THE INFLUENCE OF LUTHER WRITING MASON

* a s a *

With the completion of the structure of the American public
school system with its primary, elementary, grammar, and high school
divisions, came the need for a plan of music which would proceed pro-
gressively throughout all grades. It was largely through the efforts
of Luther Whiting Mason, a pupil of Lowell Mason, that such a plan was
evolved.

In 1857, L. W. Mason then teaching in Cincinnati first became
acquainted with the school-music books of Christian Heinrich Hohmann.
These books were based upon the publication of Johann Georg Nggeli, an
advocate of the teachings of Pestalozzi(l) in the schools of Germany
and Switzerland. Mason persuaded Oliver Ditson to publish a trans-
lation of the books in 1859. This publication was the first deviation
in this country from the form of "Juvenile Song Book" which had hither—
to been used in singing-schools, public schools, and Sunday Schools
alike. L. W. Mason's National Music Course, which followed in 1870,
was the first systematic graded material with a well organized method 7
planned to fit the entire Sohool system. For an entire decade, it was
practically the only course in use in the United States.

Influenced by James Currie of Scotland, L. W. Mason applied
the principles of language reading to the teaching of music, and thus

became the first advocate of the song method. In this reapect he broke

 

(1) Cf. p. A. above.

140

away from traditional methods, and was far in advance of his time.

His plan of teaching rote songs, and developing a knowledge of music
notation from that background, was based on an understanding of child
psychology and pedagogical procedure. Few school music teachers under-
stood the basic plan of the course. Many used the material in the
manner of the singing school, while others merely taught the songs by
rote.

The publication of the graded National Music Course began an

 

important epoch in public—school music. The course was translated into
both the German and Japanese languages, and was used in the Sohools of
both countries. L. W. Mason was called to Japan as governmental music
supervisor for a period of three years, 1879 to 1882.

L. W. Mason and his contemporaries were influenced not only by
Pestalozzian pedagogy, but by the Tonic Sol—Fa system, which began to
be used in England about 1840. This was the prevailing method of pri-
mary music education in that country. Developed by John Curwen, it is
based upon the.flMovable‘ggP system which, owing to the great development
of instrumental music, had become generally diaplaced, particularly in
France, by the "fixed d2? system. The Tonic Sol—Fa system makes use of
the initial letters of the so-fa syllables as notation. They are print—
ed horizontally, without the use of a staff. The measures are separated
by bars, and time values are indicated by an intricate system of dots,
dashes, and commas placed between the syllables. A tone ladder called

(1)

a "modulator" teaches the tone relations of the scale.

 

Ii) "Tonic Sol-Fa", Groves Dictionagy (3rd ed.).

15.

Several attempts were made to introduce this system into the
United States. Although it was used in a number of places, and there
was bitter controversy over it in music conventions, its use never
became general. Many of the ideas concerning the teaching of tone rela-
tions were adopted from it, however. L. W. Mason used the Tonic Sol-Fa
Modulator, and the Galin-Paris-Cheve notation, a modification of the
Curwen notation, using numbers instead of syllables, and a set of time
names to measure rhythms.

We have seen(l)that in the primary grades L. W. Mason used
the song as the approach to beginning reading, and that he drew an
analogy between language reading and music. In the book for intermed-
iate grades, he developed reading through the study of the scale, using
the scale of C first. The most common intervals, the two even tones to
a beat, the dotted quarter and the eighth note, and two—part singing
were all studied in the key of C. These problems were then studied
in other keys.

Throughout the introductory period of school music, instruction
was almost entirely in the hands of a Special teacher who visited each
school at stated intervals. In the interim no music work was done.
Between 1861—1885, a few grade teachers began to teach music. Because
of the lack of training on the part of these teachers, and because
their relation to the subject was never quite clear, it was difficult
to put into general use any distinct method of teaching music.

‘

Cf. p. 14.

16.

In many cases, rote singing occupied a large part of the time,
and singing was looked upon merely as recreation from other studies.
There was no effort to give instruction in fundamentals, and the effic-
iency of the music department was mainly demonstrated by occasional
large public exhibitions.

Two widely divergent concepts gradually arose as to how music
should be taught. The first held that pupils should be taught as
many songs as possible with the aid of piano and voice; the second
was that the pupils should learn to read music in order to sing the
songs.

The convention and singing school which had previously trained
the music teacher had largely disappeared, and the normal schools had
not yet begun to train teachers in music. School music was expand—
ing too rapidly to assure even trained musicians as teachers, much
less teachers trained in pedagogy.

From 1884 until about 1892, the discussions concerning staff
notation and Tonic Sol—Fa were very intense at the sessions of the
National Educational Association. Hosea E. Holt of Boston defended
the staff notation, and Theodore Seward of New York the Tonic Sol-Fa.
In 1886, Seward Speaking before the music department of the National
Educational Association said of the latter system:

The notation is nature’s expression of musical

thought. It is the essence of Pestalozzianism....
To sum all up in a word, it is educational truth. (1)

 

 

11) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1886, p. 604.

17.

In reply, Hosea Holt declared his belief

that those who are applying educational methods

to the teaching of vocal music, without discard—
ing the staff, are so far in advance of Tonic Sol
Methods,that the latter notation cannot be of the
slightest value to them and must be a hindrance to
the pupil's progress. (1)

 

The song method outlined in the National Music Course by

 

L. W. Mason had become widely known and used. Ingenious and skill-
ful supervisors had, however, supplemented the suggestions in the
course from their own experience and training. Gradually a reaction
against, and a distrust of the methods and materials in the famil—
iar Course developed. This view was expressed by one supervisor
as follows:

Rote singing is to be regarded with distrust

because it offers so many Seductions from

the path of rigorous study by which the end
is attained. (2)

 

(l) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1886, p. 598.

(2) O. E. McFaden in N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1889, p.697.

 

Iknm V. 3.

.! Hut,

.3» .

.-

s

IV. THE ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE READING PROBLEM

* * * * *

In the two decades following 1885, the general curriculum
of the elementary school began an important expansion and reorgani—
zation. As more subjects were introduced into the curriculum, the
individual teacher was forced to become more skillful and efficient.
Music was now one of the daily subjects which the classroom teacher
was expected to teach in a period about fifteen minutes in length.
School authorities had come to believe that instruction in music
must be put on an equal basis with other subjects in the elementary
school, and taught as were the other branches by the regular class-
room teacher. They believed that

the instructor should be first of all
a teacher, then a musician - first a
pedagogue . . . . then a performer. (l)

Supervisory control of special subjects became the rule. The
special music teacher who visited each school about once a week evol-
ved into the music supervisor who directed the work of the grade
teacher.

A number of new music readers were written during this per—
iod, some of which advocated slightly new methods of approach to the
problem of sight reading. Among the first to produce a new method

was Hosea E. Holt. His Normal Music Course provided plenty of well

 

(1) Philip C. Hayden in N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedingg, 1892, p. 531-

It: 1!! )‘uiJ‘
.1 .
~D

l9.

graded material in such form that the elementary teacher could
handle music work successfully, and it covered every phase of

music reading so logically and thoroughly that the pupil was more
than likely to become a proficient reader. Based on a note-to-note
pedagogy resembling the prevailing system of language teaching it
was readily accepted. Every tonal and rhythmic problem was worked
out by a step-wise plan and carefully illustrated. The grade teach-
er was able to understand what to do.

The part music in the Normal Music Course was written in

 

contrapuntal style, while that in the National Music Course was har-
monic. Holt used the modulator, charts, and five fingers of the
hand for tone dictation, upon which he placed much emphasis.

The Normal Music Course which consisted of First, Second,

 

and Third Readers for elementary grades, and The Euterpean Song

 

 

‘Eggk for high school, were published in 1883.

The story of how school music forged ahead can hardly be
separated from the music schools which were organized for the in-
struction of teachers in the new methods. The school established
by Hosea Holt to demonstrate his method did much to create the en-
thusiasm which gave to the Normal Music Course the place which it
held for a decade in public school music. Holt's school, organized
in 1884 in Lexington, Massachusetts,was the first school devoted
exclusively to the training of music supervisors.

A number of music series followed that of Holt's: .Ihg

Cecilian Series of Study and Song by John Tufts in 1892; L. W.

20.

Mason's National Music Course was revised in 1885, by Ginn and Com-

pany; in 1895, the John Church Company published the Model Music

 

Course, and the American Book Company published the Natural Course

in Music. The latter course prepared by Frederick Ripley and Thom—
as Tapper tended to simplify the material for both teacher and pupil.
The method tried to eliminate the theory of music as much as possible;
such artificial devices as hand signs and musical ladders were omitted.

The authors thus attempted to avoid the weakness of the Normal Music

 

Course, which in Spite of its elaborate tonal and rhythmic drills,
failed to readily apply in reading general music. Music symbols,
free of technicalities, were used in the attempt to represent def-
inite and concrete tonal relations.

The general philosophy and method of this course was next
incorporated in the Melodic and Harmonic Courses, which were edited
by the same men.

Francis Howard of Bridgeport, Connecticut, who compiled the
Novello MUSiC Course in 1899, made two important contributions to
the music pedagogy of this period. An expert in children's voices,
Howard stressed the importance of the correct use of the child voice:

The tone which ..... is physically safe
and beautiful in quality, is the head

tone. Elaborate systems of voice culture
are out of place in the schoolroom.....
When the habit of using the voice in the
right way is fairly formed, both the men—
tal perceptions and physical sensations
form the strongest safeguard for its con—
tinuance. (2)

 

(1) In spite of extensive correspondence, we were unable to consult dir-
ectly all of the Music series discussed in this chapter.

(2) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1897, p. 787.

21.

Howard also held the view that children learned to do by
doing, that music reading consists not in preparing for reading by
elaborate drills and exercises, but in allowing the child to read
unhampered by devices.

Influenced by the new philosophy of the child voice, the
rote song, which had formerly been pitched too low, was now written
generally within the octave from E flat in the fourth Space of the
treble clef to E flat on the first line. This avoided harsh, throaty
tones, and aided in develOping the lighter, more flute—like quality
which Howard advocated.

In Spite of notable exceptions under forceful, skilled
music teachers, the general classroom practice of this era emphasized
knowledge rather han skill. The prevailing method of teaching music
was still the scale-drill method, and the acme of expert singing
classes was still the ability to go through elaborate exhibitions of
difficult interval and rhythmic drills. Too much emphasis was placed
upon the preliminaries to singing, rather than upon actual practice
in reading music.

Sterrie Weaver of Kestfield, Massachusetts, another important
figure in school music, taught around the turn of the century. His
influence upon music teaching was from a somewhat different angle,
for he attempted to apply scientific methods to the problem of sight
reading. Weaver attempted to strip it of all the cumbersome devices
of the period and to develop, through imitation, accurate and fixed

tonal meaning for the so-fa syllables. He seldom used music books

as a test for sig ht reading, and his only materials were

ng
his voice, the blackboard, and individual singing slips. Fve train—
ing as s preceded by e:* r training; rhythmic problems were learned
by imitation.

Tune is taught by imitation, but time

is taught by analysis. Why not teach

time as we teach tune? (1)
Veaver claimed that 75% of the children could be taught to

read music at si ht, with no more time being H1 van to singing than

was thena Mllot ed for its study. The center of emphes was the

(‘0

individucl child, and the dap ti on of the method to every child.
This was Weaver's main contribution to school music. It may well
be considered the outstanding contribution of the period.

The problem of sight reading was by far the most pertinent
one in music during the last yes rs of the nineteenth century. Rote
singing we 5 largely neglected in an effort to find the solution to
this problem. In 1890, A.Gove of Denver told supervisors in session
at the National Educational Association that

the study of the elements of music has no
more dependence upon the ability to sing
than he s the study of pe rcentsge. The

dai y practice reiuired is a task, and not
necessarily a pleasure to the class......

Song—singing while a pleasant feature....
is a small part of the legitimate work,

 

(1) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedi an"s, 1900, p. 537.

m'“

 

23.

and is related to the main study in hand
as is a.....declamation or oration, to the
study of reading. (1)

In 1893, however, the music education department of the
National Educational Association gave considerable attention to the
danger of confining the course of study for too long a period to
reading and singing mere mechanical exercises devoid of artistic
merit and empty of thought and feeling.

It was this very absorption in attempting to prove that
every child could learn to read music, that definitely established
music as a school subject.

The attempt to solve the reading problem in the period
prior to the turn of the century was thus accompanied by two other

major factors, the emphasis upon individual work, and the discovery

of the correct use of the child voice.

 

(lyN.E;fi:-Addres§es_§nd Proceedings 1890, pp. 819—820.

____l_1""’

V. THE "NEW EDUCATION" IN MUSIC

* * s * *

Near the turn of the century, the "book-subject" curriculum
of both the elementary and secondary schools began to change in con~
tent and method. Nature study, art, the sciences, and the manual
and home arts were introduced into the curriculum. Two important
forces influenced the field of general education. One of these
was the pedagogy of Herbert which emphasized the instructional
side of teaching technique, perfection of method, and detailed
teaching plans. The second was the child-study movement which
brought about a "new education" stressing spirit rather than meth-
od. It assumed

to develop character, to perfect the
constitution, to consolidate the health,
to elevate the moral and religious senti-
ments, to fit men and women for practical
life..... (1)

The influence of these forces was reflected in music in
the demand for more beautiful and fitting songs, for the actual
use of more song material, and in the formulation of a method of
teaching reading, with song as the basis. Exercises, which were
still used, were singled out of the melody being studied, and re-
iterated to fix it in mind. The plan of leading up to the song

through many graded exercises was conceded to be a violation of

the principles of "the new education".

 

Tl) Margaret Morris in N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1390, p. 815

 

25.

The new emphasis on song singing came as a natural reaction
against the great stress laid on reading in the preceding period.
Both conceptions were important in developing school music. It was
the mission of the "new education" to fuse the two ideas.

We have spoken of how the child study movement stressed the
spirit rather than the method of instruction. The application of this
point of view to music was due largely to William L. Tomlins, who
taught in Chicago from 1883 until 1898.

The underlying principles of the song method were demon-
strated at the National Educational Association in 1900 by C. H.
Congdon of Chicago. He attempted to prove that song is the basis
of the child's music study, that all musical conceptions should be
based upon the song, and that all technical drill should apply di-
rectly to it. In music just as in learning to read, thought and
experience come first, practice afterward. As the words and phrases
requiring Special drill in reading are selected from familiar mater-
ial, so, in the song method, the exercises or elements which are
being studied are developed from songs. Every new problem is exem-
plified by its practical application in exercises and songs, and re—
iterated to fix it in mind. The careful selection of simple pro-
gressive material for the practice of sight reading is extremely im—
portant. (l)

The principles stated by Congdon comprised the foundations

 

(170. H. Congdon in N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1900.

I...I|.Il.l.ll.).’
. I,

26.

of the school-music books which began to appear about 1900. .Ihg
Modern Music Series_produced by Eleanor Smith and Robert Foresman
set a new standard of children's music literature. They filled a
great need, for until this time no good collection of children's
songs had been compiled in which both the words and music was suit—
ably adapted to children. The Smith-Foresman books, employing the
song method, embodied the new spirit of the child—study era. The
music was of the highest quality, and contained all the elements for
developing reading technique. The pedagogy was not dogmatic, how-
ever, and left much to the judgment and skill of the teacher.

Other series which contributed greatly to the enrichment

of school-music literature were the Copgdon Music Series by C. H.

 

Congdon, songs by'Jessie Gaynor, by Otto Miessner, and the Laurel
Music Books edited by w. L. Tomlins and published by Clarence Bir-
chard.

During the era from about 1895—1910, the song method was
generally accepted by music supervisors, particularly wherever the
child-study movement had gone. There was not, however, any statement
embodying a course of study which might serve as a guide to teachers.
Consequently, there was definite need for an outline which would
bring some degree of uniformity to the field of school music. Fur-
thermore, there were many different theories regarding the way in which
music should be taught. A few individuals still believed in the

"fixed.ng method; a great number taught the key of C first, followed

by the sharp and flat keys; the majority believed that ear training

27.

should precede eye training. One group believed that all the el—
ements necessary for teaching music were contained in the rote song.
Among some supervisors the plan of changing keys oftener, brought
the Congdon chromatic pitch pipe into general use.

With the exception of a few cities in New England and the
Middle West, public school music has been limited to a period of
about fifty years. High school music has been a part of that pro—
gram for only about twenty—five years, although the foundations were
laid in the late nineteenth century. There were outstanding examples
of pioneer choral work near the end of the last century which were
directly related to the work being done in the elementary schools.

As early as 1875, Benjamin Jepson of New Haven, Connecticut,
trained a group of three hundred high school graduates in standard

oratorios. In 1890, The Creation was performed in Dedham, Massachu-

 

l
setts, by a high school chorus under Samuel Cole.( ) Early in the
twentieth century, smaller choral works, such as Geul's Holy City

and Cowen's Rose Maiden, were being performed by secondary schools

 

(I) Concerning the performance of such ambitious work by high school
groups, Frederick Chapman of Cambridge, Massachusetts said:

"Referring to high schools in New England which have given
Haydn's Creation and Mendelssohn's Hymn of Praise, I am convinced
after hearing school children attempt to sing these compositions
and others of the same calibre, that while it is possible and
advantageous in some respects to have excerpts from these master-
pieces studied by pupils of modern high school age, the works as
a whole should rather be heard than attempted by the school chorus."

N E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1911, p. 808.

28.

in widely scattered parts of the United States.(l)

Well-known selections from oratorios and opera», together
with cantatas like these named above, appear to have been the mater-
ial in most general use for high school choruses.

A few books of merit were compiled and edited by outstand—
ing supervisors. Two such books were the Laurel Song Book by William

L. Tomlins, and the Students' SonggBook by Osborne McConathy. The

 

books contained standard part songs, and selections from operas and
oratorios. A few choruses were published in pamphlet form at this
time.

Such choral achievements as those mentioned in an earlier
paragraph were by no means general. More often, high school music
consisted mainly of aimless choral work once or twice a week, devoted
largely to singing songs without definite supervision, and with little
or no incentive for performance. Such a condition prevailed, for ex-
ample, in Providence, Rhode Island, where, in 1883, the sole musical
opportunity for the large high school was the one weekly period when
the pupils of the classical and English departments met in the audi—

(2)
torium for singing. There were no classes or recitations in music.

 

T1) Birge,—p. 165.

(2) PJIOTONQA.0 Proceedings; 1920, p. 55.

_rF‘.

.'.

‘2): Ir
.4

That high school music was considered impractical, is
shown by the following citation from an address by 0. E. McFaden
of Minneapolis:

It is true that much more interest can

be created in the lower grades than in the
higher, and that in the higher grades there is

a falling off of interest because of attention
to other matters of alleged greater importance...
With these facts in mind, it behooves us then

to make the best possible progress with music

in the lower grades, where the conditions are
naturally more favorable. (1)

At the turn of the century there were two problems confront-
ing school music, which demanded careful and serious attention. The
first was the lack of thorough and uniform training of grade teachers
and supervisors. Aside from the few leaders, the proportion of
music teachers before 1890, who had an education beyond the high
school, was small. Music, the subject most harmed by incompetence
and lack of skill, was the one subject not required in the grade
teacher's professional training. Authorities permitted no other
subject in the public schools to be presented with as little train-
ing as was music.

The second problem was the Lack of uniformity in the teach—
ing of music. Few schools had supervisors; the training of super-

visors varied greatly; there was no uniform standard on which courses

of study could be based.

 

(l) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1889, p. 700.

.l‘..rl|d.lir
. . .>.l.l
r.

30.

In Spite of these problems, and the conflicting opinions
which prevailed, there was, at the close of the nineteenth century,
an emancipation from "cut and dried" methods of teaching with a
desire to better understand child nature and to use materials which
would be best suited to the interest and development of the child.

Leaders in school music had reason to believe that music
as a subject in the curriculum, had now reached the point where it

no longer needed the vigorous championship it had demanded in the

past.

31.

VI. WIDENING HORIZONS

The child study movement discussed in the preceding chapter
was largely reSponsible for defining the present—day purpose of
school-music in terms of the child's interest and enjoyment in music.
The chief theory of that movement, that knowledge is best gained
through the child's interest rather than through predetermined rou-
tine, led to a new evaluation of subject matter in terms of interest.

It was inevitable that the new psychology of education,
should have brought about many changes in classroom practices, and
in text material. By such techniques as group activities, individual
recitation, and socialized projects, the whole process of education
has been changed from formal drill to Specialized development of the-
individual within the group. This point of view was of as great con-
sequence to school music as to the general field of education. It
influenced the formulation of the ultimate aim of school music - to
lead the child to know and to appreciate music in as many ways as
possible in order that his life may be broad and full. It accounts
for the entrance of the many new musical activities and interests
of the past three decades - appreciation, history, instrumental
music, the acappella choir, and Special vocal and instrumental classes.
(a) Elementary:Mu§;g

The controversy over the relative merits of the various means
of approach to music reading continues to the present time. The

"fixed d9? plan still had its advocates, but the "movable d9? system

32.

is by far the more prevalent and appears to be the most feasible
plan for dealing with masses of children in the public schools.

In general, the conflicting views of the nineteenth century
have gradually been blended, so that the principal tendency in the
past two decades has been in the direction of simplification of
reading procedure. Where formerly, the emphasis was exclusively
upon acquiring skill in music reading, the stress is now upon the
music that is read rather than upon the reading process. Most of
the time which was once spent on drill is now used in reading more
music. Problems of rhythm and tone which were formerly anticipated
by preliminary drill, are now handled in connection with the songs
in which they occur.

One group of music educators advocates discarding the use
of any kind of syllables, on the grounds that syllables make child-
ren dislike music. These educators use a number system or nothing
at all for an intermediate association between note and tone. In
some places a system of reading by interval and chord is introduced,
the children being made acutely conscious of the tone center. Al-
though some schools have been extremely successful in these modern
practices, most music educators believe that for the elementary schools
the "movable.dg" system is still the most effective method. As pupils
progress, syllables may be dropped in favor of sight singing with
words, with humming or singing a neutral syllable to clear up por-

tions which present difficulties.

33.

Children who are gifted musically do not need any device
for reading music, but those who are not especially gifted need an
intermediate association. If they do not have it,they will either
guess at the tone or depend upon the leadership of the few gifted
children in the class.

The general verdict of educators in regard to the substi-
tution of numbers for syllables, is that there is no advantage in
the change. The so-fa syllables are in general use and are con-
ducive to good tone production, while the numbers which are not in
general use, are unmusical and difficult to vocalize.

The music curriculum has been broadened and enriched in the
elementary as well as the secondary school. Today, music in the
lower grades is a many-sided activity. The modern child may express
himself musically by learning to sing, by learning to play an instru—
ment, by participating in appropriate rhythmic reaponse, by learn—
ing to read music notation, by listening to good music, and by creat-
ing music. Appreciation in the form of "Listening Lessons" is now
a part of every well-balanced music program. Great emphasis is placed
on song games and folk dances. In more recent years, the percussion
or rhythm band has had considerable vogue in the lower grades. Its
development extends upwards, gradually making use of the violin and
other instruments, and culminating in the intermediate and grammar
school orchestras which are now a regular part of the curriculum in
many elementary schools. The plan of teaching piano playing to groups

of children is one of the most valuable movements in music education,

34c

and has resulted in the teaChing of countless thousands of children.
As in the secondary school, the class idea of instruction has led
inevitably to include classes in most of the instruments of the or-
chestra.

Nothing so stimulates children to perfection and memoriza—
tion of music as the knowledge that it is to be performed in public.

It is a strong and worthy motivating device of which frequent use
is made.

Types of public performance range from little concerts by com-
bined rooms to the music festival, and the Operetta. Although the
latter does not compare with the concert or festival as an education—
al force, it gives invaluable training along various extra-musical
lines. Following the outpouring of fine children's literature about
the turn of the century, there have appeared many children's operettas.
The chief educational objection to the school Operetta has been the
comparatively low quality of both words and music in the majority of
these works. Grade school operettas have from the beginning, and still
appear to average higher in both music and literary quality than do the
operettas for high school. Because of the great appeal of dramatics
and costuming, an Operetta project has a great influence on the pupils'
interest in music, and its use is very extensive.

The song material for elementary grades has been greatly en-
riched since the publication of the Modern Music Series by Smith and
Foresman in 1898. There has followed the publication of many courses
increasingly rich in content and technique. The more significant m te-

rial is as follows:

1903 — 1906

1908

1912

1914

1915

1923—1924

1923

1923

1927

1936

The New Educational Series,
by McLaughlin, Veazie, and Gilchrist.

The Eleanor Smith Music Series,
by Eleanor Smith.

The Lyric Music Series,
by Johnstone, Loomis, and White

The Progressive Music Series,
by Parker, McConathy, Miessner, and Birge

The Hollis Dann Music Coursg,
by Hollis Dann

The Universal Music Series,
by Damrosch, Gehrken, and Gartlan

The Foresman Book of Songs,
by Robert Foresman

The Music Education Series,

 

by Giddings, Earhart, Baldwin,and Newton

The Music hour Series,
by McConathy, Miessner, Birge, and Bray

The World of Husic Series,
by Glenn, Leavitt, Rehmann, and Baker

In Spite of a definite improvement in the song literature for

children, practically all elementary music books at the beginning of

the century gave a great deal of space to formal exercises and drill.

FUrthermore, much of the literature was still unadapted to child life,

because it dealt with abstract subjects.

In the second decade, material began to be definitely related

to child experience, and it has become increasingly beautiful and in-

teresting since then.

About 1015, the editors and compilers of school

music books began to include folk material from many countries.

36.

Although a few courses still made use of formal exercises
as the means of approach to tonal and rhythmic problems, the
"observation" or"pattern" song was the more usual medium of teach—
ing music reading from about 1915. With the various music courses

were published Teachers Manuals which contained definite methods of

 

presentation.

In the present decade there is a tendency to do away with
definite techniques and songs which are written for particular cour—
ses with Specific problems in mind. While there are still some series
which use the "observation" song as a means of developing a method,
other series, assuming that the child should be associated with only
the finest music, use folk material with many art songs. Formal drill
has more nearly taken its place as a means of gaining pleasant musical
experience rather than as an end in itself. There is a trend toward
the attitude that the whole music program is best developed by adapt-
ing it to the situation present in the individual classroom rather
than through a specific manner of teaching.

(b) Junior High School Music

There was one outstanding innovation in the field of general
education which definitely hastened the country-wide growth of school
music, particularly instrumental music. This was the reorganization
of secondary education in the second decade of the present century,
resulting in the junior high school movement. and in the formulation
of a philoSOphy of adolescent educational deVelopment.

This reorganization of the American school system tried to

37.

make possible a gradual transition from the elementary to the sec-
ondary period of school, and thus bridge the abrupt break between
the eighth grade and the high school. The change from the 8-4 plan
to the 6-3-3 plan provided a greater variety of subjects, with some
opportunity to select the work which suits the individual needs and
interests.

This newer plan also provided many opportunities for the
adolescent to express himself emotionally under guidance. Many avenues
are open to him - the drama, the shop, and various clubs. None of these
excel music as an opportunity for emotional outlet. The.recognition
of these facts, combined with the possibility of providing such oppor-
tunities in the new junior high school unit, has brought about marked
changes in the music curriculum, and has resulted in the recognition
of music as one of the most important factors in the general program
of the junior high school. Instead of the plan followed in the old
seventh and eighth grades - a short daily period Spent exclusively in
the sight Singing of part-songs, there are now found general music
periods of from three quarters of an hour to an hour in length. The
time is spent in singing genuinely artistic material, augmented by
listening lessons, and various other interesting musical activities.
This course in general music is usually required. It is supplemented
by bands, orchestras, glee clubs, class lessons in instruments, and
even theory classes in the ninth grade, with possible credit for pri-
vate study.

The flexibility of such a program allows the pupil to eXplore

,u
.u

38.

and to orientate himself. It also assists the teacher to more wisely
plan the subsequent musical activities of the individual.

In the old 8—4 plan, seventh and eighth grade music consisted
exclusively of singing. The grade teacher who conducted the lessons
was rarely, if ever, trained especially in music, for until about 1920,
music was usually not included in the two-year normal course. Being
unprepared, the teacher naturally stayed close to the mechanical side
of sight-reading and various kinds of theory drills. Such things as
listening lessons, art songs, creative music, and instrumental music
had no part in such a type of school. This does not mean that there
were no excellent music groups. On the contrary, there were many ex-
perienced teachers who developed in their pupils the ability to Sing
part songs with syllables very skillfully, and who were well versed
in key signatures, the major and minor scales, and other theoretical
points. All too often, however, there was neither inspiration or en-
thusiasm, but intense devotion to a "method" contained in a particular
set of music books.

With the organization of the junior high school, chaos pre-
vailed for a while, for music supervisors had not been trained in
educational psychology. With the deve10pment of courses in public
school music for supervisors, lasting from two to four years, they
were trained in psychology and pedagogy as well as in music methods.
As a result, music supervisors came to realize that the junior high
'School curriculum must be extended and enriched. Junior high school

music evolved gradually from the old 8-4 plan to distinctly new

39.

types of classes which are now to be found in the majority of
schools.

First, there is the General Music class, w ich is required
in the seventh and eighth grades and which is, in reality, a vestige
of the old 8—4 plan. Sometimes this class is taught by the regular
room teacher, but more often by a Special teacher of music in a
well—equipped music room in which there is an adequate supply of
materials - a phonograph, a piano, one or more sets of books, and
frequently a radio.

In the program of the ideal general music class there is con-
stant variety, not only of presentation, but of materials as well.
Periods of hard work are followed by recreational activity; part songs
alternate with unison songs; the moods of the songs vary; musical
terms and differences in form and nationality are pointed out; in-
teresting bits about composers are discussed briefly; children with
talent are encouraged to Sing and play before the class. Even though
music is a required subject in these two grades, the groups are quite
homogenous due to the prevailing plan of grouping junior high school
pupils according to mental ability. Although there is no exact cor-
relation between musical ability and general intellectual ability,
there are so many factors in the study of music which call for intel-
lectual ability, that this grouping is found to be fairly adequate
for the music classes in these two grades, and is the only feasible
one for most schools.

The "unit" plan of organizing and presenting music material

40.

is a late development in junior high school. In such a plan,

the lesson plans center around a particular topic, such as "The
Music of Italy" for a period of several days or weeks. There are
obviously, advantages as well as disadvantages in this plan. If
_the units are not too long, and if the teacher is capable, concen-
trating on one topic results in continuity of interest which is not
produced in a miscellaneous program.

In chorus, the child acquires the skills, attitudes, and
tastes which not only create an enthusiasm for the elective subjects
in the curriculum, but develops the knowledge which is the foundation
of these classes. It is through the chorus classes that pupils
explore and are orientated into the various organizations for which
they have a particular talent or liking.

In the supplementary elective activities - glee clubs, spec~
ial mixed choruses, organized appreciation work, band, orchestra,
and instrumental ensembles and classes, almost all children may find
a place. The attraction of special organizations for the adolescent
is much greater than for the elementary pupil. Music plays a role
of inestimable value in connection with the sense of social relation—
ship which develops at this period.

Music in the junior high school is still a natural group
activity as it was in the elementary grades, for individual special-
ization does not begin here. This is the time and the place for ex-

ploring the musical possibilities of children, and for satisfying

215 Cf. Pitts, Music Integration

 

h

41.

the immediate emotional and social needs which are present in all
children at this age.

During these years, both the speaking and singing voice of
the adolescent change and mature rapidly. The voice of the girl grows
richer, but otherwise the change is not noticeable, for the voice
usually continues in the contralto or soprano quality which it had

in the sixth grade. The boy's voice, however, usually changes com-
pletely from a child to an adult voice either at this time or early
in senior high school. This depends upon the size and maturation
of the boy. The follohing quotation from a text book published in
1880 is an interesting comment on the attitude of educators of the
time towards the boy voice:

The anatomical alteration which affects the

change of the vocal tone, consists in an enlarge—
ment of the larynx, which, in males, goes to such
an extent as to give this mechanism prominence in
the throat - the so—called Adam's apple .....

In some instances, the voice is entirely lost at
this period, and does not return for some weeks.
There frequently, also, sets in a remarkable hoarse—
ness, and young men often lose all control of their
voices; the voice involuntarily breakin , as the
expression is. This is a critical period for the
voice, and great care should be taken. Many voices
are irretrievably lost during this time..... while
others.....through indiscretions of various kinds,
become poor in quality and worthless. (1)

Smith continues by saying that voices which are changing
should be excused from participation in vocal practice.

There are, at present, two theories regarding the use of the

 

(I) Smith, w. L. The Practical Music Reader. Quoted from
. Bassini's Art of Singing.

42.

boy voice during the adolescent period. The first, the English
view, is that the boy should sing as long as possible in his treble
voice, after which should come a period of rest, during which time
the boy will not sing for a period of six months or even a year.
This allows the voice to become settled and mature. The second
view is that held by most American music supervisors and teachers.
It maintains that since the singing voice parallels the Speaking
voice, the boy should be kept singing during the entire period of
change. He does not continue using the treble voice as long as
possible, but is permitted to sing gradually lower and lower'
parts, passing from soprano through alto and alto-tenor to real
tenor, baritone, or bass. The modern procedure of encouraging

the boy to sing a lower part as his lower tones develop, avoids

the "break" with its period of "silence". It has been found that
carefully guided use of the voice results in no harm. Furthermore,
this procedure has the advantage of keeping the boy singing through;
out his school life, and allows well—balanced part-singing in the
junior high school, which is of great value both to the boy and

to the class.

The question of materials in junior high school is one of
great importance. It is particularly related to the boy problem,
where prOper material is imperative if enthusiasm, respect, and love
for music is to be gained. Music is related directly to the boy's
interest by using material concerned with topics that are virile,

meaningful, and forceful. Boys react with great enthusiasm to songs

Illa-3)")
. . a
r

43-

of adventure, fellowship, cowboy and work songs, and patriotic
songs. Too frequently, music for boys has been concerned with the
lifeless, reminiscent things of life. Such music often causes an
intense dislike for music.

In order to meet the efforts of supervisors to supply appro-
priate material for every age, editors and publishers have given a
great deal of attention to this problem in recent years.

A great deal of unison material is employed, although the
problem of range interferes somewhat in groups containing both changed
and unchanged voices. Unless boys are properly equipped for harmonic
work, singing of music in parts will be a great problem and an added
source of dislike. If, however, the ability to read music is such
that several parts may be sung with a minimum amount of labor, boys
experience the keenest pride and enjoyment in part—singing. Boys
are retarded somewhat by the introduction of a lower part. Not only
must they read a new clef, but musically this added part is often
more uninteresting.

The average junior high school is equipped with a large supply
of music materials adapted to many and varied combinations - unchanged,
changing, and changed voices. There are now a number of excellent
music books available for junior high school classes.

There is an abundance of good unison songs, and two and three—
part arrangements for girls. Music written for even senior high school
girls will not do for the younger girls because of the limited range

of the Voices. There is also a great deal of two, three and four-part

44.

music available for boys if reading ability and voice range permit
its use. The four-part arrangement for mixed voices, usable for
all singers, naturally has the most abundant material. There is a
limited opportunity in some schools for the soprano-alto-bass arrange-
ment, although this is seldom necessary.
(c) Senior High School Music
Although a paper dealing with high school music was read in

the department of music education at the National Educational Assoc—
iation of 1897, it was not until 1902 that it was given a definite
place on the program of that conference. At that time a request was
made of the Department of Superintendence that a paper on "The Needs
of Music in the High School" be read at its next meeting. At the
session in 1902 Francis E. Clark, in summing up the objectives of
high school music, said:

If music is to be an integral part of a high

school music course,.....why....should it not have

an accredited place in the scale?.....Why should

the pupils be asked to give their time to music....

without credit?.....The amount and kind of reading

and theoretical work must depend upon what has been

accomplished in the grades below. (1)

After summarizing the work which should be covered in the

grades, the Speaker continued:

With such a foundation, highschool music may be

made to cover exactly the same ground as the course

in English.....music in the high school ought to
consist of a thoro and comprehensive study of the

 

(l) N.E.A. Addresses and Proceedings, 1902, p. 626.

45.

best composers from Handel down to.....the
twentieth century.....How much of this great

mass of material can we study.....With little

or no classification, with small, struggling
classes,.....with poor hours, or with an in—
definite program,little can be expected.

On the contrary, if we can have the grades by them—
selves, in separate divisions, some progressive
plan is made possible, and a course of study may
he followed that leads to something. (1)

There is little comparison between the music program prior
to 1900 and the curriculum of the modern music department. Long
before music was considered as a definite and systematic course in
the secondary school, some kind of vocal group flourished in high
school. Often the occasion for the formation of such a group arose
because of a program where "special music" was desired. The best
singers of the school were merely gathered together under the leader—
ship of some member of the faculty who played the piano, or who
liked music. Needless to say little if any, consideration was
given to the voice problems peculiar to young peOple of high school
age. Voices were neither carefully tested nor classified. The
pupils were usually asked to sing as loudly as possible.

A perusal of the files of the addresses and proceedings of
the National Educational Association, discloses an increasingly ser-
ious and essential role played by music in the curriculum of the
secondary school, in the first decade of the twentieth century.

Vocal music, by far the most important phase of secondary

music, was greatly stimulated by the attempt, in 1903, to organize

 

(1) 11.11.11. Journal and Proceedings, 1902, p. 631.

46.

high school music as a major study on a regular credit basis. A

committee of music su e*rvis ors cooperating with the New England ”duca-

W
tion League formulated a course which was elective, and which

vided for four hours of music each week of the four high school years,

1
or a total of 576 hours.( )

m

Chelsea, Ma the first school to adopt this

U)

sachusetts, wa

course in its entirety, together with provisions for credit. The
(2)

plan was introduced by McConathyi in 1906.

For many years, vocal music was not required in high school,
and in the largem ajority of schools, most pupils drOp led music upon
entering the secondary unit. For a number of years, too, the ques-
tion as to whether chorus should be Optional or compulsory was an
important one at music conferences. In the majority of cases, there
were two choruses: the elective chorus, the "showme nship" group of
the music department organized with the definite objective of public
performances,and the required chorus vhich v.a 5 considered to be a
preparatory group from which to choose voices for the select chorus.

Vocal music now be3.n to expand beyond tne customary mixed
chorus to include boys' and girls' glee clubs. Such groups appeared
for the first time on the music program of the National Educational

Association, in 1908. Previous to this, the only school music groups

 

(1) N.E.A. Addresses and Proc eedingi, 1904, p. 702.

 

(2)N Addresses and Proceedings, 1908, p. 844.

 

"on; .

47.

appearing on these programs were small choruses of element'ry
children used for demonstration purposes.

The simple high school program of a generation or more a.

so
has develOped greatly in the past twentv veers. It is no longer
restricted to assembly sin; once a WQQK by all the students,
a chorus, and perhaps a glee club or an orchestra which met after

8. The (16015.1- t‘fii.

fir
V

‘—-0

school hours on a non—credit bee inning with 1920

ritne sed a remarkable exparsion of musical ectivities in high school.

U)

The perfection of mechanical instruments greatly influenced music
appreciation, which in turn stimulated interest in both vocal and
instrumental music. The importance given to m sic during the World
War undoubtedly accele ated the growth of school music. The greater
recognition of the educational function of music a s accounted for

a wider inclusion of the suhiect in the secondary school curriculum.

U

.L'Y .1.

Perhaps the most significant phase on she widening horizon

of public school music in the twentieth century has been that of

1*

nstrumental music. It Ins only natural that the intense interest
in instrumental music should emphasize that aspect to the detriment
of the choral phase. During the very decade which witnessed an
unprecedented spread of school music througlout the nation, there
was a tendency to neglect vocal music. This trend was anticipated
as early as 1917, when a member of the music education department
of the National Educational Association inguired concerning the
advisability of substituting orchestra for singing. The ensuing

discussion ended with a unanimous vote that, Thlle every 1e

, ..I.'\.. i)

f

effort should be made to realize the possibilities on
A

n
‘4.

w-

music, it must never be at the erpense of vocal mus
During tne decade that followed this, many grave fears were
expressed that instrumental music might supplant vocal music. Al-
though the swing was suite definitely toward the former, far—seeing
supervisors realized that vocal music is and will continue to be

the foundation of public school music. In the past decade or less, the

new a cappella choir movement has again brought vocal activity to the

 

f

oreground.

In so far as it is reasonable and practicable, senior high
school music is offered to everyone. For the less musical pupils
there are chorus and appreciation classes with possibly the privilege
of belonging to glee club, band, or orchestra. For the musically
inclined, and the talented pupils there are more highly specialized
groups - glee club, band, orchestra, choir, Special classes and en-
sembles. In large schools, classes in theory, ear—training, and music
history are also offered.

In many schools, pupils who are deficient in technical train—
ing, and who desire to enter music are placed in a general music class,
which aims to explore the main phases of music in order to acquaint
the pupil with a certain amount of music before he enters the more
specialized courses. This class includes practice in daily sight-
reading and technical points, and familiarity with a number of stand-
ard compositions. It is offered especially to those pupils who enter
high school without having had music training in the elementary grades

or junior high school.

49.

Until 1920, discussions of choral work in high school, centered
mainly around the High School Chorus, its organization, and whether

it should be elective or required. In some schools, the large chorus
is still the organization to which the most attention is given.

Such is the case in Minneapolis, where the size of the choruses vary
from one hundred to three hundred, with a combined chorus of from fif—
teen hundred to three thousand.(l) The chorus specializes in accom-
panied works of varying degrees of difficulty.

There is also a group of talented pupils who should have the
opportunity of Special training. This condition is met by the organi-
zation of glee clubs. To these classes are admitted only those pupils
who have the required musical ability, and whose voices sound well to-
gether. This is determined on a democratic basis by "try—outs".

Since great care is taken to balance parts, particularly
as to power, the size of the glee club usually depends upon the avail-
able number of high voices among the boys, and low parts among the
girls.

Voice mutation, which is met with in the junior high school,
is also a disturbing influence in the senior high school. Because
the general condition of the boy voice during this time is such that
a sustained music effort in singing is sometimes unwise, the boys'
glee club is the most difficult problem of high Sohool choral music.

The lack of first tenor voices often demands resorting to alto-tenors.

 

(l) Giddings, Baker, High School Music Teaching, p. 27

.I?x.' . b 7.5".
2...!"
,0
V

50.

This is seldom satisfactory since these voices may change at any
time and leave the group unbalanced.

It was not until recent years that the glee club has ranked
as a regular class, receiving credit, and rehearsing during school
hours.

At the Music Supervisor's National Conference in 1920, there
appeared for the first time an unaccompanied chorus called the
"a cappella choir". This type of organization, almost entirely
neglected in this country until then, did not become general, except
in a few large schools, until about 1928.

The spread of the movement of unaccompanied singing, with its
emphasis upon improved intonation, and only the best of materials by
the best of composers, had more influence than any other single factor
in raising the standard of choral technique, and restoring interest
in vocal music.

The voices of the a cappella choir are, with few exceptions,

 

chosen by the director, thus insuring a comparatively high degree of
tone quality and performance. The average high school choir has a
membership of about fifty voices of which about one-third are male
voices. In the average school, the choir meets for rehearsal three
days a week, usually in regular school hours. The tendency at present
is for the choir to meet five hours per week, and to receive the same
amount of credit as do regular academic subjects.

In the majority of choirs, as well as glee clubs, student or-

ganization and government is the rule.

51.

Sacred composition is the type of music most widely used,
but many secular numbers are also included. The music most favored
by directors are the better known writings of Palestrina, di Lasso,
and their English contemporaries of the sixteenth century, the Ger-
man literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (partic-
ularly the works of Bach), compositions from the Russian school of
the nineteenth century, and modern compositions and arrangements by
American composers.

Most directors plan to master a limited number of songs
thoroughly, but a few prefer to cover many songs, in order to give
the student a broad and comprehensive background of choral music.

Although violin classes began in 1911 in Boston and the
movement soon included all band and orchestra instruments, it was
not until 1920 that vocal class work became general. The original
purpose of group voice instruction was to guide and interest high
school pupils until their voices were sufficiently developed to
permit private lessons, and to further afford an opportunity to
test whether ability and talent warranted the expense of vocal
study.

The first problem was to develop a method or course of study

which would be shorn of the multiplicity of details and vagueness of

 

52.

style found in available books on voice culture. Next, there had
to be set up a few simple and fundamental principles which high
school pupils could grasp and apply. Briefly, three laws cover
the technique which was, and is still the basis of vocal class in-
struction:

1. Control of breath

2. Freedom of vocal instrument

3. Tone placement

In addition, a few vital points in song interpretation,
stage presence, refined and distinct articulation, and a limited
repertoire of songs to be memorized constituted the course of study.

The voice class is usually confined to students of the junior
and senior classes.

The music material used in schools prior to 1900 was indeed
meagre and restricted compared to that which has been available for
the past two decades. There has been a steadily marked improvement
in the musical content and pedagogic value of music text books. Today
America stands first in respect of materials which are suitable for
every age and every kind of vocal and instrumental combination.

The improvement has been particularly noticeable in the mater-
ials used by high school vocal groups since 1920. The qualification
that the credit obtained be commensurate with the material studied,
and the results obtained, has had its influence in ruling out a great

deal of trivial material used in the past. The state music contest (1)

 

(1) Cf. fit 61 below

iLJ

53.

which has been in vogue for almost two decades, and which has been
judged by musicians of high standards, has done much to raise the
standard of materials to a dignified and musicianly level. This
improvement has been particularly marked in the boys' glee club,
where suitable material is very necessary because of the limited
range of the adolescent boy's voice.

From a perusal of the programs and articles in the journal
of the Music Supervisor's National Conference it appears that early
high school choral groups used material consisting mainly of folk
song arrangements, and literature by foreign masters, including
standard choruses from oratorios and operas. Such music was used
almost to the exclusion of American writers, who had, in reality,
contributed little to the field of choral writing.

Bus to the reaction against German music during the World
War, particular attention was directed to the works of American
composers. After 1918 and 1919, are to be found a number of fine
choruses and contatas by Americans being widely used. Today the
best American writers are well represented by choral work, much of
which has been written expressly for school music books.

Choral literature for both junior and senior high school
is now to be found in abundance. A generation ago, it was thought
necessary to write down to high school students - to give them
simplified and abridged editions of the classical and semi-classical
masterpieces. Today many high school choruses give these works as

written by the masters.

 

54.

Although the largest group of material is found for the
mixed group, and the girls'glee club, there is a great amount for the

boys' glee club, if the teacher will but use proper care in selection.

55.

VII. RECENT PRACTICES AND TENDENCIES

* a * * *

Many new or re-emphasized practices in music education are
having a strong influence in the enrichment of the music program.

A new element entered school music in 1911, with the perfec-
tion of the science of reproducing sound by means of the talking
machine and the automatic player piano. With the possibility of taking
the music of the great masters into the schoolroom on these recordings,
came a new phase of school music termed "music appreciation". At first
the work was stereotyped and superficial, but with the improvement of
the reproducing instruments, techniques in "appreciation" lessons also
developed, until it has become one of the most vital subjects in music
education. With the advent of the radio, another effective factor in
music education became available. Although still somewhat in the ex-
perimental stage, there is no doubt that radio is destined to play an
increasingly large part in education. It is of great usefulness in
a supplementary capacity if all listening is based upon carefully inte-
grated preparation. The newer tendency in the field of radio, as cor—
related with education, is that pupils not only listen to the many
fine programs which are Specifically prepared for the classroom, but
that they plan, prepare, and present projects over the radio. Super-
visors of music are cognizant of the possibilities of this force, while
carefully weighing each new project and accepting or rejecting it upon

the basis of intelligent judgment and discrimination.

I’vafldflur

56.

Departmental organization in the elementary school provides
a type of music instruction which cannot be expected of the grade
teacher who is seldom adequately prepared in music, and who already
has several subjects assigned to her. Another advantage of this plan
is that a special room, well—equipped for music, is assigned to full
time use for music instruction. In addition, such a program as this
lends itself to handling various levels of talent and caring for in-
dividual differences through different kinds of musical activities.

The test and measurement movement is intended to discover
differences in capacity and to diagnose needs of the individual
pupils. Educators, in providing for differentiation in talent,
first cared for the normal and the subnormal child. Now the empha—
sis is beginning to be placed upon opportunities for the talented
child.(1) Talented children may be adequately cared for through
departmentalized instruction which provides organizations such as
the orchestra, school choir, small ensembles, class lessons, and
private instruction.

Summer music schools for children have assumed considerable
importance in the past decade or more. Some of these schools have
been carried on as experimental projects in connection with the
music education department at Northwestern University; the University
of Wisconsin; Teachers College, Columbia University; Western Reserve
University and many others. In general, these care for talented

children who desire additional and more intensive training than they

 

 

(1) Research Council Bulletin,_No. 13, p. 5

57.

receive during the school year. One of these institutions also
maintains classes for children who are deficient musically.

Another type of summer school is the music camp for high
school students, of which The National High School Orchestra Camp
at Interlochen, Michigan is an outstanding example. Most of these
camps have no official connection with either the public schools or
a university.

The experiments by the Universities are significant because
of their demonstration of better teaching methods. All are significant
because of the suggestion they offer boards of education for a longer
school year, and for the probable effect of the freer methods of the
summer school with its emphasis upon social values, on the procedure
of the regular school year.

The integrated program of studies has been greatly empha-
sized in the last few years. It is a part of the new educational
philos0phy which tries to develop in children the ability to discover
new lines of endeavor, to plan, create, evaluate, and execute. In
such a program

We have pupils and teachers planning together
group and individual projects and undertakings
in which the information sought and the pro-
cesses involved are necessary steps toward pupil
conceived goals. In such an educational pro-

cedure, subject matter boundaries are crossed
and recrossed when the occasion requires.....(l)

 

(l) M.E.N.C. Yearbook, 1938, p. 359

as. .u a 11....llol4’

58.

Perhaps no other subject in the curriculum offers more
opportunity for integration than does music. In the integrated pro-
gram, music is of two types:

(a) Music integrated with other social studies.
(b) Integration of the music program within itself.

In the selection of integration projects of the first type,
care is taken not to use music merely as an accessory to the other
subjects. music which can actually be experienced by means of par-
ticipation either by creation or by reproducing is most valuable.
Maximum pupil participation, which is one goal in music education,
can best be accomplished through socialized projects because here
integration can most easily be made.

There are many themes which do not lend themselves to
musical treatment at all. On the other hand, there are many ac-
tivities which are incomplete unless an Opportunity is provided
to experience music relating to those activities.

Music makes a valuable contribution to units of study deal-
ing with historical epochs and the culture of nations.

The success of the inclusion of music as a part of the in-
tegrated program depends largely upon the appropriateness of the
musical treatment, the authenticity of the music material used, and

(l)

the validity of the musical experiences provided.

 

(1) M.E:N:C. Yearbook, 1938, p. 350

59.

Creative music follows two lines of deve10pment; original '
composition, and the construction and use of instruments. The chief
value of creative music lies in the satisfaction experienced through
self—expression. From the standpoint of educa ion it is also val-
uable because of the large amount of incidental learning which takes
place during the creative process. Some of the marginal learnirg
which takes place in original composition includes increased power
in theory, sight reading, ear training and appreciation.

Compositions are created both by individual and group effort.
Sometimes the stimulus is provided by a lyric which may or may not
be original with the pupils. Again the melody may be created for its
own sake. The result will be simple, well-balanced tunes. \Often
the combined efforts of the Children result in a program or an
Operetta.

The phase of the construction of instruments has received
its most definite formulation at Teachers College, Columbia Univ—
ersity under the direction of Mrs. Satis Coleman. The instruments
range from glasses containing varying amounts of water so that they
can be tuned, to rattles and drums, xylophones made from graduated
lengths of metal or wood struck by hammers, to flutes and stringed
instruments. This phase of creative music includes also the playing
of music created by the children for the instruments constructed.
The danger in such activity lies in the fact that too much time and
effort will be given to the manual side so that the actual playing
of the instruments is delayed. At present, this work is confined to

the *ouncest ;unils such as the kindergarten and first arade.
O A L»

idilfi'lil,
A o .. 4 ‘
.

60.

Although educators have long recognized the value of rhyth—'
mic development, it was the private school and studio rather than the
public which first introduced this phase of education.

Through observation of the results obtained by the teaching
of Jaques - Dalcroze, music educators have been led in the past few
years, to emphasize some type of bodily expression or physical reSponse
as a fundamental factor of musical deve10pment. Consequently, some
form of rhythmic training is gradually being introduced into the music
curriculum.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is the most complete and elaborate plan
for training in rhythm that has ever been evolved. In its entirety,
it is actually more than a system of teaching rhythm. It is a system
of education, which has as its objective the achievement of balance
in the whole individual.

The Dalcroze Eurhythmics is based in general upon two
principles:

(a) Every normal person has the possibility of becoming

rhythmic.

(b) This potential rhythmic ability must be developed

through large, free, organized muscular movements.
The stimulus for these movements is the music heard.

It is impossible to attempt to introduce the Dalcroze method
in its entirety until both the supervisor and teacher have had the
necessary training. However, a modified form of Eurhythmics or some

type of bodily expression is being presented in many schools.

61.

The contest movement has exerted a great influence not only
upon the standard of material used by high school music groups, but
it has been responsible for a marked improvement in the quality
of performance.

The earliest school music contests in this country were part
of an inter-school competition which included athletics, elocution,
and music. Before 1930, however, music contests had become an inde-
pendent activity.

The Spirit and aim of contests is shown in the following
quotation from Kansas Contest literature:

Not to win a prize or to defeat an
Opponent, but to pace each other on the
road to excellence.

Quite early in the contest movement, educators began to
recognize that the intensely competitive factor lessened the educa-
tional value of the events. Accordingly, in most states the original
contest program has been abandoned in favor of the Competition-Festi—
val. In this, the element of winning has been placed in the background,
and it is conducted as a means of comparison of performance ratlmq~than as
a competitive meet. These events, properly handled, comprise a val-
uable educational enterprise.

A massed performance of the various groups at the close of the

fest’val is given a prominent place in such programs.

’0'..- 3. .lbrcisll“

‘

v

f)
I».

IX. SUMMARY

*éi'ét-

Just as the general conception of education changed and
developed in the past century, so in the field of music the parallel
development has brought many changes and notable practices.

Not only was the development paralleled in an abstract manner,
but in the specific theories and practices of methodology in teaching.
Beginning with the early singing school, which many times closely em-
ulated the Spelling bee, music pedagogy carried out the application
of the Pestalozzian principles, as set forth by William Woodbridge and
Lowell Mason. These principles were largely misunderstood or forgotten
by their immediate followers, but many have since been recovered.

With Luther Whiting hason's philosophy of the song as the basis
of music reading, there was a separation from the traditional methods
of the singing school.

This method, which was international in its influence for over
a decade, later came to be regarded with distrust as music teachers
turned their entire attention to the problem of the mastery of sight
reading.

Following this period in which music had become firmly es-
tablished as a regular school subject, there developed the song method
of reading, which closely coincided with that advocated by Luther Whit-
ing Mason over thirty years before - the principles of which mere em—
ployed in the courses of music published in the first third of the

present centurv.

Out of the general child—study movement of the early twen—
tieth century, came an enrichment of music literature for children
which has continued to the present time.

Throughout the years,school music has tended more and more
toward values which are truly musical. The emphasis has moved from
technique and method to consideration of the child in terms of satis-
fying and fruitful musical activities.

The central activity is the singing of songs, learned either
by rote or as the result of music-reading skill. The child's other
music learning activities are definitely related to his songs, for
it is through the correlation of singing, and such experiences as
music appreciation and creative eXpression,that music becomes a uni—
fied experience for the child. The present point—of—view is that
skills may be best acguired through the appreciative and creative
approaches. On the whole, however, music teachers have been inclined
to continue with the more traditional methods.

With the exception of a few leaders, music educators have not
applied scientific reaearch to the specific techniques of teaching
music. Up to the present time, all changes in methods and presenta-

ion of materials of public school music have grown out of "trial
and error". The objectives, procedures, and materials of music
educators have been largeLy determined b2' the opinion of groups of
more or less well trained teachers. The truth or falsity of the
problems of school music has never been established by scientific

research.

Within the last decade, however, there have been numerous
attempts to ev:lu to the advertidnal reC' ts of music instruction.
There has also been a definite tendency torcrd a scientif ic labor"-
tory approach to music education in the direction of tests and
measurements, measures of musical talent, piano touch, violin vibrato,
tone placement, etc..

The field of music education - W<'tly need : the impetus and en-
lightenment of thessc1icntific, but in so doing, the d nger of maring
cn e"p:;L cat 1 labor tory of the regular class rrom must be avoided.

Such absolute scientific approaches as those advanced by men
such as Dr. Carl Qe eash ore of the University of Iov.a, and Dr. William
Larson of the Eastman School of Music, serve as ercmjlcs of what is
being done in abstract scientific study. With scien fic tes such
as accuracy of pitc. and consonance, the teacher has a clue which no
degree of psycholosical understanding can furnish.

Others, such as Max Schorn of the Carnegie Institute of Tech~

_‘J.

nology, and James flursell of Columbia Univer itgr, are less absolute

H-

in their approach, but represent a dist nct advance over the older
type of class room empm. im ntction.
The purely scientific attitude is not to be confused with

psychological unders mnditg of the pupil 5nd th kind and amount of

material to be administered at various levels of learning. The scien—

Jo

ific approach collects factual knowledge of minute details of tech-
niques and learning processes which teachers may then proceed to or—

ganize into efficient methods of instruction.

65.

Music education is, at the present time, in the midst of
an era of merging the knowledge of existing and successful procedures
through conferences and clinics. This is extremely valuable and
has been the most important factor thus far in raising the standards
of musical instruction. The entrance of the scientific study into

this field should bring far reaching innovations which may sell revo-

lutionize music instruction in the schools of the next decade.

 

 

66.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

***

Beatty-McConathy—Morgan, ‘Music in Junior_High School
(Chicago: Silver, Burdett Company, 1938).

Birge, E. B., Histonypof Public School Music in the
United States
(Boston: Oliver Ditson Company, 1937).

 

 

Coleman, Satis N., Creative Music for Children
(New York: G. P. tnam's Sons, 1922).

Colles, ed., GroveL§_Dictionary of Music and Musicians
(London: MacMillan Company, 1935).

 

Cubberley, E. P., Public Education in the United States

(NeW'York: Houghton and Mifflin Company, 1919).

Curwen, Mrs. J. 8., Psychology Applied to Music Teaching
(London: J. Curwen and Sons, n. d.).

 

Davison, A., Music Education in America
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1926).

 

Dykema, Peter W., Music for Public School Administrators
(New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1931).

 

Earhart, Will The Meaningaand Teaching_of Music
(New York: Witmark Educational Publications, 1935).

 

Gehrkens, Karl, _gn Introduction to School Music Teaching
(Boston: C. C. Birchard and Company, 1929).

Gehrkens, Karl, Music in the Grade Schools
(Boston: C. C. Birchard and Company, 1934).

 

Gehrkens, Karl, Music in the Junior High School
(Boston: C. C. Birchard and Company, 1936).

 

Giddings, T. P., Grade School Musiq;ieaching
(Appleton, Wis.: Earl L. Baker, 1919).

Giddings-Baker, High School Music Teaching
(Appleton, Wis.: Earl L. Baker, 1928).

Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile, Rhythm, Music,_and Education
(New York: G. P. Putnam's, 1921).

 

H1311 194:1:;

 

67.

Kwalwasser, Jacob, ‘Problems in Public School_flusig
(New York: N. Witmark and Sons, 1932).

McCauley, Clara J., A Professionalized Study of Public
School Music
(Knoxville, Tenn.: Jos. Avent, 1932).

Matthews, W. B. S., A Hundred quggqu Music infigmgrica
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in th§_United States
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Seashore, Carl E., Psychology of Musical Talent
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q,‘ . '1‘.‘

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68.

Riley-Tapper, Natural Music Reader
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